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+{"text":"Polyphyly is a term in cladistics. It describes a group of organisms whose last common ancestor is not a member of the group. Another way of expressing this is to say that polyphyly includes groups some members of which are descended from ancestral populations.\n\nThe diagrams show that birds and mammals are indeed related, but only at the level of the early amniotes. In terms of evolution, there is a vast gulf between them.\n\nMore common in traditional taxonomy is to include all descendants (say, living mammals) without the group they evolved from (which would be some clade in the therapsida). This is done for convenience; but it makes the mammals polyphyletic.\n\nBiological classification aims to group species together such that every group is descended from a single common ancestor. A polyphyletic group can be \"fixed\" either by excluding clades or by adding the common ancestor.\n\nAccording to cladistics it should be the aim of classification to ensure that all groups are monophyletic. However, other taxonomists argue that there is a valid place for groups that are paraphyletic. These would contain their most recent common ancestor but not all the descendants of that ancestor.\n\nNotes \n\nCladistics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":290536,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polyphyly","title":"Polyphyly","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A plebiscite or referendum is a type of voting, or of proposing laws. Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country. Others define it as the opposite. Australia defines 'referendum' as a vote to change the constitution and 'plebiscite' as a vote that does not affect the constitution.\n\nThere are two types of result\n Mandatory - meaning the government must do what the result says\n Advisory - meaning the result of the vote is only to help the government make the final choice.\n\nIt usually depends on the country's history and constitution what sort of referendum\/plebiscite is used.  In Switzerland a referendum is usually mandatory, because the people are seen as the source of the government's mandate (power) to govern. For example, during Switzerland's basic income campaign the country utilized a national referendum for the polling. \n\nIn the United Kingdom referendums have only been advisory, because the government says that the people elected to Parliament make the decisions. The referendum on the independence of Scotland was an exception. It was legally binding, but it was not a referendum of the UK electorate. It was restricted to present residents of Scotland.\n\nAn example of a proposed plebiscite was the 2011 decision by Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou to let the Greek people vote on whether the heavily indebted nation would accept a \u20ac130 billion bailout package from the European Union. The idea shocked eurozone nations, as a \"no\" vote could mean Greece defaulting on its national debt, and leaving the European Union and the eurozone. However, the vote was cancelled. \n\nAnother example was the voting on the European Constitution in 2005. The vote took place in some countries. France and The Netherlands had a referendum on the subject. In both states, the voters said no to the proposal and no constitution was made. \n\nThe separate simultaneous referendums held on 24 April 2004 in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus on the comprehensive settlement plan of the UN Secretary-General provides yet another example of such a vote. The Plan was approved in the Turkish Cypriot referendum by 65%, while it was rejected in the Greek Cypriot referendum by 75%.\n\nProblems with referendums \nMany political problems can be solved by asking the people their opinion because the supporters of the argument will be forced to accept the decision of the people. However:\n\n It is feared that the electorate do not have sufficient political knowledge to truly understand what they are voting for\n\n Philosophers Plato and Madison thought voters are too easily persuaded by their own internal feelings of a matter instead of focusing on the good of the nation. That is to say they vote selfishly.\n\nReferences \n\nVoting","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":143,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1}},"id":21929,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plebiscite","title":"Plebiscite","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A game is something that people often do for fun. It is different from work. Many sports are games, and there are many professional sports. In those cases, there is money to be made, because it is a type of entertainment.\n\nThere are different kinds of games using many kinds of equipment. For example, in video games, people often use controllers or their keyboard to control what happens on a screen, such as a television screens and computers ones too.  In card games, players use playing cards.  There are also games that use your body, such as the Kinect. Most games need equipment, but not always. Children's street games often need no equipment.\n\nIn board games, players may move pieces on a flat surface called a board. The object of the game varies. In race-type games like ludo, the object is to reach the end first. In go the object is to surround more space. In soccer it is to score more goals. Some games have complicated rules, some have simple rules.\n\nDefinitions\n\nLudwig Wittgenstein \nLudwig Wittgenstein was probably the first academic philosopher to address the definition of the word game. In his Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein demonstrated that the elements (parts) of games, such as play, rules, and competition, all fail to correctly define what games are. He concluded that people apply the term game to a range of different human activities that are related, but not closely related.\n\nHomo Ludens \nHomo Ludens (Playing Man) is a book written in 1938 by Dutch historian Johan Huizinga. It discusses the importance of the play element in culture and society. Huizinga suggests that play is a  condition for the generation of culture.\n\nRoger Caillois \nFrench sociologist Roger Caillois, in his book Les jeux et les hommes (Games and Men), said that a game is an activity which is these things:\n\n free: the activity is voluntary\n separate: the activity cannot happen everywhere or, all the time\nuncertain: the people doing the activity do not know how it will end\nnon-productive: doing the activity does not make or do anything useful\ngoverned by rules: the activity has rules that are different from everyday life\nfictitious: the people doing the activity know that the game is not reality\n\nChris Crawford \nComputer game designer Chris Crawford tried to define the word game using a series of comparisons:\nSomething creative is art if it was made because it is beautiful, and entertainment if it was made for money. \nSomething that is entertainment is a plaything if it is interactive. Movies and books are entertainment, but not interactive.\nIf a plaything does not have any goals to complete, it is a 'toy. If a plaything has goals, it is a challenge.\nIf a challenge does not have an opponent, it is a puzzle. If it has an opponent, it is a conflict. \nIf the player can do better at something than an opponent but cannot affect the opponent, the conflict is a competition. Racing and figure skating are competitions. However, if attacks are allowed, then the conflict qualifies as a game.\n\nCrawford's definition of a game is: an interactive, goal-oriented activity, with opponents to play against, and where players and opponents can interfere with each other.\n\n History of Games \nThe first writer of history was Herodotus, an ancient Greek. He wrote a book called \"The Histories\" around 440 BC, which is nearly 2500 years ago. Some of the stories he wrote were not true, and we don't know if this is one of those.\n\nHerodotus tells us about king Atys; he ruled about 5,500 [five thousand five hundred] years ago in a country called Lydia. His country was in western Asia Minor, near modern Greece. Atys had a serious problem; his lands had very little food because the climate was not good for agriculture. The people of Lydia demonstrated patience and hoped that the good times of plenty would return.\n\nBut when things failed to get better, the people of Lydia thought up a strange solution for their problem. The path they took to fight their natural need to eat \u2013 the hungry times caused by the unusually hard climate - was to play games for one entire day so that they would not think about food. On the next day they would eat, so eating occurred every second day. In this way they passed 18 years, and in that time they invented dice, balls, and all the games commonly played today.\n\nGames appear in all cultures all over the world, an ancient custom that brings people together for social opportunities. Games allow people to go beyond the limit of the immediate physical experience, to use their imagination. Common features of games include a finish that you cannot forecast, agreed upon rules, competition, separate place and time, imaginary elements, elements of chance, established goals and personal enjoyment. Games are used to teach, to build friendships, and to indicate status.\n\nIn his 1938 history book the Dutch writer Johan Huizinga says that games are older than human culture. He sees games as the beginning of complex human activities such as language, law, war, philosophy and art. Ancient people used bones to make the first games. Dice are very early game pieces. Games began as part of ancient religions. The oldest gaming pieces ever found \u2013 49 [forty nine] small painted stones with pictures cut into them from 5,000 [five thousand] years ago \u2013 come from Turkey, so perhaps the history of Herodotus is true. One of the first board games, Senet, appears in ancient Egypt around 3,500 [three thousand five hundred] years ago. The ancient Greeks had a board game similar to checkers, and also many ball games.\n\nThe first reference to the game of Go occurs in Chinese records from around 2,400 [two thousand four hundred] years ago. Originally the game Go was used by political leaders to develop skill in strategy and mental skill. Knowing how to play Go was required by a Chinese gentleman, along with the skills of artistic writing or calligraphy, painting and the ability to play a musical instrument. These were regarded as the four most important skills. In ancient China, a gentleman had to pass a test in these four key skills in order to get a good paying job in the government. The Chinese brought Go to Korea, and it entered Japan around 1,500 [one thousand five hundred] years ago, and it has been popular ever since.\n\nIn March 2016 a Google computer program beat the best Go players in the world. Go is believed to be the most complex board game ever created. Is this computer program smarter than a person? Well, it did beat the South Korean Go master Lee Se-dol, and Lee was surprised by the result.  He acknowledged defeat after three and a half hours of play. Demis Hassabis, who made the Google program, called it an important moment in history, because a machine beat the best person in the world in an intelligent game.  Such computer programs rely on what is called artificial intelligence. Go is a two-player game of strategy said to have had an origin in China perhaps around 3,000 [three thousand] years ago. Players compete to win more territory by placing black and white \"stones\" on a board made up of 19 [nineteen] lines by 19 [nineteen] lines.\n\nThe first computer game that was ever created was probably the game OXO by Alexander Douglas in 1952.  It was a version of tic-tac-toe. But most people consider the first true computer game where players actually participate to be Tennis for Two developed in 1958 by the physics scientist William Higginbotham. He wanted to teach about gravity, the force of attraction between masses. These men who created the early computer games did not forecast the potential for the popular use of games, because at that period in modern history it took a small room full of computers to make these games work! Another early game was Spacewar! developed in 1961 by MIT university student Steve Russell. In 1972 the company Atari produced the Pong game which was a huge commercial success; being a commercial success means that it made a lot of money. This was the true beginning of computer games that could be played at home.\n\nToday, all around the world people spend more than 3,000,000,000 [three billion] hours a week playing computer games. This is equivalent to more than 342,000 [three hundred and forty two hundred thousand] years!\n\n Other definitions \n \"A game is a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome\".\n \"A game is a form of art in which participants, termed players, make decisions in order to manage resources through game tokens in the pursuit of a goal\". (Greg Costikyan)\n \"A game is an activity among two or more independent decision-makers seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting context''\".\n \"At its most elementary level then we can define game as an exercise of voluntary control systems in which there is an opposition between forces, confined by a procedure and rules in order to produce a disequilibrial outcome\".\n \"A game is a form of play with goals and structure\".\n\nRelated pages\nVideo game\nPuzzle\nSports\nToy\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":134,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":5,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":4,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1}},"id":3196,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game","title":"Game","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A computer virus is a program that is able to copy itself when it is run. Often, computer viruses are run as a part of other programs. Any program that is affected by the virus is \"infected\". Biological viruses also work that way, as they copy themselves as part of other organisms. This is how the computer virus got its name.\n\nIn addition to copying itself, a computer virus can also execute instructions that cause harm. For this reason, computer viruses affect security. They are part of malware.\n\nVery often, the term is also used for other kinds of malware, such as trojan horses and worms. Even though this is wrong, it may be difficult to tell the difference between different kinds of malware; they often occur together, and only an expert may be able to tell them apart. Such programs also fit more than one category.\n\nComputer viruses are created for a cause, sometimes they are created to spread political messages and they are also created to hack some system files.\n\nComputer viruses are spread through many ways. Some of the common ways of spreading are through downloads, email attachments, removable hardwares, and so on. Most viruses are very dangerous kind of malware.\n\nKinds of computer viruses \nThere are different kinds of computer viruses:\n Probably the most common form is the macro-virus or script virus. Such viruses are programmed with the script function which is present in many text processing systems and spreadsheets; or with general \"script\" functionality of a program.\n Boot sector viruses infect the boot sector of floppy disks, hard drives and other media.\n Executable files and scripts of the operating system; including those that are run automatically when a medium is inserted into a drive.\n Cross-site scripting; scripts in web pages that replicate to other webpages.\n Any computer file; generally buffer overflows, format strings, and race conditions are exploitable.\n\nLimited user rights can limit the spread of a virus \nIn the beginning, operating systems on personal computers (or PC) did not have the concept of access control. There were no \"users\", everyone could do everything. Modern operating systems have the concept of access control. There can be more than one user and some users may have more \"privileges\" than others. Certain users may only have access to certain files and are unable to access others. Other users may be able to modify or delete certain files. These privileges can be specified for each file.\n\nThe damage a virus can cause is influenced by the rights the user has; if the user has no rights to write to certain places in the system, the virus will not be able to spread to those places.\n\nAnother problem is that sometimes the system for rights management may be available, but that it is not used by default. This is the case with systems such as Windows NT or Windows XP, where by default all users have same rights.\n\nAntivirus software \nAntivirus software can protect computers against known viruses. Some antivirus software scan files and compare a hash code for each file with its database of hash codes (or \"signature\"). If the code matches, it has likely found a virus. This way of doing things has created some problems. It will only protect against viruses whose hash code is known. The companies that wrote the antivirus need to keep the virus signatures up-to-date and need to give this information to the PC to be protected.\n\nThere are two possible modes of scanning: Either the file is scanned \"on demand\" (or \"manually\"), or it is scanned when the system registers an access to the file called \"on access\".\n\nAntivirus software cannot offer full protection, even in the case the virus is known. Some viruses use something called polymorphic code to change their signature every time they move. No matter how many signatures the company has, they will not be able to stop these types of viruses.\n\nAnother way that antivirus software can protect against viruses is to use heuristics. Instead of knowing each virus by its signature, heuristic antivirus software look at the behavior of other software. If a software does something that seems bad, the antivirus software steps-in to stop it. Since every step needs to be watched, this is a slow way to do things.\n\n\"Live system\"\nThe best protection against viruses can be obtained by using a system that boots off a read-only medium, such as a compact disc (called CD), digital versatile disc (called DVD), or USB flash drive (called USB) that does not allow write access to hard disk (or other removable media). This limits the usability of the computer as it is not possible to save documents or install new programs. Only -R media (not -RW) should be used, and the media should be finalized to prevent creating a new session that might possibly contain a virus.\n\nReferences\n\nMalware","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":12549,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer%20virus","title":"Computer virus","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In special relativity, the Minkowski spacetime is a four-dimensional manifold, created by Hermann Minkowski. It has four dimensions: three dimensions of space (x, y, z) and one dimension of time. Minkowski spacetime has a metric signature of (-+++), and describes a flat surface when no mass is present. The convention in this article is to call Minkowski spacetime simply spacetime. \n\nHowever, Minkowski spacetime only applies in special relativity. General relativity used the notion of curved spacetime to describe the effects of gravity and accelerated motion.\n\nDefinition(s)\n\nMathematical\nSpacetime can be thought of as a four-dimensional coordinate system in which the axes are given by \n\nThey can also be denoted by\n\nWhere  represents . The reason for measuring time in units of the speed of light times the time coordinate is so that the units for time are the same as the units for space. Spacetime has the differential for arc length given by\n\nThis implies that spacetime has a metric tensor given by\n\nAs before stated, spacetime is flat everywhere; to some extent, it can be thought of as a plane.\n\nSimple\nSpacetime can be thought of as the \"arena\" in which all of the events in the universe take place. All that one needs to specify a point in spacetime is a certain time and a typical spatial orientation. It is hard (virtually impossible) to visualize four dimensions, but some analogy can be made, using the method below.\n\nSpacetime diagrams\n\nHermann Minkowski introduced a certain method for graphing coordinate systems in Minkowski spacetime. As seen to the right, different coordinate systems will disagree on an object's spatial orientation and\/or position in time. As you can see from the diagram, there is only one spatial axis (the x-axis) and one time axis (the ct-axis). If need be, one can introduce an extra spatial dimension, (the y-axis); unfortunately, this is the limit to the number of dimensions: graphing in four dimensions is impossible. The rule for graphing in Minkowski spacetime goes as follows:\n\n1) The angle between the x-axis and the x'-axis is given by  where v is the velocity of the object\n\n2) The speed of light through spacetime always makes an angle of 45 degrees with either axis.\n\nSpacetime in general relativity\n\nIn the general theory of relativity, Einstein used the equation\n\nTo allow for spacetime to actually curve; the resulting effects are those of gravity.\n\nRelated pages\nSpacetime\nSpecial relativity\nGeneral relativity\n\nRelativity","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":369480,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Minkowski%20spacetime","title":"Minkowski spacetime","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A test tube is a kind of laboratory glassware, composed of a fingerlike length of glass tubing, open at the top, usually with a rounded lip at the top, and a rounded 'U' shaped bottom.\n\nThey range in size from a couple inches to several inches long, from a few millimeters to a couple centimeters in diameter. They are designed to allow easy heating of samples, to be held in a flame, and often are made of expansion-resistant glasses, such as borosilicate glass (known by brand-names such as Pyrex and Kimax).\n\nTests tubes are often preferred above beakers when multiple small chemical or biological samples have to be handled and\/or stored.\n\nVacutainers are a type of test tube that can be used for both collection and storage of blood.\n\nLaboratory equipment","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":3727,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test%20tube","title":"Test tube","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Substance is the material, or matter, of which something is made. Substances are physical things that can be seen, touched, or measured. They are made up of one or more elemental parts. Iron, aluminium, water and air are examples of substances.\n\nProblems of definition\n\nThe main problem of a clear definition of what the substance is that if, for example, to consider not just the universe (cosmos), being and non-being, and in general all, the question arises, what is the constant basic principle (attribute) is the basis of the substance, which generally consists of all (that is, matter, mind, senses, space, soul, and so on).\n\nHistory of the concept\n\nThe Latin word substantia - a translation of the Greek word for the essence (ousia), and in Latin to describe the essence of using the word essentia. In ancient philosophy substance is treated as a substrate, the first principle of all things (for example, \"water\" of Thales, the \"fire\" of Heraclitus). \n\nIn modern times, the concept of substance is treated and spread widely. The first view is connected with an ontological understanding of substance as ultimate bases being (Francis Bacon, Benedict Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz). Central category of metaphysics in philosophy substance is identified as with God and with nature and determined as the cause of itself (Latin, causa sui). The main characteristics (attributes) of a substance from Benedict Spinoza are thinking and stretch. By analogy with the philosophy of Benedict Spinoza substance considered in the light of the concept of Ren\u00e9 Descartes and Leibniz. The first substance is a unity of subject and object, and the second - the same atoms are simple beings who lose their stretch, but receive attribute aspirations (French, appetition) and multiplicity. Thanks Leibniz substance begins to associate with matter.\n\nThe second point of view on the substance - an epistemological understanding of the concept, its capabilities and the need for scientific knowledge (John Locke, David Hume). Immanuel Kant believed that the law under which any change in the substance of events and the number of stored it in nature remains the same, can be attributed to the \"analogies of experience.\" Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel defined substance as the integrity of changing, transient side of things, as a \"major step in the development of the will.\" For Arthur Schopenhauer substance - matter for David Hume - a fiction, the coexistence properties.\n\nRelated articles \n Chemical substance\n\nBasic English 850 words\nPhysics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":682,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Substance","title":"Substance","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A video game developer is a person or company who makes games on computers and other game systems. Some developers make games for only one or two types of game systems, others might even make one kind of game. Some games are only for one system. Developers might try and make a copy of such a game to another, different system. Some translate games from one language to another.\n\nVideo game developers work in development companies. There are over 1,000 development companies today. A big part of that thousand is very small companies, that usually only have one or two workers - these kind of small companies make games for the Internet or mobile phones. Some development companies are big, too. They have buildings in many places and hundreds of workers.\n\nTypes of developers\nThere are three types of video game developers.\n\nThird-party developer\nThird-party developers are video game developers that make deals with big publishers to make one game at a time. The developers are not part of the company: when the game is complete, the developers do not have to make another game for the publisher if they do not want to. Publishers will tell them exactly what they want third-party developers to do, and the developers do not have very much power to do something else.\n\nIn-house developers\nIn-house developers work directly with the publisher. They have more freedom in the making of the game than third-party developers have. Sometimes publishers buy third-party developers, and so they become in-house developers: workers for the publisher. This is an easy way for the publisher because the developers are workers for the publisher and so the publisher has more control.\n\nIndependent developers\nIndependent developers are usually small groups of people that are not owned by any publisher or another company. Because of that, most independent developers publish their games themselves. If they do that, the games usually will not get much attention or money. Still, independent developers can make exactly the game they want, when there is no publisher to tell them what to do. These are also sometimes called indie developers.\n\n \nOccupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":53876,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Video%20game%20developer","title":"Video game developer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ferdinand II the Catholic (, 10 March 1452 \u2013 23 January 1516) was king of Aragon (1479\u20131516), Castile, Sicily (1468\u20131516), Naples (1504\u20131516), Valencia, Sardinia and Navarre and Count of Barcelona. His marriage to Isabella of Castile brought together most of the Iberian Peninsula as Spain and started its move to become a great power.\n\nBiography \nFerdinand was the son of John II of Aragon by his second wife, the Aragonese noblewoman Juana Enriquez.  He married Infanta Isabella, the sister by a different mother of Henry IV of Castile, on 19 October 1469 in Oca\u00f1a. He became Ferdinand V of Castile when Isabella succeeded her brother as Queen of Castile in 1474. The two young monarchs had to begin with a civil war against Juana, princess of Castile (also known as Juana la Beltraneja), who claimed to be the daughter of Henry IV. They won. Ferdinand succeeded his father as King of Aragon in 1479. This meant the Crown of Castile and the various territories of the Crown of Aragon were united in a personal union. For the first time since the 8th century this created a single political unit which came to be called Spain, although the various territories were not administered as a single unit until the 18th century.\n\nThe first decades of Ferdinand and Isabella's joint rule were taken up with the conquest of the Kingdom of Granada, the last Muslim bit of Al-Andalus. This was completed by 1492 and then the Jews were expelled from both Castile and Aragon. The royal couple sent Christopher Columbus  on his expedition which discover the New World.  By the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, the extra-European world was split between the crowns of Portugal and Castile by a north-south line through the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nFerdinand was busy in the last decades of his life with the so-called Italian Wars. He was fighting with the Kings of France for control of Italy. In 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy and expelled Ferdinand's cousin, Alfonso II, from the throne of Naples.  Ferdinand's alliance with various Italian princes and with Emperor Maximilian I, expelled the French by 1496 and installed Alfonso's son, Ferdinand, on the Neapolitan throne.  In 1501, following the death of Ferdinand II of Naples and his succession by his uncle Frederick, Ferdinand of Aragon signed an agreement with Charles VIII's successor, Louis XII. Louis had just successfully asserted his claims to the Duchy of Milan, and they agreed to partition Naples between them, with Campania and the Abruzzi, including Naples itself, going to the French and Ferdinand taking Apulia and Calabria. The agreement soon fell apart, and over the next several years, Ferdinand's great general Gonzalo Fern\u00e1ndez de C\u00f3rdoba conquered Naples from the French, by 1504. Another less famous \"conquest\" took place in 1502, when Andreas Paleologus, de jure Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, left Ferdinand and Isabella as heirs to the empire, thus Ferdinand became de jure Roman Emperor.  \n\nAfter Isabella's death, her kingdom went to her daughter Joanna. Ferdinand served as the latter's regent during her absence in the Netherlands, ruled by her husband Archduke Philip. Ferdinand attempted to retain the regency permanently, but was rebuffed by the Castilian nobility and replaced with Joanna's husband, who became Philip I of Castile. After Philip's death in 1506, with Joanna mentally unstable, and her and Philip's son Charles of Ghent only six years old, Ferdinand resumed the regency, ruling through Francisco Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros, the Chancellor of the Kingdom.\n\nIn 1508, war resumed in Italy, this time against Venice. All the other powers on the peninsula, including Louis XII, Ferdinand, Maximilian, and Pope Julius II joined together against as the League of Cambrai.  Although the French were victorious against Venice at the Battle of Agnadello, the League soon fell apart, as both the Pope and Ferdinand became suspicious of French intentions.  Instead, the Holy League was formed, in which all the powers now joined together against France.\n\nIn November 1511 Ferdinand and his son-in-law Henry VIII of England signed the Treaty of Westminster, pledging mutual aid between the two against France.  Earlier that year, Ferdinand had conquered the southern half of the Kingdom of Navarre, which was ruled by a French nobleman, and annexed it to Spain. At this point to reinforce his claim to the kingdom, Ferdinand remarried with the much younger Germaine of Foix (1490\u20131538), a granddaughter of Queen Leonor of Navarre. The Holy League was generally successful in Italy, as well, driving the French from Milan, which was restored to its Sforza dukes by the peace treaty in 1513. The French were successful in reconquering Milan two years later, however.\n\nFerdinand died in 1516 in Madrigalejo, C\u00e1ceres, Extremadura. He had made Spain the most powerful country in Europe. The succession of his grandson Charles, who inherited not only the Spanish lands of his maternal grandparents, but the Habsburg and Burgundian lands of his paternal family, would make his heirs the most powerful rulers on the continent.  Charles succeeded him in the Aragonese lands, and was also granted the Castilian crown jointly with his insane mother, bringing about at long last the unification of the Spanish thrones under one head.\n\nChildren \nFerdinand and Isabella had 5 children, Isabella of Asturias, Juan of Aragon, Joanna of Castile, Maria of Aragon, and Catherine of Aragon. Joanna and Catherine married with several European dynasties, setting the bases for the huge heritage of their grandson Charles V. His granddaughter was Queen Mary I of England.\n\nMiscellaneous \n Ferdinand is entombed in the Capilla Real of Granada, alongside his wife, his daughter Joanna and her husband Philip, and his grandson Miguel.\n During his joint reign with Queen Isabella, they used the motto \"Tanto monta, monta tanto, Isabel como Fernando\" (\"They amount to the same, Isabel and Ferdinand\"). This was used to imply their equal power in both of their domains, as such an arrangement was uncommon in those times.\n Some scholars argue that Ferdinand, and not the unfortunate Cesare Borgia, was the true inspiration for Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli's The Prince, in which he is frequently mentioned.\n\nRelated pages\n History of Spain\n\n1452 births\n1516 deaths\nKings and Queens of Spain\nPeople from Aragon","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":41078,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ferdinand%20II%20of%20Aragon","title":"Ferdinand II of Aragon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Spamming is when one person or company sends an unwanted email to another person. Spam emails are the computer version of unwanted \"junk mail\" that arrives in a mailbox, such as advertising pamphlets and brochures. Spam emails are usually sent to try to get the person to buy something or do something else that will cause gain for the sender.\n\nNames \nThe emails sent when someone is spamming is called spam. The person or company who sent the unwanted email is called a spammer. Both of these words came from a brand of canned meat called \"Spam\", but it was a short sketch created by the British comedy group Monty Python in 1970 that led to the word \"Spam\" being widely used to mean unwanted email messages.\n\nUses \nSpam emails are usually sent to many people at once trying to get them to buy a product or sign up for a service. The people who receive the email did not ask to receive the email, and do not want to receive it.\n\nOne of the reasons there is so much spam emails around is that it costs very little to send millions of spam messages at once.  Spam messages can easily be sent, sometimes even by a special computer program.\n\nHow spammers find email addresses\nThe hardest part about spamming is to get the email addresses to send the spam to. Sometimes the spammers do this by searching for emails on the internet, or by buying emails from people who know a lot of them (for example, someone who runs a site that makes users tell them their email address to signup will have a lot of email addresses to sell to spammers).\n\nMethod one \nOne part of getting e-mail addresses is to find addresses that are still in use. One trick used by spammers is to put a link at the end of a message like this:\n\nIf you do not wish to get more of these messages\nfrom us click here to stop getting them.\n\nIf the person clicks on the link, it tells the spammers that there is someone at the address.  Then the spammers put that person on a list of people who actually open spam messages. Next, the spammers sell that list to other spammers. The same thing happens if the person sends another email back to the spammer (called replying), which also tells the spammer the message has been opened.\n\nMethod two \nAnother trick that spammers use is to put a picture \u2013 even one that cannot be seen \u2013 into a spam message.  The picture will have a name that goes with just that one email.  When the email is opened, a request will be sent to the server that has that picture to get the image. If they get this request, then they know that you read their email, which could cause a person to receive even more email spam.\n\nOther meanings \nThe word \"spamming\" is also used to describe the act of typing a lot of words or text in Internet chat rooms, so that other people using the chatroom cannot carry on conversations.  Usually this blocks the screen with meaningless words, in order to annoy the other people in the chatroom.  Spamming in Internet chatrooms is usually considered to be rude. This kind of behavior is usually called flooding rather than spamming.\n\nThe word \"spam\" is often (mistakenly) applied to emails containing content that the receiver sees as silly or simply meaningless (e.g. yujhcykgfvylfuv,uyguvgy).\n\nProblems with spam\nComputer users at home and in workplaces waste a lot of time opening and deleting spam messages. In some cases, spam emails contain viruses or links to pornography or illegal gambling websites. Spam emails often advertise products or services which are being lied about by the companies sending the spam, such as frauds or scams.\n\nSpam prevention \nSome user email programs can automatically delete spam messages when they arrive, or move them to a separate spam folder. Internet service providers also detect them automatically and cooperate to cut off customers who are major spammers.\n\nReferences \n\nE-mail\nInternet communication","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":2064,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spamming","title":"Spamming","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An estuary is where a river meets the sea. There, saltwater mixes with freshwater. The river becomes wider and wider and flows slowly to the ocean.\n\nBays, marshes, swamps, and inlets can all have estuaries. A view of an estuary from the air is usually an interesting sight: many estuaries meander (curve and bend) to find their way to the sea. Estuaries come in all sizes and shapes, each according to its location and climate. Where rivers meet the sea and fresh water mixes with salt water, the mixture is called brackish water.\n\nSome estuaries are very large. They may be large ocean bays that have more than one river flowing into them.  For example, Chesapeake Bay is a large estuary, and several different rivers meet the Atlantic Ocean there.\nIn simple terms it is where a river meets with a large body of water only with ((one)) outlet and not  many like a ((delta)).\n\nHabitat \nEstuaries are usually filled with shallow waters, and sunlight reaches all levels of the water. Marsh grasses, algae, and other kinds of plants live in estuaries and provide food for a variety of fish, crabs, oysters, and shrimp. Estuaries are especially important since they act as nurseries for many different types of young fish and other animals before they head out toward the open ocean. Many sea birds also nest in estuaries.\n\nThe United States government has a program to study and protect the natural environment in many different estuaries, called the National Estuarine Research Reserve System. One reason that the natural environment in so many estuaries is in danger is because they are also good places for people to live and build cities. Unfortunately, many of world's largest cities are at or near estuaries.\n\nReferences \n\nBodies of water\nEcosystems","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":19657,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Estuary","title":"Estuary","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"For the second operand of a division, see division (mathematics).\n\nIn mathematics, a divisor of an integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer which divides n without leaving a remainder. The statement \"m is a divisor of n\" can be written as . Any number is always divisible by 1 and itself, which are two of the divisors. A prime number is a number with no other divisors. The positive divisors of a number n, other than n itself, are the proper divisors of n.\n\nFinding one or more factors of a given number is called factorization.\n\n\nExplanation \n\nFor example, 7 is a divisor of 42 because 42\u00f77 = 6. We also say that \"42 is divisible by 7\", \"42 is a multiple of 7\", \"7 divides 42\", or \"7 is a factor of 42\", and we usually write 7 | 42. For example, the positive divisors of 42 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42.\n\nIn general, we say that m divides n for non-zero integers m and n, if and only if there exists an integer k such that n = km.  Thus, divisors can be negative as well as positive, although we often restrict our attention to positive divisors. (For example, there are six divisors of four, 1, 2, 4, -1, -2, -4, but one would usually mention only the positive ones, 1, 2, and 4.) \n\n1 and -1 divide (are divisors of) every integer, every integer is a divisor of itself, and every integer is a divisor of 0, except by convention 0 itself (see also Division by zero). Numbers divisible by 2 are called even, and numbers not divisible by 2 are called odd.\n\nA divisor of n that is not 1, -1, n or -n is known as a non-trivial divisor; numbers with non-trivial divisors are known as composite numbers, while prime numbers have no non-trivial divisors.\n\nThe name comes from the arithmetic operation of division: if a\u00f7b = c, then a is the dividend, b the divisor, and c the quotient.\n\nSpotting divisors \nThere are properties which allow one to recognize certain divisors of a number from the number's digits. Those properties can be used as \"math tricks\" to quickly spot some divisors of a number.\n\nFor example, if the last digit is even (0, 2, 4, 6 or 8), then 2 is a divisor. If the last digit is 0 or 5, then 5 is a divisor. If the digits add up to a multiple of 3, then 3 is a divisor. For the number 340, ending in \"0\" then both 2 and 5 are divisors, plus 2\u00d75 = 10 is also a divisor. Dividing by 10, 340\/10 = 34, as finally 2\u00d717. Combining all the smaller numbers, the 12 divisors of 340 are:\n Divisors of 340:  1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 17, 20, 34, 68, 85, 170, 340.\nNote that any number is always evenly divisible by 1 and itself.\n\nRelated pages \n\n Coprime\n Euclid's lemma\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n Online Number Factorizer Instantly factors numbers up to 17 digits long\n Factoring Calculator  -- Factoring calculator that displays the prime factors and the prime and non-prime divisors of a given number.\n\nArithmetics\nNumber theory","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":56432,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Divisor","title":"Divisor","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Organizational architecture, also known as organizational design, is a field concerned with the creation of roles, processes, and formal reporting relationships in an organization. It refers to architecture metaphorically, as a structure which fleshes out the organizations. The various features of a business's organizational architecture has to be internally consistent in strategy, architecture and competitive environment.\n\nIt provides the framework through which an organization aims to realize its core qualities as specified in its vision statement. It provides the infrastructure into which business processes are deployed and ensures that the organization's core qualities are realized across the business processes deployed within the organization. In this way, organizations aim to consistently realize their core qualities across the services they offer to their clients. This perspective on organizational architecture is elaborated below.\n\nContent \nAccording to most authors organizational architecture is a metaphor. Like traditional architecture, it shapes the organizational (some authors would say the informational) space where life will take place. It also represents a concept which implies a connection between the organizational structure and other systems inside the organization in order to create a unique synergistic system that will be more than just the sum of its parts.\n\nConventionally organizational architecture consists of the formal organization (organizational structure), informal organization (organizational culture), business processes, strategy and the most important human resources, because what is an organization if not a system of people? The table shows some approaches to organizational architecture.\n\nThe goal of organizational architecture is to create an organization that will be able to continuously create value for present and future customers, optimizing and organizing itself.\n\nSome under organizational architecture understand building blocks, which are mandatory for the growth of the organization. To design an organization means to set up a stage where the drama of life will take place.\n\nDesign\n\nDesign process and approach \nAlthough the process of organization design isn't necessarily linear, a five milestone process has been created to organize the approach. The five milestone design process is as follows:\n\nBusiness case and discovery\nGoal: Build a business case for the change; compare the current state to future state and implications that would be involved.\nMilestone: at the end of this phase, the problem to be solved is clear.\nStrategic grouping\nGoal: Determine what basic grouping of work will create the capabilities necessary to deliver the decided strategy.\nMilestone: Decided on a structure change which supports the strategy.\n\nIntegration\nGoal: The boundaries created by grouping work must be breached to deliver results for customers, partners and shareholders.\nMilestone: Pieces have been tied together and defined power relationships.\nTalent and leadership\nGoal: Determine the number of positions, the profile of a candidate who will fill those positions, and who will report to the leader of the new structure(s).\nMilestone: Critical roles have been designed and staffed and defined work for the executive team.\nTransition\nGoal: Set the transition plan to account for a logical implementation plan.\nMilestone: The change is being executed and lead, and closely monitoring the changes to prepare for any adjustments\n\nReshaping organization structure \n\nOrganization design can be defined, narrowly, as the process of reshaping organization structure and roles. It can also be more effectively defined as the alignment of structure, process, rewards, metrics, and talent with the strategy of the business. Jay Galbraith and Amy Kates have made the case persuasively (building on years of work by Galbraith) that attention to all of these organizational elements is necessary to create new capabilities to compete in a given market. This systemic view, often referred to as the \"star model\" approach, is more likely to lead to better performance.\n\nOrganization design may involve strategic decisions, but is properly viewed as a path to effective strategy execution. The design process nearly always entails making trade-offs of one set of structural benefits for another. Many companies fall into the trap of making repeated changes in organization structure, with little benefit to the business. This often occurs because changes in structure are relatively easy to execute while creating the impression that something substantial is happening.  This often leads to cynicism and confusion within the organization. More powerful change happens when there are clear design objectives driven by a new business strategy or forces in the market require a different approach to organize resources.\n\nThe organization design process is often explained in phases. Phase one is the definition of a business case, including a clear picture of strategy and design objectives. This step is typically followed by \"strategic grouping\" decisions, which define the fundamental architecture of the organization - essentially deciding which major roles will report at the top of the organization.  The classic options for strategic grouping are to organize by:\n\nBehavior\nFunction\nProduct or category\nCustomer or market\nGeography\nMatrix\n\nEach of the basic building block options for strategic grouping brings a set of benefits and drawbacks. However, such generic pros and cons are not the basis for choosing the best strategic grouping. An analysis must be completed relative to a specific business strategy.\n\nSubsequent phases of organization design include operational design of processes, roles, measures, and reward systems, followed by staffing and other implementation tasks.\n\nThe field is somewhat specialized in nature and many large and small consulting firms offer organization design assistance to executives. Some companies attempt to establish internal staff resources aimed at supporting organization design initiatives. There is a substantial body of literature in the field, arguably starting with the work of Peter Drucker in his examination of General Motors decades ago.  Other key thinkers built on Drucker's thinking, including Galbraith (1973), Nadler, et al. (1992) and Lawrence and Lorsch (1967).\n\nOrganization design can be considered a subset of the broader field of organization effectiveness and organization development, both of which may entail more behaviorally focused solutions to effectiveness, such as leadership behaviors, team effectiveness and other characteristics of that nature. Many organizational experts argue for an integrated approach to these disciplines, including effective talent management practices.\n\nVarious approaches \nThere are various approaches to organizational architecture including\n\n (1986, 1991, 2004) - Kenneth D. Mackenzie\n (1992, 1993) - David A. Nadler and Michael L. Tushman.\n  Organizational Architecture - by David A. Nadler, Marc S. Gerstein and Robert B. Shaw.\n (1993, 1995) - Designing organizations using the STAR Model as developed by Jay Galbraith\n Benjamin's Layered Model of organizations.\n The Organizational Adaption Model by Raymond E. Miles and Charles C. Snow.\n (1995) - Richard M. Burton and B\u00f8rge Obel \n (2001) - Ralph Kilmann\n (2004) - Richard L. Daft\n\nFive principles of good design \n\nSpecialization principle - the primary concern in the specialization principle how to group responsibilities into units. The unit boundaries should be defined to achieve the important benefits available.\nCoordination principle - this principle links closely with the specialization principle, to ensure the links are established between the units.\nKnowledge and competence principle - the primary concern in this principle is determining which responsibilities to decentralize and what hierarchical levels to create.\nControl and commitment principle - the primary concern in this principle is insuring managers have a process to effectively discharge decentralized principles.\nInnovation and adaptation principle - the primary concern in this principle is insuring the organization can change and evolve in the future.\n\nFive good design tests \nEach tests coincides with the principles previously mentioned.\n\n Specialist culture test (Specialization Principle)\n Difficult links test (Coordination Principle)\n Redundant hierarchy test (Knowledge and Competence Principle)\n Accountability test (Control and Commitment Principle)\n Flexibility test (Innovation and Adaptation Principle)\n\nCharacteristics of effective organizational design\nSome systems are effective and efficient whereas others are not. Successful systems may be attributable to the skill exercised in designing the system or to the quality of management practised during operations, or both. Successful systems are characterized by their simplicity, flexibility, reliability, economy, and acceptability. Simplicity, flexibility, and reliability tend to be a function of design, whereas economy and acceptability pertain to both design and operations. Numerous relationships exist among these characteristics; for example, simplicity will affect economy and possibly reliability. Moreover, management must reach a compromise between economy and reliability, and between technical efficiency and organizational climate. The balance reached will determine whether short- or long-run objectives are optimized.\n\n Simplicity\n\nAn effective organizational system need not be complex. On the contrary, simplicity in design is a desirable quality. Consider the task of communicating information about the operation of a system and the allocation of its inputs. The task is not difficult when components are few and the relationships among them are straightforward. However, the problems of communication multiply with each successive stage of complexity.\n\nThe proper method for maintaining simplicity is to use precise definitions and to outline the specific task for each subsystem. Total systems often become complex because of the sheer size and nature of operations, but effectiveness and efficiency may still be achieved if each subsystem maintains its simplicity.\n \n Flexibility\n\nConditions change and managers should be prepared to adjust operations accordingly. There are two ways to adjust to a changing operating environment: to design new systems or to modify operating systems. An existing system should not be modified to accommodate a change in objectives, but every system should be sufficiently flexible to integrate changes that may occur either in the environment or in the nature of the inputs. For example, a company should not use the same system to build missiles as it uses to build airplanes, nor the same system to sell insurance as the one originally designed to sell magazines. However, it should be possible to modify an existing system to produce different sizes, varieties, or types of the same product or service.\n\nA practical system must be well designed but it cannot be entirely rigid. There will always be minor variations from the general plan, and a system should be able to adapt to such changes without excessive confusion. The advantages associated with having a flexible system will become more apparent when we consider the difficulty of administering change.\n\n Reliability\n\nSystem reliability is an important factor in organizations. Reliability is the consistency with which operations are maintained, and may vary from zero output (a complete breakdown or work stoppage) to a constant or predictable output. The typical system operates somewhere between these two extremes. The characteristics of reliability can be designed into the system by carefully selecting and arranging the operating components; the system is no more reliable than its weakest segment. When the requirements for a particular component \u2014 such as an operator having unique skills \u2014 are critical, it may be worthwhile to maintain a standby operator. In all situations, provisions should be made for quick repair or replacement when failure occurs. One valid approach to the reliability-maintenance relationship is to use a form of construction that permits repair by replacing a complete unit. In some television sets, for example, it is common practice to replace an entire section of the network rather than try to find the faulty component. Reliability is not as critical an issue when prompt repair and recovery can be instituted.\n\n Economy\nAn effective system is not necessarily an economical (efficient) system. For example, the postal service may keep on schedule with mail deliveries but only by hiring a large number of additional workers. In this case, the efficiency of the postal system would be reduced. In another example, inventories may be controlled by using a comprehensive system of storekeeping. However, if the cost of the storekeeping were greater than the potential savings from this degree of control, the system would not be efficient. It is often dysfunctional and expensive to develop much greater capacity for one segment of a system than for some other part. Building in redundancy or providing for every contingency usually neutralizes the operating efficiency of the system. When a system's objectives include achieving a particular task at the lowest possible cost, there must be some degree of trade-off between effectiveness and efficiency. When a system's objective is to perform a certain mission regardless of cost, there can be no trade-off.\n\n Acceptability\nAny system, no matter how well designed, will not function properly unless it is accepted by the people who operate it. If the participants do not believe it will benefit them, are opposed to it, are pressured into using it, or think it is not a good system, it will not work properly. If a system is not accepted, two things can happen:(1) the system will be modified gradually by the people who are using it, or (2) the system will be used ineffectively and ultimately fail. Unplanned alterations in an elaborate system can nullify advantages associated with using the system.\n\nDifferentiation and integration\nA basic consideration in the design of organizations is dividing work into reasonable tasks (differentiation) while giving simultaneous attention to coordinating these activities and unifying their results into a meaningful whole (integration). Two guidelines may be followed in grouping activities:\n\n Units that have similar orientations and tasks should be grouped together. (They can reinforce each other's common concern and the arrangement will simplify the coordinating task of a common manager).\n Units required to integrate their activities closely should be grouped together. (The common manager can coordinate them through the formal hierarchy).\n\nWhen units neither have similar orientations nor share their activities, the task of grouping becomes more difficult. For example, when units are similar in nature and function but are also relatively independent, the manager must base their decision on the most appropriate way to group activities according to their past experience.\n\nA difficult task associated with system-subsystem determination is to establish proper boundaries of operations. The more specific and distinct the goals of the operation, the easier it is to set boundaries. Other factors such as the influence of the environment, the availability of men and machines, the time schedule for design and operation, the cost of alternative designs, and the particular biases of the designers must be considered when establishing boundaries.\n\nThe role of management\nDesigners with imagination have the best chance to group people and machines into workable combinations having the greatest efficiency and effectiveness within the recognized constraints. Certain characteristics should be designed into an effective and efficient system \u2014 simplicity, flexibility, reliability, economy, and acceptability.\n\nAt this point, the designer must determine what has to be done to achieve the stated objective(s) and how the total task can be divided into meaningful units. Of the many possible combinations, one must be selected as that which satisfies the decision criteria better than the other alternatives. Of course, the balance between technical efficiency and the human factors that determine organizational climate should be included in making this decision. The eventual success or failure of the project is somewhat predetermined by management's attitude and the relationship between the designers and those who must implement the process.\n\nThe systems approach suggests a new role for management. In the traditional view, the manager operated in a highly structured, rigid system having well-defined goals, clear-cut relationships, tight controls, and hierarchical information flows. In the flexible (or open) systems view, the organization is not static but is continually evolving to meet both external and internal changes. The manager's role is to develop a viable organization, cope with change, and help participants establish a dynamic equilibrium. Leonard Sayles has expressed the manager's problem as follows:\n\n\"The one enduring objective is the effort to build and maintain a predictable, reciprocating system of relationships, the behavioral patterns of which stay within reasonable physical limits. But this is seeking a moving equilibrium, since the parameters of the system (the division of labor and the controls) are evolving and changing. Thus, the manager endeavors to introduce regularity in a world that will never allow him to achieve the ideal\".\n\nThe systems approach does not offer a prescription for making a manager's difficult and complex job easier. Rather it helps him understand and operate more effectively within the reality of complex systems. The systems approach suggests that operations cannot be neatly departmentalized but must be viewed as overlapping subsystems. In addition, it suggests that leadership patterns must be modified, particularly when dealing with professionals and highly trained specialists, and motivation must take the form of active, willing participation rather than forceful subjugation.\n\nSystems design involves establishing projects and facilitating subsystems to accomplish certain tasks or programs. In this approach, the network of human independence required to accomplish a given task is based on the shared responsibility of all members of the subsystem. In contrast, the traditional organization is geared to functional performance and the integrating force is authority. Instead of gearing participant activities to obedience to rules and closely structured behavior, the systems approach provides a basis for active cooperation in meeting task requirements. The manager is looked upon as a resource person who can help the group meet its goals and also as a source of authority and control. Thus, systems theory lends a structure by which the concepts of motivation, leadership, and participation can be applied effectively within the organization.\n\nImplementation is, of course, implicit in the connotation of systems design; otherwise it would be nothing more than an empty exercise. It follows that the interface between managers and systems designers is critical, and mutual understanding must be fostered to maximize returns from design efforts. The system must be tailored to the needs of the organization and adapted continually as circumstances change. In a general sense, managers engage in systems design on a day-to-day basis when they plan activities and organize systems to accomplish objectives. Specialized staff groups have evolved to perform tasks such as long-range planning, organizational studies, and systems design. However, since managers are ultimately responsible for organizational endeavors, they should make a special effort to help ensure the development of useful systems and to make design activities an extension of the manager's role rather than a separate function.\n\nOperating managers need to understand the organizational decision-making requirements and the information needed to support the system. Although the probability of success in implementation is enhanced considerably if management is vitally interested in the project, technical expertise and motivation for change are more likely to be found in staff groups. The solution to the apparent dichotomy would seem to be a team approach, with specialists supporting operating managers who are responsible for the project's success. A manager might devote either part-time to such an effort or full-time temporarily, if the task requires it.\n\nA project involving an integrated system for the entire company might well require years to complete. If operating people are delegated responsibility and authority for such a project, particularly if they are delegated the authority to outline specifications, they should also maintain sufficient contact with the day-to-day operations and its attendant information flow to retain their expertise for decision making. If the environment is dynamic or internal capabilities undergo change, it might be wise to rotate people from operations to systems design periodically, so that operating expertise is updated continually.\n\nSee also\n Organizational design\n Organizational structure\n Departmentalization\n Enterprise architecture framework\n Interdisciplinary Center for Organizational Architecture\n View model\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Kates, Amy, and Gregory Kesler. Bridging Organization Design and Performance: 5 Ways to Activate a Global Operating Model. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2016.\n Kates, Amy, and Jay R. Galbraith. Designing Your Organization: Using the Star Model to Solve 5 Critical Design Challenges. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007. \n R.I. Benjamin and E. Levinson, A framework for managing IT-enabled change by Sloan Management Review, Summer 1993.\n Karen Dale and Gibson Burrell. The Spaces of Organisation & The Organization of Space -Power, Identity & Materiality at Work, 2008. \n Jay Galbraith, Designing Organizations, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, 1995.\n Raymond E. Miles and Charles C. Snow, Organizational Adaption, 2003. \n Joseph Morabito, Ira Sack and Anilkumar Bhate, Organization Modeling, 1999.\n David A. Nadler, Marc C. Gerstein and Robert B. Shaw, Organizational Architecture, 1992.\n Harold G. Nelson and Erik Stolterman, The design way: Intentional change in an unpredictable world: Foundations and fundamentals of design competence, 2003.\n\nBusiness models\nEnterprise modelling\nOrganization design","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":63,"dup_details":{"2022-49":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":11,"2014-15":3}},"id":2610776,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organizational%20architecture","title":"Organizational architecture","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Rohangan hapa atawa vacuum nya\u00e9ta volume rohangan anu pada dasarna kosong ku materi, saperti tekanan gas \u00e9ta rohangan kurang ti tekanan atmosfir baku.\n\nThe Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object as being in what would otherwise be a vacuum. The root of the word vacuum is the Latin adjective vacuus which m\u00e9ans \"empty,\" but space can never be perfectly empty. A perfect vacuum with a gas\u00e9ous pressure of absolute zero is a philosophical concept that is never observed in practice, not l\u00e9ast because quantum theory predicts that no volume of space can be perfectly empty in this way. Physicists often use the term \"vacuum\" slightly differently. They discuss id\u00e9al test results that would occur in a perfect vacuum, which they simply call \"vacuum\" or \"free space\" in this context, and use the term partial vacuum to refer to the imperfect vacua r\u00e9alized in practice.\n\nThe quality of a vacuum is m\u00e9asured in relation to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. The residual gas pressure is the primary indicator of quality, and is most commonly m\u00e9asured in units called torr, even in metric contexts. Lower pressures indicate higher quality, although other variables must also be taken into account. Quantum mechanics sets limits on the best possible quality of vacuum. Outer space is a natural high quality vacuum, mostly of much higher quality than what can be cr\u00e9ated artificially with current technology. Low quality artificial vacuums have been used for suction for millennia.\n\nVacuum has been a frequent topic of philosophical debate since Ancient Greek times, but was not studied empirically until the 17th century. Evangelista Torricelli produced the first artifical vacuum in 1643, and other experimental techniques were developed as a result of his th\u00e9ories of atmospheric pressure. Vacuum became a valuable industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes, and a wide array of vacuum technology has since become available. The recent development of human spaceflight has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human h\u00e9alth, and on life forms in general.\n\nUses \n\nVacuum is useful in a variety of processes and devices. Its first common use was in incandescent light bulbs to protect the tungsten filament from chemical degradation. Its chemical inertness is also useful for electron beam welding, chemical vapor deposition and dry etching in the fabrication of semiconductors and optical coatings, cold welding, vacuum packing and vacuum frying. The reduction of convection improves the thermal insulation of thermos bottles and double-paned windows. Deep vacuum promotes outgassing which is used in freeze drying, adhesive preparation, distillation, metallurgy, and process purging. The electrical properties of vacuum mak\u00e9 electron microscopes and vacuum tubes possible, including cathode ray tubes. The elimination of air friction is useful for flywheel energy storage and ultracentrifuges.\n\nHigh to ultra-high vacuum is used in thin film deposition and surface science. High vacuum allows for contamination-free material deposition. Ultra-high vacuum is used in the study of atomically cl\u00e9an substrates, as only a very good vacuum preserves atomic-scale cl\u00e9an surfaces for a r\u00e9asonably long time (on the order of minutes to days).\n\nSuction is used in a wide variety of applications. The Newcomen steam engine used vacuum inst\u00e9ad of pressure to drive a piston. In the 19th century, vacuum was used for traction on Isambard Kingdom Brunel's experimental atmospheric railway.\n\nOuter space \n\nMuch of outer space has the density and pressure of an almost perfect vacuum. It has effectively no friction, which allows stars, planets and moons to move freely along id\u00e9al gravitational trajectories. But no vacuum is perfect, not even in interstellar space, where there are only a few hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeter at 10 fPa (10\u221216 Torr). The deep vacuum of space could mak\u00e9 it an attractive environment for certain processes, for instance those that require ultracl\u00e9an surfaces; for small-scale applications, however, it is much more cost-effective to cr\u00e9ate an equivalent vacuum on \u00e9arth than to l\u00e9ave the \u00e9arth's gravity well.\n\nStars, planets and moons keep their atmospheres by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no cl\u00e9arly delin\u00e9ated boundary: the density of atmospheric gas simply decr\u00e9ases with distance from the object. In low earth orbit (about 300\u00a0km or 185 miles altitude) the atmospheric density is about 100 nPa (10\u22129 Torr), still sufficient to produce significant drag on satellites. Most artificial satellites operate in this region, and must fire their engines every few days to maintain orbit.\n\nBeyond planetary atmospheres, the pressure of photons and other particles from the sun becomes significant. Spacecraft can be buffeted by solar winds, but planets are too massive to be affected. The id\u00e9a of using this wind with a solar sail has been proposed for interplanetary travel.\n\nAll of the observable universe is filled with large numbers of photons, the so-called cosmic background radiation, and quite likely a correspondingly large number of neutrinos. The current temperature of this radiation is about 3 K, or -270 degrees Celsius or -454 degrees Fahrenheit.\n\nEffects on humans and animals \n\nVacuum is primarily an asphyxiant. Humans exposed to vacuum will lose consciousness after a few seconds and die within minutes, but the symptoms are not n\u00e9arly as graphic as commonly shown in pop culture. Robert Boyle was the first to show that vacuum is lethal to small animals. Blood and other body fluids do boil (the medical term for this condition is ebullism), and the vapour pressure may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid. Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a flight suit. Shuttle astronauts w\u00e9ar a fitted elastic garment called the Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 15 Torr (2 kPa). However, even if ebullism is prevented, simple evaporation of blood can cause decompression sickness and gas embolisms. Rapid evaporative cooling of the skin will cr\u00e9ate frost, particularly in the mouth, but this is not a significant hazard.\n\nAnimal experiments show that rapid and complete recovery is the norm for exposures of fewer than 90 seconds, while longer full-body exposures are fatal and resuscitation has never been successful. There is only a limited amount of data available from human accidents, but it is consistent with animal data. Limbs may be exposed for much longer if br\u00e9athing is not impaired. Rapid decompression can be much more dangerous than vacuum exposure itself. If the victim holds his br\u00e9ath during decompression, the delicate internal structures of the lungs can be ruptured, causing d\u00e9ath. Eardrums may be ruptured by rapid decompression, soft tissues may bruise and seep blood, and the stress of shock will accelerate oxygen consumption l\u00e9ading to asphyxiation.\n\nIn 1942, in one of a series of experiments on human subjects for the Luftwaffe, the Nazi regime tortured Dachau concentration camp prisoners by exposing them to vacuum in order to determine the human body's capacity to survive high-altitude conditions.\n\nSome extremophile microrganisms, such as Tardigrades, can survive vacuum for a period of y\u00e9ars.\n\nHistorical interpretation \nHistorically, there has been much dispute over whether such a thing as a vacuum can exist.  Ancient Greek philosophers did not like to admit the existence of a vacuum, asking themselves \"how can 'nothing' be something?\".  Plato found the id\u00e9a of a vacuum inconceivable. He believed that all physical things were instantiations of an abstract Platonic ideal, and he could not conceive of an \"ideal\" form of a vacuum.  Similarly, Aristotle considered the cr\u00e9ation of a vacuum impossible \u2014 nothing could not be something.  Later Greek philosophers thought that a vacuum could exist outside the cosmos, but not within it.\n\nThe philosopher Al-Farabi (850 - 970 CE) app\u00e9ars to have carried out the first recorded experiments concerning the existence of vacuum, in which he investigated handheld plungers in water. He concluded that air's volume can expand to fill available space, and he suggested that the concept of perfect vacuum was incoherent.\n\nIn the Middle Ages, the catholic church held the id\u00e9a of a vacuum to be immoral or even heretical. The absence of anything implied the absence of God, and harkened back to the void prior to the cr\u00e9ation story in the book of Genesis.  Medieval thought experiments into the id\u00e9a of a vacuum considered whether a vacuum was present, if only for an instant, between two flat plates when they were rapidly separated.  There was much discussion of whether the air moved in quickly enough as the plates were separated, or, as Walter Burley postulated, whether a 'celestial agent' prevented the vacuum arising \u2014 that is, whether nature abhorred a vacuum.  This speculation was shut down by the 1277 Paris condemnations of Bishop Etienne Tempier, which required there to be no restrictions on the powers of God, which led to the conclusion that God could cr\u00e9ate a vacuum if he so wished.\n\nOpposition to the id\u00e9a of a vacuum existing in nature continued into the Scientific Revolution, with scholars such as Paolo Casati taking an anti-vacuist position.  Building upon work by Galileo, Evangelista Torricelli argued in 1643 that there was a vacuum at the top of a mercury barometer. Some p\u00e9ople believe that, although Torricelli produced the first sustained vacuum in a laboratory, it was Blaise Pascal who recognized it for what it was. In 1654, Otto von Guericke invented the first vacuum pump and conducted his famous Magdeburg hemispheres experiment, showing that t\u00e9ams of horses could not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been evacuated. Robert Boyle improved Guericke's design and conducted experiments on the properties of vacuum. Robert Hooke also helped Boyle produce an air pump which helped to produce the vacuum. The study of vacuum then lapsed until 1855, when Heinrich Geissler invented the mercury displacement pump and achieved a record vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 Torr). A number of electrical properties become observable at this vacuum level, and this renewed interest in vacuum. This, in turn, led to the development of the vacuum tube.\n\nIn the 17th century, th\u00e9ories of the nature of light relied upon the existence of an aethereal medium which would be the medium to convey waves of light (Newton relied on this id\u00e9a to explain refraction and radiated h\u00e9at).  This evolved into the luminiferous aether of the 19th century, but the id\u00e9a was known to have significant shortcomings - specifically that if the \u00e9arth were moving through a material medium, the medium would have to be both extremely tenuous (because the \u00e9arth is not detectably slowed in its orbit), and extremely rigid (because vibrations propagate so rapidly).\n\nWhile outer space has been likened to a vacuum, \u00e9arly physicists postulated that an invisible luminiferous aether existed as a medium to carry light waves, or an \"ether which fills the interstellar space\". An 1891 article by William Crookes noted: \"the [freeing of] occluded gases into the vacuum of space\". Even up until 1912, astronomer Henry Pickering commented: \"While the interstellar absorbing medium may be simply the ether, [it] is characteristic of a gas, and free gaseous molecules are certainly there\".\n\nIn 1887, the Michelson-Morley experiment, using an interferometer to attempt to detect the change in the speed of light caused by the Earth moving with respect to the aether, was a famous null result, showing that there r\u00e9ally was no static, pervasive medium throughout space and through which the \u00e9arth moved as though through a wind. While there is therefore no aether, and no such entity is required for the propagation of light, space between the stars is not completely empty. Besides the various particles which comprise cosmic radiation, there is a cosmic background of photonic radiation (light), including the thermal background at about 2.7 K, seen as a relic of the Big Bang. None of these findings affect the outcome of the Michelson-Morley experiment to any significant degree.\n\nEinstein argued that physical objects are not located in space, but rather have a spatial extent. Seen this way, the concept of empty space loses its m\u00e9aning. Rather, space is an abstraction, based on the relationships between local objects. Nevertheless, the general theory of relativity admits a pervasive gravitational field, which, in Einstein's words, may be regarded as an \"aether\", with properties varying from one location to another. One must take care, though, to not ascribe to it material properties such as velocity and so on.\n\nIn 1930, Paul Dirac proposed a mod\u00e9l of vacuum as an infinite s\u00e9a of particles possessing negative energy, called the Dirac sea. This th\u00e9ory helped refine the predictions of his \u00e9arlier formulated Dirac equation, and successfully predicted the existence of the positron, discovered two y\u00e9ars later in 1932. Despite this \u00e9arly success, the id\u00e9a was soon abandoned in favour of the more elegant quantum field theory.\n\nThe development of quantum mechanics has complicated the mod\u00e9rn interpretation of vacuum by requiring indeterminacy. Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and Copenhagen interpretation, formulated in 1927, predict a fundamental uncertainty in the instantan\u00e9ous m\u00e9asurability of the position and momentum of any particle, and which, not unlike the gravitational field, questions the emptiness of space between particles. In the late 20th century, this principle was understood to also predict a fundamental uncertainty in the number of particles in a region of space, l\u00e9ading to predictions of virtual particles arising spontan\u00e9ously out of the void. In other words, there is a lower bound on the vacuum, dictated by the lowest possible energy state of the quantized fields in any region of space. Ironically, Plato was right, if only by chance.\n\nQuantum-mechanical definition \n\nIn quantum mechanics, the  is defined as the state (i.e. solution to the equations of the th\u00e9ory) with the lowest energy. To first approximation, this is simply a state with no particles, hence the name.\n\nEven an id\u00e9al vacuum, thought of as the complete absence of anything, will not in practice remain empty. Consider a vacuum chamber that has been completely evacuated, so that the (classical) particle concentration is zero. The walls of the chamber will emit light in the form of black body radiation. This light carries momentum, so the vacuum does have a radiation pressure. This limitation applies even to the vacuum of interstellar space. Even if a region of space contains no particles, the Cosmic Microwave Background fills the entire universe with black body radiation.\n\nAn id\u00e9al vacuum cannot exist even inside of a molecule. \u00e9ach atom in the molecule exists as a probability function of space, which has a certain non-zero value everywhere in a given volume. Thus, even \"between\" the atoms there is a certain probability of finding a particle, so the space cannot be said to be a vacuum.\n\nMore fundamentally, quantum mechanics predicts that vacuum energy will be different from its naive, classical value. The quantum correction to the energy is called the zero-point energy and consists of \u00e9n\u00e9rgies of virtual particles that have a brief existence. This is called vacuum fluctuation. Vacuum fluctuations may also be related to the so-called cosmological constant in cosmology. The best evidence for vacuum fluctuations is the Casimir effect and the Lamb shift.\n\nIn quantum field theory and string theory, the term \"vacuum\" is used to represent the ground state in the Hilbert space, that is, the state with the lowest possible energy. In free (non-interacting) quantum field th\u00e9ories, this state is analogous to the ground state of a quantum harmonic oscillator. If the th\u00e9ory is obtained by quantization of a classical th\u00e9ory, \u00e9ach stationary point of the energy in the configuration space gives rise to a single vacuum. String theory is believed to have a huge number of vacua - the so-called string theory landscape.\n\nPumping \n\nFluids cannot be pulled, so it is technically impossible to cr\u00e9ate a vacuum by suction. Suction is the movement of fluids into a vacuum under the effect of a higher external pressure, but the vacuum has to be cr\u00e9ated first. The \u00e9asiest way to cr\u00e9ate an artificial vacuum is to expand the volume of a container. For example, the diaphragm muscle expands the chest cavity, which causes the volume of the lungs to incr\u00e9ase. This expansion reduces the pressure and cr\u00e9ates a partial vacuum, which is soon filled by air pushed in by atmospheric pressure.\n\nTo continue evacuating a chamber indefinitely without requiring infinite growth, a compartment of the vacuum can be rep\u00e9atedly closed off, exhausted, and expanded again. This is the principle behind positive displacement pumps, like the manual water pump for example. Inside the pump, a mechanism expands a small s\u00e9aled cavity to cr\u00e9ate a deep vacuum. Because of the pressure differential, some fluid from the chamber (or the well, in our example) is pushed into the pump's small cavity. The pump's cavity is then s\u00e9aled from the chamber, opened to the atmosphere, and squeezed back to a minute size.\n\nThe above explanation is merely a simple introduction to vacuum pumping, and is not representative of the entire range of pumps in use. Many variations of the positive displacement pump have been developed, and many other pump designs rely on fundamentally different principles. Momentum transfer pumps, which b\u00e9ar some similarities to dynamic pumps used at higher pressures, can achieve much higher quality vacuums than positive displacement pumps. Entrapment pumps can capture gases in a solid or absorbed state, often with no moving parts, no s\u00e9als and no vibration. None of these pumps are universal; \u00e9ach type has important performance limitations. They all share a difficulty in pumping low molecular weight gases, especially hydrogen, helium, and neon.\n\nThe lowest pressure that can be attained in a system is also dependent on many things other than the nature of the pumps. Multiple pumps may be connected in series, called stages, to achieve higher vacuums. The choice of s\u00e9als, chamber g\u00e9ometry, materials, and pump-down procedures will all have an impact. Collectively, these are called vacuum technique. And sometimes, the final pressure is not the only relevant characteristic. Pumping systems differ in oil contamination, vibration, preferential pumping of certain gases, pump-down speeds, intermittent duty cycle, reliability, or tolerance to high l\u00e9akage rates.\n\nIn ultra high vacuum systems, some very odd l\u00e9akage paths and outgassing sources must be considered. The water absorption of aluminium and palladium becomes an unacceptable source of outgassing, and even the adsorptivity of hard metals such as stainless steel or titanium must be considered. Some oils and gr\u00e9ases will boil off in extreme vacuums. The porosity of the metallic chamber walls may have to be considered, and the grain direction of the metallic flanges should be parallel to the flange face.\n\nThe lowest pressures currently achievable in laboratory are about 10\u221213 Torr.\n\nOutgassing \n\nEvaporation and sublimation into a vacuum is called outgassing. All materials, solid or liquid, have a small vapour pressure, and their outgassing becomes important when the vacuum pressure falls below this vapour pressure. In man-made systems, outgassing has the same effect as a l\u00e9ak and can limit the achievable vacuum. Outgassing products may condense on n\u00e9arby colder surfaces, which can be troublesome if they obscure optical instruments or r\u00e9act with other materials. This is of gr\u00e9at concern to space missions, where an obscured telescope or solar cell can ruin an expensive mission.\n\nThe most prevalent outgassing product in man-made vacuum systems is water absorbed by chamber materials. It can be reduced by desiccating or baking the chamber, and removing absorbent materials. Outgassed water can condense in the oil of rotary vane pumps and reduce their net speed drastically if gas ballasting is not used. High vacuum systems must be cl\u00e9an and free of organic matter to minimize outgassing.\n\nUltra-high vacuum systems are usually baked, preferably under vacuum, to temporarily raise the vapour pressure of all outgassing materials and boil them off. Once the bulk of the outgassing materials are boiled off and evacuated, the system may be cooled to lower vapour pressures and minimize residual outgassing during actual operation. Some systems are cooled well below room temperature by liquid nitrogen to shut down residual outgassing and simultan\u00e9ously cryopump the system.\n\nQuality \nThe quality of a vacuum is indicated by the amount of matter remaining in the system. Vacuum is primarily m\u00e9asured by its absolute pressure, but a complete characterization requires further param\u00e9ters, such as temperature and chemical composition. One of the most important param\u00e9ters is the mean free path (MFP) of residual gases, which indicates the average distance that molecules will travel between collisions with \u00e9ach other. As the gas density decr\u00e9ases, the MFP incr\u00e9ases, and when the MFP is longer than the chamber, pump, spacecraft, or other objects present, the continuum assumptions of fluid mechanics do not apply. This vacuum state is called high vacuum, and the study of fluid flows in this regime is called particle gas dynamics. The MFP of air at atmospheric pressure is very short, 70 nm, but at 100 mPa (~1\u00d710\u22123 Torr) the MFP of room temperature air is roughly 100\u00a0mm, which is on the order of everyday objects such as vacuum tubes. The Crookes radiometer turns when the MFP is larger than the size of the vanes.\n\nDeep space is generally much more empty than any artificial vacuum that we can cr\u00e9ate, although many laboratories can r\u00e9ach lower vacuum than that of low earth orbit. In interplanetary and interstellar space, isotropic gas pressure is insignificant when compared to solar pressure, solar wind, and dynamic pressure, so the definition of pressure becomes difficult to interpret. Astrophysicists prefer to use number density to describe these environments, in units of particles per cubic centimetre. The average density of interstellar gas is about 1 atom per cubic centimeter.\n\nVacuum quality is subdivided into ranges according to the technology required to achieve it or m\u00e9asure it. These ranges do not have universally agreed definitions (hence the gaps below), but a typical distribution is as follows:\n\n Atmospheric pressure is variable but standardized at 101.325 kPa (760 Torr)\n Low vacuum, also called rough vacuum or coarse vacuum, is vacuum that can be achieved or m\u00e9asured with rudimentary equipment such as a vacuum cleaner and a liquid column manometer.\n Medium vacuum is vacuum that can be achieved with a single pump, but is too low to m\u00e9asure with a liquid or mechanical manometer. It can be m\u00e9asured with a McL\u00e9od gauge, thermal gauge or a capacitive gauge.\n High vacuum is vacuum where the MFP of residual gases is longer than the size of the chamber or of the object under test. High vacuum usually requires multi-stage pumping and ion gauge m\u00e9asurement. Some texts differentiate between high vacuum and very high vacuum.\n Ultra high vacuum requires baking the chamber to remove trace gases, and other special procedures. \n Deep space is generally much more empty than any artificial vacuum that we can cr\u00e9ate. However, it is not High Vacuum with respect to the above definition, since the MFP of the molecules is smaller than the (infinite) size of the chamber.\n Perfect vacuum is an id\u00e9al state that cannot be obtained in a laboratory, nor can it be found in outer space.\n\nExamples\n\nMeasurement \n\nVacuum is m\u00e9asured in units of pressure. The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (symbol Pa), but vacuum is usually m\u00e9asured in torrs (symbol Torr), named for Torricelli, an \u00e9arly Italian physicist (1608 - 1647).  A torr is equal to the displacement of a millimeter of mercury (mmHg) in a manometer with 1 torr equaling 133.3223684 pascals above absolute zero pressure.  Vacuum is often also m\u00e9asured using inches of mercury on the barometric scale or as a percentage of atmospheric pressure in bars or atmospheres.  Low vacuum is often m\u00e9asured in inches of mercury (inHg), millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or kilopascals (kPa) below atmospheric pressure. \"Below atmospheric\" m\u00e9ans that the absolute pressure is equal to the current atmospheric pressure (e.g. 29.92 inHg) minus the vacuum pressure in the same units. Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 4 inHg (29.92 inHg - 26 inHg).\n\nMany devices are used to m\u00e9asure the pressure in a vacuum, depending on what range of vacuum is needed.\n\nHydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube. The simplest design is a closed-end U-shaped tube, one side of which is connected to the region of interest. Any fluid can be used, but mercury is preferred for its high density and low vapour pressure. Simple hydrostatic gauges can m\u00e9asure pressures ranging from 1 Torr (100 Pa) to above atmospheric. An important variation is the McLeod gauge which isolates a known volume of vacuum and compresses it to multiply the height variation of the liquid column. The McL\u00e9od gauge can m\u00e9asure vacuums as high as 10\u22126\u00a0Torr (0.1 mPa), which is the lowest direct m\u00e9asurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other vacuum gauges can m\u00e9asure lower pressures, but only indirectly by m\u00e9asurement of other pressure-controlled properties. These indirect m\u00e9asurements must be calibrated via a direct m\u00e9asurement, most commonly a McL\u00e9od gauge.\n\nMechanical or elastic gauges depend on a Bourdon tube, diaphragm, or capsule, usually made of metal, which will change shape in response to the pressure of the region in question. A variation on this id\u00e9a is the capacitance manometer, in which the diaphragm makes up a part of a capacitor. A change in pressure l\u00e9ads to the flexure of the diaphragm, which results in a change in capacitance. These gauges are effective from 10\u22123\u00a0Torr to 10\u22124\u00a0Torr.\n\nThermal conductivity gauges rely on the fact that the ability of a gas to conduct h\u00e9at decr\u00e9ases with pressure. In this type of gauge, a wire filament is h\u00e9ated by running current through it. A thermocouple or Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) can then be used to m\u00e9asure the temperature of the filament. This temperature is dependent on the rate at which the filament loses h\u00e9at to the surrounding gas, and therefore on the thermal conductivity. A common variant is the Pirani gauge which uses a single platimum filament as both the h\u00e9ated element and RTD. These gauges are accurate from 10 Torr to 10\u22123\u00a0Torr, but they are sensitive to the chemical composition of the gases being m\u00e9asured.\n\nIon gauges are used in ultrahigh vacua. They come in two types: hot cathode and cold cathode. In the hot cathode version an electrically h\u00e9ated filament produces an electron b\u00e9am. The electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them. The resulting ions are collected at a negative electrode. The current depends on the number of ions, which depends on the pressure in the gauge. Hot cathode gauges are accurate from 10\u22123\u00a0Torr to 10\u221210\u00a0Torr. The principle behind cold cathode version is the same, except that electrons are produced in a discharge cr\u00e9ated by a high voltage electrical discharge. Cold cathode gauges are accurate from 10\u22122\u00a0Torr to 10\u22129\u00a0Torr. Ionization gauge calibration is very sensitive to construction g\u00e9ometry, chemical composition of gases being m\u00e9asured, corrosion and surface deposits. Their calibration can be invalidated by activation at atmospheric pressure or low vacuum. The composition of gases at high vacuums will usually be unpredictable, so a mass spectrometer must be used in conjunction with the ionization gauge for accurate m\u00e9asurement.\n\nProperties \nMany properties of space approach non-zero values in a vacuum that approaches perfection. These id\u00e9al physical constants are often called free space constants. Some of the common ones are as follows:\n The speed of light approaches 299,792,458\u00a0m\/s, but is always slower\n Index of refraction approaches 1.0, but is always higher\n Electric permittivity () approaches 8.8541878176x10\u221212 farads per meter (F\/m).\n Magnetic permeability (\u03bc0) approaches 4\u03c0\u00d710\u22127\u00a0N\/A2.\n Characteristic impedance () approaches 376.73 \u03a9.\n\nNotes\n\nSee also \n\n Decay of the vacuum (Pair production)\n Helium mass spectrometer - technical instrumentation to detect a vacuum l\u00e9ak\n Engine vacuum\n Mean free path\n Negative pressure\n Rarefaction - reduction of a medium's density\n Suction - cr\u00e9ation of a partial vacuum\n Vacuum cementing - natural process of solidifying homogenous \"dust\" in vacuum\n Vacuum engineering - vacuum engineering\n Vacuum angle\n Vacuum flange\n\nTumbu luar \n American Vacuum Society\n Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A\n Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B\n FAQ on explosive decompression and vacuum exposure.\n Discussion of the effects on humans of exposure to hard vacuum.\n Vacuum Energy in High Energy Physics\n History of Vacuum Science \n Short History of Vacuum Terminology and Technology \n Vacuum, Production of Space\n VIDEO on the nature of vacuum by Canadian astrophysicist Doctor P\n \"Much Ado About Nothing\" by Professor John D. Barrow, Gresham College \n\nKosong\nKons\u00e9p fisika dasar\nPros\u00e9s industri\nHampa","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":24553,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rohangan%20hapa","title":"Rohangan hapa","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An allele is a form of a gene at a particular position (locus) on a chromosome.15 It is the bit of coding DNA at that place.p6\n\nTypical plants and animals have two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent.123 These organisms are called diploid. Since such organisms have two sets of chromosomes, they have (except on the sex chromosomes) two alleles at each gene locus.p6\n\nIf the two alleles are identical, the individual is called a homozygote and is said to be homozygous. If instead the two alleles are different, the individual is a heterozygote and is heterozygous.205\n\nDominance \nIn a heterozygote the effect of one allele may completely 'mask' the other. That is, the phenotype produced by the two alleles in heterozygous combination is identical to that produced by one of the two homozygous genotypes.212 \n\nThe allele that masks the other is said to be dominant to the latter, and the alternative allele is said to be recessive to the former. This idea originates in the work of Gregor Mendel, the founder of genetics.\n\nIn other cases, both alleles contribute to the phenotype.\n\nExample \nThe inheritance of alleles, and their dominance, can be represented in a Punnett square.\n\nAn example is the gene for blossom colour in many species of flower. A single gene controls the colour of the petals, but there may be several different versions (or alleles) of the gene.\n\nIn this example, parents have the genotype Bb (capital letters show dominant alleles and lower-case letters to show recessive alleles). If B (capital) is found in their genotype, the flower will be red. Therefore, the only time a flower is not red is when the genotype is bb (there are no capital 'B's).\n\nThe probability of the flowers having different genotypes are: BB is 25%, Bb is 50%, and bb is 25%. The phenotype of the flower will always be red if a dominant B is in the genotype. Therefore, there is a 25% chance of getting a flower which is not red, and 75% chance of getting a flower which is red.\n\nRecessive \n\nThe pattern of inheritance of recessive genes is quite simple. If they are heterozygous with a dominant allele, the appearance (phenotype) is the same as a dominant homozygote. Only if both alleles are recessive does the recessive allele show in the phenotype b.\n\nIncomplete dominance \nThis is when the dominant allele is not completely dominant over the recessive allele. This means both the alleles have a degree of phenotypic expression in the hybrids. In this case the functional product formed is a little different or is intermediate between the product produced by to the dominant allele and the recessive allele.\n\nFor example: Mirabilis jalapa. The heterozygote of this plant produces flowers in the F1 generation of the colour pink in contrast to the red (dominant) and white (recessive) homozygotes.\n\nSex linkage \nGenes on the sex chromosomes are said to be sex linked. In the XY sex determination system of mammals, the X chromosomes carry a full set of genes, but the Y chromosomes carry few genes. Alleles or genes which are not sex-linked are called autosomal.\n\nDifferent alleles at a locus \nThere are three ways alleles at a locus may differ.p6 They are:\nBy origin. Alleles differ by origin if they come from the same locus on different chromosomes. Thus, for example, the two alleles at a particular locus in a diploid individual are always different by origin. They sit on different chromosomes.\nBy state. Alleles are different by state if they have different DNA sequences. This idea can be adjusted to need. For example, we may judge them as different only if the difference changes the amino acid sequence of a protein.\nBy descent. Alleles are different by descent if they do not share a common ancestor. Of course, all alleles have a common ancestor if one goes back far enough. What is meant is they share a fairly recent ancestor. \n\nTwo alleles different by descent may or may not be of different state. For example, one may carry a mutation, so making its DNA sequence different.\n\nTerms introduced \n Allele\n Locus\n Homozygote\n Heterozygote\n Dominant\n Recessive\n Dominance (genetics)\n Punnett square\n Sex linkage\n Autosomal\n\nRelated pages \nAllele frequency\n\nReferences \n\nChromosomes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":231,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":4,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":7,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":7,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":5,"2022-40":5,"2022-27":5,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":7,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":7,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":9,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":6,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":7,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2}},"id":115599,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allele","title":"Allele","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Violence is when someone attacks someone else, often to get them to do something they do not want to do by making them feel pain or fear. Violence can mean anything from one person hitting another to a war between many countries that causes millions of deaths. Different people may see different acts as violent. Laws are created often to control violence.\n\nTypes of violence \nViolence can be:\n\n verbal: insults, name calling or anything that hurts another's feelings. \n physical: fighting, killing, or hurting another;\n sexual: when a person makes someone else subject to sexual actions they do not want; e.g. rape\n symbolic: acts done to show you are against a leader or group whose ideas one opposes;\n racial: when a victim of a violent act is chosen because of his or her race or nationality.\n\nRelated pages \n Nonviolence\n\nReferences\n\nViolence","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":54254,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Violence","title":"Violence","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Islamic world or Muslim world consists of all people who believe in Islam. It is not an exact location, but rather a community. When they do things together as Muslims, they are the \"umma\", which means \"community\" referring to all of the believers. The faith emphasizes unity and defense of fellow Muslims, so it is common for these nations to cooperate. Recent conflicts in the Muslim World have sometimes spread because of this desire to cooperate (see below). It is also likely that some have been made shorter and less damaging because of it. Some might even have never started.\n\nDemographics \nMuslims are in many countries. In 52 nations, Muslims are the majority. Almost all are Sunni. They speak about 60 languages and come from all ethnic backgrounds. \n\n 10.4 million Muslims in Canada and the United States\n 2.2 million Muslims in Latin and Central America\n 10.0 million Muslims in the European Union plus Bosnia-Herzegovina and Albania\n few or none in Eastern Europe, Norway\n 62.4 million Muslims in Turkey\n 284.4 million Muslims in the Arab League including Iraq (with about 15 million Shia, 60% of the population)\n 254.0 Muslims in Sub-Saharan Africa\n 65.4 million Muslims (90% Shia) in Iran\n 48.5 million Muslims in Central Asia - in Azerbaijan, Uzebekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan - formerly republics of the Soviet Union.\n 26.7 million Muslims in Russia\n 22.7 million Muslims in Afghanistan\n 230.0 million Muslims in Pakistan and Bangladesh (formerly East Bengal provincial region).\n 133.3 million Muslims in India (included Jammu and Kashmir) - the world's largest minority population\n 133.1 million Muslims in China - a close second\n 34.6 million Muslims in Somalia\n 196.3 million Muslims in Indonesia\n 30.0 million Muslims in the rest of South-East Asia, especially Malaysia\n few or none in Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Mongolia, or the South Pacific\n\n 1.5 billion people total\n\nMedia \nThe Al-Jazeera satellite TV network in the Arabic language is a news source many Muslims watch.\n\nIn most Muslim nations, the government is the main source of news. This sometimes makes it very difficult or dangerous to make anti-government statements.\n\nThere are, however, many other news programmes and websites in the Muslim world.\n\nIslam in law and ethics \nIslamic law exists in many variations - in Arabic it is called shariah - five schools of which were created centuries ago. These are the classical fiqh: the Hanafi school from India, Pakistan and Bangaladesh, West Africa, Egypt, the Maliki in North Africa and West Africa, the Shafi in Malaysia and Indonesia, the Hanbali in Arabia, and Jaferi in Iran and Iraq - where the majority is Shia. All five are very old and many Muslims feel a new fiqh must be created for modern society. Islam has a method for doing this, al-urf and ijtihad are the words to describe this method, but they have not been used in a long time, and few people are trusted enough to use them to make new laws.\n\nSo, in most of the Muslim world, people are very conservative, especially about alcohol, adultery, abortion and women working in jobs where they are used to lure customers.\n\nMuslim women often dress extremely modestly, and many do so by choice. But in some countries they have been forced to do so against their will. This is one of the things that causes tension between the Western World and that of Muslims.\n\nIslamic economics bans debt but in most Muslim countries Western banking is allowed. This is another issue that many Muslims have with the Western world.\n\nIslam in politics \nOne quarter of the world population share Islam as an ethical tradition. \n\nMany people in these countries also see Islam as a political movement. In democratic countries there is usually at least one Islamic party.\n\nPolitical Islam is powerful in all Muslim-majority countries. Islamic parties in Pakistan and Algeria have taken power. \n\nMany in these movements call themselves Islamists, which also sometimes describes more militant Islamic groups. The relationships between these groups and their views of democracy are complex.\n\nSome of these groups are called terrorists because they attack civilians of other non-Muslim nations, to make a political point.\n\nConflicts with Israel and the US \nIsrael is very unpopular in the Muslim world, because of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the way that the state of Israel came into being in 1948 which many Arabs thought was unfair.\n\nSome Muslims see this as a fight against Judaism or Jews, but not all. In Morocco for instance, the Islamists recently invited Jews to join the party. Jewish groups also cooperate with Arabs in the West Bank, where Neturei Karta (anti-Zionist orthodox Jewish) leader Rabbi Mosche Hirsch served as the Minister for Jewish Affairs in the Fatah before there was a Palestinian Authority. Like the Arabs, this small group of Jews thought the way Israel was created was not right. However, very few Jews believe this, and most support Israel as a state.\n\nIn 1979 there was a big shift in the way the Muslim world dealt with the rest of the world. In that year, Egypt made peace with Israel, Iran became an Islamic state after a revolution, and there was an invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union. A lot of things changed in that year. By 2001 the Soviet Union was gone, Jordan had also made peace with Israel, and on September 11, 2001 there were major attacks on the U.S. - which most people believe were made to drive the United States out of the Muslim world, especially Saudi Arabia. In many ways the events of 1979 led to the events of 2001.\n\nThe 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and 2003 invasion of Iraq are called part of a War on Terrorism by the United States. Many or most Muslims see it as a War on Islam. After the invasion, the Islamic parties won more seats, and a majority of Muslims polled in many nations expressed support for Osama bin Laden and said he would \"do the right thing\". Olivier Roy is a French scholar who thinks that this does not express support for al-Qaeda or militant Islam but opposing colonialism and what many Muslims call racism - favourable treatment for Jews especially those living in West Bank settlements, many of whom have American or British passport, and which the United Nations says have no right to live there.\n\nThe situation is very complicated and there are many different views of it.\n\nOrganization \nThe Organization of Islamic Conference formed in 1969 lets the Muslim nations work as a group. Russia joined in 2003.\n\nThe Arab League is a smaller group of only the Arab countries.\n\nOPEC is another forum where issues between the Muslim and non-Muslim world come up. In 1973 to protest U.S. support for Israel there was an oil embargo which caused the 1973 energy crisis.\n\nRelated pages\nHistory of Islam\nHajj\n\nWorld","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":4,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":485,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Islamic%20world","title":"Islamic world","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A biennial plant is a flowering plant that takes two years to complete its lifecycle. In the first year the plant grows leaves, stems, and roots (vegetative structures); then it enters a period of dormancy over the colder months. Usually, the stem remains very short and the leaves are low to the ground, forming a rosette. Many biennials require a cold treatment, before they will flower. The next spring\/summer the stem of the biennial plant becomes much longer. The plant then flowers, produces fruits and seeds before it finally dies. There are far fewer biennials than either perennials or annuals.\n\nUnder extreme climatic conditions, a biennial plant may complete its lifecycle in a very short period of time (e.g. 3 or 4 months instead of 2 years). This is quite common in vegetable or flower seedlings that were exposed to cold conditions, before they were planted in the ground. This behaviour leads to many normally biennial plants being treated as annuals in some areas.\nFlowering can be induced in some biennials by application of the plant hormone gibberellin, but this is rarely done commercially.\n\nFrom a gardener's perspective, a plant's status as annual, biennial, or perennial often varies based on location or purpose. Biennials grown for flowers, fruits, or seeds need to be grown for two years. Biennials that are grown for edible leaves or roots are grown as annuals, e.g. beets, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrots, celery, parsley, and Swiss chard. If a normally biennial plant is grown in extremely harsh conditions, it is likely to be treated as an annual because it will not survive the winter cold. Conversely, an annual grown under extremely favourable conditions may have highly successful seed propagation, giving it the appearance of being biennial or perennial. Some short-lived perennials may appear to be biennial rather than perennial. True biennials flower only once, while many perennials will flower every year once mature.\n\nExamples of biennial plants are parsley, Lunaria, silverbeet, sweet William, colic weed, and carrot. The pansy is a biennial often grown as an annual. Plant breeders have produced annual cultivars of several biennials that will flower the first year from seed, e.g. foxglove, stock, and hollyhock.\n\nBiennials may be kept alive longer than two years under environmental conditions that prevent them from flowering. Biennial sugar beet was prevented from flowering by not giving it the cold treatment required for flowering. It was kept alive in a greenhouse for 41 months.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Plant life cycles \n\nTypes of plants\n\nhe:\u05d1\u05d5\u05d8\u05e0\u05d9\u05e7\u05d4 - \u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d7\u05d9\u05dd#\u05e6\u05d5\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea \u05d7\u05d9\u05d9\u05dd \u05e9\u05dc \u05e6\u05de\u05d7\u05d9\u05dd","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":62115,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biennial%20plant","title":"Biennial plant","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Arctic is the area around the Earth's North Pole. The Arctic includes parts of Russia, Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Lapland and Svalbard as well as the Arctic Ocean.  It is an ocean, mostly covered with ice.  Most scientists call the area north of the treeline Arctic. Trees will not grow when the temperatures get too cold. The forests of the continents end in the far north or high up a mountain. The place where in the trees stop is called the tree line.\n\nThe area north of the treeline is not an empty ice field. In fact, the only large ice-covered land is central Greenland, which is covered year-round by a continental glacier. The land of the Arctic is around the edges of the Arctic Circle and is usually covered with tundra.  A tundra is a cold, almost treeless plain covered with moss and sedges (grasslike plants).\n\nTundras get little rain or snow. However, they are very wet in the summer time because, three feet (1m) or so below the surface, the ground is always frozen. This permafrost is a layer of ice with the hardness of stone that keeps water from soaking into the earth beneath it. Permafrost can be thousands of feet thick. In the summer the ground on top thaws out when the sun shines and the snow that did fall melts. But the melted snow cannot drain into the ground; it just soaks the topsoil. There is no place for the water to go, except to form lakes and puddles on top of the ground until it freezes again or dries up.\n\nIn the Arctic, during summer there are nights when the Sun never sets. This is because during summer there, the North Pole points toward the Sun. So, sometimes people call it the Land of the Midnight Sun.\n\nThe word 'Arctic' comes from the Greek word \u03b1\u03c1\u03ba\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, meaning \"bear\". The North Pole aims at the stars called the Great Bear and the Little Bear.\n\nPlant life \nIn some parts of the Arctic the ground is covered with bright-colored flowers during the short summer. These little plants have very short stems. They must stay close to the ground, because the earth is warmer than the biting winds that blow above it. Even some rocks have plants growing on them. These rock plants are called lichens. Lichens grows on bare rocks. Yellow reindeer moss is really a lichen. It grows slowly, but often grows over six inches (15\u00a0cm) tall. It is spongy and full of water. This plant is the summer food for reindeer.\n\nTrees are rare on the tundra.  Only in the protected valleys or along the riverbanks are small trees able to grow.  Rivers come into the Arctic from the warmer south.  The places along their banks are a little bit warmer than the rest of the tundra, and trees can grow there.  Otherwise only a few clusters of bushes grow sparingly.  Berries are the only fruit that grows in the Arctic.\n\nEach summer the ice and snow melt, allowing the animals to find food and the plants to flower. The moisture from the snow stays near the top of the ground's surface. Plant roots can use it for their growth. Even so, in many places the soil is too poor for plant's growth. Less than half of the tundra has plants growing on it.\n\nAnimal life \nThe polar bear is the world's largest meat-eating land animal. Polar bears are well adapted to hunt seals out on the ice. They are excellent swimmers, and the coldest water does not bother them. They wait by breathing holes if they pick up the scent of a seal. They can also break through the ice at thin areas. Sometimes they can sneak up on a sleeping seal. They have a very strong sense of smell, which they use to find prey out on the ice. Polar bears get most of their food when there is pack ice. They must eat and store fat before the ice is gone: they cannot catch seals in open water. After mating, females dig themselves into a den of snow on land for the rest of the winter. There, they have their cubs, usually twins. Bears usually eat fish, birds' eggs, seaweed, and dead whales, but they would rather have a meal of seal or walrus.\n\nThe Arctic fox often trails the bears onto the ice to eat their leftover food. The fox also eats rabbits, lemmings, and voles.\nThe lemmings and voles are the rodents of the Arctic. The lemmings have very short tails. They live underground in summer. Because the top soil freezes in the winter, they cannot burrow underground then, so they live under the snow during the colder months. They eat plants and roots. In a year with plenty of food, millions of lemmings will be roaming the tundra. The owls and foxes have more food than they can eat. They have more young in years when there are many lemmings. However, the tundra does not have enough food for millions of lemmings. They rush across the tundra looking for food, and are eaten by predators or starve to death. Some try to swim across lakes or rivers and drown. The few that remain continue to have families.\n\nCaribou and their relative, the reindeer, also live in the Arctic. The caribou are now found mostly in North America, and they are larger than the reindeer. Large herds feed on the grass and lichens. When fall comes, they move south to winter feeding grounds. They dig through the snow with their sharp hoofs for food. Their hollow fur creates a cushion of air around them that helps them to stay warm. In the spring they return north to the summer pastures, where their calves are born. An hour or so after being born, the calves are able to follow the herd toward the Arctic Ocean. Most of the world's reindeer live in Europe and Asia. Some of these reindeer are not wild. They have been tamed by herdsmen who protect them from wolves and lead the migrations each spring and fall. Also, the musk ox, which looks like a shaggy buffalo, lives in the Arctic.\n\nIn summer, many birds visit the Arctic, and most of them are water birds, such as geese, ducks, swans, loons, and Arctic terns. Flying in for the summer, they raise their young and return south for the winter. The snowy owl and the ptarmigan stay all year. The color of the snowy owl matches the snow. The ptarmigan's summer plumage changes to white when it gets colder.\n\nThe smallest animals of the Arctic are the flies and the mosquitoes. Thick swarms  bite both men and animals in the summer. The reindeer try to escape the mosquitoes by running to higher pastures, but the only real help comes with the snow and cold, when the swarms die off for another season.\n\nHuman life \nOne of the surprises of the Arctic is that many people live there. Some people have lived there for thousands of years. Eskimo and Lapp people lived in the Arctic long before electric heaters, snow-mobiles, and modern houses.\n\nThe Lapps \n\nIn an extremely northern part of Europe there is a place called Lapland. It is not a country, but parts of four countries. The people who lived there are called Lapps by outsiders. They call themselves Sami. The Lapps of these four countries lived there long before the countries of Northway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia were created. There were several kinds of Lapp people. Some lived by the ocean and lived mostly on fish. Another group lived along the warmer rivers. These people did a little farming, hunting, and fishing to live.\n\nBut the best known of the Lapp people were the nomads who raised reindeer. The Lapps survived in their harsh homeland by domesticating the reindeer. The Lapps were able to get everything they needed from the deer. They ate mostly meat, milk, and cheese. Their clothes were made from reindeer skins and wool. Their tents were also made from deer skins. They are known for the beautifully decorated woollen clothing they made.\n\nThe Lapps protected the herds, moving with them as they migrated from summer to winter pastures. They used trained reindeer to pull sleds carrying their supplies. During the winter, the herds moved south of the treeline. The Lapps would live nearby in homes made of logs or sod. The Lapps were very careful not to waste anything they got from the reindeer. Milk was taken from the reindeer to drink or make cheese. Meat was taken for food. The blood was frozen in chunks and used for soup and pancakes. Knives and belt buckles were carved from the bones and antlers. The sinews were used as sewing thread. Cleaned-out stomachs were used to carry milk or cheese. Every part of a dead reindeer was used.\n\nWinter clothing was made from layers of deer skin. The inside layer would be worn with the fur facing in toward the person's skin. The second layer was worn with the fur facing out. Boots were also made of fur, lined with grass that had been gathered during the short summer. Every evening the grass would be taken out and dried by the fire, so it would be ready to use again the next day. Thus, a Lapp could be warm and comfortable in even the coldest weather.\n\nToday only a few of the Lapp people still follow the herds. Those few use modern tools on their ancient migration. They use snowmobiles to herd the reindeer and rifles to kill the wolves that chase them. Even helicopters and radios are used to locate and move the reindeer. Most of the Lapp people now live on small farms in one of the four nations of Lapland. They raise crops and animals, including a few reindeer, to meet their needs. The sale of reindeer meat is an important source of income for the Lapp people.\n\nEskimos \n\nEskimos are Arctic people, too. They sometimes ate raw meat. Eskimos were also nomads, but they did not have any animals except for dogs, which they used for pulling their sleds and helping them hunt. They were hunters and gatherers, and they lived off on whatever they found or killed. Like the Lapps, though, they were very careful to make good use of every part of the animals they killed. Eskimos lived in tents during the summer, and sod houses or igloos in the winter. The Eskimos made very clever things from the bones, antlers, and wood they had.  They built different kinds of boats.\n\nEskimos did not have a government or laws. They learned early in life to help each other to survive. Always sharing food, they usually moved around in small groups looking for food. Sometimes they'd get together in a large group when they hunted big animals such as whales. The men did the hunting and building the homes, and the women cooked, made the clothes, and took care of the children.\n\nThe Arctic today \nThe Arctic region has many minerals that are important to people. Iron, lead, coal, copper, gold, and tin are all mined in different parts of this cold land. Large amounts of petroleum have been discovered in the Arctic in Russia, Alaska, and Canada. People live and work in the Arctic to remove these valuable minerals and sell them.\n\nThe oil in Alaska, for example, is very important to the United States. The main source is the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field on Alaska's north coast. It was discovered in 1968. Plans were quickly made to build a pipeline to bring the oil to an ice-free port so it could be shipped south. Oil companies spent billions of dollars to build the Trans-Alaska Pipeline in the mid-1970s. It had to be built above the ground in the northern section because of the permafrost. The warm oil in the pipes could have melted the permafrost and caused the ground to sink. That would have broken the pipes and caused an oil spill. The pipeline was completed in 1977. It brings oil to the seaport of Valdez on Alaska's south coast. From there the oil is taken by huge tankers to refineries along the west coast of the United States. If you live in western America, your family car may have Alaskan gasoline in its tank.\n\nRussia has more land in the Arctic than any other nation. The Russian Arctic in Asia and the area just south of it are called Siberia. It is such an empty, harsh place that it has been used as a penal colony for many years. The old Russian rulers and the modern communist Soviets would send criminals and people who disagreed with the government to live there. However, many people were also sent there to remove minerals, harvest trees from forests, and build cities.\n\nRussia has a huge port city right in Lapland, within the Arctic Circle. Murmansk is the largest city north of the Arctic Circle. The port is kept ice-free by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream coming up around Norway and Sweden from the South Atlantic. Huge icebreakers work to keep a path open so ships can reach the port. The port ships out fish, minerals, and lumber to Russia and the rest of the world.\n\nThe Arctic is also the shortest way (Great circle route) for airlines to fly between some cities on different continents. The flight from London to Tokyo, for example, is 1,400 miles shorter if flown across the top of the world instead of the old route south across Europe and Asia. The polar route from San Francisco to Norway is several hours shorter than the same flight going across the United States and the Pacific Ocean.\n\nThus, man is making use of the Arctic in various ways even though it is a hard place to live.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":4,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":3637,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arctic","title":"Arctic","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Baltistan (), also known as \u0628\u0644\u062a\u06cc\u0648\u0644 (Baltiyul) in the Balti language, is a region in northern Pakistan. It borders Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China.  It lies in the Karakoram mountains just to the south of K2, the world's second highest mountain.  It is an extremely mountainous region, with an average altitude of over 3,350 m (11,000 ft). It is inhabited principally by Balti Shi'a Muslims of Tibetan descent who converted from Tibetan Buddhism before the 16th century.\n\nBaltistan was an independent state but was occupied by the Raja (King) of Kashmir in the nineteenth century.  In 1947 when India and Pakistan gained independence, it was still part of Kashmir. Now the region is divided between Pakistan and India.  \n\nThe elections on 12 November 2009 brought about a major change and upheaval in the Baltistan region, which had been once an area ruled by a feudal Raja and then an area under Pakistani military control. It is believed that democracy in the region will also help to bring about more economic development and public empowerment.\n\nRelated pages \n Ladakh\n\nOther websites \n\n The Changing Northern Areas \n Pakistan's Northern Areas dilemma\n Tourism Northeran Areas\n Pakistan's Northern Areas \n\nRegions of Pakistan\nGilgit-Baltistan","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":143947,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Baltistan","title":"Baltistan","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Ch\u00e2teau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye () is a former royal palace in the commune of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, in the d\u00e9partement of Yvelines, about 19\u00a0km west of Paris, France. Today, it houses the mus\u00e9e d'Arch\u00e9ologie nationale (National Museum of Archaeology).\n\nHistory\n\n12th\u201313th centuries \n\nThe first castle, named the Grand Ch\u00e2telet, was built on the site by Louis VI in 1124. The castle was expanded by Louis IX in the 1230s.\n\nLouis IX's chapelle Saint Louis at the castle belongs to the Rayonnant phase of French Gothic architecture. A 1238 charter of Louis IX instituting a regular religious service at the chapel is the first mention of a chapel having been built at the royal castle. This was a Sainte Chapelle, to house a relic of the Crown of Thorns or the True Cross. Its plan and architecture prefigure the major Sainte-Chapelle which Saint Louis built within the Palais de la Cit\u00e9 at Paris between 1240 and 1248. Both buildings were built by Louis's favourite architect Pierre de Montreuil, who adapted the architectural formulae invented at Saint Germain for use in Paris. A single nave ends in a chevet, with almost all the wall areas filled by tall narrow glass windows, between which are large exterior buttresses. The ogives of the vault rest on columns between the bays and the column bases are placed behind a low isolated arcade. The building can thus be open and empty of all internal supports. This large number of windows is also enabled by the pierre arm\u00e9e technique, with metal elements built into the structure of the walls to ensure the stones' stability. The west wall is adorned by a large Gothic rose window in the Rayonnant Gothic style. It was in this chapel in 1238 that Baldwin II of Constantinople presented Louis with the relic of the crown of thorns and, though they were intended for the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, they were housed here until the Paris chapel was consecrated in April 1248.\n\nThe castle was burned by the Black Prince in 1346; of it, only the Gothic chapel remains from the site's medieval phase. This Ch\u00e2teau Vieux was rebuilt by Charles V in the 1360s on the old foundations.\n\n16th\u201318th centuries  \n\nThe oldest parts of the current ch\u00e2teau were reconstructed by Francis I in 1539, and have subsequently been expanded several times. On 10 July 1547 a political rivalry came to a head in a bloody game here. Against the odds, Guy Chabot, 7th baron de Jarnac triumphed over Fran\u00e7ois de Vivonne, seigneur de la Chasteigneraie, giving rise to the coup de Jarnac.\n\nHenry II built a separate new ch\u00e2teau nearby, to designs by Philibert de l'Orme. It stood at the crest of a slope, which was shaped, under the direction of \u00c9tienne du P\u00e9rac into three massive descending terraces and narrower subsidiary mediating terraces, which were linked by divided symmetrical stairs and ramps and extended a single axis that finished at the edge of the Seine; the design took many cues from the Villa Lante at Bagnaia. \"\u00c9tienne du P\u00e9rac had spent a long time in Italy, and one manifestation of his interest in gardens of this type is his well-known view of the Villa d'Este, engraved in 1573.\"\n\nThe gardens laid out at Saint-Germain-en-Laye were among a half-dozen gardens introducing the Italian garden style to France that laid the groundwork for the French formal garden. Unlike the parterres that were laid out in casual relation to existing ch\u00e2teaux, often on difficult sites originally selected for defensive reasons,\nthese new gardens extended the central axis of a symmetrical building fa\u00e7ade in rigorously symmetrical axial designs of patterned parterres, gravel walks, fountains and basins, and formally planted bosquets; they began the tradition that reached its apex after 1650 in the gardens of Andr\u00e9 Le N\u00f4tre.  According to Claude Mollet's Th\u00e9\u00e2tre des plans et jardinage the parterres were laid out in 1595 for Henry IV by Mollet, trained at Anet and the progenitor of a dynasty of royal gardeners. One of the parterre designs by Mollet at Saint-Germain-en-Laye was illustrated in Olivier de Serres'  (1600), but the Ch\u00e2teau Neuf and the whole of its spectacular series of terraces can be fully seen in an engraving after Alexandre Francini, 1614.\n\nLouis XIV was born at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1638.  One of du P\u00e9rac's retaining walls collapsed in 1660, and Louis undertook a renovation of the gardens in 1662. At his majority he established his court here in 1666, but he preferred the Ch\u00e2teau Vieux: the Ch\u00e2teau Neuf was abandoned in the 1660s and demolished. From 1663 until 1682, when the king removed definitively to Versailles, the team that he inherited from the unfortunate Nicolas Fouquet\u2014Louis Le Vau, Jules Hardouin-Mansart and Andr\u00e9 Le N\u00f4tre laboured to give the ancient pile a more suitable aspect.\n\nThe gardens were remade by Andr\u00e9 Le N\u00f4tre from 1669 to 1673, and include a 2.4\u00a0kilometre long stone terrace which provides a view over the valley of the Seine and, in the distance, Paris.\n\nLouis XIV turned the ch\u00e2teau over to King James II of England after his exile from Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. King James lived in the ch\u00e2teau for thirteen years, and his daughter Louise-Marie Stuart was born in exile here in 1692. King James lies buried in the nearby Church of Saint-Germain; his wife Mary of Modena remained at the ch\u00e2teau until her death in 1718.  Their son James left the ch\u00e2teau in 1716, ultimately settling in Rome.  Many Jacobites\u2014supporters of the exiled Stuarts\u2014remained at the ch\u00e2teau until the French Revolution, leaving in 1793. The Jacobites often consisted of former members of the Jacobite court, and the apartments left empty in the ch\u00e2teau by the Jacobite court pensioners upon their death, were often passed down to their widows and children by the caretaker of the ch\u00e2teau, Adrien Maurice, 3rd Duke of Noailles. The Jacobite colony at Saint-Germain was still dominant in the 1750s, when they were however treated with increasing hostility. After the death of the Duke de Noailles in 1766, who had been responsible for the continuing Jacobite dominance because of his preference to give rooms to Jacobites, the British dominance quickly decreased and more French inhabitants were given lodgings in the ch\u00e2teau: the last member of the Stuart court was Theresa O'Connel, who died in 1778. The last descendants of the British Jacobites, by then mostly bearing French names, were evicted when the building was confiscated by the government during the French revolution in 1793.\n\n19th\u201321st centuries \nIn the 19th century, Napoleon I established his cavalry officers' training school here. Napoleon III initiated restoration of the castle by Eug\u00e8ne Millet, starting in 1862. It became the Mus\u00e9e des Antiquit\u00e9s Nationales (National Museum of Antiquities) in 1867, displaying the archeological objects of France. Auguste Lafollye took over responsibility for the restoration on Millet's death in 1879, continuing until 1889. His goal, and that of his successor Honor\u00e9 Daumet, was to restore the French Renaissance style of Francis I.\n\nOn September 10, 1919 the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, ending hostilities between the Allies of World War I and Austria, was signed at the ch\u00e2teau.\n\nDuring the German occupation (1940\u201344), the ch\u00e2teau served as the headquarters of the German Army in France.\n\nThe museum was renamed the Mus\u00e9e d'Arch\u00e9ologie Nationale in 2005. Its collections include finds from Paleolithic to Merovingian times.\n\nGallery\n\nNotes\n\nExternal links\n\n  (French version of page also includes the history of the Ch\u00e2teau)\n The Ch\u00e2teau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, National Museum of Archaeology - The official website of France  \n  \"St-Germain-en-Laye: un haut lieu de la royaut\u00e9 \n Discover the Castle of Saint-Germain-en-Laye on Eurochannel\n\nBuildings and structures completed in 1124\n12th-century fortifications\nHouses completed in 1539\nSaint-Germain-En-Laye\nSaint-Germain-En-Laye\nAncien R\u00e9gime French architecture\nCh\u00e2teaux with Renaissance gardens in France\nCh\u00e2teaux with formal gardens in France\nRenaissance architecture in France\nMuseums in Yvelines\n1539 establishments in France\nR\u00e9union des Mus\u00e9es Nationaux \nTourist attractions in Yvelines\nFrancis I of France\nJames II of England\nMary of Modena\nSaint-Germain-en-Laye","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":5,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2}},"id":6227909,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Saint-Germain-en-Laye","title":"Ch\u00e2teau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Wehrmacht was the name of the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. The Wehrmacht consisted of the Heer (army), the Kriegsmarine (navy) and the Luftwaffe (air force).\n\nThe Waffen-SS, an initially small armed section of Heinrich Himmler's Allgemeine SS that grew to nearly a million strong during World War II, was not part of the Wehrmacht, but subject to its Supreme Command.\n\nOrigin and use of the terms \nBefore the rise of the NSDAP, the term Wehrmacht was used in a generic sense to describe armed forces of any nation, being utilized as the \"home defence\" version of the more general Streitmacht. For example, the term Britische Wehrmacht would identify the British armed forces. Article 47 of the Weimar Constitution of 1919 declared \"Der Reichspr\u00e4sident hat den Oberbefehl \u00fcber die gesamte Wehrmacht des Reiches\" (meaning: \"The Reichspr\u00e4sident holds supreme command of all armed forces of the Reich\"). To make a distinction, the term Reichswehr was commonly used to identify the German armed forces.\n\nIn 1935, the Reichswehr was renamed Wehrmacht. After World War II and under the Allied occupation of Germany, the Wehrmacht was abolished.\n\nToday the term Wehrmacht refers to Germany's armed forces during the Nazi Germany era and World War II, both in German and English. Note: The Wehrmacht was not only the army (Wehrmacht Heer). Wehrmacht vehicles used by Heer, Luftwaffe or Kriegsmarine had license plates with WH, WL or WM.\n\nHistory \nWorld War I ended with the armistice (ceasefire) of 11 November 1918. The armed forces were called Friedensheer (peace army) in January 1919. In March 1919, the national assemby passed a law founding a 420,000 strong preliminary army as Vorl\u00e4ufige Reichswehr. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were announced in May and, in June, Germany was forced to sign the contract. Among other terms, the army was limited to one hundred thousand men with fifteen thousand more in the navy. Tanks and heavy artillery were forbidden and the air force was dissolved. A new post-war military (the Reichswehr) was established on 23 March 1921.\n\nGermany immediately found ways not to keep to these conditions. A secret collaboration with the Soviet Union began after the treaty of Rapallo. Germany helped the Soviet Union with industrialisation and Soviet officers were to be trained in Germany. German tank and air force specialists could exercise in the Soviet Union. German chemical weapons research and manufacture would be done there, plus other projects. Around three hundred German pilots received training at Lipetsk, some tank training took place near Kazan and toxic gas was developed at Saratov for the German army.\n\nAfter the death of President Paul von Hindenburg on 2 August 1934, Hitler assumed the office of Reichspr\u00e4sident, and thus became commander in chief. All officers and soldiers of the German armed forces had to swear a personal oath of loyalty to the F\u00fchrer, as  Adolf Hitler now was called. By 1935, Germany was openly breaking the military restrictions of the Versailles Treaty, and conscription was reintroduced on 16 March 1935.\n\nThe size of the standing army remained at about the 100,000-man mark decreed by the treaty, but a new group of conscripts equal to this size would receive training each year. The conscription law formalized the name Wehrmacht.  The existence of the Wehrmacht was officially announced on 15 October 1935 under Nazi authority. The insignia was a simpler version of the Iron Cross (the straight-armed so-called Balkenkreuz or beamed cross). This had been used as an aircraft and tank marking late in World War I.\n\nWar years\n\nArmy \nThe German Army (Wehrmacht) entered the war with a minority of its formations motorized; infantry remained approximately 90% foot-borne throughout the war, and artillery primarily horse-drawn. The motorized formations received much attention in the world press in the opening years of the war, and were cited as the reason for the success of the German invasions of Poland (September 1939), Norway (April 1940), Denmark, Belgium, France and Netherlands (May 1940), Yugoslavia (April 1941) and the early campaigns in the Soviet Union (June 1941).\n\nWith the entry of the United States in December 1941, the Wehrmacht found itself engaged in ground campaigns against two major industrial powers. At this critical juncture, Hitler assumed personal control of the Wehrmacht high command, and his personal failings as a military commander arguably contributed to major defeats in the spring of 1943, at Stalingrad and Tunis in North Africa.\n\nAir Force \nThe German Air Force (Luftwaffe), led by Hermann G\u00f6ring, contributed many units of ground forces to the war in Russia as well as the Normandy front. In 1940, the Fallschirmj\u00e4ger paratroops conquered the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael and took part in the airborne invasion of Norway, but after suffering heavy losses in the Battle of Crete, large scale airdrops were discontinued. Operating as ordinary infantry, the 1st Fallschirmj\u00e4ger Division took part in the Battle of Monte Cassino.\n\nNavy \nThe German Navy (Kriegsmarine) played a major role in the Second World War as control over the commerce routes in the Atlantic was crucial for Germany, Britain and later the Soviet Union. In the Battle of the Atlantic, the initially successful German U-boat fleet arm was eventually defeated due to Allied technological advances like sonar, radar, and the breaking of the Enigma code. Large surface vessels were few in number due to construction limitations by international treaties prior to 1935. The \"pocket battleships\" Admiral Graf Spee and Admiral Scheer were important as commerce raiders only in the opening year of the war. No aircraft carrier was operational as German leadership lost interest in the Graf Zeppelin which had been launched in 1938. Following the loss of Bismarck in 1941, with Allied air superiority threatening the remaining battlecruisers in French Atlantic harbours, the ships were ordered to go back to German ports.\n\nWaffen-SS \nAlthough the Waffen-SS was not technically a part of the Wehrmacht, they were under the control of the Wehrmacht High Command during World War 2. They were considered as elite troops, and suffered heavy losses (more than the normal army).\n\nWar crimes \n\nThe Wehrmacht was used as a tool of state policy in the Second World War, for both military and political aims. There is considerable controversy over the allegations that the Wehrmacht was found to be significantly rather than incidentally involved in the Holocaust, especially because the elements of the SS involved in the Holocaust were not the Waffen-SS and not under the control of the OKW or field commanders. The Wehrmacht ordered and participated in massacres of civilians for reprisals, executions of prisoners of war, summary executions of Soviet political officers and executions of military and civilian hostages as punishment for partisan activities in occupied territories.However, the oft-repeeated claim of breaking the Geneva convention by its treatment of Russian prisoners of war is not correct. Common Clause 2 of the Geneva Convention states that the treatment requirements apply where both parties are signatories of the Conventions. The Germans were signatories, The Russians refused to sign.\n\nRelated pages\n Afrika Korps\n Waffen-SS\n World War II\n\nReferences \n\n Max Hastings, Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for Normandy 1944, 1985, reissued 1999, Pan, \n Max Hastings, Armageddon: The Battle for Germany 1945, 2004, Macmillan, \n Anthony A Evans, World War II: An Illustrated Miscellany, 2005, Worth Press, \n Geoffrey P. Megargee, \"War of Annihilation. Combat and Genocide on the Eastern Front, 1941\", 2006, Rowman & Littelefield, \n W.J.K. Davies, German Army Handbook, 1973, Ian Allen Ltd., Shepperton, Surrey, \n Fest, Joachim; Plotting Hitler's Death\u2014The Story of the German Resistance, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1996.\n\nOther websites \n\n Extensive history and information about German armed forces from 1919 to 1945\n Archives of the German military manuals including secret manuals of Enigma and Cryptography\n The Wehrmacht, the Holocaust, and War Crimes \n The Wehrmacht: A Criminal Organization? A review of Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann work on the subject\n\nNazi Germany\nGerman military organizations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":134,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":63499,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wehrmacht","title":"Wehrmacht","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A producer is something or somebody that creates one thing or one being.\n\nEntertainment producers \nIn the entertainment industry, a producer is a person who makes things happen. The producer is of the person in charge of providing the money and hire people to do the job. It is also the job of the producer to deal with getting whatever is being made out to the public. A movie producer must find people to provide money to make the movie, hire the main actors and director for the movie, and get the movie distributed so that people can see it. Producers are commonly found dealing with movies, television, and music.\n\nExecutive producer \nIn large entertainment companies, the title of executive producer is often given to people who provide a large amount of money to get something created. Other executive producers speak for the CEO of the company on how the movie or television program is made.\n\nIn smaller companies, especially for television series, the executive producer is often the creator of the series. Main writers who have been with the series for a long time are often given the title of executive producer.\n\nEntertainment occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":4,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":45039,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Producer","title":"Producer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Haber process or the Haber-Bosch process is a chemical reaction that uses nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas to create the chemical compound ammonia. The Haber process uses temperatures ranging from 400\u00b0C to 450\u00b0C under a pressure of 200 atm. The Haber process uses a catalyst mostly made up of iron.\n\nHistory\n\nThe Haber process is named after the German scientist Fritz Haber. Haber was the first person to successfully complete the process. In 1909, Haber's process could produce about one cup of ammonia every two hours. Carl Bosch helped to develop the Haber process for industry. In 1913, the German company BASF started using the Haber process to make ammonia. During World War I, the Haber process was used to make explosives. The Germans kept this a secret until after the war. In 1918, Haber won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and in 1931, Bosch also shared a Nobel Prize.\n\nThe Haber process is still important today because it produces ammonia, which is needed for fertilizer and for many other purposes. The Haber process produces about 500 million tons (453 billion kilograms) of fertilizer every year. This fertilizer helps to feed about 40% of the world's population.\n\nThe process \n\nThe gases for the Haber process must be prepared before changing them into ammonia. After that is done, ammonia is created by using magnetite (iron oxide) as the catalyst:\n\nN2 + 3H2  2NH3\n\nIn this process, only about 15% of the nitrogen and hydrogen is changed into ammonia. However, the unused nitrogen and hydrogen is recycled. Overall, 98% of nitrogen and hydrogen can be changed into ammonia.\n\nReferences\n\n.\n\nChemical processes\nPhysical chemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":232357,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haber%20process","title":"Haber process","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Honour, spelt honor in the United States, is the idea of the trustworthiness and social status of a person by the society, by judgement of his actions. The idea of honour, like most cultural things, is very different from place to place, and through time. In Europe in the Middle Ages, honour took form in the code of Chivalry. In Japan, a similar thing happened with Bushido. As time passed, the honour of a gentleman and his family was generally expressed in the practice of duelling. The idea has declined in modern times, but still exists, mostly as an approval of one's actions by the society.\n\nRelated pages \nHonor killing\n\nVirtues\nSociety","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":191,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5}},"id":68939,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Honour","title":"Honour","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A logo is a picture or drawing that is used by a person, group, or company to mark who they are. A wordmark, or 'logotype', is a logo made entirely of a word or words. It is usually the name of a product or organisation.\n\nA company or group can use a 'logo' on the things that they make, like on the things they sell, on letters, and in advertisements. When a person sees the logo picture, that person knows that the thing they see the logo on came from that company.\n\nLogos can have letters and words in them. Many logos have the name of the company or group in them.\n\nMost logos are very simple drawings with only a small number of colors. Some logos are only in black and white.\n\nIn many countries, companies and groups should tell their country's government about the logo they are using. If they do this, the government can help stop a different company or group from using the same logo, so that every one can be sure that the logo is only used by the people who used it first. This is sometimes called a 'trade mark'.\n\nLogos are not used only by companies. Many schools have logos. Some cities have logos. Clubs can have logos. Even people can have their own logos if they want. The heraldic badge is probably the oldest form of logo in the world.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \nLogogram\n\nSymbols","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-18":3,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2024-30":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":4,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1}},"id":6078,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logo","title":"Logo","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Perseus \"Percy\" Jackson is the main character and narrator of Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson & the Olympians series. He is a demigod, meaning he is half-mortal and half god. His father is Poseidon, the god of the sea, and his mother is the mortal Sally Jackson.\n\nFirst introduced in The Lightning Thief as a troubled twelve-year old who finds out that he is a demigod, Percy goes on many adventures in the series to save his friends and the gods of Mount Olympus.\n\nPercy is played by Logan Lerman in the movie Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief and in Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters.\n\nPercy will be played by Walker Scobell in the TV series for Disney+.\n\nCharacter traits \nHe always tells horses, which his father is said to have created, not to call him \"boss\" or \"lord\" whenever they talk to him but does not get annoyed when Annabeth calls him \"seaweed-brain\". His fatal flaw is loyalty.  Percy, like most boys his age, has trouble talking to girls. Athena said that Percy's fatal flaw is personal loyalty. He will do anything to save his friends and loved ones. Kronos uses this flaw to control him several times in the series, such as when his mother is held hostage when Grover is trapped on Polyphemus' island, and when Annabeth is kidnapped.\n\nIn the books\n\nThe Lightning Thief \n\nPerseus \"Percy\" Jackson is introduced as a troubled 12-year-old boy who is a student with dyslexia, which makes it hard for him to read, and ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder), which makes it hard for him to pay attention. He has been kicked out of every single school he has gone to. He has just been kicked out of Yancy Academy in Upstate New York. He has few friends at the school, his best friend being Grover Underwood, a satyr (half human, half goat) disguised as a human.\n\nDuring a field trip to a museum, Percy is annoyed by the school bully,\u00a0Nancy Bobofit, for intimidating Grover and in a fit of rage, accidentally summons water from a nearby fountain to pull her in, but he didn't know how he did it.\u00a0Mrs. Dodds, his pre-algebra teacher, witnesses the whole scene and tells him to follow her into the museum for a \"talk.\" Suddenly, she turns into the\u00a0Fury\u00a0Alecto, and attacks him, looking like a bat-like figure with humongous fangs. Percy manages to destroy her using\u00a0Mr. Brunner's pen,\u00a0Riptide, that transforms into a sword in his hand. However, when Percy returns to the bus and asks his classmates, nobody remembers Mrs. Dodds because of a force known as the\u00a0Mist. The only person that may remember her was Grover, who always hesitated before he answered. Everybody else believed her name was Mrs. Kerr.\n\nPercy asks what just happened, and Mr. Brunner says he saw nothing and that Percy should bring his own things to write with in the future. Percy asks his classmates about it, but they act like there was never any \"Mrs. Dodds\". Percy sees that Grover is lying when he hesitates whenever Percy mentions \"Mrs. Dodds\". Percy overhears Grover and Mr. Brunner talking about him later in the school year. As he is going home on a bus with Grover, he sees three old ladies knitting a giant sock. Grover looks really worried about them. Percy leaves Grover at the bus stop and takes a taxi to his apartment on his own.\n\nHis mother arrives soon after he gets home and tells him that they can go to Montauk Beach for the entire weekend. Percy is happy that something good has finally happened and packs his things and leaves. At the beach, Percy wakes up in the middle of the night in a storm and is shocked to see Grover coming to him and his mom, telling them to leave. Percy is confused, but his mother takes them both in the car and drives quickly away.\n\nAfter hearing a growl behind them, his mom arrives at a hill and pushes both boys out of the car. Percy sees that the thing chasing them is a Minotaur, who charges them. Percy and his mom dodge it, but Grover is too slow and the Minotaur charges him. Percy manages to defeat the Minotaur, but not before it dissolves Percy's mother into light and sends her to the Underworld. Percy drags Grover up the hill to Camp Half-Blood, where Percy passes out on the doorway of the Big House.\n\nPercy learns that Camp Half-Blood is a place for demigods like him. He meets a future friend, Annabeth Chase. He learns that Mr. Brunner is actually the centaur (half human, half horse) Chiron, the camp's activity director. He also learns that the director of the camp is the god Dionysus. He is introduced to Luke Castellan, the leader of the Hermes cabin. Later, in a capture-the-flag game, Percy single-handed defeats Clarisse, leader of the Ares cabin, and three others when he healed his injuries in water. This is when he learned that he is the son of Poseidon as a holographic trident appears over his head. Soon after learning that Zeus's lightning bolt has been stolen, Percy embarks on his first and eventually successful quest along with Grover and Annabeth to retrieve it.\n\nThe Sea of Monsters \n\nThalia's tree, the magical border of Camp Half-Blood, has been poisoned. Chiron is blamed for the poisoning and is dismissed from camp; Tantalus, who comes from the Fields of Punishment and cannot have food or water, takes the job. The only thing able to rid the tree of its poison is the Golden Fleece, which is located on the island of Polyphemus (another son of Poseidon), in the Sea of Monsters (the Bermuda Triangle).\n\nClarisse, the daughter of Ares and longtime enemy of Percy, is given the quest to go into the Sea of Monsters to bring back the Golden Fleece, which has healing powers for plants, animals, and humans. Percy and Annabeth decide to go also, not just for the Golden Fleece, but for their friend Grover who is trapped in Polyphemus' cave. Tyson, a young Cyclops whom Percy befriended at school that year, joins them on their journey. Tyson is Poseidon's son and therefore Percy's half-brother.\n\nAs they enter the Sea of Monsters, they have to get past Scylla and Charybdis. Instead of trying to sail in between the two, Clarisse automatically goes for Charybdis and Tyson supposedly dies in Clarisse's ship after it sinks. After that, Percy and Annabeth journey to many dangerous islands, and Annabeth tells Percy many things about how Thalia died and she also mentions her prophecy and tells Percy that he has a choice to make when he becomes 16 years old. Fighting their way through many other obstacles, like the Sirens and Circe's island, they join up with Clarisse, Grover, and later Tyson (who did not die), and leave with the Golden Fleece.\n\nWhen they return to the mortal world, they send off Clarisse on an airplane to camp alone, and Percy, Annabeth, Grover, and Tyson are kidnapped by Luke. In a duel with him, Percy is nearly killed. He is saved by Chiron, who is proven innocent, and his relatives, the Party Ponies. When they return to camp the Fleece is put on the tree. The Fleece not only revives Thalia's tree, but Thalia too. It turns out that this was actually Kronos's plan, done so that he would have another chance to control the prophecy which governs the future of Olympus and the Olympians.\n\nAt the end Percy and Annabeth win a chariot race and Annabeth kisses Percy on the cheek and he liked it so he kissed her back.\n\nThe Titan's Curse \n\nIn the third book, Grover finds two demigods at a school, Bianca and Nico di Angelo. Percy, Grover, Thalia and two of Artemis' hunters, Zo\u00eb and Bianca (who later chose to become a hunter, upsetting Nico), are sent on a quest to save Artemis, who has been kidnapped. Percy is really going to save Annabeth, who was captured while they were saving the di Angelo's.\n\nDuring the journey, Percy meets a mortal girl at Hoover Dam, named Rachel Elizabeth Dare, who can see through the Mist. She helps him escape from skeletal warriors who were trying to attack Percy and his friends.\n\nWhile warning them about the junkyard of the gods, Aphrodite, goddess of love, tells Percy there is a romantic future waiting for him with Annabeth. Bianca is killed by a crazed robot in the junkyard of the gods while trying to get a figurine for her brother Nico. She said it was the only figurine he was missing in his collection. During the battle with Atlas, Zo\u00eb receives deadly injuries; she is poisoned by her old friend Ladon; her father, Atlas, makes the final strike that kills her and Atlas holds the burden of holding the sky again. Upon entering Olympus, the Gods decide whether to kill Thalia, Percy and Bessie (the ophiotaurus) who may hold the decision to tear down Olympus according to the Great Prophecy. Thalia becomes one of Artemis' hunters, eliminating her as a potential recipient of the Great Prophecy. In the end, the gods decide to leave Percy alive and keep the Ophiotaurus in safety at the throne room. Afterward, a feast is held in honor of the heroes and Athena tells Percy that she disapproves of his friendship with her daughter. At camp, Percy tells Nico about Bianca's death; he sprints into the woods. From then on, Nico hates Percy, blaming him for his sister's death. Annabeth, Percy and Grover search for Nico and cannot find him. Percy then holds the figurine of the god Bianca gave him at the junk yard. Suddenly, he realizes who Nico's father is: Hades, lord of the dead.\n\nThe Battle of the Labyrinth \n\nIn book four, the Labyrinth of Daedalus is discovered. Camp Half-Blood is in danger of being invaded by Kronos' army by means of the Labyrinth. Chiron sends Annabeth along with Percy, Grover, and Tyson into the Labyrinth on a quest to find Daedalus. In this, they hope to use his knowledge to help thwart any attacks that are carried out using the giant underground maze. They eventually find Daedalus, who has made himself a new body, and has disguised himself as the swordplay counselor.\nThere is a battle, as Kronos' army attacks Camp Half-Blood through the Labyrinth. Many are injured and some are left dead. Daedalus shows up to help along with his giant pet hellhound, Mrs. O'Leary. Daedalus has escaped death for centuries, but gives himself over to Nico di Angelo, a son of Hades, so he can accept his punishment in the Underworld and also so he can see his son Icarus and his nephew Perdix. Percy inherits Mrs. O'Leary; they have grown fond of each other. Percy and Annabeth's relationship starts to take on a new edge to it. Annabeth saves Percy several times and kisses him once because she thinks he is going to die. She also makes a big scene in front of all the campers when she realized that Percy was alive.\n\nThe Last Olympian \n\nIn book five, Percy discovers the truth behind the Great Prophecy. The campers find out there is a spy among them who is reporting everything to Kronos, who took over Luke's body in the fourth book. Percy battles Kronos many times, and eventually becomes invincible from bathing in the River Styx.\n\nIn the beginning, Percy and Beckendorf, son of Hephaestus are sent on a quest to blow up Luke's demon cruise ship, and Beckendorf is killed.\n\nPercy and Nico sneak out of camp, and meet Hestia, who shows Percy part of Luke's past, and they meet Luke's mother.\n\nA war between the Titans and Olympians ensues, one that has been in the making for much of the series. In the end, Luke, who is also invincible from bathing in the River Styx, kills himself in order to send Kronos back to Tartarus. Silena Beuregard turns out to be the spy. She is a good person inside, but Luke threatens her, and they make a deal that Beckendorf will not be hurt, as she was Beckendorf's girlfriend. Silena dies trying to kill a drakon, disguised as Clarisse, which upsets Clarisse greatly.In the end of the book, Luke commits suicide to save the Olympians.\n\nAnnabeth admits she never loved Luke, and that she cared for him only as a brother. She and Percy finally cement their relationship. Percy tries to tell her about his feelings at the River Styx, but says that she is not making it easy. She says: \"I will never, ever make it easy for you Seaweed Brain. Get used to it\", then kisses him, after which the other campers throw them into the canoe lake. Percy then creates an air bubble and they share \"pretty much the best underwater kiss of all time.\".\n\nMovie \nPercy was played by Logan Lerman in the movie Percy Jackson: The Lightning Thief. That movie was adapted from the first book in the series, The Lightning Thief. A movie of the second book, The Sea of Monsters was released on August 7, 2013 in the United States.\n\nPowers\/abilities \nPercy, like most demigods, has two main disabilities:\n\n ADHD, which actually is heightened alertness that keeps half-bloods ready for battle.\n Dyslexia, since his brain is hard-wired for reading Ancient Greek instead of modern languages.\n\nIn The Lightning Thief, Percy is given a magically enchanted sword called Anaklusmos (Riptide). It is made of celestial bronze, a fictional metal which will injure immortals and monsters, but not wound mortals. Many demigods use celestial bronze weapons.\n\nChildren of the \"big three\" (Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades) are more powerful than demigods of the other Greek gods and goddesses. Hence, Percy has a wide range of abilities.\n\n Percy is a naturally talented swordsman, often able to hold his own against larger, stronger, and more experienced opponents.\n Percy possesses incredible physical strength. He tore a horn off the head of the Minotaur, and was able to bear the weight of the sky, the curse of Atlas.\n Percy has clairvoyant dreams, causing him to watch events in distant locations as an out-of-body experience. This could be the work of Apollo, the God of Prophecy, because he told Percy, \"How important dreams could be.\"\n Percy has a psychic connection with his friend Grover called an empathy link.\n In The Last Olympian, Percy bathes in the River Styx (like Achilles), making him nearly invulnerable except in one weak point (the small of his back) and also granting him increased skill, strength, and puts him into a frenzy in battle.\n\nAquatic (water) powers \nPercy has a lot of powers specifically connected to the things controlled by of Poseidon: seas, horses, sea creatures, and earthquakes. His water-related abilities tend to be stronger in sea water than in fresh water.\n\n When standing or immersed in water, Percy gains a lot of strength, combat (fighting) skill, and speed.\n Percy can control large amounts of water with great force (hydrokinesis). For example, he can redirect rivers, create currents to push boats, or even increase surface tension to the point where it is firm enough to stand upon.\n Percy can breathe underwater. He is unharmed by water pressure of any amount, or by falling from high up into water.\n When Percy is underwater, he stays dry unless he consciously (thinks about it) forces himself to become wet. When Percy touches objects underwater, they become dry.\n Percy can create seawater with no effort with things that used to be in the sea (such as petrified (solid) seashells, as in the book The Battle Of The Labyrinth)\n Percy can communicate telepathically with sea animals, most of whom also obey him and treat him with respect.\n Percy can communicate with equine animals (horses, zebras, pegasi, etc.), because his father created them out of sea foam. \n While at sea, Percy has perfect bearings on his exact coordinates.\n Percy can control all parts of boats telekinetically, especially sails.\n Percy can sense where objects are underwater.\n Percy can communicate with children of Poseidon, such as Cyclopes, underwater.\n Percy is very resistant to burning, and is even able to survive while immersed in magma because of the power of the ocean inside of him.\n Percy can make water appear from nothing, though doing so is particularly hard on his body. \n Percy can summon hurricanes, as he did in The Last Olympian, since his father is the god of the sea and storms.\n Percy can release the oxygen diffused in water and force the surrounding water to recede, making an air bubble so his friends with non-hydrokenetic abilities can breathe.\n Percy can control ocean currents to propel him at great force underwater, or even up into the air, as he does in his duel with Ares.\n Percy can harden water (without freezing it) to form shields. It is quite possible that he could use this skill to other purposes, combat or otherwise.\n Percy can heal small cuts when on water, he also gains a burst of energy as seen in his fight with elements of the Ares cabin The Lightning Thief.\n Percy can make earthquakes (as in The Battle Of The Labyrinth)\n Percy can create small cyclones around his body (in the last olympian)\nPercy can control not only water but other liquids too, only held back from using his power by a promise to Annabeth, his girlfriend (The House of Hades)\n Percy can also sometimes control humans, because humans are 71% water.\n\nRomance \n Annabeth Chase: Throughout the  series, it is shown that they have feelings for each other ; in each book there are hints of romantic tension and flirting. Percy and Annabeth first meet in The Lightning Thief when Percy wakes up after passing out to see Annabeth, whom he described as \"pretty\", spoon-feeding him nectar and ambrosia, the food of the gods. Percy is confused and irritated by Annabeth's behavior in the beginning of The Lightning Thief, but they develop a solid friendship at the end of the novel from all they had experienced together. In The Battle of the Labyrinth, Percy and Annabeth were supposed to meet up after school for lunch and a movie which Percy's mother, Sally, referred to as a \"date\" and teased him about it. It is revealed in The Sea of Monsters that Percy carried a picture of Annabeth in his binder and that Annabeth had been tailing Percy with her cap of invisibility on. In The Titan's Curse, Percy meets Aphrodite (Percy momentarily thought she resembled Annabeth), who tells him that he will have a tragic love life; incidentally, Percy meets Rachel a little while after. At the end of the book, he nearly has a heart attack, thinking Annabeth was about to join the Hunters of Artemis. Annabeth kisses him four times, once after winning the chariot race in The Sea of Monsters, though that was only on the cheek, again as she leaves him to fight the telekhines at Mount St. Helens in The Battle of the Labyrinth, in the dining area of Camp Half-Blood, prior to all the other campers throwing them in the canoe lake in The Last Olympian, where they share an underwater kiss. Also in The Last Olympian when Percy and Annabeth were inspecting Athena's cabin, Percy states that \"sure, she'd always been cute, but she was starting to be seriously beautiful\". When Percy goes to the River Styx to bathe, he is supposed to envision the one thing that keeps him tied to the mortal world. He thinks of Annabeth pulling him out of the water at the canoe lake. Annabeth is also the only person who knows Percy's vulnerable spot. When Kronos is spotted during the battle in The Last Olympian, Percy orders a retreat, but Annabeth stays behind to help him, taking a knife that would have killed him. At the end of The Last Olympian when Luke is dying, he asks Annabeth if she ever loved him, to which she replies that she only loved him as a brother, looking up to Percy.In the second series, they are dating and shown to be in love. Several times, both Annabeth and Percy say that they cannot live without the other. They say that they love each other and kiss throughout the books. This pairing is commonly referred to as Percabeth( per- sa- beth).\n Calypso: Percy, stranded on Ogygia island after being badly burned, is nursed back to health by Calypso. She appears to be around sixteen with almond eyes and caramel hair; Percy thinks she is more beautiful than Aphrodite (goddess of love). Despite the fact that he never expresses love for her, Percy enjoys her company and admires her beauty and grace. When leaving the island, he says she will always be his biggest \"what if\". She says the gods allow a hero to wash up on her shore every thousand years, always someone she cannot help falling in love with and who cannot stay. She extends him an offer to stay, which would make him immortal, saving him from the prophecy predicting his death when he turns sixteen. However, his friends and family need his help and he chooses to leave. In the end of The Battle of the Labyrinth, he plants a sprig of moonlace in Manhattan, fulfilling his promise to her to plant a garden at his home. In The Last Olympian, he says that Calypso should be excused and released.\n Rachel Elizabeth Dare: Even though Percy is not known to love Rachel, it is known that she likes him. Percy was unsure about having a crush on Rachel and never truly admits it. His feelings were mixed mainly because of his feelings towards Annabeth. In time, his growing feelings for Annabeth stopped him from ever developing a relationship with Rachel. In The Last Olympian, Rachel kisses Percy in Paul's Prius right before he sets off to the Princess Andromeda, where it was very likely he could have died. On Olympus, Rachel tells Percy that he was just a distraction for her. She tells him that they can never be together because she took on the spirit of the oracle, restricting her from dating. Percy thinks of this as Rachel \"dumping\" him but takes it very lightly and says he intends to continue to be friends with her.\n\nRelationship with Olympians \n Poseidon: Percy is on good terms with Poseidon primarily because he is his son. At the end of The Battle of the Labyrinth, Poseidon states that Percy is his favorite son. Poseidon even forgives Percy for sitting on his throne in The Last Olympian. Poseidon states that not even Hercules is as good a hero as him.\n Zeus: Zeus, the king of the Gods, has mixed feelings for Percy. He is upset over Percy's birth because it violates the pact that he, Poseidon, and Hades made after World War Two to not bear any more children, but is pleased when Percy returns his Master Bolt to him in The Lightning Thief. During the winter solstice in The Titan's Curse, Zeus votes to let Percy live, but this may have been tied to the fate of his own daughter, Thalia, as well. However, Thalia had agreed to become one of Artemis' Hunters before this, so it is possible that this may not have mattered. In spite of all of this, Zeus tells Percy that if he ever finds him in his realm (the sky), he will strike him down. After Percy fights in the battle at the end of The Last Olympian, Zeus offers Percy godhood, and therefore immortality, for saving Olympus from the Titans.\n Hades: Hades, the lord of the underworld, has mixed feelings about Percy. Percy previously accuses him of stealing Zeus' Master Bolt when it was in fact Luke who stole it. Later however, he returns to Hades his Helm of Darkness and clears his name of all charges pressed against him. In The Last Olympian, Hades is shown assisting Percy during the war, even talking with his son, Nico, who also has a decent relationship with Percy, afterwards. When mentioned by Percy during his decision of rejecting immortality, Hades is shown casually addressing him, with none of the malice that he normally shows throughout the series.\n Ares: The god of war dislikes Percy. His hatred for Percy only intensifies when Percy defeats him in a duel in The Lightning Thief. It is dangerous for Percy that they are on bad terms because Ares, being the god of war, thinks highly of revenge and is quite violent. Ares puts a curse on Percy, saying that when he needs his sword the most, it will fail him. He only goes along with granting Percy godhood because he can fight him as many times as he wants and Percy will just keep coming back.\n Athena: The goddess of wisdom, war, strategy, industry, justice and skill disapproves of Percy's friendship with her daughter Annabeth because of the historical rivalry between herself and Poseidon, but Percy has not done anything against her directly. In The Titan's Curse, she may have helped to guide him at the Hoover Dam. However, in the same book, she also voted that he be destroyed. In The Last Olympian, Athena is on good terms with Percy, with the exception of his relationship with Annabeth.\n Hera: the goddess of women,marriage and family, neither likes nor dislikes Percy. Near the end of The Battle of the Labyrinth he and Annabeth both disagree with her views of families having to be perfect, siding with Hephaestus on the matter instead, even though Hera helped them numerous times in the book. Percy also insults her by mentioning Thalia, one of Zeus' children not borne by her, whom Hera historically despises, along with Hercules. She swears to make Annabeth regret her decision, much like Ares did to Percy, but it is not directly stated whether she included Percy in this statement. She makes Ares write a thank you letter to Poseidon for saving Olympus, revealing that she may care for him.\n Dionysus (aka \"Mr. D\"): Percy primarily has been on Mr. D's bad side from the very second they met. Percy does not like Dionysus very much either, for he constantly antagonizes Percy (and all other demigods, for that matter) by never calling them by their real names (preferring to call him \"Peter Johnson\" or \"Perry Johansson\"), but he saves Percy's life in The Titan's Curse. One of the other reasons he may dislike half-bloods is because of the way they treat mortals; he mentions Theseus and Ariadne, Jason and Medea, and alludes to Hercules and Zo\u0451 Nightshade in The Titan's Curse, mentioning how the former in all three cases used and later abandoned the latter. However, at the end of the Battle of the Labyrinth, their relationship comes to better terms after one of Dionysus' sons dies in the final battle. Dionysus believes Grover's news of Pan's death, disbands the Council of Cloven Elders when they are at a tie, and cures Chris Rodriguez, a previous traitor half-blood, of the madness he obtained in the Labyrinth. Most shockingly, he calls Percy by his real name, although he later denies this. They are on much better terms by the end of The Battle of the Labyrinth. Although Dionysus denies this, he favours Percy with his judgement, help, and advice, more than any other god in the series. This may be proof that Dionysus is acknowledging Percy, and that their relationship is improving.\n Hephaestus: Is grateful to Percy for having discovered who was using his forge under Mt. St. Helens, even though he causes an eruption that destroyed the forge and awakened Typhon (who had been imprisoned under it), but also dispersed and\/or killed the users. At the end of the 5th book, Hephaestus said that Percy had done a 'Pretty bang up job, mostly'. Historically, Hephaestus and Poseidon have close ties in the terms of the Cyclopes who work for both of them.\n Artemis: Percy is on Artemis' good side since he helped find and save her in The Titan's Curse. She even declared him a hero in the halls of Olympus itself and started calling him a man rather than a boy after he helped her defeat Atlas. His respect for Zo\u00eb Nightshade, and his deep loyalty, regardless of gender, has also improved her view of him.\n Hermes: Percy is on good terms with Hermes, who convinced him to go on a quest in The Sea of Monsters and gave him magic items to assist him in his journey. He also explained the relationship between gods and heroes to him. Their relationship took a turn for the worse after realizing that Percy could not save Luke and Hermes grew bitter to all heroes. But after the war, their relationship was mended upon Percy's counseling and sympathy of Luke's situation and prophecy as well as how powerless Hermes was, on some occasions, when somebody includes Luke Castellan, Hermes gets mad at that person.\n Aphrodite: Aphrodite is on Percy's good side, probably because she is intrigued by Percy's desire to save Annabeth. She expressed an interest in their relationship, meaning that she plans to meddle with it in some way. She also said she would make Percy's love life hard, just because she likes him. The way she meddled with it was by making Percy meet Rachel and causing him to be confused about Annabeth.\n Apollo: Apollo treats Percy like a younger cousin (which he is). The sun god helped Percy twice in The Titan's Curse so that they could save Artemis, his sister. Being the god of prophecy, he also told Percy how important dreams could be.\n Demeter: Demeter and Percy have a poor relationship due to Percy's lack of respect towards her.\n Hestia: Percy and Hestia have a good relationship. In The Last Olympian, Percy entrusts her with Pandora's pithos that contains the spirit of hope, Elpis, saying that \"hope is best kept by the hearth\". This helps mend her anger towards the gods for giving her a small role, as well as her perception of demigods, which Kronos had used to bring many of the minor gods to his side. She also helps him and shows him the stories of Luke.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \nOfficial Percy Jackson Site \n\nPercy Jackson and the Olympians characters\nFictional characters introduced in 2005","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2022-40":1,"2022-21":4,"2021-43":1,"2021-21":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":232481,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Percy%20Jackson","title":"Percy Jackson","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Pain is a symptom of being hurt or sick. It is a bad sensation that is physical and emotional.\n\nMost pain starts when part of the body is hurt. Nerves in that part send messages through senses to the brain. Those messages tell the brain that the body is being damaged. Pain is not just the message the nerve sends to the brain. It is the bad emotion felt because of that damage.\n\nThe message that the nerve sends to the brain is called nociception. What is experienced because of the nociception is pain.\n\nKinds of pain\nPain can be acute or chronic. Acute means it only happens a short time. Chronic means the pain lasts a long time.\n\nPain can be from different types of injury:\nCutaneous pain is from damage to the skin. This is the pain a person feels when their wrist is cut with a knife.\nVisceral pain is from damage to the organs inside the body \u2013 like the stomach, kidney, and heart. This is the pain a person feels when they have an ulcer.\nSomatic pain is from muscles, bones, and joints. This is the pain a person feels when they sprain (twist) a joint like the ankle.\n\nPain can also happen when there is no underlying injury or cause. Pain can happen just because the nerves do not work right. This is called neuropathic pain.\n\nTreatments for pain\nFor most pain, the best treatment is to stop the damage that makes the pain. If the ankle is sprained, doctors tell the person not to walk on it. They tell them to put ice on it. This helps the injury stop. For an ulcer in the stomach, doctors stop the acid made in the stomach. This helps the ulcer to heal.\n\nBut many kinds of pain also need medicines to feel better. There are many different kinds of medicines for pain:\nNSAIDs (acronym for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug). These medicines decrease the inflammation where the person is hurt. They also work in the brain to decrease pain. Examples are aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen. These medicines can make someone sleepy but they are not addictive. They can cause problems with kidneys and with peptic ulcers.\nOpioids are narcotic pain relievers. They do not have the kidney and stomach problems that NSAIDs have. But they can make someone very sleepy and have other potential side effects, such as lack of coordination, inability to concentrate, blurred vision, and weight gain. They can be addictive. \nAcetaminophen (e.g. Tylenol) is not a narcotic or an NSAID. So it is much safer than either one, but can cause liver damage. \nAnti-seizure medicines (also called antiepileptics or anti-convulsants) \u2013 many of these medicines work for chronic neuropathic pain. Other pain medicines may not work at all for those kinds of pain. Examples are carbamazepine and gabapentin.\nAnti-depression medicines can also help chronic pain, even if it is not neuropathic pain. This is partly because of an affect on pain itself. But it also helps, because living in chronic pain can cause depression.\n\nThere are doctors who specialize in pain management. These are usually anesthesiologists but may also have any one of a number of underlying areas of specialization, such as neurology, physiatry, or internal medicine.\n\nChronic pain \nA new genetic method of treating chronic pain is in the research stage. The idea is to inactivate (turn off) gene HCN2, which plays a key role in chronic pain. Experiments on mice suggest this will work.\n\nRelated pages \n Back pain\n Chronic pain\n Migraine\n Peripheral neuropathy\n Myalgia\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n American Pain Foundation \n Back Pain, Neck Pain, Lower Back Pain - Spine-health.com \n Pain Management  \n Back Pain - spinehealthlife.com \n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":167,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5}},"id":13750,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pain","title":"Pain","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An oboe is a woodwind instrument with a double reed. It looks very similar to the clarinet, and may be confused with it. While the clarinet's shape remains cylindrical, the oboe's body is conical. The sounds produced by clarinets and oboes are very different. An oboe's sound is produced by blowing air through the double reed at the upper end of the instrument which forces the two reeds to vibrate together which produces the sound. The oboe has four parts: the bell, lower joint, upper joint, and the reed. A person that plays the oboe is called an oboist. A typical orchestra may have two oboes but sometimes three. Sometimes there is also a cor anglais which sounds a fifth lower than the oboe. Very occasionally there is also a bass oboe, which sounds an octave below the oboe. Gustav Holst used one in his Suite \"The Planets\".\n\nThe oboe came from the shawm which was a medieval and Renaissance instrument. It became popular in the Baroque period. Bach and Handel both used it in most of their orchestral music. Many Italian composers such as Antonio Vivaldi wrote concertos for the instrument, and it is used in a lot of chamber music. At this time it hardly had any keys, but over time more keys were added which made it easier to play the sharps and flats.\n\nLater composers to write for the oboe as a solo instrument include Mozart, Weber, Richard Strauss, Vaughan Williams and Francis Poulenc.\n\nIt is normal for the principal oboist in an orchestra to play the note A for the rest of the orchestra to tune their instruments to.\n\nThe name oboe comes from French language hautbois, meaning \"high wood\", a high-pitched woodwind instrument.\n\nDouble reed instruments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":159,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":4018,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oboe","title":"Oboe","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Electric power transmission is the transmitting of electricity to places where it will be used.  Specifically, it is the bulk transfer of electrical power from the power plant to substations near populated areas.  Electric power distribution is the delivery from the substation to the consumers.  Due to the large amount of power and long distances, transmission normally takes place at high voltage (110 kV or above).\n\nElectricity is usually transmitted over long distance through overhead power transmission lines. Underground power transmission is used only in densely populated areas (such as large cities) because of the high cost of installation and maintenance and because the power losses increase dramatically compared with overhead transmission unless superconductors and cryogenic technology are used.\n\nA power transmission system is sometimes referred to colloquially as a \"grid\"; however, for reasons of economy, the network is rarely a true grid. Redundant paths and lines are provided so that power can be routed from any power plant to any load center, through a variety of routes, based on the economics of the transmission path and the cost of power.\n\nFurther reading \n Grigsby, L. L., et al. The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. USA: CRC Press. (2001). \n Westinghouse Electric Corporation, \"Electric power transmission patents; Tesla polyphase system\". (Transmission of power; polyphase system; Tesla patents)\n\nRelated pages\n Transmission tower\n Superconductor\n Electric power distribution\n High-voltage direct current\n\nOther websites \n United States: Transmission Lineworker Community Website\n Japan: World's First In-Grid High-Temperature Superconducting Power Cable System \n A Power Grid for the Hydrogen Economy: Overview\/A Continental SuperGrid\n Global Energy Network Institute (GENI) - The GENI Initiative focuses on linking renewable energy resources around the world using international electricity transmission.\n Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE), the association of transmission system operators in continental Europe, running one of the two largest power transmission systems in the world\n Non-Ionizing Radiation, Part 1: Static and Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Electric and Magnetic Fields (2002)  by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).\n A summary of the IARC report by GreenFacts.\n\nElectricity","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":55762,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric%20power%20transmission","title":"Electric power transmission","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Welding is a way of heating pieces of metal using electricity or a flame so that they melt and stick together. There are many kinds of welding, including arc welding, resistance welding, and gas welding. The most common type is arc welding. Anyone who is near arc welding needs to wear a special helmet or goggles because the arc is so bright. Looking at the arc without visual protection may cause permanent eye damage. It is also important to cover all your skin because it can give you something like a sunburn. Hot sparks from the weld can burn any skin that is showing. One kind of welding that does not use an arc is Oxy-fuel welding (OFW), sometimes called gas welding. OFW uses a flame to heat up the metal. There are other kinds of welding that do not use an arc.\n\nArc Welding\nAny welding process that utilizes an electric arc is known as arc welding. The common forms of arc welding include: \n\n Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW): SMAW is also known as \"stick\" welding.\n Gas metal arc welding (GMAW): GMAW is also known as MIG (metal\/inert gas welding).\n Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW): GTAW is also known as TIG (tungsten inert gas welding).\n\nArc welding heats metals by making a high-current electric arc between pieces of metal to be joined and an electrode.\n\nUse of the electrode varies based on the type of welding process. In SMAW, GMAW, and related welding processes, the electrode is consumed and becomes part of the weld. The electrode is usually made of the same kind of metal to be welded. Because the electrode is consumed by the welding process, the electrode must constantly be fed into the weld. The SMAW welding process features a \"stick\" electrode impregnated with a weld promoter known as flux, clamped to the end.\n\nThe GMAW welding process uses a thin wire on a rotating spool, as a continuous electrode.  The size of this electrode varies from around 0.635 millimeters to about 4 millimeters.  The welding machine has a motor-driven spool inside that feeds the wire electrode into the weld.\n\nThe TIG welding (GTAW) process features an electrode that is not consumed by the welding process as the metal that makes up the weld does not have any electricity flowing through it. The electrode is made of Tungsten, so used as it will not melt while immersed in the electrical arc. A filler metal, in the form of a rod, can be used to add metal to the weld area.\n\nAlmost all welding uses filler metal to fill in the small gap between the metal pieces. The extra metal helps to make the weld strong. Sometimes welds need to be made without any filler metal. Welding with no filler metal is called autogenous welding.\n\nShielding in arc welding \nAll types of welding require that the hot metal have protection. Dirt, rust, grease, and even the oxidation of the metal under the weld process can prevent a proper weld joint. As such welding processes use one of two protection methods: flux, and shielding gas.\n\nWelding flux may be used in a solid, liquid, or paste form. During welding, the flux will melt and some of it will evaporate. This creates a small pocket of gas around the weld. This pocket of gas prevents oxidation of the metal under weld. Melted flux, through a corrosive reaction, cleans contaminants that prevent a proper weld. After welding, the flux solidifies. This layer of solid flux is called slag, and must be removed from the weld. The SMAW weld process most commonly uses flux, and is most commonly used on steel.\n\nShielding gas protects the weld by being a pocket of gas around the weld. The purpose of this gas is to keep normal air out, especially oxygen. It is different from flux because there is no liquid on the weld. There is only a gas around the weld. Because there is no liquid, it will not clean up dirt and other things on the metal. This means that the metal has to be clean before it is welded. If it is not, the dirt and other things could cause problems. The gases that are usually used are argon, helium, and a mixture that is 3 parts argon and one part carbon dioxide. Other mixtures of gases can have nitrogen, hydrogen, or even a little bit of oxygen in them. One kind of welding that uses shielding gas is gas metal arc welding. It is usually used in factories to make things.\n\nWelding that uses flux is easier to do outside when it is windy. This is because the liquid flux is protecting the hot metal and it will not blow away. Also, the flux is always making the pocket of gas which keeps the electric arc from going out. Welding that uses shielding gas usually cannot be used outside because the gas would blow away if there were any wind.\n\nOther kinds of welding\nSome kinds of welding do not use an electric arc. They might use a flame, electricity without an arc, an energy beam, or physical force. The most common type of welding that does not use an arc is called gas welding. In gas welding, a flammable(meaning it will burn) gas and oxygen are combined and burn at the end of a torch. Gas welding does not need any special shielding because a flame which is adjusted right has no extra oxygen in it. It is still important to make sure the metal is clean. The flame heats up the metal so much that it melts. When both the pieces of metal are melted at the edge, the liquid metal becomes one piece.\n\nThe other kind of welding that does not use an arc still uses electricity. It is called resistance welding. With this kind, two pieces of thin metal are pinched together and then electricity is made to go through them. This makes the metal get really hot and melt where it is pinched together. The two pieces melt together at that place. Sometimes this is called spot welding because the welding can only happen at one small place(or spot) at a time.\n\nForge welding is the first kind of welding that ever was used. Forge welding needs the two pieces of metal to so hot that they almost melt. Then they are beat together with hammers until they are one piece.\n\nThe other kinds of welding that do not use an arc are hard to do, and usually new. They are expensive too. Most of these kinds of welding are only done where specially needed. They might use an electron beam, laser, or ultrasonic sound waves.\n\nEnergy for welding\nEvery kind of welding needs to use energy. This energy is usually heat, but sometimes force is used to make a weld. When heat is used, it can be from electricity or from fire.\n\nPower supplies for arc welding\nA lot of electricity is used in arc welding. Some kinds of welding use alternating current like the electricity that buildings use. Other kinds use direct current like the electricity in a car or most things with a battery. Almost all kinds of welding use a lower voltage than the electricity that comes from a power plant. Arc welding requires using a special power supply that makes the electricity from the power plant usable for welding. A power supply lowers the voltage and controls the amount of current. The power supply usually has controls on it that allow these things to be changed. For kinds of arc welding that use alternating current, sometimes the power supply can do special things to make the electricity alternate differently. Some power supplies do not plug into a power plug, but instead generate their own electricity. These kind of power supplies have an engine that turns a generator head to make the electricity. The engine might run on gasoline, diesel fuel, or propane.\n\nEnergy for other kinds of welding\nOFW uses a flame from burning fuel gas and oxygen to heat up the metal. This fuel gas is almost always acetylene. Acetylene is a flammable gas that burns very hot, hotter than any other gas. That is why it is used most of the time. Other gases like propane, natural gas, or other industrial gases can be used too.\n\nSome kinds of welding do not use heat to make the weld. These kinds of welding can get hot, but they do not make the metal melt. Forge welding is an example of this. Friction stir welding is a special kind of welding that does not use heat. It uses a very powerful motor and a special spinning bit to mix the metals together at the edge. This seems odd because metals are a solid. this is why it takes a lot of force to do and is very hard. The energy for this kind of welding is mechanical energy from the spinning bit.\n\nOther websites \n\n The American Welding Society\n\nConstruction\nMetalworking","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":131,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":5}},"id":20667,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Welding","title":"Welding","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A world's fair is a large exhibition of industry and culture. They are also called expositions or expos. This type of exhibition occurs since the middle of the 19th century. The Bureau of International Expositions officially takes care of them. The \"Bureau of International Expositions\" is usually abbreviated BIE, from the organization's name in French: Bureau International des Expositions.\n\nList of official world expositions (BIE): \n\nExhibitions","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":23057,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World%27s%20Fair","title":"World's Fair","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The 26th century BC is a century which was from the year 2600 BC to 2501 BC.\n\nEvents\n\nc. 2900 BC \u2013 2334 BC: Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period continue.\nc. 2600 BC: The Harappan civilization rises to become a powerful civilization.\nc. 2600 BC: Pre-Palace Period, phase I, in Crete \nc. 2600 BC \u2013 2500 BC: Wild horses still provide hunting feasts in Denmark. )\nc. 2600 BC \u2013 1900 BC: Large water tank, possibly a public or ritual bathing area, Mohenjo-Daro, Indus Valley Civilization, Harappan, is made.\nc. 2589 BC: Pharaoh Khufu starts to rule (other date is 2601 BC).\nc. 2578 BC: Khufu died.\nc. 2575 BC: Old Kingdom in Egypt 4th Dynasty Snofru is Pharaoh. \nc. 2570 BC: Khafra started to rule in Ancient Egypt.\nc. 2566 BC: Pharaoh Khufu dies (other date is 2578 BC).\nc. 2558 BC: Pharaoh Khafra starts to rule (other date is 2570 BC).\nc. 2550 BC: Completion of the Great Pyramid of Giza.\nc. 2550 BC: Egyptian rulers contact Western Desert oases, such as Dakhla Oasis.\nc. 2550 BC: About this time, Mesannepada is king of Ur (followed by his son, A-annepadda) who founds the First dynasty of Ur and overthrows the last king of Uruk, as well as Mesalim of Kish. \nc. 2550 BC \u2013 2400 BC: Great Lyre with bull's head, from the tomb of King Meskalamdug, Ur (modern Muqaiyir, Iraq, is made. It is now kept at University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.\nc. 2544 BC: Khafra died.\nc. 2533 BC: Menkaura started to rule in Ancient Egypt.\nc. 2532 BC: Pharaoh Khafra dies (other date is 2544 BC).\nc. 2532 BC: Pharaoh Menkaura starts to rule (other date is 2533 BC).\nc. 2515 BC: Menkaura died.\nc. 2510 BC \u2013 2460 BC: Ti watching a hippopotamus hunt, tomb of Ti, Saqqara, Fifth dynasty of Egypt, is made. Discovered by French archeologist Auguste Mariette in 1865.\nc. 2503 BC: Pharaoh Menkaura dies (other date is 2515 BC).\nc. 2500 BC: The legendary line of Sanhuangwudi rulers of China is founded by Huang Di.\nc. 2500 BC: The construction of the stone circle at Stonehenge begins and continues for the next five hundred years.\nc. 2500 BC: \"Menkaura and a Queen, perhaps his wife, Queen Khamerernebty II\" sculpture, later found at Giza. Fourth Dynasty. It is now in Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.\n\nSignificant people\nc. 2601 BC\u20132578 BC\u2014reign of Pharaoh Khufu of Egypt's Fourth Dynasty\n\n2599 BC\u2014Huni is Pharaoh. \n2575 BC\u2014Old Kingdom in Egypt; 4th Dynasty; Sneferu is Pharaoh. \n2528 BC\u2014Ra'djedef is Pharaoh. \n2520 BC\u2014Khep-heren (Ra'kha'ef) is Pharaoh.\n\nDeaths\nKhufu dies\n\nInventions, discoveries, introductions\nRock drawings at R\u00f8d\u00f8y in Norway show the use of skis\nBactrian Camel and Dromedary are domesticated","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":158,"dup_dump_count":32,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-24":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-30":9,"2019-18":26,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":7,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":7,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":12,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":11,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":9,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":16,"2013-48":6,"2013-20":6}},"id":344929,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/26th%20century%20BC","title":"26th century BC","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Central Asia is a region in Asia. The countries in Central Asia are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan (which are mainly Turkic states) but also includes Tajikistan, and parts of China and Mongolia. The United Nations also includes Afghanistan as part of Central Asia.\n\nHistory \nPeople have lived in the region of Central Asia since prehistoric times. Most of the region was part of the Silk Road. It was a part of the Persian Empire until Alexander The Great captured it. When he died, the land was given to his general Seleucus. Seleucus slowly lost it to the Parthians.  When the Parthians (the Parthians were Persians) lost power, the Sassanids added it to their own Persian empire. However, a couple years later, during about the 600's A.D, Arab armies spreading the faith of Islam quickly captured it. A while later, an Iranian dynasty got semi- autonomy under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad. They were known as the Samanids. The Samanids controlled most of Central Asia and Northwestern Iran. They had power over this area during the 10th century. With them, Central Asian cities, such as Bukhara and Samarkand, grew in culture. \n\nHowever, Turkic armies from this area took the region away from them. They were known as the Seljuk Turks. At the same time, Timur captured it. After his death, the Timurids (the name of the people of the dynasty Timur founded) could not hold unto their empire. They lost it to the Mongols. When the Mongols captured it, burned it to the ground. A while later, some rulers decided to make their own empires under that of the Mongols. These empires were known as Khanates. During the 19th century the Russian Empire conquered these lands. Many years later in 1991, all of the countries of Central Asia declared independence.\n\nEconomy \nUzbekistan has much cotton. Kazakhstan is rich because it has sold oil, gas and metals to Europe and China. Turkmenistan has adjusted better to independence from the Soviet Union than the other Central Asian countries, but it has been run by a dictatorship. Other than Kazakhstan, most of Central Asia are mostly underdeveloped.\n\nRelated pages\n Dagestan\n East Turkestan (Xinjiang, China)\n Kashmir (Northern Pakistan and India)\n Kazakhstan\n Kyrgyzstan\n Tajikistan (South-central Asia)\n Tatarstan\n Turkmenistan (South-central Asia)\n Uzbekistan\n Mongolia (and Inner Mongolia, China)\n Soviet Union\n Soviet Central Asia\n\n General Map of Central Asia: I from 1874\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":5,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":29350,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Central%20Asia","title":"Central Asia","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Escape velocity is the initial speed that something would need to completely escape the gravity of a large body, like a star or a planet (such as the Earth), by mere inertia.\n\nIf a ball is thrown upwards while standing on the ground, the ball will reach a certain height (the faster thrown - the higher) and fall back down. But imagine if the ball is thrown fast enough that it never falls back down, and instead travels into space farther and farther away from the Earth. The minimum speed at which this could happen is called the escape velocity.\n\nThe escape velocity at the surface of the Earth is 11.2 kilometers per second (or 6.96 miles per second), assuming there is no drag.\n\nThis is, of course, a very high speed compared to how fast a ball can be thrown. Even a bullet shot into the sky will fall back down, because its initial speed of nearly 1 kilometer per second (or 0.621 miles per second) is far from escape velocity.\n\nSpacecraft starting from the surface of Earth has a zero initial speed. But, if it has enough fuel, it may be permanently accelerated by its engine until it reaches escape velocity. Then it will travel into space even after the engine is shut off.\n\nReferences\n\nAstrophysics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":56893,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Escape%20velocity","title":"Escape velocity","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Lighthouse of Alexandria, or the Pharos, was a tall tower built between 285 and 247 BCE. It was built on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt to serve as a lighthouse for sailors. The top of the tower had a mirror that reflected sunlight during the day; a fire was lit at night.\n\nThe word for \"lighthouse\" in some languages is pharos or its  equivalent.\n\nConstruction \nLegend holds that Ptolemy I Soter would not allow Sostratus to put his name on the tower, but the architect left the following inscription on the base's walls:\n\u03a3\u039f\u03a3\u03a4\u03a1\u0391\u03a4\u039f\u03a3 \u0394\u0395\u039e\u0399\u03a6\u0391\u039d\u039f\u03a5 \u039a\u039d\u0399\u0394\u0399\u039f\u03a3 \u0398\u0395\u039f\u0399\u03a3 \u03a3\u03a9\u03a4\u0395\u03a1\u03a3\u0399\u039d \u03a5\u03a0\u0395\u03a1 \u03a4\u03a9\u039d \u03a0\u039b\u03a9\u0399\u0396\u039f\u039c\u0395\u039d\u03a9\u039d. (Sostratus of Cnidus, son of Dexiphanes, to the Gods protecting those upon the sea.)\nThese words were hidden under a layer of plaster, on top of which was chiseled another inscription honoring Ptolemy the king as builder of the Pharos. After centuries the plaster wore away, revealing the name of Sostratus, the son of Dexiphanes.\n\nWith a height estimated at between 115 and 145 meters (384 \u2013 469\u00a0ft), it was among the tallest man-made structures on Earth for many centuries. It was identified as one of the Seven Wonders of the World by Antipater of Sidon. It was the third tallest building after the two Great Pyramids (of Khufu and Khafra). It was destroyed by earthquakes.\n\nRecent archaeological research \nDivers discovered remains of the lighthouse in fall 1994 on the floor of Alexandria's Eastern Harbour. Some of these remains were brought up and were lying at the harbour on public view at the end of 1995. An episode of the PBS television series Nova chronicled the discovery. Later satellite imaging has revealed further remains. It is possible to go diving and see the ruins.\n\nReferences \n\nBuildings and structures in Ancient Egypt\nSeven Wonders of the World\nPtolemaic Alexandria\nLighthouses\nTransport in Egypt\n3rd-century BC buildings and structures","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":65267,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lighthouse%20of%20Alexandria","title":"Lighthouse of Alexandria","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A computer algebra system (CAS) is a large computer program that helps people with mathematics and algebra.  It changes and moves around (manipulates) mathematical equations and expressions containing numbers and symbols called variables. Variables can stand for known or unknown values that can be solved for, or can be replaced with any value. It always keeps the formula exactly the same mathematically as the original equation or expression, unless it is being transformed, by a transformation algorithm.\n\nA CAS might be used for integration or differentiation (and other calculus transformations), simplification of an expression (making it smaller and\/or simpler), optimizing and finding the minimum and maximum values of results or variables, etc.  Most have the ability to plot functions and expressions for visualization, which can be helpful and educational too.\n\nSymbolic capabilities\nComputer algebra systems can be special purpose, focusing on only a few types of symbolic math, to very large, general purpose programs that do almost everything (for example, the free CAS Maxima, which is the oldest CAS that is still under development).  The results output by a good computer algebra system are often exact, simple, and generalized to work in all possible cases.  Computer programs do have bugs, so important results should always be verified for correctness.\n\nNumeric capabilities\nModern computer algebra systems often include extensive numeric capabilities for convenience and which fit together with its symbolic abilities.\nNumeric domains supported often include real, complex, interval, rational, and algebraic numbers.\n\nUsually floating point arithmetic is available to use if desired, because the arithmetic is done by most computer hardware very quickly.  The down-side of floating point arithmetic is that it is not always exact, and is mostly useless for rocket science, because of only 14 decimal digits of accuracy (with double precision floats), and because of a growing round-off error with each calculation, sometimes even less digits are accurate.  Rational number arithmetic is exact if all numbers are rational.  Interval arithmetic can be used to easily calculate the total possible error of an inexact arithmetic system.  Complex number arithmetic is generally supported by allowing the imaginary unit () in expressions and following all of its algebraic rules.\n\nRelated pages\nGraphing calculator\n\nReferences\n\nAlgebra\nSoftware","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-06":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":233141,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer%20Algebra%20System","title":"Computer Algebra System","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Baroque music is a set of styles of European classical music which were in use between about 1600 and 1750 during the Baroque period.\n\nThe word \"Baroque\" is used in other art forms besides music: we talk about Baroque architecture, painting, sculpture, dance and literature. The Baroque period comes between the Renaissance and the period of Classicism.\n\nHistory\nMusicians think of the Baroque period as starting around 1600. The famous Renaissance composers Palestrina and Lassus had died a few years earlier. Claudio Monteverdi wrote some music in Renaissance style, and other music in Baroque style. Opera was being invented. It was a time of musical change.\n\nThe change from writing music in the Baroque style to the Classical style was much more gradual. 1750 is the year that Bach died, so it is an easy date to choose for the end of the Baroque period.\n\nThe Baroque was a time when people liked large spaces and a lot of ornamentation. This can be seen in the architecture of famous buildings such as St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, or St. Paul's Cathedral, London. They were built at this time. In Venice there were churches with galleries on either side of the church. Composers liked to write music for two groups of musicians placed in opposite galleries. Giovanni Gabrieli wrote a lot of music like this.\n\nStyles and instruments\nThe idea of two contrasting groups was used a lot in Baroque music. Composers wrote concertos. These were pieces for orchestra and a solo instrument. Sometimes a concerto contrasted a group of soloists with the rest of the orchestra. These are called by the Italian name \"Concerti Grossi. Bach's Brandenburg Concertos are good examples.\n\nOrgans, and some harpsichords, had at least two manuals (keyboards). The player could change from one manual to the other, contrasting two different sounds.\n\nBaroque music was often a melody with a bass line at the bottom. This could be, for example, a singer and a cello. There was also a harpsichord or organ that played the bass line as well, and made up chords in between. Often the composer did not bother to write out all the chords (harmonies) but just showed some of the chords by figures, leaving it to the performer to decide exactly which notes to play. This is called \"figured bass\" or \"basso continuo\". The soloist, who played or sang the melody on top, often put in lots of ornamental notes. Again: the composer did not write this all down but left it to the performer to improvise something nice around the notes he had written.\n\nBecause composers were now writing opera it was important for the audience to hear the words clearly. In the Renaissance the groups of a choir were often singing several different words using different melodies all at once. This was called \"polyphony\". Polyphony was widely used in instrumental music, but was not used in opera, which needed to tell a story without being confusing.\n\nWhen a soloist in an opera sings a song (an aria) the aria is in a particular mood. They called this \"affection\". There were several \"affections\" or moods: there were arias about revenge, jealousy, anger, love, despair, peaceful happiness etc. Each movement in a concerto also had one particular mood. Music from later periods is different. For example: Haydn in the Classical Period would often change its mood during a piece.\n\nSuite\nThe Baroque suite is a collection of dance movements written in the style of Baroque music. There is an accepted standard order in which the dances are performed. The five primary dances are the Overture, Allemande, Courante, Sarabande and Gigue. Many times a composer would add a Prelude before all the dances. Sometimes a composer would add another piece in between the Sarabande and the Gigue.\n\nThere are many exceptions to the standard order, but the order of Prelude, Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Other, and Gigue is most common. This can be easily remembered by the acronym PACSOG.\n\nComposers\nHere are a few of the most important composers of the Baroque period:\n\nItaly\nGiovanni Gabrieli (about 1553\/6-1612)\nJacopo Peri (1561-1633)\nClaudio Monteverdi (1567-1643)\nAntonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)\nArcangelo Corelli (1653-1713)\nDomenico Scarlatti (1685-1757)\n\nGermany\nHeinrich Sch\u00fctz (1585-1672)\nJohann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)\n\nEngland\nHenry Purcell (1659-1695)\nGeorge Frideric Handel (1685-1759) (German born)\n\nFrance\nFran\u00e7ois Couperin (1668-1733)\nJean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764)\n\nBibliography \n\n Music in the Baroque Era, Manfred Bukofzer; J.M.Dent 1948\n\nPeriods in music history","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":139,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":28602,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Baroque%20music","title":"Baroque music","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Harmonics in music are notes which are produced in a special way. They are notes which are produced as part of the \"harmonic series\".\n\nIn physics, a harmonic is a wave which is added to the basic fundamental wave. This article talks about sound waves, which can be understood clearly by looking at the strings of a musical instrument.\n\nWhen a violinist plays a note on a violin string, the string starts to vibrate very fast. This vibration makes the air vibrate and the sound waves travel to our ear so that we can hear it. If the note were absolutely pure the string would move in a perfect sinusoidal shape and produce only one frequency, but instead there are multiple frequencies being produced at the same time along with the main one. The note played on the violin string makes the string vibrate in a very complicated way. There is the basic note (the fundamental), but added to that are lots of other little notes that all add up to a sound in a special way that tells us that it is a violin playing and not a clarinet or a human voice.\n\nThe higher the note, the faster the string vibrates. An A above middle C (the violinist's A string) vibrates at 440Hz (440 times per second). This is the \"fundamental\" or \"first harmonic\". The second harmonic vibrates twice as fast (ratio 2:1): 880Hz. This gives an A an octave higher. The third harmonic will give a ratio 3:2. This will be an E (an octave and a fifth above the fundamental). The higher the harmonic the quieter it is, but the ratio is always a whole number (not a fraction).\n\nEvery note that is played on an instrument is really a combination of several notes or \"harmonics\", even though we may not realize that we are hearing more than one note at a time. Play the lowest C on the piano. Now find the next C which is an octave higher. Press this key very slowly so that it does not sound and hold it down. While holding it down play the bottom C again making it loud and very short. The C that is being held silently will now sound. This is because the strings of that C are vibrating a little because it is a harmonic of the low C (they can vibrate because the damper is off the string while the note is being held down). The same can be done holding the next G down, then the next C, then the E. The higher the note the fainter (quieter) the harmonics become. The musical example below shows the notes of a harmonic series in musical notation. \n\nTo hear the notes of a harmonic series click here:\nclicking here.\n\nPlaying harmonics on instruments \nMusicians sometimes need to play harmonics on their instruments. In musical notation this is shown by placing a small circle above the note.\n\nA violinist can place their finger very lightly on a string so that it divides the string into half. They will hear a harmonic (the note an octave higher than the open string). By placing their fingers in other places they can get more harmonics, e.g. by touching the string a quarter of the way down they gets the next harmonic. \"Artificial harmonics\" can be played by stopping a string with the finger in the usual way (so that the string is now shorter) and placing the little finger farther up the string to get a harmonic of the stopped note. Artificial harmonics are written with diamond-shaped note heads. They are very hard to play well.\n\nHarpists can play harmonics with their left hand by stopping the string with the side of the hand (near the little finger) and plucking with the thumb or finger. Up to 3 notes can be played by the left hand. They can play harmonics with the right hand by stopping the string with the upper knuckle of the second finger and plucking with the thumb. Only one harmonic note can be played by the right hand. Harmonics on the harp sound very beautiful. \n\nPlayers of woodwind and brass instruments play many of their notes by blowing slightly stronger (overblowing) to get a higher series of notes. Instruments such as the recorder can play chords by making several harmonics sound together, but this is extremely difficult to do well and only found in modern music for virtuoso players.\n\nMusic theory\nSound","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1}},"id":40329,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harmonic%20series%20%28music%29","title":"Harmonic series (music)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Joseph Justus Scaliger (; 5 August 1540 \u2013 21 January 1609) was a Franco-Italian Calvinist religious leader and scholar, known for expanding the notion of classical history from Greek and Ancient Roman history to include Persian, Babylonian, Jewish and Ancient Egyptian history. He spent the last sixteen years of his life in the Netherlands.\n\nEarly life\nIn 1540, Scaliger was born in Agen, France, to Italian scholar and physician Julius Caesar Scaliger and his wife, Andiette de Roques Lobejac. His only formal education was three years of study at the College of Guienne in Bordeaux, which ended in 1555 due to an outbreak of the bubonic plague. Until his death in 1558, Julius Scaliger taught his son Latin and poetry; he was made to write at least 80 lines of Latin a day.\n\nUniversity and travels\n\nAfter his father's death, Scaliger spent four years at the University of Paris, where he studied Greek under Adrianus Turnebus. After two months he found he was not in a position to profit from the lectures of the greatest Greek scholar of the time. He read Homer in twenty-one days, and afterwards read other classical Greek poets, orators, and historians, forming a grammar for himself as he went along. At the suggestion of Guillaume Postel, after learning Greek he learned Hebrew, and then Arabic, becoming proficient in both.\n\nHis most important teacher was Jean Dorat, who was able not only to impart knowledge but also to kindle enthusiasm in Scaliger. It was to Dorat that Scaliger owed his home for the next thirty years of his life, for in 1563 the professor recommended him to Louis de Chasteigner, the young lord of La Roche-Posay, as a companion in his travels. The two young men formed a close friendship which remained unbroken until Louis's death in 1595. The travellers first went to Rome. Here they found Marc Antoine Muret, who, when at Bordeaux and Toulouse, had been a great favourite and occasional visitor of Julius Caesar Scaliger at Agen. Muret soon recognized the young Scaliger's merits and introduced him to many contacts well worth knowing.\n\nAfter visiting a large part of Italy, the travellers moved on to England and Scotland, passing through the town of La Roche-Posay on their way. During his time in the British Isles, Scaliger formed an unfavourable opinion of the English. Their inhuman disposition and inhospitable treatment of foreigners especially made a negative impression on him. He was also disappointed at finding only a few Greek manuscripts and, in his opinion, few learned men. It was not until a much later period that he became intimate with Richard Thomson and other Englishmen. Over the course of his travels, he became a Protestant.\n\nFrance, Geneva, and back to France\n\nOn his return to France, he spent three years with the Chastaigners, accompanying them to their different ch\u00e2teaux in Poitou, as the calls of the civil war required. In 1570 he accepted the invitation of Jacques Cujas and proceeded to Valence to study jurisprudence under the greatest living jurist. Here he remained three years, profiting not only by the lectures but even more by the library of Cujas, which filled no fewer than seven or eight rooms and included five hundred manuscripts.\n\nThe St Bartholomew's Day Massacre \u2013 which occurred just before he was to accompany the bishop of Valence on an embassy to Poland \u2013 caused Scaliger to flee, alongside other Huguenots, to Geneva, where he was appointed a professor at the Academy of Geneva. While there, he lectured on Aristotle's Organon and Cicero's De Finibus to much satisfaction for the students, but not appreciating it himself. He hated lecturing and was bored with the persistence of the fanatical preachers, accordingly in 1574 he returned to France and made his home for the next twenty years with Chastaigner.\n\nOf his life during this period we have interesting details and notices in the Lettres fran\u00e7aises in\u00e9dites de Joseph Scaliger, edited by Tamizey de Larroque (Agen, 1881). Constantly moving through Poitou and the Limousin, as the exigencies of the civil war required, occasionally taking his turn as a guard, at least on one occasion trailing a pike on an expedition against the Leaguers, with no access to libraries, and frequently separated even from his own books, his life during this period seems most unsuited to study. He had, however, what so few contemporary scholars possessed \u2013 leisure and freedom from financial cares.\n\nAcademic output\nIt was during this period of his life that he composed and published his books of historical criticism. His editions of the Catalecta (1575), of Festus (1575), of Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius (1577), are the work of a man determined to discover the real meaning and force of his author. He was the first to lay down and apply sound rules of criticism and revision, and to change textual criticism from a series of haphazard guesses into a \"rational procedure subject to fixed laws\" (Mark Pattison).\n\nThese works, despite proving Scaliger's skill among his contemporaries as a Latin scholar and critic, did not go beyond simple scholarship. It was reserved for his edition of Manilius (1579), and his De emendatione temporum (1583), to revolutionize perceived ideas of ancient chronology\u2014to show that ancient history was not confined to that of the Greeks and Romans, but also comprises that of the Persians, the Babylonians and the Egyptians, hitherto neglected, and that of the Jews, hitherto treated as a thing apart; and that the historical narratives and fragments of each of these, and their several systems of chronology, must be critically compared. It was this innovation that distinguished Scaliger from contemporary scholars. Neither they nor those who immediately followed seem to have appreciated his innovation. Instead, they valued his emendatory criticism and his skill in Greek. His commentary on Manilius is a treatise on ancient astronomy, and it forms an introduction to De emendatione temporum; in this work, Scaliger investigates ancient systems of determining epochs, calendars and computations of time. Applying the work of  Nicolaus Copernicus and other modern scientists, he reveals the principles behind these systems.\n\nIn the remaining twenty-four years of his life, he expanded on his work in the De emendatione. He succeeded in reconstructing the lost Chronicle of Eusebius\u2014one of the most valuable ancient documents, especially valuable for ancient chronology. This he printed in 1606 in his Thesaurus temporum, in which he collected, restored, and arranged every chronological relic extant in Greek or Latin.\n\nThe Netherlands\n\nWhen Justus Lipsius retired from the University of Leiden in 1590, the university and its protectors, the States-General of the Netherlands and the Prince of Orange, resolved to appoint Scaliger as his successor. He declined; he hated lecturing, and there were those among his friends who erroneously believed that with the success of Henry IV learning would flourish, and Protestantism would be no barrier to his advancement. The invitation was renewed in the most flattering manner a year later; the invitation stated Scaliger would not be required to lecture, and that the university wished only for his presence, while he would be able to dispose of his own time in all respects. This offer Scaliger accepted provisionally. Midway through 1593, he set out for the Netherlands, where he would pass the remaining sixteen years of his life, never returning to France. His reception at Leiden was all that he could have wished for. He received a handsome income; he was treated with the highest consideration. His supposed rank as a prince of Verona, a sensitive issue for the Scaligeri, was recognized. Leiden lying between The Hague and Amsterdam, Scaliger was able to enjoy, besides the learned circle of Leiden, the advantages of the best society of both these capitals. For Scaliger was no hermit buried among his books; he was fond of social intercourse and was himself a good talker.\n\nDuring the first seven years of his residence at Leiden, his reputation was at its highest point. His literary judgment was unquestioned. From his throne at Leiden he ruled the learned world; a word from him could make or mar a rising reputation, and he was surrounded by young men eager to listen to and profit from his conversation. He encouraged Grotius when only a youth of sixteen to edit Martianus Capella. At the early death of the younger Douza, he wept as at that of a beloved son. Daniel Heinsius, at first his favourite pupil, became his most intimate friend.\n\nAt the same time, Scaliger had made numerous enemies. He hated ignorance, but he hated still more half-learning, and most of all dishonesty in argument or quotation. He had no toleration for the disingenuous argument and the misstatements of facts of those who wrote to support a theory or to defend an unsound cause. His pungent sarcasm soon reached the ears of the persons who were its object, and his pen was not less bitter than his tongue. He was conscious of his power, and not always sufficiently cautious or sufficiently gentle in its exercise. Nor was he always right. He trusted much to his memory, which was occasionally treacherous. His emendations, if often valuable, were sometimes absurd. In laying the foundations of a science of ancient chronology he relied sometimes on groundless or even absurd hypotheses, often based on an imperfect induction of facts. Sometimes he misunderstood the astronomical science of the ancients, sometimes that of Copernicus and Tycho Brahe. And he was no mathematician.\n\nDisagreements with the Jesuits\nBut his enemies were not merely those whose errors he had exposed and whose hostility he had excited by the violence of his language. The results of his method of historical criticism threatened the Catholic controversialists and the authenticity of many of the documents on which they relied. The Jesuits, who aspired to be the source of all scholarship and criticism, saw the writings and authority of Scaliger as a formidable barrier to their claims. Muret in the latter part of his life professed the strictest orthodoxy, Lipsius had been reconciled to the Church of Rome, Isaac Casaubon was supposed to be wavering, but Scaliger was known to be an irreconcilable Protestant. As long as his intellectual supremacy was unquestioned, the Protestants had the advantage in learning and scholarship. His enemies therefore aimed, if not to answer his criticisms or to disprove his statements, yet to attack him as a man and destroy his reputation. This was no easy task, for his moral character was absolutely spotless.\n\nVeronese descent\n\nAfter several attacks purportedly by the Jesuits, in 1607 a new attempt was made. In 1594 Scaliger had published his Epistola de vetustate et splendore gentis Scaligerae et JC Scaligeri vita. In 1601 Gaspar Scioppius, then in the service of the Jesuits published his Scaliger Hypobolimaeus (\"The Supposititious Scaliger\"), a quarto volume of more than four hundred pages. The author purports to point out five hundred lies in the Epistola de vetustate of Scaliger, but the main argument of the book is to show the falsity of his pretensions to be of the family of La Scala, and the narrative of his father's early life. \"No stronger proof,\" says Pattison, \"can be given of the impressions produced by this powerful philippic, dedicated to the defamation of an individual, than that it had been the source from which the biography of Scaliger, as it now stands in our biographical collections, has mainly flowed.\"\n\nTo Scaliger, the publication of Scaliger Hypobolimaeus was crushing. Whatever his father Julius had believed, Joseph had never doubted himself to be a prince of Verona, and in his Epistola had put forth all that he had heard from his father. He wrote a reply to Scioppius, entitled Confutatio fabulae Burdonum. In the opinion of Pattison, \"as a refutation of Scioppius it is most complete\"; but there are certainly grounds for dissenting from this judgment. Scaliger purported that Scioppius committed more blunders than he corrected, claiming that the book made untruthful allegations, but he did not succeed in adducing any proof either of his father's descent from the La Scala family, or of any of the events narrated by Julius before he arrived at Agen. Nor does Scaliger attempt a refutation of the crucial point, namely, that William, the last prince of Verona, had no son Nicholas, who would have been the alleged grandfather of Julius.\n\nComplete or not, the Confutatio had little success; the attack attributed to the Jesuits was successful. Scioppius was wont to boast that his book had killed Scaliger. The Confutatio was Scaliger's last work. Five months after it appeared, on 21 January 1609, at four in the morning, he died at Leiden in the arms of his pupil and friend Heinsius. In his will Scaliger bequeathed his renowned collection of manuscripts and books (tous mes livres de langues \u00e9trang\u00e8res, Hebraiques, Syriens, Arabiques, Ethiopiens) to Leiden University Library.\n\nSources\nOne notable biography of Joseph Scaliger is that of Jakob Bernays (Berlin, 1855). It was reviewed by Pattison in the Quarterly Review, vol. cviii (1860), since reprinted in the Essays, i (1889), 132\u2013195. Pattison had made many manuscript collections for the life of Joseph Scaliger on a much more extensive scale, which he left unfinished. In writing the above article, Richard Copley Christie had access to and made much use of these manuscripts, which include the life of Julius Caesar Scaliger. The fragments of the life of Joseph Scaliger have been printed in the Essays, i. 196\u2013245. For the life of Joseph, besides the letters published by Tamizis de Larroque (Agen, 1881), the two old collections of Latin and French letters and the two Scaligerana are the most important sources of information. The complete correspondence of Scaliger is now available in eight volumes.\n\t\nFor the life of his father Julius Caesar Scaliger, the letters edited by his son, those subsequently published in 1620 by the President de Maussac, the Scaligerana, and his own writings are full of autobiographical matter, are the chief authorities. Jules de Bourousse de Laffore's Etude sur Jules C\u00e9sar de Lescale (Agen, 1860) and Adolphe Magen's Documents sur Julius Caesar Scaliger et sa famille (Agen, 1873) add important details to the lives of both father and son. The lives by Charles Nisard \u2013 that of Julius et Les Gladiateurs de la r\u00e9publique des lettres, and that of Joseph Le Triumvirat litt\u00e9raire au seizi\u00e8me si\u00e8cle \u2013 are equally unworthy of their author and their subjects. Julius is simply held up to ridicule, while the life of Joseph is almost wholly based on the book of Scioppius and the Scaligerana.A complete list of the works of Joseph will be found in his life by Jakob Bernays. See also J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, ii. (1908), 199\u2013204. A technical biography is Anthony T. Grafton, Joseph Scaliger: A Study in the History of Classical Scholarship, 2 vol. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1983, 1993).\n\nWorks\n\nSee also\nHistory of scholarship\nJulian Period \u2013 a tricyclic system of years proposed by Scaliger\nNew Chronology (Fomenko)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n Correspondents of Scaliger: Joseph Justus Scaliger maintained a vast correspondence with European humanists and scholars, whose names are listed here\n The Correspondence of Joseph Justus Scaliger in EMLO\n \n\nPeople from Agen\n1540 births\n1609 deaths\n16th-century French historians\n16th-century writers in Latin\n17th-century writers in Latin\n16th-century French writers\n16th-century male writers\n17th-century French writers\n17th-century French male writers\nChronologists\nFrench classical scholars\nFrench book and manuscript collectors\nAcademic staff of Leiden University\nCollege of Guienne alumni\nUniversity of Paris alumni\nAcademic staff of the University of Geneva\n17th-century Dutch people\nFrench Protestants\nConverts to Protestantism\nFrench male non-fiction writers\nFrench people of Italian descent\nBurials at Pieterskerk, Leiden","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":57,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":165552,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph%20Justus%20Scaliger","title":"Joseph Justus Scaliger","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Church of Scotland is the national church of Scotland, established by law.  It is Presbyterian. The Presbyterian Church of Scotland is  distinguished from the Anglican Church in a number of ways. It does not have bishops or archbishops; nor is the British monarch its head. The leading minister is called the Moderator, who is the chair of the General Assembly for one year. Ministers of the Kirk, as it is called, may be called Rectors.\n\nThe established kirk has suffered schism (breaks), and this has given rise to the \"Wee Frees\": the Free Church of Scotland, and (a further schism) the Free Church of Scotland (continuing) (the Wee Wee Frees); and the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland (also, confusingly, called the Wee Wee Frees). \n\nThe Scottish Presbyterian church was formed when it broke away from Rome in 1560. Its theology (beliefs) were based on the ideas of John Knox, a disciple of John Calvin. The free kirks tend to take the Bible more literally. \n\nAbout 10% of the people in Scotland are members of this church, but when asked in a census, 47% of people said this was their religion.\n\nIn 2023 there were around 4500 churches in Scotland, but fewer people going to services, so there were plans to save money by closing many of them.\n\nGod's Invitation\nIn 1992, the Kirk's ruling body (the General Assembly) approved the following simple summary of its beliefs.\n\nGod's Invitation \n  \nGod made the world\n\tand all its creatures\n\twith men and women made in His image.\n\nBy breaking His laws people have broken contact with God,\n\tand damaged His good world.\n\tThis we see and sense in the world and in ourselves.\n\nThe Bible tells us the Good News that God still loves us\n\tand has shown His love uniquely in His Son, Jesus Christ.\n\tHe lived among us\n\tand died on the cross to save us from our sin.\n\tBut God raised Him from the dead! \n\nIn His love, this living Jesus invites us\n\tto turn from our sins\n\tand enter by faith into a restored relationship with God\n\tWho gives true life before and beyond death.\n\nThen, with the power of the Holy Spirit remaking us like Jesus,\n\twe \u2013 with all Christians \u2013\n\tworship God,\n\tenjoy His friendship\n\tand are available for Him to use\n\tin sharing and showing\n\tHis love, justice, and peace\n\tlocally and globally\n\tuntil Jesus returns!\n\nIn Jesus' name\n\twe gladly share with you God's message for all people \u2013\n\tYou matter to God!\n\nReferences\n\nPresbyterianism\nEstablishments in Scotland\n1560s establishments in Europe\n1560 establishments\n16th century in Scotland","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":3,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":134312,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Church%20of%20Scotland","title":"Church of Scotland","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Gospel o Mark is the seicont beuk in The New Testament an is jaloused bi mony scholars tae be the auldest o The Gospels.\n\n(Aw Biblical quotes in this airticle haes been taen frae W.L Lorimer's translate.)\n\nComponin\n\nScriever \nTho the Gospel is anonymous it haes been associate wi a chiel cried Mark syne the seicont century. Juist wha this Mark wis haes been a soorce o muckle debate amang scholars for a gey lang while - some scholars haes sugeestit that he coud be the John Mark o Jerusalem that kythes in Acts an vaiges wi Paul an Barnabus the lenth o Perga, tho ithers says there's nae raison tae jalouse that he maun be a chiel frae The New Testament syne Mark (an variations o it sic as Marcus) wis gey ordinar in the Greco-Roman warld at thon time. Forby, shots haes been haed at identifeein Mark wi a callant that kythes in the Gospel itsel, at the time o Jesus' reestin: \n\nSyne the hail o his disciples forhoued him an scoured aw\u00e0. The' war ae callan, tho, at ey huid efter Jesus. He wis cled in nocht but a linnen hap, an they claucht hauds o him. But he wan lowse o their grips, an aw\u00e0 he ran scuddie-bare, laein his hap i their haunds. (Mark 14:51-52)\n\nThis, houmsome'er is conjectur, juist, an maist scholars daesna gree that the callant abuin an the scriever is the ae body.\n\nInfluence o Peter \nMark haes lang been associate wi Saunt Peter, an mony early Kirk scholars jaloused he haed a pairt in its componin. In his History o the Kirk, Eusebius attreebutes the follaein tae Papais, a Kirk Faither o the early seicont century:\n\nMark, haein become the interpreter o Peter, scrieved doun accurate aw that he minded - tho no raicordin in reddin whit wes said an duin bi Christ. Fer neither did he hear the Laird, nor did he follou Him; bot efter, as I said, [attended] Peter, wha adaptit his commaunds tae the needs [o his hearers] bot haed nae ettle tae gie a redded upcast o the Laird's oracles. Sae than Mark didnae mak a mistak whan he syne scrieved doun sum things as he minded thaim; fer he made it his ettle no tae miss out oniething that he heard , or tae set doun onie fauss statement. (History o the Kirk: III, 39)\n\nHe later gangs on tae scrieve:\n\nEfter they [the apostles ] wes deid Mark, the disciple an interpreter o Peter - he set furth tae us in scrievin thae things whilk Peter haed taucht ... (History o the Kirk: V, 8)\n\nThe feck o scholars taks the first survivin lines o the Muratorian Fragment (? c. 170) tae refer tae Mark:\n\n...bot at sum he [? Mark] wes tae haund, an sae he set them doun. (Fragmentum Muratorianum)\n\nMaist scholars hauds that thir lines refers tae Mark bein \"tae haund\" whan Peter wis teachin.\n\nThe lang associe o the Gospel wi Peter leads mony scholars tae jalouse that Mark wus at the very least makkin uiss o some soorces that gaes back sae faur as Petrine tradeetions - i.e tradeetions anent the life an darg o Jesus that cam til the Kirk throu Peter or his follaers. Certaint in pairts o Mark Peter is ane o the few that wad hae kent whit we happenin (as ane o three witnesses tae the Transfeeguration in chaipter nine, for exemplar).\n\nDate an steid o componin \nMaist scholars hauds that The Gospel o Mark is the auldest o the fower Gospels, an that the scrievers o baith Matthew an Luke teuk muckle o their material frae it. \n\nTho minorities argie fer baith earlier an later dates, the feck pits the componin o Mark at atween the late 60s an the early 70s AD. Maist jalouse it isna likely tae be later gin, as is aften hauden, aither Matthew or Luke wis scrieved aboot 80; that gie it a date efter aboot 75.\n\nSome scholars threaps that the auldest fragment o the Gospel comes frae some time afore 68, tho the fragment that they pynt tae (kent as 7Q5) is anerly the size o a postage staump, an canna be positively identifee'd as bein frae Mark.\n\nAs for the steid o componin, it can be said for certaint that Mark's oreeginal readers wis frae the Hellenic warld (see the wey that he explains it in Jewish customs an Aramaic phrases), an maist scholars (baith auncient an modren) grees that he set futh his wark somewhaur in Italy, aiblins in Rome itsel. Mark maks twa-three mistaks in his descreeptions o the geography o Palestine, sugeestin that he himsel wisna fameeliar wi it, tho he wis awmaist certaint o Jewish extraction, he wis aiblins no a native o Palestine.\n\nMark's soorces \nTho is haes lang been thocht that Peter wis in some wey inrowed in the componin o the Gospel, the idea that he wis personally inrowed in helpin Mark isna hauden tae bi mony scholars the day. Mark wad hae haed access tae oral tradeetions in the kirk that relatit tae Jesus. Maist o thaim wad hae circulate independent o contex, an wis redd intil their contexs bi Mark tae suit theological pynts that he wis makkin (pittin an accoont o Jesus healin a blind man efter a section anent the speeritual blindness o the disciples, for exemplar).\nThe quaisten o hou faur back thir oral tradeetions gaes is aye a maiter o debate amang scholars, an is aften based on linguistic grunds, as weel as tryin tae wirk oot whit, gin ony, effect later kirk theology haed on the development (phaseological an theological) o thir tradeetions afore Mark eeditit thaim an pit thaim in their current contexs. It shoud be merkit that, tho Mark haes uised eeditorial skeel in placin an introducin the pieces o tradeetion, he aften seems tae be haundin on the aulder tradeetions athoot modifeein their content ower muckle.\n\nStyle \nMark's Greek is semple, but fluent. It haes mony Semitisms (that indicates Mark micht hae been a Jew) an aften explains Jewish customs an Aramaic wirds (indicatin a Gentile readership). He uises the phrase \"an syne\" gey aften , that aften gies his wark a quick, awmaist braithless atmosphere. The focus o Mark is aften tae be revealed in the actions an no the teachins o Jesus. Tho some sections o teachin is recordit, Mark's conception o Jesus is for ordinar seen throu wunners an the like.\n\nSoorces \n The New Testament in Scots - pitten ower intae Scots bi W.L. Lorimer\n Saint Mark (commentary) - D.E. Nineham\n The History of the Church - Eusebius\n Selections from Early Christian Writers - ed. H.M. Gwatkin\n\nSee an aa \n Gospel o Matthew\n Gospel o Luke\n Gospel o John\n Acks o the Apostles\n\nFremmit airtins \n Bible Gateway 35 languages\/50 versions at GospelCom.net\n Unbound Bible 100+ languages\/versions at Biola Varsity\n Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 : mainstream Protestant scholarskip o the 19t yearhunner summed up for the average reader.\n Michael A. Turton's Historical Commentary on the Gospel of Mark A detailed commentary on The Gospel o Mark.\n\n \nMark\nWarks o uncertaint authorship","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":6939,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gospel%20o%20Mark","title":"Gospel o Mark","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"J\u00f6ns Jakob Berzelius (20 August 1779 \u2013 7 August 1848) was a Swedish chemist. He invented the modern chemical notation. Berzelius, John Dalton and Antoine Lavoisier are said to be the fathers of modern chemistry.\n\nBerzelius was born in Link\u00f6ping in \u00d6sterg\u00f6tland in Sweden. He graduated from Uppsala University as a physician. He became a professor in medicine and surgery at the Stockholm School of Surgery in 1807. In 1810, this became part of Medico-Chirurgiska Institutet (later the Karolinska Institute) and Berzelius became a professor of chemistry and pharmacy.\n\nNot long after going to Stockholm, Berzelius wrote a chemistry textbook for his medical students. While doing experiments for the textbook, he found that inorganic compounds are made of different elements in proportion by weight. Based on this, in 1828, he created a table of relative atomic weights. On this table, oxygen was set to 100. The table had all of the elements known at the time. This work gave evidence of the atomic hypothesis that \nchemical compounds are made of atoms combined in whole number amounts. \n\nIn order to help his experiments, Berzelius created a system of chemical notation. In this notation, the elements were given simple written labels, for example, O for oxygen, or Fe for iron. The proportions of the elements was shown by numbers. This is the same basic system used today. The only difference is that instead of the subscript number used today (for example, H2O), Berzelius used a superscript.\n\nBerzelius found the chemical elements silicon, selenium, thorium, and cerium. Students working in Berzelius laboratory also found lithium and vanadium.\n\nBerzelius was the first person to show the difference between organic compounds (those made with carbon), and inorganic compounds. He helped Gerhardus Johannes Mulder in his analysis of organic compounds such as coffee, tea and many proteins. The term \"protein\" itself was created by Berzelius, after Mulder noticed that all proteins seemed to have the same formula and might be made of a single type of a (very large) molecule.\n\nBerzelius wrote a great deal. He helped many leading scientists (such as Mulder, Claude Louis Berthollet, Humphry Davy, Friedrich W\u00f6hler and Eilhard Mitscherlich), and many less-notable scientists.\n\nSummary of achievements \nLaw of definte proportions\nChemical formula\nDiscovered chemical elements\nRecognised organic compounds; named proteins.\n\nSources \nCrosland M.P. 1962. Historical studies in the language of chemistry.  Chapter 4: The symbols of Berzelius. London: Heinemann.\nvon Meyer, Ernst 1906. A history of chemistry from the earliest times to the present day. p212 et seq: Berzelius: a survey of his work. London: Macmillan.\nPartington J.R. 1964 History of chemistry, vol 4. London: Macmillan; pp.\u00a0142\u201377.\nLeicester, Henry 1970\u201380. Berzelius, J\u00f6ns Jacob. In Dictionary of scientific biography, vol 2, p90\u201397. New York: Scribners. ISBN 978-0-684-10114-9\n\n1779 births\n1848 deaths\nSwedish chemists","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":143,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":36487,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/J%C3%B6ns%20Jakob%20Berzelius","title":"J\u00f6ns Jakob Berzelius","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"On the Origin of Species is the famous book by Charles Darwin. It gave evidence for evolution, and suggested what had caused evolution to happen.\n\nIts full title was On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life.\n\nIt was published in London by John Murray in November 1859. It was translated into many languages, and has been in print ever since. The title since the 6th edition of 1872 has been The Origin of Species. This is the most important single book in the biological sciences, and its main ideas are well-supported by modern research.\n\nWhat the book did \nDarwin's book did two things. First, it provided a great deal of evidence that evolution has taken place. Second, it proposed a theory to explain how evolution works. That theory is natural selection. Evolution by natural selection is the key to understanding biology, and the diversity of life on Earth.\n\nSummary \n\n Within any population, there is natural variation. Some individuals have more favourable variations than others.\n Even though all species produce a large number of offsprings, populations remain fairly constant naturally.\n This is due to the struggle between members of the same species and different species for food, space, and mate.\n The struggle for survival within populations eliminates the unfit individuals. The fit individuals possessing favourable variations survive and reproduce. This is called natural selection (or survival of the fittest).\n The individuals having favourable variations pass on these variations to their progeny from generation to generation.\n These variations when accumulated over a long period of time, lead to the origin of new species.\n\nAreas of comparative weakness \nDarwin's ideas on the connection between natural selection and inheritance were unclear, mainly because the process of genetic inheritance was unknown at that time. This was solved in the mid-20th century by the modern evolutionary synthesis, which showed that Gregor Mendel's genetics was compatible with evolution in small steps. Darwin made almost no mention of the evolution of the human race, though most of the controversy raged around this topic. Darwin eventually published The Descent of Man in 1871.\n\nThe book's effects \nThe Origin was a serious blow to all who interpreted the Bible literally. However, even in 1860, there were many Christians who thought some of the Old Testament could not be literally true. Even the early Church Fathers had not interpreted Genesis literally.p323 Today, both the Anglican and Catholic churches hold that evolution is not inconsistent with their beliefs.\n\nThe Origin marked a big step in the history of science. Before it, religious leaders often gave their opinions on science; after \u2013 though it took time \u2013 science increasingly became the business of professional scientists. Darwin's friend Thomas Henry Huxley devoted many years to supporting Darwin, and opposing any interference of religion in science.\n\nAll aspects of biology have been affected by evolution. Before Darwin, most biology was natural history, done by dedicated amateurs. After Darwin, most biology was done by professionals trained in modern techniques. The book helped this change by providing evolution as the explanation of how living things came to be as they are.\n\nNature of Darwin's argument \nDarwin's aims were twofold: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change.\n\nMany readers were already familiar with the idea of evolution from a book published anonymously in 1844, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (actually by Robert Chambers). In his introduction Darwin ridicules that work as failing to provide a mechanism (a way it could happen).\n\nThe first four chapters lay out his case that selection in nature, caused by the struggle for existence, is analogous to the selection of variations under domestication.\n\nDarwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines. The idea was to show that his theory could explain a myriad of observations from many fields of natural history that were inexplicable if species had been individually created.\n\nContents \nChapters 1 2: Variation under domestication and under nature. Discusses the variation found within a species.\nChapters 3&4: Struggle for existence, natural selection, and divergence.\nChapter 5: Variation and heredity.\nChapter 6: Difficulties with the theory.\nChapter 7: Deals with the inheritance of instincts.\nChapter 8: Discusses the viability or infertility of hybrids between species and varieties.\nChapters 9&10: The geological record and fossils.\nChapters 11&12: The geographical distribution of animals and plants (biogeography).\nChapter 13: Classification, morphology, embryology, rudimentary organs.\nFinal chapter: Summary and conclusions.\n\nLater editions \nThere were six editions of the Origin during Darwin's life. The second, in 1860, was almost the same as the first. The sixth edition bore the title: The origin of species.\n\nThere were many changes in the text in later editions. In the fifth edition of 1869 Darwin used Herbert Spencer's phrase 'survival of the fittest' for the first time, in the heading of chapter 4.\n\nIn the sixth and last edition, Darwin uses the word 'evolution' for the first time in this book. There is a new chapter 7 inserted:\nMiscellaneous objections to the theory of natural selection\n\nThe Origin was translated during Darwin's lifetime into Danish, Dutch, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Serbian, Spanish and Swedish, and into 18 more languages since. Translations into some languages, such as French and German, were done more than once.\n\nReference works \nThere are some reference works which help scholars to do research on the Origin.\n\nPeckham, Morse (ed) 1959. The Origin of Species: a variorum text. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. A variorum contains all variants of a text; this records every change made by Darwin to the first edition up to 1890.\n\nHorblit H.D. 1964. One hundred books famous in science. Grolier Club. Contains the first full bibliographic description of the first edition.\n\nBarrett, Paul H., Weinshank D.J. and Gottleber T.T. 1961, reprint 1981. A concordance to Darwin's Origin of Species, first edition. Cornell, Ithaca & London. This takes every substantive word in the book in alphabetical order, and lists every occurrence with context and page number. Same idea as concordances to the Bible.\n\nStauffer R.C. (ed) 1975. Charles Darwin's Natural Selection being the second part of his big species book written from 1856 to 1858. Edited from manuscript. Cambridge.\n\nFreeman, Richard Broke 1965, 2nd ed 1977. The works of Charles Darwin: an annotated bibliographical handlist. Dawson, Folkestone. Includes all the editions and reprints of all Darwin's works, as far as could be ascertained. Also, an on-line version with a few later corrections:\nThe complete work of Charles Darwin online: Table of contents bibliography of On the Origin of Species: Both web pages provide links to text and images of all editions of The Origin of Species, including translations in German, Danish, and Russian.\n\nContemporary reviews of the Origin \n. Published anonymously.\n. Extract from Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 4 (1860): 411\u2013415.\n\nGray, Asa (1861). A free examination of Darwin's treatise on the Origin of Species, and of its American reviewers. Reprinted from the Atlantic monthly for July, August, and October, 1860. London: Tr\u00fcbner & Co., Boston: Ticknor and Fields.\n.\n. Published anonymously.\n. Published anonymously.\n.\n. Published anonymously.\n. Published anonymously.\n\nFor further reviews, see\n\nRelated pages \nCharles Darwin's books\n\nReferences \n\nEvolutionary biology\nBiology books\n1859 books\nBooks by Charles Darwin","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":250506,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/On%20the%20Origin%20of%20Species","title":"On the Origin of Species","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A wig is a head covering made from human or animal hair, or a synthetic imitation thereof. The word is short for \"periwig\". Wigs may be worn to disguise baldness, to alter the wearer's appearance, or as part of certain professional uniforms.\n\nHistory\n\nAncient and medieval use\nIn Egyptian society men and women commonly had clean shaven or close cropped hair and often wore wigs. The ancient Egyptians created the wig to shield shaved, hairless heads from the sun. They also wore the wigs on top of their hair using beeswax and resin to keep the wigs in place. Wealthy Egyptians would wear elaborate wigs and scented head cones of animal fat on top of their wigs. Other ancient cultures, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Jews in ancient Israel, Greeks and Romans, also used wigs as an everyday fashion.\n\nIn China, the popularization of the wig started in the Spring and Autumn period.\n\nIn Japan, the upper classes started wearing wigs before the Nara period.\n\nIn Korea, gache were popular among women during the Goryeo dynasty until they were banned in the late 18th century.\n\n16th and 17th centuries\nAfter the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the use of wigs fell into disuse in the West for a thousand years until they were revived in the 16th century as a means of compensating for hair loss or improving one's personal appearance. They also served a practical purpose: the unhygienic conditions of the time meant that hair attracted head lice, a problem that could be much reduced if natural hair were shaved and replaced with a more easily de-loused artificial hairpiece. Fur hoods were also used in a similar preventive fashion.\n\nRoyal patronage was crucial to the revival of the wig. Queen Elizabeth I of England famously wore a red wig, tightly and elaborately curled in a \"Roman\" style, while among men King Louis XIII of France (1601\u20131643) started to pioneer wig-wearing in 1624 when he had prematurely begun to bald. This fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor Louis XIV of France (1638\u20131715), which contributed to its spread in Europe and European-influenced countries in the 1660s. Wig-wearing remained a dominant style among men for about 140 years until the change of dress, affected by the French Revolution, in the 1790s.\n\nPerukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English-speaking world with other French styles when Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, following a lengthy exile in France. These wigs were shoulder-length or longer, imitating the long hair that had become fashionable among men since the 1620s.  Their use soon became popular in the English court. The London diarist Samuel Pepys recorded the day in 1665 that a barber had shaved his head and that he tried on his new periwig for the first time, but in a year of plague he was uneasy about wearing it:3rd September 1665: Up, and put on my coloured silk suit, very fine, and my new periwig, bought a good while since, but darst not wear it because the plague was in Westminster when I bought it. And it is a wonder what will be the fashion after the plague is done as to periwigs, for nobody will dare to buy any haire for fear of the infection? That it had been cut off the heads of people dead of the plague.\n\nWigs were not without other drawbacks, as Pepys noted on March 27, 1663:I did go to the Swan; and there sent for Jervas my old periwig-maker and he did bring me a periwig; but it was full of nits, so as I was troubled to see it (it being his old fault) and did send him to make it clean.\n\nWith wigs virtually obligatory garb for men with social rank, wigmakers gained considerable prestige. A wigmakers' guild was established in France in 1665, a development soon copied elsewhere in Europe. Their job was a skilled one as 17th century wigs were extraordinarily elaborate, covering the back and shoulders and flowing down the chest; not surprisingly, they were also extremely heavy and often uncomfortable to wear. Such wigs were expensive to produce. The best examples were made from natural human hair. The hair of horses and goats was often used as a cheaper alternative.\n\nSeveral contemporary writings which have survived noted that some viewed men who wore wigs as looking deformed and emasculated. It especially attracted disapproval from Puritans, and during times of plague, it was said that wigs were made of hair of plague victims.\n\nWigs required cleaning using fuller's earth, and the powder used to freshen it was made from low grade flour and scented with pomatum.\n\n18th century \n\nIn the 18th century, men's wigs were powdered to give them their distinctive white or off-white color. Women in the 18th century did not wear wigs, but wore a coiffure supplemented by artificial hair or hair from other sources. Powdered wigs (men) and powdered natural hair with supplemental hairpieces (women) became essential for full dress occasions and continued in use until almost the end of the 18th century.\n\nThe elaborate form of wigs worn at the coronation of George III in 1761 was lampooned by William Hogarth in his engraving Five Orders of Periwigs. Powdering wigs and extensions was messy and inconvenient, and the development of the naturally white or off-white powderless wig (made of horsehair) for men made the retention of wigs in everyday court dress a practical possibility. By 1765, wig-wearing went out of fashion except for some occupational groups such as coachmen and lawyers. During this period, people tended to simply wear their natural hair, styled and powdered to resemble a wig. However, the trend revived extravagantly during the Macaroni period of the 1770s. Women mainly powdered their hair grey, or blue-ish grey, and from the 1770s onwards never bright white like men. Wig powder was made from finely ground starch that was scented with orange flower, lavender, or orris root. Wig powder was occasionally colored violet, blue, pink or yellow, but was most often off-white.\n\nBy the 1780s, young men were setting a fashion trend by lightly powdering their natural hair, as women had already done from the 1770s onwards. After 1790, both wigs and powder were reserved for older, more conservative men, and were in use by ladies being presented at court. After 1790, English women seldom powdered their hair.\n\nIn 1795, the British government levied a tax on hair powder of one guinea per year. This tax effectively caused the demise of both the fashion for wigs and powder. Granville Leveson-Gower, in Paris during the winter of 1796, at the height of the Thermidorian Directory, noted \"The word citoyen seemed but very little in use, and hair powder being very common, the appearance of the people was less democratic than in England.\"\n\nAmong women in the French court of Versailles in the mid-to-late 18th century, large, elaborate and often themed wigs (such as the stereotypical \"boat poufs\") were in vogue. These combed-up hair extensions were often very heavy, weighted down with pomades, powders, and other ornamentation. In the late 18th century these coiffures (along with many other indulgences in court life) became symbolic of the decadence of the French nobility, and for that reason quickly became out of fashion from the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789.\n\nDuring the 18th century, men's wigs became smaller and more formal with several professions adopting them as part of their official costumes. This tradition survives in a few legal systems. They are routinely worn in various countries of the Commonwealth. Until 1823, bishops of the Church of England and Church of Ireland wore ceremonial wigs. The wigs worn by barristers are in the style favoured in the late eighteenth century. Judges' wigs, in everyday use as court dress, are short like barristers' wigs (although in a slightly different style), but for ceremonial occasions judges and also senior barristers (KCs) wear full-bottomed wigs.\n\n19th and 20th centuries\nDue to the association with ruling classes in European monarchies the wearing of wigs as a symbol of social status was largely abandoned in the newly created republics, the United States and France, by the start of the 19th century, though formal court dress of European monarchies still required a powdered wig or long powdered hair tied in a queue until the accession of Napoleon Bonaparte to the throne as emperor (1804\u20131814). \n\nIn the United States, only four presidents, from John Adams to James Monroe, wore curly powdered wigs tied in a queue according to the old-fashioned style of the 18th century, though Thomas Jefferson wore a powdered wig only rarely and stopped wearing a wig entirely shortly after becoming president in 1801. John Quincy Adams also wore a powdered wig in his youth, but he abandoned this fashion while serving as the U.S. Minister to Russia (1809\u20131814), long before his accession to the presidency in 1825. Unlike them, the first president, George Washington, never wore a wig; instead, he powdered, curled and tied in a queue his own long hair.\n\nWomen's wigs developed in a somewhat different way. They were worn from the 18th century onwards, although at first only surreptitiously.  Full wigs in the 19th and early 20th century were not fashionable. They were often worn by old ladies who had lost their hair. In the film Mr. Skeffington (1944), Bette Davis's character has to wear a wig after a bout of diphtheria, which is a moment of pathos and a symbol of her frailty.\n\nDuring the late nineteenth and early twentieth century hairdressers in England and France did a brisk business supplying postiches, or pre-made small wiglets, curls, and false buns to be incorporated into the hairstyle. The use of postiches did not diminish even as women's hair grew shorter in the decade between 1910 and 1920, but they seem to have gone out of fashion during the 1920s. In the 1960s a new type of synthetic wig was developed using a modacrylic fiber which made wigs more affordable. Reid-Meredith was a pioneer in the sales of these types of wigs.\n\n21st century\nThe art of wigs became a billion dollar industry in the 21st century. Three main processes happen within the industry: the collection of material, manufacturing, and distribution. India is the main source of hair. It has been reported from time to time that for global human hair trade, women from the ASEAN region are being exploited. Hair from this region has a significant commercial value in the international market. Particularly in India, the women are forced by their husbands into selling their hair, and slum children were being tricked into \"having their heads shaved in exchange for toys\". Scrap pickers are another source of hair in India, these people find hair in miscellaneous places such as hair brushes, clothes, or in the trash. While manufacturing and processing mainly takes place in China, where the hair is sorted through and constructed into wigs, the final product exported abroad, with the top countries being the United States and the United Kingdom.\n\nOfficial use\nIn Britain, most Commonwealth nations, and the Republic of Ireland special wigs are also worn by barristers, judges, and certain parliamentary and municipal or civic officials as a symbol of the office. Hong Kong barristers and judges continue to wear wigs as part of court dress as a legacy of the court system from the time of British rule. In July 2007, judges in New South Wales, Australia, voted to discontinue the wearing of wigs in the NSW Court of Appeal. New Zealand lawyers and judges have ceased to wear wigs except for ceremonial occasions, such as when newly-qualified lawyers are called to the bar. In Canada lawyers and judges do not wear wigs.\n\nEntertainment\nA number of celebrities, including Donna Summer, Dolly Parton, Sia, Nicki Minaj, Katy Perry, Lady Gaga, Diana Ross & The Supremes, Tina Turner and Raquel Welch, popularized wigs. Cher has worn all kinds of wigs in the last 40 years, from blonde to black, and curly to straight. They may also be worn for fun as part of fancy dress (costume wearing), when they can be of outlandish color or made from tinsel. They are quite common at Halloween, when \"rubber wigs\" (solid bald cap-like hats, shaped like hair), are sold at some stores.\n\nWigs are used in film, theater, and television. In the Japanese film and television genre Jidaigeki, wigs are used extensively to alter appearance to reflect the Edo period when most stories take place. Only a few actors starring in big-budgeted films and television series will grow their hair so that it may be cut to the appropriate hair style, and forgo using a wig.\n\nIn the theater, especially on Broadway, wigs are used to give a performer a fixed character. Nearly all women and many men do so not only for character design, but also to cover their microphone packs. Often the microphone pack goes on the actor's head, mainly to efficiently facilitate quick changes.\n\nAn actor not wearing a wig needs to change their look every time they go on stage. The wig helps solidify the character's design; natural hair is different day to day.\n\nConvenience\nWigs are worn by some people on a daily or occasional basis in everyday life.  This is sometimes done for reasons of convenience, since wigs can be styled ahead of time. A common practice of wigs for convenience is called protective styling. Many use wigs to avoid damage to their natural tresses, or to create styles that may not be possible otherwise. They are also worn by individuals who are experiencing hair loss due to medical reasons (most commonly cancer patients who are undergoing chemotherapy, or those who are suffering from alopecia areata).\n\nSome men who crossdress as women wear wigs in different styles to make their hair seem more feminine.\n\nMerkin\n\nA merkin is a pubic wig often worn as a decorative item or for theatrical and fashion purposes. They are sometimes viewed as erotic and some designs are meant for entertainment or as a form of comedy.\n\nImage gallery\n\nMilitary wigs\nFrom the late 17th to early 19th centuries, European armies wore uniforms more or less imitating the civilian fashions of the time, but with militarized additions. As part of that uniform, officers wore wigs more suited to the drawing rooms of Europe than its battlefields. The late 17th century saw officers wearing full-bottomed natural-coloured wigs, but the civilian change to shorter, powdered styles with pigtails in the early 18th century saw officers adopting similar styles. The elaborate, oversized court-styles of the late 18th century were not followed by armies in the field however, as they were impractical to withstand the rigours of military life and simpler wigs were worn.\n\nWhile officers normally wore their own hair short under a powdered wig, the rank and file of the infantry was not afforded such luxury. Instead of wigs, the men grew their hair long and according to the prevailing fashion in a nation's army, hair was either allowed to grow long with simple modeling, as in the French army of the 1740s, or else was elaborately coiffured as in Prussian and British armies. In the case of British soldiers of the 1740s, contemporary artwork suggests that they cut their hair short, which was not the case. Instead, the men used tallow or other fat to grease the hair, which was then fashioned into pigtails and tied back into the scalp hair to give the impression of short hair. It was then liberally dusted with powdered chalk to give the impression of a powdered wig. Later in the century, hair was likewise tied back, greased and powdered, but false hair pigtails were adopted, kept in a tubular queue and tied back with ribbons to the soldier's own hair. The overall effect was that of a wig with a long tail and bow.  The Prussian army took personal hairstyles to an extreme during the time of Frederick the Great, each soldier commonly having a long pigtail hanging down the back nearly to waist level.\n\nBy contrast, in the 1780s Russian General Potemkin abhorred the tight uniforms and uncomfortable wigs and powdered coiffures worn by his soldiers and instigated a complete revision of both. Along with comfortable, practical, well-fitting uniforms, his reforms introduced neat, natural hairstyles for all, with no wigs, powder and grease, or hair-tying evident.\n\nFormal military hairstyles lasted until beyond the end of the 18th century and it was the French Revolution which spelled the end of wigs and powdered, greased hairstyles in modern, Western armies. Powdered hair and pigtails made a brief return during Napoleon's reign, being worn by infantry of his Foot Grenadiers and Foot Chasseurs of the Old Guard and the Horse Grenadiers of the Guard.\n\nReligious\n\nJudaism\nJewish law requires married women to cover their hair for reasons of tzniut (Hebrew: \"modesty or privacy\").  Some Orthodox Jewish women wear wigs, known as sheitels, for this purpose. Wigs of those who practice Haredi Judaism and Hasidic Judaism often are made from human hair. In Modern Orthodox Judaism, women will usually wear a scarf, kerchief, snood, hat or other covering, sometimes exposing the bottom of their hair.\n\nOne rabbi has declared that long wigs are inappropriate. Another said that it is preferable for a married Jewish woman to expose her hair than to don a wig, for the wig actually increases attraction in the public domain and encourages the notion that Halakha is both irrational and intellectually dishonest. Still another rabbi, who also spoke strongly against the wearing of wigs, said specifically, \"You must go with a hat or kerchief on your head\", but did not permit leaving hair \"exposed\".\n\nMost Orthodox women cover their hair, whether with wigs, hats or scarves. The rejection by some rabbis of wigs is not recent, but began \"in the 1600s, when French women began wearing wigs to cover their hair. Rabbis rejected this practice, both because it resembled the contemporary non-Jewish style and because it was immodest, in their eyes, for a woman to sport a beautiful head of hair, even if it was a wig.\"\n\nOther options include:\n wearing a covered wig, called a shpitzel\n a covering, typically cloth, called a tichel\n another non-hair (and looser) head covering, called a snood\n a short wig mostly covered by a Tichel, but with (wig) \"hair\" showing on the forehead, sometimes also showing from the back, called a\n\nManufacture\nIn the 18th and 19th centuries, wigmakers were called perruquiers.\n\nThere are two methods of attaching hair to wigs. The first and oldest is to weave the root ends of the hair onto a stretch of three silk threads to form a sort of fringe called a \"weft\". The wefts are then sewn to a foundation made of net or other material. In modern times, the wefts can also be made (a warp is the vertical thread of a weave, the weft is the horizontal thread) with a specially adapted sewing machine, reducing the amount of hand labour involved. In the 19th century another method came into use.  A small hook called a \"ventilating needle\" or \"knotting needle\", similar to the tambour hooks used for decorating fabric with chain-stitch embroidery at that period, is used to knot a few strands of hair at a time directly to a suitable foundation material. This newer method produces a lighter and more natural looking wig. High quality custom wigs, and those used for film and theatrical productions are usually done this way. It is also possible to combine the two techniques, using weft for the main part of the wig and ventilating hair at the edges and partings to give a fine finish.\n\nMeasurement\nMaking custom wigs starts with measuring the subject's head. The natural hair is arranged in flat curls against the head as the various measurements are taken. It is often helpful to make a pattern from layers of transparent adhesive tape applied over a piece of plastic wrap, on which the natural hairline can be traced accurately. These measurements are then transferred to the \"block\", a wooden or cork-stuffed canvas form the same size and shape as the client's head.\n\nFoundation\nDepending on the style of the wig, a foundation is made of net or other material, different sizes and textures of mesh being used for different parts of the wig. The edges and other places might be trimmed and reinforced with a narrow ribbon called \"galloon\". Sometimes flesh colored silk or synthetic material is applied where it will show through the hair at crown and partings, and small bones or elastic are inserted to make the wig fit securely. Theatrical, and some fine custom wigs, have a fine, flesh colored net called \"hair lace\" at the front which is very inconspicuous in wear and allows the hair to look as if it is coming directly from the skin underneath. These are usually referred to as \"lace front wigs\".\n\nHair preparation\n\nNatural hair, either human or from an animal such as a goat or yak, must be carefully sorted so that the direction of growth is maintained, root to root, and point to point. Because of the scale-like structure of the cuticle of a hair shaft, if some hairs get turned the wrong way, they will ride backwards against their neighbors and cause tangles and matting. The highest quality of hair has never been bleached or colored, and has been carefully sorted to ensure the direction is correct. This process is called \"turning\". For less expensive wigs, this labour-intensive sorting process is substituted by \"processing\" the hair. It is treated with a strong base solution which partially dissolves the cuticle leaving the strands smooth. It is then bleached and dyed to the required shade and given a synthetic resin finish which partially restores the strength and luster of the now damaged hair. Synthetic fiber, of course, is simply manufactured in the required colors, and has no direction.\n\nThe wigmaker will choose the type, length and colors of hair required by the design of the wig and blend them by pulling the hair through the upright teeth of a brush-like tool called a \"hackle\" which also removes tangles and any short or broken strands. The hair is placed on one of a pair of short-bristled brushes called \"drawing brushes\" with the root ends extending over one edge; the edge facing the wigmaker (or properly called, boardworker), and the second brush is pressed down on top of it so that a few strands can be withdrawn at a time, leaving the rest undisturbed.\n\nAdding the hair\nWeft structured wigs can have the wefts sewn to the foundation by hand, while it is on the block or, as is common with mass-produced wigs, sewn to a ready-made base by skilled sewing machine operators. Ventilated (hand knotted) wigs have the hair knotted directly to the foundation, a few strands at a time while the foundation is fastened to the block. With the hair folded over the finger, the wigmaker pulls a loop of hair under the mesh, and then moves the hook forward to catch both sides of the loop. The ends are pulled through the loop and the knot is tightened for a \"single knot\", or a second loop is pulled through the first before finishing for a \"double knot\". Typically, the bulkier but more secure double knot is used over the majority of the wig and the less obvious single knot at the edges and parting areas. A skilled wigmaker will consider the number of strands of hair used and the direction of each knot to give the most natural effect possible.\n\nIt takes generally six heads of hair to make a full human hair wig.\n\nStyling\nAt this point, the hair on the wig is all the same length. The wig must be styled into the desired form in much the same manner as a regular stylist.\n\nFitting\nThe subject's natural hair is again knotted tightly against the head and the wig is applied. Any remaining superfluous wiglace is trimmed away. Hairpins can be used to secure the lace to the hair and occasionally, skin-safe adhesives are used to adhere the wig against bald skin and to better hide any exposed lace. Finishing touches are done to the hair styling to achieve the desired effect.\n\nTypes of human hair wigs\nThere are two basic kinds of hair wigs: The traditional machine stitched weft wig and the hand tied lace wig. The machine stitched wigs are still the most widely worn wigs today. The hair is sewn on a stretch weft material and come with back straps for adjusting to various head sizes. These wigs are typically pre-styled and lack any kind of realistic expectations.\n\nLace wigs are quickly becoming one of the most sought-after wigs among wig wearers. The illusion of hair growing from the scalp is the feature that makes this wig the best of the best when it comes to wearing fake hair. These wigs are made with a French or Swiss lace material base. They are made as a full lace or partial lace front with a stretch weft back.  Each hair strand is individually stitched into a lace material which creates the natural look of hair at the base. This is where the term \"hand tied\" originates.\n\nHair type is the distinguishing factor in human hair wigs. Four main types of hair are used in manufacturing: Chinese or \"Malaysian\", Indian, Indonesian or \"Brazilian\", and Caucasian or \"European\". The majority of human hair wigs are made of Chinese or Indian hair, while European hair is considered the most expensive and rare, as most donors are from Russia or Northern Europe, where there is a smaller portion of hair donors to the market.\n\nRemy human hair is considered to be the best quality of human hair because the cuticles are kept intact and not stripped away; \"strands retain their scaled natural outer cuticle.\" The preserved cuticles are also aligned in a unidirectional manner, which decreases tangling and matting. Also, the hair is carefully separated after collecting from the donor to ensure all the cuticles are of the same length.\n\nNotable wig designers\nWilly Clarkson, who created wigs for London's West End theatre productions\nNina Lawson, who ran the Metropolitan Opera wig department from 1956 to 1987\nPeter King, Bristol, United Kingdom\nPeter Owen, Bristol, United Kingdom\n\nSee also\n\n Hair extensions\n Hair prosthesis\n Toup\u00e9e\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nEgyptian inventions\nFashion accessories\nHairdressing\nHistory of clothing (Western fashion)\nHasidic clothing\nJewish religious clothing\nJudicial clothing","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":181,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":5,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":4,"2018-39":4,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":6,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-07":6,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":6,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":6,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":8,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":11,"2014-15":6}},"id":233763,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wig","title":"Wig","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Chromatography is a method for separating the parts of a mixture for chemical analysis and identification.  It works by using differences in the speed at which the mixed substances move through special media, or chemical substances.  It uses a stationary phase (a solid) and a mobile phase (a liquid or a gas).  The fluid mobile phase flows through the stationary phase.  Chromatography is much used in biochemistry and analytical chemistry.\n\nFlat-plane chromatography \nThe stationary phase is a flat plane, such as paper, or a substance on glass.\n\nPaper chromatography \n\nPaper chromatography is an old technique for separating and identifying mixtures that are (or can be) coloured.  It has been largely replaced by thin layer chromatography, but is still a powerful teaching tool. Double-way paper chromatography, also called 'two-dimensional chromatography', uses two solvents and rotates the paper 90\u00b0 in between.  It is useful for separating complex mixtures of compounds having similar polarity, for example, amino acids.  The compounds used initially ensures you to know whether the colour is pure, (one substance only) or mixtures (multiple substances.)\n\nThin layer chromatography \n\nThin layer chromatography (TLC) is a common laboratory technique similar to paper chromatography. Instead of a stationary phase of paper, it uses a  thin layer of adsorbent like silica gel, alumina, or cellulose on a flat substrate. Compared to paper, it has the advantage of faster runs, better separations, and the choice between different adsorbents. For even better resolution and to allow for quantification, high-performance TLC can be used.\n\nColumn chromatography \nColumn chromatography separates compounds using many chemical actions between the chemical being tested and the chromatography column (a rod with a blending of special chemicals). The column is run using either gravity or a pump.\n\nThe mixed substance to be tested is added in a small amount and is slowed by certain chemical or physical activity with the chemicals in the chromatography column. The amount of slowing depends on the type of chemicals in the substance being tested and the different phases. The time at which a certain chemical elutes (comes out of the end of the column) is called the \"retention time\" and there is thought to be only one for one chemical. \n\nThe most common stationary phase for column chromatography is silica gel, followed by alumina. Cellulose powder has been used in the past. The mobile phase is either a pure solvent or a mixture of solvents. It is chosen to \nmake the time and amount of solvent used as little as possible, while still clearly separating the chemicals being tested.\n\nHPLC \nHigh-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is also sometimes referred to as high-pressure liquid chromatography. It is column chromatography run under pressure to raise the speed of the process. \n\nCommon solvents used in HPLC are mixes of water or various organic liquids (the most common are methanol, ethanol or acetonitrile).\n\nLaboratory techniques\nAnalytical chemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":75305,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromatography","title":"Chromatography","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"UNESCO is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (). It is an agency of the United Nations (UN). \n\nUNESCO says its purpose, as defined just after the end of World War II, is \"to build the defenses of peace in the minds of men and women\". It does this by helping nations work together, through education for all, science, and culture. This is supposed to help other nations follow the rule of law and human rights. It also helps promote some freedoms in the UN Charter.\n\nUNESCO has 195 Member countries.\n\nUNESCO tries to achieve what it wants to do through six programs: education, natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture, communication and information. Some projects sponsored by UNESCO are literacy, technical, and teacher-training programmes. UNESCO also decides what will become World Heritage Sites. A World Heritage Site is an important, special, interesting or beautiful place. If a place is a World Heritage Site, the place can not be destroyed, as it can give useful information for the future. The Uluru, for example, gives a lot of information on the culture of Aborigines. UNESCO is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. and works for Millennium Development Goals.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\nOfficial site of UNESCO on which you can find extra information\n\n \nCultural organizations\nScientific organizations\nEducational organizations\n1945 establishments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":172,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-50":3,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":2}},"id":13920,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UNESCO","title":"UNESCO","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Raffaello Sanzio, usually known as Raphael (April 6, 1483 - April 6, 1520) was a Renaissance painter and architect. With Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, he is one of the three greatest painters of the High Renaissance.\n\nHe is best known for his paintings of the Madonna and Christ Child and for his paintings in the Vatican in Rome, Italy.\n\nPerugia \nRaphael was born in Urbino, in the region of Umbria, Italy. He was the son of Giovanni Santi (d. 1494), who was also a painter, and Magia di Battista Ciarla (d. 1491). Giovanni Santi was Raphael's first teacher, but he died when Raphael was only eleven.\n\nAt the age of 15, Raphael became an apprentice at the workshop of the painter Pietro Perugino, called by that name because he was the most famous painter in the town of Perugia. Perugino was famous, not only in Umbria, but also in Rome and in Florence, the home of Leonardo and Michelangelo. He had been one of the artists given the important job of painting the Pope's large chapel in the Vatican, the Sistine Chapel.\n\nPerugino was known to have expert ways of painting (technique), and was good at getting paintings finished on time which made him popular with his patrons. He painted some portraits of people alive in his day, but most of his pictures are of religious figures of the past. Some of his paintings are small pictures of the Madonna and Child that could be used in a family chapel for private worship. Because he was famous, Perugino also got lots of work from wealthy patrons and from churches, so he painted many very large pieces to go above the altars in churches. To do this, he needed the help of his apprentices.\n\nRaphael was able to learn a great deal from Perugino - drawing, the anatomy of the human figure, paint chemistry, and the technique of putting the paint onto the picture in smooth layers. The figures in Perugino's paintings often have very sweet gentle faces. Many of Raphael's paintings are also sweet and gentle. Some painters, such as Leonardo, were quick to change their style and make their paintings show their own touch. But Raphael continued to paint in the style that Perugino taught him. He added new ideas that he learned by looking at the work of other artists. Unlike Leonardo and Michelangelo, Raphael did not give the world anything new in the Art of Painting. He is famous simply because he was so expert at what he did, and because people loved his paintings so much.\n\nFirst Works \n\nThe painting that is thought to be his earliest known work is a small picture called The Vision of a Knight. In this painting a knight lies asleep. In his dream there are two beautiful women. One woman, dressed in soft flowing clothes, offers him flowers. The other woman, dressed in dark clothing, offers the knight a sword and a book. The path behind the pretty woman runs beside a river. The other path leads up a steep mountain. Raphael was thinking about choices. Should the knight take the easy road, or should he try to change things?\n\nOther early pictures by Raphael are Three Graces, and Saint Michael.\n\nRaphael's first major work was The Marriage of the Virgin which was painted in 1504. It was influenced by Perugino's painting for the Sistine Chapel of Jesus giving the Keys to Saint Peter. It is now in the Brera Gallery in Milan, Italy.\n\nFlorence \n\nIn about 1504 Raphael went with another painter, Pinturicchio, to Florence, Italy. Florence was famous for its artworks, its artist's workshops, its new Renaissance buildings and its huge cathedral. Raphael wanted to see the work of Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and other important painters and sculptors.\n\nThe Madonnas \nFlorence had a very strong tradition of making images of the Madonna and Child because the city was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. On almost every street corner there was a painting or a brightly coloured statue of the Madonna and Child.\n\nWhile he was in Florence, Raphael painted many of his famous Madonna paintings. The most famous of these paintings are:\n The Madonna of the Goldfinch (c. 1505), which is now in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy.\n the Madonna del Prato (c. 1505), which is in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, in Vienna, Austria.\n the Esterh\u00e1zy Madonna (c. 1505 \u2013 07), which is in Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, Hungary.\n La Belle Jardini\u00e8re (The Madonna of the Beautiful Garden) (c. 1507), which is in the Louvre Museum, in Paris, France.\n\nRome \nIn 1508 Raphael was called to Rome by Pope Julius II. He became so popular whilst he was in Rome that he was known as the \"Prince of Painters\". He spent the last 12 years of his life in Rome and created many of his most famous paintings.\n\nWhile he was in Rome he was commissioned (given a job), to paint a fresco of the Prophet Isaiah in the Church of Sant'Agostino. While he was working on the painting, he went to visit his friend, the architect, Donato Bramante. Bramante was at the Vatican while Michelangelo was painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Of course Raphael wanted to see what the famous master was doing. While Michelangelo was away, Bramante took Raphael into the chapel. When Raphael saw the way that Michelangelo had painted the prophets, he was so excited that he went back to Sant'Agostino's Church, scraped his painting off the wall and started all over again. It is easy to see that Raphael's painting is in the style of Michelangelo. Raphael was not ashamed of this. He did it to give honour to the great master.\n\nThe Stanze \n\nAmong Raphael's most famous paintings are the frescos that are painted on the walls of Julius II's own rooms in the Vatican Palace, known as the Stanze. The paintings in the Stanza della Segnatura and the Stanza d'Eliodoro were created by Raphael himself, whilst the Stanza dell'Incendio was designed by Raphael and painted by his assistants.\n\nOne of the frescoes in the Stanza della Segnatura is of the greatest importance. This painting is called The School of Athens. It shows a group of learned people from Ancient Greece, philosophers, poets, dramatists, mathematicians and others. They are listening to the central figure, who is the philosopher, Plato. The painting is meant to show that at that time, the early 1500s, there was a new birth of ideas and learning among the people of Rome that was equal to the learning of Ancient Athens.\n\nTo make this message clear, Raphael used the faces of the people that he knew. Michelangelo, with his broken nose, is sitting with his chin on his hand. The tall figure of Plato with long hair and flowing beard is a portrait of Leonardo da Vinci.\n\nOne of the excellent things about this painting is the way that Raphael has painted the building in which the figures are standing. The architecture looks as if it is opening up from the real room.\n\nArchitecture \nIn the 1500s, painters were often asked to design architecture. Raphael's first work as an architect was the funeral chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo. Pope Leo X also chose Raphael to help design Saint Peter's Basilica alongside Donato Bramante. After Bramante died, Raphael took over the designing of the basilica and changed its groundplan from a Greek Cross to a Latin Cross. Michelangelo went back to Bramante's plan but made it simpler. Then another architect, Maderna, made the building longer, as Raphael had planned.\n\nThe Transfiguration \nRaphael's last work of art was a painting of the Transfiguration. This was an altarpiece, but Raphael died before he could complete it. It was instead finished by Giulio Romano, who was one of Raphael's assistants.\n\nDeath \nRaphael died on his 37th birthday. He was buried in the Pantheon in Rome. His funeral was at the Vatican. His Transfiguration altarpiece was put at the head of Raphael's funeral carriage.\n\nRelated pages\n List of Italian painters\n\nReferences \n\n1483 births\n1529 deaths\n16th-century Italian painters\nItalian architects","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":27240,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Raphael","title":"Raphael","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Renaissance music is European music written from about the year 1400 to 1600. This section of time is called the Renaissance, a word which means \"rebirth\". The Renaissance comes between the Middle Ages and the Baroque times.\n\nPutting music into time sections does not mean that there were quick changes of type. Music changed slowly, and early Renaissance music was similar to Medieval music. Slowly music-writers started to try new ideas. A lot of medieval church music had become very hard with lots of rules about rhythms and clashes of notes to make dissonances. A lot of Renaissance composers wrote music which was smoother and more gentle. The music was still polyphonic with each voice having a share of melody. Music was starting to become less modal and more tonal. By the time the Baroque period started composers were using a system of major and minor keys like we do today.\n\nVocal music \n\nComposers wrote many masses and motets. The 16th century also saw the birth of the madrigal: secular (not religious) songs which were often about love. The madrigal started in Italy and became very popular for a short while in England from the 1580s. There were lots of other secular songs such as the chanson, canzonetta and villanelle. Songs were often accompanied by a lute.\nMusic was an essential part of civic, religious, and courtly life in the Renaissance. The rich interchange of ideas in Europe, as well as political, economic, and religious events in the period 1400\u20131600 led to major changes in styles of composing, methods of disseminating music, new musical genres, and the development of musical instruments. The most important music of the early Renaissance was compose for use by the church\u2014polyphonic (made up of several simultaneous melodies) masses and motets in Latin for important churches and court chapels. By the end of the sixteenth century, however, patronage was split among many areas: the Catholic Church, Protestant churches and courts, wealthy amateurs, and music printing\u2014all were sources of income for composers.\n\nMusic notation \nAn important development during the Renaissance was music notation. Many musicians wrote books about music theory. They are useful for us because they tell us how music sounded in those days and what people thought about it. Music started to be written on a music staff with five lines. There were still no barlines in early Renaissance music. Notes were written with white note heads, e.g. the minim (half note) was at one time the shortest note that could be written (the \"minimum\" length). Only later did crochets (quarter notes) and quavers (eighth notes) come in. This does not mean that music was slow in those days, it was just the way it was written.\n\nKey signatures had not yet been invented. Sharps and flats were sometimes shown by accidentals (written in front of the notes). Very often, however, the performers were expected to know or even decide for themselves the sharps and flats (see musica ficta).\n\nMusic printing \nAnother very important discovery at this time was music printing. Music printing started in Italy in the mid 16th century.\n\nComposers of the Renaissance \n\nIn the early 15th century there was a group of composers known now as the Burgundian School (from Burgundy). Guillaume Dufay was the most famous. Their music sounded a little bit like medieval music. \n\nTowards the end of the 15th century a style of polyphonic sacred music had been developed that can be heard in the masses of Johannes Ockeghem and Jacob Obrecht. Ockeghem even composed one piece in which all the parts develop from one idea which was used as a canon.\n\nIn the 16th century composers started to write music with a clear beat and regular pulse. These included Josquin des Prez and others from the Franco-Flemish School. The was a Roman school, to which the famous Italian Giovanni da Palestrina belonged. His way of writing polyphony has been a model for that style for many centuries. Music students still have to study \"Palestrina technique\" (how to compose in Palestrina's style). Although church music at this time is mainly polyphonic it also has homophonic passages where the voices sing the same words together. This helps to make important words really clear.\n\nIn Venice, from about 1534 until around 1600, a polychoral style developed. Choirs were separated, singing from different parts of the church, often from galleries. This grand music sounded beautiful in big churches such as the Basilica San Marco di Venezia. These composers are often called the \"Venetian School\". Andrea Gabrieli and later his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli wrote this kind of music, and later Claudio Monteverdi who started in the Renaissance and lived into the Baroque period.\n\nThe end of the Renaissance period \n\nThe change to the Baroque musical style happened around 1600. This was the time when opera was invented. This needed a new style of composing. The composer Monteverdi wrote in the Renaissance style until about 1600-1650, when he changed to the Baroque style. \n\nRenaissance\nPeriods in music history","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2}},"id":59707,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Renaissance%20music","title":"Renaissance music","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Michael Thomas Green (born July 30, 1971) is a Canadian-American comedian, show host, actor, filmmaker, podcaster, and rapper. After pursuing stand-up comedy and music as a young adult, Green created and hosted The Tom Green Show, which aired on Canadian television and later on MTV between 1994 and 2000. The show became popular for its shock comedy, absurdist pranks and Green's manic persona, and influenced later series such as Jackass and The Eric Andre Show. Green has also appeared in the Hollywood films Road Trip (2000), Charlie's Angels (2000),  Stealing Harvard (2002), and Shred (2008). Green additionally directed, co-wrote and starred in the cult film Freddy Got Fingered (2001). He was briefly married to actress Drew Barrymore (2001\u20132002), who co-starred with him in Charlie's Angels and Freddy Got Fingered.\n\nIn 2003, Green hosted the short-lived MTV late-night talk show titled The New Tom Green Show. From 2006 until 2011, he hosted an internet talk show, Tom Green's House Tonight, from his home, and returned to performing stand-up comedy in 2010. From October 2013 to November 2014, Green hosted the weekly talk show Tom Green Live on American cable network AXS TV.\n\nEarly life \nMichael Thomas Green was born in Pembroke, Ontario, Canada, the elder of two sons born to Mary Jane, a communications consultant, and Richard Green, a computer systems analyst and retired army captain. He grew up in nearby Petawawa and later Gloucester (now a part of Ottawa) where he attended Henry Munro Middle School, Colonel By Secondary School and Cairine Wilson Secondary School. Green studied television broadcasting at Algonquin College and graduated in 1994.\n\nCareer\n\nEarly work (1986\u20131999) \n\nAt age 15, Green started performing stand-up comedy at local clubs including Yuk Yuk's comedy club.\n\nWhile attending Algonquin College as a member of the Sigma Pi Fraternity, Green hosted an overnight call-in show on the University of Ottawa's campus radio station, CHUO. The 1990 show, originally a rap music show entitled The Rap Show, was followed by an electronic music show hosted by Glenn Humplik. Tom and Glenn became friends and joined forces to host The Midnight Caller Show, which lasted from 1993 to 1996. The basic format of The Midnight Caller was to have listeners call-in with Tom and Glenn making fun of them (or \"razzing\" them) and soon after hanging-up on them. In the early 1990s, Green had a short-lived career as a rapper in a group called Organized Rhyme under the alias \"MC Bones\". His fellow MCs included \"Pin the Chameleon\". The single \"Check The O.R.\" was nominated  for a Juno Award in 1993 for Best Rap Recording and won the MuchVibe Best Rap Video award in 1992. In 1998, he released Not The Green Tom Show as MC Face.\n\nThe Tom Green Show \n\nGreen soon had his own non-paid television show on public-access television on cable TV. The first incarnation of The Tom Green Show aired from September 1994 until 1996 as a one-hour no commercial public cable access program on Rogers Television 22 in the Ottawa region. It had 50 episodes in two seasons. The Tom Green Show was a variety show format, where he would have guests visit the studio and bands play before a live audience. \n\nIn 1996 he was hired by the CBC to do reports from the Atlanta Summer Olympic games. During the road trip in his sweltering un-airconditioned Chrysler K car, Green solved the air conditioning problem by having the roof of the car sawed off, turning it into a permanent \"convertible.\" \u00a0 \n\nThese CBC feature reports gave him national exposure (in both Canada and the US) with his Jackass type pranks, antics and humor.\n\nIn October 1996, The Tom Green Show aired one time as a pilot on CBC. The show was later picked up in Canada by The Comedy Network in 1997 and aired 26 episodes over the course of two seasons.\n\nRise to mainstream (1999\u20132003)\n\nMTV and The Tom Green Show \n\nThe Tom Green Show was then picked up by MTV in January 1999, where he gained popularity in the United States and worldwide. The format of the MTV version of the show was similar to his original show; it was hosted by Green and co-hosted by two of his long-time friends, Glenn Humplik, who occupied the couch, and Phil Giroux, who sat behind a window at the back of the set and became known as \"the guy in the window\" usually drinking cups of coffee. Derek Harvie, who co-wrote the show with Green, occasionally appeared in the segments. Many of the sketches were targeted at his parents, both of whom appear to be unimpressed and embarrassed by their son's antics.\n\nThe Tom Green Show frequently employed shock humor. Some of Green's most notable skits include pretending to \"hump\" a dead moose (which was referenced by rapper Eminem in \"The Real Slim Shady\"), having an X-rated lesbian scene  painted on his father's car (labeled the \"Slut Mobile\"), drinking milk by sucking on a cow's teat, and putting a cow head in his parents' bed while they slept because his father was a fan of The Godfather films. Green also hung his own unauthorized piece of art in the National Gallery of Canada (which remained untouched for days) with the added twist of later coming back and vandalizing it to the horror of onlooking patrons.\n\nIn a segment, Green went to the press conference of Grey Owl where he serenaded and kissed Pierce Brosnan. Brosnan, thinking Green was a journalist, advised him not to give up his day job. Green also did many segments humiliating his co-host and longtime friend Glenn Humplik; even after the pair had become well-known, Humplik continued working at his phone company job, fearing that his entertainment career might not last. Green teased him about this often and once gave out Humplik's office phone number on the air.\n\nGreen eventually wrote a song called \"Lonely Swedish (The Bum Bum Song)\", which he composed during MTV's Spring Break while doing a show on a cruise ship. After airing the music video on his show and appealing to his audience to request it, the song became an instant number one hit on Total Request Live and was also referred to in Eminem's song \"The Real Slim Shady\". He quickly called for the video to be retired because \"it's not fair to 98 Degrees.\" Later, in his autobiography, he revealed that MTV had pressured him to do so in order to maintain the image that Total Request Live was, in fact, a live request show (the next week's episodes had been pre-taped on location, and the producers of the show were completely unaware of \"The Bum Bum Song\" at the time).\n\nGreen's increasing fame made it harder for him to ambush people during man-on-the-street segments, leading him to target mostly senior citizens and non-English speakers. After he was diagnosed with testicular cancer in March 2000, he stopped production of new episodes of his TV show but continued to appear on the channel via reruns and other promotional materials. Green's popularity during this time led to him gracing the cover of the June 8, 2000, issue of Rolling Stone magazine.\n\nThe MTV show Jackass debuted six months after The Tom Green Show went on hiatus. Many of the segments on the show had close similarities to the segments from Green's show: Bam Margera rudely awakening his parents, the cast of Jackass falling down while on crutches, swimming with sharks, etc.\n\nTesticular cancer and hiatus from MTV \nIn early 2000, Tom Green was diagnosed with, and successfully treated for testicular cancer. Green wrote, directed and starred in a one-hour MTV television special titled The Tom Green Cancer Special (aired on May 23, 2000), which documented the time leading up to his surgery and included graphic footage of his own surgery. The episode received wide critical acclaim for revealing a vulnerable, human side of an otherwise juvenile television personality. During this time, he started the \"Tom Green's Nuts Cancer Fund\" to raise money for cancer research.  In mid-2000, Green also spoke in front of thousands of students in the University of Florida and sang a song titled \"Feel Your Balls\" to help educate others about testicular cancer.\n\nAlthough it was Green's cancer that caused The Tom Green Show to cease production, a frequent rumor relates that the show was cancelled because of an alleged segment where Green shows up at a bar mitzvah, or another Jewish event, dressed as Adolf Hitler. Green, however, has repeatedly denied that such a segment exists, and there is no evidence to suggest that such an event occurred. He mentions the rumor in his 2004 autobiography, Hollywood Causes Cancer, stating that it apparently started when some Boston teenagers were caught videotaping themselves performing a similar stunt and when asked by security, they used the name \"Tom Green.\" Green says, \"I would never do a mean-spirited, anti-Semitic joke like that \u2013 it's both abhorrent and not funny. To this day I still get asked about it, and it's annoying. So again, for the record, it didn't happen. There is nobody on this planet that has ever seen this bit on tape because it does not exist. If it did exist, it would have certainly reared its ugly, hateful head on the Internet by now. But it won't, because it doesn't exist. I've never put on a Hitler costume. In fact, I've never even been to a Bar Mitzvah.\"\n\nFilm career \nGreen's fame soon netted him roles in several Hollywood movies, including Road Trip, Charlie's Angels, Freddy Got Fingered (which he also wrote and directed), and Stealing Harvard. Green continued the trend of his brand of comedy in Road Trip in a notable scene where he put a mouse in his mouth.\n\nFreddy Got Fingered won in five categories at the 2001 Golden Raspberry Awards, given to the worst movies of the year. Green appeared at the ceremony to accept his awards, making him the first performer to do so in the award's twenty-year history, and the second recipient to do so following director Paul Verhoeven for Showgirls in 1995. Green arrived at the awards ceremony in a white Cadillac, wearing a tuxedo and rolled out his own red carpet. After accepting the awards, Green stated \"When we set out to make this film we wanted to win a Razzie, so this is a dream come true for me\". While onstage, he began to play the harmonica and did not stop until he was dragged off.\n\nMarriage to Drew Barrymore and Saturday Night Live \nIn July 2000, Tom Green became engaged to actress Drew Barrymore. Green and Barrymore met after Barrymore, who was a fan of Green's show, asked Green to appear in Charlie's Angels, which Barrymore starred in and produced. Green and Barrymore married on July 7, 2001. In Green's book Hollywood Causes Cancer, he writes \"We lived together for a year before we were engaged, and we were engaged for a year before we got married\". Barrymore also appeared in her then-fianc\u00e9's infamous 2001 film Freddy Got Fingered.\n\nDuring the buildup to their wedding Green and Barrymore frequently joked with the media about when and where they were going to wed. The most notable incident came on November 18, 2000, when Green hosted the American television show Saturday Night Live. During the monologue, Green brought Barrymore on stage and teased the audience about the couple marrying at the end of the episode. Ultimately, the stage was set for a wedding before Barrymore, in the end, got \"cold feet\" and left Green alone to end the show. The SNL incident initially left viewers and the media confused about whether the couple had actually planned to marry on live TV, or were simply staging a publicity stunt. Eventually, Green also went on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno to toy with the public once again, this time claiming that his bride might be pregnant.\n\nBarrymore and Green filed for divorce on December 17, 2001, citing irreconcilable differences. Their divorce became official on October 15, 2002.\n\nReturn to MTV and The New Tom Green Show \nIn 2002, Green starred in and directed a one-hour MTV special called The Tom Green Subway Monkey Hour, where he tormented strangers in Japan. During 2002, Green also started his own production company called Bob Green Films; he starred in and was executive producer for a half-hour special entitled The Skateboard Show on The WB.\n\nIn mid-2003, after Green guest-hosted The Late Show with David Letterman, MTV gave him his own late-night talk show called The New Tom Green Show. The show lasted less than three months and the show consisted of a traditional monologue, and segments, followed by interviews with guests. Green in numerous interviews has stated that David Letterman was one of his early influences.\n\nIn September 2003, the show was cancelled by MTV eleven weeks after its premiere due to low ratings. Reports indicate that ratings and viewers for the show averaged 889,000 viewers in the first week and then averaged 255,000 viewers in the last week for the reruns. In Green's book Hollywood Causes Cancer, he stated that the show \"was very expensive to produce and not really the type of show that MTV has been traditionally known for.\"\n\nPost-MTV (2004\u2013present)\n\nAutobiography \nOn October 12, 2004, Green released his autobiography Hollywood Causes Cancer: The Tom Green Story, which discussed in detail his Hollywood career, short-lived marriage to Drew Barrymore, and his experience dealing with testicular cancer.\n\nA notable incident discussed in the book involved Green on character-based talk show Primetime Glick with Jiminy Glick (played by Martin Short). Green wrote that this un-aired interview was the first time he walked off any show, and this was due in part to Short being \"mean\" and making fun of his testicle. When Short brought up the incident in a 2005 interview, Green defended his stance on his online blog.\n\nRap career \n\nIn 2005, Green returned to rap and started the group, The Keepin' it Real Crew, featuring DJ EZ Mike of the Dust Brothers, where they did two Canadian live tours (June 2005 and January 2006). On December 6, 2005, Green released his second solo album in Canada entitled Prepare For Impact, which included a bonus DVD featuring footage from his live tour. The album was also co-produced by Mike Simpson of the Dust Brothers. The album included comedic tracks (such as \"My Bum Is On Ya Lips\" and \"I'm an Idiot\") as well as serious tracks where he rapped about his Hollywood career.\n\nHe has performed with Too Short, Flavor Flav, Grand Buffet, Mickey Avalon, People Under The Stairs, Xzibit, and other popular rap artists on his Tom Green Live show. In January 2008, a second solo rap album titled Basement Jams was released in download-only format on his website.\n\nIn March 2009, on Last Call with Carson Daly, Tom played a sample of his new song \"It's Been A Long Time Coming.\" On his website, Green has stated intentions of releasing a new rap album in 2010 and talks about working with music producer Detail. In a February 2010 interview, Green mentioned an upcoming song entitled \"Other Side Of The World\" and stated that he was developing a television show following the progress of his first major American rap album. On a November 2010 answer to a fan question in the Forum section of tomgreen.com, Green said, \"Expect some singles in the future. The album is dead, sadly.\"\n\nIn July 2011, Green recorded and posted a 2011 remix of \"Check The O.R.\" and re-united Organized Rhyme at the Just For Laughs festival in Montreal. In October 2011, The Comedy Network's website posted the group's new music video: \"Check The O.R. Redux\".\n\nOn May 17, 2019, Green released his new album entitled The Tom Green Show LP, which featured his new song \"I Wanna Be Friends With Drake\".\n\nMore mainstream \nIn the 2000s, Green has tried to put some of his more controversial material behind him and become a more mainstream entertainer. Green was a recurring contributor to The Tonight Show with Jay Leno; doing many segments where he travels across America looking for \"interesting people\", typically bringing the most colourful person with him back to the studio. In these segments, the focus is more on the odd behavior of the interviewees, with Green generally playing the straight man.\n\nIn 2003, Green visited troops in Kosovo on a USO tour. He visited troops in the Persian Gulf on a 2004 tour. In early 2006, Green appeared in several commercials for the Canadian Cable Public Affairs Channel promoting both The Channel and encouraging voters to participate in the forthcoming federal elections, which took place on January 23, 2006.\n\nDuring the 2006 Winter Olympic Games in Torino, Green was a comedy correspondent for The Tonight Show with Jay Leno where he would scavenge the Olympic village alongside specific Olympic athletes for \"free stuff\", calling themselves the \"Swag Pack\".\n\nOn August 3, 2006, Green appeared on America's Got Talent. He rode a skateboard through a flaming hoop, appeared to be on fire for a few seconds, and was put out with extinguishers. It was confirmed on the August 3 episode of Tom Green Live that it was a stunt man, not Green, that did the actual stunt.\n\nGreen has hosted a variety of special events, including the 2005 Canada's Walk of Fame induction ceremony, the Canadian Live 8 concert, and the 2005 CASBY Awards. In November 2008, Green hosted an environmental game show on the Discovery Planet Green television network titled Go For The Green!\n\nGreen has made several appearances as a celebrity contestant on the ABC reality game show Wanna Bet?, including the show's premiere episode in July 2008. He was also a contestant on the 2009 season of The Celebrity Apprentice. Throughout the season, each celebrity raised money for a charity of their choice; Green selected the \"Butch Walts and Donald Skinner Urologic Cancer Research Foundation.\" He was fired by Donald Trump on the third episode, while acting as project manager, primarily due to waking up late on the day of the task \u2013 he had been out drinking with Dennis Rodman the night before. On August 4, 2009, Green made an appearance on the American version of Hell's Kitchen as a celebrity guest diner. In late 2009 and early 2010, he appeared on the first two seasons of For the Love of Ray J to judge the contestants on the show. On that show, Green has been credited for coining the popular catchphrase, \"She smashed the homie.\"\n\nIn July 2011, Green received mainstream attention from CNN and various sources for his claims that he invented planking in 1994. Green also writes columns for The Huffington Post.\n\nIn 2013, Green released a milk stout beer by Beau's All Natural Brewing Company called The Tom Green Beer.\n\nReturn to film and television \nIn 2005, he starred in a children's TV movie, Bob the Butler, and made guest appearances on various kid's shows. Since then, Green has been starring in low-profile independent films such as the 2008 movies Shred and Freezer Burn: The Invasion of Laxdale, and the 2009 movie Revenge of the Boarding School Dropouts.\n\nIn February 2010, Green announced that he had finished editing an independent film titled Prankstar, which he also starred in, wrote and directed.  Green was on the March 21, 2013, episode of Workaholics and the March 25, 2013, episode of Canadian television series Seed. He was also in the 2014 Trailer Park Boys 3: Don't Legalize It movie. Green has also made many appearances on the Canadian revival of the game show Match Game.\n\nOn January 13, 2019, it was announced Tom would be a houseguest in the second American season of the reality show competition Celebrity Big Brother. He was evicted by a 3\u20130 vote on February 8, 2019. He was voted as America's Favorite Houseguest and won $25,000.\n\nInterviewer (2006\u2013present) \nSince launching his web show in 2006, Green has conducted long-format interviews with hundreds of guests; and has since then, taken various podcasting projects and re-launched his live show on television in 2013 using the same interview format. In an October 2013 interview, Green stated that he preferred \"great interviewers who know when to sit back and listen\" rather than being an interviewer that \"wanted to be as funny as the guest and...get into a sort of competitive relationship with them\".\n\nTomgreen.com: The Channel (2006\u20132011, 2015) \n\nOn June 5, 2006, ManiaTV.com announced they had formed a partnership with Green to host a live talk show from his own living room in the Hollywood Hills overlooking the San Fernando Valley. The first show aired live on June 15, 2006, at 11\u00a0pm EST, was originally called Tom Green Live!, and was airing Mondays through Thursdays. In January 2008, shortly after Green's split from ManiaTV, the show was renamed Tom Green's House Tonight. The shows are broadcast live at TomGreen.com. A pared-down version was later broadcast on The Comedy Network and various local channels in the United States, until Green stopped syndicating the show to television. On a 2009 blog, Green noted that he stopped his show from syndication on television due to dissatisfaction with his lack of creative control. He continues to broadcast the show from his website. Green later started a monthly subscription service that allowed subscribers to have full access to all the videos on his website.\n\nDue to lack of an established term, Green often refers to his live streaming broadcast as \"Web-o-Vision.\" He also jokingly says he is broadcasting to \"The National Internet\", despite the show having a worldwide audience. Green often refers to his show as, \"The highest rated, longest running, and only talk show on the Internet.\"\n\nFrom Green's website, Tom Green's House Tonight typically aired live on weeknights at 10\u00a0pm EST, although shows can begin at any time during the day and night. The shows were then archived on his website. The format of the show often includes Green taking live telephone calls and Skype video calls where viewers around the world are able to chat with Green and his guests. Green would often be a victim of prank calls due to the live nature of the show and would sometimes voice his frustration with the callers. On top of the live web show, Green has added many video segments from his past as well as present.\n\nIn 2007, \"Tom Green Live\" won the 2007 TV Guide \"Online Video Award\" for Best Web Talk Show. In 2008, Tom Green's House Tonight won a 2007 Webby Award for \"Best Variety Show\".\n\nAs host of the show, Green often plays the straight man while interviewing guests. There have been hundreds of shows with many notable guests including stars such as Adam Carolla, Val Kilmer, Thora Birch, Pamela Anderson, hip-hop artists Blackalicious and Xzibit, skateboarder Tony Hawk, former TRL host and talk show host Carson Daly, guitarist Dave Navarro, actor Crispin Glover, Digg.com founder Kevin Rose, comedic musician \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, as well as comedians Neil Hamburger, Andrew Dice Clay, Joe Rogan, and Andy Dick. The longest standard format show, in which Green interviewed Steve-O, ran for 3.5 hours and ended with Green drunk and Steve-O heavily intoxicated.\n\nWhen Green does not have guests, he has done many unconventional shows such as playing the saxophone for an hour, having a week dedicated to performing karaoke, or updating the viewers about The Channel while taking telephone and Skype calls.\n\nOn his website, Green has talked about the substantial costs of continuing the online show and that The Channel may be gone in mid-2011 if it is not profitable by then. In 2011, Green ended the subscription service on his website and stated that his live show is on hiatus. Green also took down the TV studio that was in his living room.\n\nDuring the summer of 2015, Green brought back his web-o-vision show and hosts it daily from his studio in Burbank.\n\nTom Green Live at The SModcastle (2010) \nFrom October \u2013 December 2010, Green did seven weekly podcasts interviewing guests at Kevin Smith's SModcastle. This was done in a long format interview style in a theater that held an audience of 50 people.\n\nTom Green Radio (2013\u2013present) \nFrom January 2013 to mid 2013, Green started doing an audio podcast entitled Tom Green Radio for his website and downloadable on iTunes and tomgreen.com. Guests have included Bryan Callen, Steve-O, Kat Von D, Neil Hamburger, and deadmau5. In August 2015, Green restarted his podcast on Play.it.\n\nTom Green Live on AXS TV (2013\u20132014) \n\nOn September 25, 2013, it was announced that Green would be hosting a new live weekly talk-show entitled \"Tom Green Live\" on AXS TV starting October 3, 2013. Green has stated in interviews that the set was modeled after The Late Late Show with Tom Snyder. The show was similar to his web show where there is a featured guest and a long format one-hour discussion. Additionally, fans can call in from Skype. Scheduled guests have included Richard Belzer, Howie Mandel, Tony Hawk, and Norm Macdonald. Season 2 debuted on January 9, 2014, and the finale was April 3, 2014. The show renewed with season 3 debuting on June 12, 2014, and concluded its run with AXS TV on November 20, 2014.\n\nStand-up comedy (2010\u2013present) \n\nIn Green's comedy acts, he focuses on traditional stand-up comedy that has included rap performances. He voices his thoughts on social media, technology, his career in show business, oppression, and social political commentary on society. He often takes time to meet with people in the audience afterwards.\n\nIn numerous interviews, Green has stated that he started doing stand-up comedy at the age of 15 but stopped after he started his public-access television show. Green said that going back to stand-up comedy was something he always wanted to do.\n\nIn September 2009, Green performed several stand-up comedy shows in Los Angeles, and later appeared at a MySpace secret stand-up event in New York. On November 10, 2009, he announced his first ever world stand-up comedy tour and as of January 2010, has been touring the world going to countries such as Canada, the United States, England, Scotland, and Australia.\n\nIn October 2010, he performed in Belleville, Ontario at the Empire Theatre with his parents and brother in attendance.  Green dressed in a Belleville Bulls jersey donated by a local movie studio he had visited earlier that day.  He discussed the city's recent ordeal involving the sentencing of disgraced CFB Trenton Base Commander Russell Williams, stating that he hoped Williams \"was having an awesome weekend\".\n\nOn August 13, 2010, after being invited, Green performed stand-up comedy at the Gathering of the Juggalos. He was later involved in attempting to calm the audience down after Tila Tequila had rocks, excrement and urine thrown at her during her performance at the same event. In subsequent interviews, Green said he successfully calmed the audience down for 10 minutes, but things got worse when he left the stage. Tequila continued performing for an additional 20 minutes and eventually suffered facial injuries after being struck in the face by a rock.\n\nGreen's September 2011 stand-up performance in Boston aired on Showtime in August 2012; titled \"Tom Green Live\", it was released on iTunes, on Netflix and on DVD in March 2013. Green performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on August 17, 2012.\n\nWebovision (2010\u2013present) \nIn 2015, Tom Green began broadcasting from a studio in Los Angeles through the live streaming service on his YouTube channel.\n\nWashington Capitals \"Unleash the Fury\" video (2007\u2013present) \nA video montage that features Green screaming \"Unleash the Fury\" has been used at Washington Capitals hockey games since 2007.  Clips from Road Trip are interspersed with various \"pump-up elements\" in a late-game rally video.  In 2010, the feature started using new video footage in which Green wore a Capitals jersey and performed scenes from the movie.\n\nPersonal life \nTom Green was married to actress Drew Barrymore from July 7, 2001, to October 15, 2002. In December 2001, Green filed for divorce. In 2010, Green stated that he had not seen Barrymore since the divorce, although Barrymore has spoken highly of him. On September 25, 2020, the pair met and spoke for the first time in fifteen years when Green was a guest on Barrymore's eponymous talk show.\n\nAs a 2009 contestant on the reality television game show The Celebrity Apprentice, Green played to benefit the Butch Walts and Donald Skinner Urologic Cancer Research Foundation. He later stated that he would not be alive today had it not been for Donald G. Skinner.\n\nOn February 21, 2019, Green became a United States citizen.\n\nOn July 18, 2021, Green announced that he had returned to Canada to live on a 100-acre property located on White Lake in Central Frontenac, Ontario, after having lived decades in Los Angeles.\n\nFilmography\n\nDiscography\n\nAlbums\n\nSingles and music videos\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n \n \n\n1971 births\nLiving people\n20th-century Canadian comedians\n20th-century Canadian male actors\n20th-century Canadian male musicians\n20th-century Canadian rappers\n21st-century Canadian comedians\n21st-century Canadian male actors\n21st-century Canadian male musicians\nCanadian male television writers\n21st-century Canadian rappers\nAlgonquin College alumni\nCanadian male bloggers\nCanadian comedy musicians\nCanadian expatriate male actors in the United States\nCanadian male comedians\nCanadian male film actors\nCanadian male rappers\nCanadian male television actors\nCanadian male voice actors\nCanadian sketch comedians\nCanadian stand-up comedians\nCanadian television talk show hosts\nComedians from Ontario\nContestants on American game shows\nLate night television talk show hosts\nMale actors from Ottawa\nMusicians from Ottawa\nParticipants in American reality television series\nPeople from Pembroke, Ontario\nPeople with acquired American citizenship\nCanadian performance artists\nThe Apprentice (franchise) contestants","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":145,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2020-34":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":6,"2024-30":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"unknown":56}},"id":18597842,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tom%20Green","title":"Tom Green","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Web browser (\u1eb9\u0300r\u1ecd af\u1ecd\u0300n\u00e0han Web, \u00e8t\u00f3 \u1eb9\u0300r\u1ecd-\u00f2nk\u00e0 \u00ecs\u00edw\u00f2 oj\u00faew\u00e9 al\u00e1\u00f9ntak\u00f9n).\n\nA web browser is a software application which enables a user to display and interact with text, images, videos, music, games and other information typically located on a Web page at a website on the World Wide Web or a local area network. Text and images on a Web page can contain hyperlinks to other Web pages at the same or different website. Web browsers allow a user to quickly and easily access information provided on many Web pages at many websites by traversing these links. Web browsers format HTML information for display, so the appearance of a Web page may differ between browsers.\n\nSome of the Web browsers currently available for personal computers include Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, Netscape, Opera.[2], Avant Browser, Konqueror, Google Chrome, Flock, Arachne, Epiphany, K-Meleon and AOL Explorer. Web browsers are the most commonly used type of HTTP user agent. Although browsers are typically used to access the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access information provided by Web servers in private networks or content in file systems.\nContents\n[hide]\n\n    * 1 History\n    * 2 Protocols and standards\n    * 3 See also\n    * 4 References\n\n[edit] History\n\n    Main article: History of the web browser\n\nThe history of the web browser dates back to late 1980s when a variety technologies laid the foundation for the first web browser, the WorldWideWeb, by Tim Berners-Lee in 1991, which brought together a variety of existing and new software and hardware technologies.\n\n[edit] Protocols and standards\n\nWeb browsers communicate with Web servers primarily using HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol) to fetch webpages. HTTP allows Web browsers to submit information to Web servers as well as fetch Web pages from them. The most commonly used HTTP is HTTP\/1.1, which is fully defined in RFC 2616. HTTP\/1.1 has its own required standards that Internet Explorer does not fully support, but most other current-generation Web browsers do.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":11741,"url":"https:\/\/yo.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web%20browser","title":"Web browser","language":"yo"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (also known as ICD) is a list of codes that classify diseases and medical problems. A special, unique code is given to:\nEvery medical condition (including mental health problems)\nSpecific symptoms, if it is not clear what condition is causing the symptom. (For example, if a person has a cough, but his doctor does not know why, he would just use the ICD code for \"Cough\".)\nChanges in the body, or test results that are not normal (if it is not clear what condition is causing these changes).\nInjuries or illnesses that are caused by things outside of the body (for example, broken bones, burns, and poisonings)\nSocial issues that may cause health problems (for example, if a person's job causes health risks, or if the person's health is at risk because of poverty)\n\nICD is published by the World Health Organization. One of the ICD's goals is to make sure that different doctors - and different countries - are using the same diagnoses. This makes it easier to compare how diseases affect different countries. \n\nThe ICD has been changed and updated many times. The most recent edition is the ICD-11. ICD-11 has been adopted by the World Health Assembly of WHO for use starting  1 January 2022 It has been revised using Web 2.0.\n\nRelated pages\n Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is published by the American Psychiatric Association; it is different from the ICD section on mental health problems\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n ICD Homepage  World Health Organization (WHO)\n ICD-11 Access  World Health Organization (WHO)\nDiseases\nHealth problems\nMedical manuals","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":133,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":157459,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ICD","title":"ICD","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A USB flash drive (USB stands for Universal Serial Bus) is a popular way to store digital information. Flash drives are an easy way to share data (information). A USB flash drive can be attached to a USB port, and provides a certain amount of storage space, which can be used to store data. USB flash drives are used with devices found in homes, workplaces and schools. Below are some examples of these devices:\n Computers\n Digital versatile disc (called DVD) players\n Video game consoles\n Music players\n Digital picture frames\n\nThey are called \"flash drive\" because they use flash memory to store files. Flash memory is a type of computer chip. The first flash drives had 8 megabytes of storage. Each year, larger flash drives will become available. In April 2012, 256 gigabyte flash drives were introduced to the market.\n\nOther common names for a flash drive include jumpdrive, pendrive, thumbdrive or simply USB.\n\nUSB flash drives have some advantages over other portable storage devices. They are physically much smaller and more rugged than floppy disks. They can read data faster, and store more data than floppy disks. Floppy disks have become obsolete when the price of USBs has become cheaper.\n\nUses \nFlash drives are used to store any type of data file, or to move data from one computer to another. USB flash drives have a lot of storage space. It is often easier to use a flash drive than to carry many CD-ROMs. Some computer programs can be run from a USB flash drive. These special versions of programs are called \"portable\" versions.\n\nComputer administrators, or people who manage the computer systems, sometimes use flash drives. Sometimes flash drives are also used to run a computer virus scanner. They are often used to repair a computer system that was damaged or faulty.\n\nPolice in the cyber division can use flash drives to take evidence.\n\nBooting operating systems \n\nMost computers today can boot from a USB drive. Special operating systems can run from a bootable flash drive. They are called Live USB versions.\n\nAudio players \nMany companies make small digital audio players (usually called an mp3 player). These are actually flash drives that can make sound. Examples include the Creative MuVo and the iPod shuffle. Some of these players are real USB flash drives as well as music players; others just play music.\n\nMany of the smallest players are powered by a permanently fitted rechargeable battery. The battery power can be charged from the USB port.\n\nMusic storage and marketing \nDigital audio files can be moved from one computer to another. The files can be played on a software media player. Many home and car music systems have a USB port. A USB flash drive can be connected to play music files.\n\nMusic artists have sold or given away USB flash drives. The first time this happened was in 2004\u2014the German band WIZO released the \"Stick EP\", only as a USB drive. It contained five high quality MP3s; it also included a video, pictures, lyrics, and guitar tablature.\n\nSince then, artists including Kanye West, Nine Inch Nails and Ayumi Hamasaki  have released music and promotional material on USB flash drives.\n\nIn arcades \nIn the arcade game In the Groove and In The Groove 2, flash drives are used to transfer high scores, screenshots, dance edits, and combos throughout sessions. In later versions, players can also store custom songs and play them on any machine on which this feature is enabled. While use of flash drives is common, the drive must be Linux compatible, causing problems for some players.\n\nIn the arcade games Pump it Up NX2 and Pump it Up NX Absolute, a specially produced flash drive is used as a \"save file\" for unlocked songs, as well as progressing in the WorldMax and Brain Shower sections of the game.\n\nIn the arcade game Dance Dance Revolution X, a special USB flash drive was made by Konami, letting players link the Sony PlayStation 2 version.\n\nBrand and product promotion \nFlash drives are very cheap to produce. So, they are sometimes used to promote a product. At most technical trade fairs, many exhibitors will promote their products by giving away free drives.\n\nIn other situations, they may be sold at less than wholesale price, or included as a bonus with another product.\n\nUsually, such drives will be stamped with a company's logo, as a form of advertising .\n\nThe drive may be blank drive, or already have documents or software loaded on to it. These are called preloaded drives.\n\nSome preloaded drives are read-only, but most can be used as a normal flash drive.\n\nBackup \nThe large memory size of newer flash drives means that they are increasingly being used for short term backup of data.\nFor example, one retail till system uses a Flash drive to record details of all of the sales for that day. The drive is used as a backup medium. At the close of business each night, the drive is inserted, and a database backup is saved to the drive. The drive is removed at night and taken offsite.\n This is simple for the end-user, and more likely to be done;\n The drive is small and convenient, and more likely to be carried off-site for safety;\n The drives are less fragile mechanically and magnetically than tapes;\n The capacity is often large enough for several backup images of critical data;\n Flash drives are cheaper than many other backup systems.\n\nComparison to other forms of data storage \nUSB flash drives have replaced a number of other storage technologies, because they are easier to use. The replaced media include:\n Floppy disks\n Solutions such as Iomega ZIP, and similar high-capacity disks.\n\nParts \nThis photograph shows both sides of the printed circuit board (PCB) inside a typical flash drive (circa 2004). The flash drive in this photograph is a 64\u00a0MB USB 2.0 device with its plastic case removed.\n\nOne end of the device is fitted with a single type-A USB connector. Inside the plastic casing is a small, highly cost-engineered, printed circuit board. Mounted on this board is some simple power circuitry and a small number of surface-mounted integrated circuits (ICs). Typically, one of these ICs provides an interface to the USB port, another drives the onboard memory, and the other is the flash memory.\n\nGood points and bad points\n\nPros \nMost computers support USB.\n\nFlash drives are quite . They are not damaged by scratches and dust. This makes them a good choice to move data from one place to another.\n\nSome flash drives can keep the data, even if they are put in water. Some data may even survive the washing machine, but this is not a designed feature, and people should not rely on it. Leaving the flash drive out to dry completely before allowing current to run through it has been known to result in a working drive with no future problems.\n\nChannel Five's Gadget Show cooked a flash drive with propane; froze it with dry ice; submerged it in various acidic liquids; ran over it with a jeep and fired it against a wall with a mortar. A company specializing in recovering lost data from computer drives then managed to recover all the data on the drive. All data on the other removable storage devices tested, using optical or magnetic technologies, were destroyed.\n\nFlash drives are available in large sizes. Currently at the start of 2020, the largest size publicly available is 2 terabytes. This will increase as the technology gets better.\n\nFlash drives use little power, compared to hard drives and have no moving parts. They are small and easy to carry.\n\nMost modern operating systems can use a flash drive, without the need to install special software. To most operating systems, the flash drive looks like a hard drive. The operating system can use any file system. Some computers can start from a flash drive.\n\nCons \nFlash memory has a limited life. Data can only be written to and read from a device a few thousand times. People should keep this in mind when they use a flash drive to run application software or an operating system. To address this, as well as space limitations, some developers have produced special versions of operating systems (such as Linux in Live USB)  or commonplace applications (such as Mozilla Firefox) designed to run from flash drives.\n\nFlash drives are small and are easily lost or left behind. This can cause problems of data security.\n\nSecurity issues \nFlash drives can hold a large amount of information and they are used worldwide. Many users store information on them that is personal, or that should be protected. For this reason, more and more flash drives offer biometrics or encryption to control the access to this data. Users can install passwords on to their flash drives so that when a user tries to open it, the computer prompts the user, to enter a password before they can begin using the device. There are a number of free and open source programs which can be used to encrypt data including TrueCrypt, pgpdisk and FreeOTFE. These programs have proved useful in securing data on flash drives.\n\nMost USB flash drives are dumb devices that hold data. However, like other storage devices, they can carry computer viruses. Bootable flash drives, like other boot devices, can easily spread them. Some such devices also have a controller chip comparable to an embedded system. In other words, the drive is a fully functional computer, which can transmit data as it wants. There have been cases where controller chips were manipulated, and spread malware.\n\nSome drives with a controller chip encrypt the data, with a secure algorithm, such as AES. In many cases, it was easy to decrypt the data, even without knowing the decryption key, because the implementation was not done properly.\n\nBecause of the issues above, and because the use of USB devices is difficult to monitor, many companies no longer allow USB devices.\n\nReferences \n\nStorage devices\nUSB","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":156,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":4,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":4,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":2}},"id":9060,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USB%20flash%20drive","title":"USB flash drive","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ambiguity means that what a thing is, is not clear. Literally, the word refers to a choice between two different things. In the proper sense it should mean \"two different meanings\" because \"ambi\" comes from the Greek word for \"two\".\n\nWe see things happen, and then we decide what they mean. If we cannot decide what is going on, the event is ambiguous. This is an extension of the original use of the word.\n\nWords or sentences that are ambiguous can lead to misunderstandings (people get the wrong meaning).  This can sometimes be serious, but it can also be funny.  Jokes often rely on ambiguity.\n\nThe sentence \"The peasants are revolting\" is ambiguous because it could mean:\n1) The peasants are standing in the streets with placards shouting \"We want more pay\"  (\"revolting\" is a verb here).\n2) The peasants are horrible, disgusting (\"revolting\" as an adjective).\n\nThe British comedian Ronnie Barker said that he loved the English language because there are so many jokes you can make using ambiguity.  He gave this example:\n\nA mother says to her little boy: \"Johnny, go over the road and see how old Mrs Jones is\".  The boy comes back and says to his mother: \"Mrs Jones says it is none of my business\".\n\nThe mother meant \"old\" in a friendly way (\"dear old Mrs Jones\"), but the sentence could also mean: find out Mrs Jones's age.  This is obviously how Johnny understood his mother's instruction.\n\nThe opposite of ambiguous is unambiguous (meaning that something is perfectly clear and can only have one meaning).\n\nAmbiguity is not the same as vagueness, which means that there is so little detail given that a statement can mean almost anything.\n\nVocabulary\nHuman communication","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":41695,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ambiguity","title":"Ambiguity","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Los Angeles Angels are a Major League Baseball team. They are based in Anaheim, California. They are a member of the West Division of Major League Baseball's American League. The \"Angels\" name is from the city that they came from: Los Angeles. \"Los Angeles\" is Spanish for \"The Angels\". They were previously known as the California Angels, the Anaheim Angels,  and the Los Angles Angels of Anaheim. They have won one World Series championship, which they won in 2002.\n\nThe Angels began playing in 1961. They were named for a former minor league baseball team called the Los Angeles Angels. The minor league Angels moved to another city when the Los Angeles Dodgers moved to Los Angeles in 1958.\n\nThe Angels' home stadium is called Angel Stadium of Anaheim. It has been their home ballpark since 1966. From 1962 to 1965, they played in Chavez Ravine Stadium. During their first season (1961), they played in Wrigley Field in Los Angeles. That Wrigley Field was built by the same people that owned the much more famous Wrigley Field in Chicago.\n\nOther websites \n\nOfficial Website\nLos Angeles Angels Baseball-Reference.com\nAngels Strike Force \n\n \n1961 establishments in the United States\n1960s establishments in California","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":156,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6}},"id":113989,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Los%20Angeles%20Angels","title":"Los Angeles Angels","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The word schism ('s\u026az\u0259m or ), from the Greek \u03c3\u03c7\u03af\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1, skh\u00edsma (from \u03c3\u03c7\u03af\u03b6\u03c9, skh\u00edz\u014d, \"to tear, to split\"), means a division or a split, usually in an organization or a movement.  \n\nA schismatic is a person who creates schism in an organization or who is a member of a splinter group. Schismatic as an adjective means belonging to a schism or schisms, or to those ideas, policies, etc. that are thought to lead towards schism.\n\nUse within Christianity\n\nThe words schism and schismatic have found perhaps their heaviest usage in the history of Christianity, to speak of splits within a church. \n\nWithin Christianity the word schism may refer to:\n\nThe offense of creating divisions among Christians.\nThe event of two groups of Christians ceasing to be in full communion with each other, so that, they decide they must worship separately because of disagreements between them.\nAny Christian communion or sect that has left the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. Which church constitutes the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church has long been disputed: for instance, the  Roman Catholic Church claims that title and thinks the Eastern Orthodox Communion to be in schism. The Eastern Orthodox Communion also claims that title and holds that the Catholic Communion is schismatic. The Protestant movement thinks that both are in error, so does the Restorationist movement.\n\nThough it is very important to note the difference between schism and heresy. Heresy is to reject or doubt the beliefs of the Church after having been baptised. Schism means that the opposing parties have a disagreement within the establishment. Both groups have to accept that they are in schism. In the canon law of the Catholic Church, an act of schism, apostasy or heresy brings the penalty of excommunication.\n\nUse within Islam\nThere are divisions between Sunni, Shia, and Kharijite Islam in CE 632 regarding the rightful successor to the prophet Muhammad. In 661 and 680 there were divisions regarding the rightful claimant to the Caliphate.\n\nUse within Buddhism\nIn Buddhism, the first schism was set up by Devadatta, during Buddha's life. After Buddha's passing away, the early Buddhist schools developed various schisms. In the old texts, 18 or 20 early schools are mentioned. Later, there were the Mahayana and Vajrayana movements, which can be regarded as being schismatic in origin. There are now perhaps thousands of different Buddhist sects.\n\nUse within Jainism\n\nThe first schism in Jainism happened around the fourth century BCE, leading to rise of two major sects, Digambara and Svetambara, which were later subdivided in further sub-sects.\n\nUse within Judaism\nThroughout the Jewish history, Judaism survived many schisms. Today, major Jewish denominations are Orthodox Judaism and non-Orthodox: Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist.\n\nExamples\n\nThe schism of the Shia and Sunni Islam, c. 632\nTwo Fourth Councils of Constantinople, one Catholic (869-870) and one Orthodox (879-880)\nThe Great Schism of 1054\nThree Popes at the same time: Roman Pope Gregory XII, Avignon Pope Benedict XIII, Pisan Pope John XXIII, resolved at Council of Constance, see also Western Schism, 1378-1417\nThe Swiss Reformation beginning in 1516\nThe Protestant Reformation beginning in 1517\nAnabaptist, c. 1525\nThe English Reformation beginning in 1529\nMichael Servetus burned at the stake in 1553, considered founder of Unitarianism\nThe Scottish Reformation in 1560\nThe Dutch Reformation in 1571\n See Old believers and Raskol for schism within the Russian Orthodox Church in 1666\nAmerican Restorationism beginning in the 1850s\nChristian Catholic Church of Switzerland rejects First Vatican Council doctrine of Papal Infallibility, see also Old Catholic Church, 1868\nThe Sedevacantism schism of 1958\nThe schism between the Anglican Communion and the Continuing Anglican Movement in 1977\n\nRelated pages\nSecession\nEcumenism\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \nEncyclopedia Britannica: Schism\nCatholic Encyclopedia: Schism\n\nChurch organization\nControversies","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":5,"2021-25":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":54475,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Schism%20%28religion%29","title":"Schism (religion)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The pineal gland is a small endocrine gland in the middle of the brain of humans and other vertebrates. It makes and releases the hormone named melatonin.\n\nThere is almost no melatonin in the blood in the daytime. At the end of the day, melatonin in the blood allows sleepiness in humans and other animals which sleep at night. There is melatonin in the blood all night, while the person or animal is sleeping. In the morning, there is less and less melatonin in the blood. When light enters the eyes, the melatonin of the blood goes away.\n\nSome people have circadian rhythm sleep disorders which make them sleepy much earlier or much later than normal. The most common one is Delayed Sleep-Phase Disorder (DSPD, or Delayed Sleep-Phase Syndrome, DSPS). People with DSPD usually go to bed at 3 in the morning or later but they sleep normally for at least eight hours.\n\nReferences \n\n Eakin R.M 1973. The third eye. Berkeley: University of California Press.\n Guyton A.C. & Hall J.E. 2001. Textbook of medical physiology. 10th ed, Saunders.\n\nSleep\nGlands\nHormones","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":77311,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pineal%20gland","title":"Pineal gland","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A trademark (or trade mark) is a way for a business to help people identify the products that the business makes from the products made by another business. A trademark can be a name, word, phrase, symbol, logo, design, or picture. It can only be used on things made by the business that owns the trademark. \n\nFor example, Coca-Cola and Coke are trademark names for a certain drink made by the Coca-Cola Company. No other business can use these names or any names similar to them. Other businesses can make a drink that is similar, like colas soft drinks, but they have to use a different name for their drink, such as Pepsi.\n\nAnother example is the Nike company which makes sporting goods like shoes and clothes. The \"swoosh\" symbol used on their products is a trademark.\n\nFamous trademarks like Coca-Cola and Nike are used for branding whole families of products.\n\nTrademark and law\nTrademarks for bakers were first included in a law in the 13th century in England. France expanded trademark laws in the late 19th century and other countries followed.\n\nIn the United States, the governing law for trademarks is the Lanham Act, in Germany the Markengesetz.\n\nGetting a trademark\nTrademarks are protected by law. In some countries, a person or company can get a trademark simply by using the name, word, phrase, symbol, logo, design, or picture on its products.\n\nTrademarks can also be registered. In that case, the business tells the government of its country that it wants to use a certain name, word, phrase, symbol, logo, design or picture as a trademark for the products it sells. If no other person or business is using the trademark to sell those products, then the government will list that trademark. Once it is listed, no one else can use that trademark for those products. This is called \"registering\" the trademark.\n\nUsing another person's trademark\nIf someone uses the trademark in a wrong way, the trademark owner can sue the other person. If a court decides that the other person was not allowed to use the trademark, they might have to pay damages to the trademark owner. \n\nIf another person wants to use a trademark that they do not own, they can ask the trademark owner for permission.  The trademark owner can grant the other person a license.  The other person usually must pay some money to the trademark owner for the license.  This can be in the form of a percentage of the cost of the product that the other person sells called a royalty. For example, a person might pay Nike ten percent (10%) of the cost of each pair of shoes it sells for the right to include the Swoosh.\n\nMarking products with trademarks\nWhen people write a word that is a trademark or show a picture or symbol that is a trademark, they should say that it is a trademark. If a trademark is not registered, they can write the word \"Trademark\", use the abbreviation \"TM\", or use the symbol \u2122 on their products. \n\nIf a trademark is registered, they can use the letter R in a circle symbol: \"\u00ae\". People can also say it is a \"registered trademark\" or use the abbreviation \"Reg.\".\n\nService marks\nTrademarks are used for products.  Businesses that do things for people instead of making things are called service providers. They can get a service mark instead of a trademark. When people write or show a service mark, they can use the service mark symbol: \"\u2120\".\n\nSymbols\nIntellectual property law\nBusiness","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":3,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":838,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trademark","title":"Trademark","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Nonviolence is a philosophy that rejects the use of physical violence. People who practice nonviolence when expressing their beliefs may use methods like education, persuasion, civil disobedience, and conscientious objection to military service. \nA demonstration  by a group of people in a public place, to show their support or to protest, is permitted on the condition that it remain nonviolent. Sometimes the demonstrators are nonviolent but other people who oppose them will come to the demonstration and behave violently to show their opposition.\n\nSome religious movements, such as the Society of Friends (Quakers) and Jainism with Ahimsa, are known for the practice of nonviolence. There are people who adopt nonviolence in midlife, such as St. Francis of Assisi. \n\nPeople who eat a vegetarian or vegan diet, and those who support animal rights, usually oppose any violence by humans against animals.\n\nFamous leaders who practiced nonviolence\nMahatma Gandhi\nMartin Luther King, Jr.\n\nRelated page\nAnti-war movement\nPacifism\nPeace\nSatyagraha\n\nVirtues\nEthics\nCivil disobedience","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":5,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2}},"id":140807,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nonviolence","title":"Nonviolence","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Natural selection is a central concept of evolution. \n\nNatural selection is the process where organisms with favorable traits are more likely to reproduce. In doing so, they pass on these traits to the next generation. Over time this process allows organisms to adapt to their environment. This is because the frequency of genes for favourable traits increases in the population.\n\nSome animals have traits (features) which help them survive. If animals with some traits live longer, it means they can reproduce more. The offspring of the animal has the same traits as them (heredity). \n\nThe theory was proposed independently by the English biologists Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the middle of the 19th century (1858). It is sometimes called the survival of the fittest. Darwin chose the name as an analogy with artificial selection (selective breeding).\n\nMembers of a species are not all alike, often because of differences in heredity (genetics). This is true even with children of the same parents. Some of these differences might make one organism better at surviving and reproducing than others in a particular habitat. When this organism reproduces, its offspring may get the genes which gave it the advantage. Some adaptations are extremely long-lasting, useful in many habitats.\n\nThe process \nNatural selection explains why living organisms change over time to have the anatomy, the functions and behaviour that they have. It works like this:\n All living things have such fertility that their population size could increase rapidly forever. \n Actually, the size of populations does not increase to this extent. Mostly, numbers remain about the same.\n Food and other resources are limited. So, there is competition for food and resources.\n No two individuals are alike. Therefore, they do not have the same chance to live and reproduce.\n Much of this variation is inherited. The parents pass the traits to the children through their genes. \n The next generation comes from those that survive and reproduce. The elimination is caused by the relative fit between the individuals and the environment they live in. After many generations, the population has more helpful genetic differences, and fewer harmful ones. Natural selection is really a process of elimination.\n\nExamples \nThere are now quite a number of examples of natural selection in natural populations.\n\nAntibiotic resistance \n\nA well-known example of natural selection in action is the development of antibiotic resistance in microorganisms. Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases. Natural populations of bacteria contain, among their vast numbers of individual members, considerable variation in their genetic material, as the result of mutations. When exposed to antibiotics, most bacteria die quickly, but some have mutations that make them slightly less susceptible. If the exposure to antibiotics is short, these individuals will survive the treatment. The  elimination of individuals which have no resistance is an example of natural selection.\n\nGiven enough time, and repeated exposure to the antibiotic, a population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria will emerge. This leads to what is known as an evolutionary arms race, or co-evolution, in which bacteria continue to develop strains that are less susceptible to antibiotics, while medical researchers continue to develop new antibiotics that can kill them. Response strategies typically include the use of different, stronger antibiotics; however, new strains of MRSA have recently emerged that are resistant even to these drugs. A similar situation occurs with pesticide resistance in plants and insects, and with malarial resistance to quinine.\n\nCamouflage \n\nOne famous case study is the study of peppered moth evolution, and there are many other examples. Most of these day-flying moths were light in colour, but just a few of the moths were dark. At first, the light coloured moths survived better because they were camouflaged against the light colour of the nearby trees. This made it hard for birds to see them.\n\nWhen factories were built, the pollution made all the trees look black. Now the light coloured moths were obvious against the dark bark. The dark coloured moths had the advantage after the environment changed. The genes controlling dark colour spread through the population of moths. After the second world war, controls against pollution worked to make the environment cleaner. Then the lighter moths once again had the advantage, and are now much more common.\n\nMimicry is another example: Some harmless insects mimic other insects which are dangerous, or which taste foul. Mimicry evolves because the better mimics survive better.  They live to produce more offspring than the less good mimics. The genes of the better mimics become more common in the species.  Over time, mimic species get closer to their models.\n\nSexual selection \n\nSexual selection is a special kind of natural selection. It is a theory of Charles Darwin that certain evolutionary traits can be explained by competition within a species. Darwin defined sexual selection as the effects of the \"struggle between the individuals of one sex, generally the males, for the possession of the other sex\". It is usually males who fight each other. Traits selected by male combat are called secondary sexual characteristics (including horns, antlers, etc.) and sometimes referred to as 'weapons'. Traits selected by mate choice are called 'ornaments'.\n\nFemales often prefer to mate with males with external ornaments\u2014exaggerated features of morphology. Genes that enable males to develop impressive ornaments or fighting ability may simply show off greater disease resistance or a more efficient metabolism\u2014features that also benefit females. This idea is known as the 'good genes' hypothesis. Sexual selection is still being researched and discussed today.\n\nErnst Mayr said:\n\"Since Darwin's days it has become clear that this kind of selection includes a far wider realm of phenomena, and instead of sexual selection it is better referred to as selection for reproductive success... genuine selection, not elimination, is involved, unlike survival selection. Considering how many new kinds of selection for reproductive success are discovered year after year, I am beginning to wonder whether it is not even more important than survival selection, at least in certain higher organisms\".\n\nReferences \n\nEvolution\nMetaphors referring to nature","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":139,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":71578,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural%20selection","title":"Natural selection","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Events from the 1100s in England.\n\nIncumbents\nMonarch \u2013 William II (until 2 August 1100), then Henry I\n\nEvents \n 1100\n 2 August \u2013 King William II dies in a hunting accident in the New Forest; his brother Henry I claims the throne.\n 5 August \u2013 coronation of Henry I at Westminster Abbey. He issues the Charter of Liberties to mark his coronation.\n 23 September \u2013 Archbishop of Canterbury Anselm returns from exile at the invitation of Henry I.\n 11 November \u2013 Henry I marries Matilda of Scotland, daughter of King Malcolm III of Scotland, at Westminster Abbey.\n 1101\n 20 July \u2013 Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, lands at Portsmouth to claim the English throne.\n 2 August \u2013 By the Treaty of Alton, ratified at Winchester, Robert recognises his younger brother Henry I as King of England.\n 1102\n Henry I has a series of charges drawn up against the rebel Robert of Bell\u00eame, Earl of Shrewsbury (particularly relating to unlicensed castle building), and, when Robert refuses to answer to them, persuades Robert's former vassal and ally Iorwerth ap Bleddyn, prince of Powys, to besiege and capture Robert's castles in Shropshire. The king deprives Robert of his English lands and titles, besieges and takes his castle at Arundel and banishes him and his brothers from England, so he returns to Normandy where he continues his rebellion. Bridgnorth becomes a royal borough. Robert's brother Arnulf de Montgomery, lord of Pembroke, being banished from England and Wales, goes to serve his father-in-law, Muirchertach Ua Briain, High King of Ireland.\n Gerald de Windsor is appointed by the king as Constable of Pembroke Castle and lord of the manor of Moulsford.\nCouncil of London reforms the clergy and prohibits homosexuality.\n The tomb of Edward the Confessor is opened and the body is found to be perfectly preserved.\n 1103\n 27 April \u2013 Investiture Controversy: Anselm goes into exile after a dispute with Henry I.\n 10 August \u2013 a huge storm devastates crops.\n Iorwerth ap Bleddyn, prince of Powys, having been insufficiently rewarded for his actions the previous year, again rebels against Henry I and is arraigned before a royal tribunal at Shrewsbury, convicted and imprisoned.\n 1104\n Henry I attempts to restore order in Normandy.\n 3 September \u2013 St. Cuthbert is reburied in Durham Cathedral and the St. Cuthbert Gospel of St. John removed.\n 1105\n Henry I invades Normandy.\n Henry captures Bayeux and Caen.\n 1106\n 28 September \u2013 Henry I defeats his brother Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, at the Battle of Tinchebray, and imprisons him in Devizes castle; Edgar Atheling and William Clito are also taken prisoner.\n 1107\n 11 August \u2013 Investiture Controversy: reconciliation of Henry I and Anselm is marked by the mass consecration of bishops by Anselm at the royal Palace of Westminster: William Giffard to Winchester, Roger to Salisbury, Reynelm to Hereford, William Warelwast to Exeter and Urban to Llandaff. Roger of Salisbury is also appointed Justiciar of England this year.\n Autumn \u2013 the Norwegian king Sigurd the Crusader overwinters in England on the first stage of the Norwegian Crusade to Palestine.\n Tower of Winchester Cathedral collapses.\n 1108\n Consecration of Chichester Cathedral.\n Construction of Southwell Minster begins.\n Walcher of Malvern produces his first lunar tables.\n 1109\n 21 April (Holy Wednesday) \u2013 death of Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury. Ralph d'Escures, Bishop of Rochester, who is at his deathbed, acts as administrator of the see of Canterbury until appointed Anselm's successor in 1114.\n First Bishop of Ely (Hervey le Breton) enthroned.\n\nBirths\n 1100\nBiddenden Maids, supposed earliest known conjoined twins (died 1134)\n Approximate date\n Nicholas Breakspear, Pope Adrian IV (died 1159 in Holy Roman Empire)\n Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Pembroke (died 1148)\n 1102\n c. 7 February \u2013 Empress Matilda, Queen of the Romans and claimant to the throne of England (died 1167 in Normandy)\n 1103\n 5 August \u2013 William Adelin, son of Henry I (died 1120 in the White Ship)\n Approximate date \u2013 Adeliza of Louvain, wife of Henry I (died 1151 in Brabant)\n 1104\nRobert, 2nd Earl of Leicester (died 1168)\n 1105\n Approximate date \u2013 Matilda of Boulogne, sovereign Countess of Boulogne and wife of Stephen of England (died 1152)\n\nDeaths\n 1100\n 2 August \u2013 William II of England (born c. 1056 in Normandy)\n 18 November \u2013 Thomas of Bayeux, Archbishop of York\n 1101\n 27 July \u2013 Hugh d'Avranches, 1st Earl of Chester, magnate\n 1104\n Serlo (abbot of Gloucester)\n 1106\n 28 September (doubtful date) \u2013 Robert Malet, baron\n 1107\n March \u2013 Robert Fitzhamon, Lord of Gloucester\n 9 September \u2013 Roger Bigod of Norfolk, Norman knight\n 1108\n 21 May \u2013 Gerard, Archbishop of York and Lord Chancellor\n Urse d'Abetot, Norman Sheriff of Worcestershire\n 1109\n 21 April \u2013 Anselm of Canterbury, Archbishop of Canterbury (born 1033 in Italy)\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":42,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":4,"2018-13":4,"2018-09":7,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":11,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-17":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":7,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":4}},"id":14808492,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1100s%20in%20England","title":"1100s in England","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sienna is a city in the Italian region of Tuscany. Its name is spelt Siena in Italian. The city has a population of about 54,000.\n\nThe historic centre of Siena has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. It is one of the nation's most visited tourist attractions, with over 163,000 international arrivals in 2008. Siena is famous for its cuisine, art, museums, medieval cityscape and the Palio, a horse race held twice yearly.\n\nSiena began as Etruscan, before it was conquered by Ancient Rome. Sienna prospered under the Lombards, who became the first Kings of Italy. Lombard nobles governed it until the 8th century, when they were conquered by Charlemagne and his Franks. Feudal rule eded with the death of the Countess Matilda in 1115, and Sienna became an independent city with its own government. There were struggles between Siena and Florence during the Middle Ages and the renaissance. The city did well in wool and money lending or usury, the charging of interest on loans.\n\nHistory \n- 900 to 400 BC: Sienna, like other Tuscan hill towns were occuped by Etruscans that changed the territories with their technology of irrigation.\n\n- 390 Battle of the Allia\n\n- At the time of the Emperor Augustus, a Roman town called Saena Julia  in the territories previously occupied by Etruscans.\n\n- Siena did not prosper under Roman rule. It was not sited near any major roads and therefore missed out on the resulting opportunities for trade.\n\n- 774 BC: the oldest aristocratic families in Sienna date their line to the Lombards' surrender to Charlemagne.\n\n- 1115: the death of Countess Matilda, an important point for the history of Sienna, because after this the Mark of Tuscia which had been under the control of her family \u2013 the Canossa \u2013 broke up into several autonomous regions.\n\n- Sienna became a major center of money lending and an important for trade. It was governed at first directly by its Bishop.\n\n- During the 1100s: power of Bishop lost energy and at the same thime the biggest build of Sienna, the Duomo, was completed.\n\n- 1167: Sienna, after a trouble about territories with Arezzo, became independence from the Bishop.\n\n- 1179: Sienna had a written constitution.\n\n- Early 12th century a self-governing commune replaced the earlier aristocratic government. The consuls who governed the republic slowly became more inclusive of the poblani, or common people, and the Commune increased its territory as the surrounding feudal nobles in their fortified castles submitted to the urban power. Sienna's republic, struggling internally between nobles and the popular party, usually worked in political opposition to its great rival, Florence.\n\n- 1203: Siena's university was founded.\n\n- 4 September 1260: the Senese Ghibellines, supported by the forces of King Manfred of Sicily, defeated the Florentine Guelphs in the Battle of Montaperti.\n\n-1348: Sienna was devastated by the Black Death.\n\n- 1355: with Charles IV of Luxembourg in the city, the population rose and suppressed the government of the Nove (Nine), establishing that Dodici (Twelve) nobles assisted by a group with a popular majority.\n\n- Years later gave the power Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan in order to defend it from the Florentine attacks.\n\n- 1404: the Visconti were expelled and a government of Ten Priors established, in alliance with Florence against King Ladislas of Naples. With the election of the Sienese Pius II as Pope, the Piccolomini and other noble families were helped to return to the government, but after his death the control returned into popular hands.\n\n- 1472: the Republic founded the Monte dei Paschi, a bank that is still active today and is the oldest surviving bank in the world.\n\n- 1487: The noble legacy returned in the city under Pandolfo Petrucci with the support of Florence and of Alfonso of Calabria;\n\n- Pandolfo was succeeded by his son Borghese, who was ousted by his cousin Raffaello, helped by the Medici Pope Leo X. The last Petrucci was Fabio, exiled in 1523 by the Sienese people.\n\n- Emperor Charles V took advantage of the chaotic situation to put a Spanish garrison in Sienna. The citizens expelled the garrison in 1552, and made allies with France. This was unacceptable for Charles, who sent his general Gian Giacomo Medici to lay siege to it with a Florentine-Imperial army.\n\n- August 1554: Sienna lost against Florence at the Battle of Marciano. After 18 months of resistance, it surrendered to Florence on 17 April 1555, marking the end of the Republic of Siena. The new Spanish King Philip, owing huge sums to the Medici, gave it (apart from some coastal fortresses) to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany,\n\n- Until the unification of Italy Sienna was controlled by Florence.\n\nThe city is an important centre for art and culture.\n\nImportant places in Siena \n Siena's cathedral\n baptistery \n Piazza del Campo\n Palazzo Pubblico \n Torre del Mangia\n Basilica dell'Osservanza\n Santa Maria dei Servi\n San Domenico\n San Francesco\n Santo Spirito\n San Martino\n Palazzo Chigi\n Villa Chigi\n Castle of Belcaro\n Villa Celsa\n Villa Cetinale\n Villa Volte Alte\n Palazzo Salimbeni, (On the \"Piazza Salimbeni\") a notable building and also the medieval headquarter of Monte dei Paschi di Siena, one of the oldest banks of the World.\n Sanctuary of Santa Caterina, incorporating the old house of St. Catherine of Siena. It houses the miraculous Crucifix (late 12th century) from which the saint received her stigmata, and a 15th-century statue of St. Catherine.\n The Museo dell'Opera del Duomo (Museum of Opera in the Duomo) where we can see the Duccio's famous Maest\u00e0 (1308\u20131311) and various other works by Senese masters.\n\nSports \nSiena has enjoyed a long tradition in sports. Basketball and football are popular in Siena. However, other sports such as rugby union and track-and-field are also practiced.\n\nThe Palio \n\nJuly 2 and August 16 are the dates when the Palio di Siena is held. The Palio is a traditional medieval horse race is run around the Piazza del Campo each year. This event is attended by large crowds, and is shown on TV. televised. Seventeen Contrade run for the prize,a painted flag, or Palio bearing an image of the Blessed Virgin Mary.\n\nSister cities \n Weimar, Germany, since April 15 1994\n  Wetzlar, Germany\n  Avignon, France\n\nRelated pages\nProvince of Siena\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n Official site\n Siena information for the independent traveler\n 360\u00b0 Photo Tour & Information on Siena\n Images from Siena \n Siena tourist guide\n Siena historical picture gallery\n Siena photos \n\nWorld Heritage Sites in Italy\n \nCapital cities in Italy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":180,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5}},"id":33590,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sienna","title":"Sienna","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Nikolai Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov, (18 March 1844, Tikhvin \u2013 21 June 1908) was a Russian composer. He was one of the most famous composers of his time and influenced a lot of other composers. Like so many Russian composers in the 19th century, he was an amateur composer. His main job was in the navy.\n\nRimsky-Korsakov was born near Novgorod, 18 March 1844, and died in Lybensk, near St Petersburg, 21 June 1908. He is best known for his operas, orchestral music and songs. He was brilliant at  writing music for orchestras and wrote an excellent book about orchestration.  He loved to write music about fairy-tale stories and legends. His best-known work is Scheherazade, an orchestral piece which describes in music the stories told by Scheherazade in the book of One Thousand and One Nights. He also completed or re-orchestrated several works by Modest Mussorgsky which had been left unfinished.\n\nLife\n\nEarly years\nRimsky-Korsakov was born in 1844. Several people from his family had careers in the Russian army and navy.  Both his grandmothers, however, were simple people who had lived in the country.  When he was young he showed a great interest in music. He sang every tune he heard and knew, without looking, the names of the notes that he heard being played on the piano.  When he was six he started piano lessons. The opera Life for the Tsar by Glinka made a big impression on him.  However, he wanted to join the navy, so in 1862 he entered the College of Naval Cadets, where his brother (who was 22 years older) was the director.\n\nHe continued to learn the piano while he was at Cadet school. He was never a brilliant pianist, but he enjoyed  playing tunes from operas on the piano. He got to know several young composers who were already becoming famous: Balakirev, Cui and Mussorgsky.  Balakirev gave him advice about his compositions. He started to write a symphony, but then he had to go to sea for two-and-a-half years. He sailed on a clipper called Almaz. The boat went to Gravesend, the Baltic Sea, New York, Rio de Janeiro and the Mediterranean  When he got back, Balakirev made him finish the symphony.\n\nCareer and musical work\nRimsky-Korsakov now worked about two or three hours a day for the navy. He spent the rest of the time composing or visiting friends.  He met more composers, including Borodin and Dargom\u00efzhsky, and he composed songs and piano music, although he was not good enough to play the piano to audiences. However, his friends realized that he was very good at writing for orchestras and he was asked to orchestrate several pieces.  Dargom\u00efzhsky, who was dying, had not yet orchestrated his opera The Stone Guest, so he asked Rimsky-Korsakov to do it.\n\nAlthough he had not had any formal musical education he was offered a job as professor of composition at the Petersburg Conservatory. In 1872 he married a girl called Nadezhda. She was a beautiful woman and an excellent pianist, and she helped him a lot, especially in making piano arrangements of his orchestral music.\n\nHe wrote three symphonies and an opera The Maid of Pskov, but in 1897 he stopped composing for several years.  He spent his time inspecting naval bands and studied in great detail how musical instruments worked. Then, in 1880 he produced a new opera May Night. It was performed in the Mariinsky Theatre. One of the main parts was sung by Fyodor Stravinsky, who was the father of Igor Stravinsky.  Rimsky-Korsakov had by now become really interested in Russian folktunes and fairy tales.  His next opera was Snow Maiden. Then his friend Mussorgsky died, leaving lots of compositions unfinished.  Rimsky-Korsakov spent a lot of time preparing them for publication.  He made changes to some of Mussorgsky's harmonies so that it suited his Romantic tastes.  Nowadays many people think that Mussorgsky's versions are better and that Rimsky-Korsakov had not understood properly what Mussorgsky had been trying to do.  He also completed and orchestrated Borodin's opera Prince Igor after Borodin died.  He composed two very popular orchestral works: Spanish Capriccio (1887) and Sheherazade (1888).  After this he hardly ever wrote any music which was just for orchestra, he concentrated instead on writing operas, e.g. The Tsar's Bride (1899).\n\nLater years\nHe became even more interested in opera after Karl Muck had conducted Richard Wagner's Ring Cycle four times in St Petersburg, but Wagner's music did not influence his own style.  However, he also had lots of worries, particularly about the health of some members of his family. He started to become depressed and worried about losing his ability to compose. He became more relaxed after he moved to a new home in the country. He composed the operas Christmas Eve and Sadko. He wrote many beautiful songs and made changes to some of his earlier music. He also wrote an autobiography.\n\nNikolai Rimsky-Korsakov died of heart trouble in 1908.\n\nHis music\nRimsky-Korsakov is best known in the west for a few orchestral works, especially: Scheherazade, Spanish Capriccio and Easter Festival overture. The way he arranges the music for the different instruments of the orchestra is brilliant (for example: in Scheherazade his use of the trombones for the evil Sultan, the violin for the beautiful Scheherazade, or the bassoon for the beggar. His operas are also full of wonderful effects and brilliant writing for the singers, but are often hard to translate well into other languages. One of his most famous piano works is \"The Flight Of The Bumblebee\".\n\nReferences\n\nThe New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980; \n\n1844 births\n1908 deaths\nRimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai\nRimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai\nRussian autobiographers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5}},"id":40463,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nikolai%20Rimsky-Korsakov","title":"Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Carnegie Hall is a concert hall in New York. The money for building it was given by Andrew Carnegie, a very rich businessman from Scotland. Carnegie Hall was built in 1891. It is the most famous concert hall in the world.\n\nCarnegie Hall has three separate concert halls: the Main Hall, the Recital Hall and the Chamber Music Hall.\n\nThe Main Hall (Isaac Stern Auditorium) \n\nCarnegie Hall's main auditorium is big enough to seat 2,840 people. There are five levels. The main hall was named after the violinist Isaac Stern in 1997. The Main Hall is very tall, and visitors to the top balcony must climb 105 steps.\n\nFor many years the world-famous New York Philharmonic Orchestra gave their concerts there. They moved out to a new concert hall in the Lincoln Center in 1962. Many of the greatest performers of classical music have performed in the hall. Concerts continue to be given there including, more recently, concerts of popular music.\n\nThe Recital Hall (Zankel Hall) \nZankel Hall, which seats 599, is now named after Judy and Arthur Zankel. At first it was simply called Recital Hall, then in 1896 it was renamed Carnegie Lyceum. It was used by the American Academy of Dramatic Arts from 1898. In 1959 it was changed into a cinema. Since 1997 it has been a hall for recitals.\n\nChamber Music Hall (Weill Recital Hall) \n\nThe Weill Recital Hall is a small concert hall seating just 268 people. Since 1986 it has been named after Sanford I. Weill, the chairman of Carnegie Hall's board, and his wife, Joan. At first it was called Chamber Music Hall, later Carnegie Chamber Music Hall).\n\nFamous concerts \nThe official opening night was on May 5, with an orchestral concert conducted by Walter Damrosch and the composer Tchaikovsky. Many famous works were given their world premiere (first ever performance) at the Carnegie Hall, including Symphony No. 9, opus 95, \"From the New World\" by Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k on December 16, 1893, the Sinfonia Domestica by Richard Strauss - March 21, 1904, conducted by the composer, Concerto in F by George Gershwin on December 3, 1925, with the composer playing the piano, and Variations on a Theme of Corelli by Sergei Rachmaninoff - November 7, 1931, with the composer playing the piano.\n\nThe world premiere of Disney's animated film Fantasia 2000 took place at Carnegie Hall on December 17, 1999.\n\nReferences \n\n1891 establishments in the United States\n1890s establishments in New York (state)\nConcert halls in the United States\nLandmarks in Manhattan\nBuildings and structures in Manhattan\nNew York City Designated Landmarks","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":151079,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie%20Hall","title":"Carnegie Hall","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The siblings are the sisters and brothers of a person.\n\nTypes of siblings \nThere are several different types of siblings.\n Full-Siblings (Full Brothers\/Full Sisters or Brothers\/Sisters): These types of siblings have both the same father and mother and are the most common type of siblings found.\n Twins: There are two types of twins: identical and fraternal. Identical twins have exactly the same genes; fraternal twins are no more similar than regular siblings. Often, twins with a close relationship will develop a twin language from infanthood, a language only shared and understood between the two. Studies suggest that identical twins appear to display more twin talk than fraternal twins. At about 3 years of age, twin talk usually ends. Researchers were interested in subjects who were in the later years of life. They knew that past studies suggested that genetics played a larger role in one's personality in the earlier years of their life. However, they were curious about whether or not this was true later on in life. They gathered subjects with a mean age of 59, who included 99 pairs of identical twins, and 229 pairs of fraternal twins who were all reared apart. They also gathered twins who were reared together: 160 pairs of identical twins, and 212 pairs of fraternal twins. They studied the most heritable traits in regard to personality, which are emotionality, activity level and sociability; also known as EAS. This study found that identical twins resembled each other twice as much as fraternal twins, due to genetic factors. Furthermore, environment influences personality substantially; however, it has little to do with whether they are reared together or apart. This study also suggests that heritability is substantial, but not as substantial as for younger subjects; it has less significance later on in life.\n Half-Siblings (Half-brothers\/Half-sisters): These types siblings have only one parent that is the same. They either only have the same father or the same mother. Those with the same mother, but different father are called uterine half-siblings or maternal half-brothers\/half-sisters and those with the same father, but different mother are called agnate half-siblings or paternal half-brothers\/half sisters.\n Step Siblings (Stepbrothers\/Stepsisters): These types of siblings have different fathers and mothers, but one of their parents is married to a parent of the other one.\nExample: John and Tom are step brothers because John's father is married to Tom's mother.\n Three-quarter (3\/4) Siblings (3\/4 Brothers\/3\/4 Sisters): These types of siblings have one common parent, while their unshared parents have a mean consanguinity of 50%. This means that the unshared parents are either siblings or parent and child (similar terminology is used in horse breeding, where it occurs more frequently). Three-quarter siblings share more genes than half siblings, but fewer than full siblings.\n Foster Siblings (Foster Brothers\/Foster Sisters): These siblings are children who are raised in the same foster home, foster children of the person's parents, or foster parents' biological children.\n Adoptive Siblings: (Adoptive Brothers\/Adoptive Sisters) These types of siblings have different fathers and mothers, but one of their parents adopts another child causing the children to be adoptive siblings. This works with more than 2 adoptive children or one biological child and an adoptive child. This is a variation of step siblings .\n In-laws (Brother-in-law\/Sister-in-law): One's sibling-in-law is the sibling of one's spouse or the spouse of one's sibling.\n Co-Siblings-in-Law: They are one's co-sibling-in-law is one's sibling-in-law's spouse or sibling: One's sibling's spouse's sibling or one's spouse's sibling's spouse.\n Godsiblings (Godbrothers\/Godsisters): These types of siblings are the children (biological, step, or adoptive) of one's godparent, or the godchildren of one's parent; or two or more children who have a common godparent: the other godchildren on one's godparent. If the godparents are not chosen within the family, they are unrelated by blood.\n In cultures with milk kinship, a milk sibling is a person who is not one's biological sibling, but was nursed by the same woman as oneself. The concept exists in Islamic law and Jewish law.\nIn Islam someone who is breastfed by a woman who is not their birth mother become siblings to the children of that woman if they are less than 2 years old and have been breastfed five times or more by that woman.\n Blood Siblings (Blood Brothers\/Blood Sisters): Not to be confused with a consanguineous sibling, a blood brother or blood sister is a person to whom one has sworn loyalty through a ritual blood oath. The custom is rare in Western culture.\n Cross Siblings (Cross Brothers\/Cross Sisters): These types of siblings are individuals who share one or more half-siblings; if one person has at least one maternal half-sibling and at least one paternal half-sibling, the maternal and paternal half-siblings are cross-siblings to each other. Stepsiblings are not cross-siblings unless their married parents have a child together. Alternatively, cross-siblings may not be stepsiblings at all, in the event that the respective parents have a child without marrying, or the cross-siblings are born after the parents of the mutual half-sibling have separated. Cross-siblings are not biologically related, unless the parents have a biological relationship irrespective of their children's cross-sibling status.\n Pseudosiblings (Pseudo Brothers\/Pseudo Sisters): These types of siblings are someone that is not a sibling, but has a relationship like a sibling, or that one considers to be like a sibling. Pseudosiblings are often not related by blood (consanguinity) and are typically very close friends.\n\nRelated pages\n Family\n Father\n Mother\n Cousin\n Stepfather\n Stepmother\n Stepchild\n\nReferences\n\nFamily\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":40,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":4,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":9,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":5,"2024-10":1}},"id":49510,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sibling","title":"Sibling","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Many sports are played in water.\nThe following is a list of water sports, divided by category. This list is not complete. Some of the sports include only one part \n\n to swimming, as for example Triathlon.\n\nIn the water (13)\nSwimming\nTriathlon - Usually a combination of swimming, cycling and running\nModern pentathlon includes \u00e9p\u00e9e fencing, pistol shooting, swimming, a show jumping course on horseback, and a cross-country run.\nRescue swimming - Swimming with the goal to rescue other swimmers or the practice thereof.\nSurf lifesaving - A competitive sport which evolved from the training activities of lifeguards at Australian surf beaches.\nWater polo - A team ball sport played in water.\nSynchronized swimming - A hybrid of swimming, gymnastics, and ballett.\nFin swimming - Swimming with fins\nWater aerobics - Aerobics in the water\nWater gymnastics - Gymnastics in the water\nSnorkeling - The practice of swimming at the surface (typically of the sea) with a mask and a short tube called a snorkel.\nDiving off springboards or off platforms\nA water slide  - A slide with water flowing down it\n\nUnderwater water (6)\nDiving\nScuba diving - Swimming under water using a (self contained) breathing apparatus\nFree-diving - The aim to maximize the depth dived using no breathing apparatus\nApnea - The practice of not breathing for extended times.\nUnderwater rugby - Rugby played under water with a ball that has been rendered neutrally buoyant. Surfacing to breathe is only allowed without the ball.\nUnderwater hockey - Hockey played under water with short wooden curved sticks and a heavy puck. Players wear diving masks, snorkels, and fins, and must surface to breathe while team mates continue the game on the pool bottom.\n\nNear the water (20)\nBoating - The use of boats\nBodyboarding - Similar to surfing, but the board is smaller and the person lies down on the board\nCanoeing\nCanoe Polo - Polo using a canoe\nDragon Boat Racing - A team paddling sport on water\nFishing - The recreation and sport of catching fish\nHydroplane racing\nJet sprint boat racing\nKayaking\nKite surfing - on flat water using a kite for propulsion\nMotor boating\nOffshore powerboat racing\nParasailing - A person is towed behind a vehicle (usually a boat) while attached to a parachute\nRowing - Propels a boat by means of oars\nSailing - Using the wind for propulsion\nSurfing - The sport or pastime of riding a wave towards the shore while standing or lying on a surfboard.\nWakeboarding - Similar to water skiing, but using only one board attached to the feet\nWake skating - Similar to wakeboarding, but the board is NOT attached to the feet\nWater skiing - Using skis to slide over the water while being pulled by a boat or other device\nWind surfing - On flat water using wind for propulsion in combination with sails\n\nOverall, there are a total of 39 water sports.\n\nSports lists","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":4421,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List%20of%20water%20sports","title":"List of water sports","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"R\u00e9sistor nya\u00e9ta kompon\u00e9n listrik atawa \u00e9l\u00e9ktronik dua terminal nu nahan arus listrik ku jalan nyababkun turun voltase antara terminal-terminalna nurutkeun hukum Ohm. (R\u00e9sistor ultra-pr\u00e9sisi miboga 2 terminal tambahan, jadi totalna 4.)\n \nR\u00e9sistansi listrik sarua jeung turun tegangan\/voltase dina r\u00e9sistor dibagi arus nu ngaliwatan r\u00e9sistor. R\u00e9sistor digunakeun minangka bagian tina jaringan listrik sarta sirkuit \u00e9l\u00e9ktronik.\n\nPanerapan \n In general, a resistor is used to cr\u00e9ate a known voltage-to-current ratio in an electric circuit. If the current in a circuit is known, then a resistor can be used to cr\u00e9ate a known potential difference proportional to that current. Conversely, if the potential difference between two points in a circuit is known, a resistor can be used to cr\u00e9ate a known current proportional to that difference. \n Current-limiting. By placing a resistor in series with another component, such as a light-emitting diode, the current through that component is reduced to a known safe value. \n A series resistor can be used for speed regulation of DC motors, such as used on locomotives and trainsets.\n An attenuator is a network of two or more resistors (a voltage divider) used to reduce the voltage of a signal.\n A line terminator is a resistor at the end of a transmission line or daisy chain bus (such as in SCSI), designed to match impedance and hence minimize reflections of the signal.\n All resistors dissipate heat. This is the principle behind electric heaters.\n\nR\u00e9sistor id\u00e9al \nThe SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (\u03a9).  A component has a resistance of 1 \u03a9 if a voltage of 1 volt across the component results in a current of 1 ampere, or amp, which is equivalent to a flow of one coulomb of electrical charge (approximately 6.241506 \u00d7 1018 electrons) per second. The multiples kiloohm (1 k\u03a9 = 1000 \u03a9) and megaohm (1 M\u03a9 = 106 \u03a9) are also commonly used.\n\nIn an id\u00e9al resistor, the resistance remains constant regardless of the applied voltage or current through the device or the rate of change of the current. While r\u00e9al resistors cannot attain this goal, they are designed to present little variation in electrical resistance when subjected to these changes, or to changing temperature and other environmental factors.\n\nKarakteristik nonid\u00e9al \nA resistor has a maximum working voltage and current above which the resistance may change (drastically, in some cases) or the resistor may be physically damaged (overh\u00e9at or burn up, for instance). Although some resistors have specified voltage and current ratings, most are rated with a maximum power which is determined by the physical size.  Common power ratings for carbon composition and metal-film resistors are 1\/8 watt, \u00bc watt, and \u00bd watt.  Metal-film and carbon film resistors are more stable than carbon resistors against temperature changes and age.  Larger resistors are able to dissipate more h\u00e9at because of their larger surface ar\u00e9a.  Wire-wound and resistors embedded in sand (ceramic) are used when a high power rating is required.\n\nFurthermore, all r\u00e9al resistors also introduce some inductance and a small amount of capacitance, which change the dynamic behavior of the resistor from the id\u00e9al.\n\nTipe-tipe r\u00e9sistor\n\nR\u00e9sistor tetep \nSome resistors are cylindrical, with the actual resistive material in the centre (composition resistors, now obsolete) or on the surface of the cylinder (film) resistors, and a conducting metal l\u00e9ad projecting along the axis of the cylinder at \u00e9ach end(axial l\u00e9ad). There are carbon film and metal film resistors. The photo above right shows a row of common resistors. Power resistors come in larger packages designed to dissipate h\u00e9at efficiently. At high power levels, resistors tend to be wire wound types. Resistors used in computers and other devices are typically much smaller, often in surface-mount packages without wire l\u00e9ads.  Resistors can also be built into integrated circuits as part of the fabrication process, using the semiconductor material as a resistor. But resistors made in this way are difficult to fabricate and may take up a lot of valuable chip ar\u00e9a, so IC designers alternatively use a transistor-transistor or resistor-transistor configuration to simulate the resistor they require.\n\nR\u00e9sistor variabel \n\n \nThe variable resistor is a resistor whose value can be adjusted by turning a shaft or sliding a control. They are also called potentiom\u00e9ters or rh\u00e9ostats and allow the resistance of the device to be altered by hand. The term rheostat is usually reserved for higher-powered devices, above about \u00bd watt.\nVariable resistors can be inexpensive single-turn types or multi-turn types with a helical element. Some variable resistors can be fitted with a  mechanical display to count the turns. \nVariable resistors can sometimes be unreliable, because the wire or metal can corrode or w\u00e9ar. Some mod\u00e9rn variable resistors use plastic materials that do not corrode and have better w\u00e9ar characteristics.\n\nSome examples include:\n a rheostat: a variable resistor with two terminals, one fixed and one sliding.  It is used with high currents.\n a potentiometer: a common type of variable resistor. One common use is as volume controls on audio amplifiers and other forms of amplifiers.\n\nTipe r\u00e9sistor s\u00e9j\u00e9nna \n A metal oxide varistor (MOV) is a special type of resistor that changes its resistance with rise in voltage: a very high resistance at low voltage (below the trigger voltage) and very low resistance at high voltage (above the trigger voltage). It acts as a switch. It is usually used for short circuit protection in power strips or lightning bolt \"arrestors\" on street power poles, or as a \"snubber\" in inductive circuits.\n A thermistor is a temperature-dependent resistor. There are two kinds, classified according to the sign of their temperature coefficients:\n A Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) resistor is a resistor with a positive temperature coefficient. When the temperature rises the resistance of the PTC incr\u00e9ases. PTCs are often found in televisions in series with the demagnetizing coil where they are used to provide a short-duration current burst through the coil when the TV is turned on. One specialized version of a PTC is the polyswitch which acts as a self-repairing fuse.\n A Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) resistor is also a temperature-dependent resistor, but with a negative temperature coefficient. When the temperature rises the resistance of the NTC drops. NTCs are often used in simple temperature detectors and m\u00e9asuring instruments.\n A sensistor is a semiconductor-based resistor with a negative temperature coefficient, useful in compensating for temperature-induced effects in electronic circuits.\n Light-sensitive resistors are discussed in the photoresistor article.\n All wire except superconducting wire has some resistance, depending on its cross-sectional ar\u00e9a and the conductivity of the material it is made of.  Resistance wire has an accurately known resistance per unit length, and is used to mak\u00e9 wire-wound resistors.\n\nNgid\u00e9ntifikasi r\u00e9sistor \n\nMost axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. SMT ones follow a numerical pattern.  Cases are usually brown, blue, or green, though other colors are occasionally found like dark red or dark gray.\n\nOne can use a multim\u00e9ter to test the values of a resistor.\n\nStandar r\u00e9sistor \n MIL-R-11\n MIL-R-39008\n MIL-R-39017\n BS 1852\n EIA-RS-279\n\nAya opat standar MIL-R- s\u00e9j\u00e9nna.\n\nFour-band axial resistors \n\nFour-band identification is the most commonly used color coding scheme on all resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor. The scheme is simple: The first two numbers are the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a multiplier, and the fourth is the tolerance of the value. \u00e9ach color corresponds to a certain number, shown in the chart below.  The tolerance for a 4-band resistor will be 2%, 5%, or 10%.\n\nThe Standard EIA Color Code Table per EIA-RS-279 is as follows:\n\nNote: red to violet are the colors of the rainbow where red is low energy and violet is higher energy.\n\nResistors use specific values, which are determined by their tolerance.  These values rep\u00e9at for every exponent; 6.8, 68, 680, etc.  This is useful because the digits, and hence the first two or three stripes, will always be similar patterns of colors, which mak\u00e9 them \u00e9asier to recognize.\n\nPreferred values \nResistors are manufactured in values from a few milliohms to about a gigaohm; only a limited range of values from the IEC 60063 preferred number series are commonly available. These series are called E6, E12, E24, E96 and E192.  The number tells how many standarized values exist in \u00e9ach decade (e.g. between 10 and 100, or between 100 and 1000).  So resistors confirming to the E12 series, can have 12 distinct values between 10 and 100; while those confirming to the E24 series would have 24 distinct values. In practice, the discrete component sold as a \"resistor\" is not a perfect resistance, as defined above.  Resistors are often marked with their tolerance (maximum expected variation from the marked resistance).  On color coded resistors the color of the rightmost  band denotes the tolerance:\n silver 10%\n gold 5% \n red  2% \n brown 1%\n green 0.5%.\nCloser tolerance resistors, called precision resistors, are also available.\n\nManufacturers will m\u00e9asure the actual resistance of new resistors and sort them by tolerance according to how close they were to the intended value.  Subsequently, if you buy 100 resistors of the same value with a tolerance of +\/- 10%, you won't get some resistors with the correct value, some off by a little and the worst off by 10%... what you'll probably find if you m\u00e9asure them, is that about half of the resistors are between 5% and 10% too low in value, and the other half are between 5% and 10% too high in value.  Those off by less than 5%, would've been marked and sold as more expensive 5% resistors.  This is something to consider when calculating specifications on the components for a project, that all resistors will be \"off\" by the specified tolerance, and not just the \"worse\" of them.\n\nE12 preferred values :\n10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82\n\nMultiples of 10 of these values are used, eg. 0.47\u03a9, 4.7\u03a9, 47\u03a9, 470\u03a9, 4.7k, 47k, 470k etc.\n\nE24 preferred values, includes E12 values and :\n11, 13, 16, 20, 24, 30, 36, 43, 51, 62, 75, 91\n\n5-band axial resistors \n5-band identification is used for higher tolerance resistors (1%, 0.5%, 0.25%, 0.1%), to notate the extra digit.  The first three bands represent the significant digits, the fourth is the multiplier, and the fifth is the tolerance. 5-band standard tolerance resistors are sometimes encountered, generally on older or specialized resistors. They can be identified by noting a standard tolerance color in the 4th band. The 5th band in this case is the temperature coefficient.\n\nFrase mnemonic keur nginget-nginget kode \nThere are many mnemonic phrases used to remember the order of the colors.\n\nThey are, but are not limited to, and variations of:\n Bad Boys Ravish Our Young Girls But Violet Gives Willingly\n Bad Beer Rots Our Young Guts But Vodka Goes Well. Get Some Now!\n B.B. ROY of Gr\u00e9at Britain had a Very Good Wife\n Buffalo Bill Roamed Over Yellow Grass Because Vistas Grand Were God's Sanctuary\n Bully Brown Ran Over a Yodeling Goat, Because Violet's Granny Was Gone Snorkeling\n Buy Better Resistance Or Your Grid Bias May Go Wrong\n\nBlack Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White (Gold Silver)\n\nR\u00e9sistor SMD \n\nSurface mounted  resistors are printed with numerical values in a code related to that used on axial resistors. Standard-tolerance SMD resistors are marked with a three-digit code, in which the first two digits are the first two significant digits of the value and the third digit is the power of ten (the number of zeroes). For example:\n\nResistances less than 100 ohms are written: 100, 220, 470. The final zero represents ten to the power zero, which is 1.  For example:\n\nSometimes these values are marked as \"10\" or \"22\" to prevent a mistake.\n\nResistances less than 10 ohms have  'R' to indicate the position of the decimal point.  For example:\n\nPrecision resistors are marked with a four-digit code, in which the first three digits are the significant figures and the fourth is the power of ten.  For example:\n\n\"000\" and \"0000\" sometimes app\u00e9ar as values on surface-mount zero-ohm links, since these have (approximately) zero resistance.\n\nRancangan tipe industri \nFormat:  [two letters]<space>[resistance value (three digit)]<nospace>[tolerance code(numerical - one digit)]\n\nThe operational temperature range distinguishes commercial grade, industrial grade and military grade components.\n Commercial grade:  0\u00a0\u00b0C to 70\u00a0\u00b0C\n Industrial grade:  \u221240\u00a0\u00b0C to 85\u00a0\u00b0C (sometimes \u221225\u00a0\u00b0C to 85\u00a0\u00b0C) \n Military grade: \u221255\u00a0\u00b0C to 125\u00a0\u00b0C\n\nPerhitungan\n\nHukum Ohm \n\nThe relationship between voltage, current, and resistance through a metal wire, and some other materials, is given by a simple equation called Ohm's Law:\n\nwhere V (or U in some languages) is the voltage (or potential difference) across the wire in volts, I is the current through the wire in amperes, and R, in ohms, is a constant called the resistance. (In fact this is only a simplification of the original Ohm's law - see the article on that law for further details.) Materials that obey this law over a certain voltage or current range are said to be ohmic over that range. An id\u00e9al resistor obeys the law across all frequencies and amplitudes of voltage or current.\n\nSuperconducting materials at very low temperatures have zero resistance.  Insulators (such as air, diamond, or other non-conducting materials) may have extremely high (but not infinite) resistance, but br\u00e9ak down and admit a larger flow of current under sufficiently high voltage.\n\nDisipasi daya \nThe power dissipated by a resistor is the voltage across the resistor multiplied by the current through the resistor:\n\nAll three equations are equivalent.  The first is derived from Joule's law, and other two are derived from that by Ohm's Law.\n\nThe total amount of h\u00e9at energy rel\u00e9ased is the integral of the power over time:\n\nIf the average power dissipated exceeds the power rating of the resistor, then the resistor will first depart from its nominal resistance, and will then be destroyed by overh\u00e9ating.\n\nSirkuit s\u00e9ri jeung paral\u00e9l \n\nResistors in a parallel configuration \u00e9ach have the same potential difference (voltage).  To find their total equivalent resistance (Req):\n\nThe parallel property can be represented in equations by two vertical lines \"||\" (as in g\u00e9ometry) to simplify equations.  For two resistors,\n\nThe current through resistors in series stays the same, but the voltage across \u00e9ach resistor can be different.  The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage.  To find their total resistance:\n\nA resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series can sometimes be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other.  For instance,\n\nHowever, many resistor networks cannot be split up in this way.  Consider a cube, \u00e9ach edge of which has been replaced by a resistor.  For example, determining the resistance between two opposite vertices requires matrix methods for the general case.  However, if all twelve resistors are equal, the corner-to-corner resistance is 5\/6 of any one of them.\n\nT\u00e9hnologi \nCarbon composition resistors consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire l\u00e9adouts or metal end caps to which the l\u00e9adout wires are attached, which is protected with paint or plastic.\nThe solid cylindrical resistive element is made from a mixture of small particles of carbon and an insulating material (usually ceramic), the resistance is determined by the ratio of these, higher concentrations of carbon result in a lower resistance.\nCarbon composition resistors were commonly used in the 1960's and \u00e9arlier, but are not so popular for general use now as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance.\n\nThe film resistors consist of a cylindrical ceramic body to which a carbon or metal oxide (eg. tin oxide) film is deposited. A spiral of the film is removed, l\u00e9aving a spiral of film around the cylinder. A spiral is used to incr\u00e9ase the length and decr\u00e9ase the width of the film which incr\u00e9ases the resistance. The spiral trimming of the film is used to accurately set the value of the resistor and many different values can be made from the same film composition by altering the pitch of the spiral. Metal end caps with the l\u00e9adout wires are attached to the ends of the cylinder. Or for surface mount types a nickel termination is deposited at either end of the rectangular chip.\nThe film is protected with paint, enamel, epoxy or plastic.\n\nWirewound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. The wire l\u00e9ads are usually between 0.6 and 0.8\u00a0mm in diam\u00e9ter and tinned for \u00e9ase of soldering. For higher power wirewound resistors either a ceramic outer case or an aluminium outer case ontop of an insulating layer is used. The aluminium cased types are designed to be attached to a h\u00e9atsink to dissipate the h\u00e9at, the rated power is dependant on being used with a suitable h\u00e9atsink. eg. a 50W power rated resistor will overh\u00e9at at around one fifth of the power dissipation if not used with a h\u00e9atsink.\n\nTypes of resistors:\n\n Carbon composition\n Carbon film\n Metal film\n Metal oxide\n Wirewound (usually has higher parasitic inductance)\n Cermet\n Phenolic\n Tantalum\n\nR\u00e9sistor foil \nFoil resistors have had the best precision and stability ever since they were introduced in 1958 by Berahard F. Telkamp.  One of the important param\u00e9ters influencing stability is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). Although the TCR of foil resistors is considered extremely low, this characteristic has been further refined over the y\u00e9ars.\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n Resistors in series and parallel circuits\n Wikibooks:Electronics:Component Identification\n Electronic Devices and Circuits\n Shot noise\n Johnson-Nyquist noise\n\nR\u00e9f\u00e9r\u00e9nsi \n\n Electronics and Communications Simplified by A. K. Maini, 9thEd., Khanna Publications (India).\n\nTumbu luar \n Passive Components Codes Guide\n Standard Resistors Values\n Color code with last band denoting life. Also, a program that calculates the minimum error on resistor divider networks\n 4-terminal resistors -   how ultra-precise resistors work \n Resistor Color Code Tutorial\n A good guide to resistor labeling, common values, and color codes\n Beginner's guide to potentiometers, including description of different tapers\n An article describing many aspects of resistors, including materials, tapers, and color code \n \"The Original Color Coded Resistance Calculator\"\n Resistor Colorcode Decoder\n Resistor Types - Does It Matter? \n Ask The Applications Engineer \u2014 difference between types of resistors\n Carbon composition resistors - construction and uses  (pdf file - 163KB) \n Resistors and their uses \n\nKompon\u00e9n \u00e9l\u00e9ktronik","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"unknown":10}},"id":8746,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R%C3%A9sistor","title":"R\u00e9sistor","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Computational complexity theory is a part of computer science. It looks at algorithms, and tries to say how many steps or how much memory a certain algorithm takes for a computer to do. Very often, algorithms that use fewer steps use more memory (or the other way round: if there is less memory available, it takes more steps to do). Many interesting algorithms take a number of steps that is dependent on the size of the problem.\n\nDifferent classes of complexity\n\nConstant Complexity \nComplexity theory also looks at how a problem changes if it is done for more elements. A problem of constant complexity class is the only class in which this is not true. A problem with constant complexity takes the same number of steps to complete no matter the size of the input or the number of elements it is computed on. Broadcasting a message can be thought of as a problem of constant complexity. No matter how many people need to receive a message, all can listen on to one single broadcast with no extra broadcasts needed.\n\nLinear complexity \nMowing the lawn can be thought of as a problem with linear complexity. Mowing an area that is double the size of the original takes twice as long.\n\nQuadratic complexity \nSuppose you want to know which of your friends know each other. You have to ask each pair of friends whether they know each other. If you have twice as many friends as someone else, you have to ask four times as many questions to figure out who everyone knows. Problems that take four times as long when the size of the problem doubles are said to have quadratic complexity.\n\nLogarithmic complexity \nThis is often the complexity for problems that involve looking things up, like finding a word in a dictionary. If the dictionary is twice as big, it contains twice as many words as the original to compare to. Looking something up will take only one step more. The algorithm to do lookups is simple. The word in the middle of the dictionary will be either before or after the term that needs to be looked up, if the words do not match. If it is before, the term needs to be in the second half of the dictionary. If it is after the word, it needs to be in the first half. That way, the problem space is halved with every step, until the word or definition is found. This is generally known as logarithmic complexity\n\nExponential complexity \nThere are problems that grow very fast. One such problem is known as the Travelling salesman problem. A salesman needs to take a tour of a certain number of cities. Each city should only be visited once, the distance (or cost) of the travelling should be minimal, and the salesman should end up where he started. This problem has exponential complexity. There are n factorial possibilities to consider. Adding one city (from n to n+1) will multiply the number of possibilities by (n+1). Most of the interesting problems have this complexity.\n\nTheoretical computer science","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":33955,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational%20complexity%20theory","title":"Computational complexity theory","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The honey badger  or ratel (Mellivora capensis) is a type of mustelid. It lives in Africa, the Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent.\n\nDespite its name, the honey badger does not look much like other types of badgers. It looks more like a weasel. It mostly eats meat, and does not have many predators because of its thick skin and tough defensive ability.\n\nTaxonomy \nThe honey badger is the only member of the genus Mellivora. Although it was first put to the badger group in the 1860s, they do not have much in common with the subfamily Melinae. They are closer to the marten family.\n\nPhysical description \nThe honey badger has a fairly long body, but is thick set and broad across the back. Its skin is loose, and lets it to turn and twist freely within it. The skin around the neck is  thick, an adaptation to fighting each other. The head is small and flat, with a short muzzle. The eyes are small, and the ears are little more than ridges on the skin. These are also possible adaptations to avoiding damage while fighting.\n\nThe honey badger has short and sturdy legs, with five toes on each foot. The feet have very strong claws, which are short on the hind legs and very long on the forelimbs. It is a partially plantigrade animal whose soles are thickly padded and naked up to the wrists. The tail is short and is covered in long hairs, except below the base.\n\nAdults are  in shoulder height and 68\u201375\u00a0cm in body length, with females being smaller than males. Males weigh  while females weigh 9.1\u00a0kg.\n\nThe honey badger has an anal pouch, a trait shared with hyenas. The smell of the pouch is said to be \"suffocating\", and may help calm bees when raiding beehives.\n\nFur \nIts winter fur is long, with some coarse, bristle-like hairs. There are fewer hairs on the side, belly, and groin. The summer fur is shorter and has even fewer hairs, with the belly being half bare. The sides of the heads and lower body are pure black in colour. A large white band covers their upper bodies, beginning from the top of their heads down to the base of their tails.\n\nHabits \n\nHoney badgers live alone in self-dug holes. They are good diggers, being able to dig tunnels into hard ground in 10\u00a0minutes. These burrows always only have one passage and a nesting chamber and are usually not large, about 1\u20133\u00a0metres long. They do not put bedding in the nesting chamber. Although they usually dig their own burrows, they may take over aardvark and warthog holes that are no longer being used, or termite mounds.\n\nHoney badgers are smart animals and are one of few species able to use tools. In the 1997 documentary series Land of the Tiger, a honey badger in India was filmed using a tool; the animal rolled a log and stood on it to reach a kingfisher fledgling stuck up in the roots coming from the ceiling in an underground cave.\n\nHoney badgers are fearless and tough animals. They are known to savagely attack their enemies when they cannot escape. They are tireless in combat and can wear out much larger animals in fights. The fact that most predators do not want to hunt honey badgers has led to the theory that the countershaded coats of cheetah kittens evolved to look like the honey badger in order to keep predators away. This would be an example of mimicry.\n\nThe voice of the honey badger is a hoarse \"khrya-ya-ya-ya\" sound. When mating, males make loud grunting sounds. Cubs vocalise through whines. When attacked by dogs, honey badgers scream like bear cubs.\n\nDiet\nHoney badgers have the least specialised diet among mustelids. In undeveloped areas, honey badgers may hunt at any time of the day, though they become nocturnal in places with high human populations. When hunting, honey badgers trot with their fore-toes turned in, moving at the same speed as a young man. Despite their name, honey badgers mostly eat meat, and will take any sort of animal food at hand, including carrion, small rodents, birds, eggs, insects, lizards, tortoises and frogs. They will eat fruit and vegetables such as berries, roots and bulbs.\n\nThey may hunt frogs and rodents such as gerbils and ground squirrels by digging them out of their burrows. Honey badgers are able to feed on tortoises without difficulty, due to their powerful jaws. They kill and eat snakes, even highly venomous or large ones. They have dug up human corpses in India. They devour all parts of their prey, including skin, hair, feathers, flesh and bones, holding their food down with their forepaws. When seeking vegetable food, they lift stones or tear bark from trees.\n\nRange \nThe species can be found through most of Sub-Saharan Africa from the Western Cape, South Africa, to southern Morocco and southwestern Algeria. Outside Africa it lives through Arabia, Iran and western Asia to Turkmenistan and the Indian subcontinent.\n\nRelationships with humans \nHoney badgers often kill chickens that humans are raising for food. Because of their strength and persistence, they are difficult to keep away. They are known to rip thick planks from hen-houses or burrow underneath stone foundations.\n\nBecause of their tough, loose skin, honey badgers are difficult to kill with dogs. Their skin is hard to get through, and its looseness allows them to twist and turn on their attackers when held. The only safe grip on a honey badger is on the back of the neck. The skin is also tough enough to resist several machete blows. The only sure way of killing them quickly is through a blow to the skull with a club or a shot to the head with a powerful rifle, as their skin is almost proof against arrows and spears.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n Vanderhaar, Jane M. ; Hwang, Yeen Ten, Mellivora capensis, Published 30 July 2003 by the American Society of Mammalogists\n\nMustelids\nMammals of Africa\nMammals of Asia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2022-05":1,"2021-17":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2}},"id":125858,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Honey%20badger","title":"Honey badger","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A helicopter (also often used: chopper or heli) is a kind of flying machine or aircraft. A helicopter lifts up off \nof the ground and moves because of its rotors. A rotor is several small wings, called rotor blades, that spin together around a shaft. For that reason, helicopters are sometimes called rotary-wing aircraft. A helicopter flies differently from an airplane. An airplane must move forward to stay in the air, but because the helicopter's rotor blades are always moving, the helicopter can stop and stay in one place above the ground. Not needing a runway, they can land in places where an airplane cannot. Helicopters can move by tilting their rotor blades, which causes the aircraft to fly in the direction the blades are tilted.\n\nHistory\nSince around 400 BC, the Chinese had a flying top that was used as a children's toy. The flying top was made from bamboo and used the same method of spinning wings to fly up in the air. Later flying tops were made of feathers tied to a stick. Leonardo da Vinci first thought of a helicopter flown by a man in 1490, and drew pictures of his ideas. It was hundreds of years later (in the early 20th century) before anyone built one that could really fly. The first practical helicopters were built by Frenchman Louis Breguet in 1935 and by German Henrich Focke in 1936. A Russian immigrant, Igor Sikorsky, built and perfected the first practical helicopter in America in 1939.\n\nUses\nHelicopters are especially useful when there are disasters when infrastructure is damaged. Food packets, water, medicines and clothes are dropped from the air to people on the ground who cannot be reached by road. When people are injured, helicopters can carry them to hospitals faster than an ambulance on the road. \n\nHelicopters are also used by the military, because they can move troops and equipment to places an airplane cannot take them. Attack helicopters act as attack aircraft carrying and shooting guns and missiles.\n\nTraining helicopter is used for learning how to be a helicopter pilot.\n\n \nAircraft","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":20547,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Helicopter","title":"Helicopter","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The definition, agreement, and practical use of units of measurement have played a crucial role in human endeavour from early ages up to this day.  Disparate systems of measurement used to be very common.  Now there is a global standard, the International System (SI) of units, the modern form of the metric system.  The SI has been or is in the process of being adopted throughout the world.\n\nIn trade, weights and measures is often a subject of governmental regulation, to ensure fairness and transparency.  The Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM) is tasked with ensuring worldwide uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the International System of Units (SI).  Metrology is the science for developing national and internationally accepted units of weights and measures. \n\nIn physics and metrology, units are standards for measurement of physical quantities that need clear definitions to be useful. Reproducibility of experimental results is central to the scientific method. A standard system of units facilitates this. Scientific systems of units are a refinement of the concept of weights and measures developed long ago for commercial purposes.  \n\nScience, \u0dc0\u0ddb\u0daf\u0dca\u200d\u0dba \u0dc0\u0dd2\u0daf\u0dca\u200d\u0dba\u0dcf\u0dc0, and engineering often use larger and smaller units of measurement than those used in everyday life and indicate them more precisely.  The judicious selection of the units of measure can aid researchers in problem solving (see, for example, dimensional analysis).\n\nIn the social sciences, units of measurement are not yet standardized, and are based on \"the assignment of numbers according to a rule\".\n\nHistory \n\nA unit of measurement is a standardised quantity of a physical property, used as a factor to express occurring quantities of that property. Units of measurement were among the earliest tools invented by humans. Primitive societies needed rudimentary measures for many tasks: constructing dwellings of an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or bartering food or raw materials.\n\nThe earliest known uniform systems of weights and measures seem to have all been created sometime in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC among the ancient peoples of Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Indus Valley, and perhaps also Elam in Persia as well.\n\nMany systems were based on the use of parts of the body and the natural surroundings as measuring instruments. Our present knowledge of early weights and measures comes from many sources.\n\nSystems of measurement\n\nTraditional systems \n\nPrior to the near global adoption of the metric system many different systems of measurement had been in use.  Many of these were related to some extent or other. Often they were based on the dimensions of the human body according to the proportions described by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio.  As a result, units of measure could vary not only from location to location, but from person to person.\n\nMetric systems \nA number of metric systems of units have evolved since the adoption of the original metric system in \u0db4\u0dca\u200d\u0dbb\u0d82\u0dc1\u0dba in 1791. The current international standard metric system is the International system of units.  An important feature of modern systems is standardization.  Each unit has a universally recognized size. \n\nBoth the Imperial units and US customary units derive from earlier English units.  Imperial units were mostly used in the British Commonwealth and the former \u0db6\u0dca\u200d\u0dbb\u0dd2\u0dad\u0dcf\u0db1\u0dca\u200d\u0dba \u0d85\u0db0\u0dd2\u0dbb\u0dcf\u0da2\u0dca\u200d\u0dba\u0dba.  US customary units are still the main system of measurement used in the United States despite Congress having legally authorized metric measure on 28 July 1866. Some steps towards US metrication have been made, particularly the redefinition of basic US units to derive exactly from SI units, so that in the US the inch is now defined as 0.0254\u00a0m (exactly), and the avoirdupois pound is now defined as 453.59237\u00a0g (exactly)\n\nNatural systems \nWhile the above systems of units are based on arbitrary unit values, formalised as standards, some unit values occur naturally in science. Systems of units based on these are called natural units.  Similar to natural units, atomic units (au) are a convenient system of units of measurement used in atomic physics.\n\nAlso a great number of strange and non-standard units may be encountered.  These may include the Solar mass, the Megaton (1,000,000 tons of TNT), the Hiroshima atom bomb and the weight of an elephant.\n\nLegal control of weights and measures \n\nTo reduce the incidence of retail fraud, many national statutes have standard definitions of weights and measures that may be used (hence \"statute measure\"), and these are verified by legal officers.\n\nBase and derived units\nDifferent systems of units are based on different choices of a set of fundamental units.\nThe most widely used system of units is the International System of Units, or SI.  There are seven SI base units. All other SI units can be derived from these base units.\n\nFor most quantities a unit is absolutely necessary to communicate values of that physical quantity. For example, conveying to someone a particular length without using some sort of unit is impossible, because a length cannot be described without a reference used to make sense of the value given.\n\nBut not all quantities require a unit of their own. Using physical laws, units of quantities can be expressed as combinations of units of other quantities. Thus only a small set of units is required. These units are taken as the base units. Other units are derived units. Derived units are a matter of convenience, as they can be expressed in terms of basic units. Which units are considered base units is a matter of choice.\n\nThe base units of SI are actually not the smallest set possible. Smaller sets have been defined. For example, there are unit sets in which the electric and magnetic field have the same unit. This is based on physical laws that show that electric and magnetic field are actually different manifestations of the same phenomenon.\n\nCalculations with units\n\nUnits as dimensions \nAny value of a physical quantity is expressed as a comparison to a unit of that quantity. For example, the value of a physical quantity Z is written as the product of a unit [Z] and a numerical factor:    \n\nThe multiplication sign is usually left out, just as it is left out between variables in scientific notation of formulas. In formulas the unit [Z] can be treated as if it were a kind of physical dimension: see dimensional analysis for more on this treatment.\n\nA distinction should be made between units and standards. A unit is fixed by its definition, and is independent of physical conditions such as temperature. By contrast, a standard is a physical realization of a unit, and realizes that unit only under certain physical conditions. For example, the metre is a unit, while a metal bar is a standard. One metre is the same length regardless of temperature, but a metal bar will be one metre long only at a certain temperature.\n\nGuidelines \n Treat units algebraically. Only add like terms. When a unit is divided by itself, the division yields a unitless one. When two different units are multiplied, the result is a new unit, referred to by the combination of the units. For instance, in SI, the unit of speed is metres per second (m\/s). See dimensional analysis. A unit can be multiplied by itself, creating a unit with an exponent (e.g. m\u00b2\/s\u00b2).\n\n Some units have special names, however these should be treated like their equivalents. For example, one newton (N) is equivalent to one kg\u2022m\/s\u00b2. This creates the possibility for units with multiple designations, for example: the unit for surface tension can be referred to as either N\/m (newtons per metre) or kg\/s\u00b2 (kilograms per second squared).\n\nExpressing a physical value in terms of another unit\nConversion of units involves comparison of different standard physical values, either of a single physical quantity or of a physical quantity and a combination of other physical quantities.\n\nStarting with:\n\njust replace the original unit  with its meaning in terms of the desired unit , e.g. if , then:\n\nNow  and  are both numerical values, so just calculate their product.\n\nOr, which is just mathematically the same thing, multiply Z by unity, the product is still Z:\n\nFor example, you have an expression for a physical value Z involving the unit feet per second () and you want it in terms of the unit miles per hour ():\n\n<li>Find facts relating the original unit to the desired unit:\n\n1 mile = 5280 feet and 1 hour = 3600 seconds\n\n<li>Next use the above equations to construct a fraction that has a value of unity and that contains units such that, when it is multiplied with the original physical value, will cancel the original units:\n\n<li>Last,multiply the original expression of the physical value by the fraction, called a conversion factor, to obtain the same physical value expressed in terms of a different unit. Note: since valid conversion factors are dimensionless and have a numerical value of one, multiplying any physical quantity by such a conversion factor (which is 1) does not change that physical quantity.\n\n \n\nOr as an example using the metric system, you have a value of fuel economy in the unit litres per 100 kilometres and you want it in terms of the unit microlitres per metre:\n\nReal-world implications \nOne example of the importance of agreed units is the failure of the NASA Mars Climate Orbiter, which was accidentally destroyed on a mission to the planet Mars in September 1999 instead of entering orbit, due to miscommunications about the value of forces: different computer programs used different units of measurement (newton versus pound force). Enormous amounts of effort, time, and money were wasted.\n\nOn April 15 1999 Korean Air cargo flight 6316 from Shanghai to Seoul was lost due to the crew confusing tower instructions (in metres) and altimeter readings (in feet).  Three crew and five people on the ground were killed.  Thirty seven were injured.\n\nIn 1983, a Boeing 767 (which came to be know as the Gimli Glider) ran out of fuel in mid-flight because of two mistakes in figuring the fuel supply of Air Canada's first aircraft to use metric measurements. This accident is apparently the result of confusion both due to the simultaneous use of metric & Imperial measures as well as mass & volume measures.\n\nReferences\n\nSee also \n Dimensional analysis\n Conversion of units\n Units conversion by factor-label\n ISO 31\n List of unusual units of measurement\n List of humorous units of measurement\n\nExternal links\n\nGeneral \n\u0db8\u0dd2\u0db1\u0dd4\u0db8 (Measurements)-\u0dc3\u0dd2\u0d82\u0dc4\u0dbd \u200d \u0d8b\u0dc3\u0dc3\u0dca \u0db4\u0dd9\u0dc5 \u0db7\u0dde\u0dad\u0dd2\u0d9a \u0dc0\u0dd2\u0daf\u0dca\u200d\u0dba\u0dcf\u0dc0 \u0db4\u0dd2\u0dc5\u0dd2\u0db6\u0db3 \u0d85\u0db1\u0dca\u0dad\u0dbb\u0dca\u0da2\u0dcf\u0dbd \u0d85\u0da9\u0dc0\u0dd2\u0dba\n A Dictionary of Units of Measurement - Center for Mathematics and Science Education, University of North Carolina\n NIST Handbook 44, Specifications, Tolerances, and Other Technical Requirements for Weighing and Measuring Devices\n NIST Handbook 44, Appendix C, General Tables of Units of Measurement\n Official SI website\n\nLegal \n Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72 \n Ireland - Metrology Act 1996 \n UK - Units of Measurement Regulations 1995\n US - Authorized tables\n\nMetric information and associations \n Official SI website\n UK Metric Association\n US Metric Association \n The Unified Code for Units of Measure (UCUM)\n\nImperial\/U.S. measure information and associations \n British Weights and Measures Association\n Kentucky Demetrification \n\n\u0db7\u0dde\u0dad\u0dd2\u0d9a \u0dc0\u0dd2\u0daf\u0dca\u200d\u0dba\u0dcf\u0dc0\n\u0d92\u0d9a\u0d9a \u0dc3\u0dc4 \u0db8\u0dcf\u0db1\n\u0d9c\u0dab\u0dd2\u0dad\u0dba\n\u0db8\u0dd2\u0db1\u0dd4\u0db8\u0dca \u0d9a\u0dca\u200d\u0dbb\u0db8","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":13362,"url":"https:\/\/si.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%B6%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%9A%20%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%84%20%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1","title":"\u0d92\u0d9a\u0d9a \u0dc3\u0dc4 \u0db8\u0dcf\u0db1","language":"si"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Babylonia was a city state in Mesopotamia in the 2nd millennium BC, over 3000 years ago. Its capital city was Babylon, which meant The Gate of the Gods. They built an empire out of the lands of the former Akkadian empire.\n\nMesopotamia is the region of the two rivers, Euphrates and Tigris. At that time the region also included the city states of Assyria to the north, and Elam to the south-east. It is part of the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East. It was there people first lived together in a civilization, with farming, cities and writing.\n\nOld Babylonia \n\nThe Babylonians had a written language that they used for trade and communication. They got it from the Sumerians, who invented it. The Babylonians used the same cuneiform system of pressing triangular shapes into soft clay. They wrote in two different languages: Sumerian for religious purposes and Akkadian language for official purposes.\n\nLaws \nHammurabi was a king of Babylon who fought wars. He made Babylonia into an empire by putting Assyria under a vassal (puppet) king. He made the earliest written set of laws, the Code of Hammurabi. It has 280 judgments. It can be seen today in the Louvre, in Paris. The earlier Sumerian punishments had not been harsh, but Babylonian law was quite severe. The death penalty was given for theft, murder, and other crimes.\n\nBuildings \nThe houses in Babylon had open roofs, so that on hot nights, the family could sleep there. The living rooms, dining rooms, and the kitchens were, of course, downstairs. Lamps burned with olive oil, and every house had a chapel for burial and worship ceremonies. Since Mesopotamia had only clay for use in building, the strong wooden supports for the houses were imported from Lebanon. Eventually, people began baking their bricks and improved the strength of their buildings.\n\nSack of Babylon \nLater, Babylon was sacked by the Hittite king Musilis I, which led to the so-called 'Dark Ages' of the Bronze Age, where there is little evidence in writing. The date of the sacking of Babylon is debated by archaeologists, who have proposed no fewer than four chronologies. Possible dates for the sack of Babylon are:\nultra-short chronology: 1499 BC\nshort chronology: 1531 BC\nmiddle chronology: 1595 BC\nlong chronology: 1651 BC\nThe difficulty is to line up the Mesopotamian dates with the Ancient Egyptian dates.\n\nLater dynasties \n\nAfter the Hittite destruction, Babylon was ruled by Kassites for 576 years. Next it was ruled by Elam, and then regained its independence for about three centuries. They were then conquered by the Neo-Assyrians. A century later they again became free, to form the Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean Empire. This constant conquest and re-conquest is partly due to geography. There are no natural boundaries except the rivers, and it is easy to get at the cities from north or south.\n\nThe king Nebuchadnezzar II reigned for 43 years. He conquered Phoenicia in 585 BC.\n\nCyrus the Great \nThe Babylonian empire was finally brought to an end by Cyrus the Great of Persia. \n\nIt was in 549 BC that Cyrus put an end to the empire of the Medes. Three years later Cyrus had become king of the Achaemenid Empire (Persia), and was engaged in a campaign in northern Mesopotamia. \n\nIn 539 BC Cyrus invaded Babylonia. A battle was fought at Opis in the month of June, where the Babylonians were defeated; and immediately afterwards Sippara surrendered to the invader. Two days after the capture of Sippara, \"the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting\". Cyrus did not arrive until the 3rd of Marchesvan (October), Gobryas having acted for him in his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province of Babylon.\n\nCyrus now claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of their god Bel-Marduk. The invasion of Babylonia by Cyrus was doubtless helped by the presence of foreign forced exiles like the Jews, who had been planted in the midst of the country.\n\nOne of the first acts of Cyrus was to allow these exiles to return to their own homes, carrying with them the images of their god and their sacred vessels. The permission to do so was embodied in a proclamation, whereby the conqueror endeavored to justify his claim to the Babylonian throne. The feeling was still strong that none had a right to rule over western Asia until he had been consecrated to the office by Bel and his priests; and accordingly, Cyrus henceforth assumed the imperial title of \"King of Babylon.\"\n\nFood\nLike the Sumerians, the Babylonians ate vegetables, fruits, meat, and fish. They also ate bread and enjoyed toasting and eating the pesky but crunchy locusts which destroyed their precious crops.\n\nArt and science\nThe Babylonians loved art. Beautiful vessels ornamented with sparkling gold were buried with the kings. In those days books dealt with floods which were thought to be caused by sin, or about the journey of Abraham. \nScience, too, improved well: they invented the first calendar, the 60-minute hour, and the advance multiplication table.\n\nLife was rich, full, and usually peaceful. People rarely thought about war or how to protect the city. As a result, Babylon was conquered in 730 BC by the Assyrians and Kassites. This great civilization then ended.\n\nRelated pages\nNeo-Babylonian Empire\n\nReferences \n\nMesopotamia\nFormer countries in the Middle East","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":24322,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Babylonia","title":"Babylonia","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Carbon steel or plain-carbon steel, is a metal alloy. It is a combination of two elements, iron and carbon. Other elements are present in quantities too small to affect its properties. The only other elements allowed in plain-carbon steel are: manganese (1.65% max), silicon (0.60% max), and copper (0.60% max). Steel with a low carbon content has the same properties as iron, soft but easily formed. With more carbon the metal gains hardness and strength but becomes less ductile and more difficult to weld. Higher carbon content lowers steel's melting point and its temperature resistance in general.\n\nTypes of carbon steel \nTypical compositions of carbon are:\n\n Mild (low carbon) steel: approximately 0.3% carbon content with up to 0.4% manganese content (e.g. AISI 1018 steel). Less strong but cheap and easy to shape; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.\n Medium carbon steel: approximately 0.30% to 0.45% carbon content with 0.60 to 1.65% manganese content(e.g. AISI 1040 steel). Balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance; used for large parts, forging and car parts.\n High carbon steel: approximately 0.45% to 0.75%  carbon content with 0.30 to 0.90% manganese content. Very strong, used for springs and high-strength wires.\n Very high carbon steel: upto 1.5% carbon content, specially processed to produce specific atomic and molecular micro structures.\n\nSteel can be heat-treated which allows parts to be fabricated in an easily fordable soft state. If enough carbon is present, the alloy can be hardened to increase strength, wear, and impact resistance. Steels are often wrought by cold-working methods, which is the shaping of metal through deformation at a low equilibrium or meta stable temperature.\n\nMetallurgy \nMild steel is the most common form of steel as its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. Mild steel has a low carbon content (up to 0.3%) and is therefore neither extremely brittle nor ductile. It becomes malleable when heated, and so can be forged. It is also often used where large amounts of steel need to be formed, for example as structural steel. Density of this metal is 7861.093\u00a0kg\/m\u00b3 (0.284\u00a0lb\/in\u00b3) and the tensile strength is a maximum of 500 MPa (72500 psi)\n\nCarbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the range of 0.30% to 1.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other elements can have a significant effect on the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur make the steel \"red-short\", which is a fault: the steel is brittle and crumbly. Low alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melts around 1426\u20131538\u00a0\u00b0C (2600\u20132800\u00a0\u00b0F). Manganese is often added to improve the hardenability of low carbon steels. These additions turn the material into a low alloy steel by some definitions, but AISI's definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight.\n\nHardened steel usually refers to quenched or quenched and tempered steel.\n\nSilver Steel or high-carbon bright steel, gets its name from its appearance, due to the high carbon content. It is a very-high carbon steel, or can be thought of as some of the best high-carbon steel. It is defined under the steel specification standards BS-1407. It is a 1% carbon tool steel which can be ground to close tolerances. Usually the range of carbon is minimum 1.10% but as high as 1.20%. It also contains trace elements of 0.35% Mn (range 0.30%-0.40%), 0.40% Cr (range 0.4%-0.5%), 0.30% Si (range 0.1%-0.3%), and also sometimes sulfur (max 0.035%) and phosphorus (max 0.035%). Silver steel is sometimes used for making straight razors, due to its ability to produce and hold a micro-fine edge.\n\nHeat treatments \n\nThe purpose of heat treating plain-carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, and impact resistance.\n\nFootnotes\n\nReferences \n Oberg, E. et al., (1996). \"Machinery's Handbook,\" 25th ed., Industrial Press Inc.\n Smith, W.F. & Hashemi, J. (2006). \"Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering,\" 4th ed., McGraw-Hill.\n\nAlloys\nIron","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":48855,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon%20steel","title":"Carbon steel","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A pension is a steady income given to someone. If pensions are part of a system of social security, the recipient of the pension is usually retired or disabled. They either have worked a long time during their life, or they are physically unable to do so. A pension is usually paid until a certain date (or event) occurs. In the case of social security plans, pensions are usually linked to the life of the person who receives the pension. \n\nA defined Benefit pension defines the benefit to the worker based on salary basis, years worked, and a multiplier.  An example might be 2@55 final 3, meaning that the annuity is the highest 3-year average salary times years worked times 2% (if age 55).  A worker with 30 years service would receive 2*30 or 60% of their salary.  Some systems allow a worker to receive more than 100% salary by various maneuvers to alter the final salary basis.\n\nA defined Contribution pension defines the contribution, without constraining or promising a certain benefit.  For example, a company might contribute 10% of a worker's salary to a pension account of the worker's choice, with final benefit received linked to the performance of the investment chosen.\n\nCrisis \nMany pension systems are underfunded and likely unsustainable based on independent financial analysis.  Pension reform is a popular topic since about 2009, with pension debt seen as a contributing factor in the deficits at all levels of government.\n\nIncome\nSocial security\nOld age","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":46647,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pension","title":"Pension","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The term alternation of generations is used to describe an alternation of forms in the life cycle of  plants (and some protists). \n\nOne form is diploid, with 2n chromosomes: the sporophyte. The other form is haploid with only one set of chromosomes: the gametophyte. Both forms are multicellular.\n\nIn sexual reproduction, organisms have a haploid phase with one set of chromosomes and a diploid phase with two sets of chromosomes. In animals the body (soma) is usually diploid, while the haploid stage is only the gametes. \n\nIn eukaryotes an alternation of generations may occur. This means that both the diploid and the haploid phases are multi-cellular organisms. The classic example is the mosses, where the green plant is a haploid gametophyte, and the reproductive phase is the diploid sporophyte. The two forms often occur together, as shown in the illustration on the right\n \nThe term alternation of generations refers only to the sexual cycle: organisms may have asexual reproduction as well. The term should not be confused with life cycle stages in animals, which may look very different, but where all cells have two sets of chromosomes.\n\nPlants \n\nThe alternation of generations is an important concept in the evolution of plants. All land plants have alternation of generations.\n\nIn mosses and their relatives (Bryophytes), the haploid gametophyte is the dominant generation, and the diploid sporophytes are sporangium-bearing stalks growing from the gametophytes. In ferns, the diploid sporophyte is much larger, and the haploid gametophyte is a little plant that can grow for a long time.\n\nFor flowering plants (Angiosperms), the sporophyte generation is almost the whole life cycle (the green plant, roots etc.) except the small reproductive structures (pollen and ovule).\n\nThe sporophyte produces spores (hence the name), by meiosis. These develop into a gametophyte. Both the spores and the resulting gametophyte are haploid, meaning they have half as many chromosomes. Later, the mature gametophyte produces male or female gametes (or both) by mitosis. The fusion of male and female gametes (fertilization) produces a diploid zygote which develops into a new sporophyte. This is the cycle which is known as alternation of generations or alternation of phases.\n\nAs a factor in plant evolution \nIn the landmark work Variation and evolution in plants, Stebbins discussed how alternation of generations related to the overall evolution of plants. He began:\n\"The most striking difference between the sexual cycle of animals and those found in plants is that, with the exception of a few Protozoa, animals are diploid at all stages, while nearly all plants have a haploid stage of greater or lesser duration. The sequence of types of alternation of generations... is one of the best-known features of plant evolution... The diploid generation has undoubtedly evolved independently many different times\".\n\nLater Stebbins comments:\n\"The diploid condition brings about an increase in flexibility because it makes possible the condition of genetic dominance and recessiveness. In a haploid organism every new mutation is immediately exposed to the action of selection... In a diploid organism, on the other hand, each new mutant arises as a heterozygote and, if recessive, is sheltered from selection\". \nThe point is that, in diploids, new alleles are sheltered and (collectively) they are a reservoir of potential variation in the population.\n\nAlgae \nMost algae have dominant gametophyte generations, but in some species the gametophytes and sporophytes are morphologically similar (isomorphic).\n\nBryophytes \nBryophytes (mosses, liverworts and hornworts) have a dominant gametophyte stage on which the adult sporophyte is dependent on the gametophyte for nutrition. The sporophyte develops from the zygote inside the female sex organ, so its early development is nurtured by the gametophyte.\n\nVascular plants \n\nAn independent sporophyte is the dominant form in all clubmosses, horsetails, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms (flowering plants) that have survived to the present day.\n\nEarlier evolution \nEarly land plants had sporophytes that produced identical spores: they looked the same whichever sex they developed into. The ancestors of the gymnosperms evolved complex heterosporous life cycles: the spores producing male and female gametophytes were of different sizes. The female megaspores tending to be larger, and fewer in number, than the male microspores.\n\nDuring the Devonian, several plant groups independently evolved heterospory and later endospory, in which single megaspores were kept inside the sporangia of the parent sporophyte. These endosporic megaspores had a miniature multicellular female gametophyte with female sex organs and egg cells. The ova were fertilised by free-swimming sperm produced by windborne miniaturised male gametophytes in the form of pre-pollen.\n\nThe resulting zygote developed into the next sporophyte generation while still inside the single large female megaspore in the sporangium of the parent sporophyte. The evolution of heterospory and endospory was among the earliest steps in the evolution of seeds of the kind produced by gymnosperms and angiosperms.\n\nSimilar processes in other organisms \nSome Chromalveolata, some fungi and some slime moulds have what seems to be genuine alternation of generations. These groups include such a wide range of different types that it is difficult to say how common the phenomenon is. Certainly slime moulds are not a monophyletic group, and that may be true of the other two groups,\n\nAnimals \nsee also life cycle\n\nAlternation of generations between a multicellular diploid and a multicellular haploid generation does not exist in animals.\n\nIn some animals, there is a life cycle with different diploid stages. This has sometimes mistakenly been called \"alternation of generations\", but is quite different from what happens in plants and some protists. The most common case is that there are two distinct generations, where only one has sexual reproduction.  Animals where it has been found include  the Cnidaria and the Tunicates. The images on the right show the case of jellyfish: The medusa looks different from the polyp; they are different phenotypes. Only the medusa reproduces sexually.\n\nOther animals with life cycle forms include parasites such as certain flukes, which live in different snails for one part of their life, and in vertebrates for another part.\n\nIn some cases, the cycle includes more than two generations. If this is the case, only one stage uses sexual reproduction. In aphids, for example, there is one generation that reproduces sexually, and up to forty that use parthenogenesis, a type of asexual reproduction.\n\nReferences \n\nBotany\nPlant anatomy\nClassical genetics\nBiological reproduction","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":6,"2018-34":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2}},"id":176909,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alternation%20of%20generations","title":"Alternation of generations","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Lists are commonly used in Wikipedia to organize information. Lists may be found within the body of a prose article, in appendices such as a \"Publications\" or \"Works\" section, or as a stand-alone article. This guideline explains when and how to use lists appropriately.\n\nTypes of lists \nWikipedia differentiates between articles that consist primarily of lists (generally called \"lists\" or \"stand alone lists\") and articles that consist primarily of prose (called \"articles\"). Articles are intended to consist primarily of prose, though they may contain some lists.\n\nStand-alone list articles \n\nList articles are encyclopedia pages consisting of introductory material in the lead section followed by a list, possibly arranged in sub-sections. The items on these lists might include links to specific articles or other information, and must be supported with references like any article.  The titles of stand-alone lists typically begin with the type of list it is (List of, Index of, etc.), followed by the article's subject, e.g., List of vegetable oils. They can be organised alphabetically, by subject classification or by topics in a flat or hierarchical structure.\n\nThe title and bullet style, or vertical style, is common for stand-alone lists. These Wikipedia articles follow the Wikipedia:Stand-alone lists style guideline.\n\nEmbedded lists \n\nEmbedded lists are lists used within articles that supplement the article's prose content. They are included in the text-proper or appended, and may be in table format. Wikipedia uses several standard appendices, usually in list format, as well as navigational templates.\n\nEmbedded lists should be used only when appropriate; sometimes the information in a list is better presented as prose. Presenting too much statistical data in list format may contravene policy.\n\n\"Children\" (i.e., indentation) \n\nIt can be appropriate to use a list style when the items in a list are \"children\" of the paragraphs that precede them.  Such \"children\" logically qualify for indentation beneath their parent description. In this case, indenting the paragraphs in list form may make them easier to read, especially if the paragraphs are very short.  The following example works both with and without the bullets:\n\nLists of works and timelines \n\nLists of works of individuals or groups, such as bibliographies, discographies, filmographies, album personnel and track listings are typically presented in simple list format, though it is expected that the information will be supported elsewhere in the article by prose analysis of the main points, and that if the lists become unwieldy, they are split off into stand-alone lists per WP:Summary style. Timelines and chronologies can be a useful supplement to prose descriptions of real-world histories. The content of a list is governed by the same content policies as prose, including principles of due weight and avoiding original research. Ensure that list items have the same importance to the subject as would be required for the item to be included in the text of the article, according to Wikipedia policies and guidelines (including WP:Trivia sections). Consider whether prose is more appropriate. Specific advice regarding timelines is given in Wikipedia:Timeline standards.\n\nRelated topics (navigational lists) \n\n\"See also\" lists and \"Related topics\" lists are valuable navigational tools that assist users in finding related Wikipedia articles. When deciding what articles and lists of articles to append to any given entry, it is useful to try to put yourself inside the mind of readers: Ask yourself where would a reader likely want to go after reading the article. Typically this will include three types of links:\n\n Links to related topics \u2013 topics similar to that discussed in the article\n Higher order (i.e., more general) articles and lists \u2013 this might include lists of people, list of countries, etc. For example, list of Indian language poets should link to both list of Indians and list of poets.\n Lower order (i.e., more specific) articles and lists \u2013 for example, the Business page navigational list contains links to small business, list of accounting topics, etc.\n\nThere is some controversy over how many links to articles and links to lists that should be put in any article. Some people separate the \"links to articles\" (put in the \"See also\" section) from the \"links to lists\" (put in the \"Related topics\" section), but this is not necessary unless there are too many links for one section alone. Some feel the optimum number of links to lists that should be included at the end of any given article is zero, one, or two. Others feel that a more comprehensive set of lists would be useful. In general, when deciding what list to include, the same criteria used to decide what articles to include in the See also section should be used. Editors should try to put themselves in the readers' frame of mind and ask \"Where will I likely want to go after reading this article?\". As a general rule, the \"See also\" section should not repeat links that appear in the article's body.\n\nReferences and external links \nReference lists show information sources outside of Wikipedia. The two most common types are: \n\n \"Web hyperlinks\" \u2013 lists of links to web addresses other than Wikipedia, under the heading \"External links\"\n \"References\" \u2013 lists of academic journal articles or books, under the heading \"References\"\n\nWikipedia is not a link collection and articles with only external links are actively discouraged, but it is appropriate to reference more detailed material from the Internet.  This is particularly the case when you have used a web site as an important source of information.\n\nSpecial names of lists \n\nMost lists on Wikipedia are item lists, but not all. Specialized types of lists include:\n Outline \u2013 a Wikipedia outline is a hierarchically arranged list of topics belonging to a given subject. Outlines are one of the two types of general topics list on Wikipedia, the other being indices.\n Index \u2013 an index on Wikipedia is an alphabetical list of articles on a given subject. See Wikipedia:WikiProject Indexes.\n Timeline \u2013 a timeline is a graphical representation of a chronological sequence of events.\n Order of battle \u2013  a representation of armed force components that shows the hierarchical organization and command structure. \n List of works include bibliographies and discographies. Bibliographies are a list of relevant references for a subject area, including books, journal articles, and web articles; discographies are a listing of all recordings on which a musician or singer features, or may be compiled based on genre or record label\n Glossary \u2013 a glossary is a list of terms in a specific subject area, with definitions included.\nSet index article \u2013 document a set of items that share the same (or a similar) name. They are different from disambiguation pages in that they are full-fledged articles meant to document multiple subjects, while disambiguation pages are for navigation purposes only. Not all set index articles are lists.\nDynamic list \u2013 a dynamic list is any list that may never be fully complete (since it will only include notable examples from a given category), or may require constant updates to remain current.\n\nPurposes of lists \n\nLists have three main purposes:\n\nInformation \nThe list may be a valuable information source. This is particularly the case for a structured list. Examples would include lists organized chronologically, grouped by theme, or annotated lists.\n\nNavigation \n\nLists which contain internally linked terms (i.e., wikilinks) serve, in aggregate, as natural tables of contents and indexes of Wikipedia. If users have some general idea of what they are looking for but do not know the specific terminology, they could browse the lists of basic topics and more comprehensive lists of topics, which in turn lead to most if not all of Wikipedia's lists, which in turn lead to related articles. Users without a specific research goal in mind might also find the articles listed in articles' see also sections useful. Lists are also provided in portals to assist in navigating their subjects, and lists are often placed in articles via the use of series boxes and other navigation templates.\n\nUsers with a specific research goal, described in one or two words, are likely to find Wikipedia's search box useful.\n\nDevelopment \nSome lists are useful for Wikipedia development purposes. The lists of related topics give an indication of the state of Wikipedia, the articles that have been written, and the articles that have yet to be written. However, as Wikipedia is optimized for readers over editors, any lists which exist primarily for development or maintenance purposes (such as a list that consists entirely of red links and does not serve an informational purpose; especially a list of missing topics) should be in either the project or user space, not the main space.\n\nLists and categories \n\nRedundancy of lists and categories is beneficial because the two formats work together; the principle is covered in the guideline Wikipedia:Categories, lists, and navigation templates. Like categories, lists can be used for keeping track of changes in the listed pages, using the Related Changes feature. Unlike a category, a list also allows keeping a history of its contents; lists also permit a large number of entries to appear on a single page.\n\nList naming \n\nFor a stand-alone list, the list's title is the page name. For an embedded list, the list's title is usually a section title (for instance, ), but it can be shorter. The list title should not be misleading and should normally not include abbreviations. Additionally, an overly precise list title can be less useful and can make the list difficult to find; the precise inclusion criteria for the list should be spelled out in the lead section (see below), not the title. For instance, words like complete and notable are normally excluded from list titles. Instead, the lead makes clear whether the list is complete or whether it is limited to widely-known or notable members (i.e., those that merit articles). Note that the word \"famous\" is considered an unnecessary  \"peacock\" embellishment and should not be used.\n\nSorting a list \n\nLists may be sorted alphabetically (e.g. for people: by surname, given name, initials), chronologically (by date, usually oldest first), or occasionally by other criteria. To suggest that a list in an article or section should be sorted, use .\n\nList layout\n\nUse prose where understood easily \n\nPrefer prose where a passage is understood easily as regular text that appears in its ordinary form, without metrical structure or line breaks. Prose is preferred in articles because it allows the presentation of detail and clarification of context in a way that a simple list may not. It is best suited to articles because their purpose is to explain.\n\n can be used to indicate a list which may be better-written as prose. Many stub articles can be improved by converting unnecessary lists into encyclopedic prose.\n\nUse good markup \n\nUse proper markup: Employ careful wiki markup- or template-based list code .  Especially do not leave blank lines between items in a list, since this causes the MediaWiki software to misinterpret each item as beginning a new list. (There are HTML techniques to insert linebreaks or additional paragraphs into a list item.)  Avoid misuse of list markup in articles for visual styling of non-list material.\n\nImages and lists\n\nTo float pictures to the right of the list, one should put the image markup before the first item in most cases, see the example \"A\". Inserting the image markup as a separate line within the list (as in example \"B\") once again will split it into two half-lists.\n\nShould the length of the list items or the topical relevance of said image discourage display at the top corner, consider placing it after the asterisk of the first list-item it illustrates (as in example \"C\") to avoid breaking continuity of the unordered list () element.\n\nNote: When floating images to the left of a list, use the  template to prevent disrupting the indentation of the bullet-points.\n\nUse an unordered list by default \nUse a bulleted (unordered) list by default, especially for long lists.  Use a numbered (ordered) list only if there is a need to refer to items by number, the sequence of items is important, or the numbering exists in the real world (e.g., tracks on an album).\n\nFormat list items consistently \n\nList items should be formatted consistently in a list. Unless there is a good reason to use different list types in the same page, consistency throughout an article is also desirable.\n\nUse sentence case by default for list items, whether they are complete sentences or not. Sentence case is used for around 99% of lists on Wikipedia.  Title case (as used for book titles) is not used for list entries.  \n\nLowercase is best reserved for:\n lists introduced by a sentence fragment, with a short list of items, also fragments, continuing the extended sentence;\n glossary entries, where it is important to convey whether something is usually capitalized or not;\n lists of items with non-English names (that have not been assimilated into English), from a language in which their capitalization would be incorrect.\n\nUse the same grammatical form for all items in a list \u2013 avoid mixing sentences and sentence fragments as items.\n When the items are complete sentences, each one is formatted with sentence case (i.e., the initial letter is capitalized) and a final full stop (period).\n When the items are sentence fragments, the list is usually preceded by introductory material and a colon. Items may be given with initial lowercase or in sentence case. No final punctuation is used in most cases.\n Semicolons may be used when the list is short, items are lowercase, and the entire list forms a complete sentence (typically with its introductory phrase and possibly with a closing phrase after the list to complete the sentence). Many cases of this are better rewritten as paragraphs unless it is contextually important to \"listify\" the items for clarity (e.g., because they correspond to sections in the rest of the article below the list).\n\nA list item should not end with a full stop unless it consists of a complete sentence or is the end of a list that forms one.\n\nWhen elements contain (or are) titles of works or other proper names, these retain their original capitalization, regardless how the rest of the list is formatted.   \n\nA list title in a section heading provides a direct edit point, if one enables section editing. It also enables the automatic table of contents to detect the list. It is not required, however, and should not be used for a list that is not the focus of a section, or for lists in an article that uses a lot of short lists and which is better arranged by more topical headings that group related lists.\n\nIntroductory material \n\nLists should have introductory material; for stand-alone lists, this should be the lead section. This introductory material should make clear the scope of the list. It should also provide explanation for non-obvious characteristics of the list, such as the list's structure. Stand-alone lists may place non-obvious characteristics in a separate introductory section (e.g. ).  Lists and their supporting material must comply with standard Wikipedia content policies and guidelines, including Wikipedia:Neutral point of view and should not create content forks. \n\nExercise caution when self-referencing Wikipedia, to ensure any self-reference is acceptable. For example, WP:Notability is often a criteria used for WP:Stand-alone lists, but many other self-references create problems. To include a self-reference, format it with Template:Self-reference link.\n\nSome information, such as \"Notable people\" or \"Alumni\", which may be read for context or scanned for content, may be formatted with a section lead and a descriptive, bulleted list, or as prose, depending on size. If the list is long, is unable to be summarised, but is not appropriate for splitting out, then a section lead, with a descriptive, bulleted list may be more appropriate than a long prose section.\n\nOrganization \n\nAlthough lists may be organized in different ways, they must always be organized. The most basic form of organization is alphabetical or numerical (such as List of Star Wars starfighters), though if items have specific dates a chronological format is sometimes preferable (List of Belarusian Prime Ministers). When using a more complex form of organization, (by origin, by use, by type, etc.), the criteria for categorization must be clear and consistent. Just as a reader or editor could easily assume that the headings A, B, C would be followed by D (rather than 1903), more complex systems should be just as explicit. If a list of Australians in international prisons contains the headings Argentina and Cambodia (organization by country), it would be inappropriate for an editor to add the heading Drug trafficking (organization by offense). If a list entry logically belongs in two or more categories (e.g., an Australian in an Argentine prison for drug trafficking), this suggests that the list categorization might be flawed, and should be re-examined.\n\nLists should never contain \"Unsorted\" or \"Miscellaneous\" headings, as all items worthy of inclusion in the list can be sorted by some criteria, although it is entirely possible that the formatting of the list would need to be revamped to include all appropriate items. Not-yet-sorted items may be included on the list's talk page while their categorization is determined.\n\nList size \n\nKeep lists and tables as short as feasible for their purpose and scope: material within a list should relate to the article topic without going into unnecessary detail; and statistical data kept to a minimum per policy. \n\nSome material may not be appropriate for reducing or summarizing using the summary style method. An embedded list may need to be split off entirely into a list article, leaving a  template which produces: \n\nIn some cases, a list style may be preferable to a long sequence within a sentence, compare:\n\nAdding individual items to a list \n\nLists, whether they are stand-alone lists (also called list articles) or embedded lists, are encyclopedic content just as paragraph-only articles or sections are. Therefore, all individual items on the list must follow Wikipedia's content policies: the core content policies of Verifiability (through good sources in the item's one or more references), No original research, and Neutral point of view, plus the other content policies as well. Content should be sourced where it appears with inline citations if the content contains any of the four kinds of material absolutely required to have citations. Although the format of a list might require less detail per topic, Wikipedia policies and procedures apply equally to both a list of similar things as well as to any related article to which an individual thing on the list might be linked.\n\nIt is important to be bold in adding or editing items on a list, but also to balance boldness with being thoughtful, a balance which all content policies are aimed at helping editors achieve. Edits of uncertain quality can be first discussed on the talk page for feedback from other editors. \n\nBesides being useful for such feedback, a talk page discussion is also a good review process for reaching consensus before adding an item that is difficult or contentious, especially those items for which the definition of the topic itself is disputed. Note that, as with other policies and processes mentioned in this section, this process can be used for any type of difficult or contentious encyclopedic content on Wikipedia. \n\nReaching consensus on the talk page before editing the list itself not only saves time in the long run, but also helps make sure that each item on the list is well referenced and that the list as a whole represents a neutral point of view. Content should be sourced where it appears, and provide inline citations if it contains any of the four kinds of material absolutely required to have citations.\n\nWhen an item meets the requirements of the Verifiability policy, readers of the list can check an item's reference to see that the information comes from a reliable source. For information to be verifiable, it also means that Wikipedia does not publish original research: its content is determined by information previously published in a good source, rather than the beliefs or experiences of its editors, or even the editor's interpretation beyond what the source actually says. Even if you're sure that an item is relevant to the list's topic, you must find a good source that verifies this knowledge before you add it to the list (although you can suggest it on the talk page), and add that source in a reference next to the item. \n\nIn lists that involve living persons, the Biographies of living persons policy applies.\n\nWhen reliable sources disagree, the policy of keeping a neutral point of view requires that competing views be described without endorsing any in particular. Editors should simply present what the various sources say, giving each side its due weight through coverage balanced according to the prominence of each viewpoint in the published reliable sources. \n\nWhen adding to a stand-alone list with links to other articles, follow the established format when adding your item, and then see if you can link that item to an article focusing on that item's topic. If so, then consider if the list's format allows room for all the details of competing views in the list item or if those details should only be covered in the linked, main article on the topic. Either way, make sure to add them to the main article if they are not already there.\n\nCategories \n\nYou can add one or more suitable subcategories of :Category:Lists at the bottom of the page containing a list that may be of independent encyclopedic interest.  If there is a redirect for the list (e.g., from \"List of Presidents of Elbonia\" to \"President of Elbonia#List of Elbonian Presidents\") put list categories on the \"List\"-named redirect instead. Use a sort key to sort alphabetically by topic.\n\nList styles \n\nThere are several ways of presenting lists on Wikipedia.\n\nBulleted lists \n\nThis is the most common list type on Wikipedia. Bullets are used to discern, at a glance, the individual items in a list, usually when each item in the list is a simple word, phrase or single line of text, for which numeric ordering is not appropriate, or lists that are extremely brief, where discerning the items at a glance is not an issue. They are not appropriate for large paragraphs. Simple bulleted lists are created by starting a line with * and adding the text of a list item, one item per * line.\n\nList items should be formatted consistently.  Summary:\n Prefer sentence case.\n Prefer using full sentences, and avoid mixing sentences and fragments as items in the same list.\n No terminal punctuation is used with sentence fragments.\n Do not put blank lines between list items.\n.\n\nHTML formatting can be used to create rich lists, including items with internal paragraph breaks.   Using images with lists requires some care.\n\nFor infoboxes, a bulleted list can be converted to unbulleted or horizontal style with simple templates, to suppress both the large bullets and the indentation.\n\nDo not double-space the lines of the list by leaving blank lines after them. Doing this breaks the list into multiple lists, defeating the purpose of using list markup. This adversely affects accessibility (screen readers will tell the visually impaired user there are multiple lists), and interferes with machine-parseability of the content for reuse. Moreover, in certain Web browsers, the extra white-space between one block of list output  and the next can have a visually jarring effect.\n\nBlank lines between items of a numbered list will not only cause the same broken-list problems as in bulleted lists, but will also restart the numbering at \"1\". This cannot be fixed without complex markup (defeating ease-of-editing expectations), so double-spacing should always be avoided in numbered lists.\n\nDoing this actually produces three lists with one item each! Notice the rendered HTML in which there are as many  tags as  tags.\n\nUnbulleted lists \n\nFor lists of up to 30 items (may increase later) without bullets, use a  or  template. Typical uses are in infobox fields, and to replace pseudo-lists of lines separated with .  The templates emit the correct HTML markup, and hide the bullets with CSS .\n\nA benefit of  is that it can be wrapped around an already-existing bullet list.  A feature of  is that, for a short list, it can be put on a single line: .\n\nNumbered lists \n\nUse a numbered (ordered) list only if any of the following apply:\n There is a need to refer to the elements by number.\n The sequence of the items is critical.\n The numbering has some independent meaning, for example in a listing of musical tracks on an album.\n\nUse a # symbol at the start of a line to generate a numbered list item (excepted as detailed in this section, this works the same as * for bulleted lists, above).\n\nList items should be formatted consistently.  Summary:\n Prefer sentence case.\n Prefer using full sentences, and avoid mixing sentences and fragments as items in the same list.\n No terminal punctuation is used with sentence fragments.\n Do not put blank lines between list items.\n.\n\nExample:\n\nBlank lines between items of an ordered list will not only cause the same broken-list problems as in bulleted lists, but will also restart the numbering at \"1\". This cannot be fixed without complex markup (defeating ease-of-editing expectations), so double-spacing should always be avoided in numbered lists.\n\nHTML formatting can be used to create rich lists, including items with internal paragraph breaks; some basics are illustrated below.   Using images with lists also requires some care.\n\nOther cases \n\nExperienced editors can use raw HTML to achieve more complex results, such as ordered lists using indexes other than numbers, and ordered lists not starting from 1.\n\nValid values for the list type are:\n1 (default, numbers)\na (lowercase latin letters)\nA (uppercase latin letters)\ni (lowercase roman numerals)\nI (uppercase roman numerals)\nThe start value can be negative, but only if the list uses numbers as indexes. Otherwise, bizarre results are achieved.\n\nDescription (definition, association) lists \n\nA description list contains groups of \"... terms and definitions, metadata topics and values, questions and answers, or any other groups of name-value data.\" On Wikipedia, the most common use of a description list is for a glossary, where it is preferable to other styles. Wikipedia has special markup for :\n\nThe source can also be laid out with the descriptive value on the next line after the term, like so:\n\nThis still keeps the names and values within a single description list, and the alternation of typically short names and longer values makes the separate components easy to spot while editing. The resulting layout and HTML are identical to that generated by the single-line syntax. \n\nEither wikitext markup is functionality-limited and easily broken. A major weakness of both variants of wikitext markup is that they are easily broken by later editors attempting to create multi-line values. These issues are most-prominent in lengthy description lists. As such, there are templates for producing description lists such as glossaries, in ways that provide for richer, more complex content, including multiple paragraphs, block quotations, sub-lists, etc.   .\n\nThe basic format of a  is:\n\nUse either wikitext or templates as above for description lists instead of other, made-up formats, as other formats may be unexpected for reader and editor alike, hamper reusability of Wikipedia content, make automated processing more difficult, and introduce usability and accessibility problems. (Other formats may take less vertical space, but will be more difficult for the reader to scan.) That said, a list of items whose descriptions contain more than one paragraph may present better as sections in a stand-alone list article, while tables are better-suited to associating content than description lists, especially when there are multiple values for each item.\n\nAs with unordered (bulleted) and ordered (numbered) lists, items in description lists should not have blank lines between them, as it causes each entry to be its own bogus \"list\" in the output, obviating the point of putting the entries in list markup to begin with.\n\nWhen wiki markup colons are used just for visual indentation, they too are rendered in HTML as description lists, but without ;-delimited terms to which the :-indented material applies, nor with the list start and end tags, which produces broken markup . More accessible indentation templates can be used, e.g.,  or one of its variants for one line, and  for more than one line (even if misuse of description list markup on talk pages is too ingrained to change at this point).\n\nMany of the considerations at  also apply to description list terms; even though description list terms are not headings, they act like headings in some ways. In at least one regard however, they are not: description list term wikitext (;) should not be used to subdivide large sections. Use a subheading instead (e.g., === Subheading ===).\n\nTables \n\nTables are a way of presenting links, data, or information in rows and columns. They are a complex form of list and are useful especially when more than 2 pieces of information are of interest to each list item. Tables require a more-complex notation, and should be scrutinized for their accessibility. Consideration may be given to collapsing tables which consolidate information covered in the prose.\n\nTables might be used for presenting mathematical data such as multiplication tables, comparative figures, or sporting results. They might also be used for presenting equivalent words in two or more languages, for awards by type and year, and complex discographies.\n\nHorizontal lists \n\nIn situations such as infoboxes, horizontal lists may be useful.  Examples:\n\nNote the capitalization of only the first word in this list (\"Entry 1 ...\"), regardless of coding style.  Words that are normally capitalized, like proper names, would of course still be capitalized.\n\nA benefit of  is that it can be wrapped around an already-existing bullet list.  A feature of  is that, for a short list, it can be put on a single line.\n\nTimelines \n\nFor lists of dated events, or timelines, use one instance of  per event, thus:\n\n* {{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|1904|11|18|df=y}}|event=A thing happened}}\n* {{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|1905}}|event=Not much happened}}\n* {{Timeline-event|date={{Start date|1906|01|21}}|event=Something else happened}}\n\nto render as:\n \n \n \n\n(note optional df=y (date first) parameter \u2013 date formatting should be consistent within individual articles).\n\nChronological lists, such as timelines, should be in earliest-to-latest chronological order. See .\n\nLine breaks \n\n, as it does not meet Web standards and can cause accessibility problems. Instead, use one of more formatted list styles defined above.\n\nBoilerplate text \nDirectly before an incomplete list, insert , which will transclude the following onto the page:\n\nSeveral topic-specific variations of this template are also available within . Only one of  or its variations should be added, unless the topic is significantly related to more than one of the subcategories. Do not add both  AND a variation to any list.\n\nPro and con lists \n\nThese are lists of arguments for and against a particular contention or position. They include lists of Advantages and disadvantages of a technology or proposal (such as Wi-Fi) and lists of Criticisms and defenses of a political position or other view, such as libertarianism or evolution. Pro and con lists can encapsulate or bracket neutrality problems in an article by creating separate spaces in which different points of view can be expressed. An alternative method is to thread different points of view into running prose.\n\nEither method needs careful judgment as to whether and how it should be used. In particular, pro and con lists can fragment the presentation of facts, create a binary structure where a more nuanced treatment of the spectrum of facts is preferable, encourage oversimplification, and require readers to jump back and forth between the two sides of the list.\n\nSee also \n Help:Line-break handling \u2013 covers among other things how to properly handle the line wrapping in horizontal link lists\n Help:Sorting \u2013 tables on Wikipedia can be made sortable with class=\"sortable\", this page explains how\n Wikipedia:List dos and don'ts \u2013 information page summarizing the key points in this guideline\n Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Disambiguation pages \u2013 disambiguation pages are lists of homographs\u2014a word or a group of words that share the same written form but have different meanings\u2014with their own page rules and layouts\n Wikipedia:Stand-alone lists \u2013 guideline page on content and style guidelines and naming conventions\n  \u2013 cleanup tags for lists\n Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists \u2013 project's goal is to collaboratively develop Wikipedia's list articles and embedded lists\n\nNotes \n\nWikipedia article elements help\nWikipedia how-to\n \n?","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":178,"dup_dump_count":41,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":5,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":5,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":5,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":5,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":7,"2021-25":8,"2021-21":7,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":8,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":5,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":11,"2019-39":6,"2019-35":8,"2019-30":8,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":14}},"id":25287,"url":"https:\/\/dag.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MOS%3ALIST","title":"MOS:LIST","language":"dag"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Rockabilly is an early type of rock and roll music. It developed in the 1950s in the United States. Rockabilly was very popular amongst teenagers. Many parents of teenagers did not like rockabilly music, because it had lyrics which talked about rebelling against rules, sex and drinking alcohol. Rockabilly musicians often wear slicked-back hair, jeans, and leather jackets.\n\nRockabilly music\nRockabilly music has musical styles from blues music and country music. It uses the acoustic guitar, the electric guitar, the double bass, drums, and singing. Some Rockabilly songs also use the piano or the harmonica. Rockabilly music usually has a strong rhythm from the double bass being played in a \"slap\" style. Rockabilly singers often use a wide range, with high notes and many shouts like \"go man go\" and \"yeah!\"\n\nRockabilly musicians\nOne of the earliest musicians who played rockabilly music was Elvis Presley. Another famous rockabilly musician was Carl Perkins, who wrote the popular song Blue Suede Shoes. Jerry Lee Lewis was a piano player who sang. Jerry Lee Lewis was known for his crazy behavior on stage, which audiences liked. Lewis would play the piano with his feet, elbows and butt.\n\nGene Vincent was a rockabilly musician who wore black leather and sang songs about sex and getting into trouble. Vincent's most popular song is \"Be-Bop-A-Lula\". Eddie Cochran wrote songs about teen life, and had hit songs like \"Summertime Blues\" and \"C'mon Everybody.\"\n\nRockabilly revival\nRockabilly became popular again in the 1980s, when bands such as the Stray Cats became popular. In the 1990s and 2000s, there are still many bands playing rockabilly music or music influenced by rockabilly, such as Tiger Army.\n\nSources\n\nRock music","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":227,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2022-05":1,"2021-49":4,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":6,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":5,"2020-29":4,"2020-16":5,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":4,"2019-04":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":4,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":4,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":8,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":6,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1}},"id":47940,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rockabilly","title":"Rockabilly","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Death is the end of a life in an organism. All biological and living activity of the living thing stop, including the mind and the senses. The usual signal for death in humans and many other animals is that the heart stops beating and cannot be restarted. This can be caused by many things. All living things have a limited lifespan, and all living things eventually die.\n\nLiving things that have died are normally described as being dead. Death of humans is often investigated for the cause, in case of crime (such as murder), accident or disease that may continue to kill other humans. About 150,000 people die every day around the world. About two thirds of these people die because of age. In addition to the physical body, some believe humans also have a soul and believe that the soul can continue without a body (afterlife), move into another body (reincarnation), or cease to exist (annihilationism). Religions have different beliefs about this issue. Many cultures have their own customs and rituals to respect the dead.\n\nWhen people talk about things or events that lead to the death of a plant or animal, those things or events are usually described as being deadly, or fatal. In the case of diseases, they are described as terminal. Humans are no different from any other lifeform. Our bodies have an ability for self-repair, but that ability is limited. Finding the cause of death is a medical speciality called pathology. In medicine, death is when the heart stops beating for more than several minutes. There are special times in which people recover even though the heart has stopped for 30 minutes, such as near-drowning in very cold water. If machines are used to help the heart and lungs work, then the moment of death is more difficult to know.\n\nSociety and culture \n\nDeath is commonly a sad or unpleasant thing to people. It can make people think about their own death. People might miss or be sad for the person who has died. They might also be sad for the family and friends of the person who has died.\n\nIn any society, human death is surrounded by ritual - a wake or funeral is normal.  In some places it was common to eat the dead in a form of ritual cannibalism.  But this is no longer common, in part because disease like kuru can be passed this way. Human dead bodies are taboo in most societies and must be handled in special ways - for a combination of religious and hygiene reasons.  A human dead body must always be reported in law, to be sure it is disposed of properly. In 2021 the leading cause of death in the United States was heart disease followed by cancer and then COVID-19.\n\nDealing with dead bodies and their property \n\nFinding the cause of any human death and stopping a similar death from happening to someone else are the main reasons people look into human morbidity or let dead bodies be cut open and looked at in an autopsy.  Some religions do not allow autopsies, because they feel the body is holy. Autopsies are usually required by the state if someone dies and people do not know why. The autopsy helps find out if someone killed the person on purpose, tried to hurt them, or if they died from a sickness.\n\nTo prepare for their own death, humans can write a last will and testament to be clear about who gets their property and possessions.  A person will sometimes also volunteer to be an organ donor. This might mean giving the whole body to medical research.  It can also save the lives of others by making organ transplants possible.\n\nReligious views of death \n\nFor a long time, many people have been afraid of death and a lot of people have wondered about what may happen to people after they die.  This is one of the largest questions of philosophy and religion. Many people believe there is some form of afterlife.\n\nAncient rulers sometimes did insist not only that their own bodies, and much property, but even their servants and relatives be destroyed at their funeral.  \n\nChristianity has a special focus on death because of the state killing of Jesus Christ by the Romans.  In Islam this is thought to demonstrate the injustice of human systems of dealing out death, and the ability of the best people to overcome it and even forgive it.  In Christianity itself it is thought to prove that Jesus himself was really God and so could lose his body and still have the power of resurrection. In Buddhism reincarnation is believed to occur. Reincarnation is an idea taken from Hinduism.\n\nConfucianism advises respect for parents and forms of ancestor worship to respect both dead and living ancestors.\n\nRituals surrounding death \n\nEvery ethical tradition including the medical view of the body has some ritual surrounding death.  Often these excuse behaviours that might be hated if they did not have the ritual.  For instance, one may say that organ transplant is like cannibalism.\n\nVery much of what happens at a human death is ritual.  People who wish theirs to be dealt with a certain way, and who wish a particular treatment like cremation of their body, should decide in advance and set up the necessary payments and agreements.  This makes it much easier for their family after they die, since there is no longer the ability to clearly communicate the wish.\n\nFor the same reason, saying goodbye is important.  Most of the stress of death seems to come for loved ones who \"did not have a chance to say goodbye\".\n\nMaybe it is to relieve this stress that rituals are created, and to bring together those that knew someone so that the personal experience a person can no longer communicate for themselves, can be exchanged by others.\n\nSome ritual, such as seances, claim to allow people to speak to the dead. This is not claimed to be very reliable, both by scientists and even by those who do them very often.\n\nPreparing for death \n\nAside from wills, goodbyes, organ donations and funerals, there is important personal experience to decide to pass on, or not, when someone knows they may soon die.  Palliative care focuses on basic decisions people make when they are very close to the end of their lives, and it ensures someone is always available to talk to them.  It is a replacement for heroic medical intervention that may keep them physically alive but with no quality of life.  Human psychology must prepare for death if it is anything other than a quick surprise:\n\nElizabeth Kubler-Ross wrote that there were several stages in dying, of which denial was the first, and acceptance was the last.  Recording one's life is often something people with acceptance will do to leave a memoir or a full autobiography:\n\nBecause events leave living memory, and may only be part of oral tradition, there are projects to record everything that people remember about World War I and the Shoah.  The first of these was to record everything remembered about the U.S. Civil War.  This discipline has changed history since we have so many more first person accounts of the times, and made social history much more standard.\n\nOther terms for death \nThere are other terms for death. Examples are, \"to pass away\", \"to go to a better place\", \"to buy the farm\" (generally used in the military), \"to leave the earth\", \"big sleep\", and \"to kick the bucket\". the term gone may also be a term for describing death. for example: if a person has died, they are also said to be gone, as in gone to a better place or no longer here.\n\nUnnatural causes of death \nOld age and illness are not the only things that can end a person's life. People make other people die. This is called killing or murder. Three famous murders are John Wilkes Booth killing Abraham Lincoln, James Earl Ray killing Martin Luther King Jr. and Lee Harvey Oswald killing the President of the United States John F. Kennedy. People can also die by accidents resulting in terminal trauma, hypothermia, starvation, suicide and dehydration.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \nFuneral\nDeath (personification)\nWill (law)\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":330,"dup_dump_count":93,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":4,"2024-22":4,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":4,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":3,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":5,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":4,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":6,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":6,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":5,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":7,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":7,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":11,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":6,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":8}},"id":209,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Death","title":"Death","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A megabyte (MB) is a large number used when talking about hard drives or computer memory. One megabyte is 1 million bytes or 1 thousand kilobytes.\n\nUntil December 1998, when the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) first defined a mebibyte as 220, or 1,048,576 bytes, megabyte also meant either 1,048,576 bytes, or 1,024,000 bytes.  Casual computer users still often use megabyte to mean one of these numbers.\n\nOne thousand megabytes make one gigabyte.\n\nThis definition is part of the International System of Quantities.\n\nUnits of information","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":13163,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Megabyte","title":"Megabyte","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (TMNT; known as the Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles, TMHT when they were introduced in the United Kingdom (UK) are a fictional group of four mutant turtles who were taught how to be ninjas by a mutant rat named Master Splinter. The TMNT were created by Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird and made their comic book debut in 1984. In October 2009, Nickelodeon purchased the intellectual property rights from Mirage Studios.\n\nHistory\nThe Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles first appeared in an American comic book published by Mirage Studios in 1984 in Dover, New Hampshire. The concept arose from a humorous drawing sketched out by Kevin Eastman during a casual evening of brainstorming with friend Peter Laird. Using money from a tax refund, together with a loan from Eastman's uncle, the young artists self-published a single-issue comic intended to parody four of the most popular comics of the early 1980s: Marvel Comics' Daredevil and New Mutants, Dave Sim's Cerebus, and Frank Miller's Ronin. The TMNT comic series has been published in various appearances by many comic book companies since 1984.\n\nThe Turtles started their rise to mainstream success when a licensing agent, Mark Freedman, sought out Eastman and Laird to propose wider merchandising opportunities for the franchise. In 1986, Dark Horse Miniatures produced a set of 15\u00a0mm lead figurines. In January 1987, Eastman and Laird visited the offices of Playmates Toys Inc, a small California toy company that wanted to expand into the action figure market. Development was undertaken by a creative team of companies and individuals: Jerry Sachs, ad man of Sachs-Finley Agency, brought together the animators at Murakami-Wolf-Swenson headed by Fred Wolf. Wolf and his team combined concepts and ideas with the Playmates marketing crew, headed by Karl Aaronian, VP of sales Richard Sallis and President of Playmates Bill Carlson.\n\nAaronian brought on several designers, and concepteur and writer John C. Schulte and worked out the simple backstory that would live on toy packaging for the entire run of the product and show. Sachs called the high-concept pitch \"Green Against Brick\". The sense of humor was honed with the collaboration of the MWS animation firm's writers. Playmates and their team essentially served as associate producers and contributing writers to the miniseries that was first launched to sell-in the toy action figures. Phrases like \"Heroes in a Half Shell\" and many of the comical catch phrases and battle slogans (\"Turtle Power!\") came from the writing and conceptualization of this creative team. As the series developed, veteran writer Jack Mendelsohn came on board as both a story editor and scriptwriter. David Wise, Michael Charles Hill, and Michael Reaves wrote most of the scripts.\n\nThe miniseries was repeated three times before it found an audience. Once the product started selling, the show got syndicated and picked up and backed by Group W, which funded the next round of animation. The show then went network, on CBS. Accompanied by the popular Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 1987 TV series, and the subsequent action figure line, the TMNT were soon catapulted into pop culture history. At the height of the frenzy, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Turtles' likenesses could be found on a wide range of children's merchandise, from Pez dispensers to skateboards, breakfast cereal, video games, school supplies, linens, towels, cameras, and even toy shaving kits.\n\nWhile the animated TV series, which lasted for 10 seasons until 1996, was more light-hearted, the comic book series continued in a much darker tone. In 1990 a live-action feature film was released, with the turtles and Splinter being portrayed by actors in partially animatronic suits created by Jim Henson's Creature Shop. The film became one of the most successful independent films, and made two sequels, as well as inspiring a 3D animated film set in the same continuity, which was released in 2007 under the title TMNT. After the end of the cartoon series, a live action series in the vein of the films was created in 1997 in collaboration with Saban Entertainment. The series was called Ninja Turtles: The Next Mutation and introduced a fifth, female turtle called Venus De Milo, but was very unsuccessful and was canceled after one season.\n\nThe property lay inactive until in 2003 a new animated TV series also entitled Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles began to air on Fox Box (4Kids TV). The series storyline was much closer to the original Mirage comic book series, but was still less violent. It lasted for 7 seasons and 156 episodes, ending in February 2009.\n\nOn October 21, 2009, it was announced that cable channel Nickelodeon (a subsidiary of Viacom) had bought all of Mirage's rights to the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles property. Mirage retains the rights to publish 18 issues a year, though the future involvement of Mirage with the Turtles and the future of Mirage Studios itself is unknown. Nickelodeon has developed a new CGI-animated TMNT television series and will partner with fellow Viacom company Paramount Pictures to bring a new TMNT movie to theaters. The TV show premiered on Nickelodeon on September 29, 2012. However, in June 2012, Paramount shut down their planned production due to script issues, pushing their release date out until May 2014.\n\nBackground information \nThe turtles are named after famous artists from the Renaissance period. Their names are Leonardo, Raphael, Donatello, and Michelangelo. They live underground in a sewer under Manhattan, and try to keep themselves hidden from people mankind in general, fearing humanity would never understand. While helping their friends, they often end up in trouble fighting crime and villan. Their enemies may vary from inner town street gangs to extraterrestrials. There are a few humans who know about them, a woman named April O'Neil and a man named Casey Jones, and some other people, depending on version. Some versions also use Casey Jones' grandmother's farmhouse in Northampton in Massachussetts as a hangout for the turtles.\n\nSplinter's origin differs between versions. In some versions (Mirage, 2003, movies), he was originally a pet rat of Hamato Yoshi, ending up mutated. In other versions (1987 carton, Archie and the 2012 cartoon), he was originally a man, Hamato Yoshi, who ended up accidentally touching the ooze, and turned into a humanoid rat.\n\nIn the 1987 cartoon, their main antagonists are a Japanese ninjutsu master, Shredder (Oroku Saki), an extraterrestrial called Krang, and two mutant punks, Bebop and Rocksteady, while in the 1984 Mirage comics, Shredder ends up killed by the turtles in the first issue. Krang's appearance is inspired by the Utroms, an extraterrestrial race in the Mirage. The Utroms, however, aren't villains.\n\nCharacters\n\nTurtles \n Leonardo (Leo) \u2013 The leader of the group. Leonardo wears a blue mask. He uses two, long and razor-sharp katanas as weapons. They can slice through anything solid. He is the oldest of the four. Leonardo was named after Leonardo da Vinci.\n Michelangelo (Mike or Mikey) \u2013 The jokester of the group. Michelangelo wears an orange mask. He uses a pair of nunchucks. He is the youngest of the four Turtles, and often provides the comic relief. He usually speaks in a Southern Californian accent. He is named after the Italian artist Michelangelo.\n Donatello (Don or Donnie) \u2013 The scientist and genius of the group. Donatello wears a purple mask. He uses a bo staff. He is the less violent turtle, preferring to use his knowledge to solve problems. He is named after the Italian artist Donatello.\n Raphael (Raph) \u2013 The rebel of the group. Raphael wears a dark red mask. He uses a pair of sais as weapons. He speaks in a Brooklyn accent. He is named after the Italian painter Raphael.\n\nOthers \n Splinter\u00a0\u2013 The Turtles'\u00a0teacher (sensei)\u00a0and adoptive father. Splinter is a Japanese mutant rat. He learned the ways of ninjutsu from his owner and master,\u00a0Hamato Yoshi. In the\u00a01987 TV series,\u00a0Archie Comics series\u00a0and the\u00a02012 TV series, Splinter was Hamato Yoshi mutated into a human-like rat instead of being just Yoshi's pet.\n April O'Neil\u00a0\u2013 A former assistant to the\u00a0scientist\u00a0Baxter Stockman. April is the brave human friend of the Turtles. April first met the Turtles when they saved her from Baxter's Mouser robots. She goes on many of the Turtles' adventures and helps them by doing the work in public that the Turtles cannot. In the\u00a01987 TV series,\u00a0Archie Comics series\u00a0and the three movies after it, April was a television news reporter. In the 2012 cartoon series, April is a teenager who is rescued by the Turtles and later is given some basic training in being a ninja by Splinter.\n Casey Jones \u2013 A\u00a0vigilante\u00a0who has become one of the Turtles' closest allies. He is also the love interest to April. Casey first met the Turtles after having a fight with Raphael. Casey fights crime with a mix of sporting goods (baseball bats, golf clubs, hockey sticks, cricket bats) while wearing a\u00a0hockey mask\u00a0to hide his identity.\n The Shredder\u00a0\u2013 A villainous ninjutsu master called Oroku Saki. He is the leader of the\u00a0Foot Clan. In every version of the TMNT series, he has been the main enemy of Splinter and the Turtles. Shredder prefers to use his armor instead of weapons in some versions.\n Karai \u2013 A female high-ranking member of the Foot Clan. She has appeared in several different\u00a0TMNT\u00a0comics, cartoons and movies, as well as in multiple video games. In some versions of the character, she is closely related to the Shredder as his granddaughter or adopted daughter.\n\nFirst appearance \nThey first appeared in a comic book which was made in 1984. In 1987, an animated television show was made, it was extremely popular and ran until 1996.\n\nMerchandise \nThere were many items based on the show including food, video games and toys. Starting in 1990, three live-action movies were made. In 1997, there was a live-action television series called \"Ninja Turtles: The Mutation\", which was not very successful. In 2003, a new animated series based more on the original comic book than the other series and an animated movie came out in 2007. Finally, the 2003 season came to an end, and a new series, the \"Back to the Sewers\" aired in late 2008-early 2009.\n\nIn September 2012 another cartoon series began. It takes inspirations from both the Mirage comics, and the 1987 cartoon series. Michael Bay will be producing a reboot of the film coming out on August 8, 2014. The film was directed by Jonathan Liebesman.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n1984 establishments\nAmerican animated television series\nBritish comic books\nFictional characters introduced in 1984\nFictional turtles\nTeenage Mutant Ninja Turtles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":58836,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Teenage%20Mutant%20Ninja%20Turtles","title":"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bourgeoisie  means a social class of people who own the means of production, making them in the upper or merchant class. Hence, all employers are bourgeoisie. Their status or power comes from employment, education, assets, or wealth and not from aristocratic (political) origin, as a lowly caf\u00e9 or factory owner is bourgeoisie. \nThe term is widely used in many non-English speaking countries as an approximate equivalent of middle class.   \n\nAs the bourgeoisie are not its opposing counterpart proletariat, they don't have to be a labourer doing menial work for money. And if they do any work that gets them money, then it's only because of the many proletariat people beneath them, who generated their wealth through their labour, of which the higher up bourgeoisie person took a cut (commission).\n\nHistory \nBourgeoisie is a French word that was borrowed directly into English in the sense that is explained above. \nThe French word bourgeois comes from the Old French word burgeis, meaning \"an inhabitant of a town\". (cf. Middle English burgeis, Middle Dutch burgher and German B\u00fcrger). The Old French word burgeis comes from bourg, meaning a market town or medieval village, itself derived from Late Latin burgus, meaning \"fortress\"\n\nRelated pages\n French Revolution\n Elite\n Aristocracy\n Anarchism\n Capitalism\n Leninism\n Marxism\n\nNotes\n\nReferences \nHal Draper, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution, Vol. 2: The Politics of Social Classes. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979.\nRalph Miliband, Class and class power in contemporary capitalism, in: Stanislaw Kozyr-Kowalski and Jacek Tittenbrun, On Social Differentiation. A Contribution to the Critique of Marxist Ideology, Part 2. Poznan: Adam Mickiewicz University Press, 1992, pp.\u00a07\u201362.\nErnest Mandel, Social differentiation in capitalist and postcapitalist societies, in: Stanislaw Kozyr-Kowalski and Jacek Tittenbrun, On Social Differentiation. A Contribution to the Critique of Marxist Ideology, Part 2. Poznan: Adam Mickiewicz University Press, 1992, pp.\u00a063\u201391.\nErik Olin Wright et al., The Debate on Classes. London: Verso, 1989.\nAnthony Giddens, The Class Structure of the Advanced societies, 1981.\n\nOther websites \n\nThe Democratic State \u2013 A Critique of Bourgeois Sovereignty\n\nSocial classes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":96864,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bourgeoisie","title":"Bourgeoisie","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A  Duke is someone part of nobility.  In monarchies, like the UK, the title has legal status, and is inherited in the male line. \n\nThe first English dukes were created by Edward III in 1337, when he gave his eldest son, Edward, the Black Prince, the title of Duke of Cornwall.\n\nDukes are formally referred to as 'The Duke of (place name)', and addressed as \"Your Grace\". On State occasions, dukes rank below Royal Dukes, and above Earls. This is called the order of precedence, because in procession to the opening Parliament, or on other state occasions, they walk in order of their rank.\n\nThe office or position of a duke is called a dukedom. \n\nThe wife of a duke is a Duchess. This is an honorary title, given for life to the lawfully wedded wife of a Duke. If she divorces and remarries a commoner, (person with no title) their children have no title. The children of a duke, on the other hand, do have honorary titles (so long as they are born in lawful wedlock). The eldest son may bear what is called a junior title which an ancestor was given before the dukedom was created. Other children would be called 'Lady' Jane (or other Christian name) and 'Lord' James (or other Christian name). Children use the family surname, not the Dukedom.\n\nHistorically, the land that is ruled by a duke is a duchy. The eldest son of a duke inherits the duchy when the duke dies. The word comes from the Latin word \"dux\", which means leader.\n\nReferences \n\n \nPeerages","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"unknown":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":5,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":5,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":6591,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Duke","title":"Duke","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"CONMEBOL or CSF (CONfederaci\u00f3n SudaMEricana de F\u00fatBOL in Spanish, CONfedera\u00e7\u00e3o Sul-AMEricana de FuteBOL in Portuguese; South American Football Confederation) is the governing body of football in most of South America.\n\nThree countries or territories on the South American mainland\u2014the independent countries of Guyana and Suriname, plus the French overseas department of French Guiana\u2014are not CONMEBOL members. Instead, for cultural and competitive reasons, they are members of CONCACAF, the governing body for the rest of the Americas.\n\nRelated pages\n Copa Am\u00e9rica, the CONMEBOL championship for men's national teams\n Copa Libertadores, the main CONMEBOL club championship\n Copa Sudamericana, second major CONMEBOL club championship\n\nOther websites \n CONMEBOL homepage","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"unknown":10,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":31315,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confederaci%C3%B3n%20Sudamericana%20de%20F%C3%BAtbol","title":"Confederaci\u00f3n Sudamericana de F\u00fatbol","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A duel is a fight of the two people who have similar deadly weapons and have agreed to a set of rules before the fight takes place. The fight is usually about a matter of honor. The goal of a duel is not usually to kill the opponent but to restore the honor of the man who declared the duel. Duels are not official laws, they are carried out by individuals.\n\nDuels were practiced from the 15th to 20th century in Western societies. For example, in 1804 in the United States the politicians Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton had a duel. Since the American Civil War, all U.S. states have criminalized dueling, with punishments for dueling ranging from not being allowed to run for public office to the death penalty. Dueling was outlawed because groups against dueling formed and were successful. The dueling with the guns would usually only last 3 shots.\n\nRules\nDuels could be fought with swords or pistols.\n\nThe person who felt offended or dishonored had to \"challenge\" his opponent to a duel. This was usually done by throwing his glove down in front of the opponent or by hitting him in the face with a glove. Each person had to then find a person to be his \"second\". The job of the seconds was to choose a place to duel and to decide whether or not the weapons were equal.\n\nThe person who declared the duel got to choose when the duel would be finished. Common endings to duels were:\nuntil one person was injured, even if the injury was minor\nuntil one person could no longer fight because he was too hurt\nuntil one person was killed or injured so badly that he would soon die\nduels with pistols could be ended after the first shot, even if no one was hit. Most pistol duels did not go longer than 3 shots\n\nReferences\n\nScholarly Studies: US and Canada\n Clayton Cramer. Concealed Weapon Laws of the Early Republic: Dueling, Southern Violence, and Moral Reform\n Joanne B. Freeman. Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic (2002)\n James Kelly. That Damn'd Thing Called Honour: Duelling in Ireland 1570-1860\" (1995)\n Kevin McAleer. Dueling: The Cult of Honor in Fin-de-Si\u00e8cle Germany (1994)\n Cecilia Morgan. \"'In Search of the Phantom Misnamed Honour': Duelling in Upper Canada.\"  Canadian Historical Review1995 76(4): 529-562.\n Dick Steward, Duels and the Roots of Violence in Missouri (2000),\n Jack K. Williams. Dueling in the Old South: Vignettes of Social History (1980) (1999)\n Bertram Wyatt-Brown. Honor and Violence in the Old South (1986)\n Bertram Wyatt-Brown  Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South (1982)\n\nPopular works\n The Code of Honor; or, Rules for the Government of Principals and Seconds in Duelling (1838)\n Robert Baldick. The Duel: A History (1965, 1996)\n Thomas Gamble.  Savannah Duels & Duellists (1923)\n Harnett C. Kane. Gentlemen, Swords and Pistols (1951)\n Paul Kirchner. Dueling With the Sword and Pistol: 400 Years of One-on-One Combat (2004)\n William Oliver Stevens. Pistols at Ten Paces: The Story of the Code of Honor in America (1940)\n Ben Truman.The Field of Honor (1884); reissued as Duelling in America (1993)\n\n Other websites \n The dishonor of dueling.\n Allen, Douglas, W., and Reed, Clyde, G., 2006, \"The Duel of Honor: Screening for Unobservable Social Capital,\" American Law and Economics Review'': 1-35.\n\nHuman behavior\nDispute resolution\nViolence","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":49221,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Duel","title":"Duel","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Giacomo Meyerbeer  (born near Berlin, 5 September 1791; died Paris,  2 May 1864) was a famous German-born opera composer.  He was the most important composer of French Grand opera during the 1830s and 1840s.  Although he was tremendously popular in his day, his music is not often played now.\n\nLife\n\nEarly years\n\nMeyerbeer was born into a rich Jewish family in Tasdorf (now a part of R\u00fcdersdorf), near Berlin.  His father owned large sugar refineries in Berlin and in Italy.  His mother also came from a rich family.  Her father had been important in Germany's struggle to be free of the French in 1812 when Napoleon was trying to conquer much of Europe. Giacomo's mother did a lot of good work trying to help people who were wounded during the Napoleonic wars.\n\nMany famous people came to the house where Giacomo's family lived.  Some of the visitors were from the royal Prussian court,  including the future King Friedrich Wilhelm IV.  The naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt also visited them quite often.\n\nThe first piano teacher the boy had was Franz Lauska, who also taught the royal princes.  He also had lessons in composition.  Meyerbeer first played in public in 1801 playing Mozart's Piano Concerto in D Minor in Berlin. He wrote his first opera in 1810.  In the same year he went to Darmstadt to study with the well-known music theorist Abb\u00e9 Vogler.  There he met the young Carl Maria von Weber who was also a pupil of Vogler.  He left Vogler in 1811 and tried to get some work in Munich.  In 1813 he found he had been offered a job as court composer to the Grand Duke of Hessen.  Vogler had probably recommended him for the job.  At this time Meyerbeer was better known as a pianist than as a composer.  He travelled to London to hear an important pianist based there, namely J.B.Cramer.  There he met other famous pianists such as Kalkbrenner and Ferdinand Ries.\n\nItaly\n\nIn 1816 Meyerbeer went to Italy.  He wanted to learn about Italian opera and collect Italian folksongs.  While he intended at first to stay only three months, he stayed most of the next nine years.  He made some trips back to Germany and Austria during this time.  He composed several operas which became very popular.  People started to compare him with the famous Rossini.  However, in Germany people were not interested in his music.  He took his opera Il crociato in Egitto  to  London and then to Paris, where it was a success.  The opera is remembered now for being the last opera ever to have a part for a castrato singer.\n\nHe was becoming well-known now.  Spontini asked him to compose an opera for Berlin.  He became friends, in Paris, with the librettist  Eug\u00e8ne Scribe who had a lot of influence in the French theatre.\n\nThe Grand Operas\n\nFrom 1825 onwards Meyerbeer spent his life travelling about Europe.  He was often in Paris and in Berlin, but did not live in either of these places.  He stayed in hotels or private houses wherever he went.  One reason why he travelled was because of his health.  His wife also had bad health, so they often went to spa towns to try to get better.  He also travelled about to watch productions of his operas, and to hear young singers.\n\nWhen Carl Maria von Weber died, he left an opera, Die drei Pintos, unfinished.  It was sent to Meyerbeer in the hope that he would finish it, but he did not seem interested.  In the end Mahler finished it many years later.\n\nMeyerbeer made changes to Il crociato in Egitto and turned it into a grand opera for the Op\u00e9ra in Paris.  He changed it from an Italian to a French opera, composing extra dance music and a new overture.  He was determined to be famous in Paris.\n\nIn 1826 he married his cousin.  They had two children, but they both died when they were very small.\n\nIn 1828 Daniel Auber, a famous French composer of the time, had composed a very popular opera called  La muette de Portici. It was the first French  grand opera. Meyerbeer realized he could not become really popular by turning his Italian operas into French grand opera, so he took his comic opera Robert le Diable and changed it into a grand opera.  Audiences loved it. Within three years it had been performed in 77 theatres in 10 different countries.  Many composers made their own arrangements of some of the tunes from the opera.   He was given many honours: the Chevalier of the Legion d'honneur, the title of Prussian Hof Kapellmeister (Director of Music at the Royal Court), and was made a member of the Prussian Academy of Arts and a member of the French Institute.\n\nMeyerbeer realized that anything else he wrote would have to be really good.  In  1836 he produced another opera Les Huguenots.  This too was extremely popular.\n\nIn 1842 he went to Boulogne to improve his health.  There he met Wagner who asked him for financial help to stage his operas Rienzi and The Flying Dutchman.  Meyerbeer lent him money, but stopped giving him money when he heard that Wagner was secretly criticizing him.\n\nBerlin years\n\nWhen Spontini died Meyerbeer was made Generalmusikdirektor in Berlin.  His opera  Les Huguenots had at first been forbidden in Germany, but now it was allowed to be performed.  As court composer he wrote a grand opera called Ein Feldschlag in Schlesien (A  Battle in Silesia), but it never became internationally famous.  The main part in the opera was sung by Jenny Lind.\n\nReturn to Paris\n\nIn 1849 he returned to Paris. He wrote several works together with Scribe, whom Meyerbeer described as the best living librettist, and who was one of his closest friends.  His opera Le proph\u00e8te (for which Scribe again wrote the words) earned him a lot of money.  The great contralto Pauline Viardot-Garcia sang the main part.\n\nScribe died in 1861.  Meyerbeer worked very hard to try to finish his last opera,  L'Africaine.  Napoleon III said he wanted the opera to be ready by the winter of 1862-63, but it was not ready until 1864.  The work was being rehearsed for its first performance when Meyerbeer suddenly died, without having had the chance to revise it, the way he revised most of his other pieces.\n\nMeyerbeer's body was taken to Berlin where it was buried in the Jewish cemetery in a vault that belonged to his family.\n\nMeyerbeer's music\nMeyerbeer was always more popular in France than in Germany.  His operas are about the society of wealthy people.  The sounds he made with his orchestra are often deliberately harsh.  In this he is like Beethoven in his final years, and Berlioz. Sometimes he used new instruments such as the bass clarinet and the saxophone.  He always thought carefully about what his singers were capable of when writing his music.  He enjoyed working with different singers, among them Velluti, who was the last of the great operatic castrati.  He took great trouble to give his singers rests during the opera so that they would still be in good voice for the climax of the story.  He liked scenes with large crowds.  He composed his dance music, in particular, very carefully. Often he would throw it away and start again if the dancers were not happy with it.\n\nBesides his operas he also wrote orchestral pieces for special occasions.  He also wrote some songs for performance in the salon.\n\nMeyerbeer was one of the richest men in Europe.  This is why some people hated him.\n\nMeyerbeer's reputation after his death\nMeyerbeer's operas were very popular in the middle of the 19th century, but by the end of the century they had gone out of fashion.  From 1933 to 1945 his music was banned in Germany by the Nazis because he was  Jewish.  Today there is some interest again, but nothing like the huge popularity he had in his lifetime.\n\nBibliography\nThe New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980; ; article \"Meyerbeer\" vol 12 p.\u00a0246ff\n\nRomantic composers\n19th-century German composers\n1791 births\n1864 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":227858,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Giacomo%20Meyerbeer","title":"Giacomo Meyerbeer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Electronic mail (or e-mail or email) is an Internet service that allows people who have an e-mail address (accounts) to send and receive electronic letters. Those are much like postal letters, except that they are delivered much faster than snail mail when sending over long distances, and are usually free.\n\nLike with regular mail, users may get a lot of unwanted mail. With e-mail, this is called spam. Some programs used for sending and receiving mail can detect spam and filter it out nearly completely.\n\nTo send or receive an email in the traditional way, one needs a device (computer, phone etc.) connected to the Internet and an e-mail program (simply called mailer). Several formats exist for email addresses. The most common, called RFC 2822, looks like firstname.lastname@example.com. E-mail messages are sent mostly by text, and sometimes by HTML style.\n\nSome companies let people send and receive emails for free from a remote website. Gmail, Hotmail and Yahoo! are among the many that do this kind of \"web mail\".  Webmail does not follow the pattern below exactly because the webpage is a web application and takes care of many details by itself.  The traditional way uses a mailer, as is usual with smartphones. \n\nMicrosoft invented its own \"communication protocol\" (or set of rules) for sending and receiving mail, called \"Exchange\". Exchange protocol works entirely differently from the traditional method and is not explained here.\n\nTraditional method \n\nThis diagram gives an example of what happens when email is sent from one person to another using the traditional method. In this example, Alice is sending email to Bob.\n\n First, Alice writes a message to Bob in her e-mail program. Her e-mail program puts the message together along with some other information, such as her email address, the address of the person she is writing to, the time at which she is sending her message, and so on. When it is ready, Alice's mail program sends the message to a central computer called a mail server (or a Mail Transfer Agent) using some rules called the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.\n The mail server that Alice is using to send her message (smtp.a.org) takes Alice's message and looks at the address to see where the message is being sent. The mail server then goes out on the internet and tries to find the mail server that Bob is using. It does this by talking to a Domain Name System (DNS) server, which keeps records about how to find different computers on the internet, including mail servers.\n The DNS server gives Alice's mail server the proper address for the server that Bob is using to receive his email (mx.b.org).\n Alice's mail server sends the message to Bob's email server, which puts it into Bob's mailbox.\n Bob opens his e-mail program and downloads his messages using one of two sets of rules\u2014either the Post Office Protocol (POP) or the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP). His messages include the new message from Alice.\n\nOther Features \n You can send files along with your emails by using the Attachment feature. This is a common way of sending longer documents, spreadsheets, photographs etc. to other people\n The CC (Carbon Copy) function lets you send a copy of the email to other people\n the BCC (Blind Carbon Copy) function also lets you send a copy of the email to other people. This function hides the names of the recipients from each other\n\nOther websites \n RFC 2822 Internet Message Format. April 2001\n\n \nMessaging","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":217,"dup_dump_count":96,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":4,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":4,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":19235,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-mail","title":"E-mail","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A tuple space is an implementation of the  associative memory paradigm for parallel\/distributed computing. It provides a repository of tuples that can be accessed concurrently. As an illustrative example, consider that there are a group of processors that produce pieces of data and a group of processors that use the data. Producers post their data as tuples in the space, and the consumers then retrieve data from the space that match a certain pattern. This is also known as the blackboard metaphor. Tuple space may be thought as a form of distributed shared memory.\n\nTuple spaces were the theoretical underpinning of the Linda language developed by David Gelernter and Nicholas Carriero at Yale University in 1986.\n\nImplementations of tuple spaces have also been developed for Java (JavaSpaces), Lisp, Lua, Prolog, Python, Ruby, Smalltalk, Tcl, and the .NET Framework.\n\nObject Spaces\nObject Spaces is a paradigm for development of distributed computing applications. It is  characterized by the existence of logical entities, called Object Spaces. All the participants of the distributed  application share an Object Space. A provider of a service encapsulates the service as an Object, and puts it in the Object Space. Clients of a service then access the Object Space, find out which object provides the needed service, and have the request serviced by the object.\n\nObject Spaces, as a computing paradigm, was put forward in the 1980s by David Gelernter at Yale University. Gelernter developed a language called Linda to support the concept of global object coordination.\n\nObject Space can be thought of as a virtual repository, shared amongst providers and accessors of network services, which  are themselves abstracted as objects. Processes communicate among each other using these shared objects \u2014 by updating the state of the objects as and when needed.\n\nAn object, when deposited into a space, needs to be registered with an Object Directory in the Object Space. Any  processes can then identify the object from the Object Directory, using properties lookup, where the property specifying  the criteria for the lookup of the object is its name or some other property which uniquely identifies it. A process may choose to wait for an object to be placed in the Object Space, if the needed object is not already present.\n\nObjects, when deposited in an Object Space are passive, i.e., their methods cannot be invoked while the objects are in the Object Space. Instead, the accessing process must retrieve it from the Object Space into its local memory, use the service provided by the object, update the state of the object and place it back into the Object Space.\n\nThis paradigm inherently provides mutual exclusion. Because once an object is accessed, it has to be removed from the  Object Space, and is placed back only after it has been released. This means that no other process can access an object while it is being used by one process, thereby ensuring mutual exclusion.\n\nJavaSpaces\nJavaSpaces is a service specification providing a distributed object exchange and coordination mechanism (which may or may not be persistent) for Java objects. It is used to store the distributed system state and implement distributed algorithms. In a JavaSpace, all communication partners (peers) communicate and coordinate by sharing state.\n\nJavaSpaces can be used to achieve scalability through parallel processing, it can also be used to provide reliable storage of objects through distributed replication, although this won't survive a total power failure like a disk; it is regarded by many to be reliable as long as the power is reliable. Distribution can also be to remote locations; however, this is rare as JavaSpaces are usually used for low-latency, high-performance applications rather than reliable object caching.\n\nThe most common software pattern used in JavaSpaces is the Master-Worker pattern. The Master hands out units of work to the \"space\", and these are read, processed and written back to the space by the workers. In a typical environment there are several \"spaces\", several masters and many workers; the workers are usually designed to be generic, i.e. they can take any unit of work from the space and process the task.\n\nJavaSpaces is part of the Java Jini technology, which on its own has not been a commercial success.  The technology has found and kept new users over the years and some vendors are offering JavaSpaces-based products. JavaSpaces remains a niche technology mostly used in the financial services and telco industries where it continues to maintain a faithful following. The announcement of Jini\/JavaSpaces created quite some hype although Sun co-founder and chief Jini architect Bill Joy put it straight that this distributed systems dream will take \"a quantum leap in thinking\".\n\nExample usage\nThe following example shows an application made using JavaSpaces. First, an object to be shared in the Object Space is made. Such an object is called an Entry in JavaSpace terminology. Here, the Entry is used to encapsulate a service which returns a Hello World! string, and keeps track of how many times it was used. The server which provides this service will create an Object Space, or JavaSpace. The Entry is then written into the JavaSpace. The client reads the entry from the JavaSpace and invokes its method to access the service, updating its usage count by doing so. The updated Entry is written back to the JavaSpace.\n\n\/\/ An Entry class\npublic class SpaceEntry implements Entry {\n     public final String message = \"Hello World!\";\n     public Integer count = 0;\n \n     public String service() {\n         ++count;\n         return message;\n     }\n \n     public String toString() {\n         return \"Count: \" + count;\n     }\n}\n\n\/\/ Hello World! server\npublic class Server {\n     public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {\n         SpaceEntry entry = new SpaceEntry();            \/\/ Create the Entry object\n         JavaSpace space = (JavaSpace)space();           \/\/ Create an Object Space\n         \/\/ Register and write the Entry into the Space\n         space.write(entry, null, Lease.FOREVER);        \n         \/\/ Pause for 10 seconds and then retrieve the Entry and check its state.\n         Thread.sleep(10 * 1000);\n         SpaceEntry e = space.read(entry, null, Long.MAX_VALUE);\n         System.out.println(e);\n     }\n}\n\n\/\/ Client\npublic class Client {\n     public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {\n         JavaSpace space = (JavaSpace) space();\n         SpaceEntry e = space.take(new SpaceEntry(), null, Long.MAX_VALUE);\n         System.out.println(e.service());\n         space.write(e, null, Lease.FOREVER);\n     }\n}\n\nBooks\n Eric Freeman, Susanne Hupfer, Ken Arnold: JavaSpaces Principles, Patterns, and Practice. Addison-Wesley Professional, 1. June 1999, \nPhil Bishop, Nigel Warren: JavaSpaces in Practice. Addison Wesley, 2002, \nMax K. Goff: Network Distributed Computing: Fitscapes and Fallacies, 2004, Prentice Hall, \nSing Li, et al.: Professional Java Server Programming, 1999, Wrox Press, \nSteven Halter: JavaSpaces Example by Example, 2002, Prentice Hall PTR,\n\nInterviews\n\nArticles\n\nSee also\nSpace-based architecture\nLinda (coordination language)\nKen Arnold, lead engineer on JavaSpaces at Sun Microsystems\nRinda, a JavaSpaces analog for Ruby\n\nReferences\n\nSources\nGelernter, David. \"Generative communication in Linda\". ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems, volume 7, number 1, January 1985\nDistributed Computing (First Indian reprint, 2004), M. L. Liu\n\nExternal links\n\"TupleSpace\" at c2.com\n\"JavaSpace Specification\" at jini.org\n\nParallel computing\nDistributed computing architecture\nProgramming languages\nJava platform\nArticles with example Java code","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":139,"dup_dump_count":48,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2015-18":6,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2,"2023-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-25":1,"2020-45":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-22":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-13":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":7,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":6,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":6}},"id":1966238,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tuple%20space","title":"Tuple space","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that uses a focused beam of high-energy electrons in producing a variety of signals at the surface of a solid specimen. The signals produced by the interacting electrons contain useful information such as the shape, atomic structure and conductivity.\n\nIntroduction\nWhen an electron hits the surface, it may be reflected (backscattered), absorbed, or conducted away. Electrons that are absorbed can cause the atom that they hit to become unstable, forcing it to give off another electron (a secondary electron), or to give off light in order to stabilize. Different detectors, for the different types of reactions, may be fitted to an electron microscope, depending on what is being looked for.\n\nThe magnification that can be achieved in a scanning electron microscope depends on how narrow the beam of electrons that strikes the surface can be, and can reach 1 nanometer, about the size of 3 to 5 atoms. The control of the beam is achieved using magnetic fields, with other magnetic fields being used to shape the beam, and to move it across the sample. The range of magnification may range from 30x to as high as 500,000x.\n\nSample\nThe electron beam is affected by air and water molecules, so the sample must be placed in a vacuum. The sample must also be conductive to allow the electrons not reflected or absorbed to be conducted away. This gives some limits on the type of sample that can be used. In the case of samples from plants or animals, it often means that they must first be coated in gold before they can be placed in the microscope. This is done in order to preserve the sample and keep it from changing or decaying throughout the scanning process.\n\nComponents\nThe scanning electron microscope is made up of several components:\n\n1. The electron gun is located at the very top or bottom of an SEM and is used to fire a beam of electrons at the object that we are looking at under SEM.\n\n2. The lenses are used to focus electron beams so that we can get clear and detailed images of the examined object. They are not made of glass, but they are made of magnets that change the path of electrons created from the electron gun.\n\n3. The sample chamber is the area where the specimen of interest is examined under SEM. As the technique is very sensitive, the chamber must be very sturdy and have no vibrations happen. This is to allow for the specimen to be kept very still in order for the SEM to produce good images.\n\n4. The detector is the \"eyes\" of the microscope. It is able to produce the most detailed images of a specimen's surface. Many different detectors can be used depending upon the information wanted from the sample used.\n\n5. The vacuum chamber is used to keep the electron beam from constant interference from air. The air particles are bad for electron beams in that the electrons would be knocked out of the air and onto the specimen, which will produce bad distorted surfaces of the specimen.\n\nMicroscopes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":145,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":6,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":103355,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scanning%20electron%20microscope","title":"Scanning electron microscope","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Animals with nervous systems are born with instincts. An instinct is a part of the behaviour of an organism. It is inherited (innate), not learned. However, the term does not include the operation of sense organs, and does not include the normal working of the autonomic nervous system. Instincts are to do with visible muscular action in response to releasers. Releasers are triggers which set off chains of instinctive behaviour. Although instincts are not learned, in some cases their performance can be improved by experience and practice.\n\nThere are some problems with the term 'instinct'. It can be used loosely to mean a general tendency, such as \"a man's instinct is to protect his family\". It can be used to describe chains of behaviour of mixed origin. Properly, it is used only of well-defined acts whose causation is inherited, and which are triggered by  specific stimuli called releasers. \n\nOther terms for instinct are fixed action patterns (FAP) and innate behaviour chains.\n\nOverview\n\nInstinctive behaviours can be variable and responsive to the environment. Any behaviour is instinctive if it is performed without being based upon prior experience, that is, in the absence of learning. Sea turtles, newly hatched on a beach, will automatically move toward the ocean, and automatically swim when they are in the water. A joey climbs into its mother's pouch upon being born. Honeybees communicate by dance the direction of a food source without formal instruction. Other examples include animal fighting, animal courtship behaviour, internal escape functions, and building of nests.\n\nReflexes as instincts \nReflex actions are a special case. A true reflex is distinguished from other behaviours by mechanism; they do not go through the brain. Rather, the stimulus travels to the spinal cord and the message is then transmitted back through the body, tracing a path called the reflex arc. Reflexes are similar to fixed action patterns, but a fixed action pattern can be processed in the brain as well. A male stickleback's instinctive aggression towards anything red during his mating season is such an example.  Examples of instinctive behaviours in humans include many of the primitive reflexes, such as rooting and suckling, behaviours which are present in most mammals.\n\nMaturational instincts \nSome instinctive behaviors depend on maturational processes to appear. For instance, we commonly refer to birds \"learning\" to fly, because they cannot fly at first, but can a week or two later. However, young birds have been experimentally reared in devices that prevent them from moving their wings until they reached the age at which their cohorts were flying. These birds flew immediately and normally when released, showing that their improvement resulted from neuromuscular maturation and not true learning.\n\nComponents of instincts \nWhile fixed action patterns and reflexes are clear examples of almost entirely instinctive behaviours, most behaviours are complex and consist of both instinctive and learned components. For instance, in imprinting a bird has a sensitive period during which it learns who its mother is. Konrad Lorenz famously had a goose imprint on his boots.  Thereafter the goose would follow whomever wore the boots.  The identity of the goose's mother was learned, but the goose's behavior towards the boots was instinctive. Similarly, sleeping in humans is instinctive, but how much and when one sleeps is clearly subject to environmental factors. Whether a behaviour is instinctive or learned is common subject of nature versus nurture debates.\n\nDisplacement activities \nIn a situation when two instincts contradict each other, an animal may resort to a displacement activity.\n\nBiological function \nInstinct is a built-in need to do something. It's not something an animal thinks about; it's something it does automatically. A baby bird automatically throws its head back, opens its mouth wide, and screams for food. It is an instinct. Baby bats automatically cling to the cave wall. Grasshoppers naturally spit out the things in their stomach on predators that try to eat them. Bees naturally work to take care of the hive and make honey. Butterflies inherit preferences for laying their eggs on certain plants.plant their young need to eat, and that's where they lay their eggs. Animals are born with these instincts, and they follow their instincts without conscious thought.\n\nOrganisms have two ways they can get behaviours. One way is learn, by observation, and by repeating things which have a pleasant outcome. The other way is to inherit the behaviour pattern by heredity.\n\nDefinitions of 'instinct' \na fixed action pattern, in which a very short to medium length sequence of actions, without variation, are carried out in response to a clearly defined stimulus. Karl Lorenz.\na propensity prior to experience, and independent of instructions. William Paley.\na blind tendency to some mode of action, independent of any consideration, on the part of the agent, of the end to which the action leads. Whately.\nan agent which performs blindly and ignorantly a work of intelligence and knowledge. Sir W. Hamilton.\nThe resemblance between what originally was a habit, and an instinct becomes so close as not to be distinguished. Charles Darwin.\na natural, unreasoning, impulse by which an animal is guided to the performance of any action, without improvement in the method.\n\nReferences\n\nOther page \nLibido\n\nPsychology\nEthology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":201936,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instinct","title":"Instinct","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Concertmaster (American English) or leader (British English) is the most important violinist in an orchestra.  He or she will sit in the front seat, by the conductor's left.  The word concertmaster comes from the German Konzertmeister.\n\nThe leader will be the highest paid member of the orchestra.  He has to decide how the violins will play the music and write in the bowing.  He will decide where each member of the violins should sit.  He will probably also interview them and offer them the job in the orchestra.  He will talk to the conductor about anything the orchestra are not happy about (he may have to remind the conductor when it is time to stop the rehearsal!).  If part of the music is marked \"solo\" then he will play it as a solo while the other violins stop playing.\n\nIn the United States it is usual for the concertmaster to be on the platform before the concert and to tell the orchestra to tune their instruments, playing on his A string to give them the correct pitch.  In European orchestras it is usually the oboe that gives an A for tuning.  In Britain the leader usually comes on stage after the orchestra have tuned, and gets an applause.\n\nSome famous orchestral leaders\nof the past:\nArnold Ros\u00e9 (Vienna Philharmonic)\n\nof today:\nGordan Nikolitch (London Symphony Orchestra)\nGlenn Dicterow (New York Philharmonic Orchestra)\nPeter Manning ( Royal Opera House Orchestra Covent Garden  )\n\n \nEntertainment occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":28701,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concertmaster","title":"Concertmaster","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is a graph of many stars. It shows the relation between stars' luminosity (how bright they are) and their temperature (how hot they are). \n\nThese diagrams are not pictures or maps of where the stars are. Rather, Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams plot each star on a scatter graph showing the star's brightness versus its temperature. Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams are also called H-R diagrams or HRDs.\n\nYou can see an example of a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram to the right. This diagram is based on measurements from 23,000 stars in our Milky Way galaxy. \n\nThe Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is named after its creators, astronomers Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell.\n\nDrawing a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram \nThe vertical axis of a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram shows the luminosity or brightness of the stars, as if they were all measured from the same distance. Another term for this is absolute magnitude. The brighter a star is, the higher its plot will be on this chart.\n\nThe horizontal axis shows the surface temperature of the stars. However, the temperatures go down, not up, as you move to the right. That is, the left of the diagram contains stars with the highest temperature plots (greater than 30,000 Kelvins) while the right shows stars with temperatures of only 3000K.\n\nIn general, the temperature of a star relates to its color. At the top of the chart, along with the temperatures, are the spectral classes. The hottest stars are blue-white (class O), those in the middle temperatures are yellow (class G) and the coolest ones are red (class M). When we say \"coolest\" about stars, the lowest temperature for a star is almost 5000 degrees Fahrenheit.\n\nAs a matter of fact, when Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams were developed in the early 1900's, astronomers did not know how to find out the temperature of a star. The first diagrams plotted stars' absolute magnitude against color, represented by the spectral classes from blue-white to red.\n\nRegions with many stars \nAs you can see, stars tend to fall only into certain regions of the diagram when graphed in this way. All stars in a given area of a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram share similar luminosities and temperatures. The main region where stars appear is the diagonal curved line, going from the upper-left (hot and bright) to the lower-right (cooler and less bright). This is called the Main Sequence. Above the main sequence is another region containing the red giants and supergiants. Below is a curved line representing the white dwarfs.\n\nThese collections of stars by brightness and temperature are important when talking about stellar evolution. In general, stars are created in the main sequence. (Of course, when we say \"in the main sequence\" we really mean \"having a brightness and a temperature that causes them to be plotted within the main sequence on a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram.\") After billions of years, they expand into red giants. Then, after another one or two billion years, they shrink into white dwarfs.\n\nIt was only in the 1930's and 1940's that scientists began to understand the role of nuclear fusion in creating and keeping stars like our sun. These days Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams are used to present stellar evolution in pictures to students. They're not used much any more for developing new scientific theories.\n\nOn a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, our Sun is plotted very close to the middle of the main sequence at the intersection of luminosity 1 and temperature 5780K. Therefore, the Sun is class G or a \"yellow star\").\n\nHistorical sources \n A.C. Maury & E.C. Pickering 1897. Spectra of bright stars photographed with the 11-inch Draper Telescope as part of the Henry Draper Memorial. Annals of Harvard College Observatory. 28: 1\u2013128. \nHertzprung, Ejnar 1908. \u00dcber die Sterne der Unterabteilung c und ac nach der Spektralklassifikation von Antonia C. Maury. Astronomische Nachrichten. 179 (24): 373\u2013380.\nRussell, Henry Norris 1914. Relations between the spectra and other characteristics of the stars. Popular Astronomy. 22: 275\u2013294. \n\nAstrophysics\nDiagrams","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":153,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":194420,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell%20diagram","title":"Hertzsprung\u2013Russell diagram","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
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(2005) Journal publishing and author self-archiving: Peaceful Co-Existence and Fruitful Collaboration.\n Brody, T. and Harnad, S. (2004) \"Using Web Statistics as a Predictor of Citation Impact\".\n Hajjem, C., Harnad, S. and Gingras, Y. (2005) \"Ten-Year Cross-Disciplinary Comparison of the Growth of Open Access and How it Increases Research Citation Impact\". IEEE Data Engineering Bulletin 28(4) pp. 39-47.\n Harnad, Stevan (1990). \"Scholarly Skywriting and the Prepublication Continuum of Scientific Inquiry.\" Psychological Science 1, no. 6: 342-344. http:\/\/cogprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/archive\/00001581\/index.html\n Harnad, Stevan (1991). \"Post-Gutenberg Galaxy: The Fourth Revolution in the Means of Production of Knowledge.\" The Public-Access Computer Systems Review 2, no. 1: 39-53. http:\/\/info.lib.uh.edu\/pr\/v2\/n1\/harnad.2n1\n Harnad, Stevan (1992). \"Interactive Publication: Extending the American Physical Society's Discipline-Specific Model for Electronic Publishing.\" Serials Review 18, no. 1\/2: 58-61. http:\/\/www.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/~harnad\/Papers\/Harnad\/harnad92.interactivpub.html\n Harnad, Stevan (1995). \"The Post-Gutenberg Galaxy: How to Get There from Here.\" The Information Society 11, no. 4: 285-291. http:\/\/cogprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/archive\/00001689\/00\/thes.html\n --- 1996. \"Implementing Peer Review on the Net: Scientific Quality Control in Scholarly Electronic Journals.\" In Scholarly Publishing: The Electronic Frontier, edited by Robin P. Peek and Gregory B. Newby, 103-118. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press,. http:\/\/cogprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/archive\/00001692\/00\/harnad96.peer.review.html\n --- (1997). \"How to Fast-Forward Learned Serials to the Inevitable and the Optimal for Scholars and Scientists.\" The Serials Librarian 30, no. 3\/4: 73-81. http:\/\/cogprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/archive\/00001695\/00\/harnad97.learned.serials.html\n --- (1997). \"Learned Inquiry and the Net: The Role of Peer Review, Peer Commentary and Copyright.\" Antiquity, no. 274: 1042-1048. http:\/\/intarch.ac.uk\/antiquity\/electronics\/harnad.html\n --- (1997). \"The Paper House of Cards (and Why It's Taking So Long to Collapse).\" Ariadne, no. 8. http:\/\/www.ariadne.ac.uk\/issue8\/harnad\/\n --- (1998). \"The Invisible Hand of Peer Review.\" Nature Web Matters, 5 November 1998. http:\/\/www.nature.com\/nature\/webmatters\/invisible\/invisible.html\n --- (1999). \"Free at Last: The Future of Peer-Reviewed Journals.\" D-Lib Magazine 5, no. 12 http:\/\/www.dlib.org\/dlib\/december99\/12harnad.html\n --- (2000). \"Freeing the Refereed Journal Corpus Online.\" Computer Law & Security Report 16, no. 2: 78-87. http:\/\/cogprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/archive\/00001701\/index.html\n --- (2001). \"Minotaur: Six Proposals for Freeing the Refereed Literature Online: A Comparison.\" Ariadne, no. 28. http:\/\/www.ariadne.ac.uk\/issue28\/minotaur\/\n --- (2001\/3). For Whom the Gate Tolls? Open Access to Peer-Reviewed Research Through Author\/Institution Self-Archiving: Maximizing Research Impact by Maximizing Online Access. In: Law, Derek & Judith Andrews, Eds. Digital Libraries: Policy Planning and Practice. Ashgate Publishing 2003. http:\/\/cogprints.soton.ac.uk\/documents\/disk0\/00\/00\/16\/39\/index.html\n --- (2003). \"Open Access to Peer-Reviewed Research through Author\/Institution Self-Archiving: Maximizing Research Impact by Maximizing Online Access.\" Journal of Postgraduate Medicine 49, no. 4: 337-342. http:\/\/www.jpgmonline.com\/article.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=2003;volume=49;issue=4;spage=337;epage=342;aulast=Harnad\n --- (2003). \"Maximizing University Research Impact through Self-Archiving.\" JCOM: Journal of Science Communication 2, no. 4. http:\/\/jcom.sissa.it\/article\/art020401.html\n --- (2003). \"The Research-Impact Cycle.\" Information Services & Use 23, no. 2-3: 139-142.\n --- (2003). \"Self-Archive Unto Others as Ye Would Have Them Self-Archive Unto You.\" JCOM: Journal of Science Communication 2, no. 3. http:\/\/jcom.sissa.it\/focus\/foc020303.html\n --- (2003). Electronic Preprints and Postprints. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science Marcel Dekker, Inc. http:\/\/www.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/~harnad\/Temp\/eprints.htm\n --- (2003). Online Archives for Peer-Reviewed Journal Publications. International Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. John Feather & Paul Sturges (eds). Routledge. http:\/\/www.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/~harnad\/Temp\/archives.htm\n --- (2003). Back to the Oral Tradition Through Skywriting at the Speed of Thought. Interdisciplines. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20051122173607\/http:\/\/www.interdisciplines.org\/defispublicationweb\/papers\/6\n --- (2005) Fast-Forward on the Green Road to Open Access: The Case Against Mixing Up Green and Gold. Ariadne 42. http:\/\/www.ariadne.ac.uk\/issue42\/harnad\/\n --- (2006) Publish or Perish \u2014 Self-Archive to Flourish: The Green Route to Open Access. ERCIM News 64. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/11715\/\n --- (2006) Maximizing Research Impact Through Institutional and National Open-Access Self-Archiving Mandates. In Proceedings of CRIS2006. Current Research Information Systems: Open Access Institutional Repositories (in press), Bergen, Norway. Jeffrey, K., Eds. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/12093\/\n --- (2006) Opening Access by Overcoming Zeno's Paralysis, in Jacobs, N., Eds. Open Access: Key Strategic, Technical and Economic Aspects, chapter 8. Chandos. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/12094\/\n Harnad, Stevan, Les Carr, and Tim Brody. \"How and Why to Free All Refereed Research from Access- and Impact-Barriers Online, Now.\" High Energy Physics Libraries Webzine, no. 4 (2001). http:\/\/library.cern.ch\/HEPLW\/4\/papers\/1\/\n Harnad, Stevan, and Matt Hemus. \"All or None: No Stable Hybrid or Half-Way Solutions for Launching the Learned Periodical Literature into the Post-Gutenberg Galaxy.\" In The Impact of Electronic Publishing on the Academic Community: An International Workshop Organized by the Academia Europaea and the Wenner-Gren Foundation, dited by I. Butterworth. London: Portland Press, 1998. http:\/\/www.portlandpress.com\/pp\/books\/online\/tiepac\/session1\/ch5.htm\n Harnad, S., Carr, L., Brody, T. & Oppenheim, C. (2003) Mandated online RAE CVs Linked to University Eprint Archives: Improving the UK Research Assessment Exercise whilst making it cheaper and easier. Ariadne. http:\/\/www.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/~harnad\/Temp\/Ariadne-RAE.htm\n Harnad, S., Brody, T., Vallieres, F., Carr, L., Hitchcock, S., Gingras, Y, Oppenheim, C., Stamerjohanns, H., & Hilf, E. (2004) The Access\/Impact Problem and the Green and Gold Roads to Open Access. Serials Review 30. http:\/\/www.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/~harnad\/Temp\/impact.html\n Harnad, S. & Brody, T. (2004) Comparing the Impact of Open Access (OA) vs. Non-OA Articles in the Same Journals, D-Lib Magazine 10 (6) June http:\/\/www.dlib.org\/dlib\/june04\/harnad\/06harnad.html Japanese translation https:\/\/www.nii.ac.jp\/metadata\/irp\/harnad\/\n Sale, Arthur (2006) Researchers and institutional repositories, in Jacobs, Neil, Eds. Open Access: Key Strategic, Technical and Economic Aspects, chapter 9, pages 87-100. Chandos Publishing (Oxford) Limited. http:\/\/eprints.comp.utas.edu.au:81\/archive\/00000257\/\n Sale, Arthur (2006) Comparison of IR content policies in Australia. First Monday 11(4). http:\/\/eprints.comp.utas.edu.au:81\/archive\/00000264\/\n Sale, Arthur (2006) The impact of mandatory policies on ETD acquisition. D-Lib Magazine 12(4). http:\/\/eprints.comp.utas.edu.au:81\/archive\/00000267\/\n Sale, Arthur (2006) Generic Risk Analysis - Open Access for your institution. Technical Report, School of Computing, University of Tasmania. http:\/\/eprints.comp.utas.edu.au:81\/archive\/00000266\/\n Sale, Arthur (2006) Maximizing the research impact of your publications. Technical Report, School of Computing, University of Tasmania. http:\/\/eprints.comp.utas.edu.au:81\/archive\/00000279\/\n Shadbolt, N., Brody, T., Carr, L. and Harnad, S. (2006) The Open Research Web: A Preview of the Optimal and the Inevitable, in Jacobs, N., Eds. Open Access: Key Strategic, Technical and Economic Aspects, chapter 21. Chandos. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/12453\/\n Swan, A. (2005) JISC Open Access Briefing Paper. Technical Report, JISC, HEFCE. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/11005\/\n Swan, A. (2005) Open access self-archiving: An Introduction. Technical Report, JISC, HEFCE. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/11006\/\n Swan, A. (2006) Overview of scholarly communication, in Jacobs, N., Eds. Open Access: Key Strategic, Technical and Economic Aspects, chapter 1. Chandos. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/12427\/\n Swan, A. (2006) The culture of Open Access: researchers' views and responses, in Jacobs, N., Eds. Open Access: Key Strategic, Technical and Economic Aspects, chapter 7. Chandos. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/12428\/\n Swan, A. and Brown, S. (2004) ISC\/OSI JOURNAL AUTHORS SURVEY Report. Technical Report, JISC, HEFCE. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/11002\/\n Swan, A. and Brown, S. (2004) Authors and open access publishing. Learned Publishing 17(3) pp. 219-224. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/11003\/\n Swan, A. and Brown, S. (2005) Open access self-archiving: An author study. Technical Report, External Collaborators, Key Perspectives Inc. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/10999\/\n Swan, A., Needham, P., Probets, S., Muir, A., Oppenheim, C., O'Brien, A., Hardy, R., Rowland, F. and Brown, S. (2005) Developing a model for e-prints and open access journal content in UK further and higher education. Learned Publishing 18(1) pp. 25-40. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/11000\/\n Swan, A., Needham, P., Probets, S., Muir, A., Oppenheim, C., O'Brien, A., Hardy, R. and Rowland, F. (2005) Delivery, Management and Access Model for E-prints and Open Access Journals within Further and Higher Education. Technical Report, JISC, HEFCE. http:\/\/eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk\/11001\/\n\n\u811a\u6ce8\n\n\u95a2\u9023\u9805\u76ee \n Berlin Declaration\n Budapest Open Access Initiative\n Subversive Proposal\n\n\u5916\u90e8\u30ea\u30f3\u30af \n A Subversive Proposal by S. Harnad, (1995), in Okerson, A. and O'Donnell, J., Eds. Scholarly Journals at the Crossroads: A Subversive Proposal for Electronic Publishing Association of Research Libraries\n Self Archiving FAQ: Answers to most of the questions you might have about self-archiving. There is also a Glossary of Terms in case you find yourself wading in jargon.\n Publisher copyright policies & self-archiving\n SelfArchive.org: a self-archiving wiki - DEAD LINK\n Registry of Open Access Repository Material Archiving Policy (ROARMAP)\n Open Access News by Peter Suber\n science-advisor.net\n Openarchives.eu - The European Guide to OAI-PMH Digital Repositories in the World\n\n\u30aa\u30fc\u30d7\u30f3\u30a2\u30af\u30bb\u30b9\n\u5b66\u8853\u51fa\u7248\n\u30b3\u30df\u30e5\u30cb\u30b1\u30fc\u30b7\u30e7\u30f3","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":185,"dup_dump_count":38,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":4,"2016-22":4,"2016-18":6,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":6,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":6,"2015-32":6,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":6,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":11,"2014-35":10,"2014-23":11,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":4,"2015-18":6,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":6,"2014-10":5,"2013-48":7,"2013-20":6}},"id":1496198,"url":"https:\/\/ja.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E3%82%BB%E3%83%AB%E3%83%95%E3%82%A2%E3%83%BC%E3%82%AB%E3%82%A4%E3%83%96","title":"\u30bb\u30eb\u30d5\u30a2\u30fc\u30ab\u30a4\u30d6","language":"ja"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The mole salamanders (genus Ambystoma) are a group of advanced salamanders endemic to North America. The group has become famous due to the presence of the axolotl (A. mexicanum), widely used in research due to its paedomorphosis, and the tiger salamander (A. tigrinum, A. mavortium) which is the official amphibian of many US states, and often sold as a pet.\n\nGeneral description\n \nTerrestrial mole salamanders are identified by having wide, protruding eyes, prominent costal grooves, and thick arms. Most have vivid patterning on dark backgrounds, with marks ranging from deep blue spots to large yellow bars depending on the species. Terrestrial adults spend most of their lives underground in burrows, either of their own making or abandoned by other animals. Some northern species may hibernate in these burrows throughout the winter. They live alone and feed on any available invertebrate. Adults spend little time in the water, only returning to the ponds of their birth to breed.\n\nAll mole salamanders are oviparous and lay large eggs in clumps in the water. Their fully aquatic larvae are branchiate, with three pairs of external gills behind their heads and above their gill slits. Larvae have large caudal fins, which extend from the back of their heads to their tails and to their cloacae. Larvae grow limbs soon after hatching, with four toes on the fore arms, and five toes on the hind legs. Their eyes are wide-set and lack true eyelids.\n\nThe larvae of some species (especially those in the south, and tiger salamanders) can reach their adult size before undergoing metamorphosis. During metamorphosis, the gills of the larvae disappear, as do the fins. Their tails, skin, and limbs become thicker, and the eyes develop lids. Their lungs become fully developed, allowing for a fully terrestrial existence.\n\nSome species of mole salamanders (as well as populations of normally terrestrial species) are neotenic (retaining their larval form into adulthood). The most famous example is the axolotl. They cannot produce thyroxine, so their only means of metamorphosis is mainly through the outside injection of it. This usually shortens the lifespan of the salamander.\n\nTiger salamander complex\n\nThe presence of neotenic populations near those with large larvae has made it difficult to identify mole salamander species. The tiger salamander complex was previously considered a single species ranging from Canada to Mexico, falling under the name A. tigrinum. Despite differences in coloration and larvae, tiger salamanders were found throughout their unbroken range, which made it difficult to delineate subspecies, let alone elevate any populations to species status. In morphological terms, tiger salamanders are all very similar, with large heads, small eyes, and thick bodies. This is probably because tiger salamanders have the primitive morphology of mole salamanders. They are also the largest of the mole salamanders, and have very large larvae. All populations have similar lifestyles, and their lifecycles are identical. However, when one looks at tiger salamander populations distant from each other, different species within this complex become apparent. The ranges of these potential species overlap, and hybridization occurs, blurring the lines between species.\n \nSeveral subspecies of A. tigrinum were named to deal with this problem. Recently, the barred tiger salamander (A. mavortium) was elevated to species status\u2014covering the tiger salamander populations in the western and central United States. Several distinct subspecies still exist in A. mavortium, which may be elevated to species status at some point in the future. The California tiger salamander (A. californiense) has also been elevated out of A. tigrinum, and is actually very distantly related to all other mole salamander species. The Plateau tiger salamander (A. velasci) was elevated out of A. tigrinum through genetic analysis in 1997. All accounts referring to the axolotl (A. mexicanum) as a close relative of A. tigrinum are now considered wrong, as they are now separated by both geography and many species between. Instead, it is A. velasci, which shares the axolotl's habitat, and is probably closely related to it. The Plateau tiger salamander was probably the parent of most of the neotenic species, which raises the possibility that A. velasci is paraphyletic, and may be broken up into more species in the future.\n\nHybrid all-female populations\nUnisexual (all-female) populations of ambystomatid salamanders are widely distributed across the Great Lakes region and northeastern North America.  The females require sperm from a co\u2011occurring, related species to fertilize their eggs and initiate development. Usually the eggs  then discard the sperm genome and develop asexually (i.e., gynogenesis, with premeiotic doubling); however, they may incorporate the genome from the sperm into the resulting offspring. Sperm incorporation commonly takes the form of genome addition (resulting in ploidy elevation in the offspring), or genome replacement, wherein one of the maternal genomes is discarded. This unique mode of reproduction has been termed kleptogenesis by Bogart and colleagues. This is in contrast to hybridogenesis, where the maternal genomes are passed hemiclonally and the paternal genome is discarded every generation before the egg matures and reacquired from the sperm of another species.\n\nThe nuclear DNA of the unisexuals generally comprises genomes from up to five species: the blue-spotted salamander (A.\u00a0laterale), Jefferson salamander (A.\u00a0jeffersonianum), small-mouthed salamander (A.\u00a0texanum), streamside salamander (A.\u00a0barbouri), and tiger salamander (A.\u00a0tigrinum), denoted respectively as L, J, Tx, B, and Ti. This flexibility results in a large number of possible nuclear biotypes (genome combinations) in the unisexuals. For example, an LJJ individual would be a triploid with one A.\u00a0laterale genome and two A.\u00a0jeffersonianum genomes, while an LTxJTi individual would be a tetraploid with genomes from four species. Because they have hybrid genomes, unisexual salamanders are a cryptic species with morphology similar to coexisting species. For example, LLJs look like blue-spotted salamanders and LJJs look like Jefferson salamanders.  Silvery salamanders LJJ (A. platineum), Tremblay's salamanders LLJ (A.\u00a0tremblayi), and Kelly's Island salamanders LTxTx and LTxTi (A.\u00a0nothagenes) were initially described as species. Species names were later dropped for all unisexual salamanders because of the complexity of their genomes. The offspring of a single mother may have different genome complements; for example, a single egg mass may have both LLJJ and LJJ larvae.\n\nDespite the complexity of the nuclear genome, all unisexuals form a monophyletic group based on their mitochondrial DNA. The maternal ancestor of the unisexual ambystomatids was most closely related to the streamside salamander, with the original hybridization likely occurring 2.4~3.9\u00a0million years ago, making it the oldest known lineage of all-female vertebrates. The hybridization was most probably with an A.\u00a0laterale. All known unisexuals have at least one A.\u00a0laterale genome and this is thought to be essential for unisexuality. However, the A.\u00a0laterale genome has been replaced several times, independently, in each of the lineages by matings with A.\u00a0laterale.\n\nLimb Regeneration\n\nAmbystoma mexicanum, a neotenic salamander with exceptional regenerative capabilities is one of the principal models for studying limb regeneration.  Limb regeneration involves the propagation of a mass of low differentiated and highly proliferative cells termed the blastema.  During limb regeneration, blastema cells experience DNA double-strand breaks and thus require homologous recombination, a form of DNA repair that deals with double-strand breaks.\n\nTaxonomy\n\nRhyacosiredon was previously considered a separate genus within the family Ambystomatidae. However, cladistic analysis of the mole salamanders found the existence of Rhyacosiredon makes Ambystoma paraphyletic, since the species are more closely related to some Ambystoma species than those species are to others in Ambystoma. The stream-type morphology of these salamanders (which includes larvae and neotenes with short gills and thicker gular folds) may have led to their misclassification as a different genus.\n\nThe genus name Ambystoma was given by Johann Jakob von Tschudi in 1839, and is traditionally translated as \"cup-mouth\",.  Tschudi did not provide a derivation for the name, and many thought that he intended the name Amblystoma, \"blunt-mouth.\"  Occasionally, old specimens and documents use the name Amblystoma.  Writing in 1907, Leonhard Stejneger offered a derivation of Ambystoma based on the contraction of a Greek phrase meaning \"to cram into the mouth,\" but others have not found this explanation convincing.  In the absence of clear evidence that Tschudi committed a lapsus, the name given in 1839 stands.\n\nSpecies\nThis genus contains 32 species, listed below, the newest being A. bishopi. Some Ambystoma species are Terrestrial, others are neotenic, and some species have established populations of both neotenic and terrestrial forms.\n\nIn addition, two groups of unisexual hybrid populations are sometimes named under their own species:\n\n Silvery salamander (A. platineum)\n Tremblay's salamander (A. tremblayi)\n\nSee also\nOophila amblystomatis\n\nReferences \n\nhttp:\/\/amphibiaweb.org\/lists\/Ambystomatidae.shtml\n\nExternal links\n\nTree of Life: Ambystomatidae\nHerpseeker.dk\nIUCN redlist of threatened Ambystomatidae\n\nSalamandroidea\n \nVertebrate parthenogenesis","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":159,"dup_dump_count":26,"dup_details":{"2022-21":1,"2020-45":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":3,"2016-22":5,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":8,"2015-48":8,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":7,"2015-32":6,"2015-27":6,"2015-22":6,"2015-14":7,"2014-52":8,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":12,"2014-41":14,"2014-35":13,"2014-23":16,"2014-15":8}},"id":242688,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mole%20salamander","title":"Mole salamander","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Gustav Mahler (born Kalischt (now Kali\u0161te), Bohemia, July 7 1860; died Vienna, May 18 1911) was a Czech-Austrian composer and conductor. He was one of the last great composers of the Romantic period. He wrote ten symphonies (he left the tenth symphony unfinished) and several collections of songs with orchestral accompaniment. He was very interested in German folk song and he found new ways to use folk song in large orchestral symphonies. His work Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth) is one of his greatest works, combining song with the sonata form of a symphony. He was also a great conductor and helped to make the Vienna Opera world famous.\n\nLife\n\nChildhood \nGustav Mahler was born on 7 July 1860 into a Jewish family. He was the second of 12 children and the first one of the six who were to survive childhood and grow up to adults. His father worked hard to build up his business. He owned a distillery and seven taverns in Iglau to where the family moved in the autumn of 1860. There he heard a lot of music: military music, folk music and different kinds of art music. He learned the piano and performed in public in 1870 and started to compose.\n\nIn 1875 he went to study at the Vienna Conservatory. After a while he gave up studying the piano and concentrated on composition and conducting. He was very interested in Wagner's ideas about philosophy and politics, and he studied philosophy at the University of Vienna. He started to earn some money by teaching. His first important composition was a cantata called Das klagende Lied.\n\nEarly career \nMahler's first job as a conductor was at Bad Hall in Upper Austria. The small opera company there was not very good and the music they sang was just light operetta. Mahler soon found another job at Laibach (now called Ljubljana). They sang better music there, but he only stayed one year. His next job was in Olm\u00fctz (now called Olomouc). The standard of singing was not very good, but Mahler was very strict. Although the singers did not like him at first he helped them to become better. Then he got a job in Kassel, but he had to conduct a lot of operettas. He had an unhappy love affair with one of the singers. This inspired him to write a collection of orchestral songs Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen and he started his first symphony.\n\nIn 1885 he got a conducting job in Prague. For the first time he was able to conduct works for which he was to become famous: operas by Mozart, Wagner, and music by Beethoven. However, Mahler had arguments with the people he worked with and so he left Prague.\n\nMahler's next job was in Leipzig. The orchestra of the Neues Stadttheater was larger and much better than any he had worked for until then. One of the conductors who worked there was Arthur Nikisch. He was very famous, and the young Mahler was often criticized because he was very different to Nikisch and the way he conducted. When Nikisch was ill Mahler conducted Die Walk\u00fcre and Siegfried. This helped him to show that he was a great conductor. He met the grandson of the composer Carl Maria von Weber who gave him sketches for an opera Die Drei Pintos which Weber had left unfinished. The sketches were very difficult to read, but Mahler completed the opera and performed it. He also worked at his own compositions and he met Richard Strauss who was to remain a close friend until his death.\n\nRising fame: Budapest and Hamburg \n\nIn 1888 Mahler got a job at the Royal Opera in Budapest. Although it was a good theatre they were in financial problems. The Hungarians wanted Mahler to make it a Hungarian national opera using Hungarian singers as much as possible. However, there were not many good Hungarian singers. The opera company did not like German operas, preferring light opera and ballet. He did not have much time to compose because he was too busy with administrative jobs. So he left Budapest. By this time both his parents had died.\n\nFrom 1891 to 1897 Mahler had a conducting post at Hamburg. Here there was an opera company of international standard. Mahler soon became world famous. He conducted many operas as well as orchestral concerts. He conducted in London in 1892 and was invited back again but he did not accept because he wanted time to compose. He spent the summer months composing, writing his music down in short score (not showing the orchestration) and during the theatre season he would revise and orchestrate them. The performance of his Second Symphony in Berlin in 1895 was a huge success.\n\nSince the death of his parents Mahler had supported his two sisters. He had encouraged his brother Otto to become a musician, but Otto committed suicide. Mahler continued to support his two sisters until they married two famous brothers: Eduard and Arnold Ros\u00e9 in 1898 and 1902.\n\nMahler was becoming very famous. In 1897 he went on tour to Moscow, Munich and Budapest. However, he really wanted a job in Vienna, but because he was Jewish it was going to be very hard for him to find work there, so he became a Roman Catholic. Soon afterwards he became Kapellmeister in Vienna.\n\nVienna \nIn Vienna Mahler soon became famous for his conducting of Wagner and Mozart. His friend Guido Adler paid for the publication of his First and Third Symphonies. Mahler replaced Hans Richter as conductor of the Philharmonic Concerts. Mahler attracted bigger audiences, but he had disagreements with the players. They did not like some of his unusual ideas and he was very strict. After an illness in 1901 he resigned. He bought a house in Maiernigg in Carinthia where he spent his summers composing. In 1901 he fell in love with Alma Schindler whose father Anton Schindler was a famous landscape painter. She was nearly twenty years younger than Mahler. She was studying composition, but Mahler made her give up composing so that she could devote herself to being a good wife. This made the relationship between them rather difficult. In 1910 Mahler went to see the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Freud helped him to understand not only his marriage problems but also his creative nature. He now felt a deeper love for Alma than he ever had before.\n\nAt the Hofoper Mahler conducted many of the great operas, but not many new ones. He wanted to conduct Richard Strauss's new opera Salom\u00e9, but the censors did not allow it to be performed. Nevertheless, Mahler's years conducting in Vienna were very important because he had many new ideas. Through his wife he met many artists, especially those connected with the Sezession movement. One of them, Alfred Roller, designed the sets for a new production of Tristan und Isolde. He became Mahler's chief stage designer. At last Mahler could work closely with someone who shared his views. They staged many operas together: Fideleo, Don Giovanni , Die Entf\u00fchrung aus dem Serail, Le Nozze di Figaro, Die Zauberfl\u00f6te and Iphig\u00e9nie en Aulide.\n\nMahler felt much more secure now that he was married. This made him more creative. He composed his Eighth Symphony very quickly. It needs a huge orchestra and choir, which is why it is often called \"Symphony of a Thousand\". Mahler thought it was his best work.\n\nMahler never became a teacher, but he gave a lot of encouragement to young composers such as Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, Anton Webern and Alexander Zemlinsky. However, there were music critics in Vienna who were anti-Jewish and made things difficult for him. In 1907 his elder daughter Maria died from scarlet fever. More bad news followed when Mahler was found to have a bad heart. The doctor said he must give up his favourite pastimes: going for walks, cycling and swimming. Mahler had done a tremendous amount for the cultural life of Vienna, but he decided it was time to leave. The last thing he conducted in Vienna was his Second Symphony.\n\nFinal years: New York and Europe \nMahler was invited to go to America to conduct the Metropolitan Opera in New York City. It was very different from what he had been used to in Europe. Instead of working with a group of singers who worked together as a team, the operas at the Metropolitan Opera were sung by great operatic stars. Mahler did not try to change this. He even agreed to make cuts to Wagner operas. Then he was invited to be the conductor of the New York Philharmonic so he resigned from the Metropolitan. The last time he conducted there was as a guest artist.\n\nIn 1909 he finished his Ninth Symphony. He was very busy conducting in Europe. In January 1911 he conducted his Fourth Symphony in New York. Then he became ill and decided to go to Vienna. He arrived there on 12 May but he died a few weeks later at the age of 50.\n\nHis music \nMahler was one of the last composers who belonged to the great musical tradition of Germany and Austria. Although many German composers had written great symphonies (e.g. Beethoven), Mahler found something new to say in his music. His symphonies often have long melodies and he uses folk song as well as new sounds in the orchestra. Mahler worked most of his life in the theatre, and this influences his musical language. A good example is Symphony No.4 which starts in the happy key of G major where the music describes the early life, but finishes in E major where the soprano soloist sings about the heavenly pleasures.\n\nMahler became very interested in German folksong and he composed several sets of orchestral songs. He took poems from the collection called Des Knaben Wunderhorn (The Boy's Magic Horn). These songs were originally medieval, but Mahler made them feel very different by interpreting them through his own personality. The language of his songs is heard in his symphonies, four of which use singing (nos 2, 3, 4 and 8). He wrote nine symphonies and started a tenth, but died before it was finished.\n\nMahler was a great orchestrator. Some of his later works need a very large orchestra. He often used unusual effects, e.g. in his First Symphony there is a double bass solo playing very high notes, accompanied by timpani.\n\nHis set of orchestral songs Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth) are like a symphony, but he did not call it a symphony. This was for superstitious reasons: several great composers, including Beethoven, had written nine symphonies and then died.\n\nHis conducting \nAs a conductor Mahler had a tremendous influence on musical life in Europe. He often conducted his own works. When he conducted works by other composers he played it according to his own ideas. He even made changes to the orchestration of some works by Beethoven. He was not the sort of conductor who tried to make the music as close as possible to what the composer had wanted. He always wanted the music to sound very clear.\n\nReferences \n The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980; \n\n1860 births\n1911 deaths\nAustrian composers\nAustrian conductors\nAustrian Jews\nJewish musicians\nJews who converted to Christianity\nRomantic composers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":40182,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gustav%20Mahler","title":"Gustav Mahler","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which this substance goes from the solid  state to the liquid one, at a normal pressure. For water, this is 0\u00b0 Celsius (32 Fahrenheit, 273,15 Kelvin). The chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten. Some chemical compounds have a higher melting point. \n\nWhen looking at when a liquid substance becomes solid, most people call this the freezing point. For most substances, like water, this is the same as the melting point. There are substances, where this is not the case (they melt at one temperature, and freeze at another). Agar seems to melt at 85\u00b0 Celsius, but freeze at between 35\u00b0C and 40\u00b0C.  This phenomenon is a kind of hysteresis. \n\nAdding certain substances or impurities will change the melting point of the resulting mixture. For example, sugar or salt will lower the melting point, and alcohol will raise it. \n\nThermodynamics\nChemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":63,"dup_details":{"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2}},"id":28181,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Melting%20point","title":"Melting point","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"There are hundreds of different styles of Chinese martial arts, each with their own sets of techniques and ideas. The various movements in kung fu, most of which are imitations of the fighting styles of animals, are initiated from one to five basic foot positions: normal upright posture and the four stances called dragon, frog, horse riding, and snake.\nThe concept of martial arts styles appeared from around the Ming dynasty (13681644).  Before the Ming period, martial skills were commonly differentiated mainly by their lineage. There are common themes among these styles which allow them to be grouped according to generalized \"families\" (), \"fractions\" (), \"class\" (), or \"schools\" () of martial art styles. There are styles that mimic movements from animals, or otherwise refer or allude to animals or mythical beings such as dragons, and others that gather inspiration from various Chinese philosophies or mythologies. Some deeply internal styles tend to focus strongly on practice relating to harnessing of qi energy, while some more-conspicuously external styles tend more to display skills and abilities in competition or exhibition.\n\nThe rich variety of styles has led to the creation of numerous classification schemes.\nGeographical location such as regional affiliation is one well-known example.\nA particular Chinese martial arts style can be referred to as either a northern fist () or a southern fist () depending on its point of origin. Additional details such as province or city can further identify the particular style. Other classification schemes include the concept of external () and internal. This criterion concerns the training focus of a particular style. Religious affiliation of the group that found the style can also be used as a classification. The three great religions of Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism have associated martial arts styles. There are also many other criteria used to group Chinese martial arts; for example, imitative-styles () and legendary styles; historical styles and family styles. Another more recent approach is to describe a style according to their combat focus.\n\nGeographical classifications\nThe traditional dividing line between the northern and southern Chinese martial arts is the Yangtze River. A well-known adage concerning Chinese martial arts is the term \"Southern fists and Northern kicks\" (\u300c\u5357\u62f3\u5317\u817f\u300d). This saying emphasizes the difference between the two groups of Chinese martial arts. However, such differences are not absolute and there are many Northern styles that excel in hand techniques and conversely, there are many different types of kicks in some Southern styles. A style can also be more clearly classified according to regional landmarks, province, city and even to a specific village.\n\nNorthern styles\n\nNorthern styles () feature deeply extended postures\u2014such as the horse, bow, drop, and dragon stances\u2014connected by quick fluid transitions, able to quickly change the direction in which force is issued.\n\nThe group of Northern martial arts includes many illustrious styles such as Northern Shaolin Kung Fu, Baguazhang, Bajiquan, Chaquan, Chuojiao, Eagle Claw, Northern Praying Mantis and tai chi. Changquan is often identified as the representative Northern style and forms a separate division in modern Wushu curriculum.\n\nNorthern styles exhibit a distinctively different flavor from the martial arts practiced in the South. In general, the training characteristics of northern styles put more focus on legwork, kicking and acrobatics. The influence of Northern styles can be found in traditional Korean martial arts and their emphasis on high-level kicks.\n\nSouthern styles\n\nSouthern Chinese martial arts () feature low stable stances and short powerful movements that combine both attack and defense. In practice, Nanquan focus more on the use of the arm and full body techniques than high kicks or acrobatics moves.\nThe influence of Southern styles can be found in Goju Ryu, Uechi Ryu, and some other styles of karate from Okinawa and also in kempo both American and Japanese styles.\n\nThe term Southern styles typically applies to the five family styles of Southern China: Choy Gar, Hung Ga, Lau Gar (), Ng Ying kung fu (), Li (Lee) Family and  Mok Gar. Other styles include: Choy Li Fut, Fujian White Crane, Dog-style kung fu, Five Ancestors, Wing Chun, Southern Praying Mantis, Hak Fu Mun, Bak Mei and Dragon-style. There are sub-divisions to Southern styles due to their similar characteristics and common heritage. For example, the Fujian martial arts can be considered to be one such sub-division. This groups share the following characteristics that \"during fights, pugilists of these systems prefer short steps and close fighting, with their arms placed close to the chest, their elbows lowered and kept close to the flanks to offer them protection\". Nanquan became a separate and distinct component of the current Wushu training. It was designed to incorporate the key elements of each major Southern style.\n\nOther geographical classifications\nChinese martial arts can also be identified by the regional landmarks, province, city or even village. Generally, this identification indicates the region of origin but could also describe the place where the style has established a reputation. Well-known landmarks used to characterize Chinese martial arts include the famous mountains of China. The Eight Great Schools of Martial Arts, a grouping of martial arts schools used in many wuxia novels, is based on this type of geographical classifications. This group of schools includes: Mount Hua, Mount Emei, Wudang Mountains, Kongtong Mountains, Kunlun Mountains, Cang Mountain, Mount Qingcheng and Mount Song Shaolin. Historically, there were 18 provinces in China. Each province has its own styles of martial arts. For example, in Xingyiquan, there are currently three main branches: Shanxi, Hebei and Henan. Each branch has unique characteristics but they can all be traced to the original art developed by Li Luoneng and the Dai family. A particular style can also be identified by the city where the art was practised. For example, in the North, the cities of Beijing or Tianjin have created different martial arts branches for many styles. Similarly, in the South, the cities of Shanghai, Quandong and Foshan all represented centers of martial arts development. Older martial art styles can be described by their village affiliation. For example, Zhaobao tai chi is a branch of Chen-style tai chi originating from Zhaobao village.\n\nExternal and internal classifications\nThe distinction between external and internal (\u5916\u5185) martial arts comes from Huang Zongxi's 1669 Epitaph for Wang Zhengnan.\nStanley Henning proposes that the Epitaph'''s identification of the internal martial arts with the Taoism indigenous to China and its identification of the external martial arts with the foreign Buddhism of Shaolin\u2014and the Manchu Qing Dynasty to which Huang Zongxi was opposed\u2014may have been an act of political defiance rather than one of technical classification.\nKennedy and Guo suggests that external and internal classifications only became popular during the Republican period. It was used to differentiate between two competing groups within The Central Guoshu Academy.\nRegardless of the origin of this classification scheme, the distinction becomes less meaningful since all complete Chinese martial art styles have external and internal components. This classification scheme is only a reminder of the initial emphasis of a particular style and should not be considered an absolute division.\n\nExternal styles\nExternal style () are often associated with Chinese martial arts. They are characterized by fast and explosive movements and a focus on physical strength and agility. External styles includes both the traditional styles focusing on application and fighting, as well as the modern styles adapted for competition and exercise. Examples of external styles are Shaolinquan, with its direct explosive attacks and many Wushu forms that have spectacular aerial techniques.\nExternal styles begin with a training focus on muscular power, speed and application, and generally integrate their qigong aspects in advanced training, after their desired \"hard\" physical level has been reached. Most Chinese martial art styles are classified as external styles.\n\nInternal styles\n\nInternal styles () focus on the practice of such elements as awareness of the spirit, mind, qi (breath, or energy flow) and the use of relaxed leverage rather than muscular tension, which soft stylists call \"brute force\".\nWhile the principles that distinguish internal styles from the external were described at least as early as the 18th century by Chang Nai-chou, the modern terms distinguishing external and internal styles were first recorded by Sun Lutang; who wrote that tai chi, Baguazhang, and Xingyiquan were internal arts. Later on, others began to include their style under this definition; for example, Liuhebafa, Ziranmen, and Yiquan.\n\nComponents of internal training includes stance training (zhan zhuang''), stretching and strengthening of muscles, as well as on empty hand and weapon forms which can contain quite demanding coordination from posture to posture. Many internal styles have basic two-person training, such as pushing hands. A prominent characteristic of internal styles is that the forms are generally performed at a slow pace. This is thought to improve coordination and balance by increasing the work load, and to require the student to pay minute attention to their whole body and its weight as they perform a technique. In some styles, for example in the Chen style of tai chi, there are forms that include sudden outbursts of explosive movements. At an advanced level, and in actual fighting, internal styles are performed quickly, but the goal is to learn to involve the entire body in every motion, to stay relaxed, with deep, controlled breathing, and to coordinate the motions of the body and the breathing accurately according to the dictates of the forms while maintaining perfect balance. Internal styles have been associated in legend and in much popular fiction with the Taoist monasteries of Wudangshan in central China.\n\nReligious classifications\nChinese martial arts being an important component of Chinese culture are also influence by the various religions in China. Many styles were founded by groups that were influenced by one of the three great philosophical influences of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism.\n\nBuddhist styles\nBuddhist styles include Chinese martial arts that originated or practised within Chinese Buddhist temples and later spread to laity community. These styles often include Buddhist philosophy, meditation, imagery and principles. The most famous of these are the Shaolin (and related) styles, e.g. Shaolinquan, Choy Li Fut, Fut Gar, Luohanquan, Hung Gar, Wing Chun, Dragon style and White Crane. and recently a contemporary style called wuxingheqidao. One common theme for this group is the association with Chan Buddhism.\n\nShaolin kung fu\n\nThe term \"Shaolin\" is used to refer to those styles that trace their origins to Shaolin, be it the Shaolin Monastery in Henan Province, another temple associated with Shaolin such as the Southern Shaolin Temple in Fujian Province, or even wandering Shaolin monks. More restrictive definitions include only those styles that were conceived on temple grounds or even just the original Henan temple proper. The broadest definition includes just about all external Chinese martial arts, though this has much to do with the attractiveness of the Shaolin \"brand name\".\n\nTaoist styles\nTaoist styles are popularly associated with Taoism.   They include Chinese martial arts that were created or trained mostly within Taoist Temples or by Taoist ascetics, which often later spread out to laymen. These styles include those trained in the Wudang Mountains, and often include Taoist philosophy, principles and imagery. Some of these arts include Tai chi, Wudangquan, Baguazhang, Bajiquan, Liuhebafa and Bak Mei kung fu.\n\nIslamic styles\n\nIslamic styles are those that were practiced traditionally solely or mainly by the Muslim Hui minority in China. These styles often include Islamic principles or imagery. Example of these styles include: Chaquan, Tan Tui, some branches of Xingyiquan and  ().\n\nHistorical classifications\n\nImitative-styles\nImitative-styles are styles that were developed based on the characteristics of a particular creature such as a bird or an insect. Entire systems of fighting were developed based on the observations of their movement, fighting abilities and spirit. Examples of the most well-known styles are white crane, tiger, monkey (Houquan), dog and mantis. In some systems, a variety of animals are used to represent the style of the system; for instance, there are twelve animals in most Xing yi practice.\n\nLegendary and historical styles\nMany Chinese martial arts styles are based or named after legends or historical figures. Examples of such styles based on legends and myths are the Eight Immortals and Dragon styles. Example of styles attributed to historical figures include Xingyiquan and its relationship to Yue Fei and tai chi which trace its origins to a Taoist Zhang Sanfeng.\n\nFamily styles\nFamily affiliations are also an important means of identifying a Chinese martial arts system. Heavily influenced by the Confucian tradition, many styles are named in honor of the founder of the system. The five family (Choi, Hung, Lau, Lei, Mok) of Southern Chinese martial arts are representative of family styles. Family styles can also denote branches of a system. For example, the families of Chen, Yang, Wu and Sun represent different training approaches to the art of Tai Chi Chuan.\n\nBy main style of application\/attack\n\nAnother popular method to describe a particular style of Chinese martial arts is to describe the style's emphasis in terms of the four major applications. The four major applications are: kicking (\u8e22), hitting (\u6253), wrestling (\u6454) and grabbing (Chin na). A complete system will necessary include all four types of applications but each style will differ in their training focus. For example, most Northern styles are said to emphasize kicking, Southern styles have a reputation for their intricate hand techniques, Shuai jiao practitioners train predominately in full-body close-range techniques, Eagle claw fighters are noted for their grabbing expertise, and Wing Chun focusses on hitting (with the hands\/elbows).\n\nOther styles\nThe variety of classification schemes, like the subject of Chinese martial arts, are endless. Some styles are named after well-known Chinese philosophies. For example, Baguazhang is based on the Taoist philosophy of the eight trigrams (Bagua). Some styles are named after the key insight suggested by the training. For example, liuhebafa is a system based on the ideas of six combinations and eight methods.\n\nSee also\n\nBoxing styles and technique\nComparison of karate styles\nComparison of kobud\u014d styles\nHybrid martial arts\nStyles of Japanese martial arts\nStyles of wrestling\n\nReferences\n\nStyles of\nStyle","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":49,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":9,"2014-41":8,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":7,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":5981465,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Styles%20of%20Chinese%20martial%20arts","title":"Styles of Chinese martial arts","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A peptic ulcer is an ulcer of the stomach or duodenum. The duodenum is the first part of the small intestines. It is the tube that food goes through when it leaves the stomach. Peptic means talking about the stomach.\n\nGastric ulcers are peptic ulcers in the stomach.\n\nDuodenal ulcers are peptic ulcers in the duodenum.\n\nCauses of peptic ulcers \n\nMost ulcers are caused by an infection from bacteria. This bacteria is called Helicobacter pylori. 90% of gastric ulcers and 75% of duodenal ulcers are from Helicobacter pylori infection.\n\nOther things can make ulcers worse. But these things are less important than Helicobacter pylori. These other things are:\n\n Taking some drugs called NSAIDs (acronym means Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug) \u2013 These are medicines used for pain and inflammation, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen. \n Smoking cigarettes\n Old age\n Stress from diseases or injuries like pneumonia and burns\n If someone in a family has a duodenal ulcer\n\nSymptoms of peptic ulcers \nA symptom is a change in the body that tells someone that they have a disease. The biggest symptom is pain in the stomach. Pain is usually in the top of the abdomen below the ribs. Some people also feel pain go up to the chest.\n\nOther symptoms are:\n Vomiting\n Blood in vomit \u2013 this can be red. This can also look like coffee grounds (the black substance that is left after making coffee.)\n Black stools\n Waves of Pain or Burning\n\nDiagnosis of peptic ulcers \nDiagnosing is how doctors see if someone has a disease. They do this by running tests. Peptic ulcers are diagnosed by three ways:\n\n Endoscopy \u2013 looking inside someones stomach with a camera that goes through their mouth and down to their stomach\n Test on the air someone breathes out to look for Helicobacter pylori infection\n Blood test to look for Helicobacter pylori infection\n\nThe best way is endoscopy. But this costs more money. Endoscopy is done by a medical specialist called a gastroenterologist (a doctor who knows much about the digestive system.)\n\nA good thing about endoscopy is finding other diseases if there is no peptic ulcer. The symptoms of peptic ulcer can be from other diseases. Endoscopy can diagnose these other diseases.\n\nTreatment of peptic ulcers \nThe most important treatment is to stop the Helicobacter pylori infection. This is usually done with antibiotics and can now also be done through the use of natural products. \n\nAntibiotics are medicines that kill germs like bacteria. Usually three different antibiotics are used, and because the Helicobacter pylori bacteria is so resistant, successful treatment is not guaranteed. The number of people turning to natural remedies is increasing. Natural remedies have none of the side effects common to antibiotic treatment.\n\nIt is also important to make less acid in the stomach. There are two types of medicines that Doctors normally prescribe to stop the acid. These are called antacids:\n PPI (acronym) proton pump inhibitors\n H2-Blockers \u2013 block the Histamine-2 receptor \nBoth of these medicines make the cells in the stomach stop making acid. There is a problem in unnaturally stopping the production of acid, because acid is vital to ensure proper digestion of foods. When a patient stops taking antacids, the stomach naturally starts producing acid again and usually more than normal because the antacids had unnaturally stopped this process. The result is that there is now too much acid, the whole problem starts again. It is considered better and safer to control acid levels by consuming water and by eliminating foods that may cause excessive acid. \n\nTo stop peptic ulcers people must use antacids and antibiotics, or a natural product. The strategy is to kill off the Helicobacter pylori. Controlling the acid levels let the open ulcers in the stomach lining heal quicker.\n\nOnce the Helicobacter pylori infection is removed, the ulcer should heal. It can come back if the person is reinfected with Helicobacter pylori again.\n\nDiseases and disorders of the digestive system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-22":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":13518,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peptic%20ulcer","title":"Peptic ulcer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cardboard is a heavy type of paper, notable for its stiffness and durability. It was first invented in China some time in the 15th century, and is used for a wide variety of purposes. One of its more common uses is as a packaging material.\n\nCardboard boxes were first produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated (also called pleated) paper was patented in England in 1856, used as a liner for tall hats, but corrugated cardboard would not be patented and used as a shipping material until 20 December 1871. The patent was issued to Albert Jones of New York City, New York for single-sided corrugated cardboard. Jones used the corrugated cardboard for wrapping bottles and glass lantern chimneys. The first machine for producing large quantities of corrugated cardboard was built in 1874 by G. Smyth, and in the same year Oliver Long improved upon Jones' design by inventing corrugated cardboard with liner sheets on both sides. This was now cardboard as we know it today.\n\nAmerican Robert Gair was a Brooklyn printer and paper-bag maker during the 1870s, and while he was printing an order of seed bags a metal ruler normally used to crease bags shifted in position and cut the bag. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing cardboard in one operation he could make prefabricated cartons. Extending this to corrugated cardboard was a straightforward development when the material became available. By the start of the 20th century, corrugated cardboard boxes began replacing the custom-made wooden crates and boxes previously used for trade.\n\nThe Kellogg brothers first used cardboard cartons to hold their flaked corn cereal, and later when they began marketing it to the general public a heat-sealed waxed bag of Waxtite was wrapped around the outside of the box and printed with their brand name. This marked the origin of the cereal box, though in modern times the sealed bag is plastic and is kept inside the box rather than outside.\n\nCardboard packaging has undergone minor changes in recent times due to the trend towards environmentalism. It is now common for cardboard to be manufactured with a large percentage of recycled fibers.\n\nPaper","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":147,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":3,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":2837,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cardboard","title":"Cardboard","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Hwang Woo-suk (, born January 29, 1953) is a South Korean veterinarian and researcher. He was a professor of theriogenology and biotechnology at Seoul National University until he was dismissed on March 20, 2006. He was considered a pioneering expert in stem cell research and even called the \"Pride of Korea\". However, he became infamous around November 2005 for fabricating a series of stem cell experiments that were published in high-profile journals, the case known as the Hwang affair.\n\nHwang was best known for two articles published in the journal Science in 2004 and 2005, where he reported he had succeeded in creating human embryonic stem cells by cloning. However, soon after the first paper was released, an article in the journal Nature charged Hwang with having committed ethical violations by using eggs from his graduate students and from the black market. Although he denied the charges at first, Hwang admitted the allegations were true in November 2005. Shortly after this, data from his human cloning experiments was revealed to have been falsified.\n\nOn May 12, 2006, Hwang was charged with embezzlement and bioethics law violations after it emerged much of his stem cell research had been faked. The Korea Times reported on June 10, 2007, that Seoul National University fired him, and the South Korean government canceled his financial support and barred him from engaging in stem cell research. Hwang was sentenced to a two years suspended prison sentence at the Seoul Central District Court on 26 October 2009, after being found guilty of embezzlement and bioethical violations but cleared of fraud. On the same day, CNN reported that the scientist in 2006 had admitted faking his findings, after questions of impropriety had emerged. He had his conviction upheld but his suspended sentence reduced by 6 months on 15 December 2010 by an appeals court in South Korea. In 2014, the South Korean Supreme Court upheld its 2010 ruling.\n\nSince the controversy, Hwang has maintained a relatively low profile, but continues to work in scientific fields. As of September 2020, he worked at the Sooam Bioengineering Research Institute in Yongin, Gyeonggi Province, leading research efforts into creating cloned pig embryos and embryonic stem cell lines. In February 2011, Hwang visited Libya as part of a US$133 million project in the North African country to build a stem cell research center and transfer relevant technology. The project was canceled due to the 2011 Libyan civil war. In November 2015, a Chinese biotech company Boyalife Group announced that it would partner with Hwang's laboratory, Sooam Biotech, to open the world's largest animal cloning factory in Tianjin. The factory would aim to produce up to one million cattle embryos per year to meet the increasing demand for quality beef in China.\n\nTimeline\nHwang first caught media attention in South Korea when he announced he had successfully created a cloned dairy cow, Yeongrong-i in February 1999. His alleged success was touted as the fifth instance in the world in cow cloning, with a notable caveat: Hwang failed to provide scientifically verifiable data for the research, giving only media sessions and photo ops. Hwang's next claim came in April 1999, when he announced the cloning of a Korean cow, Jin-i, also without providing any scientifically verifiable data. Despite the notable absence of any of the scientific data needed to probe the validity of the research, Hwang's several claims were well-received by the South Korean media and public, who were attracted by Hwang's claim of immeasurable economic prospect that his research was said to be promising. The claims of his research results resulted in him being awarded the Scientist of the Year Award by the Korea Science Journalists Association. Until 2004, Hwang's main area of research remained in creating genetically modified livestock that included cows and pigs. During that period, Hwang claimed to have created a BSE-resistant cow (which has not been verified), and also stated his intention to clone a Siberian tiger.\n\nIn February 2004, Hwang and his team announced that they had successfully created an embryonic stem cell by the somatic cell nuclear transfer method, and published their paper in the March 12 issue of Science. Although Hwang had already established himself as an expert in animal cloning and secured celebrity status in South Korea in the late 1990s, his alleged sudden success came as a surprise because this was the first reported success in human somatic cell cloning. Until Hwang's claim, it was generally agreed that creating a human stem cell by cloning was next to impossible due to the complexity of primates. Hwang explained that his team used 242 eggs to create a single cell line.\n\nIn May, Nature journal published an article stating that Hwang had used eggs taken from two of his graduate students, based on an interview with one of the students. The article raised the question of whether the students might have been pressured to give eggs and thus whether such a donation would have been \"voluntary\" as Hwang claimed in his scientific paper. At that time, Hwang denied that he had used his students' eggs.\n\nHwang's team announced an even greater achievement a year later in May 2005, and claimed they had created 11 human embryonic stem cells using 185 eggs. His work, published in the June 17 issue of Science, was instantly hailed as a breakthrough in biotechnology because the cells were allegedly created with somatic cells from patients of different age and gender, while the stem cell of 2004 was created with eggs and somatic cells from a single female donor. This meant every patient could receive custom-made treatment with no immune reactions. In addition, Hwang's claim meant that his team had boosted their success rate by 14 times and that this technology could be medically viable.\n\nHwang made further headlines in May 2005 when he criticized U.S. President George W. Bush's policy on embryonic stem cell research. Also, Time magazine named Hwang one of its \"People Who Mattered 2004\", stating that Hwang \"has already proved that human cloning is no longer science fiction, but a fact of life.\"\n\nFollowing on the earlier success, on August 3, 2005, Hwang announced that his team of researchers had become the first team to successfully clone a dog, which was independently verified through genetic testing. The dog, an Afghan Hound, was named Snuppy.\n\nShortly after his groundbreaking 2005 work, Hwang was appointed to head the new World Stem Cell Hub, a facility that was to be the world's leading stem cell research center. However, in November 2005, Gerald Schatten, a University of Pittsburgh researcher who had worked with Hwang for two years, made the surprise announcement that he had ceased his collaboration with Hwang. In an interview, Schatten commented that \"my decision is grounded solely on concerns regarding oocyte (egg) donations in Hwang's research reported in 2004.\" Following an intense media probe, Roh Sung-il, one of Hwang's close collaborators and head of MizMedi Women's Hospital, held a news conference on November 21. During the conference, Roh admitted that he had paid women US$1,400 each for donating their eggs which were later used in Hwang's research. Roh claimed Hwang was unaware of this, while the South Korean Ministry of Health asserted that no laws or ethical guidelines had been breached as there were no commercial interests involved. Hwang maintained that he was unaware that this had happened, and resigned from his post.\n\nOn November 22, PD Su-cheop (Producer's Note), a popular MBC investigative reporting show, raised the possibility of unethical conduct  in the egg cell-acquiring process. Despite the factual accuracy of the report, news media as well as people caught up in nationalistic fervor in their unwavering support for Hwang asserted that criticism of Hwang's work was \"unpatriotic\", so much so that the major companies who were sponsoring the show immediately withdrew their support.\n\nOn November 24, Hwang held a press conference in Seoul, in which he declared his intention of resigning from most of his official posts. He also apologized for his actions and said, \"I was blinded by work and my drive for achievement.\" He denied coercing his researchers into donating eggs and claimed that he found out about the situation only after it had occurred. He added that he had lied about the source of the eggs donated to protect the privacy of his female researchers, and that he was not aware of the Declaration of Helsinki, which clearly enumerates his actions as a breach of ethical conduct. After the press conference, which was aired on all major South Korean television networks, many of the nation's media outlets, government ministries, and members of the public expressed sympathy for Hwang.\n\nOn December 29, 2005, the university determined that all 11 of Hwang's stem cell lines were fabricated. The university announced on January 10, 2006, that Hwang's 2004 and 2005 papers in Science were both fabricated. Following on the confirmation of scientific misconduct, on January 11, Science unconditionally retracted both of Hwang's papers.\n\nOn January 12, 2006, Hwang held a press conference to apologize for the fiasco, but did not admit to cheating. Instead, he blamed other members of his research project for having deceived him with false data and alleged a conspiracy, saying that his projects had been sabotaged and that there was theft of materials involved. He said that cloning human stem cells was possible and that he had the technology to do it, and if he were given six more months he could prove it. This is an extension of the ten days he said he needed to re-create the stem cells that he asked for back on December 16, 2005. Seoul prosecutors started a criminal investigation and raided Hwang's home that day.\n\nOn January 20, 2006, Hwang maintained that two of his 11 forged stem cell lines had been maliciously switched for cells from regular, not cloned, embryos. The allegation involves the lines Hwang claims to have created at Seoul-based MizMedi Hospital.\n\nOn November 22, 2016, Hwang received a certificate of patent on NT-1 technology from the Korean Intellectual Property Office.\n\nHwang's laboratory technique\n\nIn the late 1990s, the method that scientists used in cloning was somatic cell nuclear transfer, which is the same procedure that was used to create Dolly the sheep. This laboratory technique begins when an egg is taken from a donor and the nucleus is removed from the egg, creating an enucleated egg. A cell, which contains DNA, is then taken from the animal being cloned. The enucleated egg is then fused together with the nucleus of the cloning subject's cell using electricity. This creates an embryo, which is implanted into a surrogate mother through in vitro fertilization. If the procedure is successful, then the surrogate mother will give birth to a baby that is a clone of the cloning subject at the end of a normal gestation period. In 2014 researchers were reporting cloning success rates of seven to eight out of ten but in 1996 it took 277 attempts to create Dolly.\n\nHwang allegedly used this technique at his laboratory in SNU to clone dogs during his experiments throughout the early 2000s. He claimed that it was possible to clone mammals and that probability for success can be better than 1 in 277 attempts (as in similar cases such as Dolly). Hwang was the first in the world to clone a dog, an Afghan hound called Snuppy in 2005.  He described his procedure for cloning in the journal  Nature. Researchers from the Seoul National University and the US National Institutes of Health confirmed that Snuppy was a clone.  Since then Hwang and his associates have cloned many more dogs. In 2015, it was reported that Huang Woo-suk's company Sooam Biotech had produced 700 cloned puppies since 2005, with their owners paying about $100,000 each to have their dogs cloned.\n\nHwang's intention to develop better technique for cloning was focused on stem cells because they are still at an early stage of development and retain the potential to turn into many different types of cell and when they divide, each new cell has the potential to either remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function.\n\nAccording to stem cell biologists, it might be possible to harness this ability to turn stem cells into a super \"repair kit\" for the body, theoretically to use stem cells to generate healthy tissue to replace that either damaged by trauma or compromised by disease.\nThe many conditions and illnesses that may eventually be treated by stem cell therapy include Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, stroke, arthritis, diabetes, burns, and spinal cord damage.\n\nIn March 2012, it was announced that Hwang would collaborate with Russian scientists in an attempt to clone a woolly mammoth from remains found in Siberia. He had previously successful cloned eight coyotes in March 2011 using domestic dogs and grey wolves as surrogate mothers. However no mammoth sample fit for cloning had been found as of 2015.\n\nIn 2015, the Chinese company BoyaLife announced that in partnership with the Hwang Woo-suk's company Sooam Biotech, they were planning to build a 200 million RMB (about US$32 million) factory in Tianjin, China to produce 100,000 cloned cattle per year to supply China's growing market for quality beef, starting in 2016.\n\nIn 2015, Sooam Biotech cloned a male boxer puppy from a pet dog that had been dead for 12 days. This was the first time they had cloned a dog that had been dead for such a long time.\n\nIn 2016, Hwang's company was regularly cloning pigs which were genetically predisposed to certain diseases so that they could be used for testing pharmaceuticals, and cloning cattle which were highly valued for their meat. In total Sooam Biotech was reported to be producing roughly 500 cloned embryos a day from various species. They were also reported to be attempting to clone the Ethiopian wolf, one of the world's rarest canids, of which there are only 500 in the wild, another endangered canid, the dhole, of which there only about 2,500 adults, and the Siberian musk deer, which is classified as vulnerable by the IUCN.\n\nControversies\n\nUntil late November 2005, Hwang was criticized only for unpublicized ethical violations. Colleagues and media outlets asserted that he had paid female donors for egg donations and that he had received donations from two junior researchers, both of which were violations. Later controversies centered around scientific misconduct.\n\nHis team, which cloned the first human embryo to use for research, said they had used the same technology to create batches of embryonic stem cells from nine patients. According to Hwang, the result was much more efficient than they had hoped.\nHwang's integrity as a researcher was again put in doubt when it was revealed that PD Su-cheop had scheduled a follow-up report questioning his achievement published in Science in June 2005, which stated he had cloned 11 lines of embryonic stem cells. This caused furious backlash among many South Koreans, and the reaction only intensified when it was discovered that Kim Sun-Jong, one of Hwang's researchers from MizMedi, had been coerced by illegal means to testify against Hwang. As a result, the scheduled broadcast was canceled and the network made a public apology to the nation, everyone more or less operating under the assumption that the show was at fault and not Hwang. Yet, other news outlets began to question Hwang's claims.\n\nClose scrutiny revealed that several of the photos of purportedly different cells were in fact photos of the same cell. Hwang responded that these additional photos were accidentally included and that there was no such duplication in the original submission to Science. This was later confirmed by the journal.\n\nResearchers raised questions about striking similarities between the DNA profiles of the cloned cells. Then collaborator Gerald Schatten asked Science to remove his name from the paper, stating as a reason that there were \"allegations from someone involved with the experiments that certain elements of the report may be fabricated.\"\n\nIn the midst of national confusion, Hwang disappeared from public sight, to be hospitalized days later for alleged stress-related fatigue, while public opinion gradually began to turn against Hwang with even the major Korean companies who had withdrawn their support from PD Su-cheop reportedly now less than pleased with Hwang. Days later, Hwang started going to his laboratory while requesting Seoul National University to officially conduct a probe to the allegations surrounding him.\n\nThe scandal took a dramatic turn on December 15, when Roh Sung-il, who had collaborated on the disputed paper, stated to media outlets that nine of those eleven lines had been faked; specifically, DNA tests illustrated that those nine lines shared identical DNA, implying that they had come from the same source. Roh stated that \"Professor Hwang admitted to fabrication\", and that he, Hwang, and another co-author had asked Science to withdraw the paper. Adding fuel to the fire, MBC broadcast the content of the canceled PD Su-cheop show, which substantiated Roh's claim.\n\nOn the same day, The Seattle Times reported that Science had not yet received an official request from Hwang to withdraw the paper, and it had refused to remove Schatten's name from the paper, stating, \"No single author, having declared at the time of submission his full and complete confidence in the contents of the paper, can retract his name unilaterally, after publication.\"\n\nSeveral prominent scientists, including Ian Wilmut, who cloned Dolly the sheep in 1996, and Bob Lanza, a cloning expert based in Worcester, Massachusetts, did call on Hwang to submit his paper to an outside group for independent analysis. Lanza noted, \"You can't fake the results if they're carried out by an independent group. I think this simple test could put the charges to rest.\"\n\nTwo major press conferences were held on Korean television networks on December 16, one with Hwang, followed by one with his former colleague, Roh Sung-il. Hwang started his press conference by claiming that the technology to make stem cells existed\u2014not an explicit denial that the stem cell lines he used in his paper to Science were fakes. He, however, acknowledged the falsifications of research data in the paper, attributing them to unrecoverable \"artificial mistakes\". He said that there was a problem with the original lines caused by contamination, and if he were given ten more days he could re-create the stem cell lines. He accused Kim Sun-Jong, a former collaborator, of \"switching\" some of the stem cell lines.\n\nDespite Hwang's claim, in another press conference held only minutes later, Roh Sung-il rebutted Hwang's accusation, saying Hwang was blackmailing MizMedi and Kim Sun-jong. He maintained that at least nine of the eleven stem cell lines were fakes and that Hwang was simply untrustworthy.\n\n\"Roh Sung-il, chairman of the board at Mizmedi Hospital, told KBS television that Hwang had agreed to ask the journal Science to withdraw the paper, published in June to international acclaim. Roh was one of the co-authors of the article that detailed how individual stem cell colonies were created for 11 patients through cloning. Roh also told MBC television that Hwang had pressured a former scientist at his lab to fake data to make it look like there were 11 stem cell colonies. In a separate report, a former researcher told MBC that Hwang ordered him to fabricate photos to make it appear there were 11 separate colonies from only three. [...] University of Pittsburgh researcher Gerald Schatten has already asked that Science remove him as the senior author of the report, citing questions about the paper's accuracy. Seoul National University announced this week it would conduct an internal probe into Hwang's research.\"\n\nSome scientists have started questioning Hwang's earlier work published in Science in February 2004, in which he claimed to have cloned embryonic stem cells. Maria Biotech head Park Se-pill said, \"Up until now, I have believed Hwang did derive cloned embryonic stem cells although he admitted to misconduct in his follow-up paper on patient-specific stem cells...Now, I am not sure whether the cloned stem cell really existed.\"\n\nOn July 26, 2006, Hwang said in testimony that he spent part of 500 million won in private donations in attempts to clone extinct Russian mammoths and Korean tigers.\n\nOfficial probe and confirmation of fraud\nAn internal panel was set up in Seoul National University to investigate the allegation, and the probe was started on December 17, 2005. The panel sealed off Hwang's laboratory and conducted a thorough investigation, collecting testimonies from Hwang, Roh and other people who were involved with the scandal. On December 23, the panel announced its initial finding that Hwang had intentionally fabricated stem cell research results creating nine fake cell lines out of eleven, and added that the validity of two remaining cell lines is yet to be confirmed. The panel stated that Hwang's misconduct is \"a grave act damaging the foundation of science.\" Hwang's claim of having used only 185 eggs to create stem cell lines was also denied by the panel, which indicated that more eggs may have been used in the research process.\n\nThe panel announced additional findings on December 29, and confirmed that no patient-matched embryonic stem cells existed, and that Hwang's team did not have the scientific data to prove any of the stem cells had ever been made.\n\nIn its final report published on January 10, 2006, the panel reaffirmed its previous findings while announcing additional discoveries. The panel found out that, contrary to Hwang's claim of having used 185 eggs for his team's 2005 paper, at least 273 eggs were shown to have been used according to research records kept in Hwang's lab. In addition, the panel discovered that Hwang's team was supplied with 2,061 eggs in the period of November 28, 2002, to December 8, 2005. Hwang's claim of not having known about the donation of eggs by his own female researchers was also denied by the panel; in fact, it was discovered that Hwang himself had distributed egg donation consent forms to his researchers and personally escorted one to the MizMedi Hospital to perform the egg extraction procedure.\n\nThe panel stated that Hwang's 2004 Science paper was also fabricated and decided the stem cell discussed in the paper may have been generated by a case of parthenogenetic process (which is itself a significant development, as mammals rarely reproduce by parthenogenesis; in addition, this would make Hwang's lab the first ever to successfully generate human stem cells via parthenogenesis, predating other research facilities' successes). Although Hwang's team didn't rule out the possibility of parthenogenetic process in the paper, the panel said, his team didn't make any conscientious effort to probe the possibility through the tests available.\n\nChung Myunghee, the head of the panel, said at a news conference that the panel was not in a position to investigate Hwang's claim of his stem cells having been switched with MizMedi's, but added that such a claim was incomprehensible when there were no data to prove any of the stem cells were ever made to begin with.\n\nThe panel, in conclusion, stated that Hwang's team intentionally fabricated the data in both the 2004 and the 2005 papers, and that it was \"an act of deception targeted to both scientific community and general public.\" However, the panel confirmed that Hwang's team had actually succeeded in cloning a dog they named Snuppy. (See also Nature 439:122-123)\n\nResignation and the official dismissal\nOn December 23, 2005, Hwang apologized for \"creating a shock and a disappointment\" and announced that he was resigning his position as professor at the university. However, Hwang maintained that patient-matched stem cell technology remained in South Korea, and his countrymen would see it.\n\nSeoul National University said Hwang's resignation request would not be accepted, citing a university regulation that dictates that an employee under investigation may not resign from a post, thus avoiding full retribution and possibly dismissal if found at fault, while benefiting from an  honorable voluntary resignation.\n\nOn February 9, 2006, the university suspended Hwang's position as a professor, together with six other faculty members who participated in Hwang's team; Hwang was dismissed  on March 20, 2006.\n\nIndictment of Hwang and collaborators\nOn May 12, 2006, Hwang was indicted on charges of embezzlement and breach of the country's bioethics law, without physical detention. Prosecutors also brought fraud charges against the three stem cell researchers. He embezzled 2.8 billion won (US$3 million) out of some 40 billion won in research funds, for personal purposes and the illegal purchase of ova used in his experiments.\n\nThe prosecution also said Hwang's three associates involved in his stem cell research, Yoon Hyun-soo, Lee Byeong-chun and Kang Sung-keun, also misappropriated tens of millions of won in research money. Investigators have been tracking 24.6 billion won to find out how the research money was spent. It was part of Hwang's 36.9 billion won research funds raised through state support and private donations. Investigators said Hwang used bank accounts held by relatives and subordinates in 2002 and 2003 to receive about 475 million won from private organizations. He allegedly laundered the money by withdrawing it all in cash, breaking it up into smaller amounts and putting it back in various bank accounts. Hwang also withdrew 140 million won in August 2001 to buy gifts for his sponsors, including politicians and other prominent social figures, before Chusok holidays, according to prosecutors. He also allegedly misappropriated around 26 million won in research funds in September 2004 to buy a car for his wife. Hwang is suspected of embezzling 600 million won, provided by a private foundation, on multiple occasions from 2001 to 2005 for personal use. Prosecutors are also accusing him of illegally paying some 38 million won to 25 women who provided ova for his research through Hanna Women's Clinic in the first eight months of 2005. They also said Hwang gave several dozen politicians about 55 million won in political funds on numerous occasions from 2001 to 2005. He allegedly provided 14 million won to executives of large companies that provided financial support for his research. The prosecution added Hwang wired about 200 million won to a Korean American, identified only as Kang, in September 2005 and received the equivalent amount in U.S. currency from him when the scientist visited the United States two months later. Also in 2005, Hwang received one billion won each in research funds from SK Group and the National Agricultural Cooperative Federation based on his fabricated stem cell research results. Meanwhile, investigators said Lee Byeong-chun and Kang Sung-keun, both professors of veterinary science at Seoul National University, embezzled about 300 million won and 100 million won each in state funds by inflating research-related expenses. Yoon Hyun-soo, a biology professor at Hanyang University, also embezzled 58 million won from the research fund managed by MizMedi Hospital.\n\nParthenogenesis\n\nOn August 2, 2007, after much independent investigation, it was revealed that Hwang's team succeeded in extracting cells from eggs that had undergone parthenogenesis. Hwang claimed he and his team had extracted stem cells from cloned human embryos. However, further examination of the cells' chromosomes shows the same indicators of parthenogenesis in those extracted stem cells as are found in the mice created by Tokyo scientists in 2004. Although Hwang deceived the world about being the first to create artificially cloned human embryos, he did contribute a major breakthrough to the field of stem cell research. The process may offer a way for creating stem cells that are genetically matched to a particular woman for the treatment of degenerative diseases.\n\nThe news of the breakthrough came just a month after an announcement from the International Stem Cell Corporation (ISC), a California-based stem cell research company, that they had successfully created the first human embryos through parthenogenesis. Although the actual results of Hwang's work were just published, those embryos were created by him and his team before February 2004, when the fabricated cloning results were announced, which would make them the first to successfully perform the process. Jeffrey Janus, president and director of research for ISC, agrees that \"Dr. Hwang's cells have characteristics found in parthenogenetic cells\" but remains cautious, saying \"it needs more study.\"\n\nResponses\n\nGovernment involvement\nAfter having acquired a celebrity status in South Korea, Hwang actively sought to establish every possible tie to political and economic institutions in the country. Hwang especially tried to win favor from the Roh Moo-hyun government, which in turn was suffering from a lack of popular support and wanted to demonstrate its competency by creating and promoting an exemplary policy success.\n\nHwang approached Park Ki-young, a former biology professor, then appointed as the Information, Science and Technology Advisor for the President, and put her as one of the co-authors in his 2004 Science paper. Ties with Park yielded a favorable environment for Hwang in the government, as a non-official group consisting of high-ranking government officials was created to support Hwang's research that includes not only Hwang and Park, but also Kim Byung-joon, Chief National Policy Secretary, and Jin Dae-je, Information and Communications Minister. The group was dubbed as \"Hwang-kum-pak-chui\", a loose acronym made from member's family names, which means \"golden bat\" in Korean.\n\nAfter Hwang's paper was published in Science in 2005, support for Hwang came in full swing. In June 2005, the Ministry of Science and Technology selected Hwang as the first recipient of the title Supreme Scientist, an honor worth US$15 million. Hwang, having already claimed the title of POSCO Chair Professor worth US$1.5 million, secured more than US$27 million worth of support in that year.\n\nPresident Roh had been acquainted with Hwang since 2003, and made a number of comments intended to protect him from potential bioethical issues. On June 18, 2004, Roh awarded Hwang a medal and said, \"it is not possible nor desirable to prohibit research, just because there are concerns that it may lead to a direction that is deemed unethical.\" In another instance at the opening of World Stem Cell Hub on October 19, 2005, Roh remarked, \"politicians have a responsibility to manage bioethical controversies, not to get in the way of this outstanding research and progress.\"\n\nOn December 5, 2005, after PD Su-cheop stirred a national controversy, Cheong Wa Dae reaffirmed its unflinching support for Hwang and his research team. Roh said, \"We'll continue to support Professor Hwang. We hope he will return to his research lab soon for the sake of people with physical difficulties and the public\", according to presidential spokesman Kim Man-soo.\n\nWhile implying the controversies over MBC-TV's forceful methods used to gather information from Hwang's former junior staff members, Roh said, \"The disputes will be resolved gradually and naturally through following scientific research and study. We hope the ongoing disputes over Hwang's achievement will be settled without further trouble.\"\n\nIt was alleged that advisor Park Ki-young deliberately avoided to report Roh about details of Hwang's allegation for misconduct, while emphasizing a breach of journalist ethics by MBC. Park, after weeks of silence for her role in the controversy, announced her intent to resign from the advisor post on January 10, 2006.\n\nOn January 11, 2006, the national post office stopped selling post stamps commemorating Hwang's research. The title of Supreme Scientist awarded to Hwang was revoked on March 21, 2006, after Hwang was dismissed from Seoul National University the day before.\n\nSupporting lawmakers group\nOn December 6, 2005, a group of 43 lawmakers from the ruling and opposition parties  inaugurated a body to support  Hwang Woo-suk. Members of the group, dubbed the \"lawmakers' group supporting Professor Hwang Woo-suk\", pledged to help Hwang continue his experiments in pursuit of a scientific breakthrough.\n\n\"There are many lawmakers who, regardless of party affiliation, want to support Hwang. We will join forces to help Hwang devote himself to his studies\", Rep. Kwon Sun-taik of the ruling Uri Party said in a news conference at the National Assembly, who was also the leader of the group.\n\nHe said the group would seek to establish bioethics guidelines and come up with supporting measures for biotechnology researchers in the country. Among those who had joined the group were Reps. Kim Hyuk-kyu, Kim Young-choon and Kim Sung-gon of the ruling party, Kim Hyong-o of the main opposition Grand National Party (GNP) and Kim Hak-won, chairman of the United Liberal Democrats.\n\nSome female lawmakers participated in a civic group for voluntary egg donations for therapeutic research, which opened in November 2005 following the egg procurement scandal.\n\nReps. Song Young-sun and Chin Soo-hee of the GNP said they would provide their eggs to Hwang's research team. Meanwhile, the ruling and opposition parties called on the Korean Broadcasting Commission to thoroughly investigate the staffers of MBC's PD Note, which broadcast a documentary program critical of Hwang with coercive tactics in interviews, and reprimand them.\n\nAfter most of Hwang's claims were confirmed to be false on January 10, 2006, some lawmakers revealed that Hwang had made several campaign donations to them and other lawmakers.\n\nResumption of PD Note\nThe MBC investigative journalism show PD Note (Korean: PD\uc218\ucca9) returned on air on January 3, 2006, and summarized the course of Hwang's scandal to date. The show had been cancelled under pressure after it broadcast its show on November 22 that accused Hwang of oddities in his research. The last show in 2005, aired on November 29, covered other topics. It remained off the air for five weeks. The second show in 2006, on January 10, dealt further with the Hwang affair, focusing on several instances of Hwang's media spinning tactics. It also covered the unwillingness on the part of a significant part of the public in South Korea to believe that someone who had almost achieved a status of a national hero committed such a shame.\n\nRallies supporting Hwang\nThe same day many South Korean citizens rallied outside Hwang's laboratory; as more than 1,000 women pledged to donate their eggs for the scientist's research. [ ... ] Hwang has been in seclusion since apologizing in November 2005, for ethical lapses in human egg procurement for his research. The symbolic event was as a gesture from Hwang's supporters that says they intend to donate their eggs with 1,000 of their members after they took egg-donation pledges online via their website. \"Dr. Hwang will not be able to return to the lab, at least, until at the end of this week because he is extremely exhausted, mentally and physically\", a key team member, Ahn Cu Rie, wrote in an e-mail to Reuters. [ ... ] At Hwang's lab at Seoul National University, women left bouquets of the national flower, a hibiscus called the Rose of Sharon, for the scientist along with notes of encouragement.\n\nThe stem cell research center that Hwang led before resigning said it hoped he would return, even though his lapses could hurt its efforts to work with other research institutions.\n\n\"So far more than 700 South Korean women have pledged to donate their eggs and the number is steadily rising\", said Lee Sun-min, an official at a private foundation launched last week to promote egg donations. [ ... ] Thousands of patients have applied to participate in the research, hoping the technology could help treat damaged spinal cords or diseases such as Parkinson's. On Tuesday, an official at the lab said it was hoped that Hwang would return.\n\n\"We're waiting for Hwang to assume the leadership after some rest\", Seong Myong-hoon told a news conference. But Seong said the controversy could hurt the lab. That conclusion was reached after one of Hwang's close research partners, Ahn Cu-rie, returned Tuesday after a 10-day trip to meet with scientists in the United States and Japan, Seong said.\n\n\"The reaction of foreign scientists was that they understand what Dr. Hwang disclosed, but they cannot accept that without criticism\", Seong said. \"We can never be optimistic about cooperation with foreign institutions.\"\n\nSeong added: \"Researchers of our country were newly awakened to the fact that we have to take every precaution to ensure we don't fall behind international ethics (guidelines) while researching.\"\n\n\"The only hope for us is Dr. Hwang. Don't trample on our one shred of hope\", a woman whose son suffers from a severe kidney ailment told South Korean broadcaster YTN at the university. The woman also pledged to sell her eggs to Hwang.\n\nOnline ova donations\nA website backed by Hwang's supporters began taking egg-donation pledges online since late November 2005 after Hwang resigned all his official posts at World Stem Cell Hub, relaying them to a clinic linked to Hwang's research team. The number of pledges had reached 725 by early December 2005.\n\nBanners like \"Please come back, Doctor Hwang. I'm already dying to see you, Professor Hwang\", were put up on the home page.\n\nThe site also carried a photo of Hwang and his cloned dog, Snuppy, trimmed with images of the rose of Sharon, South Korea's national flower, in an apparent appeal for patriotism. The national anthem played as background music.\n\nThose who applied to donate ova included people with incurable illnesses and their family members, who hoped that Hwang's research would eventually lead to cures, and young, healthy women.\n\nDocumentary\nIn June 2023, Netflix released a documentary film, King of Clones which covered Hwang Woo-suk and the Hwang affair.\n\nSee also \n List of geneticists and biochemists\n Scientific misconduct, including a list of science scandals.\n Sch\u00f6n scandal\n Haruko Obokata\n List of scientific misconduct incidents\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nPubmed entry for the controversial paper on embryonic stem cells\nFinal report published by Seoul National University Investigation Committee (in Korean)\nEnglish summary of the SNU final report\nSouth Korean policy failure and the Hwang debacle\n\nLiving people\n1953 births\n2005 in biotechnology\nAcademic scandals\nWoo-suk\nHoaxes in science\nKorean nationalism\nPeople involved in scientific misconduct incidents\nScience and technology in South Korea\nSeoul National University alumni\nAcademic staff of Seoul National University\nSouth Korean biologists\nSouth Korean Buddhists\nPeople convicted of embezzlement\nStem cell researchers\nSouth Korean fraudsters","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":46,"dup_details":{"2023-14":2,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2020-50":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":6,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":7,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":4}},"id":1962277,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hwang%20Woo-suk","title":"Hwang Woo-suk","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A visa (short for the Latin carta visa, lit. \"the document having been seen\") is a permit given by a country that allows someone to go to that country. A visa is a document that is stamped on a person's passport by an embassy. It names the kind of visit and says how long the person can stay. Sometimes, people need to go through an interview held at the embassy before they get a visa.\n\nMany countries require foreign visitors to have a valid passport and a visa before they can enter the country, but there are exceptions (see below for examples of such these).\n\nVisas are associated with the request for permission to enter (or exit) a country, and are thus, for some countries, not the same as actual formal permission for an alien to enter and remain in the country.\n\nSome countries, such as some states of the former Soviet Union, require that their citizens, and sometimes foreign travelers, obtain an exit visa in order to be allowed to leave the country. Until 2004, foreign students in Russia were issued only an entry visa on being accepted to University there, and had to obtain an exit visa to return home. This policy has since been changed, and foreign students are now issued multiple entry (and exit) visa.\n\nConditions of issue \nSome visas can be granted on arrival or by prior application at the country's embassy or consulate, or sometimes through a specialized travel agency with permission from the issuing country in the country of departure. If there is no embassy or consulate in one's home country, then one would have to travel to a third country (or apply by post) and try to get a visa issued there. The need for a visa generally depends on the citizenship of the applicant, how long the applicant plans to stay, and the activities that the applicant may wish to do in the country he visits. These may result different formal categories of visas, with different issue conditions.\n\nSome, but not all, countries have reciprocal visa regimes: if Country A requires citizens of Country B to have a visa to travel there, then Country B may apply reciprocity and require a visa from citizens of Country A. Likewise, if A allows B's citizens to enter without a visa, B may allow A's citizens to enter without a visa.\n\nExamples of such reciprocal visa regimes are between:\n Algeria  and Canada  \n most CIS member states and African countries\n Brazil and Canada\/CIS member states\n Armenia and most non-CIS member states \n\nA fee may be charged for issuing a visa; these are typically also reciprocal, so if country A charges country B's citizens 50 USD for a visa, country B will often also charge the same amount for country A's visitors. The fee charged may also be at the discretion of each embassy. A similar reciprocity often applies to the duration of the visa (the period in which one is permitted to request entry of the country) and the number of entries one can attempt with the visa. Expedited processing of the visa application for some countries will generally incur additional charges.\n\nThis reciprocal fee has become more common in recent years with the decision of the United States to charge nationals of various countries a $100 visa processing fee (non-refundable, even if a visa is not issued). A number of countries, including Brazil, Chile, and Turkey have reciprocated. Brazil requires an advance visa before entry into the country, and that a US citizen be fingerprinted and photographed on arrival\u2014matching U.S. requirements for Brazilians and other foreigners.\n\nThe issuing authority, usually a branch of the country's foreign ministry or department (e.g. U.S. State Department), and typically consular affairs officers, may request appropriate documentation from the applicant. This may include proof that the applicant is able to support himself in the host country (lodging, food), proof that the person hosting the applicant in his or her home really exists and has sufficient room for hosting the applicant, proof that the applicant has obtained health and evacuation insurance, etc. Some countries ask for proof of health status, especially for long-term visas; some countries deny such visas to persons with certain illnesses, such as AIDS. The exact conditions depend on the country and category of visa. Notable examples of countries requiring HIV tests of long-term residents are Russia  and Uzbekistan.  However, in Uzbekistan, the HIV test requirement is sometimes not strictly enforced. \n\nDeveloped countries frequently demand strong evidence of intent to return to the home country, if the visa is for a temporary stay, and especially if the applicant is from a developing country, due to immigration concerns.\n\nThe issuing authority may also require applicants to attest that they have had no criminal convictions, or that they do not partake in certain activities (like prostitution or drug trafficking). Some countries will deny visas if the travellers' passports show evidence of citizenship or travel to a country which is not recognized by that country. For example, Saudi Arabia will not issue visas to nationals of Israel or those with evidence of visiting Israel.\n\nTypes of visa\n\nCommon types of visas are:\n A transit visa, usually valid for 3 days or less, for passing through the country to a third destination.\n A tourist visa, for a limited period of leisure travel, no business activities allowed. Some countries do not issue tourist visas. Saudi Arabia introduced tourist visas only in 2004 although it did (and still does) issue pilgrimage visas for Hajj pilgrims.\n A business visa, for engaging in commerce in the country. These visas generally preclude permanent employment, for which a work visa would be required.\n A temporary worker visa, for approved employment in the host country. These are generally more difficult to obtain but valid for longer periods of time than a business visa. Examples of these are the United States' H-1B and L-1 visas.\n A visa on arrival, which is a visa granted immediately prior to entering the country, such as at an airport or border control post. This is distinct from not requiring a visa at all, as the visitor must still obtain the visa before they can even try to pass through immigration. The on-arrival visa usually is nothing more than an arrival tax, though the visitors can still be denied entry even with a visa.\n A spousal visa, granted to the spouse of a resident or citizen of a given country, in order to enable the couple to settle in that country. Examples include the United Kingdom's EEA family permit.\n\nLess common visas include:\n A student visa, which allows its holder to study at an institution of higher learning in the issuing country. Students studying in Algeria, however, are issued tourist visas. \n A working holiday visa, for individuals traveling between nations offering a working holiday programme, allowing young people to undertake temporary work while traveling. At least ten European countries allow work for non-EU students.\n \n A diplomatic visa (sometimes official visa), which confers diplomatic status on its holder and is normally only available to bearers of diplomatic passports.\n A courtesy visa issued to representatives of foreign governments or international organizations who do not qualify for diplomatic status but do merit expedited, courteous treatment. A courtesy visa does not normally confer privileges or immunities.\n A journalist visa, which some countries require of people in that occupation when travelling for their respective news organizations. Countries which insist on this include Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, the United States (I-visa ) and Zimbabwe.\n Afiancee visa, granted for a limited period prior to intended marriage based on a proven relationship with a citizen of the destination country. For example, a German woman who wishes to marry an American man would obtain a Fianc\u00e9e Visa (also known as a K-1 visa) to allow her to enter the United States.\n An immigrant visa, granted for those intending to immigrate to the issuing country. They usually are issued for a single journey as the holder will, depending on the country, later be issued a permanent resident identification card which will allow the traveller to enter to the issuing country an unlimited number of times. (for example, the United States Permanent Resident Card)...\n\nEntry and duration period \n\nVisas can also be single-entry, which means the visa is cancelled as soon as the holder leaves the country, double-entry, or multiple-entry, permitting multiple entries into the country with the same visa. Countries may also issue re-entry permits that allow temporarily leaving the country without invalidating the visa. Even a business visa will normally not allow the holder to work in the host country without an additional work permit.\n\nOnce issued, a visa will usually have to be used within a certain period of time.\n\nThe validity of a visa is not the same as the authorized period of stay in the issuing country. The visa validity usually indicates when the alien can apply for entry to the country. For example, if a visa has been issued January 1st and expires March 30th, and the typical authorized period of stay in a country is 90 days, then the 90-day authorized stay starts on the day the passenger reaches the country, which has to be between January 1st and March 30th. The traveller could therefore stay in the issuing country until June 1st.\n\nOnce in the country, the validity period of a visa or authorized stay can often be extended for a fee if the immigration authorities choose to do so. Staying longer than the period of authorized stay given by the immigration officers is considered illegal immigration even if the visa validity period is not over (i.e. for multiple entry visas) and a form of being \"out of status\" and the offender may be fined, prosecuted, deported, or even blacklisted (banned) from entering the country again.\n\nEntering a country without a valid visa or visa exemption may result in being arrested and removed (deportation or exclusion) from the country. Doing things that are not authorized by the status of entry (for example, working while having a non-worker tourist status) can result in the individual being deemed removable, in common speech an illegal alien. Such violation is not a violation of a visa, despite the common misuse of the phrase, but a violation of status, hence the term \"out of status.\"\n\nEven having a visa does not guarantee that somebody can enter ah ost country. The border crossing authorities make the final determination to allow entry, and may even cancel a visa at the border if the alien cannot demonstrate to their satisfaction that they will abide by the status their visa grants them.\n\nVisa and immigration laws may be very different among countries. As such, aliens are advised to check with immigration lawyers for visa and immigration laws governing the countries they wish to enter and eligibility to receive visas or other immigration benefits.\n\nVisa extensions \n\nMany countries have a mechanism to allow the holder of a visa to apply to stay longer in that country. For example, in Denmark a visa holder can apply to the Danish Immigration Service for a Residence Permit after they have arrived in the Country. In the United Kingdom applications can be made to the Border and Immigration Agency. In certain circumstances, it is not possible for the holder of the visa to do this, either because the country does not have a mechanism to prolong visas or, most likely, because the holder of the visa is using a short stay visa to live in a country. In such cases, the holder often engages in what is known as a visa run; leaving the country for a short period in order to apply for a new visa prior to their return or so that they can be given a fresh permission to stay when they re-enter.\n\nVisa refusal \nA visa may be denied for a number of reasons, including (but not limited to) if the applicant:\n has committed fraud or misrepresentation in his or her application;\n cannot prove to have strong ties to their current country of residence;\n intends to permanently live or work in the country she\/he will visit;\n does not have a legitimate reason for the journey;\n has no clear way of having enough resources to take care of himself\/herself while in the country;\n does not have accommodation in the destination country;\n has not arranged his or her transportation;\n does not have a health\/travel insurance valid for the destination and the duration of stay;\n has a criminal record or has criminal charges pending;\n does not have a good moral character;\n wants to get a visa too soon;\n is considered to be a security risk;\n had their previous visa application(s) rejected;\n is a citizen of a country with whom the host country has poor or non-existent relations;\n has a contagious disease, such as tuberculosis;\n has previous immigration violations;\n has never undertaken any foreign travel before;\n has traveled before, but taken visas for other countries which are nowhere near the destination country;\n unable to demonstrate basic local language skills;\n has planned a vacation for no particular purpose other than sightseeing.\n has a passport that expires too soon\n\nVisa exemption schemes \nPossession of a valid visa is a condition for entry into many countries, however various exemption schemes do exist. In some cases visa-free entry may be granted to holders of diplomatic passports even as visas are required by normal passport holders (see: Passport).\n\nSome countries have reciprocal agreements such that a visa is not needed under certain conditions, e.g. when the visit is for tourism and for a relatively short period. One example of this is the Visa Waiver Program of the United States. Such reciprocal agreements may stem from common membership in international organizations or a shared heritage:\n All citizens of ECOWAS member states, excluding those defined by law as undesirable aliens, may enter and stay without a visa in any member state for a maximum period of 90 days. The only requirement is a valid travel document and international vaccination certificates.\n Nationals of the East African Community member states do not need visas for entry into any of the member states.\n Some countries in the Commonwealth do not require tourist visas for citizens of other Commonwealth countries.\n Most countries in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) do not require tourist visas for citizens of other ASEAN countries.\n Armenia  and Uzbekistan   allows citizens of CIS member states, except Turkmenistan, to enter visa-free as tourists.\nOther countries may also unilaterally grant visa-free entry to nationals of certain countries in order to facilitate tourism.\n\nVisa-free travel between countries also occurs in all cases where passports are not needed for such travel.\n(For examples of passport-free travel, see International travel without passports.)\n\nCommon visas \nNormally, visas are valid for entry only into the country which issued the visa. Countries that are members of regional organizations or party to regional agreements may however issue visas valid for entry into some or all of the member states of the organization or agreement:\n the Schengen Visa may be the best-known example of a common visa. This visa has it origins in the 1985 Schengen Agreement among European states which allows for a common policy on the temporary entry of persons (including visas). The visa allows a tourist or visitor access to the area covered by the agreement (known as the \"Schengen area\" or \"Schengenland\"). Citizens of non-EU, non-EEA countries who wish to visit Europe as tourists, and who require a visa to enter the Schengen area, are simply required to get only the common Schengen Visa from the Embassy\/Consulate of any of the Schengen countries. After this, they may visit any or all of the Schengen countries as tourists or for business without hindrance. They are not required to get separate visas for all the Schengen countries they wish to visit.\n the CARICOM Visa was introduced in late 2006 and allowed visitors to travel between 10 CARICOM member states (Antigua & Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines and Trinidad & Tobago). These 10 member countries had agreed to form a \"Single Domestic Space\" in which travellers would only have their passport stamped and have to submit completed, standardized entry and departure forms at the first port and country of entry. The CARICOM Visa was applicable to the nationals of all countries except CARICOM member states (other than Haiti) and associate member states, Canada, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, South Africa, the United Kingdom, the United States of America and the overseas countries, territories or departments of these countries. The CARICOM Visa could be obtained from the Embassies\/Consulates of Barbados, Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago and in countries which have no CARICOM representatives, the applications forms could be obtained from the Embassies\/Consulates of the United Kingdom. The common visa was only intended for the duration of the Cricket World Cup and was discontinued on May 15, 2007. However, discussions are ongoing into instituting a revised CARICOM visa on a permanent basis in the future.\n the Central American Single Visa (Visa \u00danica Centroamericana) was implemented by the CA-4 agreement between Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. It is required for citizens of all other countries, eliminating the need for separate entry visas for each of the countries. Persons entering the region on Type \"B\" visas can enter the area through any Port of Entry. Persons entering on Type \"C\" visas (issued through prior consultation with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) must enter through a Port of Entry in the country that issued the visa. Once a person has been admitted, they may travel onto any of the other countries and are allowed to stay through the date authorized at the original Port of Entry.\n An East African Single Tourist Visa has been up for approval by the relevant sectoral authorities under the East African Community (EAC) integration programme. The visa would be valid for all three partner states in the EAC (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda). Under the proposal for the visa, any new East African single visa can be issued by any partner state's embassy. The visa proposal followed an appeal by the tourist boards of the partner states for a common visa to accelerate promotion of the region as a single tourist destination and the EAC Secretariat wants it approved before November's World Travel Fair (or World Travel Market) in London. When approved by the East African council of ministers, tourists could apply for one country's entry visa which would then be applicable in all regional member states as a single entry requirement initiative.\n The SADC UNIVISA (or Univisa) has been in development since SADC members signed a Protocol on the Development of Tourism in 1998. The Protocol outlined the Univisa as an objective so as to enable the international and regional entry and travel of visitors to occur as smoothly as possible. It was expected to become operational by the end of 2002. Its introduction was delayed and a new implementation date, the end of 2006, was announced. However, the SADC now aims to have the univisa system in place by 2008, before the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. The univisa was originally intended to only be available, initially, to visitors from selected \"source markets\" such as Australia, the Benelux countries, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom and the USA. It is now expected that when the Univisa is implemented, that it will apply to non SADC international (long-haul) tourists travelling to and within the region and that it will encourage multi - destination travel within the region. It is also anticipated that the univisa will unlock the tourism potential of transfrontier parks by lowering the boundaries between neighbouring countries in the parks. The visa is expected to be valid for all the countries with transfrontier parks (Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe) and some other SADC countries (Angola and Swaziland).\n\nReferences \n\nTravel\nIdentification documents","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":47751,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visa","title":"Visa","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Sarcopterygii  is a class of fish. They are lobe-finned fish, like the lungfish and coelacanths. They are a clade of bony fish which first appeared in the Silurian, 418 million years ago (mya). One line in this group gave rise to the tetrapods.\n\nCharacteristics \nThese are bony fishes with paired rounded fins. These fins, being similar to limbs, suggest that these fish may be ancestors of land vertebrates. All sarcopterygians possess teeth covered with true enamel.\n\nAs a clade, the group includes all its descendants. This means it includes the Tetrapods, that is, all species of four-limbed vertebrates. The fin-limbs of sarcopterygiians are very similar to what people believe was the ancestral form of tetrapod limbs. The ancestors of tetrapods are to be found amongst the lobe-fins of the Devonian period. The term 'fishapod' is becoming used for this transitional group.\n\nEvolution\nSarcopterygians and their relatives the Actinopterygii ('ray-finned fish') make up the super-class Osteichthyes,  the 'bony fish', which have a bony skeleton rather than cartilage. Otherwise, there are vast differences in fin, respiratory, and circulatory structures between the Sarcopterygii and the Actinopterygii.\n\nThe first sarcopterygians, found in the uppermost Silurian (about 418 mya), closely resembled the Acanthodii, the 'spiny fish' which went extinct at the end of the Palaeozoic era. In the early\u2013middle Devonian (416\u2013385 mya), while the predatory placoderms dominated the seas, some sarcopterygians came into freshwater habitats.\n\nIn the early Devonian (416\u2013397 mya), the sarcopterygians split into two main lineages \u2014 the Coelacanths and the Rhipidistia. The former never left the oceans and their heyday was the late Devonian and Carboniferous, from 385 to 299 mya, as they were more common during those periods than in any other period in the Phanerozoic; coelacanths still live today in the oceans (genus Latimeria).\n\nThe Rhipidistians, whose ancestors probably lived in the oceans near the river mouths (estuaries), left the ocean world and migrated into freshwater habitats. They in turn split into two major groups : the lungfish and the tetrapods. The lungfish evolved the first proto-lungs and proto-limbs; they learned in the middle Devonian (397\u2013385 mya) how to live outside a water environment, using their stubby fins (proto-limbs) to walk on land and find new water if their waterhole was depleted, and their lungs to breathe air and get sufficient oxygen. The lungfish's greatest diversity was in the Triassic period; today there are fewer than a dozen genera left.\n\nThe first tetrapodomorphs, which included the gigantic rhizodonts, had the same general anatomy as the lungfish, who were their closest kin, but they appear not to have left their water habitat until the later Devonian epoch (385\u2013359 mya), with the appearance of tetrapods (four-legged vertebrates). Tetrapods are the only tetrapodomorphs which survived after the Devonian.\n\nNon-tetrapod sarcopterygians continued until towards the end of Paleozoic era, suffering heavy losses during the Permian-Triassic extinction event (251 mya).\n\nTaxonomy and phylogeny \n Sarcopterygii\n Coelacanthimorpha\n Coelacanthiformes\n Latimeriidae\n Rhipidistia\n Dipnoi\n Tetrapodomorpha\n \u2020Rhizodontiformes\n Osteolepiformes\n Panderichthyida\n\nRelated pages\n Actinopterygii \u2013 ray-finned fishes\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":75101,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarcopterygii","title":"Sarcopterygii","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"For people and places called Saint James, see the disambiguation page.\n\nSaint James, son of Zebedee (death 44 AD) was one of the disciples (learners) of Jesus. He was the son of Zebedee and Salome and brother of John the Evangelist. He is called Saint James the Greater to distinguish (mark as different) him from the other apostle named James \n(James, son of Alphaeus). James is described as one of the first disciples who joined Jesus. The Synoptic Gospels tell that James and John were with their father by the seashore when Jesus called them to begin traveling (Mt.4:21\u201322, Mk.1:19\u201320). According to Mark, James and John were called Boanerges, or the \"Sons of Thunder\" (3:17). Acts of the Apostles 12:1\u20132 records that King Herod had James executed by sword (Ac.12:1\u20132).  He was likely the first of the apostles martyred for his faith.\n\nSaint James and Hispania \nAccording to ancient local tradition, on 2 January of the year AD 40, the Virgin Mary appeared to James on the bank of the Ebro River at Caesaraugusta, while he was preaching the Gospel in Spain. She supposedly appeared upon a pillar, Nuestra Se\u00f1ora del Pilar, and that pillar is conserved and venerated within the present Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar, in Zaragoza, Spain. Following that apparition, St James returned to Judea, where he was beheaded by King Herod Agrippa I in the year 44. \n\nThe translation of his relics from Judea to Galicia in the northwest of Iberia was effected, in legend, by a series of miraculous happenings: decapitated in Jerusalem with a sword by Herod Agrippa himself, his body was taken up by angels, and sailed in a rudderless, unattended boat to Iria Flavia in Spain, where a massive rock closed around his relics, which were later removed to Compostela. The 12th-century Historia Compostellana gives a summary of the legend of St James as it was believed at Compostela. Two ideas are central to it: first, that St James preached the gospel in Spain as well as in the Holy Land; second, that after his martyrdom at the hands of Herod Agrippa I his disciples carried his body by sea to Spain, where they landed at Padr\u00f3n on the coast of Galicia, and took it inland for burial at Santiago de Compostela. \n\nThe authenticity of the sacred relics of Compostela was asserted in the Bull of Pope Leo XIII, \"Omnipotens Deus,\" of 1 November 1884. \n\nThe tradition at Compostela placed the discovery of the relics of the saint in the time of king Alfonso II (791\u2013842) and of bishop Theodemir of Iria. These traditions were the basis for the pilgrimage route that began to be established in the 9th century, and the shrine dedicated to James at Santiago de Compostela, in Galicia in Spain, became the most famous pilgrimage site in the Christian world. St James's Way is a tree of routes that cross Western Europe and arrive at Santiago through Northern Spain. Eventually James became the patron saint of Spain.\n\nThe name \"James\" in English comes from \"Iacobus\" (Jacob) in Latin. In eastern Spain, Jacobus became \"Jacome\" or \"Jaime\"; in Catalunya, it became Jaume, in western Spain it became \"Iago\", and Portugal and Galicia it was Tiago. \"Saint James\" (\"Sanctus Jacobus\") became \"Sant' Iago\", which was abbreviated to Santiago. James's emblem was the scallop shell (or \"cockle shell\"), and pilgrims to his shrine often wore that symbol on their hats or clothes.\n\nOther websites \nCatholic Encyclopedia: St James the Greater\nR. A. Fletcher, Saint James's Catapult: The Life and Times of Diego Gelm\u00edrez of Santiago de Compostela Oxford University Press, 1984: chapter 3, \"The Early History of the Cult of St. James\"\n\nReferences \nHenry Chadwick, Priscillian of Avila. Oxford University Press, 1976.\nRichard A. Fletcher, 1984. Saint James's Catapult : The Life and Times of Diego Gelm\u00edrez of Santiago de Compostela (Oxford University Press) (On-line text) \n\nYear of birth unknown\n44 deaths\nEarly Christian saints\nTwelve Apostles\n1st-century births\nPharmacists","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":3,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":54725,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James%20%28son%20of%20Zebedee%29","title":"James (son of Zebedee)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The kidneys are two organs in the abdomen of vertebrates which are shaped like beans. They regulate the amount of water and salts in the blood. They make urine so it can be removed from the body. \n\nThe adjective which is used for kidneys is  renal. For example, renal failure is when the kidneys are sick and do not work. \n\nThe prefix nephro- is also used in words to mean \"kidneys\". For example, a nephrologist is a specialist who studies kidneys.\n\nHormones \nThe kidney makes hormones. The two most important ones that it makes are erythropoetin and renin.\n\nErythropoetin is made by the kidneys if there is less oxygen in the kidney. Erythropoetin signals the bone marrow to make more red blood cells. This means there will be more oxygen carried in the blood.\n\nRenin is made by the kidney if there is low blood pressure, low volume of blood, or too low salts in the blood. Renin makes the blood vessels smaller and tells the adrenal gland to make aldosterone (which tells the kidneys to save salts). It also makes a person feel thirsty. All of this makes the blood pressure go up.\n\nStable environment \nThe kidney's most important work is keeping homeostasis. Homeostasis means that the body keeps a stable environment inside itself. The body needs to have the consistent and proper amount of water, salt, and acid in the blood. The kidney keeps these things constant.\n\nIf there is too much water, the kidney puts more water in the urine. If there is not enough water, the kidney uses less water in the urine. This is why people make less urine when they are dehydrated.\n\nKidney diseases \nThere are many types of kidney diseases. A kidney disease makes the kidneys unable to work perfectly but they do work in part. People can have mild kidney failure and have no symptoms. As long as it does not become worse, people may not even know they have it. Severe kidney failure means very bad failure. The kidneys do not work very much at all. People with severe kidney failure always have symptoms. They need special care from doctors. \n\nThe main kinds of kidney diseases are:\n Kidney stones \u2013 this is when a solid substance forms in the urine. This stone moves through the urinary system until it cannot go on and gets stuck. This sometimes blocks urine flow, and usually causes severe pain. After a time, the stone usually goes out or passes. If it does not go out, a surgeon may have to remove it.\n Kidney infections \u2013 also called pyelonephritis. This is a bacterial infection in the kidneys. Some of the symptoms are back pain, vomiting, fever, and dark or bloody urine. People with pyelonephritis need strong antibiotic medicines.\n Glomerulonephritis \u2013 this is a disease of the tissues in the kidneys that make urine. These are called glomeruli. Glomerulonephritis is an autoimmune disease. It can cause mild or severe kidney failure.\n Congenital kidney disease \u2013 this is when people are born with kidneys that do not work properly. This includes people that are born with kidneys in the wrong place, or in the wrong shape. About 1% of people are born with only one kidney.\n Polycystic kidney disease \u2013 this is an inherited disorder in which cysts grow in the kidneys, and destroy the kidney tissue until the kidneys can no longer perform their functions. \n Diabetic nephropathy \u2013 this is the disease diabetics get when their blood sugar is too high for a long time. This is one of the most common causes of kidney failure in the United States\n Hypertensive nephropathy \u2013 this is caused by having hypertension (high blood pressure) for a long time. Many people have hypertensive and diabetic nephropathy together.\n Cancer \u2013 Renal cell carcinoma is the most common kind of kidney cancer. It is most often found in adults, and is usually deadly. It is hard to stop it with radiation treatments or chemotherapy.\n\nRenal replacement \nIf a person's kidneys do not work properly, they are very sick. If they have severe kidney failure, they cannot live unless they have a replacement for their kidneys.\n\nThere are two ways to replace the kidneys: dialysis and transplantation.\n\nDialysis \nDialysis is when doctors use a machine and medicines to do the work of the kidneys. There are two kinds of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.\n\nPeritoneal dialysis is when doctors put a plastic tube into the person's abdomen. Every day the person fills the abdomen with fluid. The extra salts, waste, and water that the body does not need goes into the fluid. Then the fluid comes out and takes the wastes with it. This does part of the job that kidneys do.\n\nHemodialysis is when doctors take blood from a person, clean the blood with a special kind of filter, called a haemodialyser, and put it back in the person. When the blood is cleaned; water, salts and wastes are taken out of it. This must be done 2\u20134 times every week (usually 3 times.) It takes 2\u20134 hours to do this each time.\n\nHemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis are not perfect. They do some of the work of the kidney, but it is not as good as a real kidney. So people who need dialysis are not as healthy. They must take medicines. For example, in kidney failure, the kidneys do not make any erythropoetin. Doctors have to give people erythropoetin so they make enough red blood cells.\n\nTransplant \nA better way to do the kidneys' work is to give the person another kidney. This is called a kidney transplant. Kidney transplants are the most common type of organ transplant. It is the most common because we have two kidneys, but only need one kidney to live. People who are alive can donate a kidney to another person.\n\nEven transplanted kidneys are not the same as kidneys people were born with. A person who gets a renal transplant must take strong medicines to stop their body from attacking the new kidney. Sometimes, after years, the transplanted kidney stops working. But sometimes a patient can get a new transplanted kidney after the first one stops working.\n\nHistory \nIt was widely believed in Europe that the conscience was actually located in the kidneys. This idea was taken from the Hebrew Bible. In modern times, medical scientists have shown kidneys do not have this kind of psychological role. \n\nAnatomy of the urinary system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":144,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":13913,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kidney","title":"Kidney","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Aaron Copland (, ; November 14, 1900December 2, 1990) was an American composer who wrote modern music.\n\nAaron Copland wrote many kinds of music. He wrote music for the orchestra, piano, and voice. He wrote music for plays, movies, and dance. Copland also was a conductor, pianist, speaker, teacher, and writer.\n\nMusic critics say Copland taught Americans about themselves through his music. He used parts of many old American folksongs in his work. He wanted to do this after studying music in France. He said that composers there had a very French way of writing music. He said Americans had nothing like that in this country. So he decided to compose music that was truly American.\n\nEarly days of Copland \nAaron Copland was born November 14, 1900 in Brooklyn, New York. He died at the age of 90 on December 2, 1990. He was the youngest of five children. His parents had come to the United States from eastern Europe. They owned a store in Brooklyn. Aaron began playing the piano when he was a young child. He wrote his first song for his mother when he was eight years old. His dreams of becoming a composer began when he was young. When he was sixteen, he asked his parents to let him study composing with Rubin Goldmark. Goldmark had taught the composer George Gershwin.\n\nWhen he was in his early twenties, Copland went to Paris, France, where he studied music with Nadia Boulanger. She was one of the most important music teachers of the time. He returned to New York in 1924.\n\nKnown classical works \nThe famous conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Serge Koussevitzky, learned about Copland's music. Koussevitzky led the orchestra for the first performance of Copland's early work, \"Music for the Theater\", in 1925. Koussevitzky also conducted Copland's \"Concerto for Piano and Orchestra\" in 1927. This work was unusual because Copland used ideas from jazz music in his concerto.\n\nCopland later wrote the music for two ballets about the American West. One was about the life of a famous gunfighter called Billy the Kid. Copland used music from American cowboy songs in this work. This piece from \"Billy the Kid: Ballet Suite\" is called \"Street in a Frontier Town\".\n\nIn 1942, the conductor Andre Kostelanitz asked Copland to write music about a great American, Abraham Lincoln. Copland wrote \"Lincoln Portrait\" to honor America's 16th president. Copland's music included parts of American folk songs and songs popular during the American Civil War. He added words from President Lincoln's speeches and letters.\n\n\"Lincoln Portrait\" has been performed many times in America. Many famous people have done the speaking part.Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, was one of them. Here, actor James Earl Jones performs in Copland's \"Lincoln Portrait.\"\n\nIn 1942 the music director of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra asked 18 composers to write music expressing love for America. For the competition, Copland composed \"Fanfare for the Common Man. \" This music is played in America during many national events, including some presidential inaugurations (when they become presidents).\n\nExperts say \"Fanfare for the Common Man\" was an example of the way Copland changed the kind of music he wrote during the 1940s. He began writing music that was more easily understood and more popular. Copland wrote about this in 1941 in his book, Our New Music.\n\nHe wrote that the radio and record player was helping people who had never listened to music before to enjoy music. He said that there was no reason to continue writing music as if these things had not been invented. So he decided to write music in a simpler way.\n\nHis interest and activities beyond music \nCopland spread his ideas about music in other ways. He taught at the New School for Social Research in New York City and at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. One of the many awards he received was the Pulitzer Prize. He won it in 1945 for his famous music for a ballet called \"Appalachian Spring.\" It is one of his most popular works. The last part of the ballet is based on a traditional song, \"A Gift to be Simple\".\n\nCopland also wrote music for several major movies. He won an Academy Award in 1950 for composing the music for the movie The Heiress. Then he began experimenting with what is called the twelve-tone system. His music was no longer as easy to understand, nor as popular.\n\nCopland stopped composing at the end of the 1960s. Yet he continued to be active as a conductor and speaker. In 1982, Queens College of the City University of New York established the Aaron Copland School of Music.\n\nCopland was a strong supporter of liberal ideas. In the early 1950s, he and other famous writers, actors and intellectuals were accused of supporting communism. Public opinion changed, though. In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson presented him with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. It is America's highest award to civilians. Aaron Copland died in 1990 at the age of 90. But his music lives on.\n\nThe article above is a reuse and modification from a script available as public domain under Terms of Use & Privacy Notice of Voice of America.\n\nSources\n\nOther websites \n Aaron Copland Collection at the Library of Congress website\n\n1900 births\n1990 deaths\nKennedy Center honorees\n20th-century American composers\nGrammy Award winners\nPulitzer Prize winners","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":4,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":12468,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aaron%20Copland","title":"Aaron Copland","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The ISO 639-3 is the third version of a set of international standards that lists short codes for language names. Such codes are also known as language codes. Before this version was out, there was already ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2, but due to the increase in languages being added to the database, ISO639-3 was therefore released, and all language codes have three letters, unlike the previous two, which allowed two letters in the code.\n\nEach known language has a 3 letter code, and requests to add additional languages into the database can be made at the SIL International website. The standard was published by ISO on 2007-02-05.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n SIL International website for ISO639-3 language codes\n\nISO 639","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2}},"id":342379,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO%20639-3","title":"ISO 639-3","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
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051\u4e0a\u4e27\u751f;\u4ed6\u4eec\u548c\u53e6\u5916\u4e24\u4f4d\u6218\u6597\u4fdd\u5b89\u61b2\u5175\u56e0\u82f1\u52c7\u884c\u4e3a\u83b7\u5f97\u94f6\u661f\u52cb\u7ae0\u3002\u4fdd\u5b89\u61b2\u5175\u5c3d\u7ba1\u5be1\u4e0d\u654c\u4f17,\u5728\u7f8e\u56fd\u9646\u519b\u76f4\u5347\u673a\u548c\u5730\u9762\u90e8\u961f\u5e2e\u52a9\u4e0b,\u51fb\u6bd9\u8fd1100\u540d\u654c\u519b\u3002\u57fa\u5730\u88ab\u7f8e\u56fd\u548c\u5357\u8d8a\u6d77\u7a7a\u519b\u6212\u5907\u76f4\u52301968\u5e741\u670831\u65e5\u4e2d\u534812:00\u3002\n\n\u5728\u63a5\u4e0b\u6765\u76843\u5468\u4e2d,\u5357\u8d8a\u7a7a\u519b\u51fa\u52a81,300\u67b6\u6b21\u88ad\u51fb,\u8f70\u70b8\u5e76\u626b\u5c04\u8d8a\u5171\u5728\u5357\u8d8a\u7684\u636e\u70b9\u3002\u4ece\u65b0\u5c71\u4e00\u7a7a\u519b\u57fa\u5730\u51fa\u53d1\u768433D\u7ffc\u8fd0\u8f93\u673a\u572812\u65e5\u5185\u8d77\u843d15,000\u6b21,\u76f8\u6bd4\u5e73\u65f6\u6bcf\u6708\u4ec510,000\u6b21\u3002\u4fa6\u5bdf\u673a\u4e5f\u4ece\u65b0\u5c71\u4e00\u57fa\u5730\u8d77\u98de\u7ea6700\u67b6\u6b21,\u5e76\u4e14\u5357\u8d8a\u98de\u884c\u5458\u4e5f\u9a7e\u9a76\u4e86O-1 Bird Dog\u548cU-17 Skywagons\u3002\n\n\u6230\u722d\u8d8a\u5357\u5316\u82071972\u5e74\u5fa9\u6d3b\u7bc0\u653b\u52e2\n\nIn 1970, with American units leaving the country, the VNAF transport fleet was greatly increased at Tan Son Nhut. The VNAF 33d and 53d Tactical Wings were established flying Fairchild C-123 Providers, C-47s and De Havilland C-7A Caribous.\n\nBy November 1970, the South Vietnamese Air Force took total control of the Direct Air Support Center (DASCS) at Bien Hoa Air Base, Da Nang Air Base and Pleiku Air Base.\n\nAt the end of 1971, the VNAF were totally in control of command and control units at eight major air bases, supporting ARVN units for the expanded air-ground operations system. In September 1971, the USAF transferred two Fairchild C-119 squadrons to the VNAF at Tan Son Nhut.\n\nIn 1972, the buildup of the VNAF at Tan Son Nhut was expanded when two Lockheed C-130 Hercules squadrons were formed there. In December, the first VNAF C-130 training facility was established at Tan Son Nhut, enabling the South Vietnamese to train its own Hercules pilots. As more C-130s were transferred to the VNAF, older C-123s were returned to the USAF for disposal.\n\nAs the buildup of the VNAF continued, the success of the Vietnamization program was evident during the 1972 Spring Offensive. Responding to the communist attack, the VNAF flew more than 20,000 strike sorties which helped to stem the communist advance. In the first month of the offensive, transports from Tan Son Nhut ferried thousands of troops and delivered nearly 4,000 tons of supplies throughout the country.\n\nThe spring offensive also resulted in additional deliveries of aircraft to the VNAF under Project Enhance. New VNAF units came about with the introduction of Fairchild C-119K gunships at Tan Son Nhut, along with Boeing CH-47 helicopters, along with additional C-130 transports and numerous O-1 and O-2 observation aircraft.\n\nAlso, fighter aircraft arrived at Tan Son Nhut for the first time in the Northrup F-5A\/B Freedom Fighter and the F-5E Tiger II. The F-5s were subsequently transferred to Bien Hoa and Da Nang Air Bases.\n\n1973\u5e74\u5df4\u9ece\u548c\u5e73\u5354\u7d04\u5f8c\n\nThe Paris Peace Accords of 1973 brought an end to the United States advisory capacity in South Vietnam. In its place, as part of the agreement, the Americans retained a Defense Attach\u00e9 Office (DAO) at Tan Son Nhut Air Base, with small field offices at other facilities around the country. The technical assistance provided by the personnel of the DAOs and by civilian contractors was essential to the VNAF, however, because of the cease-fire agreement, the South Vietnamese could not be advised in any way on military operations, tactics or techniques of employment.\n\nIt was through the DAO that the American\/South Vietnamese relationship was maintained, and it was primarily from this source that information from within South Vietnam was obtained. The VNAF provided statistics with regards to the military capability of their units to the DAO, however the accuracy of this information was not always reliable.\n\nFrom the Spring Offensive of 1972, it was clear that without United States aid, especially air support, the ARVN would not be able to defend itself against continuing communist attacks. This was demonstrated at the fighting around Pleiku, An L\u1ed9c and Qu\u1ea3ng Tr\u1ecb where the ARVN would have been defeated without continuous air support, mainly supplied by the USAF.\n\nThe ARVN relied heavily on air support, and with the absence of the USAF, the full responsibility fell on the VNAF. Although equipped with large numbers of A-37 and F-5 attack aircraft, to conduct effective close air support operations, during the 1972 offensive the USAF relied on the heavier McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II supporting ARVN forces dealing with those targets.\n\nNumerous violations of the Paris Peace Accords were committed by communists beginning almost as soon as the United States withdrew its last personnel from South Vietnam by the end of March 1973. The North Vietnamese and the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam continued their attempt to overthrow President Nguy\u1ec5n V\u0103n Thi\u1ec7u and remove the U.S.-supported government. North Vietnamese military forces broke the treaty, and conquered  South Vietnam in their Ho Chi Minh Campaign. The U.S. had promised Thieu that it would use airpower to support his government. On January 14, 1975 Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger stated that the U.S. was not living up to its promise that it would retaliate in the event North Vietnam tried to overwhelm South Vietnam.\n\nWhen North Vietnam invaded in March 1975, the promised American intervention never materialized. Congress reflected the popular mood, halting the bombing in Cambodia effective July 15, 1973, and reducing aid to South Vietnam. Since Thieu intended to fight the same kind of war he always had, with lavish use of firepower, the cuts in aid proved especially damaging.\n\n\u65b0\u5c71\u4e00\u7a7a\u8ecd\u57fa\u5730\u5931\u5b88\n\n1975\u5e74\u5e74\u521d,\u5317\u8d8a\u4eba\u6c11\u8ecd\u767c\u8d77\u4e861975\u5e74\u6625\u5b63\u653b\u52e2,\u610f\u5728\u76e1\u5feb\u5730\u7d71\u4e00\u5357\u8d8a\u3002\u5728\u4e00\u7cfb\u5217\u9032\u653b\u5f8c,\u5357\u8d8a\u7e3d\u7d71\u962e\u6587\u7d39\u5c31\u5ba3\u5e03\u653e\u68c4\u4e86\u8d8a\u5357\u4e2d\u592e\u9ad8\u5730\u548c\u5317\u65b9\u7684\u5169\u500b\u7701\u4efd\u3002\u5230\u4e8630\u6708\u5e95\u6642,\u5cf4\u6e2f\u3001\u6b78\u4ec1\u548c\u82bd\u838a\u90fd\u5df2\u7d93\u5931\u5b88\u4e86,\u5927\u898f\u6a21\u7684\u9003\u96e3\u6f6e\u958b\u59cb\u5357\u4e0b,\u6574\u500b\u5171\u548c\u570b\u9677\u5165\u7d0a\u4e82\u7684\u5c40\u9762\u3002\n\nAs the war in South Vietnam entered its conclusion, the pilots of the VNAF flew sortie after sortie, supporting the retreating South Vietnamese Army after it abandoned Cam Ranh Bay on 14 April. For two days after the ARVN left the area, the Wing Commander at Phan Rang Air Base fought on with the forces under his command. Airborne troops were sent in for one last attempt to hold the airfield, but the defenders were finally overrun on 16 April and Phan Rang Air Base was lost.\n\nThe last of the 2d Air Division abandoned the airfield with the remaining flyable airplanes, leaving four A C-119s which had flown in from Da Nang and two A-37s to the North Vietnamese.\n\nOn 22 April Xuan Loc fell to the communists after a two-week battle with South Vietnam's 18th Army Division which inflicted over 5,000 NVA casualties and delayed the Ho Chi Minh Campaign for two weeks. With the fall of Xuan Loc and the capture of Bien Hoa Air Base in late April 1975 it was clear that South Vietnam was about to fall to the North Vietnamese Army.\n\nAt dusk on 28 April, three captured A-37s, flown from the former VNAF Phan Rang Air Base bombed Tan Son Nhut destroying a number of aircraft on the flight line. There are conflicting stories about who was actually flying these aircraft. One source insists they were VNAF pilots who were communists, another says they were VNAF pilots who were forced to fly the mission in return for the safety of their families, and NVA General Van Tien Dung claimed the A-37s were flown by North Vietnamese Air Force pilots.\n\nWhatever the case, the A-37s escaped. despite being pursued by several VNAF F-5s. Although the physical damage to Ton Son Nhut was not extensive, the threat of further air strikes eliminated Tan Son Nhut AB for fixed-wing evacuation flights, further lowering what little morale remained in the capital.\n\nSaigon was now surrounded by thirteen NVA divisions and most Vietnamese realized it was only a matter of time until the entire country was in communist hands. On 29 April President Gerald Ford ordered Operation Frequent Wind, the helicopter evacuation of Saigon.\n\nVietnamese pilots now began flying themselves and their families out of the country in anything that could get off the ground. Some headed for the American rescue fleet just off the coast, while others flew to Thailand.\nOn 30 April the last desperate combat sorties flown by the VNAF were carried out in defense of Tan Son Nhut. An AC-119 Shadow gunship, which had spent the night defending the base perimeter, landed for fuel and ammunition. After refueling and rearming, the Shadow took off again. The gunship orbited the air base firing on advancing NVA troops and was soon joined by a pair of A-1s. The Skyraiders made repeated runs over NVA positions until NVA gunners downed one with a SA-7. The second A-1 pilot continued his attacks until his fuel and ordnance were used up. All the while, the AC-119 kept its fire directed on advancing enemy forces.\n\nAbout 7:00 AM the Shadow was hit by an SA-7 and fell in flames. Three crewmen managed to bail out, but one chute became entangled in the debris and the airman killed.\n\nIn the final evacuation, over a hundred VNAF aircraft arrived in Thailand, including twenty-six F-5s, eight A-37s. eleven A-1s, six C-130s. thirteen C-47s, five C-7s, and three AC-119s. Additionally close to 100 VNAF helicopters landed on U.S. ships off the coast, although at least half were jettisoned. One O-1 managed to land on the USS Midway CV-41, carrying a South Vietnamese major, his wife, and five children. On 30 April 1975, Saigon fell and all remaining South Vietnamese forces were ordered to surrender.\n\nFor the VNAF thirty-five long years of war had come to an end. Following the war, Tan Son Nhut Air Base was taken over as a base for the Vietnam People's Air Force.\n\n\u66fe\u99d0\u55ae\u4f4d(\u81f31974\u5e746\u6708)\nTan Son Nhut Air Base was the Headquarters of the South Vietnamese Air Force. It was also the headquarters of the SVNAF 5th Air Division.\n\n33d Tactical Wing\n314th Special Air Missions SquadronVC-47, U-17, UH-1, DC-6B\n716th Reconnaissance Squadron R\/EC-47, U-6A\n718th Reconnaissance Squadron EC-47\n429th Transport Squadron C-7B\n431st Transport Squadron C-7B\nDet H 259th Helicopter Squadron Bell UH-1H (Medivac)\n\n53d Tactical Wing\n819th Combat Squadron AC-119G\n821st Combat Squadron AC-119G\n435th Transport Squadron C-130A\n437th Transport Squadron C-130A\n\n\u7f8e\u8ecd\u4f7f\u7528\u60c5\u5f62\n\nDuring the Vietnam War (or Second Indochina War), Tan Son Nhut Air Base (then using the alternative spelling \"T\u00e2n S\u01a1n Nh\u1ee9t\") was an important facility for both the US Air Force and the VNAF. Tan Son Nhut Air Base served as the focal point for the initial United States Air Force deployment and buildup in South Vietnam in the early 1960s. After 1966, with the establishment of the 7th Air Force as the main USAF Command and Control Headquarters in South Vietnam, Tan Son Nhut functioned as a Headquarters base, a Tactical Reconnaissance base, and as a Special Operations base, focusing on areal defoliation (Operation Ranch Hand). With the drawdown of US forces in South Vietnam after 1971, the base took on a myriad of organizations transferred from deactivated bases in the country.\n\nBetween 1968 and 1974, Tan Son Nhut Airport was one of the busiest military airbases in the world.  During the last days of South Vietnam, Pan Am schedules from 1973 showed Boeing 747 service was being operated four times a week to San Francisco via Guam and Manila.  Continental Airlines operated up to 30 Boeing 707 military charters per week to and from Tan Son Nhut Airport during the 1968-74 period.\n\nIt was from Tan Son Nhut Air Base that the last U.S. Airman left South Vietnam in March, 1973.  The Air Force Post Office (APO) for Tan Son Nhut Air Base was APO San Francisco, 96307.\n\n\u7f8e\u8ecd\u9867\u554f\u5718()\n\nIn September 1961, the first permanent United States Air Force (USAF) unit, the 507th Tactical Control Group from Shaw Air Force Base South Carolina deployed sixty-seven officers and airmen to Tan Son Nhut to install radars and began monitoring air traffic and training of South Vietnamese Air Force (VNAF) personnel to operate and service the equipment. This organization formed the nucleus of what became a tactical air control system for a vast fleet of South Vietnamese and American aircraft.\n\n\u6230\u8853\u5075\u5bdf\u4efb\u52d9\n\nDuring October 1961, four RF-101Cs and a photo processing unit from the 15th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron of the 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, based at Yokota AB Japan, arrived at Tan Son Nhut and joined the combat reporting post, with the reconnaissance craft flying photographic missions over South Vietnam and Laos within a few days of their arrival.\n\nThe RF-101C was the only Voodoo version to serve in Vietnam. The 67th TRW was soon followed by detachments of the 15th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron of the 18th Tactical Fighter Wing, based at Kadena AB, Okinawa, which also flew RF-101 reconnaissance missions over Laos and South Vietnam, first from bases in Thailand and then from South Vietnam. These reconnaissance missions lasted from November 1961 through the spring of 1964.\n\nRF-101Cs flew pathfinder missions for F-100s in the first USAF strike against North Vietnam on February 8, 1965. They initially operated out of South Vietnam, but later flew most of their missions over North Vietnam out of Takhli RTAFB, Thailand. Bombing missions against the North required a large amount of photographic reconnaissance support, and by the end of 1967, all but one of the Tactical Air Command RF-101C squadrons were deployed to  Southeast Asia.\n\nThe reconnaissance Voodoos at Ton Son Nuht were incorporated into the 460th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing in February 1966.  33 RF-101Cs were lost in combat in Southeast Asia\u201424 to Anti-aircraft artillery and small arms fire, 5 to Surface-to-air missiles, one to a MiG-21, one in a sapper attack on its base at Tan Son Nhut AB, and two to unknown causes. Six were lost in operational (non-combat related) accidents while serving in Southeast Asia. More than 30 RF-101Cs were lost in accidents during their early years of service, mainly due to pilot inexperience.\n\nThe last 45th TRS RF-101C left Tan Son Nhut on November 16, 1970, bringing the era of Voodoo participation in the Southeast Asia War to an end.\n\n\u9a3e\u968a\u8a08\u5283()\n\nDuring January 1962 a detachment of a dozen Fairchild C-123 Provider transports arrived in South Vietnam to provide tactical airlift support for South Vietnam's hard-pressed ground troops. Called \"Mule Train\", its primary purpose was to give the ground forces an assault capability via airdrop or insertion. Yet the unit also saw a great need for logistic support entailing daily delivery of supplies to remote sites in Vietnam.\n\nOn 13 November 1961, U.S. President John F. Kennedy approved a recommendation to increase the mobility of South Vietnam's hard-pressed military. The White House authorized the Air Force to deploy a squadron of Air Force C-123 Providers and 40 Army H-21 Shawnee helicopters to assist South Vietnam's forces.  On Dec. 6, the Defense Department ordered the 346th Troop Carrier Squadron (Assault) to the Far East for 120 days TDY \"to participate in a classified training mission\" in the official jargon of the day. A second Mule Train squadron, the 777th Troop Carrier Squadron (Assault), arrived in South Vietnam on June 15, 1962. Eventually, both squadrons were placed under the 315th Air Commando Wing.\n\nMost sources fix Jan. 2, 1962, as the date that the initial group of aircraft arrived at Tan Son Nhut AB in South Vietnam.  All of the initial Mule Train missions were dedicated to carrying cargo. One-hundred-kilo sacks of rice were a major item, and at least one pilot over-grossed his aircraft by figuring them in at 100 pounds. The most typical commodities were live ducks, chickens, pigs, and cows, packed in locally made pens of wood and, when necessary, parachuted into the outlying camps. Mule Train aircraft also transported many Vietnamese natives. On more than one occasion, a Mule Train crew would smell smoke in the aircraft and find a traveler cooking food in the aircraft's cargo compartment.\n\nThere was no pretense that this was a South Vietnamese cargo operation, nor was there any training of Vietnamese for the task. Vietnamese were employed as \"kickers\" to move the cargo out the rear on re-supply drop.  The C-123 was a relatively simple and rugged aircraft. Its systems could take the heat and humidity of Vietnam better than more sophisticated aircraft. Tough landing gear and glider-strong fuselage could take the rough landings on short airfields, where stopping depended upon a slow approach, touching down on the edge of the airstrip, then full reverse and a steady, heavy foot on the anti-skid brakes.\n\nSoon, the Mule Train route structure became linked to the hard-surface runways at Da Nang, Tan Son Nhut, Nha Trang, Bien Hoa, Pleiku, Ban Me Thuot, Hu\u1ebf, Da Lat, S\u00f3c Tr\u0103ng, Qui Nh\u01a1n, and V\u0169ng T\u00e0u. Virtually every Mule Train sortie began or ended at one of these airfields, but intermediate stops could be anywhere.\n\nTwo C-123 aircraft were maintained at Da Nang to support northern outposts.  The Mule Train crews were experienced in assault work, but they had to improvise for conditions in Vietnam. It was difficult to decide exactly where to drop paratroops over the rough terrain, and much depended upon the map-reading ability of the crew.\n\nThe die was cast on June 28, 1962, when 16 C-123s and 12 South Vietnamese C-47s dropped paratroops under adverse weather conditions about 35 miles north of Saigon. The operation went off well despite a 500-foot ceiling.\n\nOn other occasions, the C-123s would load up troops from the South Vietnamese airborne brigade in Saigon to fly to the relief of a village that had come under attack. Over the village, the C-123 pilot would reduce power, drop flaps, and spiral down to the drop altitude and give the paratroopers a green light to jump.\n\nAt times, C-123 crews were uncomfortable with the assault role. South Vietnamese Special Forces were sometimes capricious about when and where they would fight. Straight cargo operations were hazardous enough, especially during the monsoon season when South Vietnamese troops were socked in in the mountainous valleys. To execute the mission, the C-123s would line up in a proper direction, let down in the undercast, and if they did not break out by a given altitude, would climb back up. There were usually 800-foot ceilings in the valleys, and most of the time they broke out.\n\nMule Train missions during 1962 became extremely diverse, with the C-123s serving in roles ranging from duck delivery to napalm bombing. In the latter role, the Provider carried nine wooden pallets, each holding three 55-gallon drums of napalm mixed with gasoline. With a good kicker, the load could go out the back ramp in less than five seconds and leave a pattern of flame 1,200 feet long.\n\nIn October 1962, there began what became known as the Southeast Asia Airlift System. Requirements were forecast out to 25 days, and these requirements were matched against available resources. The 315th Troop Carrier Group and 8th Aerial Port Squadron came into being and set the stage for tighter control of airlift operations.  The era of the Mule Train operation was over. It left behind a record of success and a collection of procedures and techniques for cargo work in Southeast Asia.\n\nThe Dirty Thirty\nAdditional USAF personnel arrived at Tan Son Nhut in early 1962 after the VNAF transferred two dozen seasoned pilots from the 1st Transportation Group at Tan Son Nhut to provide aircrews for the newly activated 2nd Fighter Squadron then undergoing training at Bien Hoa Air Base. This sudden loss of qualified C-47 pilots brought the 1st Transportation Group's airlift capability dangerously low.\n\nIn order to alleviate the problem, United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, on the recommendation of the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) Vietnam, ordered thirty USAF pilots temporarily assigned to the VNAF to serve as C-47 co-pilots. This influx of U.S. personnel quickly returned the 1st TG to full strength.\n\nThe Americans arrived at Tan Son Nhut during March and April 1962 and immediately began flying with Vietnamese crews. Unfortunately, problems arose between the Americans and Vietnamese and by August the situation had so deteriorated that the 1st Transportation Group commander. Nguyen Cao Ky urgently appealed for closer cooperation and understanding between the two groups. The situation seemed to gradually improve and although there were still problems, the two groups developed a closer working relationship.\n\nUnlike the USAF Farm Gate personnel at Bien Hoa Air Base, the C-47 co-pilots actually became part of the VNAF operational structure - though still under U.S. control. Because of their rather unusual situation, these pilots soon adopted the very unofficial nickname, The Dirty Thirty.\n\nIn a sense they were the first U.S. airmen actually committed to combat in Vietnam, rather than being assigned as advisors or support personnel.\n\nThe original Dirty Thirty pilots eventually rotated home during early 1963 and were replaced by a second contingent of American pilots. This detachment remained with the VNAF until December 1963 when they were withdrawn from Vietnam.\n\n\u7b2c509\u6230\u9b25\u6514\u622a\u4e2d\u968a\nStarting in 1962, the 509th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron began rotating Convair F-102A Delta Dagger interceptors to Tan Son Nhut Air Base on a rotating basis to provide air defense of the Saigon area in the event of a North Vietnamese air attack.  These rotations from Clark ended in July 1970.\n\nF-102's and TF-102's (two seat trainer version)were deployed to Tan Son Nhut initially because ground radar sites frequently painted small aircraft penetrating South Vietnamese airspace from the north. To determine if the unknown aircraft were infiltrators, drug smugglers or tourists, the F-102's were put on air defense alert, ready to scramble, intercept and identify the unknown, light aircraft that were crossing into South Vietnam.\n\nThe F-102, a supersonic, high altitude fighter interceptor designed to intercept Soviet bombers was given the mission of intercepting,identifying and, if necessary, destroying small aircraft, flying from tree top level to 2,000 ft at speeds less than the final approach landing speed of the F-102.  The TF-102, employing two pilots with one acting solely as radar intercept operator, was considered to be safer and more efficient as a low altitude interceptor.\n\nBefore the rotation ended in July 1970, pilots and F-102 aircraft from other Far East squadrons were used in the deployment. \nF-102's were also deployed to DaNang on a temporary basis.\n\n\u7b2c33\u6230\u8853\u5927\u968a\n\nOn 8 July 1963 the MAAG units were organized as the 33d Tactical Group. The Group was equipped primarily with cargo aircraft, C-54 Skymasters, U-3Bs, VC-47, and VC-123z.\n\nIts mission was to maintain and operate base support facilities at Tan Son Nhut, supporting the 2d Air Division and subordinate units by performing reconnaissance of Vietnam from various detachments flying RB-26 Invaders, RB-57 Canberras, and RF-101 Voodoo aircraft.\n\nThe early months of 1964 were a time of expansion, training, and comparative quiet. By midyear, the South Vietnamese Air Force had grown to thirteen squadrons; four fighter, four observation, three helicopter, and two C-47 transport. The South Vietnamese followed the practice of the U.S. Air Force, organizing the squadrons into wings, with one wing located in each of the four corps tactical zones at C\u1ea7n Th\u01a1 Air Base, Tan Son Nhut Air Base, Pleiku Air Base, and Da Nang Air Base\n\nAfter the Tonkin Gulf incident, the USAF response was to deploy twelve F-102 Delta Dagger air defense interceptor aircraft, their number divided between Tan Son Nhut and at Da Nang Air Base. In addition, eight F-100 Super Sabres joined the F-102s at Da Nang, and two squadrons of B-57 Canberra light bombers landed at Bien Hoa Air Base.\n\nPatricia Lynn Project\n\nThe need for additional reconnaissance assets, especially those capable of operating at night, led to a classified strategic reconnaissance project which began in May 1963.  Earlier that year, the Air Force awarded the General Dynamics company a contract to modify two B-57E Canberras (55-4243, 55-4245) as all-weather high-altitude strategic reconnaissance aircraft.\n\nGeneral Dynamics was chosen to make modifications to the B-57E as it had extensive experience in modifying Canberras with the RB-57D and RB-57F projects and turning the B-57 into a high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft equipped with various electronic and imagery equipment.  The forward nose section of the B-57Es were modified to house a KA-1 36-inch forward oblique camera  and a low panoramic KA-56 camera used on the Lockheed U-2. Mounted inside the specially-configured bomb bay door was a KA-1 vertical camera, a K-477 split vertical day-night camera, an infrared scanner, and a KA-1 left oblique camera. The modified aircraft were redesignated RB-57E.\n\nThe 2d Air Division was desperate for tactical intelligence and on arrival the pilots that ferried in the RB-57Es were immediately assigned to the Division as combat crews and briefed on missions by Divisional intelligence officers on the reconnaissance  flights they would make.\n\nThe first mission was flown on 7 May 1963 by the highly-classified Patricia Lynn squadron (Detachment 1, 33d Tactical Group, later 6250th Combat Support Group, later 460th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing) operating from Tan Son Nhut AB.  The Detachment flew nighttime reconnaissance missions to identify Viet Cong base camps, small arms factories, and storage and training areas.  The sorties yielded results that heretofore only had been wished for.\n\nThe nighttime imagery showed Communist training and base camps; small, hidden factories and storage dumps that RF-101 Voodoo crews had flown over during the day and had been unable to locate from the air.   The existing RF-101s in 1963 could only photograph a few kilometers (they had to fly very low) per flight with their cameras. The RB-57Es could image the whole border with Cambodia in 2 1\/2 flights at 16,000 to 17,000 feet with superior results.\n\nFrom then on, the Patricia Lynn crews both night and day missions over South Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and areas of North Vietnam until 1971, being some of the last USAF tactical aircraft to be withdrawn from the country.  The RB-57Es carried the call-sign \"Moonglow\".  Some missions were flown at low-level over single targets, others consisted of 4-6 specific targets.  At night RB-57Es flew the canals and rivers in the Mekong Delta and southern part of South Vietnam. The sampans were easy to spot with the \"real time\" IR if the crew could keep over the canal which was difficult in the darkness.\n\nThe United States began Operation Steel Tiger over the Laos Panhandle and the DMZ on April 3, 1965, to locate and destroy enemy forces and materiel being moved southward at night into South Vietnam, and to fly bomb damage assessment reconnaissance runs over targets attacked in the secret war in which the United States was engaged there.  These flights teamed with B-57B bombers operating out of Bien Hoa AB and a C-130 Hercules flare ship.  Three more aircraft were subsequently modified in 1964\/65 bringing the number of aircraft to five.\n\nTwo RB-57Es were lost in combat operations. The first (S\/N 55-4243) was lost as a result of a fuselage fire caused by small arms while on a low level reconnaissance mission in August 1965. The crew ejected safely when near Tan Son Nhut Air Base. The second aircraft (S\/N 55-4264) was lost on Oct. 15, 1968, after an engine fire started by ground fire forced the crew to eject.\n\nA sixth Patricia Lynn aircraft (55-4257) joined the team in 1968, as a replacement for the combat losses. This aircraft had a Terrain Following Radar designed to allow the aircraft to fly at a constant altitude, which would, in theory, produce better reconnaissance photos. Unfortunately, the aircraft flew so low (500\u20131,000\u00a0feet) that the infrared film was used up before the entire assessment area could be photographed.\n\nA 1968 update, under the Compass Eagle program, gave the back-seater a video display to monitor the IR scanner system. This allowed the crew to call in strikes on targets in real time, instead of having to return to base to get imagery developed, by which time the enemy would have likely moved on\n\nThere were frequent changes and updating of the equipment, including the installation of 12-inch focal length KA-82 and 24-inch focal length KA-83 cameras. The infrared equipment was useful in spotting Viet Cong river traffic at night along the Mekong Delta southeast of Saigon.\n\nIn 1969\/70, Patricia Lynn missions were flown into Laos and into Cambodia including Barrel Roll strikes in 1969. The Patricia Lynn operation was terminated in mid-1971 with the inactivation of the 460th TRW and the four surviving aircraft returned to the United States.\n\nKnown RB-57E Patricia Lynn aircraft were:\n Martin B-57E-MA 55-4243  Modified to RB-57E in 1963. Lost in combat with Detachment 1, 6250th Combat Support Group, when hit by ground fire Aug 5, 1965 and caught fire while on return to base.\n Martin B-57E-MA 55-4245.  Modified to RB-57E in 1963.  Returned to CONUS June 1971. Converted to WB-57E.  Retired to MASDC as BM0069 Jun 15, 1972.\n Martin B-57E-MA 55-4237.  Modified to RB-57E in 1964.  Returned to CONUS June 1971. Converted to  WB-57E. Retired to MASDC as BM0070 Jun 28, 1972.\n Martin B-57E-MA 55-4249. Modified to RB-57E in 1964.  Returned to CONUS June 1971. Converted to  WB-57E. Retired to MASDC as BM0068 Jun 15 1972.\n Martin B-57E-MA 55-4264. Modified to RB-57E in 1965.  Lost in combat with Detachment 1, 460th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, Oct 25, 1968 after being hit by ground fire 3\u00a0mi SW of Truc Giang, South Vietnam.  Both crew ejected safely and were rescued.\n Martin B-57E-MA 55-4257. Modified to RB-57E in 1968.  Equipped with terrain-following radar.  Converted to EB-57E in 1971 and transferred to ADC 4677th Defense Systems Evaluation Squadron, Hill AFB, Utah.  Retired to MASDC in 1979.\n\n\u7b2c505\u6230\u8853\u822a\u7a7a\u63a7\u5236\u5927\u968a\n\nThe 505th Tactical Air Control Group was assigned to Tan Son Nhut on 8 April 1964. The Unit was primarily responsible for controlling the tactical air resources of the US and its allies in South Vietnam, Thailand, and to some extent Cambodia and Laos. Carrying out the mission of providing tactical air support required two major components, radar installations and forward air controllers (FACs).\n\nThe radar sites provided flight separation for attack and transport aircraft which took the form of flight following and, in some cases control by USAF Weapons Directors. Forward Air Controllers had the critical job of telling tactical fighters where to drop their ordnance. FAC's were generally attached to either US Army or ARVN (Army of Vietnam) units and served both on the ground and in the air.\n\nSquadrons of the 505th were located as follows:\n The 619th Tactical Control Squadron at Tan Son Nhut Air Base.\n The 620th Tactical Control Squadron with responsibility from Pleiku to the DMZ, was located at Son Tra, known as \"Monkey Mountain.\"\n The 621st Tactical Control Squadron which supported tactical air operations in Thailand, located at Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base, and later at Udon Royal Thai Air Force Base.\n The 19th TASS which operated mainly from the Central Highlands south, located at Bien Hoa Air Base.\n The 20th TASS based at Da Nang Air Base.\n The 21st TASS headquartered at Pleiku Air Base.\n The 22nd TASS based at Binh Thuy Air Base.\n The 23rd TASS based at Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Air Force Base.\n\nThe TASS units flew either the O-1G Birddog, O-2 Skymaster, or OV-10 Bronco.\n\nMaintenance support was provided by the 505th Tactical Control Maintenance Squadron first based at Tan Son Nhut and later at Bien Hoa Air Base\n\n\u7b2c619\u6230\u8853\u822a\u7a7a\u63a7\u5236\u4e2d\u968a\n\nThe 619th Tactical Control Squadron was responsible from the Mekong Delta to Ban Me Thuot in the Central Highlands from 8 Apr 1964-15 Mar 1973.  During this period its primary mission was to operate and maintain  air control management center capable of operating 24 hours a day in order to control air traffic and operate direction finding equipment.  Detachments of the 619th TASS were located as follows:\n Det 1, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Da Nang Air Base: 8 April 1964 - 22 December 1965\n Det 1, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Duong Dong Army Airfield: 15 August 1967 - 20 December 1968\n Det 2, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base: 8 April 1964 - 22 December 1965\n Det 3, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Can Tho Army Airfield: 8 April 1964-30 June 1972\n Det 4, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Udon Royal Thai Air Force Base: 18 October 1964-22 December 1965\n Det 5, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Air Force Base: 10 August-22 December 1965\n Det 6, 619th Tactical Control Squadron (Green Hill, Thailand): 10 August-22 December 1965\n Det 7, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Tay Ninh Army Airfield: 10 August 1965-15 May 1968.\n Det 8, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Ca Mau Army Airfield: 10 August 1965-15 May 1968.\n Det 9, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Ban Me Thuot Army Airfield:1 October 1965-29 February 1972.\n Det 10, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Pleiku Air Base: 1 October 1965-8 November 1966.\n Det 11, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Nha Trang Air Base: 22 December 1965-29 February 1972.\n Det 12, 619th Tactical Control Squadron Qui Nhon Army Airfield: 22 December 1965-8 November 1966\n\n\u6efe\u96f7\u884c\u52d5\n\nAttacks against Americans in South Vietnam continued. On Christmas Eve 1964, the bombing of a residence for American officers at Saigon brought the United States to the brink of bombing North Vietnam. The Johnson administration's reluctance to directly engage North Vietnam ended on 7 February 1965, when the Viet Cong attacked an American detachment near Pleiku, killing eight and wounding 104 American soldiers.\n\nPresident Johnson approved Operation Rolling Thunder, a limited and carefully paced program of air strikes that more closely resembled the graduated response to the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba than the recommendations of the Joint Chiefs of Staff for a vigorous and extensive bombardment. Despite the reliance on gradual escalation, the Johnson administration struck directly at North Vietnam in an attempt to save South Vietnam unilaterally, regardless of the weakness or incompetence of the military government in Saigon, abandoning a policy of partnership with the South Vietnamese that worked toward political stability and economic progress as conditions leading to a military victory in the South.\n\nThe United States Air Force now had four distinct air wars on the mainland of Southeast Asia, as the offensive against North Vietnam took its place alongside the attacks in South Vietnam and in northern and southern Laos. In 1965, United States Air Force was not fully equipped, suitably trained, nor doctrinally prepared for the situation in Southeast Asia. The transition from massive retaliation to flexible response and the shift from nuclear to conventional weapons remained incomplete.\n\nAs part of the Operation Rolling Thunder buildup, several Tactical Air Command F-100 Super Sabre squadrons wee deployed to Tan Son Nhut Air Base:\n 481st Tactical Fighter Squadron,  29 June 1965-1 January 1966\n 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron,  1 November 1965-15 June 1966\n\nThe 481st was deployed on temporary duty from the 27th Tactical Fighter Wing, Cannon AFB, New Mexico.  The 416th was a PACAF 31st Air Division squadron that was moved to TSN from Bien Hoa AB.  The 418at returned to the United States; the 416th returned to Bien Hoa.\n\n\u7b2c6250\u6230\u9b25\u652f\u63f4\u5927\u968a\nThe first tasks facing the USAF, however, were to set up a workable organizational structure in the region, improve the area's inadequate air bases, create an efficient airlift system, and develop equipment and techniques to support the ground battle.\n\nStarting with the buildup in 1965, the Air Force, while continuing to conduct the four air wars, adjusted its structure in Southeast Asia to absorb incoming units. Temporarily deployed squadrons became permanent in November. A wing structure replaced the groups. On 8 July 1965, the 33d Tactical Group was redesignated the 6250th Combat Support Group.\n\n\u7b2c460\u6230\u8853\u5075\u5bdf\u806f\u968a\n\nOn 18 February 1966 the 460th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing was activated and entered the Vietnam War.  Its headquarters shared the Seventh Air Force Headquarters and the Military Assistance  Command Vietnam (MACV).\n\nWhen it stood up, the 460th TRW, alone, was responsible for the entire reconnaissance mission, both  visual and electronic reconnaissance, throughout the Southeast Asia (SEA) area of responsibility.  On  18 February 1966 the 460th TRW began with 74 aircraft of various types.  By the end of June 1966, that number climbed to over 200 aircraft.  When the 460th TRW stood up, the Wing gained several flying units\n 16th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron\n 20th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron (located at: Udorn RTAFB, Thailand)\n 41st Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron (located at: Takhli RTAFB, Thailand)\n Detachment 1 of the 460th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing (see: Patricia Lynn Project)\n\nOn 15 October 1966, the 460th TRW assumed host wing responsibilities for Tan Son Nhut Air Base, to include being responsible for all depot-level aircraft maintenance responsibility for all USAF organizations in South Vietnam.  In addition to the reconnaissance operations, the 460th TFW's base flight operated in-theater transport service for Seventh Air Force and other senior commanders throughout South Vietnam.   The base flight operated T-39A Saberliners, VC-123B Providers (also known as the \"White Whale\"), and Cessna U-3Bs between 1967-1971.\n\n\u7167\u76f8\u5075\u5bdf\nRF-101C Voodoo\n 45th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, 30 March 1966 - 31 December 1970 (RF-101C Tail Code: AH)\nDeployed from 39th Air Division, Misawa Air Base, Japan. The unusual thing about the 45 TRS was that while most of the squadron's assets were in Southeast Asia, there was a housekeeping force of one officer and one enlisted airman back at the squadron's home station at Misawa. Inactivated in place. Later reactivated as an RF-4C squadron on 15 October 1971 with the 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, Bergstrom AFB, Texas.\n\nRF-4C Phantom II\n When it joined the 460 TRW, the 16th TRS was the only unit operating the RF-4C Phantom II in Southeast Asia.  It was also the first unit to achieve initial combat readiness of this aircraft in August 1965. The 460th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing's contingent of RF-4Cs increased first on 29 July 1966 and then on 9 September 1966 when the Wing received additional RF-4C squadrons, the 12th TRS, and the 6461st Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, based at Udon RTAFB, Thailand .\n 12th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, 29 July 1966 - 31 August 1971 (RF-4C Tail Code: AC)\nDeployed from 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, Bergstrom AFB, Texas\nReassigned to 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, Bergstrom AFB, Texas\n 16th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, 27 October 1965 - 15 March 1970 (RF-4C Tail Code: AE)\nDeployed from 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, Bergstrom AFB, Texas\nReassigned to 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, Bergstrom AFB, Texas\n\nRB-66C Destroyer\n In addition to the visual reconnaissance part of the 460 TRW's overall mission, the Wing's mission also included electronic warfare. To handle the communications countermeasures mission for the 460th TRW, the 41st Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, located at Takhli Royal Thai AFB, Thailand flew the RB-66C Destroyer. On 8 June 1966, the 460 TRW gained another RB-66 squadron, 6460th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, also stationed at Takhli. While the 41st and 6460th TRSs completed other electronic  warfare missions, the primary role of both squadrons was to find enemy radar sites in North Vietnam that controlled anti-aircraft missile and gun sites. Being unarmed, the RB-66s could not attack these anti-aircraft sites themselves. However, after  identifying these sites, strike aircraft could either try to avoid them or target them.\n\nDuring the end of 1966, the 460th TRW and its responsibilities changed. First, on 18 September 1966, the 432d Tactical Reconnaissance Wing was activated at Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand. After the 432d TRW activated it \ntook control of the reconnaissance squadrons in Thailand. With the activation of the 432d TRW, the 460th TRW was no longer responsible for all air reconnaissance missions throughout the SEA area of responsibility. However, the 460th TRW  provided the new 432d TRW with continued support in recovering RF-101 and RF-4C aircraft returning from high priority, high interest target missions.\n\nIn addition to all of its main  missions, the 460 TRW  took part in several additional operations, either directly or through supporting it. During their time in SEA both the 12th and 16th TRSs supported  Operation \"Arc Light\" by flying bomb damage assessment missions.  Additionally, these two squadron flew \"Operation Search\" missions that found some of the targets for \"Arc Light\".\n\nTo help military leaders at all levels better understand the topography of sections of the DMZ and Laos, on 20 October \n1967, the RF-101Cs of the 45 TRS began flying aerial mapping missions as part of Project \"Muscle Shoals.\" This program morphed into Project \"Igloo White\" which also included ground sensors and B-66 electronic warfare aircraft as well as the  RF-101Cs.  Ignoo White continued until the United States withdrawal from South Vietnam in 1972.\n\nProject Niagara: On the morning of 21 January 1968 regular forces of the North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong forces attacked the US Marine strategic bases at and around Khe Sanh. Immediately, the 460th TRW began Project \"Niagara\" to locate enemy troops and equipment surrounding Khe Sanh. The efforts of the 460th TRW directly contributed to the effectiveness of the most intensive bombing campaign of the conflict, to include the first use of B-52s as tactical bombers sometimes dropping their bombs with 100 yards of the base. Khe Sanh held out because of this intensive bombing and aerial resupply. Relief forces reached the besieged base during the first week of April. At that time \"Niagara\" changed to \"Pegasus\" and continued for three more weeks as US forces regained control of the area around Khe Sanh.\n\nProject Grand Canyon:  The A Shau Valley, is a 22-mile long valley located 6 miles from the Laos border close to the former De-Militarized Zone (DMZ) which separated North and South Vietnam between 1954 and 1976. The valley became a North Vietnamese Army staging area and was one of the main routes for the Ho Chi Minh Trail to funnel troops and  supplies towards Hu\u1ebf and Da Nang. Also there were three abandoned airfields and a deserted South Vietnamese Special Forces camp in the valley.  On 10 April 1968 the United States Army 1st Air Cavalry Division began Operation \"Delaware.\" To support this the 460th TRW began Program \"Grand Canyon\" to locate enemy positions, particularly the\nanti-aircraft batteries making  up one of the most complex interlocking defensives in South Vietnam. The 29 day  \noperation cleared out the 5,000 to 6,000 enemy forces for a time.\n\n\u96fb\u5b50\u5075\u5bdf\nA few months after the 460th TRW's activation, two squadrons activated on 8 April 1966 to take on projects \"Hawkeye,\" \"Phyllis Ann,\" and \"Drillpress.\"  In April 1969 the 460th TRW stood up an additional detachment to fly EC-47s.  This started out as 460th TRW Det 2, but on 1 June 1969 the unit transferred to become 360th TEWS Det 1.\n\nEC-47 Skyktrain\n\n 360th Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 8 April 1966 - 31 August 1971 (EC-47N\/P\/Q Tail Code: AJ)\nDeployed from 1st Air Commando Wing, England AFB, Louisiana.\nReassigned to 1st Air Commando Wing, Hurlburt Field, Florida\n 361st Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 8 April 1966 - 31 August 1971 (EC-47N\/P\/Q Tail Code: AL) (Nha Trang AB)\nDeployed from 1st Air Commando Wing, England AFB, Louisiana.\nDeactivated in place\n 362d Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 1 February 1967 - 31 August 1971 (EC-47N\/P\/Q Tail Code: AN) (Pleiku AB)\nDeployed from 1st Air Commando Wing, England AFB, Louisiana.\nDeactivated in place\n\nProject \"Hawkeye\":  This mission came about as a better and safer way to conduct radio direction finding (RDF), whose main target during the Vietnam conflict were Viet Cong radio transmitters.  Before this program RDF involved tracking the signals on the ground.  Because this exposed the RDF team to ambushes, both the US Army and USAF began to look at airborne RDF.  After some initial problems, \"Hawkeye\" was born.  While the US Army used U-6 Beaver and U-8 Seminole aircraft for its  own version of the \"Hawkeye\"  platform, the USAF modified several C-47 Skytrains\/Dakota.  These were one of the main workhorse during World War II and the  USAF had a great many of them in its inventory\n\nProject \"Phyllis Ann\": Also used modified C-47s.  However, the C-47s for this program were highly modified with a great deal of advanced, for its time, navigational and reconnaissance equipment.  In essence the \"Hawkeye\" and \"Phyllis Ann\" missions were the same.  The real difference was that the \"Phyllis Ann\" aircraft were more  sophisticated.  On 4 April 1967, project \"Phyllis Ann\" changed to become \"Compass Dart\".  A year later, on 1 April 1968, \"Compass Dart\" became \"Combat Cougar\".  Because of security concerns the operation's name changed two more times first to \"Combat Cross\", and then to \"Commando Forge\".\n\n\"Project \"Drillpress\": Used modified C-47s, their mission was a little different.  Whereas, \"Hawkeye\" and \"Phyllis Ann\" tracked Viet Cong radio traffic to find the enemy and track their movements, \"Drillpress\" listened into that traffic and collected intelligence from it.  This data gave insights into the plans and strategy of both the Viet Cong and the North Vietnam military.  Information from all three projects contributed in a major way to the intelligence picture of the battlefield in Vietnam.  In fact about 95 percent of the B-52 Stratofortress Arc Light strikes conducted in South Vietnam were based, at least partially, on the data from these three programs.  On 6 October 1967, \"Drillpress\" changed to \"Sentinel Sara\".\n\nLam Son 719: On 8 February 1971 units from the Army of the Republic of South Vietnam (ARVN) launched  Operation \"Lam Son 719\" into the southeastern panhandle of Laos.  This operation called for ARVN troops to drive west from Khe Sanh, cut the Ho Chi Minh Trail, seize Tchepone in Laos and, after destroying North Vietnamese Army forces and supplies, then return to South Vietnam. While ARVN provided and commanded the ground forces entering Laos, US Army and Air Force units furnished aviation airlift and supporting firepower.  Part of that support came from 460th TRW units like \nthe 362nd TEWS and its EC-47s, and the 460th TRW Det 1's \"Patricia Lynn\" RB-57Es.  The ability to track enemy units electronically and through reconnaissance photos was a major factor in the operations military success.  After heavy losses, the ARVN returned to South Vietnam on 9 April 1971.\n\nBecause these three squadrons flew the modified C-47 Skytrains, and many of the squadron personnel were World War II veterans, squadron personnel affably dubbed their  squadrons \"Antique Airlines.\" Even though these aircraft were considered vintage, the equipment inside was not and the US would go to great lengths to prevent this equipment from falling into enemy hands,  As an example, when one EC-47 from the 362d TEWS crashed on 22 April 1970, members of an explosive ordnance unit policed the area destroying anything they found and six F-100 tactical air sorties hit the area to be sure.  Detachments of  these squadrons operated from different locations, including bases in Thailand.  Each of the main squadrons and their detachments moved at least once due to operational and\/or security reasons.  Personnel operating the RDF and signal intelligence equipment in the back of the modified EC-47s were part of the 6994th Security Squadron (SS).\n\n\u7d42\u6b62\nBeing one of two reconnaissance wings supporting SEA there were few military operations that did not involve the 460th TRW.  Not only did the 460th TRW provide electronic and photo reconnaissance, the Wing's electronic capabilities allowed it to provide electronic counter measure support to B-52s returning from striking targets in North Vietnam.  The Wing even gave support to the Cambodian military against the North Vietnam and Viet Cong forces, as well as support to US units operating inside Cambodia.\n\nAs the Vietnamization Improvement and Moderization Program began, Vietnamese crews began flying with EC-47 crews from the 360th TEWS and 6994th SS, on 8 May 1971, to get training on operating the aircraft and its systems. The wing was inactivated in-place on 31 August 1971. Decorations awarded to the wing for its Vietnam War service include:\n Presidential Unit Citation: 18 February 1966 - 30 June 1967; 1 September 1967 - 1 July 1968; 11 July 1968 - 31 August 1969; l February-31 March 1971.\n Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with Combat \"V\" Device: 1 July 1969 - 30 June 1970; 1 July 1970 - 30 June 1971.\n Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Palm: 1 August 1966 - 31 August 1971.\n\n\u7b2c315\u7a7a\u4e2d\u7a81\u64ca\u806f\u968a\n\nUntil the last half of 1966 the tactical airlift organization in Vietnam remained a temporary structure. The PACAF 315th Air Division, based at \u65e5\u672c, Japan, exercised command of airlift resources in South Vietnam through the 315th Air Corrrnando Wing at Tan Son Nhut Air Base.  However, the Army Military Assistance Conmand (MACV) controlled airlift through the Air Force component of the MACV joint staff, the 2d Air Division. This dual structure of command and control was complex and cumbersome.\n\nThe 315th Air Commando Group, (Troop Carrier) was activated at Tan Son Nhut AB on 8 December 1962 and became responsible for all in-country airlift in the Republic of Vietnam, including control over all USAF airlift assets, aerial port squadrons, an aeromedical evacuation squadron, and a special air transport flight of the Royal Australian Air Force. It was re-designated the 315th Air Commando Wing on 8 March 1966.\n\nSquadrons of the 315th ACW\/TC were:\n 12th Air Commando Squadron (Defoliation), 15 October 1966 - 15 July 1970 (Bien Hoa) (UC-123 Provider)\n Det 1, 834th Air Division, 15 October 1966 \u2013 1 December 1971 (Tan Son Nhut) (C-130 Hercules)\n 19th Air Commando Squadron 8 March 1966 - 15 June 1967 (Tan Son Nhut) (C-123 Provider)\n 309th Air Commando Squadron 8 March 1966 - 15 June 1967 (Phan Rang) (C-123)\n 310th Air Commando Squadron 8 March 1966 - 15 June 1967 (Phan Rang) (C-123)\n 311th Air Commando Squadron 8 March 1966 - 15 June 1967 (Phan Rang) (C-123)\n Det 1., HQ 315th Air Commando Wing, Troop Carrier 1 August - 15 October 1966\n Det 5., HQ 315th Air Division (Combat Cargo) 8 March - 15 October 1966\n Det 6., HQ 315th Air Division (Combat Cargo) 8 March - 15 October 1966\n Royal Australian Air Force Transport Flight, Vietnam (RTFV) 8 March - 15 October 1966.\n\nThe unit also performed C-123 airlift operations in Vietnam. Operations included aerial movement of troops and cargo, flare drops, aeromedical evacuation, and air-drops of critical supplies and paratroops.\n\n\u7267\u5de5\u884c\u52d5\nThe 315th ACG was responsible for Operation Ranch Hand Defoliant operations missions. South Vietnamese president Ngo Dinh Diem requested USAF help to remove enemy cover. The USAF's Special Aerial Spray Flight was already using C-123s in the U.S. to control mosquitoes. After some modifications to the aircraft (which included adding armor for the crew), C-123B Provider aircraft arrived in Southeast Asia in January 1962 under the code name \"Ranch Hand\".\n\nFlying specially-equipped C-123 Providers, members of the squadron flew low and slow to reduce the risks to our soldiers on the ground and to expose the enemy.  Ranch Hand never had more than five C-123Bs. Sometimes these aircraft had their spray equipment removed to conduct regular airlift flights, and it appeared that the defoliation mission might be eliminated altogether. With the increased U.S. commitment in South Vietnam in 1964 and 1965, however, requests for defoliation soared.\n\nRanch Hand grew into an essential part of the war effort, with over six million acres sprayed in South Vietnam between 1965 and 1969. Beginning in 1965 with only four aircraft, by the middle of 1969 Ranch Hand had about 25 UC-123 aircraft available for missions.  On 15 October 1966, Ranch Hand became the mission of the 12th Air Commando Squadron.\n\nIn 1965 Ranch Hand began using a very effective defoliant called Agent Orange, and the range of targets grew considerably.  The Agent Orange controversy later became both a political and veterans' issue. Operation Sherwood Forest sprayed the key Viet Cong-controlled Boi Loi Woods northwest of Saigon, and Operation Swamp Fox targeted the mangrove forests used by the communist for shelter in the Mekong Delta. Late in the year, operations extended into the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos. A flood of defoliation requests came in, and the small number of crews flew constantly.\n\nThe defoliation of vital enemy strongholds, transportation routes, and crops forced the communists to vigorously defend against the spraying. Ranch Hand aircraft regularly received damage on missions\u2014considering their low altitude, low speed and large size, they were easy to hit. Ranch Hand maintainers worked constantly to repair the damage and get their UC-123s ready for the next mission. In addition to engines and flight controls shot out, and several crewmen wounded and killed, Ranch Hand lost five UC-123s in combat between 1966 and 1968.\n\nIn February 1967, Ranch Hand was ordered for the first time to fly missions over the De-Militarized Zone (DMZ) separating North and South Vietnam. These missions helped uncover infiltration routes from the north and expose stockpiles of supplies hidden in the DMZ. By June, 1967, the number of UC-123s had increased to 20.\n\nDuring the Tet Offensive in early 1968, spraying operations were temporarily halted in favor of airlift missions. Between Feb. 5 and March 20, Ranch Hand UC-123s flew 2,866 airlift sorties.\n\nThe 315th ACW was transferred to Phan Rang Air Base on 14 June 1967.  With the Vietnamization drawdown in 1969, Ranch Hand was reduced from 25 to 13 aircraft. In 1970 Agent Orange was discontinued, and the existing stocks of Agent White ran out in May 1970. After the last anti-crop mission in January 1971, anti-mosquito spraying continued for a short time after, and then Ranch Hand ended.\n\n\u7b2c834\u822a\u7a7a\u5e2b\n\nLate in 1966 the division was reassigned without personnel or equipment, to Tan Son Nhut Air Base, South Vietnam, to join Pacific Air Forces Seventh Air Force, providing an intermediate command and control organization and also act as host unit for the USAF forces at Tan Son Nhut Air Base..\n\nThe 834th AD was formed from the 315th Troop Carrier Group (Combat Cargo) and 8th Aerial Port Squadron of the former C-123 Provider \"Mule Train\" units, and the \"Dirty Thirty\" provisional transport units.  Initially the 834th AD had a strength of twenty-seven officers and twenty-one airmen, all of whom were on permanent assignment to Tan Son Nhut.\n\nThe Air Division served as a single manager for all tactical airlift operations in South Vietnam, using air transport to haul cargo and troops, which were air-landed or air-dropped, as combat needs dictated through December 1971.   The 834th Air Division became the largest tactical airlift force in the world.  It  was capable of performing a variety of missions. In addition to\nairlift of cargo and personnel and VNAF training. its missions and activities included \"Ranch Hand\" defoliation and insecticide spraying, psychological leaflet distribution, helicopter landing zone preparation, airfield survey and the operation of aerial ports.\n\nUnits it directly controlled were:\n 315th Air Commando (later, 315th Special Operations; 315th Tactical Airlift) Wing: 15 October 1966 \u2013 1 December 1971\n Located at: Tan Son Nhut AB; later Phan Rang AB (15 June 1967-1 December 1971) UC-123 Provider.  Composed of four C-123 squadrons with augmentation by C-130 Hercules transports from the 315th Air Division, Tachikawa AB, Japan.\n 2 C-123 Squadrons (32 a\/c) at Tan Son Nhut AB; one (16 a\/c) at Nha Trang AB; one (16 a\/c) at Da Nang AB.\n C-130 aircraft assignments were 20 aircraft at Tan Son Nhut; 8 at Nha Trang; 1 at Da Nang, along with 10 at Cam Ranh AB; 4 at Don Muang RTAFB and 5 at Ubon RTAFB, Thailand\n 483d Troop Carrier (later, 483d Tactical Airlift) Wing: 15 October 1966 \u2013 1 December 1971\n Located at: Cam Ranh AB 5 C-7A Caribou squadrons (Taken over from US Army), C-130B Hercules (Det 2, 834th AD)\n 2 C-7A Caribou squadrons at Phu Cat AB.\n 2d Aerial Port Group (Tan Son Nhut)\n 8th Aerial Port Squadron, Tan Son Nhut (16 detachments)\n 14th Aerial Port Squadron, Cam Ranh AB (13 detachments)\n 15th Aerial Port Squadron, Da Nang AB (14 detachments)\n Detachments were located at various points where airlift activity warranted continuous but less extensive aerial port services. Aerial port personnel loaded, unloaded, and stored cargo and processed passengers at each location.\n\nThe 834th AD also directed its crews to fly aeromedical evacuations missions within South Vietnam in support of the 903d Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron at Phu Cat AB, using C-7 Caribous and C-118 Liftmasters operating from mobile casualty staging facilities at medical field stations having operating airfields.\n\nIn addition, the 834th supervised transport operations (primarily C-47's) of the South Vietnamese Air Force and six A-4 Wallaby transports operated by the Royal Australian Air Force 35 Squadron at V\u0169ng T\u00e0u Army Airfield. The 834th's flying components also performed defoliation missions, propaganda leaflet drops, and other special missions.\n\nC-123s from the Divisions's  311th Special Operations Squadron, (315th TAW) flew supplies into the surrounded Khe Sanh Combat Base, Vietnam in 1968 in relief of Marines and Army units there.  C-130s and C-7s also flew highly hazardous missions, dropping cargo on the dirt airstrip at the outpost.  The 834th received the Presidential Unit Citation recognizing their effort.\n\nThe Cambodian campaign was an incursion into Cambodia by United States and South Vietnamese armed forces in May and June 1970. The objective was to destroy faci1ities and supplies stored by the North Vietnamese within Cambodia. which the US had previously regarded as a sanctuary. The operation was supported heavily by tactical air strike and airlift forces. All three types of airlift aircraft (C-123, C-130, C-7) were employed by the 834th AD operating into 24 jungle airfields along the South Vietnam-Cambodian border, and airlifting more than 52.000 tons of supplies and equipment and 98,000 troops and passengers.\n\nC-l30s airdropped ammunition and supplies to fire base personnel and Cambodian troops, and during the last week of June, C-7s and C-123s evacuated more than 3,000 Cambodian refugees from the\nCambodian airstrips of Bung Lung and Ba Kev\n\nDuring its last few months, the 834th worked toward passing combat airlift control to Seventh Air Force.  On 1 December 1971 the 834th AD was inactivated as part of the USAF withdrawal of forces from Vietnam.\n\n\u7b2c377\u7a7a\u8ecd\u57fa\u5730\u806f\u968a\n\nThe 377th Air Base Wing was responsible for the day-to-day operations and maintenance of the USAF portion of the facility from April 1966 until the last USAF personnel withdrew from South Vietnam in March 1973. In addition, the 377th ABW was responsible for housing numerous tenant organizations including Seventh Air Force, base defense, and liaison with South Vietnamese Air Force.\n\nUnits assigned to the 377 ABW were:\n 834th Air Division (T-39, C-54, C-47, C-118, C-130)\n 7th Air Force (C-47, C-123 and C-54)\n\n\u5ee2\u6b62\nIn 1972 deactivating USAF units throughout South Vietnam began to administratively assign units w\/o equipment or personnel to the 377th ABW:\n\nFrom Phan Rang Air Base:\n 8th Special Operations Squadron 15 January - 25 October 1972\n 9th Special Operations Squadron 21 January - 29 February 1972\nFrom Cam Ranh Air Base:\n 21st Tactical Air Support Squadron 15 March 1972 - 23 February 1973\nFrom Phan Rang Air Base\n 310th Tactical Airlift Squadron January\u2013June 1972 and March\u2013October 1972 (C-123, C-7B)\n 360th Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 1 February - 24 November 1972\n\nAll of these units were administratively inactivated in place at Tan Son Nhut.\n\nAn operating location of the wing headquarters was established at Bien Hoa Air Base on 14 April 1972 to provide turnaround service for F-4 Phantom IIs of other organizations, mostly based in Thailand. It was replaced on 20 June 1972 by Detachment l of the 377th Wing headquarters, which continued the F-4 turnaround service and added A-7 Corsair IIs for the deployed 354th Tactical Fighter Wing aircraft based at Korat RTAFB, Thailand on 30 October 1972. The detachment continued operations through 11 February 1973.\n\nThe 377th ABW phased down for inactivation during February and March 1973, transferring many assets to the South Vietnamese Air Force. \nWhen deactivated on 28 March 1973, the 377th Air Base Wing was the last USAF unit in South Vietnam.\n\n\u76f8\u95dc\u689d\u76ee\n \u65b0\u5c71\u4e00\u570b\u969b\u6a5f\u5834\n \u8d8a\u5357\u5171\u548c\u570b\u7a7a\u8ecd\n \u7f8e\u570b\u592a\u5e73\u6d0b\u7a7a\u8ecd\n \u7f8e\u570b\u7b2c\u4e03\u822a\u7a7a\u8ecd\n\n\u6ce8\u91cb\u53ca\u53c3\u8003\u6587\u737b\n\n\u53c3\u8003\u66f8\u76ee\n\n \n Endicott, Judy G. (1999) Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. CD-ROM.\n Martin, Patrick (1994). Tail Code: The Complete History of USAF Tactical Aircraft Tail Code Markings. Schiffer Military Aviation History. .\n Mesco, Jim (1987) VNAF South Vietnamese Air Force 1945\u20131975 Squadron\/Signal Publications. \n Mikesh, Robert C. (2005) Flying Dragons: The South Vietnamese Air Force. Schiffer Publishing, Ltd. \n Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947-1977. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. .\n USAF Historical Research Division\/Organizational History Branch - 35th Fighter Wing, 366th Wing\n VNAF - The South Vietnamese Air Force 1951-1975 \n USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers--1908 to present\n\n\u5916\u90e8\u9023\u7d50\n\n 505th Tactical Control Group - Tactical Air Control in Vietnam and Thailand\n C-130A 57-460 at the National Air And Space Museum\n The Tan Son Nhut Association \n Electronic Warfare \"Electric Goon\" EC-47 Association website \n The Defense of Tan Son Nhut Air Base, 31 January 1968 \n The Fall of Saigon\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\u8d8a\u5357\u5171\u548c\u570b\u8ecd\u4e8b\n\u8d8a\u5357\u6a5f\u5834\n\u80e1\u5fd7\u660e\u5e02\u5efa\u7bc9\u7269\n\u8d8a\u5357\u6230\u722d\u7f8e\u8ecd\u57fa\u5730\n\u8d8a\n1955\u5e74\u6240\u8a2d\u8ecd\u7528\u6a5f\u5834","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":45,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-26":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":9,"2014-15":4}},"id":3634411,"url":"https:\/\/zh.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E6%96%B0%E5%B1%B1%E4%B8%80%E7%A9%BA%E8%BB%8D%E5%9F%BA%E5%9C%B0","title":"\u65b0\u5c71\u4e00\u7a7a\u8ecd\u57fa\u5730","language":"zh"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Heal is freedom frae skaith, that is won at wi the prevention, traitment, an management o illness an the preservation o mental an pheesical weel bein throu the services gien by the medical, nouricin, an allee'd heal perfaissions. Gaun by the World Health Organisation, heal care inrowes aw the guids an services designed tae forder heal, includin \"preventive, curative an palliative interventions, whither aitit at indiveeduals or tae populations\". The organised proveesion o sic services micht constitute a heal care seestem. This can include a speceefic govrenmental organisation sic as, in the Unitit Kinrick, the National Health Service or a cooperation athort the National Health Service an the Social Services as in Shared Care.\n\nHeal","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":6756,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heal","title":"Heal","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The  is one of the biggest universities in Germany. It is in the Ruhr-Area, in the city of Bochum.\n\nHistory \nThe Ruhr-Universit\u00e4t was the first public university that was founded in West Germany after World War II (in 1962). Later in the 1960s, education expanded in West Germany and more universities were founded, but Bochum has a bright selection of subjects because it was the beginning of education expanding.\n\nThe Ruhr-University was one of the fourth largest university in Germany in the late 1980s and early 1990s with more than 40,000 students. But after the state of North Rhine-Westfalia decided to earn study fees, many students left the university and school examiners do not start studying anymore. Actually the fees are 1,000 Euro in the year (about 1,100 US $), but the Ruhr-Area is traditionally a working class region. Sommer Semester 2011 was the last semester with tuition fees http:\/\/www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de\/studienbeitrag\/ . The number or students now is more than 34 000 http:\/\/www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de\/universitaet\/fakten\/menschlich\/index.html\n\nThe university of Bochum was one of the first to have Bachelor and master's degrees instead of the traditional German Diplom and Magister degree.\n\nPresent situation \nThe Ruhr-University has about 34,000 students.http:\/\/www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de\/universitaet\/fakten\/menschlich\/index.html Academically it is an upper middle-class university with a lot of international affairs, especially with Eastern Europe and Asia. The Ruhr-University Bochum lost some subjects by when the state reduced its budget.\nThe main focuses in research are neurosciences, engineering, European law, plasma physics, solidstate physics, biochemistry, economics, Middle Ages and modern history, philosophy and languages.\n\nSubjects \n Mathematics\n Applied Computational Science\n Physics and Astronomy\n Chemistry and Biochemistry\n Biology and Neuro Sciences\n Geosciences (Geology, Geophysics, Mineralogy, Palentology)\n Geography\n Civil Engineering\n Electro Engineering\n Nanotechnology\n Psychology\n Medicine\n Philosophy\n History (Old, Middle Ages and New History, History of Arts)\n Archeological Sciences\n Chinese(language and literature, there are regional studies for eastern Asia, too)\n Eastern Asian Studies (China, Korea and Japan)\n English Language and Literature American and Canadian Literature\n Romanic Languages and Literature (Italian, French, Spain, Portuguese)\n Slavic Languages and Literature (Russian, Polish)\n German Languages and Literature\n Comparative Literature\n Latin and Old Greek\n Near and Middle Eastern Studies (Arabian Stuies, Indian)\n Roman Catholic Theology\n Protestant (Lutheran) Religious Studies\n Economy\n Laws\n Social Sciences (Sociology, Social Psychology, Politics, Socail-Economical studies)\n Environmental Studies\n Development policy\n Working Sciences\n Sports\n Music Sciences\n Educational Sciences\n\nOther websites \n English website\n\nBochum\nColleges and universities in North Rhine-Westphalia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-39":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":5,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":17915,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ruhr-Universit%C3%A4t%20Bochum","title":"Ruhr-Universit\u00e4t Bochum","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Gregorian chant is an important form of plainchant, used mainly in the  Roman Catholic Church. With plainchant, all people sing the same music in unison, most of the time. Sometimes, there is a second part, called \"organum\", which often uses the same melody, but at an interval. This interval is often a fourth or a fifth.\n\nHow it developed \nGregorian chant developed mainly in western and central Europe during the 9th and 10th centuries, but people wrote new songs and changed the old ones later. Many people believe an old story, which says that Pope Gregory the Great wrote the songs.  Most people who study the history of music believe that kings such as Charlemagne brought music from Rome to their kingdoms in France and Germany. When Charlemagne's people sang these songs, they changed the songs. This new music became Gregorian chant.\n\nUsually men and boys sang Gregorian chant in churches, and holy women and men sang Gregorian chants in their daily prayers. In Roman Catholic churches, prayers and songs follow an order called the \"Roman Rite.\"  Gregorian chant is the music used in the Mass and the Office of the Roman Rite. The \"Mass\" is the part of the Roman Rite where Catholics receive what they believe to be the body and blood of Christ. The \"Office\" is the part of the Roman Rite where holy men and women pray at special times every day.  In the past, people sang different songs in parts of Europe, but Gregorian chant replaced almost all of them.  Although the Roman Catholic Church no longer requires people to sing Gregorian chants, it still says that Gregorian chant is the best music for prayer.\n\nChristians have sung songs without music since the earliest days of the Church. Before the mid-1990s, many people believed that the Jewish songs called the \"Psalms,\" which are in both the Jewish and Christian Bible, were an important part of early Christian music and prayer. People who study the history of music and religion no longer believe this, because most early Christian songs were not from the Psalms, and Jews did not sing Psalms for many centuries after their most important holy place, the Second Temple, was destroyed in the year 70. However, some parts of Jewish music and prayer ended up later in Gregorian chant. The organized order of prayers called \"canonical hours\" come from Jewish tradition. The words \"amen\" and \"alleluia\" come from the Hebrew language.  The prayer \"sanctus, sanctus, sanctus,\" which means \"holy, holy, holy,\" comes from the Jewish prayer \"kadosh, kadosh, kadosh.\"\n\nThe New Testament, tells how Jesus and his friends sang together: \"When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the Mount of Olives\" (Matthew|26.30). Other writers from those early centuries such as Pope Clement I also said that Christians sang religious songs, but they don't tell us what the music sounded like. The \"Oxyrhynchus hymn,\" a 3rd-century Christian Greek song, has lasted with written musical notes, but we do not know if this song is connected to plainchant.\n\nThe sorts of songs, which Catholics later sang in the Roman Rite, started to appear in the 3rd century. The Apostolic Tradition, a book about Christian traditions in early Rome, says that Christians sang \"Alleluia\" in early holy meals called \"agape feasts.\" Chants of the Office started in the early 4th century, when holy men in the deserts started the tradition of singing all 150 psalms every week. Sometime around 375, Christians in Eastern Europe started singing religious songs back and forth between two groups; in 386, St. Ambrose brought this tradition to Western Europe. Singing back and forth is called \"antiphonal\" singing.\n\nMost people think that the liturgy of the Roman Mass was put together during the 7th century. In 785-786, Pope Hadrian I sent some Roman chants to the court of Charlemagne. Later this music developed into the system of eight modes. This music, together with some new chants to complete the liturgical year, became known as \"Gregorian.\" This chant was probably named after Pope Gregory the Great.\n\nWhen Charlemagne had become Holy Roman Emperor he made everyone in Europe use this Gregorian chant. By the 12th and 13th centuries, all other kinds of chant disappeared, even the Roman form (now known as Old Roman chant).\n\nTypes \nGregorian chants are divided into three types based on the number of notes sung to each syllable. Syllabic chants mostly have one note per syllable. In neumatic chants there are mostly two or three notes per syllable, while melismatic chants have lots of notes for one syllable. Some of the chants are recitative and some are free melody. When two choirs stand in different parts of the church and sing alternately these are called Antiphonal chants. Responsorial chants are ones with a refrain sung by the choir, which alternate with a psalm verse sung by a soloist.\n \nGregorian chant used the eight modes which came from the Byzantine chants.  They were written down in a special musical notation called neumes. These neumes do not show the exact rhythms, so that we cannot always be sure of the way they were sung.  The rhythm was probably quite free and flexible. There were certainly no bar lines and regular beat. The chant was normally sung by men.  Women only sang in convents, and even then they could not sing in all the services.\n\nGregorian chant was a big influence on polyphonic music in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. When the original plainsong melody was made to be the bottom part it became known as \"cantus firmus\" (i.e., the \"given melody\"). Cantus firmus became a very important part of musical composition in the Renaissance.\n\nReferences \n\nMusic genres","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":34620,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gregorian%20chant","title":"Gregorian chant","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A name is a word (or a set of words) given to things and people. \n\nFor example, cat is the name of a kind of animal. \"Ryan\" is a name of a person, usually a male.  \"Julia\" is a common female name. \n\nThe word 'name' can also be used as a verb. To name something is to give it a name.\n\nPeople's names \nIn many cultures, there are rules and customs about how to give a person a name. \n\nSome of the rules are defined by laws, and others are defined by traditions (doing things in the way they have been done for a long time). \n\nThere are rules about different aspects of the names and naming, including the following:\n\n1. Number of parts of a name\n\nIn some cultures, a person has a one-part name, such as \"ShiningWater.\" \n\nIn other cultures, a person has a two-part name, such as \"John Smith.\"\n\nIn some cultures, a person can have any number of name parts. In the United States, for example, some people have three: first name, middle name, and last name. Other people have only two: a first and last name.\n\nIn Chinese cultures, it is typical for a person to have three-part name, such as \"Cheah Ching San,\" where \"Cheah\" is the surname. Written in English format a comma is introduced making it \"Ching San, Cheah.\"\n\nIn Muslim and Arabic culture, a name can have one to six parts. Such as \"Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh\".\n\n2. Relations with names of parents and other relatives\n\nIn some cultures, people have the same \"family name\" (or surname) as their parents. For example, the father of John Smith may be Mike Smith. And Mike Smith's father may be James Smith. The \"Smith\" part is the same for all the family. \n\nIn other cultures, a person has the same name as his or her father, but the name is in a different place. For example, Shafiq Hanif's son may be Hanif Kamal. Hanif is in both the father's and son's name. \n\n3. Name changes\n\nIn some cultures, a name changes when people marry, divorce, go through some religious ceremony, etc. For example, in some Spanish-speaking countries, people use two last names: their mother's father's name and their father's name. If Elena Rodriguez Gomez and Jose Sanchez Soria marry, she may change her name to Elena Rodriguez de Sanchez, and their child could be named Pilar Sanchez Rodriguez, taking the names of both of her grandfathers. \n\n4. Name origins\n\nIn some cultures, personal names come from history. In most European countries, some first names are taken from the Bible. In some cultures, names are taken from a relative. In other cultures, a name shows what the parents hope their child will be like. A baby may be given a name Wisdom because parents hope the baby will be a wise girl or boy. \n\nSome cultures avoid giving people a name of an animal. For example, there is no name like dog, cat, snake, owl, or fish in Japanese people's first names. But in some cultures animal names may be good. \n\n5. Lengths, pronunciations, spelling, etc.\n\nIn some languages and cultures, you can tell if a word is a person's name or not by just looking at the spelling or listening to its pronunciation. There are some other linguistic patterns. For example, many Chinese names are made up of three syllables. \n\n6. Use of names, titles, nicknames, etc.\n\nIn some cultures, people use names when they call each other. In other cultures, people use their nicknames. In some other cultures, people use their titles (\"father,\" \"professor,\" etc.) when they call each other.\n\n7. Spelling of names, titles, nicknames, etc.\n\n8. Name awareness\n\nTaking note of names is taken a step farther by those who elect to celebrate a name (e.g., \"Celebrate Your Name Week\") whether their own name, someone else's name, or names in general, complete ownership of one's name might very well include celebrating it. 9. Middle names\n\nWhile some people might choose to \"hide\" a middle name for any number of reasons (i.e., they consider the middle name they were given to be an \"embarrassment\"), others have taken to celebrating their middle name (e.g., \"Middle Name Pride Day\").\n\nIn the English language, names exclusively are usually pronounced in correlation with the spelling, however can be pronounced as desired, e.g. John is (jon) but can also be (ned). However, not probable, is held true in the English rules of grammar.\n\nExamples of names\n\nSarah, Lucy, Ellen, Claire, Ben.\n\nNames can be shortened e.g. Isabelle can become Izzy or Belle.\n\nJapanese names\nHere are some things that are often found in Japanese names today. In the past, people went by different rules.  \n\n1. Number of parts of a name\n\nJapanese names have two parts. One is the family name and the other is the given name. \n\n\"Suzuki Ichiro\" is a name of a Japanese person. Suzuki is the family name, and Ichiro is the first name. In the Japanese language, the family name comes first, and the given name comes second. (It is like writing Smith John, instead of John Smith.)\n\nOnly some members of the royal family do not have a family name. \n\n2. Relations with names of parents and other relatives\n\nA newborn baby gets a family name from their parents. The parents have the same family name. So, a son of Ono Yoko (female) and Ono Ken (male) is Ono something. \n\nThe family name Ono is mostly shared by the paternal (male) part of the family. So Ono Ken's parents have the family name Ono, but Ono Yoko's parents probably do not. \n\n3. Name changes\n\nNames of people change when they marry and divorce. It is a custom in many parts of the world that women change their family name to that of their new husband when they marry. However, in Europe and North America especially, many women no longer do this even though their mothers and grandmothers may have. Sometimes, the man will take the woman's family name. \n\n4. Name origins\n\n5. Lengths, pronunciations, spelling, etc. \n\n6. Use of names, titles, nicknames, etc.\n\nRelated pages \nNoun\nSynonym\n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":4,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":534,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Name","title":"Name","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A snowmobile is a motorized vehicle used for travelling over snow.  It is like a car, only instead of wheels, it has treads.  Some snowmobiles have skis in the front for steering.  \n\nAdding snowmobile studs to the tread decreases the time and distance it takes to stop a snowmobile.  Once you make a decision to stop a snowmobile, the distance it will take to stop will be a combination of the speed of the machine, weight of the machine and the available friction and or the mechanical damping (which will equal the effective drag factor) between the snowmobile and the surface on which it is trying to stop. If the surface is icy or hard-packed, the mechanical damping portion of the effective drag factor is decreased, leaving you with only the friction provided by the tread to stop.\n\nSnowmobile studs made from steel or stainless steel with carbide tips are installed in the tread. The studs are designed for specific terrains in varying lengths, shapes and materials. The studs control acceleration, deceleration and maneuverability. The correct amount and type of stud installed in an effective pattern will produce the best traction results.\n\nLand vehicles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":2}},"id":56407,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Snowmobile","title":"Snowmobile","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An amendment is a formal or official change made to a law, contract, constitution, or other legal document.  It is based on the verb to amend, which means to change. Amendments can add, remove, or update parts of these agreements.  They are often used when it is better to change the document than to write a new one.\n\nContracts \n\nContracts are often amended when the market changes.  For example, a contract to deliver something to a customer once a month can be amended if the customer wants it delivered once a week.  Usually, everyone involved in the contract must agree to the amendment before it goes into effect.  Most contracts are written with rules about amendments, like if they are allowed, who must agree to them, and when they go into effect.\n\nConstitutions \n\nConstitutions are often amended when people change their minds about what the government should do.  Some of the most famous constitutional amendments are the First Amendment to the United States Constitution which added the freedom of speech, religion, press, and protest, and the Third Amendment to the Constitution of Ireland, which let Ireland join the European Union.  Constitutional amendments usually must be approved by both the parliament or legislature and a referendum - a vote by all citizens in a country.\n\nMotion \n\nIn parliamentary procedure, the way that many meetings are run, an amendment is a type of motion - a proposal or formal suggestion to do something.  Amendments can remove words, add words, or change words from motions.  Usually, any motion can be amended, even other amendments.  However, an amendment to an amendment of an amendment is often not allowed.\n\nPolitics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":5,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":3}},"id":119786,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amendment","title":"Amendment","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A madrigal is a special kind of song for a small group of people to sing. Madrigals were popular in the 16th and 17th centuries. This was the end of the Renaissance music and beginning of the Baroque periods. They started in Italy and became very popular for a short time in England as well as in France. The words of madrigals are always about secular (non-religious) things, e.g. about love.\n\nWhen Italian composers started writing madrigals the kinds of songs they knew were the frottola, the motet and the French chanson (song). The first madrigals were for 2 or 3 voices, but later many madrigals were written for 4 or 5 voices. These voices might be single voices (one person to each part) or several people. Sometimes the lines would also be played by an instrument, but the madrigal is usually sung unaccompanied.\n\nThe madrigal was the most important secular form of music of its time. In Italy it was very popular between about 1550 and 1630. In England the madrigal period was about 1588 to 1620. \n\nIn 1533 a book called Primo libro di Madrigali (First Book of Madrigals) was collected and published by Philippe Verdelot in Venice. It made madrigals very popular. Jacob Arcadelt published several volumes of madrigals which were very important for their development. In 1588 in England Nicholas Yonge published a collected called Musica Transalpina (Music from over the Alps). These were Italian madrigals with translated texts. The madrigal suddenly became extremely popular in England and remained so until after 1620 when it gradually became less important.\n\nPeople liked madrigals because they were fun. Whenever possible the composer made the music sound like the word being sung. A word like \"smile\" would have quick music, \"sigh\" would have a note followed by a short rest, as if the singer were sighing, \"rise so high\" would be sung to music which rose very high. This kind of thing was called \"word-painting\". It can be found in religious music as well, but the way it was used in madrigals was new and exciting. Very often there would be a verse and a refrain which was often just sung to words such as \"fa la la la la\". The songs were often about shepherds and shepherdesses falling in love.\n\nThe  most important composers of madrigals in Italy were Giovanni da Palestrina, Luca Marenzio, Jacques Arcadelt, Adrian Willaert, Cipriano de Rore, Carlo Gesualdo, Giaches de Wert and Claudio Monteverdi. In England they were William Byrd, Thomas Morley, John Wilbye, Thomas Weelkes, John Dowland, Orlando Gibbons and Thomas Tomkins. About the franco-flemish , Orlando di Lasso, Josquin des Prez . About the spanish, Tom\u00e1s Luis de Victoria, Mateo Flecha.\n\nPerformance of madrigals \n\nIn the Renaissance, madrigals were performed either as entertainment at important feasts, or for relaxed enjoyment by groups of amateurs in their homes, as madrigals were a secular style of song.\n\nNowadays, madrigals are often sung by high school or college madrigal choirs often as an after-dinner entertainment. Sometimes the singers wear Renaissance costumes.\n\nMusical forms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":75329,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Madrigal","title":"Madrigal","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Surface tension is an effect where the surface of a liquid is strong. The surface can hold up a weight, and the surface of a water droplet holds the droplet together, in a ball shape. Some small things can float on a surface because of surface tension, even though they normally could not float. Some insects (e.g. water striders) can run on the surface of water because of this. This property is caused by the molecules in the liquid being attracted to each other (cohesion), and is responsible for many of the behaviors of liquids.\n\nSurface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalent\u2014but when referring to energy per unit of area, people use the term surface energy\u2014which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids and not just liquids.\n\nIn materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy.\n\nCauses\n\nThe cohesive forces among the liquid molecules cause surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The molecules at the surface do not have other molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area.\n\nSurface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be perfectly spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary \"wall tension\" of the surface layer according to Laplace's law.\n\nAnother way to view it is in terms of energy. A molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone (not in contact with a neighbor). The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have, but the boundary molecules are missing neighbors (compared to interior molecules). So, the boundary molecules have a higher energy. For the liquid to minimize its energy state, the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized. The minimized quantity of boundary molecules results in a minimized surface area.\n\nAs a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can. Any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area and a higher energy. So, the surface will push back against any curvature in much the same way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy.\n\nEffects in everyday life\n\nWater\nStudying water shows several effects of surface tension:\n\nA. Rain water forms beads on the surface of a waxy surface, such as a leaf. Water adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself, so water clusters into drops. Surface tension gives them their near-spherical shape, because a sphere has the smallest possible surface area to volume ratio.\n\nB. Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched. The animation shows water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the surface tension can no longer bind it to the faucet. It then separates and surface tension forms the drop into a sphere. If a stream of water were running from the faucet, the stream would break up into drops during its fall. Gravity stretches the stream, then surface tension pinches it into spheres.\n\nC. Objects denser than water still float when the object is nonwettable and its weight is small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension. For example, water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pond. The surface of the water behaves like an elastic film: the insect's feet cause indentations in the water's surface, increasing its surface area.\n\nD. Separation of oil and water (in this case, water and liquid wax) is caused by a tension in the surface between dissimilar liquids. This type of surface tension is called \"interface tension\", but its physics are the same.\n\nE. Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing an alcoholic beverage. Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface tensions of water and ethanol. It is induced by a combination of surface tension modification of water by ethanol together with ethanol evaporating faster than water.\n\nSurfactants\nSurface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:\n\n Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Notice that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.\n Emulsions are a type of solution in which surface tension plays a role. Tiny fragments of oil suspended in pure water will spontaneously assemble themselves into much larger masses. But the presence of a surfactant provides a decrease in surface tension, which permits stability of minute droplets of oil in the bulk of water (or vice versa).\n\nBasic physics\n\nTwo definitions\n\nSurface tension, represented by the symbol \u03b3 is defined as the force along a line of unit length, where the force is parallel to the surface but perpendicular to the line. One way to picture this is to imagine a flat soap film bounded on one side by a taut thread of length, L. The thread will be pulled toward the interior of the film by a force equal to 2L (the factor of 2 is because the soap film has two sides, hence two surfaces). Surface tension is therefore measured in forces per unit length. Its SI unit is newton per meter but the cgs unit of dyne per cm is also used. One dyn\/cm corresponds to 0.001 N\/m.\n\nAn equivalent definition, one that is useful in thermodynamics, is work done per unit area. As such, in order to increase the surface area of a mass of liquid by an amount, \u03b4A, a quantity of work, \u03b4A, is needed. This work is stored as potential energy. Consequently surface tension can be also measured in SI system as joules per square meter and in the cgs system as ergs per cm2. Since mechanical systems try to find a state of minimum potential energy, a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a spherical shape, which has the minimum surface area for a given volume.\n\nThe equivalence of measurement of energy per unit area to force per unit length can be proven by dimensional analysis.\n\nSurface curvature and pressure\n\nIf no force acts normal to a tensioned surface, the surface must remain flat. But if the pressure on one side of the surface differs from pressure on the other side, the pressure difference times surface area results in a normal force. In order for the surface tension forces to cancel the force due to pressure, the surface must be curved. The diagram shows how surface curvature of a tiny patch of surface leads to a net component of surface tension forces acting normal to the center of the patch. When all the forces are balanced, the resulting equation is known as the Young\u2013Laplace equation:\n\nwhere:\n\u0394p is the pressure difference.\n is surface tension.\nRx and Ry are radii of curvature in each of the axes that are parallel to the surface.\n\nThe quantity in parentheses on the right hand side is in fact (twice) the mean curvature of the surface (depending on normalization).\n\nSolutions to this equation determine the shape of water drops, puddles, menisci, soap bubbles, and all other shapes determined by surface tension. (Another example is the shape of the impressions that a water strider's feet make on the surface of a pond).\n\nThe table below shows how the internal pressure of a water droplet increases with decreasing radius. For not very small drops the effect is subtle, but the pressure difference becomes enormous when the drop sizes approach the molecular size. (In the limit of a single molecule the concept becomes meaningless.)\n\nLiquid surface\n\nIt is hard to find the shape of the minimal surface bounded by some arbitrary shaped frame using just mathematics. Yet by fashioning the frame out of wire and dipping it in soap-solution, a locally minimal surface will appear in the resulting soap-film within seconds.\n\nThe reason for this is that the pressure difference across a fluid interface is proportional to the mean curvature, as seen in the Young-Laplace equation. For an open soap film, the pressure difference is zero, hence the mean curvature is zero, and minimal surfaces have the property of zero mean curvature.\n\nContact angles\n\nThe surface of any liquid is an interface between that liquid and some other medium. The top surface of a pond, for example, is an interface between the pond water and the air. Surface tension, then, is not a property of the liquid alone, but a property of the liquid's interface with another medium. If a liquid is in a container, then besides the liquid\/air interface at its top surface, there is also an interface between the liquid and the walls of the container. The surface tension between the liquid and air is usually different (greater than) its surface tension with the walls of a container. Where the two surfaces meet, the geometry will balance all forces.\n\nWhere the two surfaces meet, they form a contact angle, , which is the angle the tangent to the surface makes with the solid surface. The diagram to the right shows two examples. Tension forces are shown for the liquid-air interface, the liquid-solid interface, and the solid-air interface. The example on the left is where the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, , is less than the liquid-air surface tension, , but is still positive, that is\n\nIn the diagram, both the vertical and horizontal forces must cancel exactly at the contact point, known as equilibrium. The horizontal component of  is canceled by the adhesive force, .\n\nThe more important balance of forces, though, is in the vertical direction. The vertical component of  must exactly cancel the force, .\n\nSince the forces are in direct proportion to their respective surface tensions, we also have:\n\nwhere\n is the liquid-solid surface tension,\n  is the liquid-air surface tension,\n  is the solid-air surface tension,\n  is the contact angle, where a concave meniscus has contact angle less than 90\u00b0 and a convex meniscus has contact angle of greater than 90\u00b0.\n\nThis means that although the difference between the liquid-solid and solid-air surface tension, , is difficult to measure directly, it can be inferred from the liquid-air surface tension, , and the equilibrium contact angle, , which is a function of the easily measurable advancing and receding contact angles (see main article contact angle).\n\nThis same relationship exists in the diagram on the right. But in this case we see that because the contact angle is less than 90\u00b0, the liquid-solid\/solid-air surface tension difference must be negative:\n\nSpecial contact angles\nObserve that in the special case of a water-silver interface where the contact angle is equal to 90\u00b0, the liquid-solid\/solid-air surface tension difference is exactly zero.\n\nAnother special case is where the contact angle is exactly 180\u00b0. Water with specially prepared Teflon approaches this. Contact angle of 180\u00b0 occurs when the liquid-solid surface tension is exactly equal to the liquid-air surface tension.\n\nMethods of measurement\n\nBecause surface tension manifests itself in various effects, it offers a number of paths to its measurement. Which method is optimal depends upon the nature of the liquid being measured, the conditions under which its tension is to be measured, and the stability of its surface when it is deformed.\n\n Du No\u00fcy Ring method: The traditional method used to measure surface or interfacial tension. Wetting properties of the surface or interface have little influence on this measuring technique. Maximum pull exerted on the ring by the surface is measured.\n Du No\u00fcy-Padday method: A minimized version of Du No\u00fcy method uses a small diameter metal needle instead of a ring, in combination with a high sensitivity microbalance to record maximum pull. The advantage of this method is that very small sample volumes (down to few tens of microliters) can be measured with very high precision, without the need to correct for buoyancy (for a needle or rather, rod, with proper geometry). Further, the measurement can be performed very quickly, minimally in about 20 seconds. First commercial multichannel tensiometers [CMCeeker] were recently built based on this principle.\n Wilhelmy plate method: A universal method especially suited to check surface tension over long time intervals. A vertical plate of known perimeter is attached to a balance, and the force due to wetting is measured.\n Spinning drop method: This technique is ideal for measuring low interfacial tensions. The diameter of a drop within a heavy phase is measured while both are rotated.\n Pendant drop method: Surface and interfacial tension can be measured by this technique, even at elevated temperatures and pressures. Geometry of a drop is analyzed optically. For details, see Drop.\n Bubble pressure method (Jaeger's method): A measurement technique for determining surface tension at short surface ages. Maximum pressure of each bubble is measured.\n Drop volume method: A method for determining interfacial tension as a function of interface age. Liquid of one density is pumped into a second liquid of a different density and time between drops produced is measured.\n Capillary rise method: The end of a capillary is immersed into the solution. The height at which the solution reaches inside the capillary is related to the surface tension by the equation discussed below.\n Stalagmometric method: A method of weighting and reading a drop of liquid.\n Sessile drop method: A method for determining surface tension and density by placing a drop on a substrate and measuring the contact angle (see Sessile drop technique).\n Vibrational frequency of levitated drops: The surface tension of superfluid 4He has been measured by studying the natural frequency of vibrational oscillations of drops held in the air by magnetics. This value is estimated to be 0.375 dyn\/cm at T = 0\u00b0 K.\n\nEffects\n\nLiquid in a vertical tube\n\nAn old style mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass tube about 1\u00a0cm in diameter partially filled with mercury, and with a vacuum (called Torricelli's vacuum) in the unfilled volume (see diagram to the right). Notice that the mercury level at the center of the tube is higher than at the edges, making the upper surface of the mercury dome-shaped. The center of mass of the entire column of mercury would be slightly lower if the top surface of the mercury were flat over the entire crossection of the tube. But the dome-shaped top gives slightly less surface area to the entire mass of mercury. Again the two effects combine to minimize the total potential energy. Such a surface shape is known as a convex meniscus.\n\nWe consider the surface area of the entire mass of mercury, including the part of the surface that is in contact with the glass, because mercury does not adhere at all to glass. So the surface tension of the mercury acts over its entire surface area, including where it is in contact with the glass. If instead of glass, the tube were made out of copper, the situation would be very different. Mercury aggressively adheres to copper. So in a copper tube, the level of mercury at the center of the tube will be lower than at the edges (that is, it would be a concave meniscus). In a situation where the liquid adheres to the walls of its container, we consider the part of the fluid's surface area that is in contact with the container to have negative surface tension. The fluid then works to maximize the contact surface area. So in this case increasing the area in contact with the container decreases rather than increases the potential energy. That decrease is enough to compensate for the increased potential energy associated with lifting the fluid near the walls of the container.\n\nIf a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong, surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action. The height the column is lifted to is given by:\n\nwhere\n\n  is the height the liquid is lifted,\n  is the liquid-air surface tension,\n  is the density of the liquid,\n  is the radius of the capillary,\n  is the acceleration due to gravity,\n  is the angle of contact described above. If  is greater than 90\u00b0, as with mercury in a glass container, the liquid will be depressed rather than lifted.\n\nPuddles on a surface\n\nPouring mercury onto a horizontal flat sheet of glass results in a puddle that has a perceptible thickness. The puddle will spread out only to the point where it is a little under half a centimeter thick, and no thinner. Again this is due to the action of mercury's strong surface tension. The liquid mass flattens out because that brings as much of the mercury to as low a level as possible, but the surface tension, at the same time, is acting to reduce the total surface area. The result is the compromise of a puddle of a nearly fixed thickness.\n\nThe same surface tension demonstration can be done with water, lime water or even saline, but only if the liquid does not adhere to the flat surface material. Wax is such a substance. Water poured onto a smooth, flat, horizontal wax surface, say a waxed sheet of glass, will behave similarly to the mercury poured onto glass.\n\nThe thickness of a puddle of liquid on a surface whose contact angle is 180\u00b0 is given by:\n\nwhere\n\n{|\n|  is the depth of the puddle in centimeters or meters.\n|-\n|  is the surface tension of the liquid in dynes per centimeter or newtons per meter.\n|-\n|  is the acceleration due to gravity and is equal to 980\u00a0cm\/s2 or 9.8\u00a0m\/s2\n|-\n|  is the density of the liquid in grams per cubic centimeter or kilograms per cubic meter\n|}\n\nIn reality, the thicknesses of the puddles will be slightly less than what is predicted by the above formula because very few surfaces have a contact angle of 180\u00b0 with any liquid. When the contact angle is less than 180\u00b0, the thickness is given by:\n\nFor mercury on glass, \u03b3Hg = 487 dyn\/cm, \u03c1Hg = 13.5 g\/cm3 and \u03b8 = 140\u00b0, which gives hHg = 0.36\u00a0cm. For water on paraffin at 25\u00a0\u00b0C, \u03b3 = 72 dyn\/cm, \u03c1 = 1.0 g\/cm3, and \u03b8 = 107\u00b0 which gives hH2O = 0.44\u00a0cm.\n\nThe formula also predicts that when the contact angle is 0\u00b0, the liquid will spread out into a micro-thin layer over the surface. Such a surface is said to be fully wettable by the liquid.\n\nThe breakup of streams into drops\n\nIn day-to-day life we all observe that a stream of water emerging from a faucet will break up into droplets, no matter how smoothly the stream is emitted from the faucet. This is due to a phenomenon called the Plateau\u2013Rayleigh instability, which is entirely a consequence of the effects of surface tension.\n\nThe explanation of this instability begins with the existence of tiny perturbations in the stream. These are always present, no matter how smooth the stream is. If the perturbations are resolved into sinusoidal components, we find that some components grow with time while others decay with time. Among those that grow with time, some grow at faster rates than others. Whether a component decays or grows, and how fast it grows is entirely a function of its wave number (a measure of how many peaks and troughs per centimeter) and the radii of the original cylindrical stream.\n\nData table\n\nGallery of effects\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n On surface tension and interesting real-world cases\n MIT Lecture Notes on Surface Tension \n Surface Tensions of Various Liquids\n Calculation of temperature-dependent surface tensions for some common components\n Surface Tension Calculator For Aqueous Solutions Containing the Ions H+, NH4+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, SO42\u2013, NO3\u2013, Cl\u2013, CO32\u2013, Br\u2013 and OH\u2013.\n The Bubble Wall (Audio slideshow from the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory explaining cohesion, surface tension and hydrogen bonds)\n\nBasic physics ideas\u200f\nFluid mechanics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":6}},"id":321150,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surface%20tension","title":"Surface tension","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A pixel (short for picture element) is a single point in a picture. On the monitor of a computer, a pixel is usually a square. Every pixel has a color and all the pixels together are the picture. The color of a pixel can be stored by using a combination of red, green and blue (RGB) but other combinations are also possible, such as cyan, magenta, yellow and black (CMYK).\n\nThe word \"pixel\" \nThe word \"pixel\" was first used in a paper by Frederic C. Billingsley in 1965. He did not create the word himself. He got it from Keith E. McFarland but Keith does not know where he got it from. Keith said that the word was in use in those days.\n\nThe word \"pixel\" uses \"pix\" as a shorter word (an abbreviation) for \"picture\". The word pix was first used in 1932 in Variety, a magazine. It was an abbreviation for \"pictures\" or movies. By 1938 the word \"pix\" was also used for pictures that did not move (still pictures).\n\nThe word \"picture element\" is even older. For example, the German word Bildpunkt (which means \"picture point\") was used in a 1888 patent of Paul Gottlieb Nipkow.\n\nRelated pages\n Display resolution\n Raster graphics\n\nComputer graphics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":47105,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pixel","title":"Pixel","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Arabian horse is a breed famous for beauty and stamina. It is one of the oldest horse breeds in the world. Arabian horses are bred with horses of other breeds to add speed, beauty, endurance, and strong bones. Today, Arabian ancestors are found in almost every breed of riding horse.\n\nThe Arabian horse developed in the deserts of Arabia by the Bedouin people. People sometimes brought their horses into family tent for shelter and protection. This close relationship with humans made the Arabian a horse with a kind temper and quick to learn. It also was used as a war horse. This meant that it needed speed and to be very alert. This blend of traits makes it necessary for people today to treat Arabian horses with kindness and respect.\n\nBreed Traits \nArabian horses have triangle-shaped heads, a wide forehead, big eyes, large nostrils, and small muzzles (noses). Most have a concave or \"dished\" profile. They have a slim, arched neck, smooth hindquarters and a naturally high-carried tail. Arabians have strong bone and good feet. They are especially noted for their excellent endurance. Arabians' hair coat colors are bay, gray, chestnut, and black. Arabians can have robicono and\/or sabino genes. All Arabians have black skin under their hair coat, except under white markings. \n\nThe Bedouin sold many Arabian horses to people from Europe. Other Arabian horses were captured in war and taken to other countries outside of the Middle East. Today, Arabian horses are found all over the world. Arabian horse families are now labeled by where their most recent ancestors were bred, such as \"Polish,\" \"Spanish,\" \"Crabbet\" (from England), \"Russian,\" \"Egyptian\", and \"Domestic\" (in the United States), and \"Weil-Marbach\" in Germany. For example, a horse called a \"Polish Arabian\" is an Arabian horse who has recent ancestors that were bred at farms in Poland, from horses the Polish people bought from the Bedouin in Arabia many centuries ago.\n\nUses \nArabians compete in many places, including horse racing, horse shows, Endurance riding, show jumping, and more. They also make good pleasure, trail, and working ranch horses for people who do not like competitive events. Arabians also are seen in movies, parades, circuses and other places where horses are used.\n\nHistory \n\nThere are many legends and myths about Arabian horses. One legend says that the prophet Muhammad selected his five finest mares (female horses), called Al Khamsa (\"the five\") to be the foundation of the Arabian breed. Another legend says the Queen of Sheba gave an Arabian mare to King Solomon, and that is how the breed began. Yet another story says Allah made the Arabian horse from the south wind, saying, \"I create thee, Oh Arabian...I give thee flight without wings.\" \n\nIn real history, Arabians are one of the oldest human-developed horse breeds in the world. Pictures of \"Proto-Arabian\" horses that looked a lot like modern Arabian horses were painted on rocks in the Arabian Peninsula as far back as 2,500 B.C. The ancestors of the Bedouin probably tamed horses not long after they tamed the camel. A horse skeleton was unearthed in the Sinai peninsula, dated to 1700 B.C., and is considered the earliest proof of the horse in Ancient Egypt. It was probably brought by the Hyksos invaders. This horse had a wedge-shaped head, large eye and small muzzle, just like the Arabian horse today.\n\nIn the desert, humans were the only source of food and water for the Arabian horse. Where there was no pasture, the Bedouin fed their horses dates, a fruit of the date palm tree, and camel's milk. Arabians needed to live on very little food, and survive a dry climate that was very hot in the day but very cold at night. Weak horses did not live, and the horses who survived the desert also had to survive being ridden for war. Therefore, the Arabian horse became very tough and able to live in a harsh world.\n\nFamous Arabian horses \nNapoleon rode a gray Arabian stallion named Marengo. George Washington rode a half-Arabian named Blueskin during the American Revolution. A fictional horse, \"The Black Stallion,\" was played by a real Arabian stallion named Cass Ole in the movie that was based on the book by Walter Farley.\n\nAziziye Stud \nIn 1864 the Sultan Abdulaziz, founded a new Horse stud with Arabian horses and sent a commission to purchase in Bialocerkiew, the stud of Count Branicki in Poland, whose breeding have a very good reputation. The Commission purchased 92 horses, including some descendants of the 1855 stallion Indjanin imported from England.\n\nOther websites \n Arabian Horse Association (USA) \n Arabian Horse site (AR)  \n\nHorse breeds","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3}},"id":43182,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arabian%20horse","title":"Arabian horse","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Mikoyan is a Russian company that designs fighter airplanes. The company was first formed in December 1939 as a design office called Mikoyan-Gurevich or MiG, this was because its designers were Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich. Mikoyan will join other Russian airplane companies in a new company called United Aircraft Corporation.\n\nHistory \nIn 1939 Russia was part of the Soviet Union and was communist. In the Soviet communist system there were two types of airplane companies, companies that designed aircraft known as design offices or OKB, and companies that made airplanes called zavods. Artom Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich had been designers in another design office helping a designer called Nikolai Polikarpov. One airplane design that Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich worked on at Polikarpov was called the I-200. When Nikolai Polikarpov lost the trust of the Soviet leader Stalin, Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich were given the I-200 design to finish. This airplane was given a new name and was called the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-1. As it was being made, ways to make the MiG-1 into a better airplane were found and airplanes with these changes became known as the MiG-3 and later the MiG-7. However even with changes the MiG fighter airplanes were not as good as the fighter airplanes designed by the design offices of Lavochkin or Yakovlev.\n\nAfter World War II Mikoyan-Gurevich designed jet aircraft. In the Soviet system the airplane designs of the design offices would compete to see which was the best.  When the best design had been found the design would be built by the airplane manufacturing company.  Even though Mikoyan-Gurevich airplanes in World War II had not been as good as airplanes by Lavochkin or Yakovlev. Mikoyan-Gurevich jet aircraft won more of the competitions to be sent to the zavods and in the time of the Cold War Mikoyan-Gurevich, together with another design office called Sukhoi, became one of the two most important design offices of fighter planes in the Soviet Union.\n\nIn the Soviet system decisions were made to protect the government from its own soldiers. In many countries there is only one airforce, the Soviet Union had five airforces. Two of these airforces were the main users of Soviet fighter airplanes. One airforce was called PVO Strany, this airforce was used to defend the cities and land of the Soviet Union. One airforce was called Frontal Aviation, this airforce was used to defend the Soviet Union's ground soldiers against enemy fighter airplanes, and to attack enemy ground forces. Mikoyan-Gurevich became the main designer of aircraft for Frontal Aviation.\n\nAircraft made \n\nMikoyan has designed the following airplanes:\n\n Mikoyan MiG-1\n Mikoyan MiG-3 (also called MiG-7)\n MiG DIS\n MiG-9 Fargo\n MiG-15 Fagot\n MiG-17 Fresco\n MiG-19 Farmer\n MiG-21 Fishbed\n MiG-23 Flogger\n MiG-25 Foxbat\n MiG-27 Flogger\n MiG-29 Fulcrum\n MiG-31 Foxhound\n\nCompanies of Russia\nAircraft companies\n1939 establishments in Europe\nTransport in Russia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":76056,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mikoyan","title":"Mikoyan","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A powiat (pronounced ; Polish plural: powiaty) is the second-level unit of local government and administration in Poland, equivalent to a county, district or prefecture (LAU-1 [formerly NUTS-4]) in other countries. The term \"powiat\" is most often translated into English as \"county\" or \"district\" (sometimes \"poviat\"). In historical contexts, this may be confusing because the Polish term hrabstwo (an administrative unit administered\/owned by a hrabia (count) is also literally translated as \"county\".\n\nA powiat is part of a larger unit, the voivodeship (Polish wojew\u00f3dztwo) or province.\n\nA powiat is usually subdivided into gminas (in English, often referred to as \"communes\" or \"municipalities\").  Major towns and cities, however, function as separate counties in their own right, without subdivision into gminas. They are termed \"city counties\" (powiaty grodzkie or, more formally, miasta na prawach powiatu) and have roughly the same status as former county boroughs in the UK.  The other type of powiats are termed \"land counties\" (powiaty ziemskie).\n\nAs of 2018, there were 380 powiat-level entities: 314 land counties, and 66 city counties. For a complete alphabetical listing, see \"List of Polish counties\". For tables of counties by voivodeship, see the articles on the individual voivodeships (e.g., Greater Poland Voivodeship).\n\nHistory\nThe history of Polish powiats goes back to the second half of the 14th century. They remained the basic unit of territorial organization in Poland, then in the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth, until the latter's partitioning in 1795.\n\nIn the 19th century, the powiats continued to function in the part of Poland that had been incorporated into the Russian Empire (\"Congress Poland\")\u2014the equivalent of the Russian uyezd\u2013and, in the German-governed Grand Duchy of Pozna\u0144, as the Polish equivalent of the German Kreis.\n\nAfter Poland regained independence in 1918, the powiats were again the second-level territorial units.\n\nPowiats were abolished in 1975 in favour of a larger number of voivodeships but were reintroduced on 1 January 1999. This reform also created 16 larger voivodeships.\n\nFunctioning\nLegislative power within a powiat is vested in an elected council (rada powiatu), while local executive power is vested in an executive board (zarz\u0105d powiatu) headed by the starosta, elected by the council. The administrative offices headed by the starosta are called the starostwo. However, in city counties these institutions do not exist separatelytheir powers and functions are exercised by the city council (rada miasta), the directly elected mayor (burmistrz or prezydent), and the city office\/town hall (urz\u0105d miasta).\n\nSometimes, a powiat has its seat outside its territory. For example, Pozna\u0144 County (powiat pozna\u0144ski) has its offices in Pozna\u0144, although Pozna\u0144 is itself a city county, and is therefore not part of Pozna\u0144 County.\n\nPowiats have relatively limited powers since many local and regional matters are dealt with either at gmina or voivodeship level. Some of the main areas in which the powiat authorities have decision-making powers and competences include:\n\n education at the high-school level (the gminas run primary and middle schools)\n healthcare (at the county level)\n public transport\n maintenance of certain designated roads\n land surveying\n issuing of work permits to foreigners\n vehicle registration (see Polish car number plates).\n\nNames and English equivalents \nThe Polish the name of a county, in the administrative sense, consists of the word powiat followed by a masculine-gender adjective (because powiat is a masculine noun). In most cases, this is the adjective formed from the name of the town or city where the county has its seat. Thus the county with its seat at the town of Kutno is named powiat kutnowski (Kutno County). (In modern Polish both parts of the name are written in lower case; however, names of powiats in the Grand Duchy of Pozna\u0144 were written in upper case.) Suppose the name of the seat comprises a noun followed by an adjective, as in Mak\u00f3w Mazowiecki (\"Mazovian Mak\u00f3w\"). In that case, the adjective will generally be formed from the noun only (powiat makowski). There are also a few counties whose names are derived from the names of two towns (such as powiat czarnkowsko-trzcianecki, Czarnk\u00f3w-Trzcianka County), from the name of a city and a geographical adjective (powiat \u0142\u00f3dzki wschodni, \u0141\u00f3d\u017a East County), or a mountain range (powiat tatrza\u0144ski, Tatra County).\n\nThere is more than one way to render such names into English. A common method is to translate the names as \"(something County)\", as in the examples above. (This system is the standard used in Wikipedia.) Thus in most cases, the English name for a powiat consists of the name of the city or town which is its seat, followed by the word County.\n\nDifferent counties sometimes have the same name in Polish, since the names of different towns may have the same derived adjective. For example, the counties with their seats at Grodzisk Wielkopolski and Grodzisk Mazowiecki are both called powiat grodziski, and those with seats at Brzeg and Brzesko are both called powiat brzeski. In English, this ambiguity either does not occur (Brzeg County and Brzesko County) or can be avoided by using the complete name of the seat (Grodzisk Wielkopolski County and Grodzisk Mazowiecki County).\n\nReferences\n Bankauskaite, V. et al. (2007), Patterns of decentralization across European health systems, in R.B. Saltman, V. Bankauskaite and K. Vrangb\u00e6k (ed.), \"Decentralization in health care\", London: Open University Press\/McGraw-Hill.\n\nSee also \n Povit, equivalent in Ukraine\n\n \nTypes of administrative division\nFormer subdivisions of Lithuania\nFormer administrative divisions of Ukraine\nFormer subdivisions of Belarus\nAdministrative divisions of Poland","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":154,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":8,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":6,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":6,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":2}},"id":382207,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Powiat","title":"Powiat","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A gamete is a specialized sex cell that fuses with another gamete during fertilization (conception) in organisms that reproduce sexually. Gametes are haploid\u2014they have only one copy of each chromosome. All other cells in an animal are diploid\u2014they have two copies of each chromosome. Gametes are produced by germ cells.\n\nIn species which produce two morphologically distinct types of gametes, and in which each individual produces only one type, a female is any individual which produces the larger type of gamete\u2014called an ovum (or egg)\u2014and a male produces the smaller type\u2014called a spermatozoon (or sperm cell).\n\nThe name gamete was introduced by the Austrian biologist Gregor Mendel.\n\nGametogenesis\nGametogenesis is the development of diploid germ cells into haploid eggs or sperm, (respectively oogenesis and spermatogenesis). It is different for each species but the general stages are similar. The development of eggs (oogenesis) and sperm (spermatogenesis) have many features in common. They both involve:\n Meiosis\n Extensive morphological cell differentiation\n Unable to survive for very long if fertilization does not occur\n\nThey also have major differences, especially\n Different timing of maturation: oogenic meiosis is interrupted at one or more stages (for a long time) while spermatogenic meiosis is rapid and uninterrupted.\n\nReferences \n\nReproductive system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":6,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":67210,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gamete","title":"Gamete","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Orbital inclination is a term for the angle between two orbital planes. It is often used to describe the movement of celestial bodies such as stars and planets. In that context, one of the planes is the standard, or reference. Many stars are in a galaxy that has a galactic plane which is used as reference. For a planet's orbit, the inclination is the angle to the ecliptic plane. For a moon, an inclination of 0 degrees means the orbiting body orbits the planet in its equatorial plane, in the same direction as the planet rotates.\n\nOrbits","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":174,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2}},"id":395859,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Orbital%20inclination","title":"Orbital inclination","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) is a commodity futures exchange owned and operated by CME Group of Chicago. NYMEX is located at One North End Avenue in Brookfield Place in the Battery Park City section of Manhattan, New York City.\n\nThe company's two principal divisions are the New York Mercantile Exchange and Commodity Exchange, Inc (COMEX), once separately owned exchanges. NYMEX traces its history to 1882 and for most of its history, as was common of exchanges, it was owned by the members who traded there.  Later, NYMEX Holdings, Inc., the former parent company of the New York Mercantile Exchange and COMEX, went public and became listed on the New York Stock Exchange on November 17, 2006, under the ticker symbol NMX.  On March 17, 2008, Chicago based CME Group signed a definitive agreement to acquire NYMEX Holdings, Inc. for $11.2 billion in cash and stock and the takeover was completed in August 2008.  Both NYMEX and COMEX now operate as designated contract markets (DCM) of the CME Group.  The other two designated contract markets in the CME Group are the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and the Chicago Board of Trade.\n\nThe New York Mercantile Exchange handles billions of dollars' worth of oil transactions, energy carriers, metals, and other commodities being bought and sold on the trading floor and the overnight electronic trading computer systems for future delivery.  The prices quoted for transactions on the exchange are the basis for prices that people pay for various commodities throughout the world.\n\nThe floor of the NYMEX is regulated by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, an independent agency of the United States government.  Each individual company that trades on the exchange must send its own independent brokers.  Therefore, a few employees on the floor of the exchange represent a big corporation and the exchange employees only record the transactions and have nothing to do with the actual trade.\n\nAlthough mostly electronic since 2006, the NYMEX maintained a small venue, or \"pit\", that still practiced the open outcry trading system, in which traders employed shouting and complex hand gestures on the physical trading floor. A project to preserve the hand signals used at NYMEX has been published. \nNYMEX closed the pit permanently at the end of trading Friday, December 30, 2016, because of shrinking volume.\n\nEarly history \n\nCommodity exchanges began in the middle of the 19th century, when businessmen began organizing market forums to make buying and selling of commodities easier. These marketplaces provided a place for buyers and sellers to set the quality, standards, and establish rules of business. By the late 19th century there were about 1,600 marketplaces at ports and railroad stations. In 1872, a group of Manhattan dairy merchants got together and created the Butter and Cheese Exchange of New York. They were trying to bring order and standardization to the chaotic conditions that existed in their industry. Soon, egg trade became part of the business conducted on the exchange and the name was modified to the Butter, Cheese, and Egg Exchange. In 1882, the name finally changed to the New York Mercantile Exchange when opening trade to dried fruits, canned goods, and poultry.\n\nAs centralized warehouses were built into principal market centers such as New York and Chicago in the early 20th century, exchanges in smaller cities began to disappear giving more business to the exchanges such as the NYMEX in bigger cities. In 1933, the COMEX was established through the merger of four smaller exchanges; the National Metal Exchange, the Rubber Exchange of New York, the National Raw Silk Exchange, and the New York Hide Exchange. Through the 1970s, 80's and 90's COMEX, NYMEX, and other exchanges shared a single trading floor in 4 World Trade Center.\n\nGoods\nFor years, the NYMEX traders had done a large business trading futures of Maine's potato crop. According to Leah McGrath Goodman's 2011 book The Asylum, manipulation in this market was commonplace, performed by various parties including potato inspectors and NYMEX traders. The worst incident was the 1970s potato bust, when Idaho potato magnate J. R. Simplot allegedly went short in huge numbers, leaving a large amount of contracts unsettled at the expiration date, resulting in a large number of defaulted delivery contracts. A public outcry followed, and the newly created Commodity Futures Trading Commission held hearings. NYMEX was barred not only from continuing to trade in potatoes futures, but from entering any new area in which it hadn't traded before. NYMEX's reputation was severely damaged, because, as future chairman Michel Marks told Goodman in his book, \"The essence of an exchange is the sanctity of its contract.\"\n\nWhen the potato ban came into effect, NYMEX's platinum, palladium and heating oil markets were not significantly affected. However, NYMEX's reputation suffered in Washington, D.C., especially with the regulations in the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), the president of the exchange, Richard Leone brought in John Elting Treat, White House energy adviser to Presidents Carter and Reagan to help restore the credibility of NYMEX and to help the exchange explore the possibility of entering the petroleum market recognizing the great potential for moving well beyond the limited size of the New York Heating Oil market.  When Leone left NYMEX in 1981 as a result of a strong disagreement with the NYMEX board, John Elting Treat was asked to replace him as president.  The launching of the WTI crude oil contract was championed by Treat, who, with difficulty, convinced the board and the two Marks family members, veteran and highly respected floor trader Francis Marks and his son, Michael, who had just become chairman of the board, to take a chance on trading crude oil. Arnold Safir was one of the members of an advisory committee formed by Treat to help design the new contract. Treat, with Board Chairman Marks and the support of the rest of the NYMEX board, eventually chose West Texas Intermediate (WTI) as the traded product and Cushing, Oklahoma, as the delivery point. Robin Woodhead, who later became the first chairman of the International Petroleum Exchange (IPE) in London started an active dialogue with Treat about whether they could start a Brent Crude oil contracts. Treat was very supportive and  gave  Woodhead strong support and a lot of advice. Shortly thereafter, after substantial conversations, The IPE was formally launched and started trading Brent.\n\nTreat and his research staff then began looking for other oil products to trade. Gasoline was clearly next on the product list but there was a lot of debate about where the delivery point should be.  The Gulf Coast was the easiest, but the exchange also looked at California markets, but decided they wouldn't work. Treat then started looking simultaneously at launching crude and later products options contracts.  He found that the existing NYMEX floor traders didn't have the mathematical skills necessary to trade options, so the exchange offered financial inducements to get members of the American Stock Exchange's options traders to come over and trade options on petroleum futures. Under Treat's leadership, NYMEX also began to research the potential for trading natural gas and electricity, but focused first on natural gas.  Product quality of natural gas was not an issue in that market, but the delivery point was a more difficult choice.\n\nAfter launching the original crude oil futures contract, Treat began an aggressive marketing campaign to first bring in the large US and British oil companies and then moved on to pull in the large Middle East producers. It took almost a year to get the first US \"majors\" \nto start trading, but several \"majors\" did not start for almost 5 years.  The initial resistance from the OPEC producers was almost impossible to break through, although some finally gave in, among the first being Venezuela. The rumors on the floor at that time were the Arab producers would trade gold futures as a proxy for oil prices (since the Arabs were major purchasers of gold and  would buy more when their pockets were filled by rising oil prices, and conversely sell when oil revenues fell and reduced their ability to buy gold).\n\nAfter the potato ban, NYMEX's existence was in doubt. Most of the trading volume had been in potatoes. Without a good commodity, the traders had trouble making money. Eventually, the new chairman, Michel Marks \u2013 the son of commodities icon Francis Q. Marks \u2013 along with economist Arnold Safer, figured out that NYMEX could revamp an old heating oil futures contract. When the government deregulated heating oil, the contract had a chance of becoming a good object of trade on the floor. A new futures contract was carefully drawn up and trading began on a tiny scale in 1978. Some of the first users of NYMEX heating oil deliveries were small scale suppliers of people in the Northern United States.\n\nNYMEX's business threatened some entrenched interests like big oil and government groups like OPEC that had traditionally controlled oil prices. NYMEX provided an \"open market\" and thus transparent pricing for heating oil, and, eventually, crude oil, gasoline, and natural gas. NYMEX's oil futures contracts were standardized for the delivery of West Texas Intermediate light, sweet crude oil to Cushing.\n\nGrowth\n\nThe energy trading business took off, and NYMEX boomed. The open outcry floor became a cacophony of shouting traders and pit cards. The pits became a place where many people without much education or ability to fit into Wall Street could have a chance at being rich.   Goodman's book tells the stories of many of the personalities that built the exchange in this era.\n\nCOMEX (Commodity Exchange, Inc), one of the exchanges that shared 4 World Trade Center with NYMEX, had traditionally looked down on NYMEX for being smaller and for having the toxic reputation from the potato bust. With NYMEX's energy trading boom, it became much larger and wealtheir than COMEX. On August 3, 1994, the NYMEX and COMEX finally merged under the NYMEX name. By the late 1990s, there were more people working on the NYMEX floor than there was space for them. In 1997, the NYMEX moved to a new building on the Southwestern portion of Manhattan, part of a complex called the World Financial Center.\n\nLater history\n\nSeptember 11, 2001 attacks\n\nThe NYBOT's original headquarters and trading floor were destroyed in the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center. Several NYMEX people were lost in the tragedy, even though the new NYMEX building itself was mostly undamaged. Despite the area's devastation, the exchange's management and staff quickly had the exchange working.\n\nThe WTC\/WFC art gallery, long located in the Nymex building, continued showing world and community art until 2012.  The last-ever exhibit there was a solo show by actualist painter Terry Ward.\n\nOn February 26, 2003, the New York Board of Trade (NYBOT) signed a lease agreement with the NYMEX to move into its World Financial Center headquarters and trading facility. NYMEX maintained a close relationship with many organizations and people at World Trade Center, and After the attacks, the NYMEX built a $12 million trading floor backup facility outside of New York City with 700 traders' booths, 2,000 telephones, and a backup computer system. This backup was in case of another terrorist attack or natural disaster in Lower Manhattan.\n\nElectronic trading\nNYMEX held a virtual monopoly on \"open market\" oil futures trading (as opposed to the \"dark market\" or over-the-counter market. However, in the early 2000s the electronically based exchanges started taking away the business of the open outcry markets like NYMEX. Enron's online energy trading system was part of this trend. Jeff Sprecher's Intercontinental Exchange, or ICE, was another example. ICE eventually began trading oil contracts that were extremely similar to NYMEX's, taking away market share almost immediately.\n\nThe open outcry NYMEX pit traders had always been against electronic trading because it threatened their income and their lifestyle. The executives at NYMEX felt that electronic trading was the only way to keep the exchange competitive. NYMEX teamed up with the Chicago Mercantile Exchange to use Globex in 2006. The trading pits emptied out as many traders quit. Banks, hedge funds, and huge oil companies stopped making telephone calls to the pits and started trading directly for themselves over screens.\n\nIn this period the NYMEX also worked on founding the Dubai Mercantile Exchange in the United Arab Emirates. This was chronicled by Ben Mezrich in his New York Times Best Selling book Rigged which has been optioned for film adaptation by Summit Entertainment.\n\nSell-off \n\nThe final executive management of NYMEX decided to sell it off in pieces, take golden parachute buyouts, and leave. In 2006 NYMEX underwent an initial public offering (IPO) and was listed on the New York Stock Exchange. The executives and exchange members owning seats on the exchange saw their net worth increase by millions of dollars in a few hours - many of the pit traders, who leased their seats instead of owning, did not. Other parts of NYMEX were sold to private equity investors and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. The CME got ownership of the physical facilities and began scrubbing the NYMEX logo and name off of various artifacts and closed the NYMEX museum. NYMEX eventually became little more than a brand name used by CME. By 2011, NYMEX open outcry trading was relegated for the most part to a small number of people trading options.\n\nIn 2009 it was reported that holders of COMEX gold futures contracts experienced problems taking delivery of their metal. Along with chronic delivery delays, some investors received delivery of bars not matching their contract in serial number and weight. The delays could not be easily explained by slow warehouse movements, as the daily reports of these movements showed little activity. Because of these problems, there were concerns that COMEX did not have the gold inventory to back its existing warehouse receipts.\n\nTrading platforms\nPit (open outcry)\nElectronic trading (Globex)\n\nCommodities traded \n\nNYMEX Division\n\nCoal\nCrude oil\nElectricity\nGasoline\nHeating oil\nNatural gas \nPalladium\nPlatinum\nPropane\nUranium\n\nCOMEX Division\nAluminum\nCopper\nGold\nSilver\n\nSee also\n\n Commodity Exchange Act\n Energy law\n New York Cotton Exchange\n List of futures exchanges\n List of traded commodities\n\nReferences\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\n (NYMEX)\n (COMEX)\nTradingPitHistory.com, a website to preserve the hand signal language of open outcry trading\n\nCommodity exchanges in the United States\nCompanies based in New York City\nFinancial services companies established in 1882\n1882 establishments in New York (state)\nFutures exchanges\nBattery Park City\nCME Group","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":49,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-10":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":469729,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New%20York%20Mercantile%20Exchange","title":"New York Mercantile Exchange","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Lanai (or L\u0101na\u02bbi) is sixth largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. It is also known as the \"Pineapple Island\". The island is almost a circle in shape and is 18 miles wide in the longest direction. The land area is 140 sq. miles (367 km2). It is separated from the island of Moloka'i by the Kalohi Channel to the north.\n\nHistory\nLana'i was first seen by Europeans on 25 February 1779 by Captain Clerke, with HMS Resolution on the James Cook Pacific Ocean trip. Clerke took command of the ship after Capt. Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14, and was leaving the islands for the North Pacific. \n\nIn 1922, Jim Dole, the president of Dole Pineapple Company, bought the island of Lana'i. He made a large part of it into the world's largest pineapple plantation.\n\nTourism\nTourism on Lana'i started not long ago. That was when the growing of pineapple was slowly coming to an end in the Islands. On Lana'i, you can be with nature and feel the mood of the Hawaiian countryside. Not like nearby O'ahu, the only town (Lana'i City) is small. It has no traffic or shopping centers. Tourists come mainly to relax.\n\nThere are three hotels on Lana'i and several golf courses.\n\nIslands of Hawaii","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6}},"id":433,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lanai","title":"Lanai","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A record chart (sometimes called a music chart) is a way of giving music a rank. The rank comes from the popularity of the music. The Billboard Hot 100 is a popular chart. The information on charts comes from some different sources, like the number of objects sold, the number of times a song was played on radio, the number of times a song or album was downloaded, and other criteria. Charts are sometimes made for a special genre, for example \"Top 10 Rock Songs\".","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":154,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":4,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":117241,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Record%20chart","title":"Record chart","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Doctor of Medicine (MD, from the Latin Medicin\u00e6 Doctor meaning \"Teacher of Medicine\") is a doctoral degree for physicians (medical doctors). The degree is given by medical schools.\n\nIt is a professional doctorate \/ first professional degree (qualifying degree) in some countries, including the United States and Canada. Students need to have completed 90 to 120 credit hours of university level work  (see second entry degree) and in most cases should already have a Bachelors Degree.\n\nIn other countries, such as the United Kingdom and Germany, the Doctor of Medicine is an advanced academic research degree similar to a PhD or a higher doctorate.  In Britain, Ireland, and many Commonwealth nations, the qualifying medical degree is the Bachelor of Science in Medicine, Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, BMBS, BM BCh, BM, MB BCh BAO, or MB ChB) and is the same as the M.D. degree in the U.S. system.\n\nIn these countries it is illegal to prescribe scrips (prescriptions) and perform operations without the basic degree; also usual is the membership of appropriate medical and\/or surgical societies. The societies (such as the British Medical Association) act as a kind of sophisticated trades union for doctors. In the British system, the General Medical Council has legal authority for the medical register of doctors licensed to practice medicine. They can and do hold tribunals to decide whether doctors accused of misdeeds should be struck off the medical register. Therefore, to practice it is necessary not only to hold the medical degree(s), but also to be on the register.\n\nReferences\n\nAcademic degrees","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-18":3,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2}},"id":272521,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doctor%20of%20Medicine","title":"Doctor of Medicine","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u00c0gb\u00e1j\u1ecd'je itosile awujo ti won unfe ohun kanna, sakoso ise ara won, ti won si ni ipaala to pin won niya kuro ni ayika won.\n\nIn the social sciences, organizations are the object of analysis for a number of disciplines, such as sociology, economics, political science, psychology, management, and organizational communication. In more specific contexts, particularly for sociologists, the term \"institution\" may be preferred. The broader analysis of organizations is commonly referred to as organizational studies, organizational behavior or organization analysis. A number of different theories and perspectives exist, some of which are compatible, \n Organization \u2013 process-related: an entity is being (re-)organized (organization as task or action).\n Organization \u2013 functional: organization as a function of how entities like businesses or state authorities are used (organization as a permanent structure).\n Organization \u2013 institutional: an entity is an organization (organization as an actual purposeful structure within a social context)\n\nItokasi \n\n\u00c0w\u1ecdn \u00e0gb\u00e1j\u1ecd","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":27115,"url":"https:\/\/yo.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%80gb%C3%A1j%E1%BB%8D","title":"\u00c0gb\u00e1j\u1ecd","language":"yo"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A symphony is a piece of music written for an orchestra to play. It may be quite a long piece. Usually it is divided into parts, usually 3 or 4 parts, which are called movements. \n\nThe first movement of a symphony can be a fast movement, often in sonata form. The second movement can be a slow movement. The third movement can be a minuet or scherzo and a trio. The fourth movement may be called \"Finale\"; it can be in Rondo form or sonata form or a combination of these. There are lots of different ways of writing a symphony, but this is the pattern that was used by Joseph Haydn who is known as the \"Father of the Symphony\", and many composers since have used his pattern of movements for their symphonies.\n\nConnotations \nThe word \"symphony\" comes from the Greek words \"sym\" (together) and \"phone\" (sound).\n\n\"Symphonic\" means \"like a symphony\". It is often used to describe music which is quite long and develops tunes over a long period.\n\nA large orchestra is often called a \"symphony orchestra\". This is to distinguish it from a small orchestra called a \"chamber orchestra\".\n\nSome of the most famous composers of symphonies are Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann, Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, Pyotr Tchaikovsky, Gustav Mahler, Jean Sibelius and Dmitri Shostakovich.\n\nRelated pages \nSymphonic poem\n\nMusical forms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":4,"2018-47":3,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":29627,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symphony","title":"Symphony","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Metastasis is what happens when cancer spreads from its original place to another part of the body.  Cancer cells spread from the original site to other places in the body by traveling through the bloodstream. When the cancer cells stick to a new place in the body, they grow and form another tumor there. Metastasis makes cures more difficult, or in many cases impossible.\n\nCancer","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":140,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":4,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1}},"id":57534,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metastasis","title":"Metastasis","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A witness is someone who sees something happen. They are often used in court to help find the truth. During a trial, the two lawyers will bring in witnesses to help back up their arguments.  \n\nIn a criminal trial, the prosecution lawyer will often bring in the victim of the crime to say what happened, and anyone else who can prove the accused person did the crime. The defense lawyer will nearly always call up the accused person to explain why they are not guilty, and bring in other witnesses who can prove the accused person is not guilty. Each time a lawyer brings in a witness, the other lawyer will cross examine the witness - they will ask them questions to make sure they are telling the truth.\n\nWitnesses have to swear to tell the truth during the trial. If a witness lies in court, it is known as perjury, which is a crime. A witness can be subpoenad, which means they are required to testify in court. If the witness does not testify when given a subpoena, they can be punished.\n\nRelated pages\nNotary\n\nOther websites\nWitness statements (UK)\n\nTrials\nLegal terms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":168,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5}},"id":11282,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Witness","title":"Witness","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In mathematics, the polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and an angle from a reference direction.\n\nThe polar coordinate system is especially useful in situations where the relationship between two points is most easily expressed with angles and distance; in the more familiar Cartesian or rectangular coordinate system, such a relationship can only be found through trigonometric formulae.\n\nAs the coordinate system is two-dimensional, each point is determined by two polar coordinates: the radial coordinate and the angular coordinate. The radial coordinate (usually denoted as ) denotes the point's distance from a central point known as the pole (equivalent to the origin in the Cartesian system). The angular coordinate (also known as the polar angle or the azimuth angle, and usually denoted by \u03b8 or ) denotes the positive or anticlockwise (counterclockwise) angle required to reach the point from the 0\u00b0 ray or polar axis (which is equivalent to the positive x-axis in the Cartesian coordinate plane).\n\nHistory\n\nThe concepts of angle and radius were already used by ancient peoples of the 1st millennium BCE. Hipparchus (190-120 BCE) created a table of chord functions giving the length of the chord for each angle, and there are references to his using polar coordinates in establishing stellar positions.\nIn On Spirals, Archimedes describes the Archimedean spiral, a function whose radius depends on the angle. The Greek work, however, did not extend to a full coordinate system.\n\nThere are various accounts of the introduction of polar coordinates as part of a formal coordinate system. The full history of the subject is described in Harvard professor Julian Lowell Coolidge's Origin of Polar Coordinates. Gr\u00e9goire de Saint-Vincent and Bonaventura Cavalieri independently introduced the concepts in the mid-seventeenth century. Saint-Vincent wrote about them privately in 1625 and published his work in 1647, while Cavalieri published his in 1635 with a corrected version appearing in 1653. Cavalieri first used polar coordinates to solve a problem relating to the area within an Archimedean spiral. Blaise Pascal subsequently used polar coordinates to calculate the length of parabolic arcs.\n\nIn Method of Fluxions (written 1671, published 1736), Sir Isaac Newton examined the transformations between polar coordinates, which he referred to as the \"Seventh Manner; For Spirals\", and nine other coordinate systems. In the journal Acta Eruditorum (1691), Jacob Bernoulli used a system with a point on a line, called the pole and polar axis respectively. Coordinates were specified by the distance from the pole and the angle from the polar axis. Bernoulli's work extended to finding the radius of curvature of curves expressed in these coordinates.\n\nThe actual term polar coordinates has been attributed to Gregorio Fontana and was used by 18th-century Italian writers. The term appeared in English in George Peacock's 1816 translation of Lacroix's Differential and Integral Calculus. Alexis Clairaut was the first to think of polar coordinates in three dimensions, and Leonhard Euler was the first to actually develop them.\n\nConverting between polar and Cartesian coordinates\n\nThe polar coordinates r and \u03c6 can be converted to the Cartesian coordinates x and y by using the trigonometric functions sine and cosine:\n\nThe Cartesian coordinates x and y can be converted to polar coordinates r and \u03c6 with r\u00a0\u2265\u00a00 and \u03c6 in the interval (\u2212, ] by:\n (as in the Pythagorean theorem.\n\nCylindrical coordinates\n\nCylindrical coordinates take the same idea that polar coordinates use, but they extend it further. To get a third dimension, each point also has a height above the original coordinate system. Each point is uniquely identified by a distance to the origin, called r here, an angle, called  (phi), and a height above the plane of the coordinate system, called Z in the picture.\n\nSpherical coordinates\n\nThe same idea as is used by polar coordinates can also be extended in a different way. Instead of using two distances, and one angle only, it is possible to use one distance only, and two angles, called  and  (theta).\n\nRelated pages \n Geographic coordinate system\n Spherical coordinate system\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \nFooPlot (online function plotter in polar coordinates) \nOnline conversion tool between polar and Cartesian coordinates\n\nCoordinate systems","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":51722,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polar%20coordinate%20system","title":"Polar coordinate system","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Leo J. Powers (April 5, 1909 \u2013 July 14, 1967) was a United States Army soldier and a recipient of the United States military's highest decoration\u2014the Medal of Honor\u2014for his actions in World War II during the Battle of Monte Cassino.\n\nBiography\nA farmer before the war, Powers joined the Army from Alder Gulch, Montana, on September 17, 1942. By February 3, 1944, was serving as a private first class in the 133rd Infantry Regiment, 34th Infantry Division. On that day, northwest of Cassino, Italy, Powers single-handedly destroyed three German machine gun emplacements. He was awarded the Medal of Honor a year later, on January 15, 1945.\n\nPowers reached the rank of Sergeant before leaving the Army. He died at age 58 and was buried in Holy Cross Cemetery, Butte, Montana.\n\nMedal of Honor citation\nPowers' official Medal of Honor citation reads:\nFor conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at risk of life above and beyond the call of duty. On 3 February 1944, this soldier's company was assigned the mission of capturing Hill 175, the key enemy strong point northwest of Cassino, Italy. The enemy, estimated to be at least 50 in strength, supported by machineguns emplaced in 3 pillboxes and mortar fire from behind the hill, was able to pin the attackers down and inflict 8 casualties. The company was unable to advance, but Pfc. Powers, a rifleman in 1 of the assault platoons, on his own initiative and in the face of the terrific fire, crawled forward to assault 1 of the enemy pillboxes which he had spotted. Armed with 2 handgrenades and well aware that if the enemy should see him it would mean almost certain death, Pfc. Powers crawled up the hill to within 15 yards of the enemy pillbox. Then standing upright in full view of the enemy gunners in order to throw his grenade into the small opening in the roof, he tossed a grenade into the pillbox. At this close, the grenade entered the pillbox, killed 2 of the occupants and 3 or 4 more fled the position, probably wounded. This enemy gun silenced, the center of the line was able to move forward again, but almost immediately came under machinegun fire from a second enemy pillbox on the left flank. Pfc. Powers, however, had located this pillbox, and crawled toward it with absolutely no cover if the enemy should see him. Raising himself in full view of the enemy gunners about 15 feet from the pillbox, Pfc. Powers threw his grenade into the pillbox, silencing this gun, killing another German and probably wounding 3 or 4 more who fled. Pfc. Powers, still acting on his own initiative, commenced crawling toward the third enemy pillbox in the face of heavy machine-pistol and machinegun fire. Skillfully availing himself of the meager cover and concealment, Pfc. Powers crawled up to within 10 yards of this pillbox fully exposed himself to the enemy gunners, stood upright and tossed the 2 grenades into the small opening in the roof of the pillbox. His grenades killed 2 of the enemy and 4 more, all wounded, came out and surrendered to Pfc. Powers, who was now unarmed. Pfc. Powers had worked his way over the entire company front, and against tremendous odds had single-handedly broken the backbone of this heavily defended and strategic enemy position, and enabled his regiment to advance into the city of Cassino. Pfc. Powers' fighting determination and intrepidity in battle exemplify the highest traditions of the U.S. Armed Forces.\n\nSee also\n\nList of Medal of Honor recipients\nList of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\n1909 births\n1967 deaths\nUnited States Army personnel of World War II\nUnited States Army Medal of Honor recipients\nPeople from Beaverhead County, Montana\nUnited States Army soldiers\nPeople from Custer County, Nebraska\nWorld War II recipients of the Medal of Honor","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":47,"dup_details":{"unknown":17,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":4,"2016-18":4,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":6,"2014-42":11,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":2}},"id":14168372,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leo%20J.%20Powers","title":"Leo J. Powers","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A movie director is a person who leads the making of a movie (or film). They take care of the artistic things in the movie. They give instructions to the actors and direct the people that work on the movie.\n\nDirectors give many of their responsibilities to other members of their movie-making team (called a movie crew).  For example, the person who is responsible for the lighting is told by the director what style of lighting he wants and he then creates the lighting for him. It is common for movie directors to work closely with a movie producer. Movie producers are people who control the non-artistic side of movie making. For example, they control all the money that is used for making the movie.\n\nThe amount of control a director has in creating their movie is different for each director. It is most common for directors to have some control, while the rest of the movie-making is controlled by the movie studio, and by the people who pay for making the movie. This was very common for American movies made in the 1930s to 1950s. There are a small number of directors who are given complete control over making their movies. For example, Stanley Kubrick, Jean-Luc Godard, Steven Spielberg and James Cameron all had a great amount of control in making their movie.\n\nFamous directors\n\nReferences \n\n \nMovie occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":143,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":6,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":4,"2020-29":6,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1}},"id":8213,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Movie%20director","title":"Movie director","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In Computer science, a Design pattern is an abstract solution to a certain problem. Design patterns are used in object oriented programming. They give a possible solution to a problem of designing software.\n\nDesign patterns became popular around the year 1995. They also simplify the language between computer scientists. Ideally, a design pattern should be reusable many times. It is like a brick of a house, it can be used for many different problems. One can also build bridges with bricks, not only houses.\n\nExamples \nThese examples are actual examples of design patterns as they are in use. They have not been simplified. It is only the language used to describe them that has been made simpler.\n\nFlyweight \nThe flyweight design pattern is used to minimize the use of many similar objects. In a text-processing system each letter can have some attributes like formatting, typeface, and size. While it would be possible to create a new object for each character in the document and give it these attributes, it is extremely expensive.\n\nInstead it would be better to create one object for each type of formatting and link the letter to that information. That needs a lot fewer objects. The only extra information that would need to be stored is the word or letter's position in the document. All similar letters would use the same object to define font, size, and other properties.\n\nSingleton \nAnother easy to understand pattern is called Singleton. It is used when there can only be one instance of a given class. That class usually has some static method (e.g. getInstance()) which returns a new instance. It also saves the instance internally. So if it already created the instance, it can simply return it.\n public class Singleton {\n   static Object theInstance=null;\n   public Object getInstance() {\n     if (theInstance==null) {\n      theInstance=new Object();}\n     return theInstance; }\n  }\n\nComputer science","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":28412,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Design%20pattern","title":"Design pattern","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Middle-earth is a fictional fantasy world invented by J. R. R. Tolkien. Several of his books take place there, such as The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. It is supposed to be a long gone mythological time of our earth.\n\nAlthough Middle-earth is only one continent in Tolkien's world, it is often used for the whole fictional world and all stories Tolkien invented for it. Tolkien created and worked on Middle-earth through most of his life, and it is this creation for which he is most famous.\n\nMiddle-earth has its own geography, several different species and peoples (elves, dwarves, humans, hobbits), their languages, and a history that spans thousands of years. The stories of Middle-earth are also a kind of 'artificial myth'.\n\n\"Middle-earth\" is called Endor (or End\u00f3re) and Ennor in the fictional Elvish languages Quenya and Sindarin.\n\nPeoples \nThe oldest people of Middle-earth are the immortal Elves. Second were the Dwarves. After them came mortal Men. In the Third Age, there appeared another people, the Hobbits. There are also the tree-like Ents.\n\nChronology \nThe history of the Middle-earth world is thousands of years long. Sometimes, when big historical events happen, a new Age is begun, which starts counting again with the year 1.\n\n First Age: The First Age can be divided into the \"First Age of the Trees\" and the \"First Age of the Sun\". Saying a year and \"First Age\" often means a year in the \"First Age of the Sun\". \n First Age of the Trees: Begins at the creation of the Two Trees. During it are the Awakening of the Elves and the Dwarves. It ends with the destruction of the Two Trees.\n First Age of the Sun (590 years): Begins with the creation of the Sun and Moon, and ends with the War of Wrath, the final imprisonment of Morgoth and the destruction of Beleriand.\n Second Age (S.A., 3441 years): Begins after the end of the War of Wrath. During it is the destruction of N\u00famenor (T.A. 3319). Ends with the defeat of Sauron in the War of the Last Alliance.\n Third Age (T.A., 3021 years): Begins after the Last Alliance defeated Sauron. During it are the events of The Hobbit (T.A. 2941) and the War of the Ring (T.A. 3018-3019). Ends with the destruction of the One Ring and the defeat of Sauron.\n Fourth Age: Follows the defeat of Sauron and the One Ring, but starts officially when the Bearers of the Rings left for the West. During this Age the Elves become less and leave, while the humans become the dominant people of Middle-earth.\n\nRelated pages\nMiddle-earth characters\nMiddle-earth languages\nMiddle-earth locations\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":5,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":4,"2023-06":5,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":5,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":28766,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middle-earth","title":"Middle-earth","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bir resmin \u00e7er\u00e7eve oran\u0131 eni ve boyu aras\u0131ndaki oransal ili\u015fkiyi tarif eder.\n\n\u00c7o\u011funlukla aralar\u0131nda iki nokta bulunan iki numara \u015feklinde ifade edilir; \u00f6rne\u011fin, 16:9. Bir a:b \u00e7er\u00e7eve oran\u0131 i\u00e7in, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn ne kadar b\u00fcy\u00fck veya k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck oldu\u011funun \u00f6nemi yoktur\n\nno matter how big or small the image is, if the width is divided into x units of equal length and the height is measured using this same length unit, the height will be measured to be y units. For example, consider a group of images, all with an aspect ratio of 16:9. One image is 16\u00a0inches wide and 9\u00a0inches high. Another image is 16 centimeters wide and 9 centimeters high. A third is 8 yards wide and 4.5 yards high.\n\nSinema salonlar\u0131ndaki filmlerin sunu\u015funda, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde kullan\u0131lan en yayg\u0131n \u00e7er\u00e7eve oran\u0131 1.85:1 ve 2.39:1dir.  Yayg\u0131n iki videografik \u00e7er\u00e7eve oran\u0131; 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n evrensel video format\u0131 olan 4:3 (1.3:1) ile y\u00fcksek \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcrl\u00fckl\u00fc televizyon ve Avrupa dijital televizyonu i\u00e7in evrensel olan 16:9dur. (1.7:1). Seyrek olarak kullan\u0131lan di\u011fer \u00e7er\u00e7eve oranlar\u0131 da mevcuttur.\n\nIn still camera photography, the most common aspect ratios are 4:3, 3:2, and more recently being found in consumer cameras 16:9. Other aspect ratios, such as 5:3, 5:4, and 1:1 (square format), are used in photography as well, particularly in medium format and large format.\n\nWith television, DVD and Blu-ray Disc, converting formats of unequal ratios is achieved by enlarging the original image to fill the receiving format's display area and cutting off any excess picture information (zooming and cropping), by adding horizontal mattes (letterboxing) or vertical mattes (pillarboxing) to retain the original format's aspect ratio, by stretching (hence distorting) the image to fill the receiving format's ratio, or by scaling by different factors in both directions, possibly scaling by a different factor in the center and at the edges (as in Wide Zoom mode).\n\nUygulamayla ilgili s\u0131n\u0131rlamalar \nSinema formatlar\u0131nda, di\u015fli performasyonlar\u0131n aras\u0131ndaki film alan\u0131n\u0131n fiziksel boyutu resmin boyutunu belirler. Evrensel standart, (1892'de William Dickson ve Thomas Edison taraf\u0131ndan kurulan) d\u00f6rt perforasyon y\u00fcksek olan bir \u00e7er\u00e7evedir. Filmin kendisi 35\u00a0mm geni\u015fli\u011findedir (1,38\u00a0in\u00e7), fakat perforasyonlar aras\u0131ndaki alan 4:3 veya 1.33:1 \"de facto\" oran\u0131n\u0131 b\u0131rakarak 24,89\u00a0mm\u00d718,67\u00a0mm'dir (0,980\u00a0in\u00e7\u00d70,735\u00a0in\u00e7). 4:3 oran\u0131 4:3,075 olan (hemen hemen ayn\u0131) 155\u00b0h x 120\u00b0v insan g\u00f6z\u00fc i\u00e7in g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 taklit eder.\n\nWith a space designated for the standard optical soundtrack, and the frame size reduced to maintain an image that is wider than tall, this resulted in the Academy aperture of 22\u00a0mm \u00d7 16\u00a0mm (0.866\u00a0in \u00d7 0.630\u00a0in) or 1.37:1 aspect ratio.\n\nSinema terminolojisi \nThe motion picture industry convention assigns a value of 1.0 to the image's height; thus, an anamorphic frame (actually 2.39:1) is described (rounded) as 2.40:1 or 2.40 (\"two-four-oh\"). In American cinemas, the common projection ratios are 1.85:1 and 2.40:1. Some European countries have 1.6:1 as the wide screen standard. The \"Academy ratio\" of 1.37:1 was used for all cinema films until 1953 (with the release of George Stevens's Shane in 1.6:1).  During that time, television, which had a similar aspect ratio of 1.3:1, became a threat to movie audiences, Hollywood gave birth to a large number of wide-screen formats:  CinemaScope (up to 2.6:1), Todd-AO (2.20:1), and VistaVision (initially 1.50:1, now 1.6:1 to 2.00:1) to name just a few.  The \"flat\" 1.85:1 aspect ratio was introduced in May, 1953, and became one of the most common cinema projection standards in the U.S. and elsewhere.\n\nFilm kameras\u0131 sistemleri \nDevelopment of various film camera systems must ultimately cater to the placement of the frame in relation to the lateral constraints of the perforations and the optical soundtrack area. One clever wide screen alternative, VistaVision, used standard 35\u00a0mm film running sideways through the camera gate, so that the sprocket holes were above and below frame, allowing a larger horizontal negative size per frame as only the vertical size was now restricted by the perforations. However, the 1.50:1 ratio of the initial VistaVision image was optically converted to a vertical print (on standard 4-perforation 35 mm film) to show in the projectors available at theaters, and was then masked in the projector to the US standard of 1.85:1. The format was briefly revived by Lucasfilm in the 1970s for special effects work that required larger negative size (due to image degradation from the optical printing steps necessary to make multi-layer composites).  It went into obsolescence largely due to better cameras, lenses, and film stocks available to standard 4-perforation formats, in addition to increased lab costs of making prints in comparison to more standard vertical processes. (The horizontal process was later adapted to 70\u00a0mm film by IMAX.)\n\nS\u00fcper 16 mm film is frequently used for televizyon production due to its lower cost, lack of need for soundtrack space on the film itself (as it is not projected but rather transferred to video), and aspect ratio similar to 16:9 (the native ratio of Super 16\u00a0mm is 15:9). It also can be blown up to 35\u00a0mm for theatrical release and therefore is sometimes used for feature films.\n\nG\u00fcncel video standartlar\u0131\n\n4:3 standard\u0131 \nStandart televizyon i\u00e7in 4:3 (1.3:1) (genellikle \"d\u00f6rde \u00fc\u00e7\" olarak an\u0131l\u0131r)  has been in use since the invention of moving picture cameras and many computer monitors used to employ the same aspect ratio. 4:3 was the aspect ratio used for 35 mm films in the silent era. It is also very close to the 1.375:1 aspect ratio defined by the Sinema Sanatlar\u0131 ve Bilimleri Akademisi as a standard after the advent of optical sound-on-film. By having TV match this aspect ratio, movies originally photographed on 35\u00a0mm film could be satisfactorily viewed on TV in the early days of the medium (i.e. the 1940s and the 1950s). When sinema attendance dropped, film end\u00fcstrisini televizyondan farkl\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmak amac\u0131yla Hollywood geni\u015f ekran \u00e7er\u00e7eve oranlar\u0131n\u0131 (daha \u00f6nce bahsedilen 1.85:1 oran\u0131 gibi) olu\u015fturdu. Fakat However since the start of the 21st century broadcasters worldwide are phasing out the 4:3 standard entirely, as technology started to favour the 16:9\/16:10 aspect ratio of all modern HD TV sets, computer monitors as well as broadcast cameras.\n\n16:9 standard\u0131 \n\n16:9 (1.7:1) (genellikle on alt\u0131ya dokuz olarak adland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r) HDTV, standart dijital televizyon ve PALplus analog geni\u015f ekran televizyonun uluslararas\u0131 standart format\u0131d\u0131r. Japonya'n\u0131n Hi-Vision'\u0131 asl\u0131nda 5:3 oranla ba\u015flad\u0131, fakat uluslararas\u0131 standartlar grubu daha geni\u015f bir 5\u2153'e 3 oran\u0131n\u0131 (=16:9) tan\u0131t\u0131nca d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc. \u00c7ok say\u0131da dijital video kameras\u0131 16:9'da kay\u0131t edebilme yetene\u011fine sahip ve 16:9 yaln\u0131zca geni\u015f ekran \u00e7er\u00e7eve oran\u0131 do\u011fall\u0131kla is the only widescreen aspect ratio natively supported by DVD standard\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan do\u011fall\u0131kla  desteklenen . DVD producers can also choose to show even wider ratios such as 1.85:1 and 2.39:1 within the 16:9 DVD frame by hard matting or adding black bars within the image itself. Some films which were made in a 1.85:1 aspect ratio, such as the U.S.-Italian co-production Man of La Mancha, fit quite comfortably onto a 1.7:1 HDTV screen and have been issued anamorphically enhanced on DVD without the black bars.\n\nEkran y\u00fcksekli\u011fi, geni\u015fli\u011fi ve alan\u0131n\u0131n hesaplanmas\u0131 \n\u00c7o\u011fu zaman, ekran \u00f6zellikleri diyagonal uzunluklar\u0131na g\u00f6re verilir. Y\u00fckseklik (h), geni\u015flik (uzunluk i\u00e7in l) ve alan\u0131 (A) bulmak i\u00e7in a\u015fa\u011f\u0131daki form\u00fcller kullan\u0131labilir; burada r oran ve d k\u00f6\u015fegen uzunluk anlam\u0131na gelir.\n\nAyr\u0131mlar\n\nDaha fazla bilgi: Piksel en boy oran\u0131 \nBu makale \u00f6ncelikle, daha resmi olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc en boy oran\u0131 (DAR) olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclenen g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerin en boy oran\u0131n\u0131 ele almaktad\u0131r. Dijital g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerde, piksel boyutlar\u0131n\u0131n oran\u0131 olan depolama en boy oran\u0131 (SAR) ile bir ayr\u0131m vard\u0131r. Bir g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc kare piksellerle g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcleniyorsa, bu oranlar ayn\u0131 olur; de\u011filse, o zaman kare olmayan \"dikd\u00f6rtgen\" pikseller kullan\u0131l\u0131r ve bu oranlar uyu\u015fmaz. Piksellerin en boy oran\u0131, piksel en boy oran\u0131 (PAR) olarak bilinir - kare pikseller i\u00e7in bu 1:1'dir - ve bunlar \u00f6zde\u015flikle ili\u015fkilidir:\n\nSAR\u00a0\u00d7\u00a0PAR\u00a0=\u00a0DAR.\nRearranging (solving for PAR) yields:\nPAR\u00a0=\u00a0DAR\/SAR.\nFor example, a 640\u00a0\u00d7\u00a0480 VGA image has a SAR of 640\/480 = 4:3, and if displayed on a 4:3 display (DAR = 4:3), has square pixels, hence a PAR of 1:1. By contrast, a 720\u00a0\u00d7\u00a0576 D-1 PAL image has a SAR of 720\/576 = 5:4, but is displayed on a 4:3 display (DAR = 4:3), so by this formula it would have a PAR of (4:3)\/(5:4) = 16:15.\n\nHowever, because standard definition digital video was originally based on digitally sampling analog television, the 720 horizontal pixels actually capture a slightly wider image to avoid loss of the original analog picture. In actual images, these extra pixels are often partly or entirely black, as only the center 704 horizontal pixels carry actual 4:3 or 16:9 image. Hence, the actual pixel aspect ratio for PAL video is a little different from that given by the formula, specifically 12:11 for PAL and 10:11 for NTSC. For consistency, the same effective pixel aspect ratios are used even for standard definition digital video originated in digital form rather than converted from analog. For more details refer to the main article.\n\nIn analog images such as film there is no notion of pixel, nor notion of SAR or PAR, and \"aspect ratio\" refers unambiguously to DAR. Actual displays do not generally have non-square pixels, though digital sensors might; they are rather a mathematical abstraction used in resampling images to convert between resolutions.\n\nNon-square pixels arise often in early digital TV standards, related to digitalization of analog TV signals \u2013 whose horizontal and vertical resolutions differ and are thus best described by non-square pixels \u2013 and also in some digital videocameras and computer display modes, such as Color Graphics Adapter (CGA). Today they arise particularly in transcoding between resolutions with different SARs.\n\nDAR is also known as image aspect ratio and picture aspect ratio, though the latter can be confused with pixel aspect ratio.\n\nKar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rma \nComparing two different aspect ratios poses some subtleties \u2013 when comparing two aspect ratios, one may compare images with equal height, equal width, equal diagonal, or equal area. More amorphous questions include whether particular subject matter has a natural aspect ratio (panoramas being wide, full-length images of people being tall), or whether a particular ratio is more or less aesthetically pleasing \u2013 the golden ratio (~1.618) is seen as especially pleasing.  Of common display formats, 16:10 (8\/5) is the closest to the golden ratio, and 15:9 is the closest film format.\n\nGiven the same diagonal, the 4:3 screen offers more (over 12%) area, because it is closer to square (which maximizes area given a diagonal). For CRT-based technology, an aspect ratio that is closer to square is cheaper to manufacture. The same is true for projectors, and other optical devices such as cameras, camcorders, etc. For LCD and Plasma displays, however, the cost is more related to the area, so producing wider and shorter screens yields the same advertised diagonal but lower area, and hence is more profitable.\n\nThe following compares crops of a given image at 4:3 and 16:9, with different parameters equal; note that in terms of subject, the squarer aspect ratio emphasizes the public square, while the wider aspect ratio emphasizes the wide building.\n Two aspect ratios compared with images using the same diagonal size:\n\n Two aspect ratios compared with images using the same area (number of pixels):\n\n Two aspect ratios compared with images using the same height (vertical size):\n\n Two aspect ratios compared with images using the same width (horizontal size):\n\nGe\u00e7mi\u015fteki ve \u015fimdi kullan\u0131lan en boy oranlar\u0131 \nSee list of common resolutions for a listing of computer resolutions and aspect ratios.\nSee list of film formats for a full listing of film formats, including their aspect ratios.\n\n 1.19:1: Sometimes referred to as the Movietone ratio, this ratio was used briefly during the transitional period when the film industry was converting to sound, from 1926 to 1932 approx.  It is produced by superimposing an optical soundtrack over a full-gate 1.3 aperture in printing, resulting in an almost square image.  Films shot in this ratio are often projected or transferred to video incorrectly using a 1.37 mask.  Examples of films shot in the Movietone ratio include Sunrise, M and Hallelujah!.\n 1.3:1 (4:3, 12:9): 35\u00a0mm original silent film ratio, today commonly known in TV and video as 4:3. Also standard ratio for MPEG-2 video compression. This format is still used in many personal video cameras today and has influenced the selection or design of other aspect ratios. It is the standard 16\u00a0mm and Super 35mm ratio.\n 1.37:1: 35\u00a0mm full-screen sound film image, nearly universal in movies between 1932 and 1953. Officially adopted as the Academy ratio in 1932 by AMPAS.  Rarely used in theatrical context nowadays, but occasionally used for other context.\n 1.44:1: IMAX format.  Imax productions use 70\u00a0mm wide film (the same as used for 70\u00a0mm feature films), but the film runs through the camera and projector horizontally.  This allows for a physically larger area for each image.\n 1.50:1 (3:2, 15:10): The aspect ratio of 35\u00a0mm film used for still photography when 8 perforations are exposed. Also the native aspect ratio of VistaVision, for which the film runs horizontally.\n 1.5:1 (14:9): Widescreen aspect ratio sometimes used in shooting commercials etc. as a compromise format between 4:3 (12:9) and 16:9. When converted to a 16:9 frame, there is slight pillarboxing, while conversion to 4:3 creates slight letterboxing. All widescreen content on ABC Family's SD feed is presented in this ratio.\n 1.60:1 (8:5, 16:10): Widescreen computer monitor ratio (for instance 1920\u00d71200 resolution).\n 1.6:1 (5:3, 15:9): 35\u00a0mm Originally a flat ratio invented by Paramount Pictures, now a standard among several European countries; native Super 16\u00a0mm frame ratio. Sometimes this ratio is rounded up to 1.67:1. From the late 1980s to the early 2000s, Walt Disney Feature Animation's CAPS program animated their features in the 1.66:1 ratio (a compromise between the 1.85:1 theatrical ratio and the 1.33:1 ratio used for home video), this format is also used on the Nintendo 3DS's top screen as well.\n 1.75:1 (7:4): Early 35\u00a0mm widescreen ratio, primarily used by MGM and Warner Bros. between 1953 and 1955, and since abandoned, though Disney has cropped some of its post-50's Full Screen films to this ratio for DVD, including The Jungle Book.\n 1.7:1 (16:9 = 42:32): Geni\u015f ekran video standard\u0131, y\u00fcksek \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcrl\u00fckl\u00fc televizyonlarda kullan\u0131l\u0131r, one of three ratios specified for MPEG-2 video compression. Ki\u015fisel video kameralar\u0131ndaki kullan\u0131m\u0131 da giderek artmaktad\u0131r. Sometimes this ratio is rounded up to 1.78:1.\n 1.85:1: 35\u00a0mm US and UK widescreen standard for theatrical film. Introduced by Universal Pictures in May, 1953.  Projects approximately 3 perforations (\"perfs\") of image space per 4 perf frame; films can be shot in 3-perf to save cost of film stock.\n 2.00:1: Original SuperScope ratio, also used in Univisium.  Used as a flat ratio for some American studios in the 1950s, abandoned in the 1960s, but recently popularized by the Red One camera system. In 2001 Studio Ghibli used this framing for its animated film Spirited Away.\n 2.10:1 (21:10): Planned futuristic aspect ratio for television and theatrical films.\n 2.20:1 (11:5, 22:10): 70\u00a0mm standard. Originally developed for Todd-AO in the 1950s. Specified in MPEG-2 as 2.21:1, but hardly used.\n 2.35:1: 35\u00a0mm anamorphic prior to 1970, used by CinemaScope (\"'Scope\") and early Panavision. The anamorphic standard has subtly changed so that modern anamorphic productions are actually 2.39, but often referred to as 2.35 anyway, due to old convention. (Note that anamorphic refers to the compression of the image on film to maximize an area slightly taller than standard 4-perf Academy aperture, but presents the widest of aspect ratios.) All Indian Bollywood films released after 1972 are shot in this standard for theatrical exhibition.\n 2.37:1 (64:27 = 43:33): As of 2010, TVs have been introduced with this aspect ratio and are marketed as \"21:9 cinema displays\", the first of which was the Philips Cinema 21:9 TV. This aspect ratio is not recognized by storage and transmission standards.\n 2.39:1 (~12:5): 35\u00a0mm anamorphic from 1970 onwards. Aspect ratio of current anamorphic (wide-screen) theatrical viewings. Often commercially branded as Panavision format or 'Scope.  Specified as 2.40:1 for Blu-ray Disc film releases (1920\u00d7800 resolution).\n 2.55:1 (~23:9): Original aspect ratio of CinemaScope before optical sound was added to the film in 1954. This was also the aspect ratio of CinemaScope 55.\n 2.59:1 (~13:5): Cinerama at full height (three specially captured 35\u00a0mm images projected side-by-side into one composite widescreen image).\n 2.6:1 (8:3, 24:9): Full frame output from Super 16\u00a0mm negative when an anamorphic lens system has been used. Effectively, an image that is of the ratio 24:9 is squashed onto the native 15:9 aspect ratio of a Super 16\u00a0mm negative.\n 2.76:1 (~11:4): Ultra Panavision 70 (65\u00a0mm with 1.25\u00d7 anamorphic squeeze). Used only on a handful of films between 1962 and 1966, such as the Battle of the Bulge (1965).\n 2.93:1: MGM Camera 65, an early version of Ultra Panavision used up until 1962 which used a 1.33\u00d7 anamorphic squeeze instead to produce a wider aspect ratio. Used only on a few early Ultra Panavision films, most notably Ben-Hur (1959) and also for some sequences of How The West was Won with a slight crop to 2.89:1 when converted to three strip Cinerama.\n 4.00:1: Rare use of Polyvision, three 35\u00a0mm 1.3:1 images projected side by side. First used in 1927 on Abel Gance's Napol\u00e9on.\n 12.00:1: Circle-Vision 360\u00b0 developed by the Walt Disney Company in 1955 for use in Disneyland. Uses nine 4:3 35mm projectors to show an image that completely surrounds the viewer. Used in subsequent Disney theme parks and other past applications.\n\nAspect ratio releases\n\nOriginal aspect ratio (OAR)\n\nOriginal Aspect Ratio (OAR) is a home cinema term for the aspect ratio or dimensions in which a film or visual production was produced \u2013 as envisioned by the people involved in the creation of the work. As an example, the film Gladiator was released to theaters in the 2.39:1 aspect ratio. It was filmed in Super 35 and, in addition to being presented in cinemas and television in the Original Aspect Ratio of 2.39:1, it was also broadcast without the matte altering the aspect ratio to the television standard of 1.3:1. Because of the varied ways in which films are shot, IAR (Intended Aspect Ratio) is a more appropriate term, but is rarely used.\n\nModified aspect ratio (MAR)\n\nModified Aspect Ratio is a home cinema term for the aspect ratio or dimensions in which a film was modified to fit a specific type of screen, as opposed to original aspect ratio.  Modified aspect ratios are usually either 1.3:1 (historically), or (with the advent of widescreen television sets) 1.7:1 aspect ratio.  1.3:1 is the modified aspect ratio used historically in VHS format. A modified aspect ratio transfer is achieved by means of pan and scan or open matte, the latter meaning removing the cinematic matte from a 1.85:1 film to open up the full 1.3:1 frame.  Another name for it is \"prescaled\" aspect ratio\".\n\nProblems in film and television \n\nMultiple aspect ratios create additional burdens on filmmakers and consumers, and confusion among TV broadcasters. It is common for a widescreen film to be presented in an altered format (cropped, letterboxed or expanded beyond the original aspect ratio). It is also not uncommon for windowboxing to occur (when letterbox and pillarbox happen simultaneously). For instance, a 16:9 broadcast could embed a 4:3 commercial within the 16:9 image area. A viewer watching on a standard 4:3 (non-widescreen) television would see a 4:3 image of the commercial with 2 sets of black stripes, vertical and horizontal (windowboxing or the postage stamp effect). A similar scenario may also occur for a widescreen set owner when viewing 16:9 material embedded in a 4:3 frame, and then watching that in 16:9. Active Format Description is a mechanism used in digital broadcasting to avoid this problem. It is also common that a 4:3 image is stretched horizontally to fit a 16:9 screen to avoid pillar boxing but distorts the image so subjects appear short and fat.\n\nBoth PAL and NTSC have provision for some data pulses contained within the video signal used to signal the aspect ratio (See ITU-R BT.1119-1 \u2013 Widescreen signaling for broadcasting).  These pulses are detected by television sets that have widescreen displays and cause the television to automatically switch to 16:9 display mode.  When 4:3 material is included (such as the aforementioned commercial), the television switches to a 4:3 display mode to correctly display the material.  Where a video signal is transmitted via a European SCART connection, one of the status lines is used to signal 16:9 material as well.\n\nStill photography \nCommon aspect ratios in still photography include:\n\n 1:1\n 4:3 (1.3:1)\n 3:2 (1.5:1)\n 5:3 (1.6:1)\n 16:9 (1.7:1)\n 3:1\n\nMany digital still cameras offer user options for selecting multiple image aspect ratios.  Some achieve this through the use of multi-aspect sensors (notably Panasonic), while others simply crop their native image format to have the output match the desired image aspect ratio.\n\n1:1\nis the classic square image, and is available as a choice in some digital still cameras, and harkens back to the days of film cameras when the square image was somewhat popular with photographers using medium format cameras shooting 120 film rolled onto spools. The 6 \u00d7 6\u00a0cm image size was the classic 1:1 format in the recent past.  120 film can still be found and used today.\n\n4:3\nis used by most digital point-and-shoot cameras, Four Thirds system, Micro Four Thirds system cameras and medium format 645 cameras.  The 4:3 digital format popularity was developed to match the then prevailing digital displays of the time, 4:3 computer monitors.\n\nThe next several formats have their roots in classic film photography image sizes, both the classic 35\u00a0mm film camera, and the multiple format Advanced Photo System (APS) film camera.  The APS camera was capable of selecting any of three image formats, APS-H (\"High Definition\" mode), APS-C (\"Classic\" mode) and APS-P (\"Panoramic\" mode).\n\n3:2\nis used by classic 35 mm film cameras using a 24\u00a0mm \u00d7 36\u00a0mm image size, and their digital derivatives represented by DSLRs.  Typical DSLRs come in two flavors, the so-called professional \"full frame\" (24\u00a0mm \u00d7 36\u00a0mm) sensors and variations of smaller, so called \"APS-C\" sensors.  The term \"APS\" is derived from another film format known as  \nthe APS and the \"-C\" refers to \"Classic\" mode, which exposed images over a smaller area (25.1\u00a0mm \u00d7 16.7\u00a0mm) but retaining the same \"classic\" 3:2 proportions as full frame 35\u00a0mm film cameras.\n\nWhen discussing DSLR's and their non-SLR derivatives, the term APS-C has become an almost generic term.  The two major camera manufacturers Canon and Nikon each developed and established sensor standards for their own versions of APS-C sized and proportioned sensors.  Canon actually developed two standards, APS-C and a slightly larger area APS-H (not to be confused with the APS-H film format), while Nikon developed its own APS-C standard, which it calls DX.  Regardless of the different flavors of sensors, and their varying sizes, they are close enough to the original APS-C image size, and maintain the classic 3:2 image proportions that these sensors are generally known as an \"APS-C\" sized sensor.\n\nThe reason for DSLR image sensors being the flatter 3:2 versus the taller point-and-shoot 4:3 is that DSLRs were designed to match the legacy 35\u00a0mm SLR film, whereas the majority of digital cameras were designed to match the predominant computer displays of the time, with VGA, SVGA, XGA and UXGA all being 4:3. Widescreen computer monitors did not become popular until the advent of HDTV which uses a 16:9 image aspect ratio.\n\n16:9 \n16:9 is another format that has its roots in the APS film camera.  Known as APS-H (30.2\u00a0mm \u00d7 16.7\u00a0mm), with the \"-H\" denoting \"High Definition\", the 16:9 format is also the standard image aspect ratio for HDTV.  16:9 is gaining popularity as a format in all classes of consumer still cameras which also shoot High Definition (HD) video.  When still cameras  have an HD video capability, some can also record stills in the 16:9 format, ideal for display on HD televisions and widescreen computer displays.\n\n3:1 \n3:1 is another format that can find its roots in the APS film camera.  Known as APS-P (30.2 \u00d7 9.5\u00a0mm), with the -P\" denoting \"Panorama\", the 3:1 format was used for panorama photography.  The APS-P panorama standard is the least adhered to of any APS standard, and panoramic implementation varies with by manufacturer on different cameras, with the only commonality being that the image is much longer than it is tall, in the classic \"panorama\" style.\n\nCommon print sizes in the ABD (in inches) include 4\u00d76 (1.5), 5\u00d77 (1.4), 4\u00d75 and 8\u00d710 (1.25), and 11\u00d714 (1.27); large format cameras typically use one of these aspect ratios.  Medium-format cameras typically have format designated by nominal sizes in centimeters (6\u00d76, 6\u00d77, 6\u00d79, 6\u00d74.5), but these numbers should not be interpreted as exact in computing aspect ratios.  Print sizes are usually defined by their portrait dimensions (tall) while equipment aspect ratios are defined by their landscape dimensions (wide, flipped sideways).  A good example of this a 4\u00d76 print (6\u00a0inch wide by 4\u00a0inch tall landscape) perfectly matches the 3:2 aspect ratio of a DSLR\/35\u00a0mm, since 6\/2=3 and 4\/2=2.\n\nFor analog projection of photographic slides, projector and screen use a 1:1 aspect ratio, supporting horizontal and vertical orientation equally well. In contrast, digital projection technology typically supports vertically oriented images only at a fraction of the resolution of landscape-oriented images. For example, projecting a digital still image having a 3:2 aspect ratio on a 16:9 projector employs %84,3 of available resolution in horizontal orientation, but only %37,5 in vertical orientation.\n\nAyr\u0131ca bak\u0131n\u0131z \n Active Format Description (AFD)\n Pan and scan\n\nKaynak\u00e7a \n\n\u00d6zel\n\nGenel\n\nD\u0131\u015f ba\u011flant\u0131lar \n\n The Letterbox and Widescreen Advocacy Page\n American Widescreen Museum\n Widescreen Apertures and Aspect Ratios\n Aspect \u2013 combined aspect ratio, frame size and bitrate calculator\n Calculator to Determine Size of 4:3 Image on 16:9 Screen(middle of the page)\n Aspect Ratios Explained: Part 1 Part 2\n Explanation of TV Aspect Ratio format description codes\n Display aspect ratio and pixel aspect ratio used in TV and video applications.\n Number of DVDs for each aspect ratio\n TECHNICAL BULLETIN Understanding Aspect Ratios (708\u00a0KB)\n SCADplus: 16:9 Action plan for the television in the 16:9 screen format \u2013 European Union\n Online Aspect Ratio Calculator\n\nRasyolar\nFilm ve video teknolojisi","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":166100,"url":"https:\/\/tr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%87er%C3%A7eve%20oran%C4%B1","title":"\u00c7er\u00e7eve oran\u0131","language":"tr"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Social Democratic Party of Germany (German Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands or SPD) is the oldest political party in Germany that still exists. It was created on 23 May 1863. Many people think that the SPD is one of the two most important political parties in modern-day Germany, with the Christian Democratic Union (CDU).\n\nHistory \nIt was founded as the General German Workers Association (Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein) (ADAV) on May 23rd in 1863 in Leipzig. Founder was Ferdinand Lassalle.\nIn 1875 the ADAV joined with the Social Democratic Workers' Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) (SDAP), which was founded in 1869 in Eisenach by August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht.\n\nThe new name was the Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands) (SAP).\n\nIn the autumn of 1890 it took its present name.\n\nIn the years between 1875 and 1890 it was made illegal by Otto von Bismarck.\nThe Social democrats wanted to support the rights of workers.\n\nIn 1914 the SPD was split into two. Most members of the party supported the Kaiser and his plans for war. The other members formed the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (Unabh\u00e4ngige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschland) (USPD). They were against the war.\n\nAfter the monarchy fell, the SPD led some governments of the Weimar Republic.\n\nLater the SPD was the only party in the Reichstag who voted against the Enabling Act,(Erm\u00e4chtigungsgesetz) which allowed Hitler to become dictator.\n\nAfterwards, the Nazis banned the SPD and arrested the leading Social Democrats. Many were sent to Nazi concentration camps. Others moved away to towns where they were not known. Friedrich Kellner, an organizer for the SPD in Mainz from 1920 to 1932, moved to Laubach. He wrote entries in a secret diary about the crimes of the Nazis.\n\nAfter World War II, the SPD was reformed.\nIn the GDR (East Germany) the Soviet Union forced the SPD to join with the communist party to make the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (Sozialistische Einheitspartei). In Western Germany the SPD continued as the largest center-left party.\n\nFirst chief of the SPD after WWII was Kurt Schumacher.\n\nThe SPD led some state governments in West Germany, but was always the leading opposition party in the Bundestag (federal parliament).\nUnder its parliamentary party leader Herbert Wehner the SPD joined the federal government led by chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger (CDU) with the CDU and the CSU in 1966. Party chief Willy Brandt became foreign secretary and vice chancellor.\n\nIn 1969 Willy Brandt became federal chancellor. The SPD lead a coalition government with the FDP as its partner. In 1974 Helmut Schmidt became chancellor.\n\nIn 1982 the SPD lost the power of government.\n\nBetween 1998 and 2005 the SPD led the government under chancellor Gerhard Schr\u00f6der. Its partner this time was The Greens.\n\nIn November 2005 the SPD became the junior partner in a coalition with the CDU and CSU under Angela Merkel.\n\nPrograms \nThe SPD is traditionally the party of the workers in Germany.\nIn 1959 the SPD adopted the Godesberger Programm, named after the town of Bad Godesburg in North Rhine-Westphalia. The SPD formally abandoned Marxism, and accepted the market economy (which means people and companies can make money and keep it themselves), but wanted to have a social balance (which means people would get help from the government if they had no job, were sick or too old to work, instead of relying on savings or charity). Companies might get subsidies to help keep people in work.\n\nMany people thought that the government of Chancellor Schr\u00f6der (1998 - 2005) changed the idea of social balance, making people rely more on savings or charity. The SPD lost a lot of members. Now there is a discussion in the SPD about new social balance policies.\n\nRelated pages\n Bundestag (Federal Assembly of Germany)\n Weimar Republic\n\nFurther reading \n Carl E. Schorske, German Social Democracy, 1905-1917: The Development of the Great Schism (Harvard University Press, 1955).\n Vernon L. Lidtke, The Outlawed Party: Social Democracy in Germany, 1878-1890 (Princeton University Press, 1966).\n Abraham J. Berlau, The German Social Democratic Party, 1914-1921 (Columbia University Press, 1949).\n Erich Matthias The Downfall of the Old Social Democratic Party in 1933 pages 51\u2013105 from Republic to Reich The Making of the Nazi Revolution Ten Essays edited by Hajo Holborn, (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972).\n\nOther websites \n\n Party official website\n Party official website in English \n official website of the party's youth organisation\n Is the Left Still on the Left?  \u2014 Dirk Maxeiner and Michael Miersch on the German left\n\n1863 establishments in Europe\n1860s establishments in Germany\n\n \nSocialist International","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":158,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":46643,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social%20Democratic%20Party%20of%20Germany","title":"Social Democratic Party of Germany","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"2011 (twenty eleven) (MMXI) was .\n\nAccording to the North Korean Minguo calendar, this was Juche year 100. This year was also the 100th of the Republic of China (Taiwan) Era year (\u6c11\u570b100\u5e74).\n\nThe United Nations designated 2011 the International Year of Forests and International Year of Chemistry.\n\nThe 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, which struck Japan in March, triggered numerous tsunami warnings, killed over 15,000 people and caused massive damage in Japan. The earthquake also resulted in the Fukushima nuclear disaster; it was the deadliest nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986.\n\nEvents\n\nJanuary \n\n January 1 \u2013 Estonia starts using the euro currency.\n January 1 \u2013 Start of Hungary's Presidency of the European Union\n January 1 \u2013 Dilma Rousseff becomes Brazil's first female President.\n January 4 \u2013 A solar eclipse is seen over most of Europe, North Africa and western Asia.\n January 4 \u2013 Tunisian fruit seller Mohamed Bouazizi dies after setting himself on fire in an act of protest.\n January 7 \u2013 The 2011 AFC Asian Cup is held in Qatar, until January 29, won by Japan.\n January 8 \u2013 Twenty people are shot in Tucson, Arizona, six of whom are killed.  One of the victims was congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords.\n January 9 \u2013 South Sudan holds a referendum on independence.\n January 9 \u2013 Iran Air Flight 227 crashes, killing 77 people.\n January 10 \u2013 Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia and the Lockyer Valley flood with more than 16 people killed.\n January 11 \u2013 More than 480 people are killed in flooding and mudslides in the Brazilian state of Rio de Janeiro.\n January 14 \u2013 In the wake of anti-government demonstrations, Tunisia's President Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali dissolves the government and resigns from office. Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi takes over as caretaker-President, before being replaced by Fouad Mebazaa.\n January 24 \u2013 A terrorist bombing at Moscow's Domodedovo Airport kills at least 35 people.\n January 25 \u2013 2011 Egyptian protests: Pro-democracy demonstrations begin in Egypt against the rule of President Hosni Mubarak.\n January 28 \u2013 2011 Egyptian protests: Hosni Mubarak cuts internet access.\n\nFebruary \n\n February 1 \u2013 2011 Egyptian protests: Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak announces his intention to resign after elections in September. The following day, pro-Mubarak and anti-Mubarak protesters clash violently in central Cairo.\n February 3 \u2013 Tropical Cyclone Yasi hits Queensland, Australia.\n February 6 \u2013 A centennial celebration is held all over the United States to celebrate the 100th birthday of Ronald Reagan.\n February 11 \u2013 2011 Egyptian protests: President Hosni Mubarak resigns, as the Egyptian government falls. Egypt is left in control of the military until elections can be held.\n February 14 \u2013 It is announced that the economy of the People's Republic of China overtook the Japanese economy as the world's second largest.\n Pro-democracy protests begin in Bahrain and Libya, with violent crackdowns being reported.\n February 19 \u2013 April 2 \u2013 The Cricket World Cup is held in India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, and is won by India.\n February 22 \u2013 Christchurch, New Zealand is struck by an earthquake measuring 6.3, causing a lot of damage, and killing at least 181 people.\n\nMarch \n\n March 9 \u2013 Enda Kenny becomes Taoiseach of the Republic of Ireland.\nSpace Shuttle Discovery returns from its last space mission before its retirement.\n March 10 \u2013 Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, announces his intention to stand down from his official powers, and to transfer them to an elected official.\n March 11 \u2013 An earthquake of magnitude 9.1 strikes near Sendai on the east coast of the island of Honshu, Japan, causing a lot of damage and triggering tsunamis, with warnings issued around the Pacific Ocean. Thousands of people have been killed, and thousands more are missing. A heavy nuclear accident was also result of the earthquake, prompting fears over radiation levels.\n March 17 \u2013 2011 Libyan protests: The United Nations resolution for a no-fly zone over Libya is passed.\n March 18 \u2013 NASA's MESSENGER spacecraft arrives in orbit around Mercury.\nNASA's Pluto probe New Horizons crosses the orbit of Uranus, after a five-year journey. This is faster than Voyager 2, which took eight years.\n March 19 \u2013 The Moon makes its closest approach to Earth, by nearly 3,000 miles, in 18 years.\n March 19 \u2013 2011 Libyan protests: United Nations-authorised military intervention in Libya begins.\n March 23 \u2013 Portugal's Prime Minister Jose Socrates announces his resignation, as a result of the financial crisis.\n March 24 \u2013 2011 Burma earthquake: An earthquake of magnitude 6.8 centred in Burma kills 75 people.\n March 27 \u2013 Bulgaria and Romania fully implement the Schengen Agreement.\n March 31 \u2013 After months of crisis following a disputed Presidential election, intense fighting breaks out around Ivory Coast's largest city, Abidjan, between forces loyal to Alassane Ouattara and those loyal to Laurent Gbagbo.\n\nApril \n\n April 7 \u2013 A school shooting in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, leaves 13 dead, including the gunman.\n April 9 \u2013 A gunman opens fire at a shopping centre in Alphen an den Rijn, Netherlands, leaving 7 dead.\n April 11 \u2013 Ivory Coast crisis: Laurent Gbagbo is arrested in his bunker in Abidjan by troops from France, the United Nations, and troops supporting Alassane Ouattara.\n April 12 \u2013 Four Space Shuttles (including the Endeavor, the Discovery, Enterprise, and Atlantis) are sent to Florida, New York, California, and Washington D.C..\n April 22 \u2013 Hundreds of people are killed as police move in on anti-government demonstrations in Syria.\n April 27 \u2013 Hundreds of people are killed in a tornado outbreak across the southern and central United States.\n April 29 \u2013 Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge marry at Westminster Abbey in London.\n\nMay \n May 1 \u2013 U. S. Forces capture and kill al-Qaeda terrorist leader Osama bin Laden in northern Pakistan.\n May 6 \u2013 The Scottish National Party wins an overall majority in the Scottish Parliament.\n May 11 \u2013 Two earthquakes kill at least nine people in southeastern Spain.\n May 12 \u2013 John Demjanjuk is convicted in Germany of supervising the killings of thousands of Jews in Concentration Camps.\n May 14 \u2013 Ell & Nikki of Azerbaijan win the Eurovision Song Contest.\n May 15 \u2013 Head of the International Monetary Fund Dominique Strauss-Kahn is arrested in New York on charges of sexual assault. He resigns his post a few days later. He is released in August.\n May 17 \u2013 Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom makes a state visit to the Republic of Ireland.\n May 21 \u2013 The Grimsvotn volcano in Iceland erupts, causing some flight disruption in Northern Europe.\n May 22 \u2013 A tornado kills at least 125 people in Joplin, Missouri.\n May 26 \u2013 Bosnian Serb general Ratko Mladic is arrested in Serbia on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity.\n late May \u2013 At least 20 people die in an E. coli outbreak centred in Germany. It was originally attributed to Spanish cucumbers, but is suspected to come from bean sprouts.\n\nJune \n\n June 1 \u2013 Sepp Blatter is controversially chosen to serve a third term as President of FIFA, amidst a major corruption scandal.\n June 4 \u2013 The eruption of the Puyehue Cordon Caulle volcanic structure in southern Chile causes an ash cloud, disrupting flights in southern South America, and as far away as Oceania.\n June 5 \u2013 Yemen's President Ali Abdullah Saleh leaves for Saudi Arabia to be treated for injuries sustained in an attack on the Presidential Palace. Demonstrators celebrate while powers are temporarily transferred to Vice President Abd al-Rab al-Mansur al-Hadi.\n June 12 \u2013 Thousands of Syrians flee into Turkey as Syrian troops lay siege to the town of Jisr-ash Shugur.\n June 15 \u2013 2011 Vancouver Stanley Cup riot\n June 22 \u2013 American fugitive criminal Whitey Bulger is arrested in Los Angeles.\n June 26 - July 17 \u2013 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup in Germany, won by Japan\n\nJuly \n\n July 1 \u2013 Start of Poland's Presidency of the European Union\n July 2 \u2013 Albert II, Prince of Monaco marries Charlene Wittstock.\n July 3 \u2013 The United Nations appeals for aid for parts of East Africa that are affected by a severe drought.\n July 7 \u2013 The world's first synthetic organ transplant is carried out, using an artificial windpipe coated in stem cells.\n July 8 \u2013 The  is launched on the last-ever Space Shuttle launch.\n July 9 \u2013 South Sudan declares independence from Sudan.\n July 10 \u2013 British tabloid newspaper, the News of the World, ends publication, after a major phone-hacking scandal.\n July 12 \u2013 Neptune completes its first full orbit around the Sun since its official discovery.\n July 13 \u2013 Three serial coordinated bomb explosions occur in different locations of Mumbai, the financial capital of India, killing 24 and leaving more than 130 people injured.\n July 14 \u2013 The United Nations admits South Sudan as the 193rd member nation.\n July 20 \u2013 Goran Hadzic is detained in Serbia, being arrested on war crimes charges.\n The United Nations declares that Somalia is in a state of famine.\n July 21 \u2013 The  returns to Earth in the last mission of the Space Shuttle programme.\n July 22 \u2013 Two attacks in Norway kill 77 people; 8 people at an explosion in the government quarter of Oslo, and 69 are shot dead at a Summer Youth Camp on the island of Utoya.\n July 23 \u2013 Singer Amy Winehouse is found dead at her home in London.\n July 28 \u2013 Ollanta Humala becomes President of Peru.\n July 31 \u2013 Because of uncertainties over a clampdown on press freedom, there is believed to be at least 121 people killed in a Syrian army tank raid on the town of Hama, and over 150 people are reportedly killed in a crackdown in the whole country.\n\nAugust \n\n August 1 \u2013 The United States narrowly avoids defaulting on its debt.\n August 5 \u2013 Yingluck Shinawatra becomes Prime Minister of Thailand.\n NASA announces that its Mars Reconnaissance orbiter has captured photographic evidence of liquid water on the planet Mars during warm seasons.\n August 5 \u2013 Juno, the first solar powered spacecraft to be sent to the planet Jupiter, is launched, from Cape Canaveral.\n August 12 -Francesco Paolo Marra born.\n August 13 \u2013 Germany commemorates 50 years since the building of the Berlin Wall.\n August 20 \u2013 Hurricane Irene forms. It causes a lot of destruction and flooding in many Caribbean countries and the Eastern United States over the following days.\n August 22 \u2013 The 2011 Libyan civil war intensifies as rebel forces enter Tripoli.\n August 26 \u2013 Naoto Kan announces his resignation as Prime Minister of Japan.\n August 29 \u2013 Hurricane Irene dissolves over Eastern Canada.\nYoshihiko Noda is chosen as the next Prime Minister of Japan, taking office in September.\n August 31 \u2013 The end of analog television broadcasting in Canada translation to Digital Televisions.\n\nSeptember \n September 2 \u2013 A Chilean Air Force plane crashes in the Pacific Ocean, killing all 21 people on board.\n September 7 \u2013 India and Bangladesh sign an agreement ending their border dispute.\n A plane carrying the Lokomotiv Yaroslavl ice hockey team crashes just after take-off near Yaroslavl, Russia, killing 43 of the 45 people on board.\n September 9 - October 23 \u2013 The 2011 Rugby World Cup is held in New Zealand, won by New Zealand.\n September 10 \u2013 More than 190 people die when a ferry capsizes off the coast of Tanzania.\n September 11 \u2013 Commemorations marking the 10th anniversary of the September 11, 2001 attacks take place.\n September 12 \u2013 Around 100 people die after an oil pipeline explosion in Nairobi, Kenya.\n September 18 \u2013 An earthquake centred near the Sikkim-Nepal border kills an estimated 111 people.\n September 19 \u2013 The United Nations launches an appeal for aid after the 2011 Sindh floods.\n September 20 \u2013 Former President of Afghanistan Burhanuddin Rabbani is killed in a bomb attack.\n September 23 \u2013 President of Yemen Ali Abdullah Saleh returns home after being treated in Saudi Arabia for injuries sustained in an attack on his compound in June.\n September 29 \u2013 China launches the Tiangong 1 space laboratory, its first space station module, from the launch pad in Gansu province.\n\nOctober \n\n October 3 \u2013 The winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine are announced as Bruce Beutler, Jules Hoffmann and Ralph Steinman. Steinman had died three days earlier, unknown to the Nobel committee. It was later announced that he could remain as a Nobel laureate.\n October 3 \u2013 Helle Thorning-Schmidt becomes Prime Minister of Denmark.\n October 4 \u2013 139 people are killed in a car bombing in Mogadishu.\n October 4 \u2013 Major floods affect parts of Thailand and Cambodia.\n October 7 \u2013 The Nobel Peace Prize is shared between Liberian President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, Liberian activist Leymah Gbowee and Yemeni activist Tawakel Karman.\n October 15 \u2013 Occupy campaign: In cities around the world, many people protest against economic mismanagement, also in support of the Occupy Wall Street campaign.\n October 18 \u2013 Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit is released after five years of captivity. In return, Israel releases 1,027 Palestinian prisoners.\n October 20 \u2013 2011 Libyan civil war: Forces loyal to the National Transitional Council take control of Sirte, the last pro-Gaddafi stronghold. Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi, who ruled Libya since 1969, is captured and killed.\n October 23 \u2013 A magnitude 7.2 earthquake strikes eastern Turkey, near the City of Van, killing at least 575 people, and damaging many buildings.\n October 27 \u2013 Michael D. Higgins is elected to succeed Mary McAleese as President of Ireland.\n October 27 \u2013 EU leaders hold an emergency meeting in Brussels on the European Sovereign Debt Crisis, where they decide to write off 50% of Greek bonds, recapitalisation of European banks, and an increase of the bailout fund of the European Financial Stability Facility, totalling a trillion Euros.\n October 31 \u2013 According to the United Nations, the world population reaches 7 billion.\n\nNovember \n November 7 \u2013 Dr. Conrad Murray is found guilty of involuntary manslaughter in relation to the death of Michael Jackson.\n November 10 \u2013 Lucas Papademos is chosen to lead a caretaker government in Greece.\n November 11 \u2013 Michael D. Higgins becomes President of Ireland.\n November 12 \u2013 As the result of an economic crisis, Silvio Berlusconi resigns as Prime Minister of Italy.\n November 13 \u2013 Mario Monti is chosen to become Prime Minister of Italy.\n November 18 - the release of minecraft\n November 19 \u2013 Muammar al-Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi is captured in southern Libya, near the border with Niger.\n November 19 \u2013 2011 Egyptian protests: Protestors demonstrate in central Cairo against the military rulers, and several are killed when police open fire.\n November 20 \u2013 Mariano Rajoy's Partido Popular score a landslide victory in Spain's parliamentary election. Rajoy is therefore elected to become the next Prime Minister of Spain.\n November 22 \u2013 The American Samoa national football team scores its first-ever official win, defeating the Tonga national football team 2-1 in the Oceanian FIFA World Cup qualifiers.\n November 26 \u2013 John Key is elected to a second term as Prime Minister of New Zealand.\n November 26 \u2013 The Mars Science Laboratory is launched on board an Atlas V rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida, and is set to arrive on Mars in August 2012.\n\nDecember \n\n December 4 \u2013 Zoran Jankovic's party wins the most seats in the Slovenian Parliament.\n December 4 \u2013 45,000 people in Koblenz, Germany, are evacuated in order for a World War II bomb to be defused.\n December 5 \u2013 NASA announces the discovery of the earth-like planet Kepler 22-b orbiting around another star.\n December 6 \u2013 Elio Di Rupo becomes Prime Minister of Belgium. Prior to this, Belgium did not have an official government for 589 days.\n December 9 \u2013 Croatia signs an agreement that will allow it to become a member of the EU on July 1, 2013.\n December 12 \u2013 Moncef Marzouki becomes President of Tunisia.\n December 13 \u2013 At least 5 people are killed and 124 wounded at a grenade and gun attack in Liege, Belgium. The gunman, Nordine Amrani, commits suicide shortly after.\n December 15 \u2013 The United States ends its military involvement in Iraq.\n December 17 \u2013 Tropical typhoon Washi hits Mindanao in the southern Philippines, killing over 1,000 people, with many more reported missing.\n December 19 \u2013 North Korean state television announces the death of Kim Jong-il, who had led the country since 1994. His son, Kim Jong-un, is designated as his successor.\n December 19 \u2013 Liechtenstein implements the Schengen Agreement.\n December 22 \u2013 Several suicide bombings occur in Baghdad.\n December 23 \u2013 Around 40 people are killed in a bomb attack in Damascus.\n December 25 \u2013 Four churches across Nigeria are hit by bombs, killing at least 40 people. The Islamist group Boko Haram claims responsibility.\n December 29 \u2013 Kim Jong-un is installed as North Korea's leader at the end of a two-day state funeral for Kim Jong-il.\n December 29 \u2013 The International Date Line is shifted to the west of Samoa and Tokelau, both of which do not observe December 30, 2011 as a result. The change is made to improve trade with the main partners of Australia and New Zealand.\n\nDeaths \n\n January 2 - Pete Postlethwaite, English actor (b. 1946)\n January 4 - Gerry Rafferty, Scottish singer-songwriter (b. 1947)\n February 28 - Jane Russell, American actress (b. 1921)\n March 23 - Elizabeth Taylor, English-American actress (b. 1932)\n April 9 - Sidney Lumet American movie director (b. 1924)\n May 3 - Jackie Cooper, American actor and director (b. 1922)\n May 27 - Gil Scott-Heron, American poet and musician (b. 1949)\n June 23 - Peter Falk, American actor (b. 1927)\n July 8 - Betty Ford, First Lady of the United States (b. 1918)\n August 29 - David Honeyboy Edwards, American blues guitarist and singer (b. 1915)\n September 25 - Wangari Maathai, Kenyan environmentalist and political activist (b. 1940)\n October 5 - Steve Jobs, American businessman, investor and philanthropist (b. 1955)\n November 8 - Valentin Kozmich Ivanov, Russian footballer (b. 1934)\n December 18 - Johannes Heesters, Dutch-born actor, singer and entertainer (b. 1903)\n\nNobel Prizes \n Physiology or Medicine: Bruce Beutler, Jules Hoffmann, Ralph Steinman\n Physics: Saul Perlmutter, Adam G. Riess, Brian P. Schmidt\n Chemistry: Dan Shechtman\n Literature: Tomas Transtromer\n Peace: Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, Leymah Gbowee, Tawakel Karman\n Economics: Christopher A. Sims, Thomas J. Sargent\n\nMajor religious holidays \n January 6 \u2013 Epiphany, Three Kings Day (Christianity)\n January 7 \u2013 Christmas (Eastern Christianity) (on January 6 in Armenia)\n January 14 \u2013 Makar Sankranti, Hinduism\n February 1 \u2013 Imbolc, a Cross-quarter day\n February 3 \u2013 Chinese New Year\n March 8 \u2013 Shrove Tuesday\/Mardi Gras, end of Carnival season (Christianity)\n March 9 \u2013 Ash Wednesday and beginning of Lent (Christianity)\n March 17 \u2013 Saint Patrick's Day\n March 21 \u2013 (Northern hemisphere) Vernal Equinox, also known as Ostara\n April 17 \u2013 Palm Sunday (Christianity)\n April 18 \u2013 Beginning of Passover (Judaism)\n April 22 \u2013 Good Friday (Christianity)\n April 24 \u2013 Easter (Christianity)\n May 1 \u2013 Beltane, a Cross-quarter day\n June 7 \u2013 Shavuot begins (Judaism)\n June 24 \u2013 Saint John's Day, northern Midsummer celebrations\n August 1 \u2013 Lammas, a cross-quarter day\n August 1 \u2013 Beginning of Ramadan (Islam)\n August 31 \u2013 Eid ul-Fitr (Islam)\n September 23 \u2013 Northern Autumnal Equinox, also known as Mabon\n September 28 \u2013 Rosh Hashanah begins at sundown (Judaism)\n October 7 \u2013 Yom Kippur begins at sundown (Judaism)\n October 26 \u2013 Diwali (Hinduism)\n November 1 \u2013 All Saints Day\n November 6 \u2013 Eid al-Adha (Islam)\n November 26 \u2013 Islamic New Year\n November 27 \u2013 First Sunday of Advent (Western Christianity)\n December 20 \u2013 Hanukkah (Judaism)\n December 25 \u2013 Christmas (Western Christianity)\n\nIn fiction\n\nMovies \n The Taiwanese movie Millennium Mambo (2001) where a woman narrates from 2011 about her life 10 years earlier.\n The movie Revengers Tragedy (2003) is set in a dystopian Liverpool in the year 2011, following the aftermath of a natural disaster which has destroyed the southern half of Great Britain.\n\nTelevision \n The Heroes television series visits 2011 in several different potential futures.\n In the Aeon Flux television series and movie, 99% of the world's population is wiped out by a mysterious virus in the year 2011.\n\nComputer and video games \n Call of Duty: Black Ops (2011)\n S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Clear Sky (2008)\n Persona 4 (2008)\n Fallout 3 (2008)\n Operation Flashpoint: Dragon Rising  (2009)\n Max Payne 3 (2010)\n Heavy Rain (2010)\n Fallout: New Vegas (2010)\n Homefront (2011)\n\nLiterature \n In K. A. Applegate's Remnants book series, 2011 is the year life on Earth becomes extinct after a 73-mile-wide asteroid nicknamed \"The Rock\" impacts Portugal. Eighty other humans are placed in a shuttle named the Mayflower mere hours before impact and put into artificial hibernation, while a handful of humans in shelters survive the impact on Earth.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":31950,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2011","title":"2011","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Vulcan is the god of fire in Roman mythology. His Greek equivalent is the god Hephaestus. He is the son of Jupiter and Juno, and the husband of Venus. In Roman mythology, he was one of the top 12 gods in the heavens - the 12 gods that made up the Dei Consentes, the council of Gods.\n\nMythology of Vulcan \nVulcan was born extremely ugly. His mother, Juno, tried to throw him off a cliff, but failed to kill her son. Instead, she put him in a volcano and told him to stay there for most of his young life. Little did she know that her young boy would grow to be a very talented blacksmith for all the gods and goddesses of Olympus.\n\nVulcan made thrones for the other gods to sit on in Mount Etna. Through his identification with the Hephaestus of Greek mythology, he came to be considered as the manufacturer of art, arms, iron, jewelry and armor for various gods and heroes, including the thunderbolts of Jupiter. He was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and husband of Maia and Venus. His smithy was believed to be underneath Mount Etna in Sicily.\n\nVulcan had a happy childhood with dolphins as his playmates and pearls as his toys. Late in his childhood, he found the remains of a fisherman's fire on the beach and became fascinated with an unextinguished coal, still red-hot and glowing.\n\nVulcan carefully shut this precious coal in a clam shell and took it back to his underwater grotto and made a fire with it. On the first day after, Vulcan stared at this fire for hours on end. On the second day, he discovered that when he made the fire hotter with bellows, certain stones sweated iron, silver or gold. On the third day he beat the cooled metal into shapes: bracelets, chains, swords and shields. Vulcan made pearl-handled knives and spoons for his foster mother, he made a silver chariot for himself, and bridles so that seahorses could transport him quickly. He even made slave-girls of gold to wait on him and do his bidding. From then on, Vulcan and Thetis lived like royalty.\n\nLater, Thetis left her underwater grotto to attend a dinner party on Mount Olympus wearing a beautiful necklace of silver and sapphires, which Vulcan had made for her. Juno admired the necklace and asked as to where she could get one. Thetis became flustered causing Juno to become suspicious and, at last, the queen god discovered the truth: the baby she had once rejected had grown into a talented blacksmith.\n\nJuno was furious and demanded that Vulcan return home, a demand that he refused. However he did send Juno a beautifully constructed chair made of silver and gold, inlaid with mother-of-pearl. Juno was delighted with this gift but, as soon as she sat in it her weight triggered hidden springs and metal bands sprung forth to hold her fast. The more she shrieked and struggled the more firmly the mechanical throne gripped her; the chair was a cleverly designed trap.\n\nFor three days Juno sat fuming, still trapped in Vulcan's chair, she could not sleep, she could not stretch, she could not eat. It was Jupiter who finally saved the day, he promised that if Vulcan released Juno he would give him a wife, Venus the goddess of love and beauty. Vulcan agreed and married Venus. He later built a smithy under Mount Etna on the island of Sicily. It was said that whenever Venus is unfaithful, Vulcan grows angry and beats the red-hot metal with such a force that sparks and smoke rise up from the top of the mountain, to create a volcanic eruption.\n\nAccording to Virgil, Vulcan was the father of Caeculus.\n\nTo punish mankind for stealing the secrets of fire, Jupiter ordered the other gods to make a poisoned gift for man. Vulcan's contribution to the beautiful and foolish Pandora was to mould her from clay and to give her form. He also made the thrones for the other gods on Mount Olympus.\n\nWorship \nVulcan's oldest shrine in Rome, called the \"Volcanal\", was in the Roman Forum.  It was said to have been built during the Roman Kingdom by Titus Tatius, the Sabine co-king, in the eighth century BC.  The Etruscan haruspices thought a temple of Vulcan should be outside the city, and the Volcanal may originally have been on or outside the city limits before they expanded to include the Capitoline Hill.  Vulcan also had a temple on the Campus Marius.\n\nThe Romans identified Vulcan with the Greek smith-god Hephaestus and he became associated like his Greek counterpart with the use of fire in metalworking. A fragment of a Greek pot showing Hephaestus found at the Volcanal has been dated to the 6th century BC, suggesting they were already associated.  However, Vulcan had a stronger association than Hephaestus with fire's destructiveness, and his worshippers wanted to encourage the god to avert harmful fires.\n\nHis festival, the Vulcanalia, was celebrated on August 23, when the summer heat made a fire hazard.  The people made bonfires, and threw live fish or small animals into the fires as animal sacrifice.  Vulcan was among the gods placated after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64.  Also because of that fire, Domitian (emperor 81\u201396) established a new altar to Vulcan on the Quirinal Hill.  A red bull-calf and red boar were added to the sacrifices made on the Vulcanalia, at least in that part of town.\n\nStatues \n There is a statue of Vulcan in Birmingham, Alabama, USA. It is the largest cast iron statue in the world.\n\nRelated pages\n Hephaestus - Greek mythology version of Vulcan\n\nReferences\n\nRoman gods and goddesses","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":26878,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulcan%20%28mythology%29","title":"Vulcan (mythology)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A dictionary is a type of book which explains the meanings of words or, more precisely, lexemes. The words are arranged in alphabetical order so that they can be found quickly. The word \"dictionary\" comes from the Latin \"dictio\" (\"saying\").\n\nThere are several types of dictionaries: dictionaries which explain words and how they are used, dictionaries which translate words from one language to another, dictionaries of biography which tell about famous people, technical dictionaries which explain the meanings of technical words or words connected to a particular subject (sometimes called a thesaurus). Some of these come close to being an encyclopedia, but an encyclopedia gives a lot of extra information about things (knowledge) and does not explain the use of the language. An encyclopedic dictionary gives less information about the topic than a real encyclopedia does, but more than a simple dictionary.\n\nDictionaries which explain the meaning of words\n\nOnline dictionaries \n TheFreeDictionary\n Longman English Dictionary Online\nDictionaries which explain what words mean will give a clear \"definition\" of the word (e.g. hippopotamus : a hoofed mammal with thick skin, large mouth and short legs that lives in rivers and lakes of Africa.)\n\nA big dictionary will also give more information about the word. It will explain how it is pronounced. Usually the International Phonetic Alphabet is used for this. It will explain how the word is used. This is not a problem for a word like \"hippopotamus\", but a word like \"put\" has so many different meanings that a large dictionary may have a whole page or more to explain how it can be used. It will also explain the origin of the word (e.g. Greek \"hippos\" horse and \"potamus\" river).\n\nA dictionary may also give the form of the word in different tenses, plural form etc.\n\nDictionaries which translate into foreign languages \nThere are also dictionaries which translate words into foreign languages. Often one volume (one book) will translate both ways; for example, half the book might be translating from English to Dutch and the other half from Dutch to English.\n\nWhen using a dictionary to find out how to say something in another language one has to be careful to choose the right word. A word like \"right\" has two basic meanings in English: 1) \"correct\", and 2) the opposite of \"left\". Other languages  have different words for these different meanings, but they have homonyms of their own. A word like \"put\" has many meanings. A good dictionary will have a large list of these meanings to help people find the word they want. In many languages, for example, the word \"put\" will be different according to whether something is being put onto something (e.g. a table) or into something (e.g. a cupboard).\n\nUpdating dictionaries \n\nDictionaries need to be updated frequently because of the way language changes. New words are often brought into a language (e.g. lots of computer terms) or words change their meanings (e.g. \"gay\" or \"cool\"). In this sense, the most famous English Dictionary is the Oxford English Dictionary (or OED). Words are always being added to the OED. They are never taken out even if they are obsolete (not used any more). The OED can be accessed online (with a subscription).\n\nRelated pages \nWiktionary\n\nRelevant literature \n Henning Bergenholtz\/Sven Tarp (eds.): Manual of Specialised Lexicography. Benjamins 1995.\n Sandro Nielsen: The Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Gunter Narr 1994.\n\nOther websites \n Centre for Lexicography \n Dictionary -Citizendium\n\n Oxford English Dictionary\n Oxford Learner's Dictionary\n Cambridge Learner's Dictionary (British English)\n Macmillan Dictionary\n Collins Cobuild English Dictionary\n American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language\n Merriam-Webster American English dictionary\n Merriam-Webster Learner's Dictionary\n Learn These Words First: Multi-Layer Dictionary\n SimpleVocab Multi-word Dictionary\n English to English Dictionary\n Terms Dictionary - English to Multi-Lang Dictionary \n\n \nReference works","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":140,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2}},"id":206,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dictionary","title":"Dictionary","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An invertebrate is an animal that does not have a spinal column or backbone. This contrasts with vertebrate: if an animal is not a vertebrate (fish, reptile, amphibian, bird, or mammal), it is an invertebrate.\n\nThe main phyla (groups) of invertebrate animals are:\n Annelida: segmented worms \n Arthropods: (arachnids, crustaceans, insects, and others); the largest groups of invertebrates.\n Brachiopods: the lamp-shells.\n Bryozoa: sea mats or moss animals (sometimes they look like corals)\n Cnidarians: jellyfish, sea anemones, hydroids.\n Echinoderms: starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers\n Molluscs: (gastropods, cephalopods, bivalves and others); a large group of invertebrates.\n Nematoda: roundworms\n Porifera: sponges\n Platyhelminthes: flatworms\n Rotifers: tiny \"wheel animals\", which live in habitats such as pond water.\n\nInsects and other arthropods have no bones, but they have a skeleton on the outside of their bodies, called an exoskeleton. \n\nThere are 18 more groups of invertebrates, mostly minor: see List of animal phyla.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":140,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":18880,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invertebrate","title":"Invertebrate","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A stunt performer, also called a stuntman or stuntwoman, is a person who performs dangerous acts usually within the television or movie production industry. In this line of work the stuntman (or woman) is paid to do those actions that are deemed too dangerous for the regular actor to perform, these include jumping from a height, falling down, being in a car crash, or pretending to fight with weapons such as swords or knives. These stunts are usually presented as a small feature within a larger production. The stunts are done with safety equipment, but also without them.\n\nAction movies, adventure movies, war movies, martial arts movies, thriller movies and crime movies and television series use many stunt performers to do the dangerous actions depicted in the movies or series. Some actors such as Jackie Chan are also stunt performers who perform this kind of work.\n\nThere are, however, other stunt performers that present dangerous stunts to a live audience in shows rather than as part of a larger story in movies or television series. Sometimes these are as standalone effects and sometimes as a feature within a larger stunt show. Escape artists, sword swallowers and other circus and sideshow acts are an example of this. These types of stunt performers can be found scattered throughout history with one of the most famous from the last Century being escape artist Harry Houdini.\n\nWorking as a stuntman\n\nStunt work is dangerous regardless of whether you work in movie, television or within a live stunt show. Stuntmen are often hurt during the stunts they perform and in some cases stuntmen have even been killed.\n\nStunt work is not steady work. Stuntmen who work in movie are only employed on a movie-by-movie basis, sometimes they are needed for a number of months if they are lucky to double for the lead actor but could quite easily only be needed for a single stunt that is filmed over the space of a day or two.\n\nWithin the live stunt industry work is very seasonal. A stuntman can be working long hours during the summer months, often seven days a week, but not at all during the winter period.\n\nStuntmen who perform for movie and television often benefit from having a large safety crew present, which is in stark contrast to those who perform within live shows who often work alone and are responsible for all aspects of the stunt they perform. \n\nStuntmen also have to travel to many different regions or countries to get work. For people who like to travel, this may be an advantage. However, it can also make it hard to see friends and relatives, if you are away from home.\n\nBecoming a stuntman\nTo become a stuntman, some people go to a stuntman school. There are stuntman schools in California and Florida, where professional stuntmen teach people how to do stunts. Most people do not go to school to become stuntmen, though. People learn the skills from other more experienced stuntmen. \n\nWhen a stuntman first begins working as a stuntman, they do not make much money. Once a stuntman has experience, they can ask for more money. In many countries, stuntmen have to join a union to work on movie or television show productions, and pay dues (payments) to the union. There are more men working as stuntmen than women. \n\nUsually, a stuntman within movie and television does not work as a stuntman after they become 40 years old. However those who work live stunt shows continue to do so until very late in life. Kondini continues to work as a sword swallower and escape artist despite being in his 70s. Some experienced stuntmen become stunt coordinators or consultants, who plan and devise the stunts performed in TV shows and movies.\n\nRelated concepts\nAnother job for men or women in the television or movie production industry where people replace the actors is the job of body double. When a movie has a scene with a love scene or a nudity scene that the actor does not want to do, the movie or television director may hire a man or a woman to be a body double. The man or woman pretends to be the actor for a short period, so that the love scene or nudity scene can be filmed.\n\nOther websites\n The Stuntmen's Association of Motion Pictures\n United Stuntmen's Association\n\nEntertainment occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":156,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":47206,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stunt%20performer","title":"Stunt performer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A nation is a group of people who share the same culture, history, language or ethnicity.  The word can also be used for the population of a country.\n\nThe word nation comes from a Latin language word meaning \"birth\" or \"place of birth.\" The adjective is  national.\n\nSome nations are people with a particular belief, such as the Vatican City, or ethnic group, such as Armenia. Others share an idea, such as Democracy in the United States or Communism in China. \n\nSome nations are controlled by a small minority who have all the power, such as Saudi Arabia, who hold the nation together with the use of this power.\n\nSome of these may also be combined. The highest lawful authority of most nations is a constitution, which is a document which states clearly what kinds of power the rulers have and how new laws must be made.  Many others are ruled by a single person who holds an \"office\" (position), such as a King or Pope, or from a long legal tradition without an official Constitution, such as the United Kingdom.\n\nRelated pages \n State\n Nation state\n Country\n Nationalism\n Political economy\n Constitutional economics\n\nBasic English 850 words\n\nEthnicity\nNationalism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":164,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-26":3,"2024-22":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":3328,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nation","title":"Nation","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Literacy means the ability to read and write. Being able to read and write is an important skill in modern societies. Usually, people learn how to read and write at school. People who can read and write are called literate; those who cannot are called illiterate.\n\nAccording to UNESCO, illiteracy is not being able to write or read a simple sentence in any language. They estimated that, in 1998, about 16% of the world's population were illiterate. \n\nIlliteracy is highest amongst the states of the Arabian Peninsula, and in Africa, around the Sahara. In those countries about 30% of men, and 40-50% of women are illiterate, by the UN definition. One of the causes of illiteracy is that someone who can manage to live without being able to read and write often does not have any reason to want to learn to read and write. Cultural factors also play a part, such as having a culture in which the oral tradition (communicating by speaking) is more important than writing. A tribe that mostly herds livestock, for example, may have no need to read or write. \n\nThere are two different kinds of illiteracy:\n\n People with primary illiteracy have never learned how to read or write.\n People who have learned some reading and writing, but not well enough for their work are called functionally illiterate. Perhaps they cannot write well enough to fill out a form, or to understand instructions in a manual. In most industrial countries, the main problem is functional illiteracy.\n\nIn English the word literacy has traditionally meant to be well educated. It also meant to be familiar with literature (to know about books). In the late 19th century the word came to include the ability to read and write. It still kept its larger meaning. In modern usage, literacy also means being able to read print, visual, and sound texts. To continue learning students must be literate in more than just reading and writing text.\n\nRelated pages\n Writing\n Reading\n Literacy test\n Aliteracy\n Functional illiteracy\n Right to education\n\nReferences \n\nEducation","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":181,"dup_dump_count":92,"dup_details":{"2020-40":4,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":2,"2019-09":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2015-22":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":21240,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Literacy","title":"Literacy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In finance, Investment or investing means that an asset is bought, or that money is put into a bank to get a future interest from it. Investment is total amount of money spent by a shareholder in buying shares of a company. In economic management sciences, investments means longer-term savings.\n\nIt is a term used in business management, finance and economics, related to saving or deferring consumption. Literally, the word means the \"action of putting something in to somewhere else\" (perhaps originally related to a person's garment or 'vestment').\n\nTypes of investment\nThere are two major uses of the term investment between the economics field and the finance field. Economists refer to a real investment (such as a machine or a house), while financial economists refer to a financial asset, such as money that is put into a bank or the market which may then be used to buy a real asset. Advisors, who tell people how to manage their investments, might say that even when an investment is losing money because of bad times, not to give up and withdraw it.  Instead, wait for the situation to improve. This is a risk for each person to decide.\n\nBusiness management \nThe investment decision (also known as capital budgeting) is one of the fundamental decisions of business management.\n\nRelated pages\nGold coin\nFixed assets investment\nSocial Investment\nSpeculation\n\nOther websites \n\nFinancial Times\nWall Street Journal\nNASDAQ\nGood books on investing and value investing \n\nBusiness\nFinance","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":206,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":5,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":5,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1}},"id":48143,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Investment","title":"Investment","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Meteorology is the science that focuses on the Earth's atmosphere. People who study meteorology are called meteorologists. Meteorologists record air pressure, wind speed and direction, temperature, humidity, weather patterns, and other information. Meteorologists use this data to understand weather and to predict it. Meteorology is a major branch of earth science. Meteorologists study the causes of particular weather conditions using information obtained from the land, sea and upper atmosphere.\n\nThey use computerized and mathematical models to make short and long-range forecasts concerning weather and climate patterns. A variety of organizations use meteorological forecasts including:\ntransport services, particularly air and sea travel\nshipping and sea fishing industries and sailing organisations\ngovernment services, e.g. firefighters or for advice on climate change policy\narmed forces\nfarmers;\npublic services\nmass media\nindustry and retail businesses\ninsurance companies\nhealth services\n\nIn addition to forecasting, meteorologists study the impact of weather on the environment and conduct research into weather patterns, climate change and models of weather prediction.\n\nRelated pages\nWorld Meteorological Organization\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":15231,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meteorology","title":"Meteorology","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Singin  is the act o producin muisical soonds wi the voice, an augments regular speakin bi the uise o baith tonality an rhythm. A bodie that sings is cried a sangster or vocalist. Sangsters perform muisic (arias, recitatives, sangs, etc.) that can be sung aither wi or athoot accompaniment bi muisical graiths. Singin is aften duin in a group o ither muisickers, like in a choir o sangsters wi different voice ranges, or in an ensemble wi instrumentalists, like a rock group or baroque ensemble.\n\nIn many respects, human sang is a form o sustained speakin; naur onybody that can tae speak can sing an aw. Singin can be formal or informal, arrangit or improvisit. It mey be duin for pleasur, comfort, ritual, education, or profit. Excellence in singin mey require time, dedication, instruction, an regular practice. If practice is duin on a regular basis, then the soonds is said tae be clearer an stranger. Profeesional sangsters uisually bigg their careers aroond ane specific muisical genre, like clessical or rock. They teepically tak voice trainin providit bi voice teachers or vocal coaches throu their careers.\n\nReferences\n\nFreemit airtins\n\nThrift in muisic","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":142,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":4,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":5,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":4,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":7,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2}},"id":61325,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Singin","title":"Singin","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Peloponnese is a large peninsula in Greece. It is the part of Greece which is south of the Isthmus of Corinth.\n\nThe Peloponnese has many mountains and a long jagged coastline. The highest part is Mount Taygetus in the south. \n\nThere are four south-pointing peninsulas within the Peloponnese. They are called Messenia, the Mani Peninsula, Epidaurus, and the Argolid.\n\nThere are also two groups of islands near the Peloponnese. In the east there are the Argo-Saronic Islands and in the west there are the Ionian Islands. There is also the island of Kythira, which is near to the Epidaurus peninsula. Kythira is often thought of as part of the Ionian Islands.\n\nThe Peloponnese has had people living on it since prehistoric times. Its name means Island of Pelops. Pelops was a person from Greek mythology, who took over the island. During the Middle Ages and the Ottoman Empire, the peninsula was known as the Morea.\n\nPeninsulas of Europe\nPeripheries of Greece","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":11304,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peloponnese","title":"Peloponnese","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone  (published in the US under the title  Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone) is the first book in the Harry Potter series, written by J.K. Rowling. It was published in 1997 and a movie version was shown in theaters in 2001.\n\nPlot Summarization \n\nThis is the first book in a series of seven about the wizard Harry Potter, and therefore the author begins by setting the scene and introducing the reader to some of the characters.\n\nAt the start, Rowling describes how in an ordinary suburb, somewhere in an English town, people are suddenly surprised to see witches and wizards in odd clothing riding on public buses and appearing at places where people would not expect to suddenly meet a wizard. It is clear that something unusual has happened in the world of witches and wizards, and those people, who are normally quite secret, are out and about, enjoying themselves.\n\nIn this way, Rowling introduces the two worlds of her story, the world of ordinary people, called \"Muggles\", and the secret world of the magic folk who usually keep to themselves. Rowling then introduces the main character, Harry Potter, a little baby boy who is left on the doorstep of his aunt and uncle by an old wizard with a long white beard.\n\nWhen the reader next meets Harry, he has grown to be a boy of eleven, living unhappily with his spiteful aunt, cruel uncle and bullying cousin Dudley. He is rescued from his misery by a huge bearded man upon his eleventh birthday. Harry Potter is a wizard without knowing it, and the giant man, Rubeus Hagrid, has come to help him buy his books and get ready to go to school. The school sounds most exciting. It is \"Hogwart's School of Witchcraft and Wizardry\".\n\nOn the long train journey north, Harry Potter meets the two people who are to become his best friends, Ronald Weasley and Hermione Granger. Ron and Hermione have very different characters. Hermione, who comes from \"Muggle\" (nonwizard) parents, is very intelligent and talented. She is such a teacher's pet and is so bossy that the boys do not like her at first. Ron, on the other hand, comes from an old family of wizards. He is number six in a family of seven children. He wears hand-me-down clothes and even his pet rat used to belong to his brother, Percy. Ron knows all about Harry Potter.\n\nThe reason that Ron, and all the other people in the wizarding world, know all about Harry Potter is that Harry is famous, without even knowing it himself. The reason why he was left on the doorstep of his aunt and uncle was that both his parents were dead. They were murdered by an evil wizard who calls himself \"Lord Voldemort\". He was so evil that people are even afraid to say his name. Harry is famous because he survived the magical attack of the \"He Who Must Not Be Named\", and since that day, Voldemort has gone into hiding.\n\nJ. K. Rowling then gives the reader a picture of the school that is to be Harry's home through seven books of the series, each one of which deals with a year in his life. The book describes the teachers, the lessons, the customs and the school sport so that it seems to be part of a real world. Even though the students learn magic and use magic, the book also describes Harry's growing up in a new and strange situation, just as any student must learn to fit in when they go to a new school among different people.\n\nHarry soon discovers that while some magicians, such as the school principal, headmaster, and professor Albus Dumbledore, and Deputy Headmistress Minerva McGonagal can be kind and encouraging, others, like the sinister Professor Snape with his greasy black hair and nasty comments, are very hard to trust. One of the subjects that Harry really needs to learn is \"Defense Against the Dark Arts\" but unfortunately, the teacher, Professor Quirrell, is such a bumbling and nervous man that he does not seem to be able to teach Harry very much at all.\n\nAs the year goes by, Harry discovers that Hogwarts has, hidden away for safety, a very precious treasure. If it were to fall into the hands of Lord Voldemort, it would be very dangerous indeed. Harry also discovers that in solving problems and overcoming difficulties, having friends with very different talents can be extremely useful.\n\nIn the book \n The Harry Potter books are fictional {they are not related to real topics of life}. Joanne Rowling has created a fantasy world which exists as an unknown part of the world in which ordinary people live. The people who form the magical community are very ordinary in most ways. They are ordinary, except that they have an extra talent. They can do magic, and they go to a special school to learn how to do it properly, in the same way as a person who is talented at music might study at a special school. Students of magic have to learn to do their spells in a careful, safe and lawful way, because magic can be dangerous if it is not under control. In fact, a student needs a license to do some things.\n Magic people and Muggles are really very similar. Even though the Muggles do not know about the Magic people, and the Magic people do not really understand how Muggles manage to live without magic, the way they live their lives is very similar. They do exactly the same sorts of things. They go to school, study, play sport, make friends, fall in love, get married, go to work every day, have children, shop, cook, read, go to the pub, have pets, get old and die. And like all the people in the Muggle world, they love and hate, they feel fear, jealousy, loneliness, prejudice and distrust. Even though Harry Potter is a talented magician, he has all these ordinary feelings to deal with. Harry's feelings, and how they change, is an important part of all the stories.\n Two of the most important ideas in this book are \"Love\" and \"Self-sacrifice\". It is important to the story that Harry grows up without any love in his life. His Aunt, Uncle and Cousin do not want him at their house, but would not send him away because they care about what their neighbors might think. Harry has never had any friends at school, because of Cousin Dudley. He does not know what it is like to have a friend, until he goes to Hogwarts and meets Ron and Hermione. Even though he is not used to trusting people, he very quickly learns to trust his friends.\n There are also three loving adults in his life, Professor Dumbledore who is wise and caring, who is not afraid of Voldemort, and who gives Harry good advice. Harry should completely trust the Professor, but his usual way of dealing with adults is to tell them lies or hide things from them. This is a very silly way to treat Professor Dumbledore, but it is what Harry does. The second loving person is Professor McGonagall. She is a crisp, stern teacher, but she is always fair and can be trusted. She is quick to see peoples' special talents, and she gives good encouragement. The third loving person is Hagrid, who is the giant gamekeeper and lives in his own little cottage near the castle. Hagrid has a special love for Harry because he had rescued him when he was a baby. This gives him a strong fatherly feeling. He helps Harry to settlein, and is always there to listen to him and encourage Harry and his friends. Gradually Harry gets to understand the right way to treat people who are your friends.\n \"Self-sacrifice\" is about being able to give something up, perhaps even one's own life, to help another person. Sacrifice has to do with loving. At the very beginning of the book, Harry's Mother, Lily Potter, has made a big sacrifice to save Harry. She has been killed, and Harry is still alive. The idea of \"Self-sacrifice\" goes right through the book, which shows that a person does not always have to seem very brave or be very strong in order to make a sacrifice for the sake of other people. If the reader keeps this in mind, then they will see that all the most important things that happen in the book, happen because someone is brave enough to face death to save other people.\n\nMovie: Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\nThe movie was made by Warner Brothers. It was based closely on the book. In the United States, it was called Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. Harry Potter was played by Daniel Radcliffe. Rupert Grint played Ron Weasley, and Emma Watson played Hermione Granger.\n\n1997 books\nHarry Potter books","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":4,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":14604,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harry%20Potter%20and%20the%20Philosopher%27s%20Stone","title":"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Jerez de la Frontera is a city in the province of C\u00e1diz, in the region of Andalusia in Spain. It is famous as the home of the wine called sherry, whose name comes from the city's old Arabic name, pronounced Sherish. \n\nJerez de la Frontera, once called Xeres, has a rich history from the days of the Moorish Arab occupation of the Iberian Peninsula. Part of its name, de la Frontera, means \"of the frontier\" because it was on the border between Islamic and Christian populations.\n\nThe city is well known for breeding and training the world-famous Andalusian horses. Flamenco dance is a popular cultural feature of the city.\n\nOther websites\nTourist information","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":64790,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerez%20de%20la%20Frontera","title":"Jerez de la Frontera","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Blood type or blood group is a classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs).\n\nBlood types predict whether a serious reaction will occur in a blood transfusion. This reaction is called a \"haemolytic reaction\". It may destroy red blood cells, and cause renal failure. Shock is likely to occur, and death is a possibility.\n\nWhen a blood transfusion or an organ transplant takes place, it is vital to know the blood types of the donor (who gives blood) and the receiver (who needs blood).\n\nThere are a number of human blood group systems. Of these systems, the ABO blood group system and the Rhesus blood group system are the most important. In this system the presence or absence of the A-antigen, the B-antigen and the RhD-antigen are determined.\n\nABO system\n\nThe principle \nThe principle of the ABO system is that antigens \u2013 in this instance, sugars exposed on the surface of red blood cells \u2013 differ between individuals. This was first discovered by Karl Landsteiner. People have immunological tolerance only for what occurs in their own bodies. As a result, humans may produce antibodies against natural components in the bodies of other people, but not themselves. So, people may produce antibodies against A and\/or B antigens if they are not in their blood.\n\nThese antibodies clump red blood cells together if they carry the foreign antigens. This response can cause death when large amounts of such cells are encountered after a blood transfusion. Because A and B antigens are chemically modified from a precursor form that is also present in type O individuals, people with type A and B antigens can accept blood from type O individuals.\n\nAnti-A and anti-B antibodies are not present in the newborn. They appear in the first years of life. Anti-A and anti-B antibodies are usually too big to pass through the placenta to the foetal blood circulation.\n\nThe test \n\nIn a laboratory, blood is tested for antigens. When a certain antigen is found, antibodies are also always found. Antibodies attack (attach to) antigens that they do not recognise.\n\nGroup A (with the A-antigen)\t\thas anti-B antibodies\nGroup B (with the B-antigen)\t\thas anti-A antibodies \nGroup AB (with both A and B-antigens)\thas no antibodies \nGroup O (with no antigens)\t\thas anti-A and anti-B antibodies\n\nThe blood is thus tagged as being A positive, O negative for instance, where the letter refers to the ABO blood group and \"positive\" or \"negative\" refers to whether or not the RhD-antigen of the Rhesus blood group system was found.  It can also be written A+  and O-, respectively.\n\nCompatibility \n\nGroup O have no antigens, but have anti-A and anti-B antibodies. This means that they can only receive blood from other people in group O, but they can give to any ABO group.\nGroup A have anti-B antibodies, so they can only receive blood from people within group A or O. These two groups do not have the B-antigen. They can donate blood to people from group A or AB.\nGroup B have anti-A antibodies, so they can only receive blood from people within group B or O. They can donate to groups B or AB.\nBlood group AB have no antibodies, so they can receive blood from any blood group. However, they can only donate blood to other people with blood group AB.\n\nPeople with type O negative blood are often called universal donors because they can give blood to any other blood group. People with type AB positive blood are called universal recipients because they can receive blood from any other blood group.\n\nRhesus factor \nThe Rh factor (Rh meaning Rhesus) is a feature of the second most common blood-group system in human-blood transfusion. it is named after the Rhesus monkey where they were first discovered. Rh is an inherited trait, which refers to a protein on the surface of an individual's red blood cells.\n\nThe Rh factor is separate from, and in addition to, ABO groups. The Rh factor is either present on individual's red blood cells or it is not. Rh positive means the factor is present. Rh negative means it is not present. In blood transfusions it is important that the blood donor and recipient have the same Rh factor and same blood group.\n\nBefore a transfusion takes place blood is thoroughly tested for anything that might cause problems for the receiver.\n\nReferences \n\nBlood","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2}},"id":79147,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blood%20type","title":"Blood type","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A civil servant or public servant is an employee who works in the civilian career public sector for a government department or agency. Many consider the study of civil service to be a part of the field of public administration. Who is a civil servant and who is not is different in different countries.\n\nWorkers in non-departmental public bodies, (called Quangos in some countries) may also be called civil servants in context with statistics. All people that may be called civil servants together form a nation's Civil Service or Public Service.\n\nReferences \n Bodde, D.  Chinese Ideas in the West\n Brownlow, Louis, Charles E. Merriam, and Luther Gulick, Report of the President's Committee on Administrative Management. (1937) U.S. Government Printing Office. \n P. N. Mathur. The Civil Service of India, 1731-1894: a study of the history, evolution and demand for reform (1977)\n Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service Since 1945 (Institute of Contemporary British History, 1995)\n Ari Hoogenboom. Outlawing the Spoils: A History of the Civil Service Reform Movement, 1865-1883. (1961)\n Schiesl, Martin. The Politics of Efficiency: Municipal Administration and Reform in America, 1880-1920. (1977)\n Van Riper, Paul. History of the United States Civil Service (1958). \n White, Leonard D., Introduction to the Study of Public Administration. (1955)\n Leonard D. White, Charles H. Bland, Walter R. Sharp, and Fritz Morstein Marx; Civil Service Abroad, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany (1935) online \n\nEmployment\nGovernment-related organizations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":154,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":4,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":5,"2019-43":6,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":46898,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Civil%20service","title":"Civil service","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Civil engineering is the term for the work of designing and building infrastructure. It usually means large structures, like bridges, dams, buildings, roads and tunnels.  It also covers complicated networks such as water, irrigation and sewerage networks, and the construction of houses and homes.  Civil engineers can be involved in all stages in the life of infrastructure, from planning and construction to maintenance and demolition.  Civil engineering often overlaps with architecture.\n\nCivil engineering has many different areas or disciplines.  Some important areas are geotechnical, structures, environmental, construction management, hydrology, transportation, and materials. It is important for civil engineers to have an understanding of all these disciplines as projects often involve many of them at the same time.\n\nCivil engineers are responsible for lots of the things that are required for a society to function properly. Safe water supplies, sewage treatment, roads, railways and buildings are all part of civil engineering.\n\nTo work in civil engineering requires training. Construction workers will train at a center and 'on the job' (training while doing the job), sometimes with apprenticeship. \n\nTo be a professional in civil engineering requires studying at a university or college. Civil engineers often study subjects like structures, materials, physics and calculus.\n\nThe profession of civil engineering is represented by professional bodies in various countries. In the UK the Institution of Civil Engineers promotes civil engineering as a discipline and supports engineers throughout their careers. The American Society of Civil Engineers performs a similar task in the USA. \n\nProfessional engineers often choose to become Chartered Engineers. Chartership shows employers and clients that they are both qualified and experienced in their jobs. Civil engineers usually have to write a big essay and take an interview with a panel of experienced engineers to gain chartership.\n\nRelated pages \n Geotechnical engineering\n Military engineering\n National Academy of Engineering\n Structural engineering\n\nOther websites \n List of Civil Engineering Words\n\nReferences \n\nconstruction\nCivil engineering","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":7427,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Civil%20engineering","title":"Civil engineering","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Giacomo Puccini (23 December 1858 - 29 November 1924) was the most famous Italian opera composer after Verdi. He wrote 16 operas. Most of them are performed very often today. Many of his operatic songs are known by many people, especially the aria Nessun dorma from Turandot which was sung by Luciano Pavarotti for the BBC's television coverage of the Football World Cup which was held in Italy in 1990.\n\nEarly life \nPuccini was born in Lucca, Tuscany into a musical family. He was expected to follow the family tradition and become a church organist. He started playing the organ in churches near Lucca. He liked to improvise on the organ, playing popular tunes from Verdi's operas. He soon realized that he wanted to be an opera composer. Eventually he persuaded his family to let him study at the Milan Conservatory. His earliest compositions showed that he had a great talent for writing beautiful melodies and that he was good at writing for the orchestra. His first opera to be published, Edgar, had a story similar to that of Bizet's Carmen, but it was not a suitable story for Puccini.\n\nWorks\nManon Lescaut was the first opera for which Puccini chose the story himself. It is the same story as Massenet's opera Manon. This made Puccini internationally famous. His next opera, La boh\u00e8me, produced in 1896, is often thought to be his best opera. He worked with two poets on this opera and, although they quarrelled a lot, the result was a work in which the music flowed beautifully like a conversation. \n\nHis next opera was Tosca. When it was first performed in Rome in 1900 there were rumours that a bomb would be thrown, but nothing happened. Tosca was a great success. However, Madama Butterfly was hissed and booed at its first performance in Milan's famous opera house La Scala in 1904.\n\nIt was at this time that Puccini married. He already had a son by Elvira, his wife, who had been married to someone else. When her husband died, she was able to marry Puccini. The marriage was not without difficulties. Elvira accused Puccini of having an affair with their servant girl. This servant girl committed suicide and there was a court case which resulted (after an autopsy) in Elvira being found innocent. Puccini was very upset by all this and did not compose much for several years.\n\nWhen he finally started writing again his new opera La fanciulla del West was set in the American West at the time of the Goldrush. The music has very Impressionistic harmonies like that of Debussy. The way he writes for the orchestra shows the influence of Richard Strauss. The opera was first performed in New York. The world-famous tenor Enrico Caruso sang the main hero part and Arturo Toscanini was the conductor. With such a star cast it had to be a great success.\n\nPuccini followed this by writing an operetta and two one-act operas. The best of these is Gianni Schicchi His last opera is Turandot, which has a fairy-tale like story. While he was working very hard at it he developed throat cancer. He died of complication of the disease in autumn 1924 in Brussels. The whole of Italy went into mourning and Mussolini spoke at the funeral. Puccini had not quite managed to finish Turandot. A man called Franco Alfano finished it using the sketches that Puccini had left.\n\n1858 births\n1924 deaths\n20th-century Italian composers\nCancer deaths in Belgium\nDeaths from throat cancer\nPeople from Lucca\nRomantic composers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":4,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":50348,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Giacomo%20Puccini","title":"Giacomo Puccini","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Science (frae the Laitin scio, meanin \"tae ken\") is a wey tae find oot things. Whiles the wird \"science\" is uised for tae refer tae the knawledge that is fund uisin the methods o science.\n\nFowk that daes science is cried scientists. Scientists study things bi leukin at them awfu tentily, bi meisurin them, an bi daein experiments an tests. Scientists tries tae expleen why things acts the wey thay dae, an is the wey thay are.\n\nScientific method \nThe \"scientific method\" is the name gien tae the methods uised in science for tae lairn things. The scientific method can be awfu uisefu.\n\nThe main featurs o the scientific method is:\n The scientific method is a \"trial an error\" prattick. \n The scientific method lippens on data. \n The product o the scientific process is something cried a \"theory\".\n\nMaist fowk accepts the scientific method as the maist reliable wey for tae ken aboot naitur, the universe, an the human bouk.\n\nIther featurs o science \nAw theories is anerly acceptit sae lang as thay are the best explanation for the data that exeests. Whan theories disnae expleen the data ony mair, thay are discardit an replaced.\n\nScientists compete wi ilk ither. Scientists checka ilk ither's wark. Scientists tries tae mak better explanations for the data.\n\nScientists publishes thair wark in peer-reviewed jurnals.\n  \nScience is a wey for tae learn aboot things bi discardin whit isna true. \n \nScientists maun be gey canny tae mak explanations that fits weel wi whit thay observe an meisur. Thay compete tae fend better explanations. An explanation micht be interestin or pleasin, but if it daesn gree wi whit ither scientists really sees an meisurs, thay will try tae find a better explanation.\n\nIther scientists checks thair ideas for tae see if the real observations, meisurments, an tests shaws if thay are richt or wrang. Peer review an repeatin experiments is the ae wey tae be shuir the knawledge is richt.\n\nScience maks models o naitur, models o oor universe, an medicine. Thare's mony sindry sciences wi thair ain names. Houaniver it isna richt tae say \"science says\" ony ae thing. Science is a process, no juist the facts an rules believed at ae time.\n\nSome types o science\n\nBiological sciences \n Biology\n Pheesiology\n Ecology\n Botany\n\nPheesical sciences \n Astronomy\n Chemistry\n Naitural philosophy\n Yird science\n Oceanography\n Wather\n Geology\n\nSocial sciences \n Psychology\n Sociology\n Anthropology\n\nFields related tae science \n Mathematics\n Computer science\n Statistics\n Ingineerin\n Medicine","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":6988,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science","title":"Science","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Majority means the greater number of something.  The opposite is minority.\n\nIf more than half the people are right-handed we can say that the majority of people are right-handed.\nA minority of people are left-handed.\nIn fact, nearly everyone is right-handed, so we can say that the \"vast majority\" are right-handed, and only a \"small minority\" are left-handed.\n\nIf a political party or candidate gets a majority of votes, it means that they get more than all the other parties together. In Plurality voting, they only get more than any one of the others. Thus if there are three parties, the winning party may have a plurality of 40% while the other two each have 30%. A \"true majority\" or \"absolute majority\" means more votes than all the other parties together, i.e. more than half the total votes.\n\nRelated pages\nMajority rule\nMinority group\nEthnic group\n\nNumbers\nDemography","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":55710,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Majority","title":"Majority","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Stellar precession is one of the ways the stars slowly move across the sky when seen from the Earth. The best-known thing this causes is making the north star's place in the sky slowly change over thousands of years. It is caused by the Sun's gravity pulling the Earth's poles toward itself. Because the Earth's poles are tilted at an angle of 23.42 degrees from straight up in relation to its orbit, this causes the North Pole to seem to point at different places in the sky. While the orientation of the Earth with respect to the stars changes, the axial tilt remains constant. \n\nAlthough it takes a very long time for the pole to make a whole circle in the sky (almost 26,000 years), even over the time period that humans have had writing, this has made a big difference in what star is seen as the north star. When the ancient Egyptians built the pyramids about 4,000 years ago, they used the stars to make the edges line up with north and south. However, they did not use the same north star that we do because Earth's North Pole pointed at a different star than it does today. \n\nAstronomers have known about this movement for a very long time, calling it the precession of the equinoxes. Most people think that Hipparchus discovered it in ancient Greece in about 130 BC, but some people think that even the ancient Egyptians may have known about it.\n\nAstronomical phenomena","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":169573,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stellar%20precession","title":"Stellar precession","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Muscle is a tissue in animal bodies. Their main purpose is to help us to move our body parts. They are one of the major systems of human and animal bodies. When a muscle is activated it contracts, making itself shorter and thicker, thereby pulling its ends closer.\n\nTypes of muscles \nThere are three kinds of muscles:\nSkeletal muscle, the muscle attached to bones. They pull on bones to make movements. \nSmooth muscle, for example, the muscle in blood vessels and the bladder\nCardiac muscle, the muscle of the heart\n\nMuscle action can be classified as being either voluntary or involuntary.\n\nThe skeletal muscles move the limbs (arms and legs). They move the jaw up and down so that food can be chewed. Skeletal muscles are the only voluntary muscles, the only ones that we can choose to move.\n\nThe cardiac muscle is the muscle in the heart. When this muscle contracts it pushes blood through the circulatory system. The cardiac muscle is not voluntary. \n\nThe smooth muscles are the other muscles in the body that are involuntary. Smooth muscles are in many places. They are in:\nThe gastrointestinal system \u2013 this includes the stomach and intestines. This is how food moves through us and we take energy from it.\nBlood vessels \u2013 smooth muscles make blood vessels smaller or bigger. This controls blood pressure.\nHairs \u2013 smooth muscle in hair follicles makes your hair stand up when you are scared or get cold.\n\nMuscle structure \nMuscles are made of many muscle cells. The cells contract together to make the muscle get shorter. The muscle cells know to do this together because many of them get information sent to them by nerves. The cells that get the message from nerves tell other cells that are near them. They tell the other cells by sending an electrical current.\n\nMuscle cells are filled with proteins called actin and myosin. These are the proteins that make the muscle contract (get shorter.)\n\nMuscle contraction \nWhen a nerve tells a muscle to contract, the muscle opens holes in its cell membrane. These holes are proteins that are called calcium channels. The calcium ions rush into the cell. Calcium also comes out of a special place in the cell called the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This calcium sticks to the specialized proteins actin and myosin. This triggers these proteins to contract the muscle.\n\nContraction also needs ATP. This is the energy that your cells use. It is made from using glucose in the cell. It takes a lot of energy to release contracted muscles. They use most of the energy for building muscles.\n\nExercise \nExercise makes muscles get bigger (see hypertrophy). Exercise also makes muscles stronger.  If a person does not exercise, their muscles become smaller and weaker.  This is called muscle atrophy.\n\nDiseases of muscles \nThere are many different kinds of muscle diseases. There are three big groups of diseases:\nNeuromuscular diseases \u2013 these are problems with how the nerves tell the muscles to move. Strokes, cerebral palsy, and Parkinson's disease are neuromuscular diseases.\nMotor endplate diseases \u2013 these are problems with the place where the nerve tells the muscle to move. Tetanus and myasthenia gravis are motor endplate diseases.\nMyopathies \u2013 these are problems with the structure of the muscle. Muscular dystrophy, cancers like Ewing's sarcoma, and cardiomyopathy are myopathies.\n\nRelated pages \nBodybuilding\nStrength training\nTrapezius muscle\n\nReferences \n\nBasic English 850 words\nAnimal tissues\nMuscular system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":134,"dup_dump_count":57,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":4,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":5,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":6,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2}},"id":13744,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Muscle","title":"Muscle","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In law, a dwelling (also known as a residence, abode or domicile) is a self-contained unit of accommodation used by one or more households as a home - such as a house, apartment, mobile home, houseboat, recreational vehicle, or other \"substantial\" structure. The concept of a dwelling has significance in relation to search and seizure, conveyancing of real property, burglary, trespass, and land-use planning.\n\nLegal definitions\nLegal definitions vary by jurisdiction.\n\n'Dwelling' (England and Wales)\nUnder English law, a dwelling is defined as a self-contained 'substantial' unit of accommodation, such as a building, part of a building, caravan, houseboat or other mobile home. A tent is not normally considered substantial.\n\n'Dwelling' (North Carolina)\nAccording to North Carolina General Statute \u00a7 160A-442, \"Dwelling\" means any building, structure, manufactured home or mobile home, or part thereof, used and occupied for human habitation, or intended to be so used, and includes any outhouses and appurtenances belonging thereto or usually enjoyed therewith, except that it does not include any manufactured home or mobile home, which is used solely for a seasonal vacation purpose.\"\n\nAccording to N.C. Gen. Stat. \u00a7 53-244.030, \"Dwelling\" means a residential structure that contains one to four units, whether or not that structure is attached to real property. The term includes an individual condominium unit, cooperative unit, manufactured home, mobile home, or trailer if it is used as a residence.  Under the Oregon law, a \"dwelling\" is defined as a \"building which regularly or intermittently is occupied by a person lodging therein at night, whether or not a person is actually present.\" The United States v. Adams, 2009 U.S. App. LEXIS 25866 (9th Cir. Or. 25 November 2009)\n\n'Habitual residence' (international law)\nIn international conventions, a person can have only one habitual residence, being the place where the individual ordinarily resides and routinely returns to after visiting other places for a reasonably significant period of time. It is used to determine the law which should be applied to determine a given legal dispute. The Hague Conference on Private International Law has deliberately refrained from offering a definition so that the concept may be flexible and adaptable to practical requirements.\n\n'Inhabited dwelling' (Various US states)\nIn California, California Penal Code \u00a7 246 refers to the discharging of a firearm at an inhabited dwelling house.  This statute specifies that a \"dwelling\" (more commonly referred to as a house) is \"inhabited\" if a person lives in it; it is irrelevant whether anyone is present. A house, building, or structure is not considered \"inhabited\" or \"occupied\" if the occupants have moved out or vacated and do not intend to return, even if the personal property was left behind. Therefore, it would no longer be considered a dwelling for legal purposes, which from a defense standpoint, would negate a conviction under this code. For prosecutors, it is advantageous to construe these terms loosely in order to secure as many convictions as possible for violation of this code. Examples of loose interpretation exist not only in California but also in other states such as Colorado where a similar statute (Colorado Code \u00a7 18-1-901(3)(g)) applies in cases even when a shooting at a detached garage that does not traditionally constitute a dwelling or house.  However, per common law, courts in both of these states and others have held that it does qualify as an occupied building for purposes of a criminal conviction.\n\nThe 'curtilage' (boundary) of a dwelling\n\nIn law, the curtilage of a dwelling is the land immediately surrounding it, including any closely associated buildings and structures. It delineates the boundary within which a homeowner can have a reasonable expectation of privacy with particular relevance to search and seizure, conveyancing of real property, burglary, trespass, and land use planning. In urban properties, the location of the curtilage may be evident from the position of fences, walls, and similar; within larger properties, it may be a matter of some legal debate as to where the private area ends and any \"open fields beyond\".\n\nSee also\n :Housing\n List of human habitation forms\n Residence in English family law, pertaining to where children should live in the case of disputes\n Vandwelling\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\nLegal terminology\nHuman habitats","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":146,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":4,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":8,"2014-15":4}},"id":536987,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dwelling","title":"Dwelling","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cleopatra (Greek: \u039a\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03c1) 69 BC \u2013 10 August 30 BC  was Queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt. She was its last active ruler.\n\nShe was one of the most famous women in  history. Her full name was Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator. She was  the last of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Pharaohs set up in Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great. After her death, Egypt became the Roman province of Aegyptus.\n\nThe main historical source for her life is Plutarch's Life of Antony, available in translations.\n\nIn regard to her skin color, \"She was not dark-skinned\", according to Stacy Schiff; A different view is that there is incomplete data (or not enough information) to know the skin color, according to historian Mary Beard.\n\nAntony and Cleopatra is the famous tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written sometime between 1603 and 1607. It was first printed in 1623.\n\nLife of Cleopatra \nCleopatra was born in Alexandria, then the capital of Egypt. When she was 18 years old, her father, who was king, died. She and her brother, Ptolemy XIII, became the leaders of Egypt. She was queen and her brother was king. Her brother was only 10 years old, so she was the real leader.\n\nCleopatra made some enemies amongst the courtiers. The reign of Cleopatra was ended by a cabal of courtiers, led by the eunuch Pothinus. They removed Cleopatra from power, as her being a woman, and made Ptolemy sole ruler, in about 51 to 48 BC. She had to leave the country. Ptolemy was king, but because he was still a boy, Pothinus and his friends were the real leaders of Egypt.\n\nCaesar and Pompey \nAt that time, two Roman generals were fighting to be the leaders of the Roman Republic. They were Pompey and Julius Caesar. Julius Caesar defeated Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus in Greece, 48 BC. Pompey fled to Egypt from Pharsalus, and was murdered by the orders of Ptolemy.\n\nPtolemy and his supporters thought Caesar would be pleased, but that was a big mistake. Caesar had pardoned many of the senators who fought against him. His reason was to lay the ground for peace in Rome. The murder of Pompey cut right across Caesar's plans. Worse, Pompey was a Roman consul, and the widower of Caesar's only daughter, Julia. Worse still, Pompey was beheaded in front of his fifth wife and children, who were on the ship from which he had just disembarked. This made sure that Pompey's powerful family and supporters would never forget, and would always be enemies of Caesar. \n\nThen Caesar came to Alexandria, the capital of Egypt. Economically, Egypt was a bread-basket which could feed the people of Rome. Popular mythology has it that Cleopatra received Caesar in her own unique way. She lay down on a carpet. Then her servants rolled up the carpet with Cleopatra inside. Then the carpet was taken to the palace where Caesar was staying. The guards saw some people carrying a carpet and they did not stop them. They carried the carpet to Caesar. Then Cleopatra came out of the carpet. Caesar fell in love with her and they became lovers. At the time, Cleopatra was 21 years old and Caesar was 52 years old.\n\nCaesar decided to make Cleopatra queen again. Ptolemy did not like that. There was fighting, but Caesar won. Ptolemy tried to leave, but he fell in the river Nile and drowned. Another younger brother became king, but Cleopatra was again the real leader of Egypt. Cleopatra did not marry Julius Caesar, but they did have a son. He was called Caesarion.\n\nSoon after Caesarion was born, Caesar was murdered as he walked to the Senate in Rome. Cleopatra and her entourage were in Rome when Caesar was assassinated on 15 March 44 BC. Cleopatra fled back to Egypt.\n\nMark Antony and Octavian \nMark Antony, who was Caesar's military commander, and Octavian, Caesar's legal heir, defeated the group who had conspired against Caesar. This group was led by Brutus and Cassius, who took their army to the Eastern Mediterranean, and controlled much of that area. The issue was finally settled by the Battle of Philippi, fought in Macedonia.\n\nCaesar's place was taken by three joint Consuls, the Second Triumvirate. Their names were Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus. Lepidus was a minor character, and the long-term fate of the Empire was decided by a conflict between Antony and Octavian. Mark Antony came to see Cleopatra, and they fell in love, though Antony already had a wife. Cleopatra had three more children. Two were twins, and the father of all three was Mark Antony.\n\nThe conflict between Octavian and Antony became serious, and soon there was war. Cleopatra was wealthy, and she used her money to help Antony. But Octavian won the war. He became the ruler of the Roman Empire and was known as Augustus or Caesar Augustus. He took control of Egypt from Cleopatra. After her kingdom was conquered, she committed suicide by letting an asp (a poisonous snake and small cobra) bite her. Antony also committed suicide.\n\nCaesarion was murdered by Octavian, and her other children were taken as prisoners to Rome. Two of them died of illness, but her daughter, Cleopatra Selene II, married an African King Juba II of Numidia. The couple were sent to Mauritania to rule by Octavian. They lived a full life there, and had children.\n\nThere are many stories told of how rich Cleopatra was, but we cannot be sure if these are true. For example, one story says that she took baths in milk, to make her skin softer. Another story says that she made a bet with Antony that she could make the most expensive meal ever. To win the bet, she took a pearl earring, dissolved it in vinegar, and drank it.\n\nRelated pages \nCleopatra (1963 movie)\nAntony and Cleopatra\n216 Kleopatra\n\nReferences \n\n69 BC births\n30 BC deaths\n1st millennium BC pharaohs\nPeople from Alexandria","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":209,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":5,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":5,"2014-42":9,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2}},"id":29651,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cleopatra%20VII","title":"Cleopatra VII","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"American football, referred to as football in the United States and Canada and also known as gridiron,  is a team sport. It is played by two teams with 11 players on each side. American football is played with a ball with pointed ends. Points are scored in many ways, usually by one team getting the ball into the end zone of the other team. The game started in the late 19th century as college football, an American version of rugby football.\n\nThe main leagues that play American football are the professional National Football League (NFL), and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), which plays college football.  In the National Football League, players can be paid millions of dollars.  In the National Collegiate Athletic Association, players simply play for the pride of their school, scholarships, or for the chance to join a national team.  Over a million boys (and a number of girls) play high school football. There is also a closely related sport called Canadian football (CFL).\n\nGameplay \nAn American football game is played with a ball called a football. The sport is played on a grass (or artificial turf) field. The field is exactly  long and  wide. The end zones, one at each end of the field, are  long. The players wear protective equipment, including a helmet with face mask, shoulder pads, thigh pads, and often a mouth guard. A team has four chances, or \"downs\", to advance the ball  while the opposing team tries to stop it. Certain players advance the ball by carrying or throwing it. Teams can score by advancing the ball to the other team's end zone or by kicking the ball through a goalpost placed at the back of the end zone. American football is carefully regulated by time and rules, which are enforced by officials, who also determine when a team scores.\n\nA college or professional football game is 60 minutes long, and is divided into 15-minute quarters. In some high schools, the quarters are 12 minutes long, and games for younger children are often shorter still. After the first two quarters, the teams rest during halftime.\n\nIn NFL football, if the game is tied after the four quarters, the two teams compete in at least one more 15-minute period called overtime. During overtime, the first team to score points is usually the winner. However, under the current rules, first used for the 2011 postseason, if the team that has the ball first ends its possession by scoring a field goal, the other team has a chance to score. If that team does not score, or if it scores a touchdown, the game ends. If it scores a field goal, the game continues, and the next team to score wins. During the regular season, only one overtime period is played\u2014if neither team scores, or if both teams score field goals when they first have the ball, the game ends in a tie. During the playoffs, the game will continue with as many overtime periods as needed to decide a winner. If the game is tied after each team has had the ball once in overtime, the first team to score wins.\n\nIn NCAA football overtime, which is based on the system used for high school football in most U.S. states, the teams take turns trying to score. The game ends when one team scores, and the other team fails to score as many points during its chance.\n\nField \n\nAmerican football is played on a field  long by  wide. Most of the game is played on  in the middle. It is divided by 20 lines drawn every . The field has two other sets of markings, running between the two end zones along the length of the field, known as \"hashmarks\". All plays must start between the hashmarks\u2014if the last play ended outside the hashmarks, the ball is moved to the nearest hashmark. At the ends of the field there are scoring areas, called the end zones.\n\nThere are also two yellow poles on the end of each field called uprights. Sometimes, if the team can not score a touchdown they might want to kick it through the uprights for three points. The uprights are also used for scoring one point after a team scored a touchdown.\n\nPlayers \n\nThere are many types of players on a football team. For the offensive part of the team, a quarterback throws the football to wide receivers while offensive linemen block to protect him from defensive players. The offensive linemen also block when a running back runs to advance the football. Players on the Defensive line, a linebacker, and defensive backs (cornerbacks and American football safeties) attempt to tackle the offensive player who carries the football.\nSome team members only play during certain times. These players belong to the Special Teams. The kicker can kick the ball to the other team or between the uprights, while the placeholder holds the ball steady. The kick returner runs the ball down the field in an attempt to score points after catching the ball.\n\nScoring\n\nTouchdown (6 points) \nA touchdown is achieved when a player has legal possession of the ball and the ball crosses an imaginary vertical plane above the opposing team's goal line.  After a touchdown, the scoring team attempts a try for 1 or 2 points (see below).  A successful touchdown is signaled by an official extending both arms vertically above the head.\n\nField goal (3 points) \nA field goal is scored when the ball is place kicked between the goal posts behind the opponent's end zone. The most common type of kick used is the place kick.  For a place kick, the ball must first be snapped to a placeholder, who holds the ball upright on the ground with his fingertip so that it may be kicked. Three points are scored if the ball crosses between the two upright posts and above the crossbar and remains over.\n\nExtra point (1 or 2 points) \nImmediately following a touchdown, the scoring team can attempt to kick the ball between the goal posts for 1 extra point. The team can also run or pass the ball into the end zone for 2 points. This is not done very often, although it does happen if the game situation calls for it.\n\nCollege football has unique rules regarding extra point attempts in overtime. Teams that score touchdowns are required to attempt a two-point conversion during the second overtime. Starting with the third overtime, the two teams alternate two-point conversion attempts, with the game ending when one team scores and the other does not.\n\nDefensive conversion (2 points) \nIn the NFL, college football, and high school football in Texas (whose rules are based on the NCAA set), if the defense takes possession of the ball during an extra point (via fumble, interception, or blocked kick) and returns the ball into the opponent's end zone, the defensive team receives 2 points. (In high school football outside of Texas, if the defense takes possession during an extra point, the play is dead at that moment and the conversion is ruled \"no good\".)\n\nSafety (2 points) \nA safety is scored if a player causes the ball to become dead in his own end zone. When this happens two points are awarded to the opposing (usually defending) team.  This can happen if a player is either downed or goes out of bounds in the end zone while carrying the ball. It can also happen if he fumbles the ball, and it goes out of bounds in the end zone. A safety is also awarded to the defensive team if the offensive team commits a foul which is enforced in its own end zone.\n\nAmerican Professional Seasons\n\nExhibition season \n\nExhibition season (better known as Pre-Season) is in August. In the exhibition season, the teams get ready for the regular season by having training. Teams have practices to help the team get better and see who will make the team. All of the teams play 3 games before the regular season starts, and the games do not change what team gets to the post season. Because of it, teams do not use their best players much, and use the games as more practice.\n\nRegular season \nThe 32 NFL teams are divided into two conferences: the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC). Each of them is divided in four divisions: North, South, West and East. Each division includes four teams.\nThe season lasts 18 weeks. Each team plays 17 games and has one week off. This week of rest is called a \"bye week\".\n\nNFL playoffs \n \n\nAt the end of the regular season, the winners of each division and the next three best teams in each conference play in a tournament. The NFC's champion and The AFC's champion play the NFL's final game, the Super Bowl. The event is often treated as a National holiday as many stores close for the event. The day of the event is commonly known nationwide as Super Bowl Sunday.\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nRelated pages \n Association football\n\nOther websites\n\n NFL in a nutshell -BBC\n Super Bowl","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1}},"id":8793,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American%20football","title":"American football","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In popular music marketing, a single is a record release with only one or two songs. The first song (usually the one given the most promotion, and heard more often in the media) is called an A-side, while any other song on the single is called a B-side.\n\nThe pairing of recordings on a single comes from the days of shellac and vinyl records, when discs had two playable sides. Modern compact disc singles may contain more than one version of either the A- or B-side, or sometimes an additional recording by the same performer. B-sides may be selections from an album, or songs not otherwise issued for sale.\n\nMany times the chance to get a new song issued as an A-side creates competition between members of bands, or teams of songwriters. John Lennon and Paul McCartney of the Beatles tried to write better songs than each other, to get more A-sides than the other. George Harrison, also a Beatle, rarely had his songs chosen for singles, but had a hit with \"Something\" for the band. \n\nIn the days of vinyl singles, royalties for both A- and B-sides were paid equally. Many listeners never played B-sides more than once, and radio focused on A-sides. Many people who made recordings knew this, and used it to earn extra money from sales, or to promote other music they made. Phil Spector sometimes used short jam sessions by his studio band as B-sides to singles he produced. \n\nMichael Nesmith of the Monkees wanted his songs to appear on Monkees singles. He would settle for B-sides, if he could not get an A-side. Don Kirshner, who oversaw the band's early music, wanted the B-sides to come from other songwriters who worked for him. Nesmith and Kirshner disagreed, and it caused tension for the Monkees and their company.\n\nRecords that include more than two or three songs are usually called EPs (for \"extended play\"), and may include four or more distinct songs, but not as many as on an album.\n\nRelated pages\n Album\n Extended play\n Vinyl (or gramophone record)\n\nMarketing\nSongs","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":162,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":5,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":60008,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Single%20%28music%29","title":"Single (music)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Louis IX (25 April 1214 \u2013 25 August 1270), also called Saint Louis, was King of France from 1226 to his death. He established the Parlement of Paris. After his death he was canonised (declared a saint) in 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII.\n\nSources \nJean de Joinville was a close friend of Louis and wrote a famous biography of the king, from which we have most of our information about him.\n\nTwo other important biographies were written by the king's confessor, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and his chaplain, William of Chartres.  Several other people wrote biographies about the king, but only these three had reliable information.\n\nEarly life \nLouis was born at Poissy, near Paris. He was the son of Louis VIII of France and Blanche of Castile. Louis was eleven years old when his father died on November 8, 1226. He was crowned king the same year in the cathedral at Reims. Because Louis was so young, his mother ruled France as regent while he was a child. \n\nHis younger brother Charles I of Sicily (1227\u20131285) was made Count of Anjou.\n\nOn May 27, 1234 Louis married Marguerite of Provence (1221 \u2013 December 21, 1295), whose sister Eleanor was the wife of Henry III of England.\n\nCrusading \nAt the age of 15 in 1229, Louis brought an end to the Albigensian Crusade after signing an agreement with Count Raymond VII of Toulouse.\n\nHe went on crusade twice, in his mid-30s in 1248 and then again in his mid-50s in 1270.  In 1250, after initial success in his first crusade, Louis's army of 15,000 men was met by overwhelming resistance from the Egyptian army and people.  Louis and his army were captured by Muslims in Egypt. Later that year, they were released.  To be released, he had to give back the land that he had taken over. where he was captured.  After his release from Egypt, Louis spent four years in the crusader Kingdoms of Acre, Caesarea, and Jaffe.  Both crusades were complete disasters; \n\nLouis's kindness towards the poor was much celebrated.\n\nAlliances \nIn 1252, Louis attempted an alliance with the Egyptians, for the return of Jerusalem if the French assisted with the subduing of Damascus. In 1253, Louis tried to seek allies from the Ismailian Assassins and the Mongols.\n\nReligion \n\nLouis was Catholic, and he built the Sainte Chapelle (\"Holy Chapel\") on the \u00cele de la Cit\u00e9 in the centre of Paris. It is thought that the French monarchy was trying to establish the kingdom of France as the \"new Jerusalem.\" \n\nLouis IX tried to make France, which was seen as being a very religious place, a protector of the Church. It worked, and between the 12th and 13th centuries, France and the pope were very close.\n\nChildren \n Blanche (1240 \u2013 April 29, 1243)\n Isabelle (March 2, 1241 \u2013 January 28, 1271), married Theobald V of Champagne\n Louis (February 25, 1244 \u2013 January 1260)\n Philippe III (May 1, 1245 \u2013 October 5, 1285)\n Jean (born and died in 1248)\n Jean Tristan (1250 \u2013 August 3, 1270), married Yolande of Burgundy\n Pierre (1251\u20131284), Count of Perche and Alen\u00e7on; Count of Blois and Chartres in right of his wife, Joanne of Ch\u00e2tillon\n Blanche (1253\u20131323), married Ferdinand de la Cerda, Infante of Castille\n Marguerite (1254\u20131271), married John I, Duke of Brabant\n Robert, Count of Clermont (1256 \u2013 February 7, 1317). He was the ancestor of King Henry IV of France.\n Agnes of France (ca 1260 \u2013 December 19, 1327), married Robert II, Duke of Burgundy\n\nDeath \nDuring his second crusade, Louis died at Tunis, August 25, 1270, and his son, Philip III, replaced him as king. He may have died either of bubonic plague or dysentery.\n\nHis body was taken to the French royal necropolis at Saint-Denis just north of Paris.\n\nPlaces named after Saint Louis \nThe cities of San Luis Potos\u00ed in Mexico, Saint Louis, Missouri, Saint-Louis du S\u00e9n\u00e9gal in Senegal, Saint-Louis in Alsace, Lake Saint-Louis in Quebec, and the Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in California.\n\nMany places in Brazil are called S\u00e3o Lu\u00eds in Portuguese are named after Saint Louis.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n Etext full version of the Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville, a biography of Saint Louis written by one of his knights\n Biography of Saint Louis on the Patron Saints Index \n\n1214 births\n1270 deaths\nChristian saints\nKings and Queens of France","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":139,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":82176,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Louis%20IX%20of%20France","title":"Louis IX of France","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A custom (also called a tradition) is a common way of doing things. It is something that many people do, and have done for a long time. Usually, the people come from the same country, culture, or religion. Usually, they do not know when the custom started.\n\nMany customs are things that people do that are handed down from the past and the Future.\nExamples of it are: \n Ceremonies is a class of customary, collective action. \n In some countries bowing to older people is polite and respectful. \n In some countries it is okay to burp while eating food.\n In some countries you take your shoes off before entering the house. \n In some places they sit on the floor and eat.\n\nOther websites","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":153,"dup_dump_count":50,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":3,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":5,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":4,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":5,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":6,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":6,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":3}},"id":5110,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Custom","title":"Custom","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Higher education is after secondary education. Through attending college a higher degree (or title) can be gained. Generally, people must be 18 years old or over to enter higher education. They also need to have completed primary school and secondary education. Usually some kind of selection is used.  Exams can be of state, local or university level. Sometimes no selection exists. Some open universities encourage older adults to apply, whether they were good at school or not.\n\nPreparation \n\nHigher education is either professional or academic. You can study for a diploma or a degree. Graduates can study for a master's or doctorate.  Places of higher education were traditionally called universities, but there are other names like institute, teaching training college, academy, conservatory, and polytechnic. (The names depend on the country).\n\nOther functions \nResearch work is done at this level. Colleges often also reach out to employers and offer cultural or sporting events open to the local community.\n\nRole in society\nThe importance of higher education in society changes according to the country; for example, in many countries a student goes to university to obtain a diploma for work, but university is also often a time during which the student learns to be independent. Students also learn to mix with people of different origins, and to grow as people. Richer students can study in a place far from their hometown, but kids from poor neighbourhoods may be unable to afford college at all without a scholarship of some kind.\n\nRelated pages\nAcademia\nAcademic Ranking of World Universities\nPostgraduate education\nRight to education\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\nPortal dedicated to the higher education\nEU-Student Informations on Erasmus and Practices \n\nEducation\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1}},"id":117904,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Higher%20education","title":"Higher education","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A wave is a kind of oscillation (disturbance) that travels through space and matter. Wave motions transfer energy from one place to another.\n\nExamples \nWaves are found everywhere in the natural world. Examples of waves are:\n Sound\n\n Water waves\n Seismic waves (earthquakes)\n Electromagnetic waves\n Light waves\n Radio waves\n\nProperties \n\nWaves have properties that can be measured. All waves can be pictured by adding sine waves.\n\nSine waves can be measured too. The shape of a sine wave is given by its amplitude, phase, wavelength and frequency. The speed that the sine wave moves can be measured. The amplitude and wavelength of the sine wave are shown in the picture.\n\nThe highest point on a wave is called the crest. The lowest point is called the trough. The crest of a wave and the trough of a wave are always twice the wave's amplitude apart from each other. The part of the wave halfway in between the crest and the trough is called the baseline.\n\nComplicated waveforms (like the sound waves of music) can be made by adding up sine waves of different frequencies. This is how mp3 audio files are converted from their compressed form into the music we can hear. Complex waves can be separated into sine waves by Fourier analysis.\n\nWaves and matter \nSome waves can move through matter while others cannot. For instance, some waves can move through empty space, light waves for example. Sound waves, on the other hand, cannot move through empty space. Inherently, all waves carry energy from one place to another when they move. In some applications of technology, waves may carry meaningful information from one place to another, such as news on the radio. \n\nUsually, after a wave moves through matter, the matter is the same as it was before the wave was introduced, though in some cases, matter can be affected by waves traveling through it. In 1922, Louis de Broglie found out that all waves are also particles, and all particles are also waves.\n\nTypes \nIn matter:\n Transverse wave: the vibrations of particles are perpendicular \u22a5 to the direction of travel of the wave. Transverse waves have crests and troughs. Wave crests and troughs move along a travelling transverse wave.\n Longitudinal wave: the vibrations of particles are parallel to the direction of travel of wave. Longitudinal waves have compressions and rarefactions. Compressions and rarefactions move along a travelling longitudinal wave.\n Standing wave: a wave that remains in a constant position.\n Travelling wave: The blue waves move off to the right. They are traveling waves. The red waves do not move. They are standing waves.\n Solitary wave or soliton: Solitary waves were first observed in a river channel in 1834. Something gets a bulge of water starting moving up the channel and the bulge on the surface of the water continues to move up the stream. \nLight waves can move through space. Light is different from wind or water because light sometimes acts like waves and sometimes it acts as little bits called \"particles.\" The nature of light is a big part of quantum mechanics.\n\nRelated pages\n List of wave topics\n Wave equation\n\nNotes \n\nWave physics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":3285,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wave%20%28physics%29","title":"Wave (physics)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A releaser is a stimulus from one animal to another, which causes a particular response. The releaser, or sign stimulus triggers an innate releasing mechanism in the receiver. The receiver then does its response, the fixed action pattern (FAP).\n\nThis kind of system is inherited by both animals. Example: a fledgling bird does its releaser, say it squawks and opens its beak wide, showing bright red inside throat. This triggers the adult to cough up food stored in its gullet. Both 'partners' are behaving instinctually with inherited behaviours: these are not learnt during life. A FAP can truly be said to be 'hard-wired': a specific stimulus nearly always results in the same behavioral response.\n\nAnother behavious system is the 'dances' of water birds such as the Great Crested Grebe. They pair for life, and 'dance' whenever a pair meet up after an absence, and on other occasions. The dances are quite complex, and were first described fully by Julian Huxley. Here the meeting is the releaser, and both partners do the fixed action pattern. The function of the system is a little unclear, but it has something to do with reinforcing the pair's bond.\n\nIt is not necessary for both partners to benefit, nor to be of the same species. Some moths instantly fold their wings and drop to the ground if they encounter bat ultrasonic signals. This helps helps the moths, but obviously not the bats. In turn, some bats turn off the sound blips when they hear a moth, and glide in the last few feet. This also is an inherited behaviour. This example may be better described as a reflex action.\n\nReferences \n\nEthology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":4,"2020-10":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3}},"id":331302,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Releaser","title":"Releaser","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Lord of the Rings is a book written by J. R. R. Tolkien. It was first published in 1954. It is split in three parts (or volumes), which are named The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, and The Return of the King. It was written after The Hobbit.  \n\nThe Lord of the Rings takes place in Tolkien's fictional world, called Middle-earth. Middle-earth has its own geography, several different races and peoples (elves, dwarves, humans, hobbits, ents), their languages, and a history that is thousands of years old. \n\nThe plot of The Lord of the Rings is about the war of the peoples of the fantasy world Middle-earth against a dark lord known as \"Sauron.\" At the same time they try to destroy a ring which would give Sauron a lot of power if he got it, but the only place to destroy the ring is deep into Sauron's land Mordor.\n\nThe Lord of the Rings has also been made into  films, the most well-known is the film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson.\n\nBook history \nThe Lord of the Rings began as a sequel to Tolkien's earlier fantasy book, The Hobbit, but quickly became a much larger story. He also moved its (and The Hobbit'''s) story into his fictional world Middle-earth, which he had already invented long before he wrote The Hobbit. \nTolkien wrote the story between 1937 and 1949. It was originally published in three parts in the years 1954 and 1955. Since then, The Lord of the Rings has been translated into 38 languages. It is one of the most popular stories in 20th-century literature and has been an important book for the fantasy genre.The Lord of the Rings is often called a trilogy, because the publisher split the book into three parts because of the book's size. Tolkien himself had sub-divided The Lord of the Rings into six parts, called Book I-VI, according to the plot. Tolkien never liked it being published in three parts or called a trilogy.\n\n Backstory \nThe backstory of The Lord of the Rings begins thousands of years before the action in the book.\n\nIn the Second Age, the Dark Lord Sauron wanted to rule Middle-earth. He disguised himself as Annatar, the \"Lord of Gifts\", and pretended to be good. As Annatar he told the elves how to make magical rings which give power to their wearers.\nSauron and the elves together made sixteen rings. The Elves also made three rings by themselves, called Vilya, Nenya and Narya. These nineteen rings were the Rings of Power. But Sauron secretly forged a Great Ring of his own, the One Ring. In this Ring Sauron put half of his power. He planned to control the wearers of the other rings with this One Ring. But the Elves finally realized that Annatar really was the evil Sauron and hid the Rings of Power.\n\nSauron then started a war. During this war he took back the sixteen rings which he had made together with the Elves. Seven of these rings he gave to the kings of the dwarves, and nine rings he gave to human kings. These human kings became the Nazg\u00fbl, the Ringwraiths, ghostly servants of Sauron. \n\nLed by Gil-galad and Elendil, the Elves and the Men of Gondor and Arnor formed the Last Alliance of Men and Elves to fight Sauron. There was a long war and siege of Sauron's fortress Barad-d\u00fbr. In the last battle, Gil-galad and Elendil were killed by Sauron. After his father's death, Elendil' son Isildur cut off the One Ring from Sauron's hand. Sauron was defeated and the war ended. \n\nBecause half of Sauron's power was in the One Ring, Sauron did not die fully. His spirit still existed as long as the Ring existed. The elves told Isildur to destroy the One Ring, but Isildur did not want to and kept it. \n\nThe One Ring was lost when Isildur was attacked by Orcs. Isildur tried to escape, but he was killed when he lost the Ring. In the Third Age, the Ring was found by the Stoor hobbit D\u00e9agol, who was killed by his friend Sm\u00e9agol over the Ring. Sm\u00e9agol went to live under the Misty Mountains, where he kept the Ring for five hundred years, and he became known by the name Gollum. \n\nIn The Hobbit the Ring is found by the hobbit Bilbo Baggins. He thinks it is an unimportant 'magic ring' that simply makes its wearer invisible. Bilbo keeps it, and brings it back with him to the Shire at the end of his journey. There the One Ring stayed until the beginning of the story of The Lord of the Rings.\n\n The story \n The Fellowship of the Ring \n Book I \nThe book begins in the Third Age of Middle-earth, in the Shire, the land of the hobbits. Sixty years after his adventures in the book The Hobbit, Bilbo Baggins is living in the Shire with his adopted cousin Frodo Baggins. But Bilbo wants to make another long journey. After a birthday party for his 111th birthday, and Frodo's 33rd birthday, Bilbo leaves the Shire. His home, Bag End, and the One Ring now belong to Frodo. For another eighteen years nothing happens in Frodo's life. \n\nIn April of the year 3018, the wizard Gandalf the Grey, who is a friend of Bilbo and Frodo, comes to Bag End. He tells Frodo that his 'magic ring' is really the One Ring of Sauron, and tells him its backstory. Sauron is returning and getting more powerful, because he could not die while the Ring still existed. Sauron is now also searching for the Ring. Gandalf tells Frodo that he has to leave the Shire and take the One Ring to Rivendell, an Elven city. Samwise Gamgee, Frodo's gardener and servant, will go with Frodo. Gandalf promises to meet the two hobbits halfway in the town Bree. Then Gandalf leaves. \n\nFrodo and Sam prepare to leave the Shire in September 3018. On their way to leave the Shire they are already followed by Sauron's Ringwraiths. Frodo's cousins, Meriadoc \"Merry\" Brandybuck and Peregrin \"Pippin\" Took also come with them. The four hobbits journey eastwards through the Old Forest, and over the Barrow-downs. They come to Bree, but Gandalf is not there. They meet a man named Strider, and they get a letter from Gandalf. In the letter they are told to go with Strider, who is really named Aragorn. \n\nThe hobbits continue their journey to Rivendell with Aragorn. On the mountain Weathertop they are attacked by the Ringwraiths, and Frodo is badly wounded by their leader, the Witch-king. Aragorn can defend them, and helps Frodo to stay alive. Along the way they meet the elf Glorfindel. Shortly before Rivendell they are attacked again. Frodo can flee on Glorfindel's horse, followed by the Ringwraiths. Frodo crosses the river Bruinen, beyond which is Rivendell, but the Ringwraiths still follow him. Suddenly the river floods, which carries the Ringwraiths away. Frodo falls unconscious because of the stab wound.\n\n Book II \nFrodo wakes up in Rivendell. He has been healed by the elven lord Elrond, and Frodo's friends are also well. Gandalf is in Rivendell, as are messengers from other peoples. Frodo also meets Bilbo again, who has lived in Rivendell for the past years. \n\nThe next day the Council of Elrond is held. The messengers of the different peoples all tell the stories why they have come, which are connected to Sauron's doings. Elrond tells them of Sauron and the One Ring. Many other things are told and revealed. Aragorn is the descendant of Isildur. The wizard Saruman has betrayed the free peoples and turned to evil. Also, the One Ring cannot be used by anyone except Sauron. The One Ring turns normal people invisible, but it also corrupts them, makes its wearer power-hungry, and the ring only does evil. \nThe Council decides that the One Ring has to be destroyed, which will also truly kill Sauron forever. But the One Ring can only be destroyed if it is thrown into the volcano Mount Doom in Sauron's land Mordor, where the One Ring was made. \nThe Council sends Frodo, the Ring-bearer, to destroy the Ring, and eight companions to help him. These nine people are the Fellowship of the Ring: the four hobbits Frodo, Sam, Merry, and Pippin, the elf Legolas, the dwarf Gimli, the two men Aragorn and Boromir, and Gandalf the Grey. \n\nAt the beginning of the year 3019 the Fellowship begins their long journey. Before they go, Bilbo gives his sword Sting and his Mithril-armour to Frodo. With Gandalf as their leader, the Fellowship first goes southwards through the land Hollin. They try to go east over the Misty Mountains through the Redhorn Pass, but there is too much snow. The Fellowship decides to go under the mountains, through the old Dwarven mines, which are called Khazad-d\u00fbm or Moria. They almost manage to go through Moria without anything happening, but near the end they are attacked by Orcs. There is also a Balrog, a demonic evil creature from the First Age. Gandalf protects the Fellowship, but he and the Balrog fall into an abyss. Aragorn leads the rest of the Fellowship out of Moria. \n\nNow east of the Misty Mountains, the remaining Fellowship comes to the forest Lothl\u00f3rien, the land of the Galadhrim, a wood-elven people. The Fellowship is welcomed by Lady Galadriel and Lord Celeborn, the rulers of Lothl\u00f3rien. The Fellowship stay for a while. \nWhen the Fellowship leaves L\u00f3thl\u00f3rien, the elves give them boats with which they can travel down the river Anduin. Each member of the Fellowship also gets a present from Lady Galadriel. \n\nThe Fellowship travel down the river Anduin until they reach the Emyn Muil and the waterfall Rauros. There they stop to decide where to go now: south to Boromir's home city Minas Tirith, or east to Mordor. Frodo goes for a walk to help him decide. He meets Boromir, who says that the Fellowship should go to Minas Tirith. Boromir also begins to talk about using the Ring against Sauron. Frodo realizes that Boromir is influenced by the One Ring. Boromir tries to take the Ring from Frodo, but Frodo puts the Ring on, becomes invisible and escapes. Boromir becomes himself again and is very sorry for what he tried to do. \nFrodo decides that he will go alone to Mordor, so that the Ring cannot influence or hurt anyone else. The rest of the Fellowship are worrying where Frodo is. When Boromir comes and tells them that Frodo has run away, all of the Fellowship go and search for him. \nSam thinks about the situation, and realizes that Frodo wants to go to Mordor alone. Sam runs back to the boats, and catches Frodo leaving. In the end Frodo and Sam go east to Mordor together, to destroy the One Ring, and hoping that their friends in the Fellowship will be well.\n\n The Two Towers \n Book III \nThe book begins with Aragorn, who finds a dying Boromir. Boromir tells him that they were attacked by Orcs, who took Merry and Pippin with them. Boromir says he is sorry for everything and dies. Legolas and Gimli arrive. As a funeral, the three put Boromir's body in one of their boats, which they let fall down the waterfall Rauros. They find out that Frodo and Sam left them to go to Mordor, and that the Orcs that attacked them were Saruman's Orcs, who have taken Merry and Pippin. They decide to follow the Orcs westwards to save Merry and Pippin. West of the Emyn Muil they come into the land Rohan, home of the Rohirrim, the Horse-lords. They meet a group of Rohirrim led by \u00c9omer, nephew of King Th\u00e9oden of Rohan. \u00c9omer and his men have killed the Orc group on the border of the forest Fangorn, but did not see Merry or Pippin. \u00c9omer gives them two horses, and Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli ride to the Fangorn forest. \n\nMerry and Pippin were caught and taken away by a group of Saruman's Orcs, the Uruk-hai. When the Orcs are surrounded and killed by the Rohirrim group, the two hobbits escape into the Fangorn Forest. There they meet Treebeard, an Ent. Ents are giant tree-like creatures. Treebeard takes the hobbits with him, and they tell him what happens in the world outside Fangorn. The Ents have a meeting called the Entmoot. During the Entmoot, the Ents decide to fight Saruman. Treebeard, the other Ents, and the two hobbits go to Isengard, Saruman's home.\n\nIn Fangorn, Aragon, Legolas and Gimli meet Gandalf. He had died, but was sent back to Middle-earth as Gandalf the White, to further help the fight against Sauron. Gandalf tells them that Merry and Pippin are well. They then go to Edoras, the capital of Rohan. Gandalf tells King Th\u00e9oden that they have to go to war against Saruman. Gr\u00edma Wormtongue, a spy and servant of Saruman, is cast out. The people of Edoras, led by \u00c9omer's sister \u00c9owyn, flee to Dunharrow in the White Mountains, while the army of the Rohirrim goes to their fortress at Helm's Deep. Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli go with the Rohirrim warriors, but Gandalf leaves once more without notice. Saruman sends his army of ten thousand Uruk-hai, Orcs, and Dunland men to Helm's Deep. The next morning Gandalf arrives with another Rohirrim army. They defeat Saruman's army, and win the Battle of the Hornburg. \n\nGandalf, his friends, and a small group of Rohirrim then go to Isengard, Saruman's home. But when they arrive it has already been destroyed by the Ents. They also meet Merry and Pippin there. They talk to Saruman, who still hides in his indestructible tower Orthanc. Gandalf cast him from the Order of Wizards. They find the palant\u00edr, which was thrown from the tower by Gr\u00edma. The Palant\u00edri are magical black stones with which one can see far away things, and communicate with other palant\u00edri. The group leaves Isengard and rests. Pippin steals the palant\u00edr and looks in, and because of this is discovered by Sauron. The group flees the place before the Nazg\u00fbl find them. Gandalf and Pippin go to Minas Tirith, while the Rohirrim and other members of the Fellowship go back to Helm's Deep.\n\n Book IV \nFrodo and Sam are in the Emyn Muil mountains and journey eastwards to Mordor. While they are still in the Emyn Muil, they are attacked by Gollum. But the hobbits can defeat and catch him. Gollum has to promise to show them the way into Mordor. They go through the Dead Marshes and come to the Morannon, the Black Gate of Mordor. They cannot go in, but Gollum says he knows a secret way into Mordor. \nFrodo, Sam, and Gollum travel south through Ithilien. There they see a battle between a group of Southrons from Harad and a group of Rangers of Gondor. The hobbits are caught by the Gondorian group, which is led by Faramir, who is Boromir's brother. But the next day Faramir lets the hobbits leave, because he also believes that the One Ring has to be destroyed. \nGollum leads the hobbits into Cirith Ungol in the Mountains of Shadow, but leaves the hobbits there alone. They are hunted by Shelob, a giant spider living in these tunnels. After almost escaping, Shelob stings Frodo, but is wounded and driven off by Sam. Sam believes Frodo is dead, and takes the Ring to continue the quest and destroy it. Frodo's body is found and taken away by a group of Orcs. Sam follows them. The leaders of the Orc group are talking, and Sam hears them say that Frodo is paralyzed, but still alive.\n\n The Return of the King \n Book V \nGandalf and Pippin arrive in Minas Tirith, the capital of Gondor. There they meet Denethor II, Steward of Gondor, and father of Boromir and Faramir. Pippin becomes a member of the Guards of the Citadel. Minas Tirith prepares for war. \n\nThe Rohirrim and Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli, and Merry are on their way to Helm's Deep. Along the way they meet the Grey Company coming from Rivendell. It is a group of thirty D\u00fanedain, which are Aragorn's people. With the group are also Elladan and Elrohir, the sons of Elrond. Aragorn uses the palant\u00edr. Aragorn decides to take to the Paths of the Dead. Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli, and the Grey Company go to Edoras, Dunharrow, and through the Paths of the Dead through the White Mountains. There Aragorn calls an army of dead spirits to help him. The Grey Company and the Dead Men of Dunharrow then go east.\n\nThe Rohirrim and Merry come to Dunharrow. King Th\u00e9oden takes the Rohirrim armies and goes to help Gondor in the war. Merry is not allowed to go with them, but he secretly goes with a warrior named Dernhelm. \n\nIn Minas Tirith they meet Faramir, who tells them of his meeting with Frodo. The next day Faramir goes off to defend the old city Osgiliath, but the city falls, and so do the outer defenses of Minas Tirith. During the retreat Faramir is badly wounded. Minas Tirith is besieged by the armies of Mordor, led by the Witch-king, the leader of the Nazg\u00fbl who (it was said) could not be killed by any man. Denethor goes insane and burns himself, and almost also kills the injured Faramir, but this is prevented by Pippin and Gandalf. \n\nThe Rohirrim arrive. The armies of Gondor and Rohan fight the armies of Mordor in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. There, King Th\u00e9oden is killed. Dernhelm, who was really \u00c9owyn (a woman), kills the Witch-king with Merry's help. Aragorn comes with a fleet of black ships and another army of men from southern Gondor up the river Anduin. Together they win the Battle of the Pelennor Fields.\n\nAragorn heals the wounded and sick Faramir, \u00c9owyn, Merry, and many others, proving that he is the rightful King of Gondor. Legolas and Gimli go into Minas Tirith and meet Merry and Pippin again. There they also tell how they got the black ships with the help of the Army of the Dead. The leaders of the armies of Men decide to attack Mordor, as a distraction so that Frodo can destroy the One Ring. Aragorn and Gandalf lead an army of 7000 men to the Black Gate of Mordor. There they fight the Battle of the Morannon against the overwhelmingly large army of Sauron. During the battle Pippin falls unconscious, but he hears that the Great Eagles have come to help them.\n\n Book VI \nSamwise comes to the Tower of Cirith Ungol, but the different Orc groups in it had a fight and almost all of them are now dead. Sam frees Frodo and gives him back the One Ring. The two hobbits disguise themselves as orcs, escape from the Tower and continue their journey through Mordor. It is a hard journey, and the Ring's influence on Frodo is very strong now. One time the hobbits are forced to walk with an army of orcs, but they can escape without being discovered.\nThe hobbits come to Mount Doom, where they are attacked by Gollum, who still wants the One Ring. Frodo goes on alone into Mount Doom, but Sam has pity for Gollum and lets him live. Sam follows Frodo into Mount Doom. Frodo is finally overpowered by the One Ring, says it belongs to him and puts the Ring on, which makes Sauron know that he and the Ring are there. Gollum comes back once more and fights with Frodo. Gollum bites off Frodo's finger with the Ring. Gollum is happy to have his Ring back, but makes a mistake: Gollum and the One Ring fall into the volcano, and the Ring is destroyed. Sauron fully dies and his fortress Barad-d\u00fbr is destroyed. \n\nAt the Battle of the Morannon, the Orcs and other evil creatures no longer know what to do and are defeated easily, and the Battle is won. Gandalf calls three of the Eagles, who then rescue Frodo and Sam.\n\nThey all return to Minas Tirith. Aragorn becomes King of Gondor and Arnor. Elves from Rivendell and Lothl\u00f3rien come to Minas Tirith. Aragon marries Arwen Und\u00f3miel, daughter of Elrond. The Fellowship, the elves, and the Rohirrim go back to Rohan. King Th\u00e9oden is buried. \u00c9omer officially becomes King of Rohan, and \u00c9owyn and Faramir are married. They go on to Helm's Deep, were the fellowship finally splits. Aragorn goes back to Minas Tirith, and Legolas and Gimli also leave to travel to their homes in the northeast. The elves, hobbits and Gandalf go on. At Isedgard they are told that Saruman has left. Galadriel and the Lothl\u00f3rien-elves leave the group to go back home east over the mountains. The others come to Rivendell, where the hobbits meet Bilbo again. \n\nThe four hobbits and Gandalf leave Rivendell, to travel back to the Shire. Gandalf leaves the hobbits after Bree. The four hobbits come to the Shire, but Saruman with his men has taken over the land. Frodo, Sam, Merry and Pippin lead the other hobbits in the fight against them, and they free themselves and the Shire. After a battle, the four hobbits find Saruman and Gr\u00edma at Bag End. Frodo wants to send them away unhurt, but Saruman is killed by Gr\u00edma. Gr\u00edma is shot by hobbit archers. \n\nSome years later Frodo and Sam go to meet Bilbo, Elrond, and Galadriel, and some other elves. They all go to the Grey Havens, where they meet Gandalf, and also Merry and Pippin. The Ring-bearers Bilbo and Frodo, together with Gandalf and the elves, leave Middle-earth, and go west across the sea to Valinor. The Fourth Age of Middle-earth begins. The three remaining hobbits go back to the Shire, and Sam returns to his wife and child.\n\n Adaptations The Lord of the Rings'' has been adapted, or made into a movie, a musical, a radio play, and has been made into an animated and three live-action films. Most known is probably The Lord of the Rings (movie series) (2001\u20132003) directed by Peter Jackson.\n\nRelated pages\n\nLe Monde's 100 Books of the Century\n\n \n1954 books\n1955 books\nBritish fantasy books","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":286,"dup_dump_count":93,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":9,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":5,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":6,"2020-34":6,"2020-29":6,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":8,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":11,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":7,"2019-43":10,"2019-39":6,"2019-35":6,"2019-30":5,"2019-26":7,"2019-22":7,"2019-18":5,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":11142,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The%20Lord%20of%20the%20Rings","title":"The Lord of the Rings","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u1eb8sin \n\nThe horse (Equus ferus caballus) is a domesticated, odd-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55\u00a0million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus, into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior.\n\nHorses are adapted to run, allowing them to quickly escape predators, possessing an excellent sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight response. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down, with younger horses tending to sleep significantly more than adults. Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11\u00a0months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under a saddle or in a harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30\u00a0years.\n\nItokasi\n\nEranko ile\n\u00c0w\u1ecdn \u00e0m\u00ec-\u00ecd\u00e1m\u1ecd\u0300 on\u00edb\u00ednib\u00ed il\u1eb9\u0300 N\u00e0\u00ecj\u00edr\u00ed\u00e0","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":205,"dup_dump_count":48,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":6,"2018-47":9,"2018-43":8,"2018-39":9,"2018-34":10,"2018-30":8,"2018-26":29,"2018-22":12,"2018-17":19,"2018-13":9,"2018-09":20,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":10254,"url":"https:\/\/yo.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E1%BA%B8%E1%B9%A3in","title":"\u1eb8\u1e63in","language":"yo"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A House of Representatives is a part of some legislatures, which are law-making bodies.  In a House of Representatives, the members are called representatives.  For example, the legislature of the United States, called Congress, is made up of two parts.  One of these parts is called the House of Representatives and the other one is called the Senate.  A representative in the United States Congress is a \"U.S. Representative\".  Many state legislatures in the United States also have Houses of Representatives.  A representative in one of those state houses is a State Representative.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":46227,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/House%20of%20Representatives","title":"House of Representatives","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Turin ( , Piedmontese: ;  ; , then Taurinum) is a major industrial city on the west bank of the Po river in Piedmont, northwest Italy. Over a 900,000 people live in it. Turin is the fourth largest city in Italy, after Rome, Milan and Naples. Turin is the capital of Piedmont. Fiat's first car factory was in Turin. The city was the host of the 2006 Winter Olympics. In Turin there are two major rivers the Po and the Dora, and two minor rivers the Stura and the Sangone.\n\nTurin was the first capital of Italy in 1861. It had previously been the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia and before that it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy. Filippo Juvarra designed many churches and palaces in the city. \n\n \nOlympic cities","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":11262,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turin","title":"Turin","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"John also called John Lackland (24 December 1166 \u2014 19 October 1216) was the King of England from 1199 until his death in 1216. He was also the Lord of Ireland from 1177 to 1216 and the Duke of Aquitaine from 1204 to 1216. He was the youngest son and child of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. \n\nAs the youngest son, John was never expected to inherit the throne. However, when John's older brother King Richard I died childless in 1199, John took the throne. \n\nJohn's reign was marked by disputes between the king and his barons and bishops. Because of this the nobles forced him to agree to the Magna Carta, which limited his power. The Magna Carta was a significant legal document in English history, as well as one of the first English \"bills of rights\". It introduced the idea that monarchs had limited powers and had to follow certain laws. It gave the nobles more say in the government. It affected English government and inspired those of other countries.\n\nSome think John was not a good ruler. His father's empire, the Angevin Empire collapsed under his reign. It should be remembered that no-one had held both England and France since the Romans. When John lost his lands in France to King Philip II of France, some argued this was John's fault. It could be just a return to a more natural arrangement. The two countries have the Channel between them. Before he was king, John attempted to seize the throne for himself while his brother Richard was in captivity.\n\nFamily history \nAs a young man, John already had a reputation for treachery. He conspired sometimes with and sometimes against his elder brothers, Henry, Richard and Geoffrey. In 1184, John and Richard both claimed that they were the rightful heir to Aquitaine, one of many unfriendly encounters between the two.\n\nRichard's absence \n\nKing Richard I was absent on the Third Crusade from 1190 to 1194. John attempted to overthrow William de Longchamp, the Bishop of Ely who was the Regent of England while Richard was away. This was one of the events which led later writers to cast John as the villain in the legend of Robin Hood.\n\nJohn was more popular than Longchamp in London. In October 1191 the leading citizens of the city opened the gates to John while Longchamp was confined in the tower. John promised the city the right to govern itself as a commune in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive.\n\nAs he returned from the Crusade, Richard was captured by Leopold V, Duke of Austria, and handed over to Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, who held him for ransom. Meanwhile, John had joined forces with King Philip II of France. They sent a letter to Henry asking him to keep Richard away from England for as long as possible, offering payment to keep Richard imprisoned. Henry declined their offer, and got his ransom from Eleanor of Aquitaine (who had to pawn the Crown Jewels). Richard was set free. John then begged forgiveness from Richard, who granted it and named him heir presumptive.\n\nReign\n\nDispute with Arthur \nFollowing Richard's death on 6 April 1199 at the age of 42, John, who was 33 years old at that time ascended to the throne. He was crowned on 27 May of the same year at Westminster Abbey. Because John was very popular when he ascended to the throne, the people of England believed that John's reign like his father and older brother, would be very successful.\n\nWhile John was immediately declared ruler of England and Normandy, the people Anjou, Maine, and Brittany refused to declare John as their ruler and instead, declared Arthur of Brittany, who was the son of one of John's older brother, Geoffrey, their ruler. Arthur fought his uncle for the throne, with the support of Philip II of France. The conflict between Arthur and John had serious consequences for both. Finally, Philip recognised John over Arthur. The price paid was John's agreement to be Philip's vassal in Normandy and Angevin.\n\nNevertheless, conflicts continued until in 1202 Philip declared all John's French lands and territories, except Gascony in the southwest, and immediately occupied them. Philip gave Arthur all the land he had taken from John, except for Normandy, and betrothed him to his daughter Marie.\n\nJohn now needed to fight to get back 'his' land in France. In 1203 John ordered all shipyards in England to provide at least one ship, with the newly built Portsmouth Naval Base to provide several. He made Portsmouth the new home of the navy. By the end of 1204, John had 45 large ships available to him, and from then on an average of four new ones every year. He also created an Admiralty of four admirals, responsible for various parts of the new navy. During John's reign, major improvements were made in ship design. He also created the first big transport ships. John is sometimes credited with the founding of the modern Royal Navy.\n\nAs part of the war, Arthur attempted to kidnap his own grandmother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, at Mirebeau, but was defeated and captured by John's forces. Arthur was imprisoned first at Falaise and then at Rouen. After this, Arthur's fate remains unknown, but it is believed that he was murdered by John. Assuming that he was murdered, Brittany, and later Normandy, rebelled against John. John also imprisoned his niece, Eleanor. Through deeds such as these, John acquired a reputation for ruthlessness.\n\nDealings with Bordeaux \nIn 1203, John exempted the citizens and merchants of Bordeaux from the Grande Coutume, which was the principal tax on their exports. In exchange, the regions of Bordeaux, Bayonne and Dax pledged support against the French Crown. The unblocked ports gave Gascon merchants open access to the English wine market for the first time. The following year, John granted the same exemptions to La Rochelle and Poitou.\n\nLost lands and disputes\n\nNormandy seized by the French \nIn June 1204, the fall of Rouen allowed Phillip to annex Normandy and also take parts of Anjou and Poitou.\n\nJohn needed money for his army, but the loss of the French territories, especially Normandy, greatly reduced the state income. A huge tax would be needed to reclaim these territories. He imposed the first income tax, raising the (then) huge sum of \u00a370,000.\n\nDispute with the Pope \n\nWhen Archbishop of Canterbury Hubert Walter died on 13 July 1205, John became involved in a dispute with Pope Innocent III. The Canterbury Cathedral Chapter claimed the sole right to elect Hubert's successor, and favoured Reginald, a candidate out of their midst. However, both the English bishops and the King wanted someone else to have this powerful office. The king wanted John de Gray, one of his own men. When their dispute could not be settled, the Chapter secretly elected one of their members as Archbishop. A second election imposed by John resulted in another nominee. When they both appeared in the Vatican, Innocent disavowed (rejected) both elections, and his candidate, Stephen Langton, was elected despite the objections of John's observers. John was supported in his position by the English barons and many of the English bishops, and refused to accept Langton.\n\nJohn expelled (dismissed) the Canterbury Chapter in July 1207, to which the Pope reacted by placing an interdict on the kingdom which meant that no one could receive religious blessings. John retaliated by closing down the churches. He confiscated (on paper) all church possessions, but individual churches were able to negotiate terms for managing their own properties and keeping the produce of their estates. After his excommunication, John tightened these measures and he got plenty from the income of vacant sees and abbeys. For example, the church lost an estimated 100,000 marks to the Crown in 1213. The Pope gave permission for some churches to hold Mass behind closed doors in 1209. In 1212, they allowed last rites to the dying. While the interdict was a burden to many, it did not result in rebellion against John.\n\nExcommunication and papal supremacy \nIn November 1209 John was excommunicated, and in February 1213, Innocent threatened stronger measures unless John submitted. The papal terms for submission were accepted in the presence of the papal legate Pandulph in May 1213 (according to Matthew Paris, at the Knights Templar Church at Dover); in addition, John offered to surrender the Kingdom of England to God and the Saints Peter and Paul for a feudal service of 1,000 marks annually, 700 for England and 300 for Ireland. With this submission, written in a document, John gained the support of his papal overlord in his new dispute with the English barons.\n\nAfter settling his dispute with the papacy, John turned his attentions back to France. The European wars ended in defeat at the Battle of Bouvines in July 1214, which forced the king to accept an unfavourable peace with France.\n\nRebellion\n\nMagna Carta \nThe heavy scutage  levy for the failed campaign was the last straw, and when John attempted to raise more in September 1214, many barons refused to pay. The barons no longer believed that John was capable of regaining his lost lands.\n\nIn May 1215, Robert Fitz Walter led forty barons to renounce homage to the king at Northampton. The so-called 'Army of God' marched on London, taking the capital as well as taking Lincoln and Exeter.\n\nJohn met their leaders and with their French and Scots allies at Runnymede, near London, on 15 June 1215. There, they sealed the Great Charter, called in Latin Magna Carta. It established a council of 25 barons to see John kept to the clauses like protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, parliamentary assent for taxation, and scutage limitations.\n\nBecause he was forced to seal the charter, John sought approval to break it, from his overlord the Pope. Denouncing it as \"not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust\", the Pope agreed, which provoked the First Barons' War. The barons invited a French invasion by Prince Louis VIII of France, who accepted the offer of the crown of England as a reward for his support.\n\nWar with barons \nJohn travelled around the country to oppose the rebel forces, and directed a two-month siege of the rebel-held Rochester Castle. While a small force arrived in rebel-held London in November, the Scots under their king, Alexander II, invaded northern England. By the end of December, John was leading a murderous expedition in the north, culminating with the sacking of Berwick-upon-Tweed.\n\nThe French retook Rochester and much of the south, although the royalists held on to Windsor and Dover.\n\nWith the momentum swinging from John, some of his generals, including his half-brother William Longesp\u00e9e, 3rd Earl of Salisbury, went to the rebel side. By the end of the summer, Louis held a third of the country and had the support of two-third of the barons. In September, Alexander II travelled down to pay homage to Louis at Dover, where the French pretender had being laying siege to Dover Castle.\n\nDeath \nRetreating from the French invasion, John took a safe route around the marshy area of The Wash to avoid the rebel held area of East Anglia. His slow baggage train (including the Crown Jewels), took a direct route across it and was lost to the incoming tide. This dealt John a terrible blow, which affected his health and state of mind. Succumbing to dysentery and moving from place to place, he died at Newark Castle at the age of 50. He was buried at Worcester Cathedral in Worcester, Worcestershire and was succeeded by his nine-year-old son, Henry III. Before dying, when John was on his deathbed, he had wished that his son would end the First Barons' War and that he would be able create peace with the barons and to also regain the English lands in France John had lost to King Philip II of France. John had also wished that Henry could create peace and to ease sanctions with Scotland and France and that Henry could also stabilize the kingdom and to also improve the economy.\n\nBecause Henry was too young to rule the kingdom, William Marshal was appointed Regent of the kingdom and that to make decisions on Henry's behalf until he came of age. The barons switched their allegiance to the new king, forcing Louis to give up his claim and sign the Treaty of Lambeth with Henry III in 1217.\n\nLegacy \n\nKing John's reign began with military defeats since he lost Normandy to Philip II of France in his first five years on the throne. His reign ended with England torn by civil war and himself on the verge of being forced out of power. In 1213, he made England a papal fief to resolve a conflict with the Catholic Church, and his rebellious barons forced him to seal Magna Carta in 1215, the act for which he is best remembered.\n\nJohn is responsible for the creation of another English cultural icon, the historic, medieval London Bridge. To finance the construction of a large bridge across the Thames, John allowed houses, shops, and a church to be built on top of the bridge.\n\nJohn was an efficient ruler, but he lost the approval of the barons by taxing them in ways outside those traditionally allowed by feudal overlords. The tax known as scutage became particularly unpopular. John was a fair-minded and well informed king, however. He often sat as a judge in the Royal Courts, and his justice was much sought after. Also, John's employment of an able Chancellor and clerks resulted in the first proper set of records.\n\nWinston Churchill summarised the legacy of John's reign: \"When the long tally is added, it will be seen that the British nation and the English-speaking world owe far more to the vices of John than to the labours of virtuous sovereigns\". The medieval historian C. Warren Hollister called John an \"enigmatic figure\":\n\"...talented in some respects, good at administrative detail, but suspicious, unscrupulous, and mistrusted. He was compared in a recent scholarly article, perhaps unfairly, with Richard Nixon. His crisis-prone career was sabotaged repeatedly by the halfheartedness with which his vassals supported him\u2014and the energy with which some of them opposed him\".\n\nMarriage and children \nIn 1189, John was married to Isabel of Gloucester. They had no children. John had their marriage annulled, and she was never acknowledged as queen. John remarried, on 24 August 1200, Isabella of Angoul\u00eame, who was twenty years his junior. John had kidnapped her from her fianc\u00e9, Hugh X of Lusignan.\n\nIsabella bore five children:\n Henry III (1207\u20131272), King of England.\n Richard (1209\u20131272), 1st Earl of Cornwall.\n Joan (1210\u20131238), Queen Consort of Alexander II of Scotland.\n Isabella (1214\u20131241), Consort of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.\n Eleanor (1215\u20131275), who married William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, and later married Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester.\n\nJohn had many illegitimate children. Matthew Paris accuses him of seducing the more attractive daughters and sisters of his barons and relatives. John had these illegitimate children:\n Joan, the wife of Llywelyn the Great.\n Richard Fitz Roy, (by his cousin, Adela)\n Oliver FitzRoy, (by a mistress named Hawise) who accompanied the papal legate Pelayo to Damietta in 1218, and never returned.\n Geoffrey FitzRoy, who went on expedition to Poitou in 1205 and died there.\n John FitzRoy, a clerk in 1201.\n Henry FitzRoy, who died in 1245.\n Osbert Gifford, who was given lands in Oxfordshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Sussex, and is last seen alive in 1216.\n Eudes FitzRoy, who accompanied his half-brother Richard, Earl of Cornwall, on Crusade and died in the Holy Land in 1241.\n Bartholomew FitzRoy, a member of the order of Friars Preachers.\n Maud FitzRoy, Abbess of Barking, who died in 1252.\n Isabel FitzRoy, wife of Richard Fitz Ives.\n Philip FitzRoy, found living in 1263.\n\nThe surname Fitzroy is Norman-French for 'son of the king'.\n\nIn legend\nJohn is also famous for his part in the Robin Hood stories in which he plays one of Robin's enemies. Popular culture suggests that many people did not like him, but it is actually unknown what ordinary people thought in the 13th century.\n\nWilliam Shakespeare wrote a play about John. It was mostly about Arthur of Brittany and did not mention Robin Hood or Magna Carta.\n\nReferences \n\n1166 births\n1216 deaths\nHouse of Plantagenet\n13th century in England","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":3,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":11055,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John%20of%20England","title":"John of England","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A  Mediterranean climate is a climate that has dry summers that are mild to hot as well as winters that are mild to cool with moderate or high rainfall. It includes the climate of much of the land near the Mediterranean Sea. Outside the Mediterranean, one can find this climate only in rather small areas. It is found in many places that are roughly between latitudes 30\u00b0 to 45\u00b0 north and south of the equator.\n\nIn the K\u00f6ppen climate classification, it is split between hot-summer Mediterranean (Csa), warm-summer Mediterranean (Csb) and cool-summer Mediterranean (Csc). Examples of Csa are Rome, Lisbon and Adelaide. Examples of Csb are Porto, Cape Town and San Francisco. Csc only occurs at very high altitude.\n\nLocation \n\nBesides the Mediterranean Basin, regions which have a Mediterranean climate include the coastal areas of the Western United States, down to Los Angeles, the Western Cape in South Africa, central Chile, southern Western Australia and the coastal areas of South Australia.\n\nOther websites \n Explanation of Mediterranean Climate \n\nK\u00f6ppen climate classifications","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":57758,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mediterranean%20climate","title":"Mediterranean climate","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Tay Bridge Disaster \u00e8 una poesia scritta nel 1880 dal poeta scozzese William McGonagall, . Racconta gli avvenimenti della sera del 28 dicembre 1879, quando, durante una forte burrasca, il Tay Bridge di Dundee croll\u00f2 mentre un treno passava sopra di esso con la perdita di tutti i passeggeri a bordo (ora si pensa fossero 75 persone e non 90 come indicato nel testo).\n\nTesto \nBeautiful Railway Bridge of the Silv'ry Tay!\nAlas! I am very sorry to say\nThat ninety lives have been taken away\nOn the last Sabbath day of 1879,\nWhich will be remember'd for a very long time.\n\n'Twas about seven o'clock at night,\nAnd the wind it blew with all its might,\nAnd the rain came pouring down,\nAnd the dark clouds seem'd to frown,\nAnd the Demon of the air seem'd to say-\n\"I'll blow down the Bridge of Tay.\"\n\nWhen the train left Edinburgh\nThe passengers' hearts were light and felt no sorrow,\nBut Boreas blew a terrific gale,\nWhich made their hearts for to quail,\nAnd many of the passengers with fear did say-\n\"I hope God will send us safe across the Bridge of Tay.\"\n\nBut when the train came near to Wormit Bay,\nBoreas he did loud and angry bray,\nAnd shook the central girders of the Bridge of Tay\nOn the last Sabbath day of 1879,\nWhich will be remember'd for a very long time.\n\nSo the train sped on with all its might,\nAnd Bonnie Dundee soon hove in sight,\nAnd the passengers' hearts felt light,\nThinking they would enjoy themselves on the New Year,\nWith their friends at home they lov'd most dear,\nAnd wish them all a happy New Year.\n\nSo the train mov'd slowly along the Bridge of Tay,\nUntil it was about midway,\nThen the central girders with a crash gave way,\nAnd down went the train and passengers into the Tay!\nThe Storm Fiend did loudly bray,\nBecause ninety lives had been taken away,\nOn the last Sabbath day of 1879,\nWhich will be remember'd for a very long time.\n\nAs soon as the catastrophe came to be known\nThe alarm from mouth to mouth was blown,\nAnd the cry rang out all o'er the town,\nGood Heavens! the Tay Bridge is blown down,\nAnd a passenger train from Edinburgh,\nWhich fill'd all the peoples hearts with sorrow,\nAnd made them for to turn pale,\nBecause none of the passengers were sav'd to tell the tale\nHow the disaster happen'd on the last Sabbath day of 1879,\nWhich will be remember'd for a very long time.\n\nIt must have been an awful sight,\nTo witness in the dusky moonlight,\nWhile the Storm Fiend did laugh, and angry did bray,\nAlong the Railway Bridge of the Silv'ry Tay,\nOh! ill-fated Bridge of the Silv'ry Tay,\nI must now conclude my lay\nBy telling the world fearlessly without the least dismay,\nThat your central girders would not have given way,\nAt least many sensible men do say,\nHad they been supported on each side with buttresses,\nAt least many sensible men confesses,\nFor the stronger we our houses do build,\nThe less chance we have of being killed.\n\nComponimenti poetici in inglese","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":4,"2024-26":5,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":7,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":4,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":3,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1}},"id":6911806,"url":"https:\/\/it.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The%20Tay%20Bridge%20Disaster","title":"The Tay Bridge Disaster","language":"it"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A pesticide is a chemical that is used to kill or prevent small animals (or organisms) which are considered to be unwanted. These organisms are called pests. Some of these pests that people do not want are insects, microbes that destroy plants, and other things that affect humans in a bad way and it may kill humans too. Many pesticides are poisonous, and are bad for not only the organisms they kill, but for humans too. A pesticide also affects the environment\nand the atmosphere. \n\nThe Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants lists chemicals that are very hard to destroy, or very toxic. In total, twelve chemicals are listed. Nine of them can be used as pesticides.\n\nTypes of Pesticides \nThere are different types of pesticides for getting rid of different pests.\n Herbicides kill weeds \n Insecticides kill insects that eat plants and crops\n Fungicides kill any bad fungi\n\nEffects of pesticides \nPesticides are used to kill pests, but many are bad for human health. They may pollute water, and go into rivers, lakes, and ponds. This will cause acid rain, and organisms living in the water can get sick and die, because the water where they live has more acid.\n\nPesticides used to protect crops are very damaging to the general ecosystem. They kill not just pests but vital insects which do pollination and other things. Every area needs a balance, but generally we do not have a system which does this.\n\nAlternatives \nIn many cases, there are alternatives to the use of (chemical) pesticides. These include:\n Use of genetic engineering\n Release of other organisms to control the pests, such as predators or parasites. That way, ducks can be used in rice fields to act against snails, for example\n Some foods can be processed and used to control certain pest\n Use of polycultures, that is growing many different crops together, rather than just one crop.\n\nReferences\n\nGardening\nPesticides","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":33539,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pesticide","title":"Pesticide","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A fruit tree is a tree which bears fruit that is consumed or used by animals and humans \u2014 all trees that are flowering plants produce fruit, which are the ripened ovaries of flowers containing one or more seeds. In horticultural usage, the term \"fruit tree\" is limited to those that provide fruit for human food. Types of fruits are described and defined elsewhere (see Fruit), but would include \"fruit\" in a culinary sense, as well as some nut-bearing trees, such as walnuts.\n\nThe scientific study and the cultivation of fruits is called pomology, which divides fruits into groups based on plant morphology and anatomy. Some of those groups are pome fruits, which include apples and pears, and stone fruits, which include peaches\/nectarines, almonds, apricots, plums and cherries.\n\nExamples of fruit trees\n Abiu\n Almond\n Amla (Indian gooseberry)\n Apple\n Apricot\n Avocado\n Bael\n Ber (Indian plum)\n Carambola (starfruit)\n Cashew\n Cherry\n Citrus (orange, lemon, lime, etc.)\n Coconut\n Crab apple\n Damson\n Durian\n Elderberry\n Fig\n Grapefruit\n Guava\n Jackfruit\n Jujube\n Lemon\n Lime\n Loquat\n Lychee\n Mango\n Medlar\n Morello cherry\n Mulberry\n Olive\n Pawpaw, both the tropical Carica papaya and the North American Asimina triloba\n Peach and nectarine\n Pear\n Pecan\n Persimmon\n Plum\n Pomelo\n Quince\n Pomegranate\n Rambutan\n Sapodilla (chikoo)\n Soursop\n Sugar-apple (sharifa)\n Sweet chestnut\n Tamarillo\n Ugli fruit\n Walnut\n Water Apple\n\nSee also\n\n Fruit tree forms\n Fruit tree pollination\n Fruit tree propagation\n List of fruits\n Multipurpose tree\n Orchard\n Pruning fruit trees\n Drupe\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Pennsylvania tree fruit production guide; a guide on how to set up an orchard in practice\n The fruit tree planting foundation\n Fruit tree pruning\n Index of apple cultivars\n\n \n \nTrees\nFruit\nFruit production","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":56,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-10":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":2}},"id":98341,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fruit%20tree","title":"Fruit tree","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A genus is a rank in the biological classification (or taxonomy). It is above species, and below families. A genus can include more than one species. When biologists talk about a genus, they mean one or more species of animals or plants that are closely related to each other.\n\nAs with other taxa, the plural is different from other English words because it is a Latin word. 'Genus' is the singular, and 'genera' is the plural form of the word.\n\nWhen printing the scientific name of an organism, the name is always in italic. A name of species has two parts, with the genus first. For example, in \"Felis silvestris\", Felis is the genus. The genus name always begins with a capital letter. In \"Felis silvestris catus\", the third word is the subspecies, which is not often used.\n\nAs a common word \nIn writing, genus names in Latin may be 'anglicised' to form a common name. For example, the genus Pseudomonas is \"pseudomonad\" (plural: \"pseudomonads\"). In practice, most really common animals and plants already have a common name. So instead of saying 'felids', or 'felines', one says 'cats' both for the family pet, and for all the cat family (Felidae).\n\nTaxonomy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":250,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":4,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":5,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":6,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":5,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":4,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3}},"id":21683,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genus","title":"Genus","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Hydropower is the capture of the energy of moving water for some useful purpose. \n\nIn the 1830s, at the peak of the canal-building era, hydropower was used to transport barge traffic up and down steep hills using inclined plane railroads. For direct mechanical power transmission industries that used hydropower had to be near the waterfall. For example, during the last half of the 19th century, many grist mills were built at Saint Anthony Falls, to use the 50 foot (15 metre) drop in the Mississippi River. The mills were important for the growth of Minneapolis. Today the largest use of hydropower is for electric power generation. That allows low cost energy to be used at long distances from the watercourse.\n\nTypes of water power \nThere are many forms of water power:\n Water wheels, used for hundreds of years to power mills and machinery\n Hydroelectric energy, a term usually reserved for hydroelectric dams.\n Tidal energy, which captures energy from the tides in horizontal direction\n Tidal stream power, which does the same, but vertically\n Wave power, which uses the energy in waves\n\nHydroelectric power \nMain article: Hydroelectricity\n\nHydroelectric power is a means of making electricity without burning fuel. Hydroelectric power supplies about 715,000 MWe or 19% of world electricity (16% in 2003). Large dams are still being designed. Apart from a few countries with plenty of it, hydro power is normally applied to peak load demand because it is readily stopped and started. Nevertheless, hydroelectric power is probably not a major option for future energy production in the developed nations, because most major sites within these nations are either already being exploited or are unavailable for other reasons, such as environmental considerations.\n\nHydropower produces essentially no carbon dioxide or other harmful emissions, in contrast to burning fossil fuels, and is not a significant contributor to global warming through CO2.\n\nHydroelectric power can be far less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuel or nuclear energy. Areas with abundant hydroelectric power attract industry. Environmental concerns about the effects of reservoirs may prohibit development of economic hydropower sources.\n\nTidal power \n\nHarnessing the tides in a bay or estuary has been achieved in France (since 1966), Canada and Russia, and could be achieved in other areas with a large tidal range. The trapped water turns turbines as it is released through the tidal barrage in either direction. Another possible fault is that the system would generate electricity most efficiently in bursts every six hours (once every tide). This limits how tidal energy can be used.\n\nTidal stream power \nA relatively new technology, tidal stream generators draw energy from currents in much the same way that wind generators do. The higher density of water means that a single generator can provide significant power. This technology is at the early stages of development and will need more research before it can produce any higher amount of energy.\n\nBut several prototypes were tested in the UK, in France and the USA. Already in 2003 a turbine that produces 300 kW was tested in the UK.\n\nThe Canadian company Blue Energy has plans for installing very large arrays tidal current devices mounted in what they call a 'tidal fence' in various locations around the world, based on a vertical axis turbine design.\n\nWave power \n\nPower from ocean surface wave motion might produce much more energy than tides. It has been tested that it is possible to produce energy from waves, particularly in Scotland in the UK. But there are still a lot of technical problems.\n\nA prototype shore based wave power generator is being constructed at Port Kembla in Australia and is expected to generate up to 500 MWh annually. Wave energy is captured by an air driven generator and converted to electricity. For countries with large coastlines and rough sea conditions, the energy of waves offers the possibility of generating electricity in utility volumes. Excess power during rough seas could be used to produce hydrogen.\n\nRelated pages\n Renewable energy\n Renewable resource\n Water turbine\n Water wheel\n\nReferences\n Micro-hydro power , Adam Harvey, 2004, Intermediate Technology Development Group, retrieved 1 January 2005 from http:\/\/www.itdg.org\/docs\/technical_information_service\/micro_hydro_power.pdf .\n Microhydropower Systems, U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 2005\n\nOther websites \n International Centre for Hydropower (ICH) hydropower portal with links to numerous organisations related to hydropower worldwide\n Practical Action (ITDG)  a UK charity developing micro-hydro power and giving extensive technical documentation.\n National Hydropower Association\n British Hydropower Association\n microhydropower.net \n Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Hydropower \n Hydro Quebec\n The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Federal Agency that regulates more than 1500 hydropower dams in the United States.\n Hydropower Reform Coalition A U.S.-based coalition of more than 130 national, state, and local conservation and recreation groups that seek to protect and restore rivers affected by hydropower dams.\n Small Scale Hydro Power\n\nEngineering\nHydropower","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5}},"id":55884,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydropower","title":"Hydropower","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"P\u00e1linka is a traditional fruit spirit (or fruit brandy) with origins in the Carpathian Mountains, more exactly  known under several names, and invented in the Middle Ages. Protected as a geographical indication of the European Union, only fruit spirits mashed, distilled, matured and bottled in Hungary and similar apricot spirits from four provinces of Austria can be called \"p\u00e1linka\", while \"T\u00f3tp\u00e1linka\" refers to wheat-derived beverages. T\u00f6rk\u00f6lyp\u00e1linka, a different product in the legal sense, is a similarly protected pomace spirit that is commonly included with p\u00e1linka. While p\u00e1linka may be made of any locally grown fruit, the most common ones are plums, apricots, apples, pears, and cherries.\n\nA similar product exists in the Czech Republic and Slovakia where it is known as p\u00e1lenka, and in Romania (Transylvania), Italy, and Greece under the name palinc\u0103. In Turkey it is known as Bo\u011fma.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe words p\u00e1linka (in Hungarian), p\u00e1lenka (Czech and Slovak), and palinc\u0103 (Romanian) derive from the Slavonic stem paliti, \"to burn, to distill\". In Hungarian, the word T\u00f3tp\u00e1linka (literally 'Slavic p\u00e1linka') was used to refer to alcoholic drinks derived from wheat.\n\nThe Hungarian name  derives from German .\n\nLegal definitions\nThe production of Hungarian p\u00e1linka is regulated by local law LXXIII of 2008, often referred to as \"p\u00e1linka law\", which is based on the regulation of generic fruit spirits of the European Union. An alcoholic beverage may be called p\u00e1linka if:\n\n it is fermented exclusively from fruit (excluding concentrates and dried fruits) grown in Hungary, and free of additional ingredients;\n it is grown, distilled and bottled in Hungary; and\n it is not rectified higher than 86% and is bottled with at least 37.5% ABV.\n\nWhile p\u00e1linka is traditionally made from a mash of ripe fruit, the law does not control the addition of non-concentrated fruit juice, and explicitly allows the use of fruit pulp. Dried fruits are excluded from the mash only, and may be used in the aging process.\n\nAs a consequence of this regulation, a whole family of popular Hungarian products were rebranded as szeszes ital (spirit drinks). Traditional p\u00e1linkas mixed with honey were also rebranded as szeszes ital (or liqueur if the sugar content exceeded the required limit), even if there were no unorthodox steps in the process of distillation. Most of the brands re-categorized as spirit drinks, however, are cheap mixtures of flavorings, water, and rectified spirit.\n\nIn 2004, the European Union accepted p\u00e1linka as a Hungarian speciality, and hence its production is limited to Hungary and four provinces of Austria for p\u00e1linka made from apricots). This caused some confusion in neighbouring countries, as some claimed that producers of fruit spirits would have to pay a royalty to Hungary. This is, however, not the case. It is the brand \"p\u00e1linka\" that is protected by Hungarian and EU law, hence producers outside of Hungary are not allowed to use the brand \"p\u00e1linka\" for their products, but they are free to produce fruit spirits and sell them under different names. This is in spite of the drink being historically distilled in most of the former Kingdom of Hungary, much of which falls outside present-day Hungary.\n\nIn Austria, four provinces are allowed to label local apricot spirits as Barack Palinka (transliteration of Hungarian barackp\u00e1linka): Burgenland, Lower Austria, Styria, and Vienna. Unlike Hungarian p\u00e1linka, its Austrian counterpart may not be made with column stills, and in order to achieve a full character, careful slow distillation is required by law.\n\nGeographical protection\nP\u00e1linka as a geographical indication (in other terms, a product with protected designation of origin or PDO) has been officially registered in the European Union since 2004.\n\nWhile p\u00e1linka has PDO on its own, some regions of Hungary are especially suitable for the production of certain fruits, and p\u00e1linka of excellent quality has been produced in those regions for centuries. These local variations are protected as separate geographical indications and have their own well-detailed regulations. In order to use these protected names on the label, strict geographical and technical requirements must be met. A product not meeting the special requirements of g\u00f6nci barackp\u00e1linka (apricot p\u00e1linka of G\u00f6nc) for example, cannot be labeled as such, not even if it is otherwise a legitimate apricot p\u00e1linka from G\u00f6nc. In Hungary, only these local variations are referred to as p\u00e1linka with protected designations of origin.\n\nThe eight palinkas with local PDO\nP\u00e1linkas with PDO include szatm\u00e1ri szilvap\u00e1linka (plum p\u00e1linka of Szatm\u00e1r), kecskem\u00e9ti barackp\u00e1linka (apricot p\u00e1linka of Kecskem\u00e9t), szabolcsi almap\u00e1linka (apple p\u00e1linka of Szabolcs), b\u00e9k\u00e9si szilvap\u00e1linka (plum p\u00e1linka of B\u00e9k\u00e9s), g\u00f6nci barackp\u00e1linka (apricot p\u00e1linka of G\u00f6nc), \u00fajfeh\u00e9rt\u00f3i meggyp\u00e1linka (sour cherry p\u00e1linka of \u00dajfeh\u00e9rt\u00f3), g\u00f6cseji k\u00f6rtep\u00e1linka (pear p\u00e1linka of G\u00f6csej), and pannonhalmi t\u00f6rk\u00f6lyp\u00e1linka (pomace p\u00e1linka of Pannonhalma).\n\nHistory \n\nThe first records of the Hungarian spirit date back to the fourteenth century (1332); called Aqua vitae reginae Hungariae. This spirit was probably a spirit blended with rosemary, and had its use in medicine, as both the king and the queen suffered from arthritis.\n\nIn the 19th century, breweries and p\u00e1linka distilleries operated in tandem. Comenius described the equipment used to make p\u00e1linka in Orbis sensualium pictus (\"The World in Pictures\"), his famous book written for children in the Hungarian town of S\u00e1rospatak. Distilling itself was the right of landowners, and laws were introduced to prevent peasants from making p\u00e1linka at home. The use of wheat was banned, and distillation was forbidden on religious holidays. Despite this, the church still oversaw alcohol production. Records show that Cistercian monks in Heves County were brewing beer and distilling p\u00e1linka in 1715. The role of Jewish lenders and businessmen also grew with the production of alcohol, and Saint Michael was designated patron saint of distilling. Textbooks and publications also began to appear on the subject around this time.\n\nThe larger-scale production of distillates, p\u00e1linka and liqueurs from 1799 resulted in guidelines being drawn up for distillation, and the priority rights granted to landowners were made law. It was not long before a p\u00e1linka tax was introduced, and by 1850 distillation was a state monopoly. In 1920, there were 260 p\u00e1linka distilleries in Hungary, a figure that grew to 1,070 in 1970 before falling back down to 815 in 1982. In the meantime, various laws were introduced to restrict production, including prohibition during the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 and the splitting of production 50-50 with the state from 1952 to 1970.\n\nIllegal home distilling became popular in the 18th century when peasant breweries were shut down. The practice was fuelled by the desire to make use of fruit that had fallen from the tree and could not be eaten, coupled with the knowledge that making p\u00e1linka at home was much less expensive. Because the end product was often inferior, it was reserved for personal use and only offered to friends and guests.\n\nThe word p\u00e1linka became widespread in Hungary in the 17th century, but it still referred to distillates made from grain. The meaning was later transferred to fruit spirits while wheat distillates were referred to as crematura. Distillation became a privilege of the landlords, which led to the proliferation of home stills. Law forbade the use of bread-stuffs for distillation, hence the use of fruits. Private distilleries and factories started to appear towards the end of the eighteenth century, which led to legislation and to the introduction of a p\u00e1linka tax.\n\nVarieties \nA popular saying in Hungary says: what can be used to prepare jam can also be used to produce p\u00e1linka. For a fruit to be suitable for jam production it has to contain some sugar. This saying suggests that p\u00e1linka can be made from a variety of fruit, and indeed it is made from most of the fruits available in Hungary.\n\nThe most common p\u00e1linkas are made from apricots, pears, and plums. Other fruits that are often used are sour cherries, apples, mulberries, and quince. P\u00e1linka made from chestnuts or walnuts is also available.\n\n Kis\u00fcsti (literally 'small pot, cauldron') is a double-distilled p\u00e1linka made in a copper pot not exceeding a volume of 1000 litres.\n \u00c9rlelt ('aged') is a p\u00e1linka aged for at least three months in a wooden cask smaller than 1000 litres, or for at least six months in a wooden cask of 1000 litres or above.\n \u00d3 ('old') is a p\u00e1linka aged for at least 12 months in a wooden cask smaller than 1000 litres, or for at least 24 months in a wooden cask of 1000 litres or above.\n \u00c1gyas ('bedded') is a p\u00e1linka aged for at least three months together with fruit. The fruit can be of the same sort used to obtain the distillate or of another sort. To 100 liters of p\u00e1linka at least 10\u00a0kg of ripe or 5\u00a0kg of dried fruit must be added.\n T\u00f6rk\u00f6ly (Pomace p\u00e1linka, also T\u00f6rk\u00f6lyp\u00e1linka) is a p\u00e1linka made from grape pomace. One of the oldest types of p\u00e1linka, it helps digestion and is usually consumed in small quantities after meals. Very popular, typically drunk in wine-producing regions.\n Barack (pronounced \"baratsk\") is a type of p\u00e1linka made of apricots. The word barack is a collective term for both apricot (in Hungarian s\u00e1rgabarack, lit. \"yellow-peach\") and peach (in Hungarian \u0151szibarack, lit. \"autumn-peach\").\n\nConsumption \n\nP\u00e1linka should be served at  because it is at this temperature that the fine smell and taste of the fruit can be best enjoyed. If served too cold, the smell and the taste will be difficult to appreciate.\n\nThe form of the glass used to drink p\u00e1linka affects the drinking experience. The ideal glass is wide at the bottom and narrow at the rim, that is, tulip-shaped. The relatively narrow neck of the glass concentrates the \"nose\" released from the larger surface at the bottom of the glass, magnifying the smell of the drink.\n\nProduction\n\nModern production\nModern commercial production occurs in Hungary and parts of Austria. It is commonly made from the fermentation of plums, but other fruits used include apricots, apples, pears, peaches, and cherries. The traditional double distillation process results in a strong alcohol content of 40 to 70 percent ABV.\n\nCommercial production\nCommercially available p\u00e1linka is always distilled in one of the registered distilleries.\n\nThe quality of p\u00e1linka is largely influenced by the quality of the fruit used, hence the distiller has to choose good quality fruit with a rich taste.\n\nThe first step in the production process is the preparation of the fruit mash. The stony seed is removed from the fruits that have such (e.g., cherry, apricot, plum) in order to prevent the cyanide contained in these seeds from ending up in the distillate. Some fruits (e.g., apple, pear, quince) are ground in order to make the mash soft.\n\nThe second step in the production process is fermentation. Some fruits, like quince, require an additive to start the fermentation process (e.g., citric acid). The fermentation is carried out in an anaerobic environment. The ideal temperature for the fermentation process is between , and the process takes between 10 and 15 days.\n\nThe third step in the production process is distillation. There are two types of distillation processes used: in a pot still or in a column still. Distillation in a pot still is considered to be the traditional way of distillation (kis\u00fcsti p\u00e1linka refers to a p\u00e1linka distilled in a pot still no bigger than 1000 litres). P\u00e1linka distilled in a pot still is always double distilled. In the first step, the alcohol is extracted from the fermented mash; the result is called alszesz (low alcohol). In the second step, the taste of the fruit is extracted from the fermented mash. The second distillation has the biggest influence on the quality of the p\u00e1linka and thus requires special skills. During the second distillation one distinguishes between el\u0151p\u00e1rlat (foreshots), k\u00f6z\u00e9pp\u00e1rlat (middle cut) and ut\u00f3p\u00e1rlat (feints). The el\u0151p\u00e1rlat is not used, even though much of the taste is contained in this cut. The k\u00f6z\u00e9pp\u00e1rlat is the one that gives the body of the distillate.\n\nDistillation in a column still involves a single distillation. The process is faster and cheaper than distillation in a pot still, and hence the resulting p\u00e1linka is cheaper.\n\nThe last step in the process is aging. P\u00e1linka can be aged in wooden casks (made of, e.g., mulberry wood) or in tanks made of metal. Not all varieties of p\u00e1linka can be aged in wooden casks because the wood can cancel the fruity taste of the drink.\n\nNon-commercial production\nIn Hungary, one can ferment a batch of fruit mash at home, then take the fermented mash to a distiller, who can then legally distill the mash to the desired strength. Legislation legalized small home distillers in 2010.\n\nThe most alcoholic p\u00e1linkas are (informally) referred to as ker\u00edt\u00e9sszaggat\u00f3 in Hungarian, which literally means \"fence-ripper\" (referring to a drunkard's loss of balance) or \"guggol\u00f3s\" (\"squatter\"), referring to the action required while walking near the windows of the houses of non-professional distillers to avoid getting invited (again) to taste their home-made p\u00e1linka. These potent, homemade, h\u00e1zi (home-made) p\u00e1linkas are commercially available in small portions and are very common in the countryside.\n\nSimilar products\n Rakia, a spirit made throughout Southeastern Europe\n Slivovitz, plum spirit\n \u021auic\u0103, a similar drink in Romania\n\nSee also\n National symbols of Hungary\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Farnadi, \u00c9va (ed.): Hagyom\u00e1nyok, \u00edzek, r\u00e9gi\u00f3k, Alf\u00f6ldi Nyomda, 2000 ()\n\nExternal links\n The History of P\u00e1linka A site dedicated for the beverage (in English)\n palinka.lap.hu A site with a collection of links about P\u00e1linka\n A description of the palinka with protected designation of origin (in Hungarian)\n\nFruit brandies\nHungarian spirits","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":49,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2022-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2020-34":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":4,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":7,"2014-35":7,"2014-23":7,"2014-15":5}},"id":1348185,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/P%C3%A1linka","title":"P\u00e1linka","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Kickboxing is a descriptive term for martial arts that, while similar to boxing, use the feet just like the hands to hit. Kickboxing can be practiced for general health, or as the fight sport. The word kickboxing represents a set of disciplines or sports of combat that use the feet and the fists. Especially, kickboxing is one of the disciplines of Boxe pieds-poings which was developed at first by the Japaneses and afterwards by the North Americans. There are different kinds of kick boxing, most popular form is one where kicks are allowed towards head & torso only.\n\nIn the middle of the years 1960, the Japanese Kurosaki, who trained in Kyokushinkai Karate, travelled to Thailand discovering Thai boxing. In his returning to the Japan decided to combine his techniques of karate with that of Thai boxing, removing elbow strikes (the Americans also removed knee strikes), so a new sport called \"kickboxing\" was born. \n\nAmong the non-Japaneses that gained more successes, a special consideration should be given to Frenchman Christian Guillaume who in 1969 gained four victories and two draws; and American Benny \"The Jet\" Urquidez who in 1977 defeated Tatsuyuki Suzuki in four rounds. \n\nIn 1973 Urquidez and Howard Hanson created the W.K.A. (World Karate Association), changing years after the \"K\" de karate for that of Kick-Boxing. \n\nThe more known champions are Rob Kaman, Benny Urquidez, Dennis Alexio, Ernesto Hoost, and Marek Piotrowski.\n\nRules \nThe punches and kicks are permitted for above the waist, the sweepings and the low kicks (kicks to the thigh) also are permitted. \n\nThe \"amateur\" combats take place in three rounds, and the professional ones last five rounds; 10 in championships of Europe and 12 in the championships of the world, with a one-minute half-time (break) between rounds. \n\nThe kicks to the thigh (low kick) usually decide about the difference in the combats.\n\nEquipment \nPants (long or short), boxing gloves and protectors for the teeth and for the genitals; in the female combats, women should also wear protector of chest and boots (not required in the professional combats).\n\nOther websites \n World association of all styles Kickboxing Organizations (W.A.S.K.O.) \n The World Kickboxing & Karate Association (W.K.A.)- Prof & Amateur Kickboxing \n International Sports Kickboxing Association (I.S.K.A)- Prof & Amateur Kickboxing\n International Kickboxing Federation (IKF) - Prof & Amateur Kickboxing\n International Kickboaxing Board of Control (IKBC)\n World Kickboxing Network (W.K.N.) \n World Kickboxing Union (W.K.U.) \n World Kickboxing Federation (W.K.F.)\n World Federation of Kickboxing (WFK) \n World International kickboxing league (I.K.L.) \n Professional Kickboxing Association (P.K.A) \n Muay Thai Kickboxing (M.T.K) \n Kickboxing Guide (Premier)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":37069,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kickboxing","title":"Kickboxing","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Griffith's Experiment was an experiment done in 1928 by Frederick Griffith. It was one of the first experiments showing that bacteria can get DNA through a process.\n\nGriffith used two strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae. He then uses the bacteria to infect the mice, which have many similar characteristics to humans. He used a type III-S (smooth) and type II-R (rough) strain. The III-S strain covers itself with a polysaccharide capsule that protects it from the host's immune system. This means that the host will die. The II-R strain does not have that protective shield around it and is killed by the host's immune system.\n\nIn this experiment, bacteria from the III-S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to II-R strain bacteria. While neither harmed the mice on their own, the blend of the two was able to kill mice.\n\nGriffith was also able to get both live II-R and live III-S strains of S. pneumoniae from the blood of these dead mice. He concluded that the type II-R had been \"transformed\" into the lethal III-S strain by a \"transforming principle\" that was somehow part of the dead III-S strain bacteria.\n\nToday, we know that the \"transforming principle\" Griffith saw was the DNA of the III-S strain bacteria. While the bacteria had been killed, the DNA had survived the heating process and was taken up by the II-R strain bacteria. The III-S strain DNA contains the genes that form the shielding polysaccharide part from attack. Armed with this gene, the former II-R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill the host.\n\nThe exact nature of the transforming principle was confirmed in one of many experiments done by Avery, McLeod and McCarty, as well as Hershey and Chase.\n\nRelated pages\nGenetics\nAvery\u2013MacLeod\u2013McCarty experiment\nHershey\u2013Chase experiment\n\nReferences \n\nHartl, Daniel and Jones, Elizabeth 2005. Genetics: analysis of genes and genomes. 6th ed, Jones & Bartlett. \nThe original experiment by Griffith. Original article and 35th anniversary reprint available.\n\n1928\nGenetics experiments\nBacteria\nMolecular biology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"unknown":18,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":142440,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Griffith%27s%20experiment","title":"Griffith's experiment","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Monotremes are a group of mammals that form the order Monotremata. Monotremes are the only mammals that lay eggs, but they also feed their babies with milk.\n\nThe word 'monotreme' refers to their common rear opening, the cloaca. In amphibia, reptiles, birds and probably all early tetrapods, there is a common opening for urine, reproduction and faeces.\n\nEvolution  \nMonotremes are derived from earlier mammals than the marsupials and eutherians, but their fossil record is poor. \n\nThe time at which the monotreme line diverged from other mammalian lines is uncertain, but one survey of genetic studies gives an estimate of about 220 million years ago. This is in the Upper Triassic. Fossils of a jaw fragment 110 million years old were found at Lightning Ridge, New South Wales. This means they originated up to 100 million years before the Metatheria or Eutheria, so they are definitely 'living fossils'.\n\nMosaic features \nThe egg-laying and the cloaca are primitive ('basal') features inherited from earlier synapsid tetrapods. \n\nBut the monotremes also have other features such as the production of milk, caring for their young in burrows, homeothermy and a neocortex in their brains. These are advanced ('derived') features which they share with placentals and marsupials. This mixture of basal and derived features is characteristic of the way different body parts often evolve at different rates. This is called mosaic evolution. \n\nIn mammals, a monophyletic group, there were a number of different lines living at the same time through the Upper Triassic to the Upper Cretaceous. Each of these lines had a mixture of basal and derived features until, at last, the placental mammals developed the whole suite of derived characters. This gave them a great advantage over the other groups wherever open competition occurred. However, because of their long seclusion in southern continents, some of the monotremes and marsupials have survived.\n\nSurvivors \nThere are two surviving families of monotremes, with five living species. They all live in Australia and New Guinea. People commonly know them as platypus and echidnas. There is only one platypus that exists now, the duck-billed platypus. The four others echidnas.\n\nTypes of monotreme \n Order Monotremata\n Family Ornithorhynchidae\n Genus Ornithorhynchus\n Platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus\n Family Tachyglossidae: Echidnas\n Genus Tachyglossus\n Short-beaked Echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus\n Genus Zaglossus: Long-beaked Echidnas\n Western Long-beaked Echidna, Zaglossus bruijni\n Sir David's Long-beaked Echidna, Zaglossus attenboroughi\n Eastern Long-beaked Echidna, Zaglossus bartoni\n\nReferences \n\n \nLiving fossils","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":135,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":31316,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monotreme","title":"Monotreme","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bone marrow is a type of tissue that can be found in hollow bones of many animals including humans. In adults, the bone marrow in large bones makes new blood cells. Bone marrow makes up about 4% of an adult human's weight (about 2.6 kilograms).\n\nMarrow types\n\nThere are two types of bone marrow. Red marrow is made mostly of myeloid tissue (which makes new blood cells).  Red blood cells, platelets, and most white blood cells are created by red marrow. Yellow marrow is made mainly of fat cells. Both types of bone marrow contain many blood vessels and capillaries.\n\nWhen a person is born, all of their bone marrow is red. As the person ages, more and more of the bone marrow changes to the yellow type. By adulthood, about half of a person's bone marrow is red.\n\nRed marrow is found mainly in the flat bones - like the hip bone, breast bone, skull, ribs, vertebra (the bones that make up the spinal column), and shoulder blades - and in the cancellous (\"spongy\") material at the ends of the long bones like the femur (thigh bone) and humerus (upper forearm bone). Yellow marrow is found inside the hollow middle section, or medullary cavity of the long bones.\n\nIn cases of severe blood loss, the body can change yellow marrow back to red marrow so that more blood cells are made to replace the lost blood.\n\nBones","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":179053,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bone%20marrow","title":"Bone marrow","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A  or succah (;  ; plural,    or sukkos or sukkoth, often translated as \"booth\") is a temporary hut constructed for use during the week-long Jewish festival of Sukkot. It is topped with branches and often well decorated with autumnal, harvest or Judaic themes.  The book of Vayikra (Leviticus) describes it as a symbolic wilderness shelter, commemorating the time God provided for the Israelites in the wilderness they inhabited after they were freed from slavery in Egypt.  It is common for Jews to eat, sleep and otherwise spend time in the sukkah. In Judaism, Sukkot is considered a joyous occasion and is referred to in Hebrew as Z'man Simchateinu (the time of our rejoicing), and the sukkah itself symbolizes the fragility and transience of life and one's dependence on God.\n\nAssociated activities\n\nThe halakha requires eating and traditionally sleeping in the sukkah. However, Jews are not expected to remain in the sukkah if they would be very uncomfortable there. For this reason, Jews living at northern latitudes will generally not sleep in the sukkah due to the low temperatures of autumn nights. Some Jews in these locales will spend some time in the sukkah eating and relaxing but go indoors to sleep.\n\nWhen rain falls on the sukkah, one is not required to stay inside. The Mishna in Sukkah 28b compares rain falling on a sukkah to a master who receives a drink from his servant and then throws it back in the servant's face. The analogy is that through the rainfall, God is showing displeasure with the performance of the mitzvah by not allowing the Jews to fulfill their obligation of sitting in the sukkah.\n\nIn Israel and other temperate climates (such as Florida, Australia, Texas, and Southern California), observant Jews will often conduct all their eating, studying, and sleeping activities in the sukkah. Many Jews will not eat or drink anything outside the sukkah. Others will drink or eat fruit outside the sukkah.\n\nIn Israel, it is a common practice for hotels, restaurants, snack shops, and outdoor tourist attractions (such as zoos) to provide a Kosher sukkah for customers to dine in.\n\nAll Lubavitcher Hasidim and some Belzer Hasidim (especially outside Israel) do not sleep in the sukkah due to its intrinsic holiness. Though the halakha doesn't obligate one to eat or sleep in the sukkah if it is raining, Lubavitcher Hasidim will still eat there.\n\nA popular social activity which involves people visiting each other's Sukkot has become known as \"Sukkah hopping\". Food is laid out so that participants will be able to recite the various required blessings.\n\nStructure \n \n\nAccording to halakha, a sukkah is a structure consisting of a roof made of organic material which has been disconnected from the ground for the purpose of the commandment (the s'chach). A sukkah must have three walls. It should be at least three feet tall, and be positioned so that all or part of its roof is open to the sky. (Only the part which is under the sky is kosher.) Most authorities require its floor area to be at least 16 square cubits.\n\nIn practice, the walls of a sukkah can be constructed from any material that will withstand a normally anticipated terrestrial wind. If the material is not rigid and therefore will sway in the wind, the sukkah is not kosher (Talmud, Sukkah 24b). Accordingly, there is a discussion among contemporary halakhic authorities whether canvas may be used for walls: Some, such as R. Ovadiah Yosef (Shu\"t Yechaveh Da'at 3:46) hold that even the slightest degree of swaying in the wind will disqualify the sukkah walls, and thus canvas cannot realistically be employed. Others, such as the Chazon Ish, permit motion to and fro of less than three handbreadths, thereby facilitating the usage of canvas walls which are anchored at all sides. The specific details of what constitutes a wall, the minimum and maximum wall heights, whether there can be spaces between the walls and the roof, and the exact material required for the s'chach (roofing) can be found in various exegetical texts.\n\nA sukkah can be built on the ground or on an open porch or balcony. Indeed, many observant Jews who design their home's porch or deck will do so in a fashion that aligns with their sukkah-building needs. Portable sukkot made of a collapsible metal frame and cloth walls have recently become available for those who have little space, or for those who are traveling (in order to have a place to eat one's meals).\n\nRoof covering \nThe roof covering, known as s'chach (\u05e1\u05db\u05da in Hebrew), must consist of something that grew from the earth but is currently disconnected from it. Palm leaves, bamboo sticks, pine branches, wood and the like can all be used for s'chach, unless they were processed previously for a different use.\n\nThere must be enough s'chach that inside the sukkah there should be more shade than sun. However, there should ideally be sufficient gaps between the pieces of s'chach so that one can see the sun or stars.\n\nDecorations \nMany people hang decorations such as streamers, shiny ornaments, and pictures from the interior walls and ceiling beams of a sukkah. Fresh, dried or plastic fruit\u2014including etrogs and the seven species for which Israel is praised (wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives and dates; see Deuteronomy 8:8)\u2014are popular decorations.\n\nSome families also line the interior walls with white sheeting, in order to recall the \"Clouds of Glory\" that surrounded the Jewish nation during their wanderings in the desert. The Chabad custom is not to decorate the sukkah, as the sukkah itself is considered to be an object of beauty.\n\nAssociated prayers\n\nBlessing \nAccording to Jewish law, one must recite the following blessing when using the sukkah. The blessing is normally recited after the blessing made on food, such as on bread or cake:\n\nUshpizin \n\nDuring the holiday, some Jews recite the ushpizin prayer which symbolizes the welcoming of seven \"exalted guests\" into the sukkah. These ushpizin, or guests, represent the seven shepherds of Israel: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Aaron, Joseph and David.  According to tradition, each night a different guest enters the sukkah followed by the other six. Each of the ushpizin parallels the spiritual focus of the day on which they visit.\n\nIn Chabad tradition, an additional set of corresponding \"chasidic\" ushpizin enter the sukkah, beginning with the Baal Shem Tov and the Maggid of Mezeritch and continuing with the consecutive rebbes of the Chabad Hasidic dynasty.\n\nNotable examples\n\nDrive-through\n\nIn 2010, Bet Shira Congregation in Miami, Florida, erected a tent as a drive-through Sukkah, dubbed \"McBet Shira Sukkah\", in the parking lot of the synagogue.\n\nSukkah City\nSukkah City was a public art and architecture competition planned for New York City's Union Square Park.    The winning design was chosen as the City Sukkah, to stand, starting on September 22, 2010, for the requisite seven days of the harvest holiday.  A committee of art critics and celebrated architects selected the 12 finalists from a field of entries.\n\nPedi-Sukkah \nPedi-Sukkahs see the normally stationary build of a Sukkah placed on the back of a mobile vehicle, usually a 3-wheeled bicycle.  The pedi-Sukkah was introduced by Levi Duchman in 2009 and has since spread to at least 15 states and 5 countries.\n\nSamaritan sukkahs \n\nIn Samaritanism, sukkahs are built indoors using fruit instead of wood. According to Samaritan historian Benyamim Tsedaka, Samaritans initially constructed sukkahs outside of their homes, as Jews do. However, during the Byzantine period, the Samaritans faced persecutions and began to construct them inside instead. This custom has remained ever since.\n\nSee also\n\n Syndicat Northcrest v. Amselem, a Canadian legal case on the building of sukkot\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \"Sukkah City\"\u2014slideshow by The New York Times\n \"What on Earth Is a Sukkah?\": Slideshow by NPR\n Laws of Sukkot\n sukkahsoftheworld.org: Pictures of sukkahs from Sharon to Shanghai\n Local Sukkah: Worldwide listing of sukkahs available for public use\n The Laws of the Succah by Rabbi Eliezer Melamed\n\nHouse types\nHuts\nJewish ritual objects\nPositive Mitzvoth\nSukkot\nHebrew words and phrases in Jewish law\nVernacular architecture\nJewish buildings","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":168,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":5,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-22":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":7,"2014-15":5}},"id":7397713,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sukkah","title":"Sukkah","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The history of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991 covers the dissolution of the Soviet Union. (\"Dissolution\" means ending or splitting up.) The dissolution of the Soviet Union describes its end as a separate country.\n\nThe Soviet Union had many regions called \"republics\". They all belonged to the Russian Empire before 1917. All these \"republics\" were part of the Soviet Union, and the Soviet Union was one country. After its dissolution, all of the republics became independent countries. The names of these countries are: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Georgia, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.\n\nRussia is a special case, because it still has a number of former republics inside its borders. That is why the country is called the Russian Federation. There are eight Federal Districts and 83 so-called \"Federal Subjects\" of the Russian Federation. Siberia, for example, has two huge federal districts.\n\nThe Soviet Union ended with the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States. At the time of dissolution of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev was the president of the Soviet Union. He was in this position for a little over a year but he was leader of the Soviet Union from March 11th 1985. On 25 December 1991, he quit the post of the president of the USSR. By 31 December 1991, all organizations and departments of the Soviet Union stopped working. On that date, the Soviet flag flew for the last time on the Kremlin.\n\nBackground \nDuring 1969 and 1982, very few changes took place in the politics and economy of the Soviet Union. With the beginning of the Soviet war in Afghanistan, its relationship with the United States also deteriorated. At that time Jimmy Carter, followed by Ronald Reagan was the President of the United States. Jimmy Carter ended the policy of D\u00e9tente - ending of unfriendly relationship. Some historians believe that this may be one of the reasons for the Soviet Union to change its political and economic policies.\n\nIn March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the General Secretary of the CPSU. Under him, a new group of officials and leaders started a process of changes in the politics and economy of the Soviet Union. They also tried to improve relationships with Western countries like the US.\n\nAt that time, the Soviet economy was doing okay but it was slower than its competitors' economies in the West. Also, the cost of maintaining the Soviet Union, as a superpower was huge. These costs included running a large military; running the KGB networks; and giving money to countries close to the Soviet Union. At the same time, the Soviet Union's technological development had fallen behind. For example: many of its factories used out-of-date technologies and it had fallen behind in the use of information technology.\n\nIn view of these and other reasons, Gorbachev and his team started three important policies:\n Glasnost \u2013 meaning political openness.\n Perestroika \u2013 meaning economic changes and restructuring.\n Uskoreniye \u2013 meaning speeding up of the economic development.\n\nChanges \n\nSince the time of Vladimir Lenin in 1920s, the people of the Soviet Union did not have any right to own personal property and business. The government owned almost everything. In 1988, the government permitted the people to own some types of businesses in the service sector, manufacturing, and foreign trade. A system of cooperative restaurants, shops, and manufacturers came into existence.\n\nGlasnost gave a greater freedom of speech to the citizens and allowed them to criticise the government - something they had never been allowed to do. The government reduced censorship and control on publication. The government set free many political prisoners. In January 1987, Gorbachev started a process of democratization of Soviet politics. In June 1988, Gorbachev started a process to reduce the control of the CPSU on the different parts of the government.\n\nIn December 1988, the Supreme Soviet had approved the establishment of a Congress of People's Deputies, the Soviet Union's new legislative body. In March and April 1989, elections to the Congress of People's Deputies took place. The members on 15th March 1990 elected Gorbachev as the first executive President of the Soviet Union.\n\nThe outcome \nMany steps taken by Gorbachev gave results different than the intended results. Thus the perestroika and glasnost intended to make the Soviet economy stronger resulted into something very different. Many factors and events combined and finally they resulted in the dissolution of the Soviet Union.\n\nUnder the policy of glasnost (political openness), the Soviet government and the Communist Party lost control over the media. A free media brought to notice of the public many bad aspects of the society and the economy of the Soviet Union. These bad aspects included poor housing, alcoholism, drug abuse, pollution, out-of-date technologies in many factories, and corruption. People also learnt of many crimes committed by Stalin. For example, they learnt about prisoners at Gulags, agreement with Adolf Hitler, and large massacres of Stalin opponents. Further, people also learnt details about such events as the ongoing Soviet war in Afghanistan and bad management of nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl (the Soviet Union didn't publicly admit to the meltdown until three days after it happened). In short, people learnt about the negative aspects of the Soviet life. People began to lose faith in their Soviet system and ideology of Communism.\n\nBy 1989, the Soviet government found it to be too difficult for the Soviet Union to keep its control over its Eastern European bloc and decided to let them choose their own futures. After the end of the Second World War, with the support of the Soviet Union, communist governments were ruling all these countries. The change in the policy of the Soviet Union resulted into fall of the communist governments in many such countries by 1990: in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania.\n\nSeeing all these developments, many \"republics\" of the Soviet Union wanted to become independent. The Glasnost policy also released long wanted nationalism in the \"republics\" that the Soviet government had suppressed and covered up. Some republics tried to become independent.\n\nThe leaders had thought that the policy of perestroika was a bold step to improve the economy. But, the steps were not very strong to improve the bad economic conditions of 1980s. Despite many changes, Gorbachev and his team had left many aspects of the Soviet economy unchanged. For example, price control, inconvertibility of the ruble, and government control over most means of production continued. By 1990 the economic situation had become worse. The examples include:\n Government expenditure had increased.\n Tax revenues had come down as the republics had stopped paying taxes.\n Income from sale of vodka came down as many people had stopped drinking.\n The government had to give money to support unprofitable farms and industries.\n The government had removed many controls but did not bring forth other changes for smooth transition from state control to a free economy. This resulted into many problems including low production.\n\nThe dissolution \nOn 7th February 1990, the Central Committee of the CPSU was forced to loosen its control over power. At around the same time, different \"republics\" of the Soviet Union started to claim their right to become independent. They stopped following the laws of the central government of the Soviet Union. They also stopped paying taxes to the central authorities (of Moscow) of the Soviet Union. These weakened the Soviet authority and economy.\n\nDuring a 1990 visit of Gorbachev to Vilnius, capital of Lithuania, about 250,000 persons protested in a public meeting. On 11th March 1990, leaders of Lithuania declared its independence from the Soviet Union. However, the Soviet central-government demanded Lithuania to give up its independence and sent the Soviet Army continued to keep many troops in Lithuania. The government said that it would have to follow the Soviet constitution if it wanted to leave. The Soviet Union also did economic blockade of Lithuania. Estonia and Latvia were also illegally taken by the Soviet Union in 1940. On 30th March 1990, the leaders of Estonia declared that the control of their country by the Soviet Union from 1940 was illegal. They also declared independence. The leaders of Latvia also started process of independence on 4th May 1990.\n\nOn 17th March 1991, people of the Soviet Union voted to keep the existing Soviet Union in a slightly changed form. The Baltic States (Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia), Armenia, Georgia and Moldova boycotted the voting. In each of the other nine \"republics\" of the Soviet Union, a majority of the voters supported the retention of the Soviet Union. In June 1991 an election took place in the Russian Republic of the Soviet Union. Boris Yeltsin got 57% of the vote. He was a critic of Mikhail Gorbachev. Gorbachev's preferred candidate, former Premier Nikolai Ryzhkov, got only 16% of the vote.\n\nThe Coup\nThe \"republics\" of the Soviet Union had agreed to sign on 20th August 1991, an agreement making them almost independent republics but part of a federation, with a common president, foreign policy and military. However, many persons disagreed, and they wanted a fast transition to market economy even if it meant dissolution of the Soviet Union. There were many others in the CPSU and the military of the Soviet Union who supported continuation of the Soviet Union.\n\nOn 19th August 1991, some senior leaders of the Soviet Union formed a \"State Committee on the State Emergency.\" They prevented signing of the above-mentioned agreement on 20th August 1991. These leaders included Gorbachev's vice president Gennadi Yanayev, prime minister Valentin Pavlov, defense minister Dmitriy Yazov, KGB chief Vladimir Kryuchkov, and many other senior officials. At that time Gorbachev was holidaying in Crimea). These officials put him under house arrest. They also issued orders banning all political activities and banned most newspapers.\n\nThis was like a coup. The organizers had expected popular support for their action. But, the people did not support them. Instead, they supported \"White House\" (Yeltsin's office), then the symbolic seat of Russian sovereignty. The organizers of the coup tried but failed to arrest Boris Yeltsin. After three days, on August 21, the coup failed. The authorities detained the organizers. Gorbachev returned as president of the Soviet Union. However, Gorbachev's real powers had reduced.\n\nThrough the autumn of 1991, the Russian government took over the union government, ministry by ministry. In November 1991, Yeltsin issued an order banning the CPSU throughout the Russian republic. As a result, many former CPSU personnel left CPSU to join the new positions in the new Russian government.\n\nAfter the failure of the coup, the republics of the Soviet Union increased their efforts to become independent. On 6th September 1991, the Soviet Union recognized the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. On 1st December 1991, Ukraine declared its independence, after 90% of the voters opted for an independent Ukraine; this really destroyed any hopes of keeping the Soviet Union together since Ukraine was the second most powerful \"republic\" after Russia. One by one, the remaining eleven \"republics\" of the Soviet Union also declared themselves as sovereign and independent states.\n\nThe CIS \nAs noted above, on 6th September 1991, the Soviet Union had recognized the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. It may be note that twelve out of the fifteen republics of the Soviet Union had signed an international agreement (European Energy Charter) in the Hague on 17th December 1991. The signing had indicated that these republics had practically become independent and sovereign countries.\n\nLeaving apart already independent Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, the remaining 12 republics, all (except Georgia) joined the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). In December 1993, Georgia also joined the CIS. On 26th August 2006 Turkmenistan left the permanent membership, and became an associate member.\n\nMany persons believed that with the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Soviet Union ceased to exist. They believed that it was the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Many others think that with CIS, the Russia continues to have some control over the former republics of the Soviet Union.\n\nOn December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president of the USSR. By December 31, 1991 all official Soviet institutions had stopped to function in different \"republics\" of the Soviet Union. The individual governments of these republics started functioning. The Soviet flag flew last time over the Kremlin.\n\nSummary \nThe four principles had governed the Soviet Union: a chain of soviets; ethnic federation; state socialism; and supremacy of the Communist party. Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost created a situation which weakened all the above four principles. He repeatedly tried to form a circle of leaders to support his policies. He tried to do all these as he and his team saw that the Soviet Union was moving toward a long-term stagnation.\n\nGorbachev's policies made it possible for leaders of various Soviet republics to gain confidence and influence. At the same time, he faced opposition from many including the nationalist forces and the traditional communists. Some people accepted the reforms; some wanted the old system to continue; and some desired complete independence from the Soviet Union and central control. In the end, Gorbachev was unable to ensure any common view among these forces. Ultimately, this led to the collapse and dissolution of the Soviet Union.\n\nAfter the dissolution \n\nImmediately after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Yeltsin took many steps to change the economy of the Soviet Union from a socialist economy to a capitalist economy. For example: he cut the payment of grants to money-losing farms and industries; he also removed control over prices; he took steps for convertibility of the Russian rouble. He also allowed many people close to his circle, and other business people, to take possession of the businesses and industries earlier owned by the government, and to run them as private enterprises. The planners and economists had thought that these changes would lead to a faster economic development. However, nothing of this sort happened.\n\nSince the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia is facing many problems, including the following:\n About 25% of the population of Russia is now very poor and live below the poverty line. \n The life expectancy has come down. This means people die at an early age. \n The Gross Domestic Product had become about 50% of the earlier times.\n\nMany Russians of older generation believe that the earlier system was better. During 1990s, Russia faced many crises in political, social and economic matters. Many persons still believe that the situation still continues to be worse compared to earlier times.\n\nRelated pages\n Commonwealth of Independent States\n\nOther websites \n Reform, Coup and Collapse: The End of the Soviet State by Professor Archie Brown.\n The Soviet Union Disintegrates by Frank E. Smitha\n\nFurther reading\n Helene Carrere D'Encausse, The end of the Soviet Empire: the triumph of the nations, Basic Books, 1992, \n Ronald Grigor Suny, The revenge of the past: nationalism, revolution, and the collapse of the Soviet Union, Stanford University Press, 1993, \n\n1980s in the Soviet Union\n1990s in the Soviet Union","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":32470,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History%20of%20the%20Soviet%20Union%20%281985%E2%80%931991%29","title":"History of the Soviet Union (1985\u20131991)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Geometry (from Ancient Greek: \u0393\u03b5\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 (romanized: Geometria (English: \"Land measurement\") derived from \u0393\u03b7 (romanized: Ge; English: \"Earth\" or \"land\") and also derived from \u039c\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd) (romanized: M\u00e9tron; English: \"A measure\")) is a branch of mathematics that studies the size, shapes, positions and dimensions of things. We can only see shapes that are flat (2D) or solid (3D), but mathematicians (people who study math) are able to study shapes that are 4D, 5D, 6D, and so on.\n\nSquares, circles and triangles are some of the simplest shapes in flat geometry. Cubes, cylinders, cones and spheres are simple shapes in solid geometry.\n\nUses \nPlane geometry can be used to measure the area and perimeter of a flat shape. Solid geometry can measure a solid shape's volume and surface area.\n\nGeometry can be used to calculate the size and shape of many things. For example, geometry can help people find:\n the surface area of a house, so they can buy the right amount of paint\n the volume of a box, to see if it is big enough to hold a liter of food\n the area of a farm, so it can be divided into equal parts\n the distance around the edge of a pond, to know how much fencing to buy.\n\nOrigins \nGeometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. Geometry began as the art of surveying of land so that it could be shared fairly between people. The word \"geometry\" is from a Greek word that means \"to measure the land\". It has grown from this to become one of the most important parts of mathematics. The Greek mathematician Euclid wrote the first book about geometry, a book called The Elements.\n\nNon-Euclidean geometry \nPlane and solid geometry, as described by Euclid in his textbook Elements, is called \"Euclidean Geometry\". This was simply called \"geometry\" for centuries. In the 19th century, mathematicians created several new kinds of geometry that changed the rules of Euclidean geometry. These and earlier kinds were called \"non-Euclidean\" (not created by Euclid). For example, hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry come from changing Euclid's parallel postulate.\n\nNon-Euclidean geometry is more complicated than Euclidean geometry but has many uses. Spherical geometry for example is used in astronomy and cartography.\n\nExamples \nGeometry starts with a few simple ideas that are thought to be true, called axioms. Such as:\n A point is shown on paper by touching it with a pencil or pen, without making any sideways movement. We know where the point is, but it has no size.\n A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. For example, Sophie pulls a piece of string from one point to another point. A straight line between the two points will follow the path of the tight string.\n A plane is a flat surface that does not stop in any direction. For example, imagine a wall that extends in all directions infinitely.\n\nRelated pages \n Topology\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":51,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":5,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1}},"id":315,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geometry","title":"Geometry","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Genesis (Greek: \u1f21 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 \"origin, birth\") is the first book of the Hebrew Bible. It means creation. It begins with the creation of the Universe. It ends with the death of Joseph. The Hebrew name for the book is transliterated Bre'shiyth, which means \"in the beginning\".\n\nSummary \n\nGod created the universe and everything in it in six days. God rested on the seventh day (Sabbath) and declared it a holy day of rest. God provided the Garden of Eden to the first man, Adam, and the first woman, Eve. There was only one thing that they were not allowed to do. God told them not to eat from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A snake tricked Eve, and she ate the fruit from the tree of knowledge. She then gave Adam some of the fruit, and he ate as well. Because they did not obey him, God made them leave the garden, so all people had to work for their food.\n\nAdam and Eve's first two children were sons, Cain and Abel. Abel was a shepherd and Cain was a farmer. Cain fell into sin and killed his brother Abel out of jealousy, making him the first person to commit murder. (Genesis 4:1\u201316)\n\nLater, when the world was full of people who were evil, God chose to kill them and save only the animals and the most morally righteous person alive. He told a man, named Noah, to build a huge boat and gather two of every bird, mammal and reptile onto it.  He was instructed to take 14, or a pair of 7, of clean animals. Only 2 of each could be unclean. Noah built and filled the boat as he was told, and a flood covered the whole world. After 40 days and nights, the rains stopped.  Once the water had receded the boat landed on the mountain of Ararat. God promised never to send another such flood, and he used the rainbow as a sign of that promise.\n\nThe people of the world attempted to build a high tower (Tower of Babel) to show the power of mankind and to reach God. God felt insulted and gave people different languages to prevent the tower from ever being finished.\n\nGod chose Abram to be \"the father of many nations.\" Abram changed his name to Abraham, and God promised him the land of Canaan (Israel) forever. As a sign of this promise, the sons of Abraham are circumcised. God tested Abraham's loyalty by asking him to kill his son Isaac. Abraham was ready to do it, but God sent an angel to stop him. God told him there would be no more human sacrifice.\n\nGod destroyed the evil cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, saving only Abraham's nephew Lot and his daughters.\n\nIsaac and his wife Rebecca had two twin sons, Esau and Jacob. Jacob traded food to Esau for Esau's right to carry the family name. Rebekah helped trick Isaac, who was old and blind, into giving his final blessing to Jacob by dressing him in fur (Isaac felt Jacob's furs and thought he was his hairy twin, Esau). Esau later got a blessing of his own.\n\nJacob left to find a wife. He found Rachel and worked for her father, Lavan, for seven years to marry her, but was tricked into marrying her sister Leah. He worked for another seven years to marry Rachel. He went back to his home, then moved to Bethel, where God told him to change his name to Israel. Jacob later also marries the servants of Leah and Rachel, whose names are Bilah and Zilpah.\n\nJacob had twelve sons named Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issaschar, Zebulun, Gad, Dan, Asher, Naftali, Joseph, and Benjamin. His wife Rachel died after she gave birth to Benjamin.\n\nJacob gave his son Joseph a coat of many colors. Joseph's brothers were jealous, so they sold him into slavery in Egypt. They covered his coat in blood and told their father he had died. Joseph became a great leader in Egypt by predicting a long famine by explaining the pharaoh's dreams. During the famine, his brothers came to Egypt to buy food. They did not know that Joseph was the leader. Joseph first tricked the brothers, but then gave them food and let them stay in Goshen in Egypt.\n\nJacob blessed his sons and then died.\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading \n Umberto Cassuto, From Noah to Abraham. Eisenbrauns, 1984. ISBN (A scholarly Jewish commentary.)\n Isaac M. Kikawada & Arthur Quinn, Before Abraham was \u2013 The Unity of Genesis 1-11. Nashville, Tenn., 1985. (A challenge to the Documentary Hypothesis.)\n Nehama Leibowitz, New Studies in Bereshit, Genesis. Jerusalem: Hemed Press, 1995. (A scholarly Jewish commentary employing traditional sources.)\n Henry M. Morris, The Genesis Record: A Scientific and Devotional Commentary on the Book of Beginnings. Baker Books, 1981. ISBN (A creationist Christian commentary.)\n Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI), In the Beginning. Edinburgh, 1995. (A Catholic understanding of the story of Creation and Fall.)\n Jean-Marc Rouvi\u00e8re, Br\u00e8ves m\u00e9ditations sur la cr\u00e9ation du monde. L'Harmattan Paris, 2006.\n Nahum M. Sarna, Understanding Genesis. New York: Schocken Press, 1966. (A scholarly Jewish treatment, strong on historical perspective.)\n Nahum M. Sarna, The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. (A mainstream Jewish commentary.)\n E. A. Speiser, Genesis, The Anchor Bible. Volume 1. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1964. (A translation with scholarly commentary and philological notes by a noted Semitic scholar. The series is written for laypeople and specialists alike.)\n Bruce Vawter, On Genesis: A New Reading. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1977. (An introduction to Genesis by a fine Catholic scholar. Genesis was Vawter's hobby.)\n Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg, The Beginning of Desire: Reflections of Genesis. New York: Doubleday, 1995. (A scholarly Jewish commentary employing traditional sources.)\n\nOther websites\n\nOnline texts and translations of Genesis \n Bible Gateway\n Bereshit with commentary in Hebrew \n \u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea Bereishit - Genesis (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)\n Hebrew Audiobook of Genesis from Librivox\n Young's Literal Translation (YLT)\n New International Version (NIV)\n New Revised Standard Version (NRSV)\n Westminster-Leningrad codex\n Aleppo Codex\n\nOld Testament books\nCreation myths\nBooks of the Hebrew Bible\n6th-century BC books","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":146,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":4,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":11278,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Book%20of%20Genesis","title":"Book of Genesis","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A spectral line is the way scientists can tell one element from another by looking at color.\n\nThe colors of the rainbow \n\nIn order to understand spectral lines, color has to be understood. In a rainbow, the colors of light go from purple to red. Several hundred years ago, the famous scientist Isaac Newton did an experiment where he showed that even white light from the Sun was made up of all the colors of the rainbow. When other scientists following him looked at this rainbow very closely, they noticed that there were dark lines breaking up the rainbow, where certain shades of colors should be. These lines were very small, but could be seen when the rainbow got stretched out very far. They investigated this further, and discovered that certain chemical elements, like the hydrogen and helium that make up the Sun, absorbed certain frequencies of light where those colors should be, like a sponge absorbs water, but does not absorb chalk.\n\nElemental fingerprints \n\nSoon, scientists discovered that when they heated other chemical elements, like calcium and oxygen, so hot that they shined with a white light, they found similar lines, but in different places. No two chemical elements had these lines in exactly the same places along the rainbow, and they also soon discovered that could be used to be able to tell what stars were made up of in the Universe. The lines that a particular element produces are called the emission spectrum of that element.\n\nThe reason the chemical elements can do this is because of the number and places of electrons orbiting around the center of each atom of each chemical element. These electrons, when light hits them, absorb a specific wavelength, or color of light, and what color they absorb depend on their position around the atom. Since each chemical element has a certain number of electrons, each chemical element has this unique set of spectral lines.\n\nRed shift \n\nSince each set of spectral lines was unique, scientists could also be able to use this in a technique called red shift. Red shift is a method astronomers use, after they know what a star is made of, to tell how fast an object far away in the Universe is moving. It also tells them how far away it is, .\n\nChemistry\nAstrophysics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":17385,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectral%20line","title":"Spectral line","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The lentil or daal or pulse (Lens culinaris) is a bushy annual plant of the legume family. It is a kind of vegetable, grown for its lens-shaped seeds. It is about 15\u00a0inches tall and the seeds grow in pods, usually with two seeds in each.\n\nBackground \nThe plant originated in the Middle East and was one of the first crops domesticated in the world. Humans started eating lentils before they invented ceramics.\n\nConsisting of 26% protein, lentils have the highest level of protein of any plant after soybeans and hemp. Because of this fact, and due to their high iron content, lentils are a very important part of the diet in many parts of the world, especially in India, which has a large vegetarian population.\n\nDifferent kinds of lentils exist, including a variety of large and small lentils. Lentils come in colors that range from yellow to red-orange to green, brown and black.\n\nLentils are sold in many forms, with or without the skins, whole or split. Red, white and yellow lentils are decorticated, i.e., they have their skins removed.\n\nOne variety of yellow \"lentils\", Chana, is in fact not a lentil, but are actually made from the kernels of chickpeas. Split Pigeon peas (either green or yellow) - that are actually considered pulses, which include peas and beans - are also sometimes erroneously referred to and sold as lentils. The urad bean is also referred to as a \"black lentil\".\n\nTypes \n\n Brown\/Spanish Pardina\n French Green\/Puy (Dark speckled blue-green)\n Green (Most common variety)\n Black\/Beluga\n Yellow\/Tan Lentils (Red inside)\n Red Chief (Decorticated yellow lentils)\n Eston Green (Small green)\n Richlea (Medium green)\n Laird (Large green)\n Petite Golden (Decorticated lentils)\n Masoor (Brown-skinned lentils which are red inside)\n Pigeon Peas\n Channa Dal\n Mung Lentils\n Petite Crimson\/Red (Decorticated masoor lentils)\n Chana (Kernel of chickpeas)\n Urad (A type of bean)\n White\/Ivory (Peeled Urad beans)\n Macachiados (Big Mexican yellow lentils)\n\nPreparation \nThe seeds only need very little cooking. This time is especially short for kinds of lentils with their husk removed, such as the common red lentil. Lentils have a distinctive earthy flavor. They  can be used to prepare an inexpensive and nutritious soup all over Europe and North and South America. Sometimes they are combined with some form of chicken or pork.  They are frequently combined with rice, which has a similar cooking time. In the Middle East such a dish of lentils and rice is called mujaddara or mejadra. Rice and lentils are also cooked together in khichdi, a popular Indian dish. Lentils are used throughout India, the Mediterranean regions and the Middle East. In rare cases the lentils are mixed with dairy cheese.\n\nMany people in  India are vegetarian and lentils have long been part of the indigenous diet as a common source of protein. Usually, lentils are boiled to a stew-like consistency with vegetables and then seasoned with a mixture of spices to make many side dishes such as sambar, rasam and dal, which are usually served over rice and roti.\n\nWhen lentils are prepared, they are first inspected for damaged lentils, stones and other foreign matter. Then they are rinsed until the water runs through and comes out clear. Some prefer to soak the lentils for a longer time and discard the water. This removes substances that may cause indigestion. The lentils are then boiled in water or broth. They may be cooked on the stovetop, or in a slow cooker. Pressure cookers are not recommended, since the small lentils may clog the pressure relief valve, and their quick cooking time means there is little benefit from pressure cooking. Cooked lentils often require thinning: adding more hot water or broth to the cooked legumes until the desired final consistency is reached.\n\nLentils can be sprouted as can some beans and some other edible seeds (seeds people can eat).  Seeds being sprouted are watered and rinsed repeatedly till they start to germinate (grow small roots and shoots).  Sprouted lentils can be eaten raw on their own or in salads, they can also be cooked.\n\nNutritional value \n\nApart from a high level of proteins, lentils also contain dietary fiber, vitamin B1, and minerals. Red (or pink) lentils contain a lower concentration of fiber than green lentils (11% rather than 31%). Health magazine has selected lentils as one of the five healthiest foods. Lentils are often mixed with grains, such as rice, which results in a complete protein dish.\n\nIron content \nIn addition to providing slow-burning complex carbohydrates, lentils are one of the best vegetable sources of iron. This makes them an important part of a vegetarian diet, and useful for preventing iron deficiency. Iron is particularly important for adolescents, and menstruating or pregnant women, whose requirements for it are increased.\n\nProduction \nLentils are relatively tolerant to drought and are grown throughout the world. About half of the worldwide production of lentils is from India, most of which is consumed in the domestic market. Canada is the largest export producer of lentils in the world and Saskatchewan is the most important producing region in Canada.  The Palouse Region of Eastern Washington and the Idaho Panhandle, with its commercial center at Moscow, Idaho, constitutes the most important producing region in the United States. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that world production of lentils totalled 3.2 million metric tons (MT) in 2003. Canada produced 520,000 MT and, according to the market analysis company STAT Communications, will likely export 400,000 MT during the 2003-04 marketing year, which runs from August to July. The FAO estimates world trade in lentils totalled 1.2 million MT in 2002, with Canada exporting 382,000 MT during the calendar year.\n\nLentils in Culture \nLentils are mentioned many times in the Old Testament. In Jewish tradition they are considered as food for mourners, together with boiled eggs. The reason is that their round shape symbolizes the life cycle from birth to death.\n\nRelated pages\nPea\nBean\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n S S Yadav et al. Lentil: An Ancient Crop for Modern Times. (2007). Springer Verlag. ISBN 9781402063121.\n Alan Davidson, The Oxford Companion to Food.\n\nOther websites \n Extrusion method developed for tasty lentil snacks\n All types of lentils & uses \n Information on Cooking Lentils \n Lentils - Country Production, Consumption, Exports, and Imports Statistics\n Alternative Field Crops Manual: Lentil\n\nFaboideae\nVegetables","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":135,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1}},"id":129078,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lentil","title":"Lentil","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"La Palma is another island of the Canary Islands\n\nLas Palmas de Gran Canaria is the biggest city of the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean. The city, with a population of 383,308 in 2010, is the eighth-largest in Spain. \n\nTogether with Santa Cruz de Tenerife, it is the capital of the Comunidad Aut\u00f3noma de\nCanarias (Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands). It is also the capital of the island of Gran Canaria and of the province of Las Palmas. The islands of this province are Gran Canaria, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura.\n\nThe city was founded in 1478. The town has a beautiful old area. This area (Vegueta) has a lot of houses from the 16th to the 19th Centuries. There is still a house where Christopher Columbus stayed in 1492. He stayed there before he went to the Americas. The interesting cathedral was begun in the year 1500.\n\nIts port is one of the busiest in Spain and the biggest between Europe and Cape Town, in South Africa.\n\nLas Palmas (for short) is famous for its very nice and dry weather all year round. It is also famous for its Las Canteras Beach. This beach is more than 3 kilometers long. The beach brings a lot of tourists to the city. \n\nMain industries: trade, tourism, canned food, fishing, shipbuilding.\n\nPlaces to visit: Vegueta (old area); Triana (traditional commercial area); Playa de Las Canteras (Las Canteras Beach); cathedral; Casa de Col\u00f3n (Columbus House); Museo Canario (archaeology museum); CAAM - Centro Atl\u00e1ntico de Arte Moderno (Modern Art Centre); Museo \u00c9lder de la Ciencia (science museum); Museo N\u00e9stor (museum with paintings); Teatro P\u00e9rez Gald\u00f3s (theatre); Auditorio Alfredo Kraus (concert hall); Jard\u00edn Canario (Canary Garden, mostly with plants from the Canary Islands); Doramas Park.\n\nCapital cities in Spain","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":20187,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Las%20Palmas%20de%20Gran%20Canaria","title":"Las Palmas de Gran Canaria","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a Micronesian island nation in the western Pacific Ocean. As of 2018, about 58,000 people live there. The capital of Marshall Islands is Majuro. The official languages are Marshallese and English.\n\nRoughly 10% of the population of the Marshall Islands can now be found in northwest Arkansas, U.S. Most live and work in the city of Springdale, a community of roughly 50,000. Each year, the Marshallese host a homecoming event so friends and relatives can get together to celebrate, stay in touch with politics at home, and spread their island culture. They meet at the Jones Center for Families in Springdale and have dancing, feasting, volleyball, and basketball. As a population, they are devoted to family and church and bring island dance and song to this corner of Arkansas.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"unknown":22,"2021-39":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":5888,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marshall%20Islands","title":"Marshall Islands","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A sign language is a way of communicating by using the hands and other parts of the body. It should not be confused with body language. Sign languages are an important way for deaf people to communicate. Deaf people often use them instead of spoken languages. Spoken languages use sounds from the mouth and are understood with the ears. Sign languages use hands and are understood with the eyes. Deaf people can use sign languages more easily than spoken languages.\n\nLanguage learning and use\nDeaf people sometimes learn a sign language from their family, especially if their parents are deaf. But, most deaf children have hearing parents, so they learn a sign language from other deaf people. They may meet other deaf people at school or in the streets. Hearing people may learn to sign directly from deaf people. Or, they may learn a sign language by going to signing classes or by studying a sign language workbook, which can come with an interactive DVD.\n\nSometimes deaf people do use a spoken language, especially when talking with hearing people. Sometimes hearing people use a sign language with each other, rather than speaking. But, deaf people tend to use sign languages, and hearing people tend to use spoken languages.\n\nSome deaf people can also understand spoken words by looking at a speaker's lips. This is known as lip-reading. It is hard to learn, and few people do it well. Sometimes signing and lip-reading are combined, especially when deaf and hearing people are talking to each other.\n\nHistory\nSign languages have always existed in deaf communities. In ancient texts we see authors commenting about deaf people and sign language. In the western world, the first studies dedicated to sign languages date from the 17th century. In 1620, in Spain, the priest Juan Pablo Bonnet published a text about teaching deaf people to speak, using gestures as a tool. The language of signs created by Bonet was used by Abb\u00e9 Charles-Michel de l'\u00c9p\u00e9e, to create a fingerspelling alphabet in the 18th century. This alphabet has changed very little since then, and is used with sign languages in many countries.\n\nThe sign alphabet created by Charles-Michel de l'\u00c9p\u00e9e, however, is not the origin of French Sign Language, the sign language that has influenced many other sign languages around the world. Even before Charles-Michel de l'\u00c9p\u00e9e started teaching deaf people, they already used Old French Sign Language, and could read and write in French. This was a great advance, because it proved that deaf people could be educated and didn't needed speech to think and learn.\n\nDifferent sign languages\nSign languages are not universal. That means there is not one single sign language for all deaf people around the world. There are many different sign languages. Each deaf community can develop its own sign language. Usually there is a different sign language in each country. Linguists have identified at least 137 different sign languages.\n\nHere are some well-known sign languages:\n\nThis list could use more variety. It doesn't need to list every language. However, you can help Wikipedia by adding languages that aren't related to the ones already here.\n American Sign Language (ASL)\n Auslan (Australian Sign Language)\n Austrian Sign Language\n British Sign Language (BSL)\n Indo-Pakistani Sign Language\n  (JSL or NS)\n Mexican Sign Language (Spanish: Lengua de se\u00f1as mexicana or LSM)\n Nicaraguan sign language\n New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL)\n Quebec Sign Language (French: Langue des signes qu\u00e9b\u00e9coise, or LSQ)\n Turkish Sign Language (TSL)\n\nHowever, sign languages are not totally independent from each other. Sign languages can develop from the same source. For example, ASL, LSM, and LSQ all developed from Old French Sign Language. They are part of the same language family. Sign languages can be similar to each other. BSL, Auslan, and NZSL are very much alike. Linguists sometimes talk about them as if they are one language. They call it \"BANZSL\" (an acronym for \"British Australian New Zealand Sign Language\"). Sign languages can influence each other. They sometimes copy signs from other sign languages, the same way spoken languages copy loanwords.\n\nGrammar of sign languages\nAccording to the American Heritage Dictionary, signing is \"a language that uses a system of manual, facial, and other body movements as the means of communication, especially among deaf people.\" Sign languages have their own grammar rules: syntax, morphology, phonology and semantics. Sign languages are not simply mime. They are not gestures strung together without any rules. Sign languages are real languages.\n\n(People sometimes also use the term \"sign language\" to talk about a \"method of communication, as between speakers of different languages, that uses hand movements and other gestures.\" This article is about the first use of the term \"sign language\". It is talking about a real language that must be learned, not just a set of simple gestures that anyone can dream up to communicate.)\n\nA sign language is not a copy of a spoken language. For example, American Sign Language (ASL) and British Sign Language (BSL) are not copies of English. They are different from each other, even though they are both used in countries that speak English. Sometimes sign languages may copy a few elements from a spoken language, but usually they are very different. For example, sign languages often use different locations in space around the signer to represent people or objects that are being talked about. These locations are used like pronouns in spoken languages.\n\nThe main difference between sign languages and spoken languages is that sign languages use hand and body movements to form signs while spoken languages use sounds to form words. Really, each sign in a sign language is like a word in a spoken language. Both types of languages use grammar rules to combine words\/signs into sentences. That's what makes them languages, and why both types of languages are different from mime or simple gestures.\n\nSpoken words are made up of smaller pieces: individual sounds like \"p\" or \"o\". In the same way, signs are made up of smaller pieces: handshapes, movements and locations of the hands, facial expressions and other body movements. These pieces are used in different combinations to make the signs in the language Some signs are made with only one hand, and others are made with both hands. Some signs include movements of the mouth or other parts of the body; without those other movements, the sign is not correct. Other body movements are also important in the grammar. For example, in many sign languages, raised eyebrows indicate a question that has a \"yes\" or \"no\" answer.\n\nThe grammar rules of different sign languages are similar to each other, but they aren't the same. There is not a universal grammar for sign languages; each sign language has its own grammar. For example, sign languages use different handshapes to form signs; each sign language has its own set of handshapes.\n\nSometimes a sign looks like the object or action it represents, but this is not always true. For many signs, a person just has to learn the meaning, like words in a spoken language. It's not easy to guess the meaning from what the sign looks like. This is another thing that makes sign languages different from mime; in mime, the meaning of a gesture is obvious, it doesn't have to be learned. However, signs aren't totally arbitrary either. Once a person knows the meaning of a sign, the form of the sign can often help remember the meaning.\n\nFingerspelling\n\nBesides normal signs, many sign languages use fingerspelling. Fingerspelling is also known as a \"hand alphabet\" or \"dactylology\". In fingerspelling, each letter in the alphabet of a spoken language has its own sign. Fingerspelling is a tool. People use it to spell names, acronyms and other words from spoken languages. Sometimes people do this when there is not a sign yet. Sometimes people use a fingerspelled word even when there is a normal sign for the same meaning. For example, when talking about a person, a signer might spell their name using fingerspelling. Or, they may use a \"name-sign\"\u2014a special sign for that person.\n\nFingerspelling is not universal. It is different in different sign languages. Two sign languages may have a similar fingerspelling system. Or, their fingerspelling systems may be very different. Some fingerspelling systems use only one hand. ASL uses a one-handed system. Other sign languages use both hands for fingerspelling. The BANZSL languages use a two-handed system. There are different fingerspelling systems for different writing systems. Japanese is written with different letters than English. This means fingerspelling in Japanese Sign Language is different from fingerspelling in ASL or BANZSL. ASL uses a lot of fingerspelling. Most sign languages use less fingerspelling than ASL. Some sign languages don't use fingerspelling at all.\n\nWriting sign languages\nThere is not any official way of writing signs. Some deaf and hearing people think there should be. Some have invented different ways of writing sign languages. Here are some of them.\n Stokoe notation was invented by William Stokoe. He did it for his 1965 Dictionary of American Sign Language. People have used it for a few other languages too. Few people use it now.\n The Hamburg Notation System (HamNoSys) is a technical system. Linguists use it for research on sign languages. Most of these linguists are in Europe.\n Sign Language International Phonetic Alphabet (SLIPA) is another technical system. It is intended for research.\n SignWriting was developed by Valerie Sutton starting in 1974. People can use it for ordinary day-to-day use. It works for many different sign languages.\n si5s is also intended for ordinary day-to-day use. It is a system for ASL.\n ASL-phabet is a system designed by Sam Supalla for ASL. He has used it in deaf schools.\n\nOther users of sign language don't think writing signs is something useful. Usually, deaf people just write the spoken language in their country. They don't try to write the sign language.\n\nSign languages in deaf culture\nDeaf people have their own culture. It is similar to the culture of hearing people around them, but there are important differences. Deaf people have different experiences from hearing people. This makes their culture different.\n\nSign language is the most important part of deaf culture. Through a sign language deaf people can create a social and cultural identity for themselves. They can communicate naturally with each other. The shared sign language helps hold their deaf community together. Hearing people use spoken languages to do the same things.\n\nSome children are born deaf. Others lose their hearing because of illness when they are very young. These children often learn how to sign and become a part of the deaf community and deaf culture.\n\nHowever, some people who are physically deaf do not participate in deaf community and deaf culture. Some people lose their hearing later in life. These people usually continue to interact with hearing people using a spoken language. They do not learn to sign. They do not make friends with deaf people who sign. They depend on hearing aids, lip-reading, or writing notes to communicate with their hearing friends.\n\nSome deaf children learn to speak and lip-read a spoken language. This is a difficult skill, but some children succeed. Also, some may have surgery to get a cochlear implant. A cochlear implant helps some deaf children hear better. It is not the same as normal hearing, but it can help them learn to speak. These deaf people can interact with hearing people using a spoken language.\n\nThe term \"deaf culture\" usually refers only to the culture of deaf people who sign.\n\nRelated pages \n American Sign Language (ASL)\n VRS Video Relay Service\n Deaf\n\nNotes\n\nOther websites \n\n ASL browser(See lots of signs in American Sign Language)\n British Sign Language Learn more about British Sign Language.\n British Sign Online Online British Sign Language course.\n ASLPro.com Home\n\nDisability\n \nLanguage-related lists","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":25699,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sign%20language","title":"Sign language","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Giuseppe Verdi (born Roncole near Busseto, 9 or 10 October 1813; died Milan 27 January 1901) was an Italian composer of operas.\n\nVerdi and Richard Wagner were the greatest composers of opera in the 19th century although they were completely different from one another. When Verdi was a young man the most famous opera composers in Italy were Gaetano Donizetti and Vincenzo Bellini who wrote in the bel canto tradition. This meant that their operas had beautiful tunes which were written for singers to show off their voices, even if what they sang did not suit the story. During his long life, Verdi changed opera so that it did not have to obey old-fashioned rules.\n\nEarly years \n\nThe small village where Verdi was born lies in the valley of the Po River in the north of Italy. It was a poor district. His father was an innkeeper who had a small farm. The young boy must have been very talented. He was given a small harpsichord which he kept all his life. At the age of 9 he often played the organ for church services in the village when the organist was away.\n\nA few years later he composed music for the amateur orchestra in Busseto. A man called Antonio Barezzi knew many important people and he helped Verdi a lot. Later Verdi married a daughter of a friend. Barezzi sent him to Milan so that he could study, but Verdi had not been taught the piano properly and he did not get a place in the music conservatory. He had some private lessons and learned a lot about opera as well as about literature and politics. In 1839 he composed an opera: Oberto, conte di San Bonifacio, which was performed in La Scala, the world-famous opera house in Milan. It is not one of his greatest operas, but it helped him to become well-known and he was asked to write three more operas for La Scala. When his next opera was produced it was not a success: the audience did not like it and they hissed and booed. There was also tragedy in his personal life at this time: his two children and his wife all died.\n\nEarly fame \n\nVerdi managed to overcome his unhappiness in 1842 when he produced his opera Nabucco. This was a great success and made him world-famous. He started to work very hard, composing two operas a year. He not only had to write the music but organize all the people to perform it. It was a huge workload. His opera Ernani (1844) was one of the best from this period. In 1847 he had another big success with Macbeth. This opera, based on Shakespeare's famous play, is still one of the best-loved of all operas. He was becoming a success.\n\nFor centuries Italy had been a collection of several countries, each with their own ruler. In the 1850s there was a lot of political unrest in the country. Verdi often wrote music for large choruses in his operas. The words of these choruses were often about fighting for freedom, and it was often thought that the songs were encouraging people to revolt. The song Va pensiero from his opera Nabucco was about the Hebrew slaves who were captive in Babylon. People chanted it in the streets with the words suitably changed. Verdi became a great national hero. Italy eventually became one country in 1861.\n\nGiuseppina Strepponi was the soprano who sang the part of Abigaille in Nabucco. Verdi fell in love with her. She had lived with another man and had three children so she felt that she was not good enough for Verdi. They eventually married in 1859. She was a great support to him until her death in 1897 although Verdi was not an easy husband to live with. He moved back to Busseto with her. He continued to travel a lot but did not let his wife come with him, leaving her behind in Busseto where she was not happy because many people there did not like her.\n\nThree more famous operas were written at this time: Rigoletto in 1851 and Il trovatore (The Troubadour) and La traviata, both in 1853. These operas have many tunes which became famous. They are full of exciting drama in which the characters are very skilfully described by the music. The music is not divided so clearly into recitative and aria like it had been for two centuries. Instead, the music is developing all the time, the arias run straight into the following music. He had a brilliant sense of drama, but he often had to fight hard to stop producers making changes to what he had written.\n\nVerdi often had trouble with the censors (the officials who decide whether the opera should be allowed to be performed). His opera Rigoletto was based on a story called Le roi s'amuse by Victor Hugo. The attempted murder of a king was not thought to be a suitable subject. Verdi had to change the king into a duke in his story and make some other changes before the opera could be performed. The story of his opera Traviata, based on a novel by Alexandre Dumas fils, was also thought to be immoral. At the first performance the audience laughed because the heroine, who is supposed to be dying of tuberculosis, then called \"consumption\", was very fat. However, the opera soon became enormously popular.\n\nRegarding the instruments that Giuseppe Verdi was using for composing, there are a few known pianos that he had in different periods of his life. The instrument that Giuseppe Verdi was playing as a kid at the Bazezzi's house, was a piano by Anton Tomaschek. Later, from the time of Rigoletto in 1851 to Aida in 1871 he was using the Viennese 6-pedal piano from Johann Fritz. This exact piano can be seen in the composer's Villa Verdi in the Italian province of Piacenza.\n\nInternational fame \n\nVerdi had become very famous by now, and was asked to compose for the Op\u00e9ra in Paris. He had to write operas in the French style: operas with five acts and a ballet based on a serious story. None of the operas he wrote at this time for Paris belong to his best works. He was more inspired when writing for the Italian theatres. Simon Boccanegra has a complicated plot, but the characters are described beautifully by the music. Un ballo in maschera (The masked ball) was about the murder of King Gustav III of Sweden. Again the censors did not like it and he had to change the story to a setting in Boston which rather spoiled the story. In the 1860s his best works were La forza del destino (The Force of Destiny), written for St Petersburg, Don Carlos written for the Paris Op\u00e9ra, and Aida for the new opera house in Cairo in Egypt. Aida is considered one of his most perfect works. The first performance was not without difficulties: Verdi was having a long argument with the conductor Mariani who refused to go to Cairo to conduct it. The argument was made worse by the newspapers who accused Verdi of taking Mariani's girlfriend. This caused a great scandal.\n\nLast years \nVerdi retired in the 1870s. He was a rich man who owned a lot of land. He gave a lot of money to charities, particularly to one charity for elderly musicians. Even in retirement he was persuaded by his publishers to write two more operas. He became fascinated by Shakespeare and he wrote Otello to a libretto by Arrigo Boito. This was a brilliant libretto and it helped him to write a great masterpiece in which every little detail of the story is beautifully described by the music. His very last opera, Falstaff (1893) is based on Shakespeare's Merry Wives of Windsor. Verdi continued to write a few religious pieces in his old age. He died of a stroke in Milan in 1901.\n\nReferences\n\n19th-century Italian composers\nRomantic composers\n1813 births\n1901 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":48823,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Giuseppe%20Verdi","title":"Giuseppe Verdi","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Wisdom is knowing things that help a person to live sensibly and make good decisions. Wisdom is defined differently by many cultures. Some say that wisdom is something a person learns as they grow older. Other cultures expect people to complete certain rituals in order to get wisdom.\n\nIf someone has wisdom, they are called wise. Most cultures from the past have had special people who were supposed to be wise. People asked them for advice when they had problems because they knew things that ordinary people did not know or could not know. They were often called \"sages\".\n\nThere are many stories in Western culture in which the owl of Athena or Minerva is supposed to be a wise bird.\n\nKnowledge\nVirtues","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":40964,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wisdom","title":"Wisdom","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Church could mean:\n\nReligion\nChurch, a building used for religious services, usually referring specifically to those for Christian worship.\nChristian Church, the worldwide body of Christians.\nChristian church, the body of people who share a faith or denomination within a community.\nReligious denomination, an organization of churches sharing the same faith.\n\nPlaces\n Church, Lancashire, a city in England\n\nPeople\n Albert T. Church (born 1947), a Vice-Admiral in the United States Navy\n Alonzo Church (1905\u20131995), a logician, (famous for the Church-Turing thesis and lambda calculus)\n Benjamin Church (1734\u20131776), the first Surgeon General of the Continental Army and grandson of Captain Benjamin Church\n Captain Benjamin Church (1639\u20131718), a colonial officer during King Philip's War\n Bill Church, an American musician\n Brad Church\n Charlotte Church (born 1986), British soprano singer and talk show host\n Doug Church, a video-game designer\n Ellen Church\nForrester Church (born 1948), an  American minister, son of Senator Frank Church\n Francis Pharcellus Church (1839\u20131906), an American writer (famous for the editorial Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus)\nFrank Church (1924\u20131984), a four-term U.S. Senator from Idaho\n Frederic Edwin Church (1826\u20131900)), a landscape painter\n George W. Church, Sr., founder of Church's Chicken, a chain of franchised fried chicken restaurants\n John A. Church, an expert on sea-level and its changes\n Judith Church (born 1953), a politician in the United Kingdom\n Louis K. Church\n Mary Church Terrell (1863\u20131954), an American writer and civil-rights activist\n Mike Church (born 1962), a Southern US radio commentator often considered a shock jock\n Richard Church (general) (1784\u20131873), a British military officer and general in the Greek army\n Richard William Church (1825\u20131890), an English divine, nephew of the general\n Richard Church (poet) (1893\u20131972), an English poet and man of letters\n Robert Reed Church (1839\u20131912), the first African-American millionaire\n Ryan Church (born 1978), an American baseball player\n Thomas Dolliver Church (1902\u20131978), an American landscape architect\n Thomas Haden Church (born 1961), an American actor in television and movies\n Thomas Langton Church (1870\u20131950), a Canadian politician\n Walter G. Church, Sr., member of the North Carolina General Assembly\n William Church (circa 1778 - 1863), American inventor who patented a typesetting machine in 1822\n\nMusic\nThe Church, an Australian rock band\nChurch, weekly meetings of the Hells Angels motorcycle club\n\"The Church\", a song by Hawkwind from their 1982 album Church of Hawkwind\n\"Church\", a song by Outkast from their 2003 album Speakerboxxx\/The Love Below\n\"Church\", a song by Galactic from their 1998 album Coolin' Off\nChvrches, an electropop trio from Glasgow, Scotland\n\nFiction\nChurch (Red vs. Blue), a fictional character\nChurch, the family cat in Stephen King's novel Pet Sematary\nThe Church, set up by The Order in Silent Hill","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-22":4,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":4,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":60238,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Church%20%28disambiguation%29","title":"Church (disambiguation)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Precious coral, or red coral, is the common name given to a genus of marine corals, Corallium. The distinguishing characteristic of precious corals is their durable and intensely colored red or pink-orange skeleton, which is used for making jewelry.\n\nHabitat\nRed corals grow on rocky seabottom with low sedimentation, typically in dark environments\u2014either in the depths or in dark caverns or crevices.  The original species, C. rubrum (formerly Gorgonia nobilis), is found mainly in the Mediterranean Sea.  It grows at depths from 10 to 300 meters below sea level, although the shallower of these habitats have been largely depleted by harvesting.  In the underwater caves of Alghero, Sardinia (the \"Coral Riviera\") it grows at depth from 4 to 35 meters.  The same species is also found at Atlantic sites near the Strait of Gibraltar, at the Cape Verde Islands and off the coast of southern Portugal. Other Corallium species are native to the western Pacific, notably around Japan and Taiwan; these occur at depths of 350 to 1500 meters below sea level in areas with strong currents.\n\nAnatomy\nIn common with other Alcyonacea, red corals have the shape of small leafless bushes and grow up to a meter in height. Their valuable skeleton is composed of intermeshed spicules of hard calcium carbonate, colored in shades of red by carotenoid pigments.  In living specimens, the skeletal branches are overlaid with soft bright red integument, from which numerous retractable white polyps protrude.  The polyps exhibit octameric radial symmetry.\n\nSpecies\nThe following are known species in the genus:\n\nAs a gemstone\n\nThe hard skeleton of red coral branches is naturally matte, but can be polished to a glassy shine.  It exhibits a range of warm reddish pink colors from pale pink to deep red; the word coral is also used to name such colors. Owing to its intense and permanent coloration and glossiness, precious coral skeletons have been harvested since antiquity for decorative use.  Coral jewellery has been found in ancient Egyptian and prehistoric European burials, and continues to be made to the present day. It was especially popular during the Victorian age.\n\nPrecious coral has hardness 3.5 on the Mohs scale. Due to its softness and opacity, coral is usually cut en cabochon, or used to make beads.\n\nHistory of trade\n\nAt the beginning of the 1st millennium, there was significant trade in coral between the Mediterranean and India, where it was highly prized as a substance believed to be endowed with mysterious sacred properties. Pliny the Elder remarks that, before the great demand from India, the Gauls used it for the ornamentation of their weapons and helmets; but by this period, so great was the Eastern demand, that it was very rarely seen even in the regions which produced it. Among the Romans, branches of coral were hung around children's necks to preserve them from danger from the outside, and the substance had many medicinal virtues attributed to it. The belief in coral's potency as a charm continued throughout the Middle Ages and early in 20th century Italy it was worn as a protection from the evil eye, and by women as a cure for infertility.\n\nFrom the Middle Ages onward, the securing of the right to the coral fisheries off the African coasts was the object of considerable rivalry among the Mediterranean communities of Europe.\n\nThe story of the Torre del Greco is so interwoven with that of the coral so as to constitute an inseparable pair, and is documented as early as the fifteenth century. In 1790 the Royal Society of Coral was established in the town of Torre del Greco, with the idea of working and selling coral fish. This shows that the coral fishing flourished for many years in the city.\n\nIt was also enacted December 22, 1789, by Ferdinand IV of Bourbon Code coral (prepared by the Neapolitan jurist Michael Florio), with the intent to regulate the coral fishing in those years starring, in addition to the sailors Torre del Greco, the locals and those in Trapani\nThis regulation did not have the expected success. From 1805, when he founded the first factory for the manufacturing of coral in Torre del Greco (by Paul Bartholomew Martin, but with French Genoese origin), the golden age for the manufacturing of coral in the city situated on the slopes of the Vesuvius started, because working together with the coral fishing was increasingly under the control of Torre del Greco fishermen. Since 1875, the Torre del Greco began working with the Sciacca coral and a school for the manufacturing of coral was built in 1878 in the city (which closed in 1885 to reopen in 1887), with which in 1933 established a museum of the coral. Then came the time of processing of Japanese coral found in the markets of Chennai and Kolkata.\n\nOther story instead a short period the Tunisian fisheries were secured by Charles V for Spain; but the monopoly soon fell into the hands of the French, who held the right until the Revolutionary government in 1793 threw the trade open. For a short period (about 1806) the British government controlled the fisheries, but this later returned to the hands of the French authorities. Before the French Revolution much of the coral trade was centred in Marseille, but then largely moved to Italy, where the procuring of the raw material and the working of it was centring in Naples, Rome and Genoa.\n\nIn culture\n\nThe origin of coral is explained in Greek mythology by the story of Perseus. Having petrified Cetus, the sea monster threatening Andromeda, Perseus placed Medusa's head on the riverbank while he washed his hands. When he recovered her head, he saw that her blood had turned the seaweed (in some variants the reeds) into red coral. Thus, the Greek word for coral is 'Gorgeia', as Medusa was one of the three Gorgons.\n\nPoseidon resided in a palace made of coral and gems, and Hephaestus first crafted his work from coral.\n\nThe Romans believed coral could protect children from harm, as well as cure wounds made by snakes and scorpions and diagnose diseases by changing colour.\n\n In Hindu astrology red coral is associated with the planet Mars or Graha-Mangala and used for pleasing Mars. It should be worn on the ring finger.\n A branch of red coral figures prominently in the civic coat of arms of the town of Alghero, Italy.\n In Islam coral is mentioned as one of the gems in paradise.\n Amongst the Yoruba and Bini peoples of West Africa, red precious coral jewellery (necklaces, wristlets and anklets most especially) are signifiers of high social rank, and are worn as a result by titled kings and chieftains.\n In traditional Dutch culture, notably in fishing communities, red coral necklaces were worn by the female population as an indispensable part of the traditional costumes.\n\nConservation\nIntensive fishing, particularly in shallow waters, has damaged this species along the Mediterranean coastline, where colonies at depths of less than 50 metres are much diminished. Fishing and now climate change threaten their persistence. The three oldest Mediterranean marine protected areas\u2014Banyuls, Carry-le-Rouet and Scandola, off the island of Corsica\u2014all host substantial populations of C. rubrum. Since protection was established, colonies have grown in size and number at shallow and deeper depths.\n\nSee also\nCoral Jewellery Museum\nBlack coral; also sometimes used as ornamental material\nAmber\nPearl\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n International Colored Gemstone Association Extensive info on gemstone coral and jewelry photos\n American Gem Trade Association Information on coral as a gemstone\n Mediterranean red coral: research team International Research Team on Mediterranean red coral (Accessed 15 March 2007)\n Corallium rubrum, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations\n \n\nCoralliidae\nOrganic gemstones\nHabitats Directive Species","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":131,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":5,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":6,"2016-44":6,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2}},"id":9514190,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Precious%20coral","title":"Precious coral","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The word Bohemian was first used in Paris to mean a Gypsy because many people thought that Gypsies came from Bohemia. The word was then used in the late 19th century (1800s) for poor painters, writers, musicians and actors who often travelled to Paris from other towns and tried to earn money. Paris was a famous town for painters, writers, and musicians to gather, to learn from each other and to enjoy the life of the city. Many of them lived at Montmartre, not far from the \"Moulin Rouge\". One of the most famous painters to live in Montmartre was Henri Toulouse-Lautrec. He loved to paint the can-can dancers and prostitutes. He did many posters to advertise the nightclubs. The posters are now famous works of art. \n\nIn the 20th century the word \"Bohemian\" spread to other countries and was used to describe the lives of many different artists of different sorts. The sort of behaviour that was thought of as \"Bohemian\" included whether a person had a regular job, how they dressed, their political views, their religious views, their sexual behaviour and the entertainment they liked. \n\nPeople who were called \"Bohemians\" were often very poor, because they tried to live by painting, acting or writing. It was hard to make a living. They generally wore old or second-hand clothing, and could not afford a good hair-cut. They often shared the room in the roof of a house, which was cheap, because it was cold in winter, hot in summer and often had birds living there as well. In some ways the life of a bohemian artist was difficult, but it gave people freedom to express themselves, that was often not found in more conservative society, where everyone worried about what other people thought of them, and cared a lot about things like clothes and houses. Sometimes students from richer families would come to live a \"Bohemian life style\", so that they could feel the same freedom to express themselves.  \n\nDuring the 20th century, many cities apart from Paris have areas where people have lived Bohemian lifestyles. One of the problems is that these areas often become fashionable for rich people. This soon drives away the poor artists and students, because they can no longer afford the rent.\n\nBohemian areas \n                \n\nBohemian areas in different cities are: \n Paris- Montmartre and Montparnasse \n Istanbul- Pera (Beyoglu)\n London- Chelsea, Camden Town, and Soho\n Munich- Schwabing \n Belgrade- Skadarlija \n Madrid- Lavapi\u00e9s in Madrid \n Milan- Isola and Colonne di San Lorenzo \n New York City- Greenwich Village, the East Village and Chelsea\n Massachusetts- Provincetown \n California- Carmel-by-the-Sea, \n San Francisco- the Mission District \n Chicago- Logan Square \n New Orleans- the French Quarter \n Toronto- Kensington Market \n Mexico City- Coyoac\u00e1n and Condesa \n Sydney- Kings Cross and Newtown\n Tokyo - Shimokitazawa \n Vancouver- Commercial Drive\n\nBohemians in culture \n Bohemian people and places have very often been shown in paintings. Famous bohemian artists of Paris include Henri Toulouse-Lautrec, Vincent van Gogh and Maurice Utrillo. \n\n La boh\u00e8me means \"the Bohemian\". It is the name of a famous opera written by Giacomo Puccini. \n Moulin Rouge! is a movie by Baz Lurhmann.\n\nRelated pages \n Avant-garde\n Counterculture\n Montmartre \n Moulin Rouge \n Henri Toulouse-Lautrec \n La boh\u00e8me\n\nLifestyles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":90967,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bohemianism","title":"Bohemianism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A railway track or railway line is a set of two parallel rows of long pieces of steel. They are used by trains to transport people and things from one place to another. (In America, people say railroad as well as railway). Often, there is more than one set of tracks on the railway line. For example, trains go east on one track and west on the other one.\n\nThe rails are supported by cross pieces set at regular intervals (called sleepers or ties), which spread the high pressure load imposed by the train wheels into the ground. They also maintain the rails at a fixed distance apart (called the gauge). Ties are usually made from either wood or concrete. These often rest on ballast, which is a name for very small pieces of broken up rock that are packed together and keep the railway tracks in place. Tracks are often made better by ballast tampers.\n\nThe upper surfaces of the rails are inclined slightly towards each other, typically on a slope of 1\/20, and the rims of the train wheels are angled in the same way (\"coning\"). This helps guide the vehicles of the train along the track. Each wheel also has a flange, which sticks out from one edge all the way around. This makes sure the train does not \"derail\" (come off the track) and helps guide the train on sharp curves.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":172,"dup_dump_count":91,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":4,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":7,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":6,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":5,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":12307,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Railway%20track","title":"Railway track","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"According to the WHO, a drug is a substance that can change how a living organism works. Food is usually not seen as a drug, even though some foods may have such properties. Most of the time drugs are taken to treat a disease, or other medical condition. An example for such drugs may be Aspirin or Paracetamol. These are usually given to treat fever, as well as certain infections. If such drugs are taken over a longer time, they are usually prescribed by a doctor. Other drugs are taken for fun, because of the effect they have. Some of these drugs taken for fun are better accepted by society than others. Having or taking certain drugs may be illegal, in certain countries.\n\nDrugs that are taken to treat a disease or condition are usually called \"therapeutic\", drugs that are taken for fun are called \"recreational\" drugs.\n\nDrugs may have other effects than those wanted. Such effects are generally known as side-effects.\n\nDrugs act differently in different amounts. It is therefore important to take the right amount. The amount of the drug taken is called a dose. Aspirin is often prescribed against fever, or as an analgesic. One of the side-effects of Aspirin is that it makes the blood thinner. For this reason, it can also be used to prevent strokes, or heart attacks - in a much lower dose than the one used to treat fever, though.\n\nTaking too much of a drug (\"too high a dose\") can cause sickness or even death.  When a doctor says how much of a drug (the right dose) to take, only that amount should be taken.  It is very important to keep taking the drug until the doctor says to stop because someone can feel better but still be sick.  When a doctor says what drug to take, how much of it, and for how long, it is called a prescription. Drugs may cause addiction. Some drugs are illegal because they are very addictive. These drugs are really expensive, too. It can also be sold illegally from drug sellers which may cause serious results\n\nRecreational drugs\nRecreational drugs can sometimes be bad for someone's health even if they make them feel good.  Alcohol can also be dangerous if the person drinking it drives a vehicle after drinking. This is called drunk driving.  Many countries make this against the law.  Common recreational drugs include:\n\nAlcohol - In beer, wine and hard liquor\nNicotine - In cigarettes\nCaffeine - In Coffee and cacao (See figure)\nCannabis - Smoked like cigarettes, or baked in something to eat, like a cake or brownie\nMethamphetamine (also known as Crystal Meth) - Can be smoked, eaten, injected, or inhaled\nCocaine - can be snorted, injected or inhaled (freebasing)\nHeroin - can be snorted, injected or smoked in its freebase form.\n\nCertain recreational drugs also have uses as a therapeutic drug. Heroin can be used as an analgesic (a painkiller) and methamphetamine is used to treat narcolepsy or ADHD. Recreational drugs can be dangerous, certain countries have made it illegal to have or take them outside a medical context. Most of the time, this is because they can be addictive or that they are very dangerous when combined with other drugs. That way, Cannabis-based products are legal in the Netherlands, but illegal in many other countries.\n\nAlcohol and Nicotine are legal almost everywhere, but there are a lot of taxes on the sale of these. In other words, they are expensive to buy. Being expensive to buy because of taxes has two benefits; one is that the taxes collected from the sale of the drugs goes into helping to pay for assistance the drug user may experience later. A smoker, for example, may develop cancer later in life and need treatment at a place that is granted a certain amount of tax money from the government to keep it operating. Another benefit to the taxing of \"legal\" drugs, is that the high price may stop people from beginning the habit in the first place, which will help them avoid the negative medical or addictive side effects of the drug. In some cases, not everyone is allowed to buy these drugs unless they are a minimal age to do so. The age at which someone is allowed to buy a legal drug is most often decided by the government of a country, state or province, and is usually the age where a person is considered by the law to be an \"adult\". Some of the most common ages this happens is at 18, 19 or 21 years of age.\n\nTherapeutic drugs\nTherapeutic drugs are also called medicinal drugs, medicine, or medication. Doctors will give therapeutic drugs to someone who is ill to make you better. You can buy these drugs at a pharmacy.  Some drugs need a prescription to be bought, other drugs do not. Drugs that do not require a prescription are called \"over the counter\" medications. There are lots of these drugs for different illnesses.  These include:\n\nAspirin - For pain\nParacetamol - For pain\nPenicillin - For infections\nProzac - For depression\nDiazepam - For anxiety\nAntibiotics - For killing bacteria (germs)\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":187,"dup_dump_count":98,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":9089,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drug","title":"Drug","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A peafowl is a bird of the Phasianide family. It is a relative of the pheasant.\n\nThere are two species of peafowl: the Asiatic peafowl (Pavo) or the Congo peafowl (Afropavo congensis). The Congo peafowl is the only member of the pheasant family that originated outside Asia.\n\nThe male peafowl can have up to 150 brightly colored feathers on its tail coverts.\n\nFor centuries peafowl have been admired for their beauty and hunted for their meat. Recently peacocks have become more popular in parks and gardens.Peacocks are large, colorful pheasants (typically blue and green) known for their iridescent tails. Distinctive Tail Feathers.\n\nMale peafowl\n\nAppearance \nThe male peafowls (called peacocks) have long, colorful feathers. Female peafowls (called peahens) have shorter, brown feathers.\n\nHabits\n\nEating habits \nThey like to eat any kind of green shoots (flowers, veggies, grass etc.) as well as wheat, cracked corn or wild game feed. They can handle freezing temperatures as long as they have a dry perch that is out of the wind and weather. Dry dog and cat chows make excellent winter feed for peafowl, who are omnivores, eating insects, small snakes, lizards, grain, as well as many varieties of greens. They are particularly fond of petunias and similar pot plants, leaving nothing but a small green circle where the stem once emerged from the soil. The birds will learn to come to a specific place at specific times of day to be fed, and a regular light feeding during summer adapts them to coming to the feeding place in winter.\n\nOrigin \n\nThe peafowl is native to southeast Asia, including India and Pakistan. They were brought to Europe long ago, and can acclimatize to colder areas.\n\nMating \n\nThe very long, elegant and colorful plumage of the male birds, peacocks, is grown over the winter months so that they are ready for the early spring mating season, during which each male establishes a territory. The male  calls to the females to come and admire his dance.\n\nHe displays a rustling of tail quills which hold up the fanned back plumes (= tail feathers) as he stamps and turns. The summoning call is loud, repeated, happens sometimes at night, and sounds, to some people, like a woman screaming. Often it is tri-syllabic, mi-fa-sol. Once the mating season is over, the tail feathers are naturally shed.\n\nThe peacock's display is a classic example of sexual selection.\n\nFemale peafowl \nThe female birds, peahens, are soft brown and gray with white chests and bellies and some light green on the neck, the colors blending so well with weeds and grasses that when the female is nesting on the ground, she is almost invisible.\n\nMothering \nThe hen teaches her chicks what to eat by putting her beak down at a chosen bug, grain, seed, or leaf and making a throaty \"grock\" sound. The chick put its beak against the mother's, follows the beak to the tip, and eats whatever it points at. The chicks can learn what to eat from a hen of another species, but, unlike baby chickens, peachicks need to be shown what to eat. Chicks hatched in a hatchery can starve to death if there is no hen to teach them what to eat.\n\nIn addition to the \"eat this\" sound, the female has a particular call for a missing chick, a \"where are you,\" \"hoo-hah\" call, two toned, high then low, mi-do, mi-do. When a chick is missing, this call can go on for hours.\n\nReproduction \nShe lays from two to six eggs in the spring time and, once all are laid, sits on the eggs for about thirty days to hatch them, leaving the nest once or twice a day to feed and drink. Often the female will utter a shrieked \"trouble\" call, a quickly repeated \"cuk, cuk, cuk, cuk\" when she leaves the nest, to attract predators away from it.\n\nChicks \nOnce the chicks are hatched, the mother leads them away from the broken eggs, as the smell of the eggs attracts predators. They are able to flutter a little within hours, and in a few days can fly up into sheltering trees by going first to lower branches and working their way higher, preferring high, protected branches. The chicks roost on either side of the peahen, and she extends her wings to cover them during the night, thus protecting them from rain, hail, and visits from owls. They begin to grow their \"crowns\" when they are only a few weeks old and it takes about a year for them to reach full size, though it may take three years to reach breeding age. Both males and females are hatched with the same plumage; nine to twelve months after hatching, the males' necks begin to turn peacock blue, and their splendid plumage takes about four years to reach full size.\n\nReferences \n\nPhasianidae","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"unknown":2}},"id":23642,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peafowl","title":"Peafowl","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Alejandro Gonz\u00e1lez Alcocer (born April 24, 1951) is a Mexican politician and lawyer, belonging to the National Action Party (PAN).\n\nAfter Alcocer studied law at Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico (UNAM), he began his career in companies in the private sector, and later entered politics, where he served as Secretario del Ayuntamiento of Tijuana, and later as a federal deputy (diputado federal) in the 56th Federal Legislature. Gonz\u00e1lez Alcocer is the son of Manuel Gonz\u00e1lez Hinojosa, national head of the PAN  in the 1960s and 70s.\n\nOn October 7, 1998, he was named Substitute Governor of Baja California upon the death of governor H\u00e9ctor Ter\u00e1n Ter\u00e1n.\n\nHe was elected to the Senate, representing Baja California, for the period between 2006\u20132012.\n\nSee also\nGovernor of Baja California\nBaja California\n\nExternal links\n The biography of Alejandro Gonz\u00e1lez Alcocer as Governor of Baja California \n\nLiving people\nGovernors of Baja California\nNational Action Party (Mexico) politicians\nMembers of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)\nMembers of the Senate of the Republic (Mexico)\nPoliticians from Mexico City\n1951 births\n21st-century Mexican politicians\nNational Autonomous University of Mexico alumni\n20th-century Mexican politicians\n20th-century Mexican lawyers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":172,"dup_dump_count":44,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":4,"2015-18":7,"2015-11":6,"2015-06":7,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2022-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-10":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":6,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":7,"2016-36":7,"2016-30":7,"2016-26":7,"2016-22":6,"2016-18":4,"2016-07":7,"2015-48":6,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":6,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":6,"2015-22":7,"2015-14":6,"2014-52":6,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":8646220,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alejandro%20Gonz%C3%A1lez%20Alcocer","title":"Alejandro Gonz\u00e1lez Alcocer","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sonata form is a way of organizing a piece of music. It has been used in several pieces since the Classical period (from the middle of the 18th century onwards). Listening to  pieces of music in sonata form will help to understand it fully and it is helpful to know something about the different keys.\n\nSonata form is not just used in sonatas. It can be the form for movements from symphonies, concertos, overtures etc.\n\nIn the Baroque period composers like Bach and Handel wrote pieces with dance movements such as minuets. These were in \"binary form\". This meant that there were two sections. The two sections were often the same length, and were separated by a double bar line which meant that each section was repeated. The music would not be in the same key all the time. The first section could modulate (change key) and then the second section would gradually modulate back again so that it sounded finished at the end.\n\nDomenico Scarlatti wrote sonatas for harpsichord also in binary form, but long and with additional complexity. The first section would start with a theme in the main key, and then modulate to another key for contrast. The second section might be longer than the first second, starting off by modulating to remote keys before arriving back to repeat the main theme. This kind of piece is the beginning of sonata form.\n\nHaydn, Mozart and Beethoven developed the idea of sonata form. A movement in sonata form has three sections called: \"exposition\", \"development\" and \"recapitulation\".\nIn the exposition we hear all the main material: the first tune- or group of tunes - in the main key, then a contrasting tune or tunes in a related key (normally the \"dominant\" i.e. the key on the 5th note of the scale of the main key, or the relative minor). Or in the case of a first section in a minor key, one might frequently hear the second subject or subjects in the relative major.\nIn the development section the music is developed, going into several different keys. The music here feels unstable. There is a feeling of tension. The listener wants to get back to the main key.\nIn the recapitulation the exposition is repeated, but it changes towards the end so that it finishes in the main key. It feels as if the tension has gone and the listener feels happy.\n\nThis way of building a piece of music was used by almost every composer from the mid 18th century onwards \u2013 well into the 20th century. It gives scope for a very dramatic piece. Of course, composers sometime use it differently. There is often a sense of development during the whole piece, not just during the so-called \"development section\". The first movement of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony spends all the time developing the famous idea heard at the beginning: the first four notes (short-short-short-long). Even the other three movements carry on developing this idea.\n\nMusical forms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":28949,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sonata%20form","title":"Sonata form","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A hippie (sometimes spelled as hippy) is a label for a person of a particular counterculture that started in the United States and spread to other countries in the 1960s. \n\nHippies have their own opinions on drugs, sexual liberation, and women's rights.\n\nHistory \nThe first people to be called \"hippies\" were young adults and teenagers in the 1960s who grew out of the beatnik movement. These people were supporters of civil rights for African-Americans in the Southern USA. They soon developed their own music scene in neighborhoods in New York City (Greenwich Village) and San Francisco (Haight-Ashbury). They were also strongly against the Vietnam War, nuclear weapons, and what they called the \"Establishment\" (this was a word for mainstream society). They were also against the \"military-industrial complex\". This phrase was taken from a warning in the farewell speech of President Dwight Eisenhower in 1961.\n\nMany more people began to see hippies in the news after the Human Be-In (January 1967) and the 1967 \"Summer of Love\" were held in San Francisco. By this time, they had developed their own lifestyle that included psychedelic styles, drug use, usually some amount of travel, and much longer hair than other people. These styles quickly spread across the country, especially to college campuses where students were protesting President Lyndon Johnson's policies in Vietnam, the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in 1968, and other events. They also spread to the UK, Netherlands, France, Italy, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan and Canada, among other places. \n\nIn 1968 many more Americans turned against the war following the Tet Offensive, King was shot, and politicians began to get ready for the election for President in November. Many colleges were shut down by students, and people burned their draft cards at public rallies. A group of radical hippies called the Yippies, led by Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin, led a huge protest during the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago, where they tried to run a pig called Pigasus as a candidate for President. The mayor responded by sending in riot police who beat people up in front of news cameras. The riot police even beat the cameramen, reporters, and other innocent people. This was shown on the news, and many programs and television stations began to feel more sympathetic to the hippies for a while. This made hippie lifestyle much more mainstream through the early seventies. \n\nIn 1969, Richard Nixon succeeded Johnson as President, and protests continued \u2014 not just against the war, but against the court trials and hearings of the Yippie leaders who became known as \"the Chicago Seven\" (originally \"Chicago Eight\"). Also in that year, a huge rock concert was held in Bethel, New York \u2014 the three day Woodstock Festival. At this festival, 500,000 hippies and music fans heard some of the most famous singers and groups of the time. The people there also did things like nude swimming, mud-sliding, rain-dancing and mass tribal chants. They did this to show their freedom to the world. \n\nLate that year, a murderer named Charles Manson who posed as a hippie killed several people. Because some people blamed hippies for this, the term began to fall a little out of fashion in 1970, even if the fashions themselves did not. A new type of hard rock called heavy metal was developing out of one style of hippie music. A band called Led Zeppelin took the number one spot for most popular band of the year in 1970, which had been held by the Beatles for eight years. Also that year, when students at Kent State University in Ohio were protesting Nixon's spread of bombing to Laos, the National Guard shot at them, and four were killed. This had a chilling effect on the hippies and the whole country, but the peace movement continued. In 1973, the draft was ended, and the war ended soon after that. US public attention turned to the Watergate scandal. After this, hippies never again had the attention they once did, though the lifestyle continued, especially in other countries. In the mid-seventies, trends like punks and disco were also spreading, causing the hippie image to fade in the media.\n\nReferences\n\nSocial issues\nLifestyles\nSexual revolution\nSubculture","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":71242,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hippie","title":"Hippie","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Light rail transit (LRT) is a form of passenger urban rail transit characterized by a combination of tram and rapid transit features. While its rolling stock is similar to a traditional tram, it operates at a higher capacity and speed, and often on an exclusive right-of-way. In many cities, light rail transit systems more closely resemble, and are therefore indistinguishable from, traditional underground or at-grade subways and heavy-rail metros. \n\nThere is no standard definition, but in the United States (where the terminology was devised in the 1970s from the engineering term light railway), light rail operates primarily along exclusive rights-of-way and uses either individual tramcars or multiple units coupled to form a train that is lower capacity and lower speed than a long heavy-rail passenger train or rapid transit system.\n\nA few light rail networks tend to have characteristics closer to rapid transit or even commuter rail; some of these heavier rapid transit-like systems are referred to as light metros. Other light rail networks are tram-like and partially operate on streets.\n\nHistory\n\nThe world's first electric tram line operated in Sestroretsk near Saint Petersburg, Russia, invented and tested by Fyodor Pirotsky in 1880. The second line was the Gross-Lichterfelde tramway in Lichterfelde near Berlin in Germany, which opened in 1881. It was built by Werner von Siemens who contacted Pirotsky. This was the world's first commercially successful electric tram. It initially drew current from the rails, with overhead wire being installed in 1883. The first interurban to emerge in the United States was the Newark and Granville Street Railway in Ohio, which opened in 1889.\n\nPostwar\nMany original tram and streetcar systems in the United Kingdom, United States, and elsewhere were decommissioned starting in the 1950s as subsidies for the car increased. Britain abandoned its tram systems, except for Blackpool, with the closure of Glasgow Corporation Tramways (one of the largest in Europe) in 1962.\n\nRevival\nAlthough some traditional trolley or tram systems continued to exist in San Francisco and elsewhere the term \"light rail\" has come to mean a different type of rail system as modern light rail technology has primarily post-WWII West German origins. An attempt by Boeing Vertol to introduce a new American light rail vehicle in the 1970s was proven to have been a technical failure by the following decade. After World War II, the Germans retained many of their streetcar networks and evolved them into model light rail systems (Stadtbahnen). With the exception of Hamburg, all large and most medium-sized German cities maintain light rail networks.\n\nThe basic concepts of light rail were put forward by H. Dean Quinby in 1962 in an article in Traffic Quarterly called \"Major Urban Corridor Facilities: A New Concept\". Quinby distinguished this new concept in rail transportation from historic streetcar or tram systems as:\n having the capacity to carry more passengers\n appearing like a train, with more than one car connected\n having more doors to facilitate full utilization of the space\n faster and quieter in operation\n\nThe term light rail transit was introduced in North America in 1972 to describe this new concept of rail transportation. Prior to that time the abbreviation \"LRT\" was used for \"Light Rapid Transit\" and \"Light Rail Rapid Transit\".\n\nThe first of the new light rail systems in North America began operation in 1978 when the Canadian city of Edmonton, Alberta, adopted the German Siemens-Duewag U2 system, followed three years later by CTrain Calgary, Alberta, and San Diego, California. The concept proved popular, and there are now at least 30 light rail systems in the United States and over 40 in North America.\n\nBritain began replacing its run-down local railways with light rail in the 1980s, starting with the Tyne and Wear Metro and followed by the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) in London. The historic term light railway was used because it dated from the British Light Railways Act 1896, although the technology used in the DLR system was at the high end of what Americans considered to be light rail. The trend to light rail in the United Kingdom was firmly established with the success of the Manchester Metrolink system, which opened in 1992.\n\nDefinition\n\nThe term light rail was coined in 1972 by the U.S. Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA; the precursor to the Federal Transit Administration) to describe new streetcar transformations that were taking place in Europe and the United States. In Germany, the term Stadtbahn (to be distinguished from S-Bahn, which stands for Stadtschnellbahn) was used to describe the concept, and many in UMTA wanted to adopt the direct translation, which is city rail (the Norwegian term, by bane, means the same). However, UMTA finally adopted the term light rail instead. Light in this context is used in the sense of \"intended for light loads and fast movement\", rather than referring to physical weight. The infrastructure investment is also usually lighter than would be found for a heavy rail system.\n\nThe Transportation Research Board (Transportation Systems Center) defined \"light rail\" in 1977 as \"a mode of urban transportation utilizing predominantly reserved but not necessarily grade-separated rights-of-way. Electrically propelled rail vehicles operate singly or in trains. LRT provides a wide range of passenger capabilities and performance characteristics at moderate costs.\"\n\nThe American Public Transportation Association (APTA), in its Glossary of Transit Terminology, defines light rail as: \n...a mode of transit service (also called streetcar, tramway, or trolley) operating passenger rail cars singly (or in short, usually two-car or three-car, trains) on fixed rails in the right-of-way that is often separated from other traffic for part or much of the way. Light rail vehicles are typically driven electrically with power being drawn from an overhead electric line via a trolley [pole] or a pantograph; driven by an operator onboard the vehicle; and may have either high platform loading or low-level boarding using steps.\"  \nHowever, some diesel-powered transit is designated light rail, such as the O-Train Trillium Line in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, the River Line in New Jersey, United States, and the Sprinter in California, United States, which use diesel multiple unit (DMU) cars.\n\nLight rail is similar to the British English term light railway, long-used to distinguish railway operations carried out under a less rigorous set of regulations using lighter equipment at lower speeds from mainline railways. Light rail is a generic international English phrase for types of rail systems using modern streetcars\/trams, which means more or less the same thing throughout the English-speaking world.\n\nPeople movers and personal rapid transit are even \"lighter\", at least in terms of capacity. Monorail is a separate technology that has been more successful in specialized services than in a commuter transit role.\n\nBritish English versus American English\nThe use of the generic term light rail avoids some serious incompatibilities between British and American English. The word tram, for instance, is generally used in the UK and many former British colonies to refer to what is known in North America as a streetcar, but in North America tram can instead refer to an aerial tramway, or, in the case of the Disney amusement parks, even a land train. (The usual British term for an aerial tramway is cable car, which in the US usually refers to a ground-level car pulled along by subterranean cables.) The word trolley is often used as a synonym for streetcar in the United States but is usually taken to mean a cart, particularly a shopping cart, in the UK and elsewhere. Many North American transportation planners reserve streetcar for traditional vehicles that operate exclusively in mixed traffic on city streets, while they use light rail to refer to more modern vehicles operating mostly in exclusive rights of way, since they may operate both side-by-side targeted at different passenger groups.\n\nThe difference between British English and American English terminology arose in the late 19th century when Americans adopted the term \"street railway\", rather than \"tramway\", with the vehicles being called \"streetcars\" rather than \"trams\". Some have suggested that the Americans' preference for the term \"street railway\" at that time was influenced by German emigrants to the United States (who were more numerous than British immigrants in the industrialized Northeast), as it is the same as the German term for the mode, Stra\u00dfenbahn (meaning \"street railway\"). A further difference arose because, while Britain abandoned all of its trams except Blackpool after World War II, eight major North American cities (Toronto, Boston, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Pittsburgh, Newark, Cleveland, and New Orleans) continued to operate large streetcar systems. When these cities upgraded to new technology, they called it light rail to differentiate it from their existing streetcars since some continued to operate both the old and new systems. Since the 1980s, Portland, Oregon, has built all three types of system: a high-capacity light rail system in dedicated lanes and rights-of-way, a low-capacity streetcar system integrated with street traffic, and an aerial tram system.\n\nThe opposite phrase heavy rail, used for higher-capacity, higher-speed systems, also avoids some incompatibilities in terminology between British and American English, for instance in comparing the London Underground and the New York City Subway. Conventional rail technologies including high-speed, freight, commuter, and rapid transit urban transit systems are considered \"heavy rail\". The main difference between light rail and heavy rail rapid transit is the ability for a light rail vehicle to operate in mixed traffic if the routing requires it.\n\nTypes\n\nDue to varying definitions, it is hard to distinguish between what is called light rail, and other forms of urban and commuter rail. A system described as a light rail in one city may be considered to be a streetcar or tram system in another. Conversely, some lines that are called \"light rail\" are very similar to rapid transit; in recent years, new terms such as light metro have been used to describe these medium-capacity systems. Some \"light rail\" systems, such as Sprinter, bear little similarity to urban rail, and could alternatively be classified as commuter rail or even inter-city rail. In the United States, \"light rail\" has become a catch-all term to describe a wide variety of passenger rail systems.\n\nThere is a significant difference in cost between these different classes of light rail transit. Tram-like systems are often less expensive than metro-like systems by a factor of two or more.\n\nLower capacity\nThe most difficult distinction to draw is that between light rail and streetcar or tram systems. There is a significant amount of overlap between the technologies, many of the same vehicles can be used for either, and it is common to classify streetcars or trams as a subcategory of light rail rather than as a distinct type of transportation. The two general versions are:\n The traditional type, where tracks and trains run along the streets and share space with road traffic. Stops tend to be very frequent, but little effort is made to set up special stations. Because space is shared, the tracks are usually visually unobtrusive.\n A more modern variation, where the trains tend to run along with their own right-of-way, separated from road traffic. Stops are generally less frequent, and the vehicles are often boarded from a platform. Tracks are highly visible, and in some cases, significant effort is expended to keep traffic away through the use of special signaling, level crossings with gate arms, or even a complete separation (semi-metro) with non-level crossings.\n\nHigher capacity\n\nAt the highest degree of separation, it can be difficult to draw the line between light rail and metros. The London Docklands Light Railway would likely not be considered as \"light rail\" were it not for the contrast between it and the rapid transit London Underground. In Europe and Asia, the term light rail is increasingly used to describe any rapid transit system with a fairly low frequency or short trains compared to heavier mass rapid systems such as the London Underground or Singapore's Mass Rapid Transit. However, upon closer inspection, these systems are better classified as light metro or people movers. For instance, Line 1 and Line 3 in Manila are often referred to as \"light rail\", despite being fully segregated, mostly elevated railways. This phenomenon is quite common in East Asian cities, where elevated metro lines in Shanghai, Wuhan, and Dalian in China; and Jakarta, Greater Jakarta and Palembang in Indonesia are called light rail lines. In North America, such systems are not usually considered light rail.\n\nMixed systems\n\nMany systems have mixed characteristics. Indeed, with proper engineering, a rail line could run along a street, then go underground, and then run along an elevated viaduct. For example, the Los Angeles Metro Rail's A Line \"light rail\" has sections that could alternatively be described as a tramway, a light metro, and, in a narrow sense, rapid transit. This is especially common in the United States, where there is not a popularly perceived distinction between these different types of urban rail systems. The development of technology for low-floor and catenary-free trams facilitates the construction of such mixed systems with only short and shallow underground sections below critical intersections as the required clearance height can be reduced significantly compared to conventional light rail vehicles.\n\nIt is even possible to have high-floor rapid transit cars run along a street, like a tram; this is known as street running.\n\nSpeed and stop frequency\n\nIn some areas, \"light rail\" may also refer to any rail line with frequent low speeds or many stops in a short distance. This inherits the old definition of light railway in the UK. Hong Kong's Light Rail is an example of this, although it is also called \"light rail\" because it is a lower-scale system than the rest of the MTR. Sprinter in the San Diego area uses DMUs and is targeted towards a commuter rail audience; however, because of the large number of stops along the line, it is called the light rail.\n\nReference speed from major light rail systems, including station stop time, is shown below.\t\n\t\n\nHowever, low top speed is not always a differentiating characteristic between light rail and other systems. For example, the Siemens S70 LRVs used in the Houston METRORail and other North American LRT systems have a top speed of  depending on the system, while the trains on the all-underground Montreal Metro can only reach a top speed of . Los Angeles Metro light rail vehicles have higher top and average speeds than Montreal Metro or New York City Subway trains. The main difference is that Montreal Metro and New York City Subway trains carry far more passengers than any North American LRT system, and the trains have faster acceleration, making station-to-station times relatively short in their densely populated urban areas. Most light rail systems serve less densely populated cities and suburbs where passenger traffic is not high, but low cost combined with high top speed may be important to compete with automobiles.\n\nSystem-wide considerations\nMany light rail systems\u2014even fairly old ones\u2014have a combination of both on- and off-road sections. In some countries (especially in Europe), only the latter is described as light rail. In those places, trams running on mixed rights-of-way are not regarded as a light rail but considered distinctly as streetcars or trams. However, the requirement for saying that a rail line is \"separated\" can be quite low\u2014sometimes just with concrete \"buttons\" to discourage automobile drivers from getting onto the tracks. Some systems such as Seattle's Link had on-road mixed sections but were closed to regular road traffic, with light rail vehicles and traditional buses both operating along a common right-of-way (however, Link converted to full separation in 2019).\n\nSome systems, such as the AirTrain JFK in New York City, the DLR in London, and Kelana Jaya Line in Kuala Lumpur, have dispensed with the need for an operator. The Vancouver SkyTrain was an early adopter of driverless vehicles, while the Toronto Scarborough rapid transit operated the same trains as Vancouver, but used drivers. In most discussions and comparisons, these specialized systems are generally not considered light rail but as light metro systems.\n\nTrack gauge\nHistorically, the track gauge has had considerable variations, with narrow gauge common in many early systems. However, most light rail systems are now standard gauge. Older standard-gauge vehicles could not negotiate sharp turns as easily as narrow-gauge ones, but modern light rail systems achieve tighter turning radii by using articulated cars. An important advantage of the standard gauge is that standard railway maintenance equipment can be used on it, rather than custom-built machinery. Using standard gauges also allows light rail vehicles to be conveniently moved around using the same tracks as freight railways. Additionally, wider gauges provide more floor clearance on low-floor trams that have constricted pedestrian areas at the wheels, which is especially important for wheelchair access, as narrower gauges can make it challenging or impossible to pass the tram's wheels. Furthermore, standard-gauge rolling stock can be switched between networks either temporarily or permanently, and both newly built and used standard-gauge rolling stock tends to be cheaper to buy, as more companies offer such vehicles.\n\nCapacity\n\nEfficiency\n\nEnergy efficiency for light rail may be 120 passenger miles per gallon of fuel (or equivalent), but variation is great, depending on circumstances.\n\nComparison with high capacity roads\nOne line of light rail (requires 7.6 m, 25' right of way) has a theoretical capacity of up to 8 times more than one 3.7 m (12 foot) lane on a freeway, excluding busses, during peak times. Roads have ultimate capacity limits that can be determined by traffic engineering, and usually experience a chaotic breakdown inflow and a dramatic drop in speed (a traffic jam) if they exceed about 2,000 vehicles per hour per lane (each car roughly two seconds behind another). Since most people who drive to work or on business trips do so alone, studies show that the average car occupancy on many roads carrying commuters is only about 1.5 people per car during the high-demand rush hour periods of the day.\nThis combination of factors limits roads carrying only automobile commuters to a maximum observed capacity of about 3,000 passengers per hour per lane. The problem can be mitigated by introducing high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes and ride-sharing programs, but in most cases, policymakers have chosen to add more lanes to the roads, despite a small risk that in unfavorable situations an extension of the road network might lead to increased travel times (Downs\u2013Thomson paradox, Braess paradox).\n\nBy contrast, light rail vehicles can travel in multi-car trains carrying a theoretical ridership up to 20,000 passengers per hour in much narrower rights-of-way, not much more than two car lanes wide for a double track system. They can often be run through existing city streets and parks, or placed in the medians of roads. If run in streets, trains are usually limited by city block lengths to about four 180-passenger vehicles (720 passengers). Operating on two-minute headways using traffic signal progression, a well-designed two-track system can handle up to 30 trains per hour per track, achieving peak rates of over 20,000 passengers per hour in each direction. More advanced systems with separate rights-of-way using moving block signaling can exceed 25,000 passengers per hour per track.\n\nPractical considerations\nMost light rail systems in the United States are limited by demand rather than capacity (by and large, most American LRT systems carry fewer than 4,000 persons per hour per direction), but Boston's and San Francisco's light rail lines carry 9,600 and 13,100 passengers per hour per track during rush hour. Elsewhere in North America, the Calgary C-Train and Monterrey Metro have higher light rail ridership than Boston or San Francisco. Systems outside North America often have much higher passenger volumes. The Manila Light Rail Transit System is one of the highest capacity ones, having been upgraded in a series of expansions to handle 40,000 passengers per hour per direction, and having carried as many as 582,989 passengers in a single day on its Line 1. It achieves this volume by running four-car trains with a capacity of up to 1,350 passengers each at a frequency of up to 30 trains per hour. However, the Manila light rail system has full grade separation and as a result, has many of the operating characteristics of a metro system rather than a light rail system. A capacity of 1,350 passengers per train is more similar to the heavy rail than light rail.\n\nBus rapid transit (BRT) is an alternative to LRT and many planning studies undertake a comparison of each mode when considering appropriate investments in transit corridor development. BRT systems can exhibit a more diverse range of design characteristics than LRT, depending on the demand and constraints that exist, and BRT using dedicated lanes can have a theoretical capacity of over 30,000 passengers per hour per direction (for example, the Guangzhou Bus Rapid Transit system operates up to 350 buses per hour per direction). For the effective operation of a bus or BRT system, buses must have priority at traffic lights and have their dedicated lanes, especially as bus frequencies exceed 30 buses per hour per direction. The higher theoretical of BRT relates to the ability of buses to travel closer to each other than rail vehicles and their ability to overtake each other at designated locations allowing express services to bypass those that have stopped at stations. However, to achieve capacities this high, BRT station footprints need to be significantly larger than a typical LRT station. In terms of cost of operation, each bus vehicle requires a single driver, whereas a light rail train may have three to four cars of much larger capacity in one train under the control of one driver, or no driver at all in fully automated systems, increasing the labor costs of BRT systems compared to LRT systems. BRT systems are also usually less fuel-efficient as they use non-electrified vehicles.\n\nThe peak passenger capacity per lane per hour depends on which types of vehicles are allowed on the roads. Typically roadways have 1,900 passenger cars per lane per hour (pcplph). If only cars are allowed, the capacity will be less and will not increase when the traffic volume increases.\n\nWhen there is a bus driving on this route, the capacity of the lane will be higher and will increase when the traffic level increases. And because the capacity of a light rail system is higher than that of a bus, there will be even more capacity when there is a combination of cars and light rail. Table 3 shows an example of peak passenger capacity.\n\nSafety\nAn analysis of data from the 505-page National Transportation Statistics report published by the US Department of Transportation shows that light rail fatalities are higher than all other forms of transportation except motorcycle travel (31.5 fatalities per 100\u00a0million miles).\n\nHowever, the National Transportation Statistics report published by the US Department of Transportation states that:Caution must be exercised in comparing fatalities across modes because significantly different definitions are used. In particular, Rail and Transit fatalities include incident-related (as distinct from accident-related) fatalities, such as fatalities from falls in transit stations or railroad employee fatalities from a fire in a workshed. Equivalent fatalities for the Air and Highway modes (fatalities at airports not caused by moving aircraft or fatalities from accidents in automobile repair shops) are not counted toward the totals for these modes. Thus, fatalities not necessarily directly related to in-service transportation are counted for the transit and rail modes, potentially overstating the risk for these modes.\n\nConstruction and operation costs\n\nThe cost of light rail construction varies widely, largely depending on the amount of tunneling and elevated structures required. A survey of North American light rail projects shows that costs of most LRT systems range from $15\u00a0million to over $100\u00a0million per mile. Seattle's new light rail system is by far the most expensive in the US, at $179\u00a0million per mile, since it includes extensive tunneling in poor soil conditions, elevated sections, and stations as deep as  below ground level. This results in costs more typical of subways or rapid transit systems than light rail. At the other end of the scale, four systems (Baltimore, Maryland; Camden, New Jersey; Sacramento, California; and Salt Lake City, Utah) incurred construction costs of less than $20\u00a0million per mile. Over the US as a whole, excluding Seattle, new light rail construction costs average about $35\u00a0million per mile.\n\nBy comparison, a freeway lane expansion typically costs $1.0\u00a0million to $8.5\u00a0million per lane mile for two directions, with an average of $2.3\u00a0million. However, freeways are frequently built in suburbs or rural areas, whereas light rail tends to be concentrated in urban areas, where right of way and property acquisition is expensive. Similarly, the most expensive US highway expansion project was the \"Big Dig\" in Boston, Massachusetts, which cost $200\u00a0million per lane mile for a total cost of $14.6\u00a0billion. A light rail track can carry up to 20,000 people per hour as compared with 2,000\u20132,200 vehicles per hour for one freeway lane. For example, in Boston and San Francisco, light rail lines carry 9,600 and 13,100 passengers per hour, respectively, in the peak direction during rush hour.\n\nCombining highway expansion with LRT construction can save costs by doing both highway improvements and rail construction at the same time. As an example, Denver's Transportation Expansion Project rebuilt interstate highways 25 and 225 and added a light rail expansion for a total cost of $1.67\u00a0billion over five years. The cost of  of highway improvements and  of double-track light rail worked out to $19.3\u00a0million per highway lane-mile and $27.6\u00a0million per LRT track-mile. The project came in under budget and 22 months ahead of schedule.\n\nLRT cost efficiency improves dramatically as ridership increases, as can be seen from the numbers above: the same rail line, with similar capital and operating costs, is far more efficient if it is carrying 20,000 people per hour than if it is carrying 2,400. The Calgary, Alberta, C-Train used many common light rail techniques to keep costs low, including minimizing underground and elevated trackage, sharing transit malls with buses, leasing rights-of-way from freight railroads, and combining LRT construction with freeway expansion. As a result, Calgary ranks toward the less expensive end of the scale with capital costs of around $24\u00a0million per mile.\n\nHowever, Calgary's LRT ridership is much higher than any comparable US light rail system, at 300,000 passengers per weekday, and as a result, its capital efficiency is also much higher. Its capital costs were one-third those of the San Diego Trolley, a comparably sized US system built at the same time, while by 2009 its ridership was approximately three times as high. Thus, Calgary's capital cost per passenger was much lower than that of San Diego. Its operating cost per passenger was also much lower because of its higher ridership. A typical C-Train vehicle costs only  per hour to operate, and since it averages 600 passengers per operating hour, Calgary Transit estimates that its LRT operating costs are only 27 cents per ride, versus $1.50 per ride on its buses.\n\nCompared to buses, costs can be lower due to lower labor costs per passenger mile, higher ridership (observations show that light rail attracts more ridership than a comparable bus service) and faster average speed (reducing the number of vehicles needed for the same service frequency). While light rail vehicles are more expensive to buy, they have a longer useful life than buses, sometimes making for lower life-cycle costs.\n\nHealth impact\n\nIntegration with bicycles\nLight rail lines have various policies on bicycles. Some fleets restrict bicycles on trains during peak hours. Some light rail systems, such as the St. Louis MetroLink, allow bicycles on the trains, but only in the rear sections of cars. Some light rail lines, like San Francisco's, allow only folding bicycles on board. In some systems, dedicated bike parking is available at select stations and others are integrated with local bike share systems.\n\nVariations\n\nTrams operating on mainline railways\n\nAround Karlsruhe, Kassel, and Saarbr\u00fccken in Germany, dual-voltage light rail trains partly use mainline railroad tracks, sharing these tracks with heavy rail trains. In the Netherlands, this concept was first applied on the RijnGouweLijn. This allows commuters to ride directly into the city center, rather than taking a mainline train only as far as a central station and then having to change to a tram. In France, similar tram-trains are planned for Paris, Mulhouse, and Strasbourg; further projects exist. In some cases, tram trains use previously abandoned or lightly used heavy rail lines in addition to or instead of still in use mainline tracks.\n\nSome of the issues involved in such schemes are:\n compatibility of the safety systems\n power supply of the track to the power used by the vehicles (frequently different voltages, rarely third rail vs overhead wires)\n width of the vehicles to the position of the platforms\n height of the platforms\n\nThere is a history of what would now be considered light rail vehicles operating on heavy rail rapid transit tracks in the US, especially in the case of interurban streetcars. Notable examples are Lehigh Valley Transit trains running on the Philadelphia and Western Railroad high-speed third rail line (now the Norristown High-Speed Line). Such arrangements are almost impossible now, due to the Federal Railroad Administration refusing (for crash safety reasons) to allow non-FRA compliant railcars (i.e., subway and light rail vehicles) to run on the same tracks at the same times as compliant railcars, which includes locomotives and standard railroad passenger and freight equipment. Notable exceptions in the US are the NJ Transit River Line from Camden to Trenton and Austin's Capital MetroRail, which have received exemptions to the provision that light rail operations occur only during daytime hours and Conrail freight service only at night, with several hours separating one operation from the other. The O-Train Trillium Line in Ottawa also has freight service at certain hours.\n\nGround-level power supply for trams\n\nWhen electric streetcars were introduced in the late 19th century, conduit current collection was one of the first ways of supplying power, but it proved to be much more expensive, complicated, and trouble-prone than overhead wires. When electric street railways became ubiquitous, conduit power was used in those cities that did not permit overhead wires. In Europe, it was used in London, Paris, Berlin, Marseille, Budapest, and Prague. In the United States, it was used in parts of New York City and Washington, D.C. Third rail technology was investigated for use on the Gold Coast of Australia for the G:link light rail, though power from overhead lines was ultimately utilized for that system.\n\nIn the French city of Bordeaux, the tramway network is powered by a third rail in the city center, where the tracks are not always segregated from pedestrians and cars. The third rail (actually two closely spaced rails) is placed in the middle of the track and divided into eight-metre sections, each of which is powered only while it is completely covered by a tram. This minimizes the risk of a person or animal coming into contact with a live rail. In outer areas, the trams switch to conventional overhead wires. The Bordeaux power system costs about three times as much as a conventional overhead wire system and took 24 months to achieve acceptable levels of reliability, requiring the replacement of all the main cables and power supplies. Operating and maintenance costs of the innovative power system still remain high. However, despite numerous service outages, the system was a success with the public, gaining up to 190,000 passengers per day.\n\nComparison to other rail transit modes\nWith its mix of right-of-way types and train control technologies, LRT offers the widest range of latitude of any rail system in the design, engineering, and operating practices. The challenge in designing light rail systems is to realize the potential of LRT to provide fast, comfortable service while avoiding the tendency to overdesign that results in excessive capital costs beyond what is necessary to meet the public's needs.\n\nTypical rolling stock\nThe BART railcar in the following chart is not generally considered to be a \"light rail\" vehicle (it is a heavy rail vehicle), and is only included for comparison purposes.\n\nTrain operation\n\nAn important factor crucial to LRT is the train operator. Unlike rail rapid transit, which can travel unattended under automatic train operation (ATO), safe, high-quality LRT operation relies on a human operator as a key element. The reason that the operator is so important is that the train tracks often share the streets with automobiles, other vehicles, and pedestrians. If trains were fully automated on roads, nobody would be there to stop the train if a car pulled in front of it. Light rail trains are very sturdily built for passenger safety, and to reduce damage from impacts with cars.\n\nFloor height\n\nThe latest generation of LRVs has the advantage of partially or fully low-floor design, with the floor of the vehicles only  above the top of the rail, a feature not found in either rapid rail transit vehicles or streetcars. This allows them to load passengers, including those in wheelchairs or strollers, directly from low-rise platforms that are little more than raised sidewalks. This satisfies requirements to provide access to disabled passengers without using expensive and delay-inducing wheelchair lifts, while also making boarding faster and easier for other passengers.\n\nPower sources\nOverhead lines supply electricity to the vast majority of light rail systems. This avoids the danger of passengers stepping on an electrified third rail. The Docklands Light Railway uses an inverted third rail for its electrical power, which allows the electrified rail to be covered and the power drawn from the underside. Trams in Bordeaux, France, use a special third-rail configuration where the power is only switched on beneath the trams, making it safe on city streets. Several systems in Europe and a few recently opened systems in North America use diesel-powered trains.\n\nTram and other light rail transit systems worldwide\n\nAround the world, there are many extant tram and streetcar systems. Some date from the beginning of the 20th century or earlier such as Toronto streetcar system, but many of the original tram and streetcar systems were closed down in the mid-20th century, except for many Eastern European countries. Even though many systems closed down over the years, there are still several tram systems that have been operating much as they did when they were first built over a century ago. Some cities (such as Los Angeles and Jersey City) that once closed down their streetcar networks are now restoring, or have already rebuilt, at least some of their former streetcar\/tram systems. Most light rail services are currently committed to articulated vehicles like modern LRVs, i.e. trams, except for large underground metro or rapid transit systems.\n\nSeveral UK cities have substantial light rail networks including the Nottingham Express Transit, Sheffield Supertram, Manchester Metrolink. \n\nA smaller network between Birmingham and The Black Country (West Midlands Metro), with plans to add 6 new lines and extend out to Stourbridge, Birmingham Airport & Walsall. Edinburgh Trams is also a single line route, currently looking to add other lines.\n\nSee also\n\n Capa vehicle\n General Motors streetcar conspiracy\n H-Bahn\n Light rail in North America\n List of modern tramway and light rail systems in the United Kingdom\n List of rail transit systems in the United States\n List of town tramway systems (all-time lists)\n List of tram and light rail transit systems(operational systems only)\n Medium-capacity rail transport system\n Passenger rail terminology\n Railway electrification system\n Premetro\n Rubber-tyred trams\n Streetcars in North America\n Tram and light rail transit systems\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Light Rail Transit Committee of the Transportation Research Board (US)\n Light Rail Transit Association (UK-based, international organization)\n Light Rail Now! (US) A pro-light rail web site opposing less common transportation systems.\n \"This Is Light Rail Transit\" (PDF) brochure by the American Public Transportation Association (APTA) (2000; updated 2003)\n\n \nSustainable urban planning\nTram transport","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":149,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":5,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":4,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":5,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":2}},"id":50943,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Light%20rail","title":"Light rail","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A musical synthesizer is an instrument that uses electricity to make musical sounds. They are the main instrument for making electronic music. Many synthesizers have a keyboard like that of a piano. When playing a piano keyboard, sounds are made by hitting soft hammers against strings pulled very tight. When playing a synthesizer keyboard, sounds are made by turning electrical oscillators on and off. Since \"synthesizer\" is such a big word, the word is usually shortened to \"synth\".\n\nHow synthesizers work \n\nAn oscillator is something that \"vibrates\", or repeats the same pattern. The pendulum of a clock, for example, is a very slow oscillator. A piano string \"oscillates\" when struck by a hammer.\n\nElectric oscillators might be made using transistors. They turn electricity into electrical patterns, or signals, that repeat over and over. When different keys are pressed, different notes are heard. This is done by making the signal from the oscillator repeat at different rates. \n\nThe signal can be boosted in strength and sent straight to a loudspeaker. But the sound of a simple signal can be boring after a while. Sounds can be made more interesting in many ways.\n\nFor example\n Signals are often shaped by changing how fast they get loud and then soft again. This method, called \"ADSR\", helps synthesizers to sound more like older instruments \u2014 pianos, trumpets, flutes, and so on.\n The signals from several different oscillators may be combined. This helps to make a richer sound.\n The signal can then be sent to one or more filters. Filters are used to take away parts of the signal. For example, they might make the signal sound \"brighter\" or \"duller\", \"soft\" or \"harsh\".\n Many synthesizers use special oscillators called \"LFOs\". For example, an LFO might control how loud and soft the signal is, or control the pitch of the signal. An LFO might even control the actions of the filters.\n\nBy combining many of these methods, synths can now sound very much like older instruments. For one example, special synths called \"drum synths\" are used just to make the sounds a drummer might make. Synths can also make many new sounds never heard before.\n\nIn the early 2000s, computers got fast enough so \"software synths\" could be made. These are computer programs designed to look and work like a synth. They tend to be less expensive, so more can be used. Most of these programs can be downloaded for free, however this may be illegal.\n\nThere are special tools available to play synths. For example, a thing called a \"wind controller\" lets players of wind instruments use their special skills. But there is still a need for more ways to control synths to make them more expressive.\n\nOther websites \n Sonic State describing 3000 models of Synthesizers\n Analog & Digital Synthesizers museum  - Synthesizers database, resources, user reviews, pictures\n Vintage Synth Explorer - facts and photos of hundreds of old and new synths\n The history of Electronic Music\n 120 years of Electronic Music \n\nElectronic musical instruments\nAudio technology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":143,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":4,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":48243,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synthesizer","title":"Synthesizer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A graph is a picture designed to express words, particularly the connection between two or more quantities. You can see a graph on the right.\n\nA simple graph usually shows the relationship between two numbers or measurements in the form of a grid. If this is a rectangular graph using Cartesian coordinate system, the two measurements will be arranged into two different lines at right angle to one another. One of these lines will be going up (the vertical axis). The other one will be going right (the horizontal axis). These lines (or axes, the plural of axis) meet at their ends in the lower left corner of the graph.\n\nBoth of these axes have tick marks along their lengths. You can think of each axis as a ruler drawn on paper. So each measurement is indicated by the length of the associated tick mark along the particular axis.\n\nA graph is a kind of chart or diagram. However, a chart or a diagram may not relate one quantity to other quantities. Flowcharts and tree diagrams are charts or diagrams that are not graphs.\n\n\n\nHow to draw a simple graph \n\nLet's say you wanted to make a graph showing your height as you were growing up. You might show your height in centimeters on the vertical axis and your age in years on the horizontal axis.\n\nFor example, say you were 60 centimeters tall at age 1, 85 centimeters tall at age 2 and 95 centimeters tall at age 3. You would draw an imaginary straight line passing through the 50 centimeters height mark on the vertical axis. Then you would draw a second imaginary line passing through the age of 1 year on the horizontal axis. At the place where the two imaginary lines meet (called their intersection), you would then draw a dot. Really, the imaginary lines are usually replaced by graph paper (see below). The drawing of this intersection is called \"plotting the point 50 centimeters for year 1\".\n\nYou would then plot 85 centimeters for year 2 and 95 centimeters for year 3. If you had more heights for more years, you would plot years 4, 5 and so forth. When you had enough points on your graph, you could draw a line through each of the plotted points, making your graph a line graph. For example, the line graph at the upper right shows the unemployment rate (as a percent) on the vertical axis and the year (from 1950 to 2005) on the horizontal axis.\n\nLet's say you wanted a single graph showing both your height and your brother's height. This could be expressed as two sets of plotted points: one for you and one for your brother. You could use different colors to tell your plot from your brother's. Or you might plot the Gross Domestic Product (in billions of dollars) as a second line against the same years on the unemployment graph above. This would show you the relationship between GDP and unemployment.\n\nUses of graphs \n\nGraphs make information easier to see. This is especially true when two or more sets of numbers are related in some way.\n\nFor example, the unemployment rates graph at the beginning of this article could be expressed in the form of a table. Like this:\n\nBut a long string of numbers makes it difficult to see the underlying meaning. It is much simpler to understand when the table is expressed in the form of a graph. In particular, it is easier to see the relationships between the two sets of data. For example, by looking at the graph you can see at a glance that unemployment was relatively low in the late sixties but relatively high in the early eighties.\n\nScientists and engineers use graphs so that they can get a better understanding of the broad meaning and importance of their data. Salesmen and businessmen often use graphs to add importance to their points in a sales or business presentation. Graphs with many plotted points may be created on a computer rather than being drawn by hand.\n\nMathematicians use graphs that \"plot themselves\", without taking measurements. For example, the formula x = y says that the value of x will always be equal to the value of y. If you plot this formula as a graph, with x as the horizontal axis and y as the vertical axis, you will get a graph that looks like a straight line angled at precisely 45 degrees. The use of these graphs forms a branch of mathematics called analytic geometry.\n\nGraph paper \n\nUsually, graphs are created on specially designed paper called graph paper. This paper has evenly drawn horizontal and vertical lines on it. On the right is an example of a sheet of graph paper.\n\nDifferent types of graphs require different forms of graph paper. What we have been talking about in the article above is the commonest form of graphs and graph paper. It is known as rectangular or Cartesian graphs. However the evenly drawn vertical and horizontal lines on the paper are not the graph itself but are part of the graph paper. The graph is the set of plotted points, along with its axes.\n\nThere are various types of graphs (and graph paper) other than Cartesian. These include: bar graphs, pie graphs, polar graphs, scatter graphs, three-dimensional graphs, logarithmic graphs and many others.\n\nMathematics\nStatistics\nGraphics\n\npt:Fun\u00e7\u00e3o#Gr\u00e1ficos de fun\u00e7\u00e3o","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":6495,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graph","title":"Graph","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Cainozoic (Cenozoic) is the current geological era. It began 66 million years ago and continues today. Before it was the Mesozoic.\n\nDuring the Cainozoic the continents moved into their present positions. The climate started warm, but cooling continued steadily. Finally ice ages occurred. \n\nThe word Cainozoic is derived from Greek kainos = \"new\", and zoe = \"life\". 'Cainozoic' may be spelled 'Cenozoic'. It has three periods, and the periods are split into stages. \n\n Cainozoic \n Palaeogene\n Palaeocene\n Eocene\n Oligocene\n Neogene\n Miocene\n Pliocene\n Quaternary\n Pleistocene\n Holocene\n\nPreviously, what is now the Cainozoic was divided into two periods, the Tertiary and the Quaternary. The Tertiary corresponded to the Palaeogene+Neogene. Now, the term 'Tertiary' is not used. Officially, it is 'deprecated'.\n\nBiota \nOn land, the Cainozoic is the era of mammals, and of birds and flowering plants. Grassland became a major habitat. Aquatic mammals took over the roles of predatory reptiles like the mosasaurs and plesiosaurs. As a result, the ecological landscape of the Cainozoic has become quite different from the Mesozoic.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2}},"id":218099,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cainozoic","title":"Cainozoic","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A code is a way of changing information into something else.  Sometimes this is done as a way of keeping a message secret. This is called encryption or cryptography. \nOne source gives this explanation: a code is \"a word, number or some other symbol used to represent a word, phrase or syllable in plaintext\". It is one of the earliest forms of cryptography. Contrast code with cypher, in which the individual letters are encrypted (changed).\n\nSometimes it is done as an easier way of sending a message.  For example, when people on two different boats want to send a message, they may be too far away to shout, but they can send messages with a flag code.  Another code that people use is called Morse code, which changes letters to dots and dashes, like this:\n\n  SOS:   \u00b7\u00b7\u00b7\u2212\u2212\u2212\u00b7\u00b7\u00b7\n\nComputers use codes, by changing letters into 1's and 0's. This method was invented for punched tape. Now the usual alphanumeric code is ASCII.\n\nSome people write codes as a kind of game.  They think it is fun to make ciphers, and fun to break them.  Breaking a code means taking it apart to understand how it works, and then you can understand messages that are written in that code. Cryptanalysis is also serious business. Nations and other organizations have been breaking each other's ciphers for many centuries.\n\nThe algorithm (code) for making a message secret is called the encryption algorithm.  To change a secret message back a decryption algorithm is needed.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \nCharacter encoding\n\nCryptography\nHuman communication","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":27592,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code","title":"Code","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In Computer science, client-server is a software architecture model consisting of two parts, client systems and server systems, both communicating over a computer network or on the same computer. A client-server application is a distributed system made up of both client and server software. Client server application provide a better way to share the workload. The client process always initiates a connection to the server, while the server process always waits for requests from any client. \n\nWhen both the client process and server process are running on the same computer, this is called a single seat setup.\n\nP2P\nAnother type of related software architecture is known as peer-to-peer, because each host or application instance can simultaneously act as both a client and a server (unlike centralized servers of the client-server model) and because each has equivalent responsibilities and status. Peer-to-peer architectures are often abbreviated using the acronym P2P.\n\nBoth client-server and P2P architectures are in wide usage today.\n\nClient-server relationship\nThe client-server relationship describes the relation between the client and how it makes a service request to the server, and how the server can accept these requests, process them, and return the requested information to the client. The interaction between client and server is often described using sequence diagrams. Sequence diagrams are standardized in the Unified Modeling Language.\n\nTwo-tier\nThe basic type of client-server software architecture employs only two types of hosts: clients and servers. This type of architecture is sometimes referred to as two-tier. The two-tier architecture means that the client acts as one tier and server process acts as the other tier.\n\nNetwork computing\nThe client-server software architecture has become one of the basic models of network computing. Many types of applications have been written using the client-server model. Standard networked functions such as E-mail exchange, web access and database access, are based on the client-server model. For example, a web browser is a client program at the user computer that may access information at any web server in the world.\n\nClients characteristics\n Always initiates requests to servers.\n Waits for replies.\n Receives replies.\n Usually connects to a small number of servers at one time.\n Usually interacts directly with end-users using any user interface such as graphical user interface.\n\nServer characteristics\n Always wait for a request from one of the clients.\n Serves clients' requests then replies to the clients with the requested data.\n A server may communicate with other servers in order to serve a client request.\n If additional information is required to process a request (or security is implemented), a server may request additional data (passwords) from a client before processing a request.\n End users typically do not interact directly with a server, but use a client.\n\nAdvantages\n In most cases, a client-server architecture enables the worsening of roles and responsibilities of a computing system to be distributed among several independent computers that are known to each other only through a network, so one of advantages of this model is greater ease of maintenance. For example, it is possible to replace, repair, upgrade, or even relocate a server while its clients remain both unaware and unaffected by that change. This independence from change is also referred to as encapsulation.\n All the data is stored on the servers, which generally have better security controls than most clients. Servers can better control access and resources, to guarantee that only those clients with the appropriate permissions may access and change data. \n Since data storage is centralized, updates to that data are much easier to administrators than what would be possible under a P2P architecture. Under a P2P architecture, data updates may need to be distributed and applied to each \"peer\" in the network, which is both time-consuming and error-prone, as there can be thousands or even millions of peers.\n Many advanced client-server technologies are already available which were designed to ensure security, user friendly interfaces, and ease of use.\n It works with multiple different clients of different specifications.\n\nDisadvantages\n Networks traffic blocking is one of the problems related to the client-server model. As the number of simultaneous client requests to a given server increases, the server can become overloaded. Contrast that to a P2P network, where its bandwidth actually increases as more nodes are added, since the P2P network's overall bandwidth can be roughly computed as the sum of the bandwidths of every node in that network.\n Comparing client-server model to the Peer to Peer model, if one server fail, clients' requests cannot be served but in case of P2P networks, servers are usually distributed among many nodes. Even if one or more nodes fail, for example if a node failed to download a file the remaining nodes should still have the data needed to complete the download.\n\nExamples\nSpecific types of servers include: web servers, FTP servers, database servers, E-mail servers, file servers, print servers. Most web services are also types of servers.\nComputer science\nFile sharing","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":140934,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client-server","title":"Client-server","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The cor anglais, or English horn, is a double reed instrument in the woodwind family.  It is very similar to an oboe, but as it is longer than an oboe it plays lower notes.\n\nThe lowest note of an oboe is B flat (just below Middle C).  The lowest note of a cor anglais is an E natural, a diminished fifth (five notes of a scale, minus a semitone) lower than the oboe's lowest note.\n\nThe cor anglais is a transposing instrument pitched in F.  This means that the music sounds a fifth lower than written.  This has the advantage that the cor anglais player uses fingering as if he were playing an oboe, but it will sound a fifth lower. \n\nThe bell (the bit at the end of the instrument) is shaped like a pear.  This gives it a less nasal sound (the sound of the cor anglais is less as if played through the nose).  The reed is not fixed to a piece of cork like the oboe reed but it is put straight onto the short piece of metal (called a \"bocal\") at the top of the instrument.\n\nEtymology\nThe word \"cor anglais\" is a French word which literally means \"English horn\", but the cor anglais is neither English nor a horn. No one is sure how it got its name, but many people think it is because the bocal at the top is curved (the French word for curved, \"angl\u00e9\" is pronounced like the word for English \"anglais\").\n\nRepertoire\nMany oboists can play the cor anglais as well, just as flautists can play the piccolo (if they play both instruments in the same concert this is called doubling).\n\nThere are few solo pieces for the instrument, but mostly it is used for solo melodies in slow pieces for orchestra because it can sound very expressive.\n\nSome famous examples of cor anglais solos can be found in:\n\nAlfred Reed's Russian Christmas Music (1944)\nAnton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k's Symphony No. 9 (1893), the New World Symphony (Largo)\nJoaqu\u00edn Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez (1939) (2nd movement)\nHector Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique (third movement) (1830)\nAlexander Borodin's Eine Steppenskizze aus Mittelasien\n\nDouble reed instruments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":70732,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cor%20anglais","title":"Cor anglais","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (Simplified Chinese: \u65e0\u4ea7\u9636\u7ea7\u6587\u5316\u5927\u9769\u547d, Traditional Chinese: \u7121\u7522\u968e\u7d1a\u6587\u5316\u5927\u9769\u547d, Pinyin: W\u00fach\u01cen Ji\u0113j\u00ed W\u00e9nhu\u00e0 D\u00e0 G\u00e9m\u00ecng, literally: Proletarian Cultural Great Revolution); shortened in Chinese as  or , also known simply as the Cultural Revolution, was a time of large cultural change in China, started by Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China.  It happened from 1966 to 1976.\n\nThe start of the Cultural Revolution followed the failure of the Great Leap Forward. Mao tried to remove capitalists from the Communist Party of China, the party in charge of China. To get rid of the capitalists, he started the Socialist Education Movement. It started in 1962 and ended in 1965. At the same time, a redoing of the school system made sure that students were able to also work in factories and communes. Mao slowly started to regain power in 1965, supported by Lin Biao, Jiang Qing, and Chen Boda.\n\nThe Communist Party was split between Mao's partners and Deng Xiaoping's partners. Deng Xiaoping was a rival of Mao.  Mao then tried to get support from young people in China by creating the book Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong (also known as the Little Red Book), a collection of Mao's sayings. The Red Guard was also made popular. They were a group of young people in China that went around teaching Mao's sayings. They also beat people who disagreed with Mao and destroyed homes and museums. There were many fights breaking out, and China faced anarchy. During the revolution, several important people in China were forced to leave. These people included Liu Shaoqi, President of China, and Deng Xiaoping, the secretary-general of the Communist Party of China.\n\nThe Cultural Revolution began to slow down in 1967, and ended in 1969. The Ninth National Party Congress was a meeting where the end of the Cultural Revolution was announced.\n\nEffects \n\nThe Cultural Revolution caused a lot of problems in China. Production in factories was lowered because of the workers' political activities. It was also lowered because the people put in charge of the factories did not know how to run them.  Transportation was made worse because a lot of trains were being used to take Red Guards around the country.  Many scientists and engineers were put in jail or sent to work on the farms, which meant that their knowledge was lost.  Because of these changes, the industrial output of China was reduced by 14 percent.\n\nThe education of many Chinese people was also cut short. The education system was more disrupted in the cities than in the countryside.  Universities and many schools were closed. A program called the \"sent-down youth\" program also disrupted education. In that program, children were sent from the cities to the countryside.\n\nRelated pages\nGreat Leap Forward\n\nReferences \n\nHistory of China","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"unknown":3}},"id":199354,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural%20Revolution","title":"Cultural Revolution","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Subspecies is a classification (taxonomy) in biology. It is directly below species. When looking at the Latin name, subspecies are indicated by the third name. Subspecies can mix with each other; animals or plants from different subspecies can have offspring together (This is usually not the case with animals from different species).\n\nWhen looking at subspecies, they can also be told apart sufficiently by looking at the appearance or DNA of an animal or plant.\n\nVery often, there are populations that are between two subspecies; this is because evolution is a continuous process. Subspecies can often be recognised by subsp or ssp (before the third part of the name) especially in botany.\n\nExamples of subspecies are:\nThe dog (Canis lupus familiaris) and the dingo (Canis lupus dingo) are both subspecies of the wolf (Canis lupus)\nThe domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) is a subspecies of the wildcat (Felis silvestris)\n\nNominate subspecies\nIn zoology, when a species is split into subspecies, the first described population is known as the \"nominate subspecies\", and it repeats the same name as the species. For example, the \"Daboia russelii russelii\" (known as the Indian Russell's Viper) is a nominate subspecies of the species \"Daboia russelii\" (known as the Russell's Viper).\n\nTaxonomy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":107026,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subspecies","title":"Subspecies","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Carl Edward Sagan (November 9, 1934 - December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer. He was very interested in what life on other planets would be like, which is known as SETI (search for extraterrestrial intelligence).\n\nSagan was a science communicator, which meant he taught people about science. He felt like the general public was losing interest in science, so he wrote many books and appeared on television to make it popular again. He mostly talked about planetary science and topics related to space. One of his most famous works includes. Cosmos: A Personal Voyage. Cosmos was a television series about many different scientific topics, which Sagan co-wrote and narrated. It made him very famous outside the world of science.\n\nSagan supported the scientific method and scientific skepticism.\n\nEducation and work \n\nCarl Sagan was born in Brooklyn, New York City. Carl's family was Jewish. His father, Samuel Sagan, was an immigrant from the Russian Empire. Samuel was born in 1905 in a city called Kamianets-Podilskyi. The Russian Empire no longer exists, so today Kamianets-Podilskyi is in Ukraine. Samuel made clothes for a living. Carl's mother, Rachel Molly Gruber, was a housewife. Carl had a sister named Carol, who became a social worker. Carl was named after his grandmother, Chaiya (Clara).\n\nSagan attended the University of Chicago earning two degrees in physics. He followed with a doctorate in astronomy in 1960 and taught at Harvard University until 1968, when he moved to Cornell University.\n\nSagan became a teacher and director at Cornell in 1971. He helped many unmanned spacecraft to explore outer space. He thought of the idea of putting a message on spacecraft which could be understood by any life from another planet that might find it. The first message sent into space was a large gold-plated label on the space probe Pioneer 10. He continued to make the messages better. The last message he helped with was the Voyager Golden Record that was sent out with the Voyager space probes.\n\nScientific achievements \n\nHe was well known as a writer who warned of the dangers of nuclear winter. He helped people learn about the atmosphere of Venus, seasonal changes on Mars, and Saturn's moon Titan. He showed that the atmosphere of Venus is very hot and dense. He also said that global warming was a growing, man-made danger like the natural development of Venus into a hot and dangerous planet with greenhouse gases. He suggested that the seasonal changes on Mars were due to dust storms.\n\nSagan was among the first to guess that Titan and Jupiter's moon Europa might have oceans or lakes, which means that life could be there. Europa's underground ocean was later confirmed by the spacecraft Galileo.\n\nSagan thought the search for life on other planets was a good idea. He said scientists should listen with large radio telescopes for signals from other planets. He thought sending probes to other planets was a good idea. Sagan was editor Icarus (a magazine about space exploration) for 12 years. He helped start the Planetary Society and was a member of the SETI Institute Board of Trustees.\n\nSocial concerns \n\nSagan also believed that the Drake equation suggested that many kinds of intelligent life could form, but that the lack of evidence (the Fermi paradox) suggests that intelligent beings destroy themselves rather quickly. This made him keen to talk about ways that humanity could destroy itself, in the hope of avoiding such destruction.\n\nUnder the name \"Mr. X,\" Sagan wrote about pot smoking in the 1971 book Reconsidering Marijuana. Lester Grinspoon (the book's editor), told this to Keay Davidson, Sagan's biographer. Sagan said that marijuana helped him write some of his books.\n\nMaking science popular \n\nSagan was very good at helping people to understand the cosmos. He gave the 1977\/1978 Christmas Lectures for Young People at the Royal Institution. He wrote (with Ann Druyan, who became his third wife) and made the very popular thirteen-part PBS television series Cosmos; he also wrote books to help science become more popular (The Dragons of Eden, which won a Pulitzer Prize, Broca's Brain, etc.) and a novel, Contact, that was a best-seller and was made into a film starring Jodie Foster in 1997. The film won the 1998 Hugo Award.\n\nAfter Cosmos, Sagan was linked with the catchphrase \"billions and billions\", which he never used in the television series (but he often used the word \"billions\"). He wrote Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space, which was chosen as a notable book of 1995 by The New York Times.\n\nNot all scientists agreed with him. Although they all liked the way he made science popular, some were afraid that people would think that his personal opinions might be confused with real science. What he said about the Kuwait oil well fires during the first Gulf War were shown later to be wrong.\n\nLater in his life, Sagan's books showed his skeptical, naturalistic view of the world. In his book The Demon-Haunted World, Sagan gave a list of mistakes he had made as an example of how science is self-correcting. The compilation Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the End of the Millennium, published after Sagan's death, contains essays written by Sagan, such as his views on abortion, and Ann Druyan's account of his death as a non-believer.\n\nLegacy \n\nAfter a long and difficult fight with myelodysplasia, Sagan died of pneumonia at the age of 62, on December 20, 1996, at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, Washington. Sagan was very important, because he made science popular, and changed the way science was organized, and because he defended humanism, and argued against seeing things from only one point of view.\n\nThe landing site of the unmanned Mars Pathfinder spacecraft was renamed the Carl Sagan Memorial Station in honor of Dr. Sagan on July 5, 1997. Asteroid 2709 Sagan is also named in his honor.\n\nThe 1997 movie Contact (see above), based on Sagan's novel of the same name, and finished after his death, ends with the dedication \"For Carl.\"\n\nAwards and medals \n\n Apollo Achievement Award - National Aeronautics and Space Administration\n Chicken Little Honorable Mention - 1991 - National Anxiety Center\n Distinguished Public Service - National Aeronautics and Space Administration\n Emmy - Outstanding individual achievement - 1981 - PBS series Cosmos\n Emmy - Outstanding Informational Series - 1981 - PBS series Cosmos\n Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal - National Aeronautics and Space Administration\n Helen Caldicott Leadership Award - Women's Action for Nuclear Disarmament\n Homer Award - 1997 - Contact\n Hugo Award - 1998 - Contact\n Hugo Award - 1981 - Cosmos\n Hugo Award - 1997 - The Demon-Haunted World\n In Praise of Reason Award - 1987 - Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal\n Isaac Asimov Award - 1994 - Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal\n John F. Kennedy Astronautics Award - American Astronautical Society\n John W. Campbell Memorial Award - 1974 - The Cosmic Connection\n Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Medal - Soviet Cosmonauts Federation\n Locus Poll Award 1986 - Contact\n Lowell Thomas Award - Explorers Club - 75th Anniversary\n Masursky Award - American Astronomical Society\n Peabody - 1980 - PBS series Cosmos\n Public Welfare Medal - 1994 - National Academy of Sciences\n Pulitzer Prize for Literature - 1978 - The Dragons of Eden\n SF Chronicle Award - 1998 - Contact\n Carl Sagan Memorial Award - Named in his honor\n\nRelated books and media \n\n Sagan, Carl and Jonathon Norton Leonard and editors of Life, Planets. Time, Inc., 1966\n Sagan, Carl and I.S. Shklovskii, Intelligent Life in the Universe. Random House, 1966\n Sagan, Carl, Communicaton with Extraterrestrial Intelligence. MIT Press, 1973\n Sagan, Carl, et al. Mars and the Mind of Man. Harper & Row, 1973\n Sagan, Carl, Other Worlds. Bantam Books, 1975\n Sagan, Carl, et al. Murmurs of Earth: The Voyager Interstellar Record. Random House, 1977\n Sagan, Carl et al. The Nuclear Winter: The World After Nuclear War. Sidgwick & Jackson, 1985\n Sagan, Carl and James Randi, The Faith Healers. Prometheus Books, May 1989, , 318 pgs\n Sagan, Carl and Richard Turco, A Path Where No Man Thought: Nuclear Winter and the End of the Arms Race. Random House, 1990\n Sagan, Carl, The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence. Ballantine Books, December 1989, , 288 pgs\n Sagan, Carl, Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science. Ballantine Books, October 1993, , 416 pgs\n Sagan, Carl and Ann Druyan, Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors: A Search for Who We Are. Ballantine Books, October 1993, , 528 pgs\n Sagan, Carl and Ann Druyan, Comet. Ballantine Books, February 1997, , 496 pgs\n Sagan, Carl, Contact. Doubleday Books, August 1997, , 352 pgs\n Sagan, Carl, Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space. Ballantine Books, September 1997, , 384 pgs\n Sagan, Carl and Ann Druyan, Billions & Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium. Ballantine Books, June 1998, , 320 pgs\n Sagan, Carl, The Demon-Haunted World: Science As a Candle in the Dark. Ballantine Books, March 1997, , 480 pgs\n Sagan, Carl and Jerome Agel, Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective. Cambridge University Press, January 15, 2000, , 301 pgs\n Sagan, Carl, Cosmos. Random House, May 7, 2002, , 384 pgs\n Zemeckis, Robert, Contact. Warner Studios, 1997, ASIN 0790736330 IMDB \n Davidson, Keay, Carl Sagan: A Life. John Wiley & Sons, August 31, 2000, , 560 pgs\n\nOther websites \n\n In Memory of Carl Sagan. Tributes by Tom McDonough, James Randi and Michael Shermer, and a selection of quotes from Sagan's works, published in Skeptic, Vol. 4, no. 4, 1996, pp.\u00a010\u201317.\n CarlSagan.Com. Homepage of Cosmos Studios, which sells the Cosmos series on DVD and VHS video tape.\n Carl Sagan, Cornell astronomer, dies today (Dec. 20) in Seattle. Cornell University press release on Sagan's death.\n Even in Death, Carl Sagan's Influence Is Still Cosmic by William J. Broad, The New York Times, November 30, 1998. Describes Sagan's legacy for space science.\n Astronomy Picture of the Day: Carl Sagan. December 26, 1996.\n Contact: A Eulogy to Carl Sagan, by Dr. Ray Bohlin, president of Probe Ministries. Dr. Bohlin suggests that the movie Contact can serve as a fitting eulogy for Carl Sagan. Sagan's scientific approach to the question, \"was the universe created?\" is critically analyzed by Bohlin from his Christian perspective.\n The Untold Truth about Carl Sagan Grunge.com\n\nReferences\n\n1934 births\n1996 deaths\nAgnostics\nAmerican astronomers\nDeaths from pneumonia\nInfectious disease deaths in the United States\nJewish American scientists\nJewish American writers\nPulitzer Prize winners\nScientists from New York (state)\nWriters from New York City\nEmmy Award winners","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":4496,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carl%20Sagan","title":"Carl Sagan","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"John of Gaunt (John Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Aquitaine, 6 March 1340 \u2013 3 February 1399) was a member of the House of Plantagenet, who ruled England for over 300 years. Gaunt was the third surviving son of Edward III and Philippa of Hainault. He was the father of Henry IV.\n\nGaunt was a younger brother of Edward, the Black Prince. He had great influence over the English throne during the childhood of his nephew, Richard II, and during the ensuing periods of political strife. He is not thought to have been an opponent of the king.\n\nJohn of Gaunt's legitimate male heirs, the Lancasters, included Kings Henry IV, Henry V, and Henry VI. His other legitimate children included, by his first wife Blanche, his daughters  Philippa of Portugal and Elizabeth, Duchess of Exeter; and by his second wife Constance, his daughter Queen Catherine of Castile.\n\nJohn fathered five children outside marriage, one early in life by a lady-in-waiting to his mother, and four by Katherine Swynford, Gaunt's long-term mistress and third wife. These were surnamed Beaufort (after a former French possession of the Duke). The Beaufort children, three sons and a daughter, were legitimised by royal and papal decrees after John and Katherine married in 1396. Their half-brother Henry IV added a later proviso that they were barred from inheriting the throne.\n\nDescendants of this marriage included Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester and eventually cardinal; Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmorland, grandmother of Kings Edward IV and Richard III; John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, the great-grandfather of King Henry VII; and Joan Beaufort, Queen of Scots, from whom are descended, beginning in 1437, all subsequent sovereigns of Scotland, and successively, from 1603 on, the sovereigns of England, of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the United Kingdom to the present day. The three succeeding houses of English sovereigns from 1399 \u2014 the Houses of Lancaster, York and Tudor \u2014 were descended from John through Henry Bolingbroke, Joan Beaufort and John Beaufort, respectively.\n\nLancaster's eldest son and heir, Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Hereford, was exiled for ten years by King Richard II in 1398 as resolution to a dispute between Hereford and Thomas de Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk.\n\nWhen John of Gaunt died in 1399, his estates and titles were declared forfeit to the crown as King Richard II named Hereford a traitor and commuted his sentence to exile for life.  Henry Bolingbroke returned from exile to reclaim his inheritance and depose Richard. Bolingbroke then reigned as King Henry IV of England (1399\u20131413), the first of the descendants of John of Gaunt to hold the throne of England.\n\nDue to some generous land grants, John was not only one of the richest men in his era, but also one of the wealthiest men to have ever lived. Taking into account inflation rates, John was worth a modern equivalent of $110 billion, making him the sixteenth richest man in history.\n\nReferences \n\nHouse of Plantagenet\nEnglish Dukes\nKnights of the Garter\n1399 deaths\n1340 births\nPeople from Ghent","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":176912,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John%20of%20Gaunt","title":"John of Gaunt","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cryptography, or cryptology,  is the practice and study of hiding information. It is sometimes called code, but this is not really a correct name. It is the science used to try to keep information secret and safe. \n\nModern cryptography is a mix of mathematics, computer science, and electrical engineering. Cryptography is used in ATM (bank) cards, computer passwords, and shopping on the internet.\n\nWhen a message is sent using cryptography, it is changed (or encrypted) before it is sent. The method of changing text is called a \"code\" or, more precisely, a \"cipher\". The changed text is called \"ciphertext\". The change makes the message hard to read. Someone who wants to read it must change it back (or decrypt it).  How to change it back is a secret.  Both the person that sends the message and the one that gets it should know the secret way to change it, but other people should not be able to. Studying the cyphertext to discover the secret is called \"cryptanalysis\" or \"cracking\" or sometimes \"code breaking\".\n\nDifferent types of cryptography can be easier or harder to use and can hide the secret message better or worse. Ciphers use a \"key\" which is a secret that hides the secret messages. The cryptographic method needn't be secret. Various people can use the same method but different keys, so they cannot read each other's messages. Since the Caesar cipher has only as many keys as the number of letters in the alphabet, it is easily cracked by trying all the keys. Ciphers that allow billions of keys are cracked by more complex methods.\n\nSince the time of Caesar, many improved cyphers have been made.  Some involved clever mathematics to resist clever cryptanalysis.  During the 20th century computers became the principle tool of cryptography.\n\nSymmetric \nIn a symmetric-key algorithm, both the sender and receiver share the key. The sender uses the key to hide the message. Then, the receiver will use the same key in the opposite way to reveal the message. For centuries, most cryptography has been symmetric. Advanced Encryption Standard is a widely used one. However this is not to be confused with symmetry.\n\nAsymmetric \nAsymmetric cryptography is harder to use. Each person who wants to use asymmetric cryptography uses a secret number (a \"private key\") that is not shared, and a different number (a \"public key\") that they can tell everyone. If someone else wants to send this person a message, they'll use the number they've been told to hide the message. Now the message cannot be revealed, even by the sender, but the receiver can easily reveal the message with his secret or \"private key\". This way, nobody else needs to know the secret key.\n\nAsymmetric cryptography generally takes more time and requires more computer power, therefore it is not used most of the time.  Instead, it is often used for computer signatures, when a computer must know that some data (like a file or a website) was sent from a certain sender. For example, computer software companies that release updates for their software can sign those updates to prove that the update was made by them, so that hackers cannot make their own updates that would cause harm. Websites that use HTTPS use an popular algorithm named RSA to create certificates, that show they own the website and that it is secure. Computers can also use asymmetric ciphers to give each other the keys for symmetric ciphers.\n\nComputers \nComputers can calculate quickly. They can do very strong encryption, and most 21st century cryptography uses them. Examples are computer algorithms like RSA, AES, and there are many others.  Using good algorithms like these can make it very hard to read the information that is sent.\n\nPeople \nBecause people are slower than computers, any cryptography they use can probably be broken if enough of the secret way to change it is known.\n\nSimple forms of cryptography that people can do without machines are Caesar ciphers and transposition ciphers, but many other kinds were used before computers were used.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Importance of cryptography \n What is symmetric cryptography \n Cryptography -Citizendium\n\n \nComputer security\nComputer science\nHuman communication","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2}},"id":5777,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography","title":"Cryptography","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Volcanism (or vulcan activity) is the eruption of magma onto the surface of the Earth. \n\nMagma under the crust is under very great pressure. When folding and faulting occur, cracks or fractures appear. These are lines of weakness. \n\nWhen these lines of weakness develop downward in the crust and reach the magma, they will release the pressure in the magma. This allows magma to rise up along the lines of weakness and intrude into the crust. Some magma may even reach the Earth's surface as lava.\n\nVolcanoes    \n\nVolcanoes are the places where magma reaches the earth's surface. The type of volcano depends on the location of the eruption and the consistency of the magma.\n\nIntrusions \n\nIntrusive volcanism is when magma is forced into the rocks that make up the Earth's crust.   When it cools and become solid while still underground, different features called plutons are formed. The rock formed is intrusive igneous rock.\n\nThese plutons will be exposed at the surface of land when the overlying rocks are removed after a long time of denudation (laid bare by erosion).\n\nMajor features formed by intrusive volcanicity include: batholith, laccolith, dyke, pipe and sill.\n Batholiths: Have large scale magma that has been solidified at the base of the mountain.\n Dyke: Is a small scale magma cooled within the earths crust that stands vertically to the existing rocks.\n Sill: Is a small scale magma cooled near the earths surface that lies horizontally to the existing rocks.\n Laccolith: A small scale magma that pushes the overlying layers of rocks to form a dome shaped structure.\n\nExtrusions \nThe molten magma under great pressure forces its way through the fissure of underground rocks and reaches the Earth's surface to form \"igneous extrusion\". \nMajor extruded materials include gas, liquid and solid.\n\n Gas - sulphur, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hot steam (geysers). When uprising magma decreases in pressure suddenly, gases within magma explode to the Earth's surface and cause destruction.\n Solid - pyroclast. Mainly composed of: country rock, fragments of solidified lava and fine materials (volcanic ash and dust). It can be classified by size into volcanic bombs, volcanic blocks, lapilli, volcanic ash and volcanic dust. \n Liquid - lava, hot springs.\n\nFeatures formed are:\n Caldera: a large depression in a former volcanic site. When it is filled with water it is called a 'caldera lake'. \n Composite cones: a large volcanic mountain formed by solidified lava on the surface.\n Geysers: eruption of hot water and steam shooting into the air at regular intervals.\n Hot springs: springs of hot water that flow out continuously without shooting up into the air.\n\nNotes\n\nOther websites \n\n \n\nVolcanology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3}},"id":1972,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volcanism","title":"Volcanism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A primary school, elementary school or grade school is a school for children between the ages of about five and eleven. It comes after preschool. When children finish learning at primary school, they go to secondary school.\n\nIn Bangladesh, pre-primary classes start with the 5years children learning program where the children are taught with joy and happiness. Students from ages six to eleven, they finish learning from primary school and prepared for secondary.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, a primary school usually comprises a nursery and the first seven years of a child's full-time learning. In Australia and the United States, primary school begins with kindergarten. It lasts for six years, usually until the fifth or sixth grade. In the U.S., \"elementary school\" is a more common term for public primary schools. \"Primary school\" is often used in private or independent schools. (In private or independent schools the government does not give the schools money.)\n\nIn India, \"Primary Education\" means the 'Nursery', the 'Kindergarten' and four years of regular schooling thereafter. Admission to Nursery classes is for children above two years so that the age is 6+ when entering Class I. Children are taught language (mother tongue and English) reading\/writing skills, basic arithmetic and quite a good amount of general information about the country, people, statesmen, great people, flora & animals. However, this is true only for schools in the urban areas. Rural schools do not have Nursery or Kindergarten; they admit straight at Class I when the child is six. Further, the rural schools use the mother tongue as medium of instruction, not resorting to English in any way. Primary education is free in government schools. Moreover, rural primary schools offer free mid-day meals to children (the government pays for it) so that the drop out rate comes down. States of West Bengal, Maharashtra, Manipur, Nagaland and Kerala have done very good work in this way of spreading primary education.\n\nIn Singapore, primary school refers to those students who are normally between the ages of 7 to 12.  Primary School is classified as P1 to P6 for Primary 1 to Primary 6 respectively.  At the end of P6, students sit for a national level Primary School Leaving Exam (PSLE) which is used for placement into Secondary School.  Prior to Primary School, pupils attend Kindergarten School for 2 years.\n\nIn Germany, the primary school is called \"Grundschule\" and is normally from first grade to fourth grade so it is usually for children who are between six and ten years old. In some eastern states, for example in Berlin, the Primary School is for children up to age 12. In most German states the children start learning English in third grade on a very low level, they learn how to count and the names of the colors and other easy things. But because of that low level a German child who has finished Primary School is normally not able to form correct English sentences. In Primary School the children are prepared for the secondary education. Primary School students attend three main subjects: Math, German and General Knowledge (\"Sachkunde\"). In General Knowledge the children learn about nature, about their own body, how to ride a bicycle safely and something about the city they live in and of course about Germany. Beside those main subjects the children attend subjects like arts, music and Physical Education.\n\nTypes of educational institutions","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":184,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":7,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":7,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":6,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":6,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":12292,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Primary%20school","title":"Primary school","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"415\u534f\u8bae\u662f\u7f8e\u56fd\u5404\u5927\u5b66\u7814\u7a76\u751f\u9662\u9488\u5bf9\u67d0\u4e9b\u5b66\u751f\u540c\u65f6\u63a5\u53d7\u51e0\u6240\u5b66\u6821\u7684\u542b\u6709\u8d22\u653f\u8d44\u52a9\u7684\u5165\u5b66\u9080\u8bf7,\u5374\u5728\u4e8b\u540e\u53cd\u6094\u65e0\u6cd5\u524d\u6765\u5c31\u8bfb\u800c\u5bfc\u81f4\u4e00\u4e9b\u5b66\u989d\u6d6a\u8d39\u7684\u73b0\u8c61,\u6240\u8fbe\u6210\u7684\u5171\u540c\u534f\u8bae\u3002\u6b64\u534f\u8bae\u5e76\u4e0d\u662f\u4e00\u4efd\u6cd5\u5f8b\u5408\u540c,\u800c\u4e14\u53ea\u5728\u7f8e\u56fd\u5b9e\u884c,\u5e76\u4e14\u53ea\u5bf9\u7b7e\u7f72\u8be5\u534f\u8bae\u7684\u90e8\u5206\u7f8e\u56fd\u5927\u5b66\u9002\u7528\u3002\u503c\u5f97\u6ce8\u610f\u7684\u662f,\u5373\u4f7f\u4e00\u4e9b\u5b66\u6821\u52a0\u5165\u4e86415\u534f\u8bae,\u4e5f\u53ef\u4ee5\u548c\u5b66\u6821\u534f\u5546\u5bf9\u627f\u8bfa\u65e5\u671f\u8fdb\u884c\u66f4\u6539\u3002\n\n\u534f\u8bae\u4e3b\u8981\u5185\u5bb9 \n\u5b66\u751f\u57284\u670815\u65e5\u4e4b\u524d\u6ca1\u6709\u7b54\u590d\u542b\u6709\u8d22\u653f\u8d44\u52a9\u7684\u5165\u5b66\u9080\u8bf7\u7684\u4e49\u52a1,\u5b66\u6821\u5982\u679c\u8bbe\u5b9a\u8f83\u65e9\u7684\u7b54\u590d\u671f\u9650\u5219\u8fdd\u53cd\u534f\u8bae\u610f\u56fe\u3002\u5bf9\u5df2\u63a5\u53d7\u7684\u5165\u5b66\u9080\u8bf7,\u5b66\u751f\u57284\u670815\u65e5\u7684\u622a\u6b62\u671f\u9650\u524d\u53ef\u4ee5\u81ea\u7531\u653e\u5f03\u3002\u5982\u679c\u5b66\u751f\u63a5\u53d7\u5165\u5b66\u9080\u8bf7\u4e14\u6ca1\u6709\u57284\u670815\u65e5\u524d\u8868\u793a\u653e\u5f03,\u6216\u57284\u670815\u65e5\u540e\u63a5\u53d7\u5165\u5b66\u9080\u8bf7,\u90a3\u4e48\u5728\u6ca1\u6709\u5f97\u5230\u8be5\u5b66\u6821\u4e66\u9762\u5141\u8bfa\u7684\u60c5\u51b5\u4e0b,\u4e0d\u5e94\u64c5\u81ea\u63a5\u53d7\u5176\u4ed6\u5165\u5b66\u9080\u8bf7\u3002\u7c7b\u4f3c\u5730,\u5b66\u6821\u57284\u670815\u65e5\u540e\u53d1\u51fa\u7684\u5165\u5b66\u9080\u8bf7\u662f\u6709\u6761\u4ef6\u7684,\u4f7f\u5176\u751f\u6548\u9700\u8981\u5c55\u793a\u6b64\u524d\u66fe\u63a5\u53d7\u5b66\u6821\u7684\u4e66\u9762\u5141\u8bfa\u3002\u8fd9\u4e00\u534f\u8bae\u76ee\u524d\u5728\u6267\u884c\u4e0a\u6bd4\u8f83\u677e\u6563,\u5b66\u751f\u548c\u5b66\u6821\u5f80\u5f80\u53ef\u4ee5\u5728\u4efb\u4f55\u65f6\u95f4\u8fdb\u884c\u534f\u5546\u3002\u4e0d\u8fc7\u5b83\u4ecd\u7136\u4ece\u4e00\u5b9a\u7a0b\u5ea6\u4e0a\u89c4\u8303\u4e86\u5b66\u6821\u7684\u62db\u751f\u884c\u4e3a,\u89e3\u51b3\u4e86\u4ee5\u524d\u5b66\u6821\u5404\u81ea\u8bbe\u9650\u8981\u6c42\u5b66\u751f\u7b54\u590d\u7684\u884c\u4e3a\u3002\n\n415\u534f\u8bae\u82f1\u6587\u539f\u6587 \n'Acceptance of an offer of financial support (such as a graduate scholarship, fellowship, traineeship, or assistantship) for the next academic year by a prospective or enrolled graduate student completes an agreement that both student and graduate school expect to honor. In that context, the conditions affecting such offers and their acceptance must be defined carefully and understood by all parties.Students are under no obligation to respond to offers of financial support prior to April 15; earlier deadlines for acceptance of such offers violate the intent of this Resolution. In those instances in which a student accepts an offer before April 15, and subsequently desires to withdraw that acceptance, the student may submit in writing a resignation of the appointment at any time through April 15. However, an acceptance given or left in force after April 15 commits the student not to accept another offer without first obtaining a written release from the institution to which a commitment has been made. Similarly, an offer by an institution after April 15 is conditional on presentation by the student of the written release from any previously accepted offer. It is further agreed by the institutions and organizations subscribing to the above Resolution that a copy of this Resolution should accompany every scholarship, fellowship, traineeship, and assistantship offer.'\n\n\u5916\u90e8\u94fe\u63a5 \n415\u534f\u8bae\u548c\u7b7e\u7f72\u8be5\u534f\u8bae\u7684\u5b66\u6821\u540d\u5355\n\u7f8e\u56fd\u6559\u80b2\u90e8\u63d0\u4f9b\u7684\u6709\u5173\u8d44\u6599\n\n\u7f8e\u570b\u6559\u80b2","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":205,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":5,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":4,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":4,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":6,"2014-49":7,"2014-42":16,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":10,"2014-15":5}},"id":362949,"url":"https:\/\/zh.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/415%E5%8D%8F%E8%AE%AE","title":"415\u534f\u8bae","language":"zh"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A regime is the leader and other people who run a government of a sovereign state.\n\nThere are many kinds of regimes.  They can achieve power in many ways.  Depending on the time and place and local civics like the electoral system, they can lose power in many ways too.  The most common way for a regime to lose power was a coup, invasion or revolution until the 20th century.  After that it became very dangerous and difficult to use these methods.  Peaceful regime change is usually by an election - this method is now used by more than half the people on the Earth.  It is called representative democracy.  Such regimes are often called administrations to make it clear they are not dictators, and since the executive branch does not have all the power itself - it may share it with a legislative branch.  Also the judicial branch is separate.  The courts are not usually considered part of the regime.\n\nHowever, some things are the same no matter how the regime achieved power:\n\nThe regime needs help among people outside the regime and government to stay in power - these may be in the military or a political party.\nMilitary and police obey the regime's orders, and can kill people.  If they would not do so, then, it would be possible to change regimes by force.\nTrade and tax is set by the regime, which can take money away.\nThe regime speaks for the whole country when dealing with other countries.\n\nWhen many regimes negotiate at the United Nations or World Trade Organization, it does not matter at all how each regime got its power.  It matters only that they can agree and make everyone in their country do as the agreement says.\n\nWhen someone wants a regime to change in another country, they usually are not able to do this by any means other than violence or interfering in its election.  This is common if a regime is threatened by another regime.\n\nForms of government","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2}},"id":666,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regime","title":"Regime","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Sun Also Rises is the first novel by American writer Ernest Hemingway. It portrays American and British expatriates who travel along the Camino de Santiago from Paris to the Festival of San Ferm\u00edn in Pamplona and watch the running of the bulls and the bullfights. An early modernist novel, it received mixed reviews upon publication. Hemingway biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes that it is now \"recognized as Hemingway's greatest work\" and Hemingway scholar Linda Wagner-Martin calls it his most important novel.  The novel was published in the United States in October 1926 by Scribner's. A year later, Jonathan Cape published the novel in London under the title Fiesta. It remains in print.\n\nThe novel is a roman \u00e0 clef: the characters are based on people in Hemingway's circle and the action is based on events, particularly Hemingway's life in Paris in the 1920s and a trip to Spain in 1925 for the Pamplona festival and fishing in the Pyrenees. Hemingway converted to Catholicism as he wrote the novel, and Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera notes that protagonist Jake Barnes, a Catholic, was \"a vehicle for Hemingway to rehearse his own conversion, testing the emotions that would accompany one of the most important acts of his life.\"  Hemingway presents his notion that the \"Lost Generation\"\u2014considered to have been decadent, dissolute and irretrievably damaged by World War I\u2014was in fact resilient and strong. Hemingway investigates the themes of love and death, the revivifying power of nature and the concept of masculinity. His spare writing style, combined with his restrained use of description to convey characterizations and action, demonstrates his \"Iceberg Theory\" of writing.\n\nBackground \nIn the  1920s Hemingway lived in Paris as a foreign correspondent for the  Toronto Star, and traveled to Smyrna to report on the Greco\u2013Turkish War. He wanted to use his journalism experience to write fiction, believing that a story could be based on real events when a writer distilled his own experiences in such a way that, according to biographer Jeffrey Meyers, \"what he made up was truer than what he remembered\".\n\nWith his wife Hadley Richardson, Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Ferm\u00edn in Pamplona in 1923, where he was following his recent passion for bullfighting. The couple returned to Pamplona in 1924\u2014enjoying the trip immensely\u2014this time accompanied by Chink Dorman-Smith, John Dos Passos and Donald Ogden Stewart and his wife. The two returned a third time in June\u00a01925 and stayed at the hotel of his friend Juanito Quintana. That year, they brought with them a different group of American and British expatriates: Bill Smith, Hemingway's Michigan boyhood friend,  Stewart, recently divorced Duff, Lady Twysden, her lover Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb.  Hemingway's memory spanning multiple trips might explain the inconsistent time frame in the novel indicating both 1924 and 1925. In Pamplona, the group quickly disintegrated. Hemingway, attracted to Duff, was jealous of Loeb, who had recently been on a romantic getaway with her; by the end of the week the two men had a public fistfight. Against this background was the influence of the young matador from Ronda, Cayetano Ord\u00f3\u00f1ez, whose brilliance in the bullring affected the spectators. Ord\u00f3\u00f1ez honored Hemingway's wife by presenting her, from the bullring, with the ear of a bull he killed. Outside of Pamplona, the fishing trip to the Irati River (near Burguete in Navarre) was marred by polluted water.\n\nHemingway had intended to write a nonfiction book about bullfighting, but then decided that the week's experiences had presented him with enough material for a novel. A few days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday (21\u00a0July), he began writing what would eventually become The Sun Also Rises.  By 17\u00a0August, with 14 chapters written and a working title of Fiesta chosen, Hemingway returned to Paris. He finished the draft on 21\u00a0September 1925, writing a foreword the following weekend and changing the title to The Lost Generation.\n\nA few months later, in December 1925, Hemingway and his wife spent the winter in Schruns, Austria, where he began revising the manuscript extensively. Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January, and\u2014against Hadley's advice\u2014urged him to sign a contract with Scribner's. Hemingway left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers, and on his return, during a stop in Paris, began an affair with Pauline. He returned to Schruns to finish the revisions in March. In June, he was in Pamplona with both Richardson and Pfeiffer. On their return to Paris, Richardson asked for a separation, and left for the south of France. In August, alone and depressed in Paris, Hemingway considered suicide and drafted a last will, but he completed the proofs, dedicating the novel to his wife and son.  After the publication of the book in October, Hadley asked for a divorce; Hemingway subsequently gave her the book's royalties.\n\nPublication history \n\nHemingway maneuvered his publisher Boni & Liveright into terminating their contract with him so that The Sun Also Rises could be published by Scribner's instead. In December 1925, he quickly wrote  The Torrents of Spring, a satirical novella parodying Sherwood Anderson's novel Dark Laughter, and sent it to Boni & Liveright. His three-book contract with them included a termination clause should they reject a single submission. Unamused by the satire aimed at one of their most saleable authors, Boni & Liveright immediately rejected it and terminated the contract.  Within weeks Hemingway signed a contract with Scribner's, who agreed to publish The Torrents of Spring and all of his subsequent work.\n\nScribner's published the novel on 22\u00a0October 1926. Its first edition consisted of 5,090 copies, selling at $2.00 per copy. Cleo Damianakes illustrated the dust jacket with a Hellenistic design of a seated, robed woman, her head bent to her shoulder, eyes closed, one hand holding an apple, her shoulders and a thigh exposed. Editor Maxwell Perkins intended \"Cleon's respectably sexy\" design to attract \"the feminine readers who control the destinies of so many novels\".\n\nTwo months later the book was in a second printing with 7,000 copies sold. Subsequent printings were ordered; by 1928, after the publication of Hemingway's short story collection Men Without Women, the novel was in its eighth printing. In 1927, the novel was published in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape, titled Fiesta, without the two epigraphs. Two decades later, in 1947, Scribner's released three of Hemingway's works as a boxed set, including The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, and For Whom the Bell Tolls.\n\nBy 1983, The Sun Also Rises had been in print continuously since its publication in 1926, and was likely one of the most translated titles in the world.  At that time, Scribner's began to print cheaper mass-market paperbacks of the book, in addition to the more expensive trade paperbacks already in print. In the 1990s, British editions were titled Fiesta: The Sun Also Rises. In 2006, Simon & Schuster began to produce audiobook versions of Hemingway's novels, including The Sun Also Rises. In May 2016, a new \"Hemingway Library Edition\" was published by Simon & Schuster, including early drafts, passages that were deleted from the final draft, and alternative titles for the book, which help to explain the author's journey to produce the final version of this acclaimed work.\n\nPlot summary \nOn the surface, the novel is a love story between the protagonist Jake Barnes\u2014a man whose war wound has made him unable to have sex\u2014and the promiscuous divorc\u00e9e Lady Brett Ashley. Jake is an expatriate American journalist living in Paris, while Brett is a twice-divorced Englishwoman with bobbed hair and numerous love affairs, and embodies the new sexual freedom of the 1920s. Brett's affair with Jake's Princeton friend Robert Cohn (whom the characters often refer to by his last name) causes Jake to be upset and break off his friendship with Robert; her seduction of the 19-year-old matador Romero causes Jake to lose his good reputation among the Spaniards in Pamplona.\n\nBook One is set in the caf\u00e9 society of young American expatriates in Paris.  In the opening scenes, Jake plays tennis with Robert, picks up a prostitute (Georgette), and runs into Brett and Count Mippipopolous in a nightclub. Later, Brett tells Jake she loves him, but they both know that they have no chance at a stable relationship.\n\nIn Book Two, Jake is joined by Bill Gorton, recently arrived from New York, and Brett's fianc\u00e9 Mike Campbell, who arrives from Scotland. Jake and Bill travel south and meet Robert at Bayonne for a fishing trip in the hills northeast of Pamplona. Instead of fishing, Robert stays in Pamplona to wait for the overdue Brett and Mike. Robert had an affair with Brett a few weeks earlier and still feels possessive of her despite her engagement to Mike. After Jake and Bill enjoy five days of fishing the streams near Burguete, they rejoin the group in Pamplona.\n\nAll begin to drink heavily. Robert is resented by the others, who taunt him with antisemitic remarks. During the fiesta the characters drink, eat, watch the running of the bulls, attend bullfights, and bicker.  Jake introduces Brett to the 19-year-old matador Romero at the Hotel Montoya; she is smitten with him and seduces him. The jealous tension among the men builds--Jake, Mike, Robert, and Romero each want Brett. Robert, who had been a champion boxer in college, has a fistfight with Jake and Mike, and another with Romero, whom he beats up. Despite his injuries, Romero continues to perform brilliantly in the bullring.\n\nBook Three shows the characters in the aftermath of the fiesta. Sober again, they leave Pamplona; Bill returns to Paris, Mike stays in Bayonne, and Jake goes to San Sebasti\u00e1n on the northern coast of Spain. As Jake is about to return to Paris, he receives a telegram from Brett asking for help; she had gone to Madrid with Romero. He finds her in a cheap hotel, without money, and without Romero. She announces she has decided to go back to Mike. The novel ends with Jake and Brett in a taxi speaking and thinking of what might have been.\n\nThemes and analysis\n\nParis and the Lost Generation \n\nThe first book of The Sun Also Rises is set in mid-1920s Paris.  Americans were drawn to Paris in the Roaring Twenties by the favorable exchange rate, with as many as 200,000 English-speaking expatriates living there.  The Paris Tribune reported in 1925 that Paris had an American Hospital, an American Library, and an American Chamber of Commerce. Many American writers were disenchanted with the US, where they found less artistic freedom than in Europe. (For example, Hemingway was in Paris during the period when Ulysses, written by his friend James Joyce, was banned  and burned in New York.)\n\nThe themes of The Sun Also Rises appear in its two epigraphs. The first is an allusion to the \"Lost Generation\", a term coined by Gertrude Stein referring to the post-war generation; the other epigraph is a long quotation from Ecclesiastes: \"One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh: but the earth abideth for ever. The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he arose.\" Hemingway told his editor Max Perkins that the book was not so much about a generation being lost, but that \"the earth abideth forever.\" He thought the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been \"battered\" but were not lost.\n\nHemingway scholar Wagner-Martin writes that Hemingway wanted the book to be about morality, which he emphasized by changing the working title from Fiesta to The Sun Also Rises. Wagner-Martin argues that the book can be read either as a novel about bored expatriates or as a morality tale about a protagonist who searches for integrity in an immoral world. Months before Hemingway left for Pamplona, the press was depicting the Parisian Latin Quarter, where he lived, as decadent and depraved.  He began writing the story of a matador corrupted by the influence of the Latin Quarter crowd; he expanded it into a novel about Jake Barnes at risk of being corrupted by wealthy and inauthentic expatriates.\n\nThe characters form a group, sharing similar norms, and each greatly affected by the war. Hemingway captures the angst of the age and transcends the love story of Brett and Jake, although they are representative of the period: Brett is starved for reassurance and love and Jake is sexually maimed.  His wound symbolizes the disability of the age, the disillusion, and the frustrations felt by an entire generation.\n\nHemingway thought he lost touch with American values while living in Paris, but his biographer Michael Reynolds claims the opposite, seeing evidence of the author's midwestern American values in the novel.  Hemingway admired hard work. He portrayed the matadors and the prostitutes, who work for a living, in a positive manner, but Brett, who prostitutes herself, is emblematic of \"the rotten crowd\" living on inherited money. It is Jake, the working journalist, who pays the bills again and again when those who can pay do not. Hemingway shows, through Jake's actions, his disapproval of the people who did not pay up.  Reynolds says that Hemingway shows the tragedy, not so much of the decadence of the Montparnasse crowd, but of the decline in American values of the period. As such, the author created an American hero who is impotent and powerless. Jake becomes the moral center of the story. He never considers himself part of the expatriate crowd because he is a working man; to Jake a working man is genuine and authentic, and those who do not work for a living spend their lives posing.\n\nWomen and love \nThe twice-divorced Brett Ashley represented the liberated New Woman (in the 1920s, divorces were common and easy to be had in Paris). James Nagel writes that, in Brett, Hemingway created one of the more fascinating women in 20th-century American literature. Sexually promiscuous, she is a denizen of Parisian nightlife and caf\u00e9s. In Pamplona she sparks chaos: in her presence, the men drink too much and fight. She also seduces the young bullfighter Romero and becomes a Circe in the festival. Critics describe her variously as complicated, elusive, and enigmatic; Donald Daiker writes that Hemingway \"treats her with a delicate balance of sympathy and antipathy.\" She is vulnerable, forgiving, independent\u2014qualities that Hemingway juxtaposes with the other women in the book, who are either prostitutes or overbearing nags.\n\nNagel considers the novel a tragedy. Jake and Brett have a relationship that becomes destructive because their love cannot be consummated.  Conflict over Brett destroys Jake's friendship with Robert Cohn, and her behavior in Pamplona affects Jake's hard-won reputation among the Spaniards. Meyers sees Brett as a woman who wants sex without love while Jake can only give her love without sex.  Although Brett sleeps with many men, it is Jake she loves.  Dana Fore writes that Brett is willing to be with Jake in spite of his disability, in a \"non-traditional erotic relationship.\"  Other critics such as Leslie Fiedler and Nina Baym see her as a supreme bitch; Fiedler sees Brett as one of the \"outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women. Jake becomes bitter about their relationship, as when he says, \"Send a girl off with a man\u00a0.... Now go and bring her back. And sign the wire with love.\"\n\nCritics interpret the Jake\u2013Brett relationship in various ways.  Daiker suggests that Brett's behavior in Madrid\u2014after Romero leaves and when Jake arrives at her summons\u2014reflects her immorality. Scott Donaldson thinks Hemingway presents the Jake\u2013Brett relationship in such a manner that Jake knew \"that in having Brett for a friend 'he had been getting something for nothing' and that sooner or later he would have to pay the bill.\" Daiker notes that Brett relies on Jake to pay for her train fare from Madrid to San Sebasti\u00e1n, where she rejoins her fianc\u00e9 Mike. In a piece Hemingway cut, he has Jake thinking, \"you learned a lot about a woman by not sleeping with her.\" By the end of the novel, although Jake loves Brett, he appears to undergo a transformation in Madrid when he begins to distance himself from her. Reynolds believes that Jake represents the \"everyman,\" and that in the course of the narrative he loses his honor, faith, and hope. He sees the novel as a morality play with Jake as the person who loses the most.\n\nThe corrida, the fiesta, and nature \n\nIn The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway contrasts Paris with Pamplona, and the frenzy of the fiesta with the tranquillity of the Spanish countryside.  Spain was Hemingway's favorite European country; he considered it a healthy place, and the only country \"that hasn't been shot to pieces.\" He was profoundly affected by the spectacle of bullfighting, writing, It isn't just brutal like they always told us. It's a great tragedy\u2014and the most beautiful thing I've ever seen and takes more guts and skill and guts again than anything possibly could. It's just like having a ringside seat at the war with nothing going to happen to you. He demonstrated what he considered the purity in the culture of bullfighting\u2014called afici\u00f3n\u2014and presented it as an authentic way of life, contrasted against the inauthenticity of the Parisian bohemians. To be accepted as an  aficionado was rare for a non-Spaniard; Jake goes through a difficult process to gain acceptance by the \"fellowship of afici\u00f3n.\"\n\nThe Hemingway scholar Allen Josephs thinks the novel is centered on the corrida (the bullfighting), and how each character reacts to it. Brett seduces the young matador; Cohn fails to understand and expects to be bored; Jake understands fully because only he moves between the world of the inauthentic expatriates and the authentic Spaniards; the hotel keeper Montoya is the keeper of the faith; and Romero is the artist in the ring\u2014he is both innocent and perfect, and the one who bravely faces death. The corrida is presented as an idealized drama in which the matador faces death, creating a moment of existentialism or nada (nothingness), broken when he vanquishes death by killing the bull.\n\nHemingway presents matadors as heroic characters dancing in a bullring. He considered the bullring as war with precise rules, in contrast to the messiness of the real war that he, and by extension Jake, experienced. Critic Keneth Kinnamon notes that young Romero is the novel's only honorable character.  Hemingway named Romero after Pedro Romero, an 18th-century bullfighter who killed thousands of bulls in the most difficult manner: having the bull impale itself on his sword as he stood perfectly still.  Reynolds says Romero, who symbolizes the classically pure matador, is the \"one idealized figure in the novel.\"  Josephs says that when Hemingway changed Romero's name from Guerrita and imbued him with the characteristics of the historical Romero, he also changed the scene in which Romero kills a bull to one of recibiendo (receiving the bull) in homage to the historical namesake.\n\nBefore the group arrives in Pamplona, Jake and Bill take a fishing trip to the Irati River. As Harold Bloom points out, the scene serves as an interlude between the Paris and Pamplona sections, \"an oasis that exists outside linear time.\"  On another level it reflects \"the mainstream of American fiction beginning with the Pilgrims seeking refuge from English oppression\"\u2014the prominent theme in American literature of escaping into the wilderness, as seen in Cooper, Hawthorne, Melville, Twain, and Thoreau. Fiedler calls the theme \"The Sacred Land\"; he thinks the American West is evoked in The Sun Also Rises by the Pyrenees and given a symbolic nod with the name of the \"Hotel Montana.\"  In Hemingway's writing, nature is a place of refuge and rebirth, according to Stoltzfus, where the hunter or fisherman gains a moment of transcendence at the moment the prey is killed. Nature is the place where men act without women: men fish, men hunt, men find redemption.  In nature Jake and Bill do not need to discuss the war because their war experience, paradoxically, is ever-present. The nature scenes serve as counterpoint to the fiesta scenes.\n\nAll of the characters drink heavily during the fiesta and generally throughout the novel. In his essay \"Alcoholism in Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises\", Matts Djos says the main characters exhibit alcoholic tendencies such as depression, anxiety and sexual inadequacy. He writes that Jake's self-pity is symptomatic of an alcoholic, as is Brett's out-of-control behavior. William Balassi thinks that Jake gets drunk to avoid his feelings for Brett, notably in the Madrid scenes at the end where he has three martinis before lunch and drinks three bottles of wine with lunch. Reynolds, however, believes the drinking is relevant as set against the historical context of Prohibition in the United States.  The atmosphere of the fiesta lends itself to drunkenness, but the degree of revelry among the Americans also reflects a reaction against Prohibition.  Bill, visiting from the US, drinks in Paris and in Spain. Jake is rarely drunk in Paris where he works but on vacation in Pamplona, he drinks constantly. Reynolds says that Prohibition split attitudes about morality, and in the novel Hemingway made clear his dislike of Prohibition.\n\nMasculinity and gender \nCritics have seen Jake as an ambiguous representative of Hemingway manliness. For example, in the bar scene in Paris, Jake is angry at some homosexual men. The critic Ira Elliot suggests that Hemingway viewed homosexuality as an inauthentic way of life, and that he aligns Jake with homosexual men because, like them, Jake does not have sex with women. Jake's anger shows his self-hatred at his inauthenticity and lack of masculinity. His sense of masculine identity is lost\u2014he is less than a man. Elliot wonders if Jake's wound perhaps signifies latent homosexuality, rather than only a loss of masculinity; the emphasis in the novel, however, is on Jake's interest in women. Hemingway's writing has been called homophobic because of the language his characters use. For example, in the fishing scenes, Bill confesses his fondness for Jake but then goes on to say, \"I couldn't tell you that in New York. It'd mean I was a faggot.\"\n\nIn contrast to Jake's troubled masculinity, Romero represents an ideal masculine identity grounded in self-assurance, bravery, competence, and uprightness. The Davidsons note that Brett is attracted to Romero for these reasons, and they speculate that Jake might be trying to undermine Romero's masculinity by bringing Brett to him and thus diminishing his ideal stature.\n\nCritics have examined issues of gender misidentification that are prevalent in much of Hemingway's work. He was interested in cross-gender themes, as shown by his depictions of effeminate men and boyish women. In his fiction, a woman's hair is often symbolically important and used to denote gender. Brett, with her short hair, is androgynous and compared to a boy\u2014yet the ambiguity lies in the fact that she is described as a \"damned fine-looking woman.\" While Jake is attracted to this ambiguity, Romero is repulsed by it. In keeping with his strict moral code he wants a feminine partner and rejects Brett because, among other things, she will not grow her hair.\n\nAntisemitism \n\nHemingway has been called antisemitic, most notably because of the characterization of Robert Cohn in the book. The other characters often refer to Cohn as a Jew, and once as a 'kike'. Shunned by the other members of the group, Cohn is characterized as \"different\", unable or unwilling to understand and participate in the fiesta. Cohn is never really part of the group\u2014separated by his difference or his Jewish faith. Barry Gross, comparing Jewish characters in literature of the period, commented that \"Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew.\" Hemingway critic Josephine Knopf speculates that Hemingway might have wanted to depict Cohn as a \"shlemiel\" (or fool), but she points out that Cohn lacks the characteristics of a traditional shlemiel.\n\nCohn is based on Harold Loeb, a fellow writer who rivaled Hemingway for the affections of Duff, Lady Twysden (the real-life inspiration for Brett). Biographer Michael Reynolds writes that in 1925, Loeb should have declined Hemingway's invitation to join them in Pamplona. Before the trip he was Duff's lover and Hemingway's friend; during the fiasco of the fiesta, he lost Duff and Hemingway's friendship. Hemingway used Loeb as the basis of a character remembered chiefly as a \"rich Jew.\"\n\nWriting style \nThe novel is well known for its style, which is variously described as modern, hard-boiled, or understated. As a novice writer and journalist in Paris, Hemingway turned to Ezra Pound\u2014who had a reputation as \"an unofficial minister of culture who acted as mid-wife for new literary talent\"\u2014to mark and blue-ink his short stories.  From Pound, Hemingway learned to write in the modernist style: he used understatement, pared away sentimentalism, and presented images and scenes without explanations of meaning, most notably at the book's conclusion, in which multiple future possibilities are left for Brett and Jake. The scholar Anders Hallengren writes that because Hemingway learned from Pound to \"distrust adjectives,\" he created a style \"in accordance with the esthetics and ethics of raising the emotional temperature towards the level of universal truth by shutting the door on sentiment, on the subjective.\"\n\nF.\u00a0Scott Fitzgerald told Hemingway to \"let the book's action play itself out among its characters.\" Hemingway scholar Linda Wagner-Martin writes that, in taking Fitzgerald's advice, Hemingway produced a novel without a central narrator: \"Hemingway's book was a step ahead; it was the modernist novel.\" When Fitzgerald advised Hemingway to trim at least 2500 words from the opening sequence, which was 30 pages long, Hemingway wired the publishers telling them to cut the opening 30 pages altogether. The result was a novel without a focused starting point, which was seen as a modern perspective and critically well received.\n\nWagner-Martin speculates that Hemingway may have wanted to have a weak or negative hero as defined by Edith Wharton, but he had no experience creating a hero or protagonist.  At that point his fiction consisted of extremely short stories, not one of which featured a hero. The hero changed during the writing of The Sun Also Rises: first the matador was the hero, then Cohn was the hero, then Brett, and finally Hemingway realized \"maybe there is not any hero at all. Maybe a story is better without any hero.\" Balassi believes that in eliminating other characters as the protagonist, Hemingway brought Jake indirectly into the role of the novel's hero.\n\nAs a roman \u00e0 clef, the novel based its characters on living people, causing scandal in the expatriate community.  Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker writes that \"word-of-mouth of the book\" helped sales. Parisian expatriates gleefully tried to match the fictional characters to real identities.  Moreover, he writes that Hemingway used prototypes easily found in the Latin Quarter on which to base his characters. The early draft identified the characters by their living counterparts; Jake's character was called Hem, and Brett's was called Duff.\n\nAlthough the novel is written in a journalistic style, Frederic Svoboda writes that the striking thing about the work is \"how quickly it moves away from a simple recounting of events.\" Jackson Benson believes that Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices for life in general. For example, Benson says that Hemingway drew out his experiences with \"what if\" scenarios: \"what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?\"  Hemingway believed that the writer could describe one thing while an entirely different thing occurs below the surface\u2014an approach he called the iceberg theory, or the theory of omission.\n\nBalassi says Hemingway applied the iceberg theory better in The Sun Also Rises than in any of his other works, by editing extraneous material or purposely leaving gaps in the story. He made editorial remarks in the manuscript that show he wanted to break from the stricture of Gertrude Stein's advice to use \"clear restrained writing.\"  In the earliest draft, the novel begins in Pamplona, but Hemingway moved the opening setting to Paris because he thought the Montparnasse life was necessary as a counterpoint to the later action in Spain. He wrote of Paris extensively, intending \"not to be limited by the literary theories of others, [but] to write in his own way, and possibly, to fail.\" He added metaphors for each character: Mike's money problems, Brett's association with the Circe myth, Robert's association with the segregated steer. It wasn't until the revision process that he pared down the story, taking out unnecessary explanations, minimizing descriptive passages, and stripping the dialogue, all of which created a \"complex but tightly compressed story.\"\n\nHemingway said that he learned what he needed as a foundation for his writing from the style sheet for The Kansas City Star, where he worked as cub reporter.  The critic John Aldridge says that the minimalist style resulted from Hemingway's belief that to write authentically, each word had to be carefully chosen for its simplicity and authenticity and carry a great deal of weight. Aldridge writes that Hemingway's style \"of a minimum of simple words that seemed to be squeezed onto the page against a great compulsion to be silent, creates the impression that those words\u2014if only because there are so few of them\u2014are sacramental.\" In Paris Hemingway had been experimenting with the prosody of the King James Bible, reading aloud with his friend John Dos Passos. From the style of the biblical text, he learned to build his prose incrementally; the action in the novel builds sentence by sentence, scene by scene and chapter by chapter.\n\nThe simplicity of his style is deceptive. Bloom writes that it is the effective use of parataxis that elevates Hemingway's prose. Drawing on the Bible, Walt Whitman and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Hemingway wrote in deliberate understatement and he heavily incorporated parataxis, which in some cases almost becomes cinematic. His skeletal sentences were crafted in response to Henry James's observation that World War\u00a0I had \"used up words,\" explains Hemingway scholar Zoe Trodd, who writes that his style is similar to a \"multi-focal\" photographic reality. The syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentences. The photographic \"snapshot\" style creates a collage of images. Hemingway omits internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) in favor of short declarative sentences, which are meant to build, as events build, to create a sense of the whole. He also uses techniques analogous to cinema, such as cutting quickly from one scene to the next, or splicing one scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap as though responding to instructions from the author and create three-dimensional prose. Biographer James Mellow writes that the bullfighting scenes are presented with a crispness and clarity that evoke the sense of a newsreel.\n\nHemingway also uses color and visual art techniques to convey emotional range in his descriptions of the Irati River. In Translating Modernism: Fitzgerald and Hemingway, Ronald Berman compares Hemingway's treatment of landscape with that of the post-Impressionist painter Paul C\u00e9zanne. During a 1949 interview, Hemingway told Lillian Ross that he learned from C\u00e9zanne how to \"make a landscape.\" In comparing writing to painting he told her, \"This is what we try to do in writing, this and this, and woods, and the rocks we have to climb over.\" The landscape is seen subjectively\u2014the viewpoint of the observer is paramount. To Jake, landscape \"meant a search for a solid form\u00a0.... not existentially present in [his] life in Paris.\"\n\nReception \nHemingway's first novel was arguably his best and most important and came to be seen as an iconic modernist novel, although Reynolds emphasizes that Hemingway was not philosophically a modernist. In the book, his characters epitomized the post-war expatriate generation for future generations. He had received good reviews for his volume of short stories, In Our Time, of which Edmund Wilson wrote, \"Hemingway's prose was of the first distinction.\" Wilson's comments were enough to bring attention to the young writer.\n\nGood reviews came in from many major publications. Conrad Aiken wrote in the New York Herald Tribune, \"If there is a better dialogue to be written today I do not know where to find it\"; and Bruce Barton wrote in The Atlantic that Hemingway \"writes as if he had never read anybody's writing, as if he had fashioned the art of writing himself,\" and that the characters \"are amazingly real and alive.\" Many reviewers, among them H.L. Mencken, praised Hemingway's style, use of understatement, and tight writing.\n\nOther critics, however, disliked the novel. The Nation critic believed Hemingway's hard-boiled style was better suited to the short stories published in In Our Time than his novel. Writing in the New Masses, Hemingway's friend John Dos Passos asked: \"What's the matter with American writing these days?\u00a0.... The few unsad young men of this lost generation will have to look for another way of finding themselves than the one indicated here.\" Privately he wrote Hemingway an apology for the review. The reviewer for the Chicago Daily Tribune wrote of the novel, \"The Sun Also Rises is the kind of book that makes this reviewer at least almost plain angry.\" Some reviewers disliked the characters, among them the reviewer for The Dial, who thought the characters were shallow and vapid; and The Nation and Atheneum deemed the characters boring and the novel unimportant. The reviewer for The Cincinnati Enquirer wrote of the book that it \"begins nowhere and ends in nothing.\"\n\nHemingway's family hated it. His mother, Grace Hemingway, distressed that she could not face the criticism at her local book study class\u2014where it was said that her son was \"prostituting a great ability\u00a0.... to the lowest uses\"\u2014expressed her displeasure in a letter to him:\nThe critics seem to be full of praise for your style and ability to draw word pictures but the decent ones always regret that you should use such great gifts in perpetuating the lives and habits of so degraded a strata of humanity\u00a0.... It is a doubtful honor to produce one of the filthiest books of the year\u00a0.... What is the matter? Have you ceased to be interested in nobility, honor and fineness in life?\u00a0.... Surely you have other words in your vocabulary than \"damn\" and \"bitch\"\u2014Every page fills me with a sick loathing.\n\nStill, the book sold well, and young women began to emulate Brett while male students at Ivy League universities wanted to become \"Hemingway heroes.\"  Scribner's encouraged the publicity and allowed Hemingway to \"become a minor American phenomenon\"\u2014a celebrity to the point that his divorce from Richardson and marriage to Pfeiffer attracted media attention.\n\nReynolds believes The Sun Also Rises could have been written only circa 1925: it perfectly captured the period between World War\u00a0I and the Great Depression, and immortalized a group of characters. In the years since its publication, the novel has been criticized for its antisemitism, as expressed in the characterization of Robert Cohn. Reynolds explains that although the publishers complained to Hemingway about his description of bulls, they allowed his use of Jewish epithets, which showed the degree to which antisemitism was accepted in the US after World War\u00a0I. Hemingway clearly makes Cohn unlikeable not only as a character but as a character who is Jewish. Critics of the 1970s and 1980s considered Hemingway to be misogynistic and homophobic; by the 1990s his work, including The Sun Also Rises, began to receive critical reconsideration by female scholars.\n\nLegacy and adaptations \nHemingway's work continued to be popular in the latter half of the century and after his suicide in 1961. During the 1970s, The Sun Also Rises appealed to what Beegel calls the lost generation of the Vietnam era.  Aldridge writes that The Sun Also Rises has kept its appeal because the novel is about being young. The characters live in the most beautiful city in the world, spend their days traveling, fishing, drinking, making love, and generally reveling in their youth. He believes the expatriate writers of the 1920s appeal for this reason, but that Hemingway was the most successful in capturing the time and the place in The Sun Also Rises.\n\nBloom says that some of the characters have not stood the test of time, writing that modern readers are uncomfortable with the antisemitic treatment of Cohn's character and the romanticization of a bullfighter. Moreover, Brett and Mike belong uniquely to the Jazz Age and do not translate to the modern era. Bloom believes the novel is in the canon of American literature for its formal qualities: its prose and style.\n\nThe novel made Hemingway famous, inspired young women across America to wear short hair and sweater sets like the heroine's\u2014and to act like her too\u2014and changed writing style in ways that could be seen in any American magazine published in the next twenty years. In many ways, the novel's stripped-down prose became a model for 20th-century American writing. Nagel writes that \"The Sun Also Rises was a dramatic literary event and its effects have not diminished over the years.\"\n\nThe success of The Sun Also Rises led to interest from Broadway and Hollywood. In 1927 two Broadway producers wanted to adapt the story for the stage but made no immediate offers. Hemingway considered marketing the story directly to Hollywood, telling his editor Max Perkins that he would not sell it for less than $30,000\u2014money he wanted his estranged wife Hadley Richardson to have. Conrad Aiken thought the book was perfect for a film adaptation solely on the strength of dialogue. Hemingway would not see a stage or film adaption anytime soon: he sold the film rights to RKO Pictures in 1932, but only in 1956 was the novel adapted to a film of the same name. Peter Viertel wrote the screenplay. Tyrone Power as Jake played the lead role opposite Ava Gardner as Brett and Errol Flynn as Mike. The royalties went to Richardson.\n\nHemingway wrote more books about bullfighting: Death in the Afternoon was published in 1932 and The Dangerous Summer was published posthumously in 1985. His depictions of Pamplona, beginning with The Sun Also Rises, helped to popularize the annual running of the bulls at the Festival of St. Fermin.\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nSources \n\n Aldridge, John W. (1990). \"Afterthought on the Twenties and The Sun Also Rises\". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). New Essays on Sun Also Rises. New York: Cambridge UP. \n Baker, Carlos (1972). Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton UP. \n Baker, Carlos (1987). \"The Wastelanders\". in Bloom, Harold (ed). Modern Critical Interpretations: Ernest Hemingway's \"The Sun Also Rises\". New York: Chelsea House. \n Balassi, William (1990). \"Hemingway's Greatest Iceberg: The Composition of The Sun Also Rises\". in Barbour, James and Quirk, Tom (eds). Writing the American Classics. Chapel Hill: North Carolina UP. \n Baym, Nina (1990). \"Actually I Felt Sorry for the Lion\". in Benson, Jackson J. (ed). New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Durham: Duke UP. \n Beegel, Susan (1996). \"Conclusion: The Critical Reputation\". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. \n Benson, Jackson (1989). \"Ernest Hemingway: The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life\". American Literature. 61 (3): 354\u2013358\n Berman, Ronald (2011). Translating Modernism: Fitzgerald and Hemingway. Tuscaloosa: Alabama UP. \n Bloom, Harold (1987). \"Introduction\". in Bloom, Harold (ed). Modern Critical Interpretations: Ernest Hemingway's \"The Sun Also Rises\". New York: Chelsea House. \n Bloom, Harold (2007). \"Introduction\". in Bloom, Harold (ed). Ernest Hemingway's \"The Sun Also Rises\". New York: Infobase Publishing. \n Daiker, Donald (2009). \"Lady Ashley, Pedro Romero and the Madrid Sequence of The Sun Also Rises\". The Hemingway Review. 29 (1): 73\u201386\n Davidson, Cathy and Arnold (1990). \"Decoding the Hemingway Hero in The Sun Also Rises\". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). New Essays on Sun Also Rises. New York: Cambridge UP. \n Djos, Matt (1995). \"Alcoholism in Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises\". The Hemingway Review. 14 (2): 64\u201378\n Donaldson, Scott (2002). \"Hemingway's Morality of Compensation\". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises: A Casebook. New York: Oxford UP. \n Elliot, Ira (1995). \"Performance Art: Jake Barnes and Masculine Signification in The Sun Also Rises\". American Literature. 63 (1): 77\u201394\n Fiedler, Leslie (1975). Love and Death in the American Novel. New York: Stein and Day. \n Fore, Dana (2007). \"Life Unworthy of Life? Masculinity, Disability, and Guilt in The Sun Also Rises. The Hemingway Review. 16 (1): 75\u201388\n Hays, Peter L., ed. (2007). \"Teaching Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises.\" Kent, OH: The Kent State University Press.\n Hemingway, Ernest (1926). The Sun Also Rises. New York: Scribner. 2006 edition. \n Herlihy-Mera, Jeffrey (2023). \"The Sun Also Rises: A Pilgrimage Novel\". The Hemingway Review. 42 (2): 25\u201355 https:\/\/www.academia.edu\/101457931\/\n Herlihy-Mera, Jeffrey (2012). \"When Hemingway Hated Paris: Divorce Proceedings, Contemplations of Suicide, and the Deleted Chapters of The Sun Also Rises\". Studies in the Novel. 44 (1): 49\u201361 https:\/\/www.academia.edu\/1796661\/\n Josephs, Allen (1987). \"Torero: The Moral Axis of The Sun Also Rises\". in Bloom, Harold (ed). Modern Critical Interpretations: Ernest Hemingway's \"The Sun Also Rises\". New York: Chelsea House. \n Kinnamon, Keneth (2002). \"Hemingway, the Corrida, and Spain\". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises: A Casebook. New York: Oxford UP. \n Knopf, Josephine (1987). \"Meyer Wolfsheim and Robert Cohn: A Study of a Jew Type and Stereotype\". in Bloom, Harold (ed). Modern Critical Interpretations: Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises\". New York: Chelsea House. \n Leff, Leonard (1999). Hemingway and His Conspirators: Hollywood, Scribner's and the making of American Celebrity Culture. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. \n Mellow, James (1992). Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. \n Meyers, Jeffrey (1985). Hemingway: A Biography. New York: Macmillan. \n M\u00fcller, Timo (2010). \"The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, 1926\u20131936\". Journal of Modern Literature. 33 (1): 28\u201342\n Nagel, James (1996). \"Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises\". in Donaldson, Scott (ed). The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway. New York: Cambridge UP. \n Oliver, Charles (1999). Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work. New York: Checkmark Publishing. \n Reynolds, Michael (1990). \"Recovering the Historical Context\". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). New Essays on Sun Also Rises. New York: Cambridge UP. \n Reynolds, Michael (1999). Hemingway: The Final Years. New York: Norton. \n Reynolds, Michael (1989). Hemingway: The Paris Years. New York: Norton. \n Reynolds, Michael (1998). The Young Hemingway. New York: Norton. \n Stoltzfus, Ben (2005). \"Sartre, \"Nada,\" and Hemingway's African Stories\". Comparative Literature Studies. 42 (3): 228\u2013250\n Stoneback, H.R. (2007). \"Reading Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises: Glossary and Commentary.\" Kent, OH: The Kent State UP.\n Svoboda, Frederic (1983). Hemingway & The Sun Also Rises: The Crafting of a Style. Lawrence: Kansas UP. \n Trodd, Zoe (2007). \"Hemingway's Camera Eye: The Problems of Language and an Interwar Politics of Form\". The Hemingway Review. 26 (2): 7\u201321\n Wagner-Martin, Linda (2002). \"Introduction\". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises: A Casebook. New York: Oxford UP. \n Wagner-Martin, Linda (1990). \"Introduction\". in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed). New Essays on Sun Also Rises. New York: Cambridge UP. \n White, William (1969). The Merrill Studies in The Sun Also Rises. Columbus: C. E. Merrill.\n Young, Philip (1973). Ernest Hemingway. St. Paul: Minnesota UP.\n\nExternal links \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Hemingway Archives, John F. Kennedy Library\n\n1926 American novels\nAmerican autobiographical novels\nAmerican novels adapted into films\nBullfighting books\nCharles Scribner's Sons books\n1926 debut novels\nModernist novels\nNovels by Ernest Hemingway\nNovels set in France\nNovels set in Paris\nNovels set in Spain\nNovels set in the Roaring Twenties\nRoman \u00e0 clef novels\nNovels set in Madrid","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":60,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":6,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":9,"2014-15":5,"2024-10":1}},"id":360245,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The%20Sun%20Also%20Rises","title":"The Sun Also Rises","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In computer networking, the Name\/Finger protocol and the Finger user information protocol are simple network protocols for the exchange of human-oriented status and user information.\n\nName\/Finger protocol\nThe Name\/Finger protocol is based on Request for Comments document RFC 742 (December 1977) as an interface to the name and finger programs that provide status reports on a particular computer system or a particular person at network sites. The finger program was written in 1971 by Les Earnest who created the program to solve the need of users who wanted information on other users of the network. Information on who is logged in was useful to check the availability of a person to meet. This was probably the earliest form of presence information for remote network users.\n\nPrior to the finger program, the only way to get this information on WAITS was with a WHO program that showed IDs and terminal line numbers (the server's internal number of the communication line, over which the user's terminal is connected) for logged-in users. In reference to the name FINGER, Les Earnest, wrote that he saw users of the WAITS time-sharing system run their fingers down the output of the WHO command.\n\nFinger user information protocol\nThe finger daemon runs on TCP port 79. The client will (in the case of remote hosts) open a connection to port 79. An RUIP (Remote User Information Program) is started on the remote end of the connection to process the request. The local host sends the RUIP one line query based upon the Finger query specification, and waits for the RUIP to respond. The RUIP receives and processes the query, returns an answer, then initiates the close of the connection. The local host receives the answer and the close signal, then proceeds to close its end of the connection.\n\nThe Finger user information protocol is based on RFC 1288 (The Finger User Information Protocol, December 1991). Typically the server side of the protocol is implemented by a program fingerd or in.fingerd (for finger daemon), while the client side is implemented by the name and finger programs which are supposed to return a friendly, human-oriented status report on either the system at the moment or a particular person in depth. There is no required format, and the protocol consists mostly of specifying a single command line.\n\nThe program would supply information such as whether a user is currently logged-on, e-mail address, full name etc.  As well as standard user information, finger displays the contents of the .project and .plan files in the user's home directory.  Often this file (maintained by the user) contains either useful information about the user's current activities, similar to micro-blogging, or alternatively all manner of humor.\n\nSecurity concerns\nSupplying such detailed information as e-mail addresses and full names was considered acceptable and convenient in the early days of networking, but later was considered questionable for privacy and security reasons.\n\nFinger information has been used by hackers as a way to initiate a social engineering attack on a company's computer security system. By using a finger client to get a list of a company's employee names, email addresses, phone numbers, and so on, a hacker can call or email someone at a company requesting information while posing as another employee.\n\nThe finger daemon has also had several exploitable security holes crackers have used to break into systems. For example, in 1988 the Morris worm exploited an overflow vulnerability in fingerd (among others) to spread.\n\nFor these reasons, by the late 1990s the vast majority of sites on the Internet no longer offered the service.\n\nApplication support\n\nIt is implemented on Unix (like FreeBSD and macOS), Unix-like systems (like Linux), and current versions of Windows (finger.exe command). Other software has finger support:\nELinks\nLynx\nMinuet\nKristall\nLagrange\n\nSee also\n LDAP\n Ph Protocol\n Social network service\n WebFinger\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n (December 1977)\n (December 1991)\n\nInternet protocols\nInternet Standards\nOS\/2 commands\nUnix user management and support-related utilities\nUnix network-related software\nWindows administration\n1977 software","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":57,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-22":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":6,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":5,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":6,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":62737,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Finger%20%28protocol%29","title":"Finger (protocol)","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The executive is the branch of government that is responsible for the day-to-day management of the state. (Executive is short for executive branch or executive power.)\n\nUnder the doctrine of the separation of powers, the executive is not supposed to make laws (role of the legislature), nor to interpret them (role of the judiciary). The executive is supposed to put the laws into action.\n\nThe executive is led by the head of government. The head of government is assisted by a number of ministers, who usually have responsibilities for particular areas (e.g. health, education, foreign affairs), and by many government employees or civil servants.\n\nIn a presidential system, this person (the President) may also be the head of State, but in a parliamentary system, he or she is usually the leader of the largest party in the legislature and is most commonly termed the Prime Minister (Taoiseach in the Republic of Ireland, (Federal) Chancellor in Germany and Austria). In France, executive power is shared between the President and the Prime Minister and this system has been reproduced in a number of former French colonies. Switzerland and Bosnia and Herzegovina have similar systems.\n\nRelated pages\n Constitution\n Constitutional economics\n Political economy\n\nGovernment-related organizations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":4,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1}},"id":100530,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Executive%20%28government%29","title":"Executive (government)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Fate or destiny is the idea that the future is already planned even if people do not know what their fate is (what is going to happen to them).  Humans in nearly all cultures have had ideas about their fate being \"predetermined\" (fixed in advance).\n\nPeople who live unhappy lives may believe that their misery is because of their fate and that they can do nothing about it.  This is called being \"fatalistic\".  Other people may believe that they can control their fate by being brave and trying to \"overcome\"  fate by improving themselves and their lives.\n\nIn Greek mythology there were three Fates.  They were three goddesses who determined when every person was going to be born, how they would live and when and how they would die.  Human beings in many cultures had lots of ways in which they would try to \"read\" their fate (know what would happen to them).  Sometimes they would try to read their fate in the stars (this is called astrology).  In other cultures they might ask a person with powers of magic like a shaman.  The Ancient Greeks often went to Delphi to ask the oracle.\n\nThere are lots of references to fate in literature from almost every country and period, from Greek tragedy (e.g. Oedipus Rex) to Shakespeare (e.g. Macbeth) and Russian literature.\n\nComposers may express fate in music.  Beethoven was thinking about Fate when he wrote his Fifth Symphony, and Tchaikovsky when he wrote his Sixth Symphony just before he committed suicide.\n\nSee also:\nAnanke\nFatalism\nSuperstition\nMoirae\nNorns\nFate (opera)\nFuture","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":147,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-09":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":49771,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fate","title":"Fate","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Doctrine (Latin: doctrina) is a code of beliefs or \"a body of teachings\".\n\nDoctrine often means several religious dogmas that a church teaches. \nBut it can also mean a principle of law, in the common law traditions, established through a history of past decisions, such as the doctrine of self-defense, or the principle of fair use.\n\nIn matters of foreign policy, a doctrine, also known as dogma, is group of fundamental rules for a nation's foreign policy. Examples include the Monroe Doctrine, the Stimson Doctrine, the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, the Nixon Doctrine, the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Kirkpatrick doctrine, and the Bush Doctrine.\n\nReligious usage \n\nExamples of religious doctrines include:\n Christian Trinity and Virgin birth of Jesus\n Roman Catholic transubstantiation and immaculate conception\n Pentecostal Jesus-Only doctrine\n Calvinist predestination\n Methodist Prevenient Grace\n\nOne department of the Roman Curia is called the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.\n\nMilitary usage \n\nThe term also applies to the concept of an established procedure to a complex operation in warfare. The typical example is tactical doctrine in which a standard set of maneuvers, kinds of troops and weapons are employed as a default approach to a kind of attack.\n\nExamples of military doctrines include:\n Blitzkrieg of World War II\n Hit-and-run tactics\n Shock and Awe\n Guerre de course\n Mahanian of late 19th up to mid-20th Century\n\nChristian genres\nPolitics\nChristian theology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":60286,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doctrine","title":"Doctrine","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Hydrozoa are a class of the phylum Cnidaria. They are small predatory animals which mostly live in the sea. Their basic life form is the polyp. Some species live singly, others live in colonies. Their classification and evolutionary relationships are still under discussion. The hydroids may be best understood by taking some examples.\n\nHydra \nThe most widely-known freshwater hydrozoan is Hydra, which is found in slow-moving waters.\n\nIt is sessile, with a pedal disc which attaches it to substrate. Like all cnidarians, Hydra uses nematocysts, stinging cells which disable its prey. Hydra eat small crustaceans (such as brine shrimp), insect larvae, and annelid worms. It may reproduce sexually, or by asexual reproduction (budding).\n\nColonial types \nThe Portuguese Man o' War, Physalia physalis, is a large colonial marine jellyfish. It is composed of many tiny individual zooids, which are specialised polyps and medusae. The colony has an air bladder, and floats on the surface. It delivers a massive sting to its prey. Humans, if stung, may require medical attention. It is often accompanied by fish which are immune to the stings. This type of hydrozoan is called a siphonophore.\n\nThe chondrophores are another type of pelagic colonial hydrozoan. They are also carnivores, but their sting is not so harmful to humans.\n\nFreshwater jellyfish \nThese have a muscular velum on the ventral surface, which allows them to move about. Beginning life as a tiny polyp, attached to vegetation, they feed and reproduce sexually in the spring and summer. If the habitat has only one sex, they reproduce by budding. They overwinter as resting bodies.\n\nTaxonomy \nNowadays the Hydrozoa is split into two subclasses:\nLeptolinae: the bulk of the hydroids and siphonophera\nTrahylina: all others\n\nCnidarians","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":131,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":221016,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrozoa","title":"Hydrozoa","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Birth control, also known as contraception or family planning, is a way for a man and woman to have sexual intercourse without the woman getting pregnant. \n\nSome contraceptives, such as condoms, also protect a person from sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). When people use contraception to prevent STDs and pregnancy, it may be called safe sex.\n\nBirth control is also sometimes called family planning. It means people can have babies or not as they wish. That way, babies and families do not happen by accident.\n\nThe need for birth control \nBirth control lets a man and woman have sexual intercourse but makes pregnancy less likely. \n\nDuring intercourse, a man places his penis in a woman's vagina and moves it in and out while the woman moves her hips. The vagina is warm and soft, and it places pressure on the man's penis. These sensations, combined with the in-and-out movements, stimulate the penis, which causes the man to have an orgasm. During orgasm, the man's penis spasms and experiences a series of rhythmic contractions during which he ejaculates (releases semen into the vagina). The semen can make the woman pregnant. Because intercourse is usually very enjoyable, men and women often want to have intercourse a lot more often than they want to have a baby. Birth control lets them have intercourse while greatly reducing the chances of the woman getting pregnant.\n\nPeople may use birth control for several reasons. Perhaps a man and woman wish to have only a few children so they will have enough money to give those children good food, clothes, and education. More children might mean less for each child, so the parents use birth control to limit the number of children they have. Or maybe a man and woman do not want any children at all in order to focus on their own lives, jobs, or each other. Other couples may use birth control to make sure that they do not have too many children in too short a time, an idea that is called \"spacing\" their children. This may help them take better care of their children. Still another reason is that a young couple may not be able to afford having a baby until they are older and have more money or better jobs. This may be especially true of younger people who are still in school and probably not married. By using birth control, the couple can grow closer and strengthen their relationship by having sexual intercourse frequently so that when they are ready to have a baby their relationship is strong and stable. In most of these cases the man and woman want to have sex to be close, to feel good with each other, and to make their relationship stronger. Contraception lets them have intercourse while greatly reducing the chances of a pregnancy.\n\nBirth control may be used by married couples, or by couples who live together but are not married, or by a man and woman who are engaged, or by a couple who are merely boyfriend and girlfriend, or even by single people who are not in a relationship at all but who may have casual sex with others.\n\nTypes of birth control \nThere are many types of birth control. Some of these have been done for a long time, but many of them were only discovered in the last eighty years. Each type of birth control has advantages and disadvantages. Another word for a type of contraception is a method.\n\nBarrier methods \nA barrier is something that stands between two things. So barrier methods stand between the sperm and the ovum (egg). Some barrier methods help prevent many sexually transmitted diseases (STDs):\n\n Condom \u2013 this is the oldest barrier method. A condom is a thin tube (often made of latex) that the man puts over his penis. This keeps the sperm from getting to the egg. Condoms are also called rubbers.\n Female condom \u2013 this is like a condom, but it goes in the woman's vagina. \n\nSome barrier methods only protect a small amount against STDs:\n Diaphragm and cervical cap \u2013 these are objects that a woman puts in her vagina to cover the cervix (the opening at the bottom of the uterus where sperm get in).\n Contraceptive sponge \u2013 this is a sponge that is filled with spermicide (a substance that kills sperm) and is put in the woman's vagina over the cervix.\n\nBarrier methods can be easy to use and have few side effects (bad things that happen if you take a medicine). Some of them can be bought without a doctor's prescription. Since they are easy to get and can help stop disease from spreading from one partner to the other, they are popular with younger couples or those who are early in a relationship. But sometimes they can be messy or interfere with the pleasure and sensation of sex.\n\nHormonal methods \nThese can only be used by women. Doctors are trying to find a way to use hormonal methods for men. Hormonal methods change the woman's reproductive cycle in different ways so that it is safe for her man to ejaculate inside her.\n\n Birth Control Pills \u2013 these are pills that a woman takes every day that make her stop ovulating (making eggs). They usually have both female hormones estrogen and progesterone in them. Some have only progesterone. Birth control pills are a very popular type of birth control because of how effective and easy to use they are. A woman who uses birth control pills is often said to be \"on the Pill.\"\n Birth Control Patch \u2013 this is a small and thin object that is put on the woman's skin and stays there. Hormones in the patch go into the skin and into the woman's body. This makes her not ovulate.\n Emergency contraception pill \u2013 also called the morning-after pill. This is a medicine that is taken after sex that makes the woman less likely to get pregnant. It is best if used very soon after sex. The longer after sex it is taken, the less effective it is. It is recommended to be taken no more than 48 hours after the event. After this time, the pill no longer works well.\n Implants \u2013 these are objects that are put under the woman's skin and stay there for years. They slowly put hormones into her body and make her not ovulate. These only have progesterone in them (not estrogen).\n Injections (shots) \u2013 this is where a doctor or nurse gives the woman a shot with a needle every three to six months depending on the type of injection. They inject a progesterone hormone that makes the woman not ovulate.\n Rings - a soft plastic ring that is placed inside the vagina. The hormones in the ring go into the woman's vagina and into her body to prevent her from ovulating. The ring cannot be felt during sex and one ring lasts for up to three months.\n\nHormonal birth control is extremely effective if it is used in the right way. Many hormonal birth control methods also make women's menses shorter and with less bleeding, which most women like. And unlike barrier methods, hormonal methods do not interfere with sex. When a woman is using hormonal birth control, she and her man are usually not even aware of it during intercourse, which seems and feels very natural. The couple can have sex at any time they wish; they don't need to interrupt foreplay to put birth control in place, and they can feel the physical sensations and emotional closeness of intercourse without interference from a make or female condom. Unlike coitus interruptus (see below), when a woman is on the Pill or using some other form of hormonal birth control, intercourse usually ends with her man reaching orgasm while inside the vagina, which both the man and woman usually find very pleasurable. For all of these reasons, hormonal methods are very popular, especially with women who are married or in steady relationships who are having sex often. \n\nHormonal birth control methods have some slight risks for side effects. They may make a very small increase in the risk of blood clots in the lungs, strokes, heart attacks, and breast cancer. Most of these risk are small. Some women may experience mood swings, weight gain, or loss of sex drive. Sometimes, but rarely, these side effects are serious enough to make a woman decide to stop using hormonal birth control.\n\nIntrauterine methods \nThis is where an object is put in the woman's uterus (womb, where the fetus grows when she is pregnant). This object is called an intrauterine device or IUD (acronym).\n\nThere are two types of IUD: the copper IUD or an IUD with hormones implanted on it. The hormonal IUD has better protection against pregnancy but costs more.\n\nThere are many good things about them:\n Do not need the woman to do anything after they are put in\n Last a long time (up to 10 years)\n Work very well at stopping pregnancy (98-99% of pregnancies are stopped)\n\nThe worst part about IUDs is that they have to be put in by a doctor. There is some risk of infection of the uterus after the IUD is put in, but this is only for 1-2 months after.\n\nCopper IUDs can also be used as a day-after method to prevent pregnancy after the woman and man already had sex.\n\nIUDs do not prevent STDs.\n\nSterilization \nThis is when a man or woman has surgery to make them not able to make babies.\n\nMen can get a vasectomy. This is a small surgery where the tube that carries sperm from the testicles is cut.\n\nWomen can get tubal surgeries. These are ways that the fallopian tubes are cut or clipped so that eggs cannot go down them to the uterus. (The fallopian tube is the tube that carries the egg from the woman's ovary).\n\nSterilization is extremely effective, and they allow a man and woman to have intercourse that seems and feels very natural. But sterilization does involve surgery, which can cost more than other types of contraception and can be unpleasant, and unlike other methods it is very hard to reverse if a couple changes their minds and want to have children later.\n\nOther surgeries will make a woman sterile (not able to get pregnant). These are not done only for contraception, but they are done for other reasons. \n Hysterectomy surgery to remove the uterus\n Oophorectomy surgery to remove the ovaries (both must be removed to make a woman sterile).\n\nTraditional contraception \n\nThese have been used for a very long time. They were used before modern medicine. Some of them were used before scientists even discovered how reproduction (making babies) happens.\n Coitus interruptus (sometimes called \"withdrawal\" or \"pulling out\"\u2013 when the man takes his penis out of the woman's vagina before semen (liquid that has sperm in it) comes out. This is not a good method of birth control because the fluid that comes out before semen comes out also has sperm in it, and because if the man's semen is close to the woman's vagina, she can still get pregnant. Also, because the man's instinct is to stay inside the woman's vagina when he ejaculates, there is always a danger that he may not withdraw his penis in time. Even when it works, this can be a very frustrating method for both the man and woman because it interrupts their closeness and good feelings at the climax of intercourse.\n Non-penetrative sex, non-vaginal sex \u2013 sex without putting the man's penis in the woman's vagina. This is more effective than coitus interruptus, but it can still be risky if the man ejaculates on or near the woman, and it can also be frustrating for the couple not to be able to have intercourse.\n Abstinence \u2013 not having sex. If a couple can practice this correctly, it is completely effective at preventing pregnancy. It is free and does not require the help of a doctor. But it can be very frustrating for a man and woman to not be able to have intercourse.\n\nMany methods can reduce the risk of STDs, but only abstinence is 100% effective.\n\nPeriodic abstinence \nThis means a man and a woman practice abstinence (not having sex) when the woman is fertile. When the woman is not fertile, she will not get pregnant when she has sex.\n Natural family planning: this is also called 'fertility awareness'. For this method, a woman reads her temperature (how warm her body is) in the morning, or she reads her cervical mucus (liquid that comes out of her vagina). Using the temperature or the cervical mucus, there are rules that say when the woman is fertile and not fertile.\n Billings ovulation method; Creighton model fertility care; two-day method; mucus-only method; basal body temperature method; sympto-thermo method: these are different names for natural family planning (see above).\n Rhythm method: this is where a woman records the number of days between her menses (the time when she bleeds). The woman is most likely to be fertile in the days right between her menses. For some women, the math does not work. They get pregnant when the math says they are less fertile.\n\nLactational Amenorrhea Method \nThis is when a woman is breastfeeding (using her breasts to make milk for her baby). There are certain rules the woman can use to know if she is not fertile. Chances that this method will fail are about 10% (which means 10% chance she can get pregnant)\n\nInduced abortion \nInduced abortion (sometimes called just abortion) is when a doctor gives a pregnant woman a medicine or does a surgery to stop the pregnancy. Some people do not call abortion a kind of contraception. This is because contraception means preventing pregnancy, but abortion is stopping a pregnancy that has already started.\n\nAbortion is not a good birth control method. If a woman does not want to get pregnant, other methods are more safe and inexpensive (cost less money). So many doctors who do abortions for women help women find a better way to not get pregnant the next time.\n\nReligion and contraception \nSome religions do not like contraception. Some of them teach that contraception is a sin.\n\nReligions ideas about contraception:\n Catholicism \u2013 almost all types of birth control are a sin (except Natural Family Planning or abstinence). The Catholic Church had no official policy over Contraception until 1930 when Pope Paul VI officially banned Catholics from using birth control pills, most forms of contraceptions, and even condoms. The Church believes sex is for a husband and wife to make a baby, and sex must always be open to life (possibility of making a new human) and contraceptions would be sinful as it blocks pregnancy even though the Bible does not ban contraceptions.    \n Protestantism \u2013 most Protestant churches believe birth control is not a sin and allow couples to use it if they do not wish to make a baby. \n Islam \u2013 most schools of thought believe that some methods of birth control are not a sin. This is not applicable to sterilization, birth control due to financial hardship, or methods that deprive a woman of her right to sexual satisfaction.\n Judaism \u2013 there are many different beliefs in Judaism about birth control, but even the most conservative types of Judaism allow it if the woman will get sick if she gets pregnant.\n\nReligious beliefs that contraception is a sin also keep people from doing safe sex. Some groups who are opposed to this belief say it is dangerous in places where there is a lot of HIV and AIDS, because condoms make people much less likely to get HIV, but at the same times many feel that they can practice extra marital sex since they are \"safe\" from HIV\/AIDS.\n\nRelated pages \nMarie Stopes\nMargaret Sanger\nOverpopulation\nReproductive rights\n\nOther websites \nThese may be unsimple:\n\n Wedding Website: A simple introduction to cpntraception - in simple English\n University of California, Santa Barbara's SexInfo: Methods of Contraception For Men and Women\n World Health Organization information on family planning\n Planned Parenthood\n Medline Plus on birth control\n USFDA page \"what kind of birth control is best for you?\" in simpler English\n\nContraception\nFeminism\nAntinatalism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":147,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":8517,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Birth%20control","title":"Birth control","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) is an international organisation that focuses on making scientific data on biodiversity available via the Internet using web services. The data are provided by many institutions from around the world; GBIF's information architecture makes these data accessible and searchable through a single portal. Data available through the GBIF portal are primarily distribution data on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes for the world, and scientific names data.\n\nThe mission of the GBIF is to facilitate free and open access to biodiversity data worldwide to underpin sustainable development. Priorities, with an emphasis on promoting participation and working through partners, include mobilising biodiversity data, developing protocols and standards to ensure scientific integrity and interoperability, building an informatics architecture to allow the interlinking of diverse data types from disparate sources, promoting capacity building and catalysing development of analytical tools for improved decision-making.\n\nGBIF strives to form informatics linkages among digital data resources from across the spectrum of biological organisation, from genes to ecosystems, and to connect these to issues important to science, society and sustainability by using georeferencing and GIS tools. It works in partnership with other international organisations such as the Catalogue of Life partnership, Biodiversity Information Standards, the Consortium for the Barcode of Life (CBOL), the Encyclopedia of Life (EOL), and GEOSS. The biodiversity data available through the GBIF has increased by more than 1,150% in the past decade, partially due to the participation of citizen scientists.\n\nFrom 2002 to 2014, GBIF awarded a prestigious annual global award in the area of biodiversity informatics, the Ebbe Nielsen Prize, valued at \u20ac30,000. , the GBIF Secretariat presents two annual prizes: the GBIF Ebbe Nielsen Challenge and the Young Researchers Award.\n\nSee also \n ABCD Schema\n Atlas of Living Australia (ALA)\n Australasian Virtual Herbarium (AVH)\n Darwin Core\n Global biodiversity\n List of electronic Floras (for other online flora databases)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n \n Short description of GBIF\n GBIF network\n GBIF Data publishers\n\nInternational environmental organizations\nBiodiversity\nEcology organizations\nBiodiversity databases\nOnline taxonomy databases\nInternational organizations based in Denmark","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":139,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":6,"2021-04":6,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":4,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":5,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":6,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-23":2}},"id":2987862,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global%20Biodiversity%20Information%20Facility","title":"Global Biodiversity Information Facility","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Diabetes mellitus type\u00a02 (or adult-onset diabetes) is a metabolic disorder where high levels of blood sugar  occur. Left untreated, it can cause heart attacks, strokes, blindness and kidney failure.\n\nCause\nUsually, blood sugar levels are regulated by insulin, but in type 2 diabetes this does not work properly. Insulin is a hormone which tells the muscle and fat cells of the body to take up sugar from the blood. If there is too much sugar in the blood for a long period of time, the muscle and fat cells start to ignore insulin. As a result, sugar stays in the blood and is not taken up, leading to a high blood sugar.\n\nThis situation is different from diabetes mellitus type 1. In this case, the islet cells, which make insulin in the pancreas, have been destroyed by the body, and as a result there is no insulin. Diabetes type 1 usually occurs in children or young adults, whilst diabetes type 2 usually occurs in older people. However, recently childhood obesity has led to some young adults and teenagers developing type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes makes up around 90% of cases of diabetes, while type 1 diabetes and other types of diabetes make up the other 10%.\n\nType 2 diabetes is a result of both genetics and lifestyle. People who have relatives with diabetes type 2 are at an increased risk. They may develop diabetes if they have other risk factors in their lifestyle, for example obesity, or low amount of exercise.\n\nComplications\nPoorly managed diabetes can lead to heart attacks, strokes, blindness and kidney failure.\n\nTreatment\nType 2 diabetes can often be treated just by losing weight and exercising more, as these increase the body's sensitivity to insulin. A medicine called Metformin is often prescribed, which works by helping the fat and muscle cells of the body listen to the signal from insulin to take up sugar from the blood.\n\nReducing carbohydrate consumption could help with managing type 2 diabetes.\n\nReferences\n\nDiabetes mellitus","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":54,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":285097,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Type%202%20diabetes","title":"Type 2 diabetes","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An ion is an electrically charged atom or molecule (group of atoms). It is \"charged\" so it will move near electricity. Atoms are made from positively charged protons, negatively charged electrons, and uncharged neutrons. Ions are charged because they have an unequal number of protons and electrons.\n\nMaking an ion from an atom or molecule is called ionization. Two or more ions can combine to make a chemical compound. The link between the ions is called an ionic bond.\n\nThe charge on a proton is chosen as +1 (positively charged). The charge on an electron is opposite to the charge on the proton.  The charge on the electron is -1 (negatively charged). An atom that is ionized makes two parts, one positive, and one negatively charged. For example, a neutral hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron. Ionizing the atom breaks it into two parts: (1) a positively charged hydrogen ion, H+ (2) a negatively charged electron.\n\nA liquid with ions is called an electrolyte. A gas with lots of ions is called a plasma. When ions move, it is called electricity. For example, in a wire, the metal ions do not move, but the electrons move as electricity. A positive ion and a negative ion will move together. Two ions of the same charge will move apart. When ions move they also make magnetic fields.\n\nMany ions are colourless. Elements in the main groups in the Periodic Table form colourless ions. Some ions are coloured. The transition metals usually form coloured ions.\n\nChemistry\nIn physics, atomic nuclei that have been completely ionized are called charged particles. These are ones in alpha radiation.\n \nIonization happens by giving atoms high energy. This is done using electrical voltage or by high-energy ionizing radiation or high temperature. \n\nA simple ion is formed from a single atom.\n\nPolyatomic ions are formed from a number of atoms. Polyatomic ions usually consist of all non-metal atoms. But sometimes the polyatomic ion can have a metallic atom too.\n\nPositive ions are called cations. They are attracted to cathodes (negatively charged electrodes).  (Cation is pronounced \"cat eye on\", not \"kay shun\".) All simple metal ions are cations.\n\nNegative ions are called anions. They are attracted to anodes (positively charged electrodes). All simple non-metal ions (except H+, which is a proton) are anions. \n\nTransition metals can form more than one simple cation with different charges.\n\nMost ions have a charge of less than 4, but some can have higher charges.\n\nMichael Faraday was the first person to write a theory about ions, in 1830. In his theory, he said what the portions of molecules were like that moved to anions or cations. Svante August Arrhenius showed how this happened. He wrote this in his doctoral dissertation in 1884 (University of Uppsala). The university did not accept his theory at first (he only just passed his degree). But in 1903, he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the same idea.\n\nIn Greek ion is like the word \"go\". \"Anion\" and \"cation\" mean \"up-goer\" and \"down-goer\". \"Anode\" and \"cathode\" are \"way up\" and \"way down\".\n\nCommon ions\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":169,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":2099,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ion","title":"Ion","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Marxism is the name for a set of political and economic ideas.\n\nThe basic ideas are that:\n\n The world is split into multiple classes (groups) of people. The two main classes are the working class and the ruling class. The working class is exploited by the ruling class.\n There is a class conflict \nWhen workers realize their exploitation, they will revolt and take over ownership of factories and materials (dictatorship of the proletariat)\n Communism (stateless, classless society with free enterprise).\n\nThese ideas come from the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and their most notable work is The Communist Manifesto. They have had a lot of influence in many countries. Marxism influenced other political views, such as social democracy and reformist socialism. Both believe that the ideas of Marx and Engels can be achieved through what Marx called 'bourgeois democracy'.\n\nPeople disagree a lot on how a Marxist society should be organized: \"Marxist political economists differ over their definitions of capitalism, socialism and communism. These differences are so fundamental, the arguments among Marxist political economists have sometimes been as intense as their oppositions to capitalism\".\n\nMarxism is placed on the left-wing to far-left of the political spectrum.\n\nKey ideas\n\nThe working class vs. the capitalist class \nMarxism says that people in the world are organized into different groups, or classes, based on what they do for work.\n\nMost people are called \"workers\" because they work in factories, offices, or farms for money. They belong to the \"working class\" (or \"proletariat\"). These people do not own the places they work in or the materials they need for their work.\n\nAnother group, who are not as big as the working class, are \"capitalists\" (or \"bourgeoisie\"). They own the factories, land, and buildings that the workers work in.  They also own some of the tools the workers have to use. Marx calls capitalists the \"Ruling Class\" because they live off of the work of all the workers. He also says that the capitalists own the government, army, and courts.\n\nIn Marxist views, capital is the \"means of production\" and money which the capitalist can invest in different places of business, so that they can \"profit\" or gain more capital.\n\nMost workers work for companies owned by either capitalists or \"petit-bourgeois\" (small-time exploiters). The capitalist pays the worker in exchange for the worker's time. The capitalist has bought a period of time from the worker, which the worker must then use to labor for the capitalist. According to Marxist thinking, this is the only way that a capitalist can create extra money from a commodity (a piece of merchandise).  The capitalist exploits the worker's time as much as they can. The capitalist receives a certain price for the commodity the worker made.  The capitalist builds up capital by paying the worker less than that price.  In this way, the capitalist exploits the worker's labor by:\n Not paying the worker what their labor was worth\n Keeping the extra money that they did not pay the worker\n\nHere is an example of exploitation of labor.  Jane is a shoemaker. She works for Michael, who owns a shoe factory that can make 60 pairs of shoes in a day. Jane makes 60 pairs of shoes every day. Michael pays Jane $20 a day.  However, Michael sells each pair of shoes for $2 each.  This means he makes $120 in a day.  After he pays Jane her $20 wage, Michael has $100 left over. However he then has to pay for materials which cost $1 for each pair, so that's $60 each day. Then running expenses of the factory cost him $10 a day. So he only gets $30 at the end of the day for managing the business.  This remaining wealth is called \"Profit\" or \"Surplus [extra] Value.\" In other words, even though Jane makes 60 shoes every day, she only gets paid the value of 10 pairs of shoes. The rest of the day, while she is making the other 50 shoes, she is creating money for her boss.  Her labor is making him richer and helping him earn money.\n\nIt is this Surplus Value, or Profit, which Marxism thinks as an exploitation of labor. This exploitation allows the smaller class (capitalists) to live without working while making a profit, while the bigger class (the workers) have to work for the capitalists to survive under usually poor working conditions.\n\nMarxism says that factories, tools, and work places cannot create new value on their own. They are like a blueberry bush: it has no value on its own. People have to create that value by laboring. For example, someone spends a day picking blueberries. Those blueberries can now be traded or eaten because of the labor that was put in to pick them.\n\nClass struggle \n\nMarxist thinking claims that capitalists and workers are constantly struggling. They call this \"Dialectical Materialism.\"  This is the idea that the history of humans is the history of conflict between classes. Different classes with different interests argue or fight each other. Social change (or in its absence, social stagnation) is the result.\n\nMarxism says that capitalists want to exploit the workers as much as possible and make their pay as low as they can. The capitalists do this to create as much profit for themselves as possible, as quickly as possible.  Workers, on the other hand, have to struggle to keep their wages up and to keep the \"rate of exploitation\" low, so that they can live more peaceful lives. This is what Marxism calls \"class struggle\": where workers and their bosses fight against each other to gain for themselves.\n\nMarxists think that all of written human history has been divided by economic classes. One example is feudal society (a medieval society controlled by feudal lords and nobles). The ruling class got their power and wealth from the labor of peasants (farmers). But as peasants demanded more and more for themselves, small shopkeepers and tradespeople began to appear. Many of these people formed guilds and eventually began to employ workers.  These workers were able to gain wealth for themselves at these jobs. These historical events created capitalism.\n\nIn this way, Marxists think that history has been pushed forward by class struggle. They think that change will be born from this struggle, just like capitalism was.  However, they also think that capitalism will give way to communism; as the exploitation of workers becomes worse it will lead workers to revolt against their capitalist rulers.\n\nMaterialism \nThe core of Marxist thinking is called Materialism. Materialism is a philosophical view that says that communities develop from the \"ground up\".  It says that the \"higher\" qualities of culture (like art, manners, customs, and religions) are actually founded on the \"lower\" or simpler qualities of life.  These qualities include having enough of what people need to survive, like food and shelter; who has money and what they have to do to get it; who is allowed to work, and who is forced to work.\n\nChanges in the higher qualities of culture (sometimes called the \"Superstructure\") are often linked to changes in the lower qualities of life (sometimes called the \"Base\"). One example is that in medieval times,  people thought \"honor\" or duty to people with more power than them was very important.  Today, in Western countries, many people see ambition (being someone who works hard for their own goals) as more important.  This is because, in medieval times, people worked their entire lives under lords who depended on them not only for work but for war.  Today, people work for themselves more, and our society lets some people move up from being poor to being rich. In this case, what people see as good and important depends on how the rulers get value out of their workers.\n\nA \"classless society\" \nMarxism recognizes that in earlier time periods, we lived first under rulers who owned everything.  Then we lived under lords who owned land with workers who lived and worked on that land. In Marx's time, people lived under governments that allowed many people to own property. Eventually, Marxists believe that we will move to a society where everyone owns everything in common. This will be called communism.\n\nIn other words, human society has always been based on the economic forces that human beings can control. For Marxism, this means that each society would take its form based on its \"mode of production.\"\n\nMarxists believe that humans' ability to produce goods and services today means people can move beyond the conflicts of a society that is divided into classes. Many Marxists believe that there will always be revolts and, with the right conditions, revolutions. In these revolutions, the workers will fight the capitalists. If they win, they will set up a socialist \"workers' state\" (a form of government where the workers are the rulers of society). This workers' state will only be temporary.  Its job will be to take power away from the capitalists, until all the capitalist countries in the world are defeated, and social classes no longer exist.\n\nMarxists believe that if the working class makes itself the ruling class, and destroys the basis for class society (private property, or what Marx called \"Bourgeois Property\"), there will be a \"classless society.\"  In a Marxist society, no social classes are in conflict, and there is no government anymore.  The state will no longer be needed. There would be no countries. The world will have no borders. There will be communes around the world.  Workers will organize production of goods and services based on what people need, not based on profits.\n\nBeliefs about modern communism \nSome Marxists say that modern \"communism\" is not communism at all. They say that \"communist\" countries like the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, Cuba, and Vietnam are really using different forms of capitalism, often with heavily \"nationalized\" industries. A thinker named Tony Cliff was one of the biggest supporters of these ideas. He wrote that states like the Soviet Union and Communist China (before 1980) were \"State-Capitalist.\"\n\nNot all communists, socialists, or Marxists agree on this question. However, many strong supporters of Marxism agree that: \n With socialism, workers have democratic control over economic decisions and social justice \n An economy produces things (makes goods and services) based on what people need \n Socialism will die and change into communism when capitalism is defeated\n\nDistinction between Marxism, communism and socialism \nPeople use these terms interchangeably but this is incorrect. These concepts have different meanings:\n\n Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism.\n Socialism is a way of organizing a society in which the means of production are owned and controlled by the working class, instead of the capitalists.\nCommunism is the theoretical classless, stateless society that Marx proposed would arise after the demise of capitalism.\n\nRelated pages \n Karl Marx\n Friedrich Engels\n The Communist Manifesto, by Marx and Engels\n Socialism\n Communism\n Marxist economics\n Secular religion\n\nReading\n\nFootnotes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1}},"id":4775,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marxism","title":"Marxism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international environmental organization. It was founded as the World Wildlife Fund, which is still its official name in Canada and the United States. \n\nMost of its offices are in Switzerland. Their mascot, or logo, is the Giant Panda. It is the world's largest independent wildlife management organization. It has over 5 million supporters worldwide, working in more than 90 countries. WWF supports 15,000 conservation and environmental projects around the world. It is a charity. About 90% of its fundraising money is from donations by private individuals and businesses.\n\nThe group says its mission is \"to halt and reverse the destruction of our natural environment\". Much of its work focuses on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of the world's biodiversity: forests, freshwater ecosystems, and oceans and coasts. Among other issues, it is also concerned with endangered species, pollution and climate change. The organization runs more than 1,200 field projects worldwide each year.\n\nReferences \n\nInternational environmental organizations\nOrganizations based in Switzerland\nConservation\nCharities\nNyon (district)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":4,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2}},"id":22737,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World%20Wide%20Fund%20for%20Nature","title":"World Wide Fund for Nature","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Opera is a drama set to music. An opera is like a play in which everything is sung instead of spoken. Operas are usually performed in opera houses. The singers who sing and act out the story are on the stage, and the orchestra is in front of the stage but lower down, in the orchestra pit, so that the audience can see the stage.\n\nMusical numbers of an opera \n\nAn opera is normally divided into two, three, four or even five acts. In older operas the music was mostly recitative and arias. During the recitative things would happen in the story. The aria was a song for a solo singer, a setting of a lyric. As well as recitative and aria there would be choruses. The chorus were a group of singers who sing in the crowd scenes. The opera would start with an overture for the orchestra. The overture would usually include tunes that are going to be heard later in the opera. \n\nIn operas from the 19th century onwards there is often little or no difference between recitative and aria. Composers like Wagner wanted to get away from operas which had lots of separate arias in which the singers showed off, with the audience clapping loudly after each one. He wanted continuous music so that the mood would not be broken.\n\nSometimes operas have a lot of dancing in them. French opera especially would often have one act which was full of dances.\n\nTypes of opera \nNot all operas have music all the time.\n\nGrand opera is opera which is all set to music.\n\nOp\u00e9ra bouffe (French) or Opera buffa (Italian) is comic opera. The story is very light-hearted and funny.\n\nOp\u00e9ra comique is a French term for opera which has some spoken words. Surprisingly it does not mean a \"comic\" opera. An opera like Carmen, which is a tragedy, is still an op\u00e9ra comique due to the fact that it uses spoken dialogues instead of recitatives.\n\nSingspiel is a German term for a type of opera with lots of magic and fantasy in the story. There were spoken words between the songs. Mozart's Magic Flute is an example.\n\nOperetta is a short opera which is light-hearted and usually has some spoken words.\n\nThe singers \n\nOpera singers have to have powerful voices as well as a good technique. Most opera houses are very big, and the singers need to be heard at the back. They also need to be good at acting. They need to be able to learn their music quickly and to sing from memory. It is a help to be good at languages because operas are often in Italian, German, French, English or Russian etc. Some opera companies, like the English National Opera, sing their operas in English. Others, like the Royal Opera House, sing operas in whatever language they were composed in. Translations are printed on a screen above the front of the stage (\"surtitles\") so that the audience can understand what is being sung.\n\nAlthough singers train to get a wide range (good top and bottom notes) they cannot be expected to sing any role in their voice range. For example: some sopranos may have big, dramatic voices, suitable for parts like Tosca in Puccini's opera Tosca. Some may have a very light and high voice, called \"coloratura\", suitable for parts like the Queen of the Night in Mozart's Magic Flute. Some may have a medium range, called mezzo-soprano, suitable for parts like Carmen in Bizet's opera Carmen.\n\nVery often in opera the heroine is a soprano and the hero is a tenor. Basses may often have the part of a powerful king, or he may be the bad guy.\n\nOperatic conventions \n\nThe 18th century lexicographer and critic Dr Johnson  described opera as an \"exotic and irrational entertainment\". By \"exotic\" he meant that it came from a foreign country (which in those days was true: all opera at the time came from Italy). By \"irrational\" he meant that the things which happened in the stories were strange and not like real life. A play can be like real life, but an opera is being sung, so things are not going to happen like they normally do in real life. A singer might be singing \"I must go, I must go!\" and he may stand on the stage and sing this for several minutes before at last he goes! A singer may be pretending to die, and will sing a beautiful song before he or she finally dies. These things are \"conventions\", which means that they are a kind of habit we have to accept when watching and listening to opera. Another convention of earlier operas was to have the part of young men sung by women. This is sometimes called a breeches role or trouser role. They are often small parts such as page boys, or teenagers who flirt with older women, such as the part of Cherubino in Mozart's  The Marriage of Figaro or Oktavian in Richard Strauss's Der Rosenkavalier. It should be remembered that in the 18th century it was usual for the main female part to be sung by a man who was a castrato.\n\nThere are lots of famous operas, and the best ones have some of the greatest music ever written. The music could not have been written like that if it had not been written for opera. For example: Mozart is very clever at writing music where maybe six people are all singing different things at once because they all have different ideas about the situation in the story.\n\nThe history of opera \n\nMedieval Opera (mid 12th century)\n\nOne of the first operas ever written was Ordo Virtutum by  Hildegard of Bingen. Ordo Virtutum (Latin for Order of the Virtues) is an allegorical morality play, or liturgical drama,  composed c. 1151, during the construction and relocation of Bingen's Abbey at Rupertsberg. It is the earliest morality play by more than a century, and the only Medieval musical drama to survive with an attribution for both the text and the music.\n\nA short version of Ordo Virtutum without music appears at the end of Scivias, Hildegard's most famous account of her visions. It is also included in some manuscripts of the Symphonia armoniae celestium revelationum (\"Symphony of the Harmony of Celestial Revelations\"), a cycle of more than 70 liturgical songs. It may have been performed by the convent nuns at the dedication of the St. Rupertsberg church in 1152 or possibly before the Mass for the Consecration of Virgins at the convent .\n\nBaroque opera (1600-1750) \n\nThe first Baroque opera ever written was performed in 1597 in Florence in Italy. It was called Dafne and the composer was Jacopo Peri. This opera is now lost, but three years later, in 1600, he worked together with another composer called Giulio Caccini to write an opera called Euridice. The music for this still exists. It was nearly all recitative. This kind of writing was new, but if opera was to tell a story it was important to have a solo voice singing words that could be heard. They were trying to produce something like an ancient Greek tragedy. It was performed at a kind of club, called \"camerata\", for intellectual (clever) people to a small audience. It was not great music, but the amazing thing was that there was a composer of genius around. His name was Claudio Monteverdi, and only seven years later, in 1607, he wrote the first really good opera: Orfeo, which was produced in Mantua. Monteverdi must have realized that opera had the possibilities of putting poetry, music, scenery and acting all together. He took the kind of songs that were popular at the time and joined them with speaking or recitative. Later in life he joined these so that the music flowed more dramatically.\n\nIn 1637 the first public opera house was opened in Venice. Soon lots of theatres in Italy started to produce operas. The stories were usually about ancient times, like the Roman Empire or Greek myths. They started to put in comic (funny) bits to make people laugh. Soon there was opera in Paris, Vienna, Hamburg and in the small courts of Germany which in those days was lots of little countries, each with their own prince who ruled and who kept musicians at court. The composers who are best remembered today include Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-1687) who was an Italian who moved to France and wrote operas for the French king, and George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) who was a German who moved to England and wrote operas for the opera houses in London. In Italy there were composers like Francesco Cavalli (1602-1676) who had been a choirboy in Monteverdi's church choir in Venice, and Alessandro Scarlatti 1660-1725 who lived in Naples.\n\nDuring this period, known as the Baroque period, the opera was an entertainment for the upper classes who went to the opera to be seen in public. Opera was a social occasion where you could meet people and talk, even during the music. Both the singers and the audience behaved in ways that we would think were bad manners.\n\nClassical opera (late 18th century) \n\nChristoph Willibald Gluck was a composer who tried to make people take opera more seriously. In 1762 he wrote an opera called Orfeo ed Euridice which was performed in Vienna. It had lots of choruses and ballet numbers, like French opera, but the words were in Italian and the music really concentrated on the story rather than being just a display for clever singers to show off. Some of its music is very famous today, e.g. the Dance of the Blessed Spirits which is played on a flute, and Orfeo's aria \"Che far\u00f3 senza Euridice?\" (\"What shall I do without Euridice?\").\n\nWolfgang Amadeus Mozart learned from Gluck's ideas about opera. This can be seen in his opera Idomeneo which is about a Greek story. Other Italian operas by Mozart include: Don Giovanni, Le Nozze di Figaro and Cosi fan tutte. He also wrote operas in German: The Abduction from the Serail and The Magic Flute. These are Singspiel: operas which tell magic and fantasy stories.\n\nLudwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) only wrote one opera: Fidelio. It is a story of a woman who rescues her lover from prison. Rescue operas were popular in France, but this one is in German. It is a serious opera about how a woman can save a man by being true and faithful.\n\nRomantic opera (19th century) \n\nIn the 19th century Richard Wagner (1813-1883) continued Gluck's ideas. Wagner had very personal ideas about how his operas should be performed, and he liked to train the singers himself. He wanted them to take the drama of his operas seriously instead of treating the music as a way of showing off their voices. He always wrote the libretti (words for the opera) himself, and they were always in German. They are mostly about serious subjects from German folklore and myths, although he did write one comic opera: The Mastersingers of N\u00fcrnberg. Wagner used \"leitmotifs\" which means that there are tunes which are used for particular characters or ideas in the opera. This allows the music to develop with the story, and can be used in interesting ways. For example: when Sigmund (in the opera Die Walk\u00fcre) says that he does not know who his father is, we hear his father's tune in the orchestra! The audience, of course, know (this is called: dramatic irony).\n\nIn Italy Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868) wrote lots of operas. There was no difference in style between his comic and his serious operas. Often the same overture was used for both. He wrote exactly all the notes that the singers were to sing, he did not want to leave it to them to improvise their own ornamental notes. Everything was carefully thought out. Musicians are not sure whether to call him a Classical or Romantic composer. Composers like Vincenzo Bellini (1801-1835) and Gaetano Donizetti (1797-1848) are definitely Romantic. They had the ability to write lovely lyrical tunes. The most famous Italian opera composer of the 19th century was Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901). His music is not always continuous like Wagner's. Sometimes it stopped for the audience to applaud. Verdi had a wonderful sense of drama, and could write beautiful melodies which captured people's hearts. He loved Shakespeare, and based several of his operas on Shakespeare plays: Othello, Macbeth and Falstaff. \n\nThe 19th century was the time when Nationalism was important. Composers were writing music typical of their own countries. Wagner, as we have seen, took German myths for his opera stories. In Spain they had their own kind of opera called \"zarzuela\". In Russia Mikhail Glinka (1804-1857) wrote Ruslan and Lyudmila which was based on a Russian fairy tale. Other Russian composers include Alexander Borodin who wrote Prince Igor, and Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881) who wrote Boris Godunov. Both these operas are about stories from Russian history. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908) wrote a fairy tale opera Sadko, and Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) used some very Russian tunes in Eugene Onegin and The Queen of Spades. \n\nCzech composers wrote national operas. The most famous Czech opera composers were Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k (1841-1904), Bed\u0159ich Smetana (1824-1884) and Leo\u0161 Jan\u00e1\u010dek (1854-1928). In France the most famous composer was Charles Gounod (1818-1893) who wrote an opera called Faust.\n\nOpera in the 20th century \n\nIn the 20th century composers had many different styles of composing. This was true of all kinds of music, including opera. Richard Strauss (1864-1949) was really a Romantic, although almost all his operas were written in the 20th century. His harmonies show that he had studied Wagner's operas. Der Rosenkavalier (1909) has lots of romantic tunes, although it is a story about Vienna in the Classical period. In Italy composers like Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924) wrote operas in the verismo style. This meant operas with stories that felt like real life. The characters in the stories were usually from the lower classes. \n\nAlban Berg (1885-1935) also wrote operas about poor or simple people. He wrote an opera called Wozzeck which is the tragedy of a man who is too simple to understand that people are being unkind to him and using him. Berg's music is often built on the twelve tone series which he had learned from Schoenberg. Stravinsky's (1882-1971) The Rake's Progress is in yet another style called Neo-classical because the music is made to sound a bit like music of the Classical Period. In England Britten wrote many great operas like Peter Grimes and Billy Budd. In Russia Dmitri Shostakovich wrote Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District. Most of them are about unfortunate people who want to be part of society but are not accepted. \n\nMore recent composers who wrote operas include the Hungarian Gy\u00f6rgy Ligeti (1923-2006), the Polish Krzysztof Penderecki (b.1933), the English Sir Harrison Birtwistle and the Americans Philip Glass (b.1937) and John Adams (b.1947).","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":140,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":4,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":3,"2018-39":5,"2018-30":5,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":89423,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Opera","title":"Opera","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Uganda is a landlocked country in East Africa whose diverse landscape encompasses the snow-capped Rwenzori Mountains and immense Lake Victoria. Its abundant wildlife includes chimpanzees as well as rare birds. Remote Bwindi Impenetrable National Park is a renowned mountain gorilla sanctuary. Murchison Falls National Park in the northwest is known for its 43m-tall waterfall and wildlife such as hippos.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":176,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-26":9,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":9,"2024-10":8,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":8,"2023-23":7,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":6,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":7,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":7,"2021-10":6,"2021-04":5,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":8,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-09":2}},"id":6476,"url":"https:\/\/rmy.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uganda","title":"Uganda","language":"rmy"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Polarization (also polarisation) is a property of some types of waves.  Some waves have motion in another direction as well as the direction of the wave.  In water, for instance, the wave will move across the water, but the wave will also move water up and down on the surface.  Light waves are similarly transverse waves though they are also particles.  Sound waves do not have polarization, since they are longitudinal waves. Polarized sunglasses take advantage of these oscillations.\n\nLight \n\nLight reflected by shiny transparent materials is partly or fully polarized, except when the light is perpendicular to the surface.  Polarization was first discovered in 1808 by the mathematician Etienne Louis Malus. A polarizing filter, such as a pair of polarizing sunglasses, can be used to observe this effect by rotating the filter while looking through it at the reflection off of a distant horizontal surface. At certain rotation angles, the reflected light will be reduced or eliminated. Polarizing filters remove light polarized at 90\u00b0 to the filter's polarization axis. If two polarizers are placed atop one another at 90\u00b0 angles to one another, very little light can pass through both.\n\nPolarization by scattering is observed as light passes through the atmosphere. The scattered light produces the brightness and color in clear skies. This partial polarization of scattered light can be used to darken the sky in photographs, increasing the contrast. This effect is easiest to observe at sunset, on the horizon at a 90\u00b0 angle from the setting sun. Another easily observed effect is the drastic reduction in brightness of images of the sky and clouds reflected from horizontal surfaces. This is why polarizing filters are often used in sunglasses. Polarizing sunglasses also show rainbow-like patterns caused by color-dependent birefringent effects, for example in toughened glass (e.g., car windows) or items made from transparent plastics. The role played by polarization in the operation of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) is also frequently apparent to the wearer of polarizing sunglasses, which may reduce the contrast or even make the display unreadable.\n\nPolarization filter \nPolarization of light is useful, after it has been filtered.  A filter will separate light with one type of polarization from other types.  Most daylight, or light from a light bulb, has a mix of polarizations (lasers are an exception).  The filter works much like trying to put a playing card through a comb - only if the card is turned the right direction will it fit.  Light that is turned a different way will be blocked by the filter.  Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) use this to block light to make letters or numbers on a display.  Glasses that have different polarization filters for each eye can separate light meant for the left eye and for the right eye.  This is a common way to make 3D movies and 3D television.\n\nIn nature sometimes light that bounces off of a surface has the same polarization - this is called 'glare' from a window or water.  A polarization filter on a camera will remove this glare to help see through the window or water (or can increase the glare, depending on how it is turned).\n\nThe photograph on the right was taken through polarizing sunglasses and through the rear window of a car. Light from the sky is reflected by the windshield of the other car at an angle, making it mostly horizontally polarized. The rear window is made of tempered glass. Stress from heat treatment of the glass alters the polarization of light passing through it, like a wave plate. Without this effect, the sunglasses would block the horizontally polarized light reflected from the other car's window. The stress in the rear window, however, changes some of the horizontally polarized light into vertically polarized light that can pass through the glasses. As a result, the regular pattern of the heat treatment becomes visible.\n\nElectromagnetic \nOther electromagnetic waves also have polarization, but it can happen in different ways.\n\nGeneral polarization: Some waves can be described by having the electric field perpendicular to the direction of the wave, and these are called TE (transverse electric) waves. Others have the magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of the wave, and these are called TM (transverse magnetic) waves. These are the most general types of wave polarization. They can also be called vertical or horizontal polarized waves. If both the electric field and magnetic field are perpendicular to the direction of the wave, the wave is called TEM (transverse electromagnetic). Linear, circular, and elliptical polarizations are specific cases of TEM polarization.\n\nLinear, circular, and elliptical polarizations are three specific types of TEM polarization. They cannot be measured close to an antenna. Far away from an antenna the fields are TEM, so these can be used. They are easy to imagine if you look from at the wave straight on.\n\nLinear polarization Looking along the direction of the wave, the electric field is a single straight line. If the direction of the electric field remains constant, even if the size or magnitude is allowed to change, the state of polarization is referred to as linear. This is because the tip of the electric field vector traces out a straight line in the plane perpendicular to the forward direction of the wave. (Similar to shaking a jump rope up and down, looking at the rope from one end. The moving rope will make the shape of a line).\n\nCircular polarization Looking along the direction of the wave, the electric field traces out the shape of a circle. If the magnitude of the electric field remains constant, and the direction is allowed to vary, the state of polarization is referred to as circular, because the tip of the electric field traces out a circle in the plane perpendicular to the forward direction of the wave. In particular, the circle may be traced out in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction (as the wave is traveling away). (This is similar to swinging a jump rope around for jumping, it makes a circle shape).\n\nElliptical polarization This is like the circular polarization, but the magnitude changes as it rotates, forming an ellipse.\n\nElectromagnetism\nLight","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":127607,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polarization","title":"Polarization","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Kamenny Monastery (Russian: \u0421\u043f\u0430\u0441\u043e-\u041f\u0440\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e-\u041a\u0430\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0440\u044c) was the name of a Russian Orthodox monastery situated on a small eponymous island in the very centre of the Kubensky Lake, in Ust-Kubinsky District of Vologda Oblast, Russia. It is distinguished as the first stone monastery of the Russian North.\n\nOverview \nKamenny Island (literally, \"Stone Island\") is very small, measuring just 120 metres by 70 metres. It is so named after stone ramparts set up by the monks around the island's perimeter in order to preclude its erosion. The lake is known for its inclement weather and frequent storms. The monastery was quite rich, owning seven larger villages (selo), four average villages (seltso) and 98 small villages, in addition to two salt pans in Totma and two branches in Vologda.\n\nHistory \n\nIt is believed that during one of such storms in 1269 Duke Gleb of Beloozero was cast ashore, where he found a small monastic community. The legends of the monks attribute the construction of the first timber cathedral on the isle to the funds subsequently provided by that monarch.\n\nUnder Dmitry Donskoy, the Kamenny Monastery was run by Dionisius, a Greek monk who introduced the coenobian rule of Mount Athos, whereby the brethren were closed alike, took their meals (usually limited to bread and scarce vegetables) in the refectory and were bound to possess no private property. Female animals were banned from the isle to avoid any impure thought on the part of the monks.\n\nThe monastic community reached its peak under Paisiy Yaroslavov, a former hegumen of the Trinity Lavra and one of the most influential clerics of the time. This starets authored The Tale of the Kamenny Monastery whose main themes are the history of this monastery and the struggle of its monks against paganism in the area.\n\nIn 1476 the monastery burnt down. Ivan III's brother Andrey Menshoy, who was the ruler of Vologda, commissioned a stone four-pillared cathedral to be built on the island. The two-storey two-domed edifice was constructed in 1481 by a team of masters from Rostov, who proceeded to erect very similar cathedrals in the Ferapontov Monastery (1490) and Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1497). Paisiy Yaroslavov mentions that he engaged the great artist Dionisius to paint a deesis for the cathedral. It is believed that Dionisius's works perished 185 years later, during a great fire, which resulted in the collapse of the domes.\n\nIn the 16th century, the Kamenny Monastery did not develop as quickly as the two last-mentioned abbeys, because of the limited territory that the tiny and remote island could afford. In the 1540s, the monks constructed a church-belltower of curious architecture and a refectory, after which the monastery gradually declined to obscurity. It was remembered in Moscow primarily as a place of exile, where the famous Old Believer, Ivan Neronov, was deported. On 24 July 1774 one of the exiles set the monastery on fire, whereupon the monks were transferred for 26 years to Vologda. When they finally returned to the island in 1801, the cathedral was restored with five domes instead of one. The only post-medieval buildings on the island were an inn and two lighthouses, built for the needs of the monastery in the 1870s.\n\nClosure and destruction \nThe Soviet government closed down the Kamenny Monastery in 1925 and had its brethren evacuated from the island. The buildings were adapted to house a penal colony for minor delinquents. This establishment proved a failure and by 1937 the island had been deserted. The regional administration profited from the situation to blow up the oldest building of the Russian North in order to obtain brick required for construction of the local \"palace of culture\", which eventually failed to materialise. The ruins of the cathedral are still in situ.\n\n, the only building marking the spot of the historic monastery is the church belltower from the 1540s, which is now being repaired by a team of enthusiasts from Vologda and Moscow.\n\nRestoration \nIn October, 2017, the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church officially decided to reopen Spaso-Kamenny Preobrazhensky monastery with Dionysius (Vozdvizhenskiy) as hegumen.\n\nOnline references \n Kamenny Monastery Restoration Fund\n Kamenny Monastery and Dionisius\n((ru icon)) (in English) https:\/\/www.supernewsworld.com\/Russian-Skydivers-Restoring-An-Ancient-Island-Monastery-9566482.html\n\nReferences\n\nRussian Orthodox monasteries in Russia\nBuildings and structures in Vologda Oblast\n1925 disestablishments in the Soviet Union\nCultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Vologda Oblast","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":41,"dup_details":{"2022-49":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":7,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":9,"2014-15":2}},"id":6352032,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kamenny%20Monastery","title":"Kamenny Monastery","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Somalia (; ), officially called the Federal Republic of Somalia (; ), is a country located on the Horn of Africa. It used to be known as the Somali Republic. \n\nIt is bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya with Yemen to the north, the Guardafui Channel and Somali Sea to the east, and Ethiopia to the west. It has a hot, dry climate. A person from Somalia is called a Somali.\n\nGovernment \nSomalia is a republic governed by a federal administration with various regional administrations governing on a micro level.\n\nSomalia is an independent country. Since the Somali Civil War in the early 1990s, there has been no working government that covers all of Somalia; instead, different pirates have been destabilizing the region to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden. Somalia is now trying to gain control of their people and get back up on its feet with very little resources.\n\nSomalia is one of the poorest and least developed countries. It has the world's second-highest fertility rate.\n\nClan wars \nThere are four big tribes in Somalia, the Hawiye, the Dirweyn, the Koofur Orsi inhabitants and the Darood. Somalis are a nation of related families, which are called clans. Groups of clans sometimes band together based on a common ancestor or other blood relationship. Sometimes these family relationships date back hundreds or even thousands of years in the past. Somalis are mostly camel or goat herders, and depend on their livestock to live. In Somalia there are limited sources of drinking water and grazing land, and disputes over grazing rights, water rights, or land in general can lead to fighting between families. Because of the clan system, the families involved will call on their clan for help, leading to a clan war. The discovery of oil and minerals in Somalia, as well as the power and money associated with politics and business, has created more opportunities for families to get ahead, and has also created more reasons for families to have disputes.\n\nBecause Somalia does not have a working legal system, the only help a family in Somalia has to solve a dispute with another family is to get their clan involved. The only solution to the clan wars in Somalia is a working legal system, but the only group who has succeeded in creating one is the Islamic Courts Union. Unfortunately the Islamic Courts Union was accused of being terrorists and Ethiopia invaded Somalia to topple their government and put the government they created in power instead.\n\nHistory \nIn ancient times, Somalia was a place where people from Egypt and Arabia went to buy gum arabic, myrrh and ebony wood. The Ancient Egyptians used to call it Punt, which meant \"God's Land\". Somalis started herding camel and goats about 4,000 years ago, and they remain mostly herders today.\n\nVisitors from as far away as China visited Somalia, including Zheng He.\n\nMedieval history \n400 more years later, the king of Ethiopia told his subjects that God hated Ifat, and he invaded Ifat with his army, destroying everything he came across and driving the king of Ifat to an island off the coast of Zeila, where he died. The king of Ethiopia then took part of Ifat and added it to his kingdom, and made Ifat pay him lots of money once a year. The remains of Ifat put their kingdom back together again and renamed it Adal.\n\nAbout a hundred years later, the King of Adal was deposed by an influential warlord by the name of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, who had lots of influence with Somali clans across the north. He declared a jihad against Ethiopia, brought together a huge army that included Turkish musketeers and Somali cavalry. The Somali cavalry were especially deadly because they could shoot arrows while riding their horses, something that the Mongol hordes and Japanese Samurai are also famous for.\n\nAhmad chose a bad time, however, because the Portuguese Empire was muscling into East Africa. They had taken over the whole east African coast up to Baraawe, and were trying to take over Mogadishu. The Portuguese decided to help out the Ethiopians because the Ethiopians were Christians and the Portuguese did not like Muslims. Ahmad had taken over more than half of Ethiopia when a troop of Portuguese musketeers showed up to help the Ethiopians out. One Portuguese musketeer managed to shoot Ahmad himself, killing him.\n\nA lot of the Somali cavalry was only there because of Ahmad, so the Jihad ended and Ethiopia wound up invading Adal. The Turks had to send an army to stop them from taking over Zeila, and Adal ended up becoming part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire. On those days we do not find the exact people dwell in Zeila, but the history ascribed the black people, without tracing their origin and their tribes. However, some historians attributed Zeila inhabitant were called semaale without farther lucid explanation.\n\nDaraawiish State \n\nThe Turks and Portuguese fought over East Africa for the next 200 years, but the Turks eventually won about 270 years ago. Northern Somalia stayed under Turkish protection after Ahmad died, and the east coast including Mogadishu ended up under the protection of the King of Oman. When Egypt declared independence from the Turks a hundred years later, Northern Somalia became part of Egypt. Egypt came under British protection shortly after that, and northern Somalia basically became a British protectorate as well. This became official about 130 years ago, and northern Somalia officially became British Somaliland.\n\nThe Kingdom of Italy had just come together as one country around this time, and wanted the same things that the other big countries had, like colonies. Italy offered to buy the rights to the east Africa coast from Oman, who was in charge of protecting the cities and small kingdoms there, and Oman agreed. Italy made deals with some of the larger kingdoms\/sultanates (like the Sultanate of Nugaal) for them to be under Italian protection, but the smaller ones Italy just invaded. This became Italian Somalia in 1905, with capital Mogadishu.\n\nEthiopia, which had fallen apart again after Ahmad's Jihad, had recently put itself back together again as well, and started invading small Somali kingdoms as well, and by 1890 there were not many left. The French got in on this too, but they just took over a small area which today is Djibouti.\n\nLots of Somalis did not like what was going on, so a Muslim religious leader named Mohammed Abdullah Hassan started a group called the Darwiish to fight the British, Italians and Ethiopians. The British called him the \"Mad Mullah\" and spent about 30 years fighting him, eventually using fighter planes against his cavalry. At their height the Darwiish controlled almost a third of Somalia.\n\nItaly created a colony around Mogadishu and enlarged the territory of Italian Somalia after WW1 with the areas south of the Juba river. In the next 20 years the Italian colony grew in importance, having at Hafun the biggest salt production in the world and in the Scebeli river a huge production of bananas exported to Europe. In 1928 was created the first airport in Somalia's capital and later in 1939 was started the longest air route in Africa with the Linea dell'impero, a flight between Rome and Mogadishu.\n\nWorld War 2 history \nWhen Benito Mussolini took power in Italy, he ended the deals he made with the bigger Somali sultanates and invaded them conquering all the area that was to be the colony of Italian Somalia. Then he invaded and took over Ethiopia, using poison gas on the Ethiopians. Shortly afterwards, World War 2 broke out and he invaded British Somaliland, but two years later the British returned and liberated British Somaliland and Ethiopia as well as taking over Italian Somaliland.\n\nAfter the war, Britain wanted to put all of the places Somalis lived in one country, which would be a British protectorate. The Ethiopians complained that they should be able to keep the areas they conquered, and the Italians also complained the same thing, so in the end the Ethiopians got to keep their bit, and the Italians did too. However, Italian Somaliland was put under a United Nations mandate, so the Italians could not make it a colony.\n\nCold War history \nIn 1960 both British and Italian Somaliland declared independence together as the Somali Republic. It was chosen the Latin alphabet for the Somali language. Many areas where Somalis lived were still part of Britain, Ethiopia and France. Somalia wanted to get back all the areas that had been colonized by the French, Ethiopians and British. Somalia and Ethiopia had a short war in 1964 over the Ethiopian part of Somalia, and it was obvious that more fighting was to come.\n\nIn 1969, the President of Somalia was killed by a man whose clan had been hurt by his policies, and General Mohammed Siad Barre took over the country. Siad Barre built a huge army with help from the Soviet Union and when Ethiopia fell for the fourth time (this time because of a communist takeover) he invaded. The Soviet Union decided that Ethiopia was more important than Somalia and double-crossed Siad Barre, supplying huge amounts of weapons to Ethiopia. Some other countries including Cuba and Israel also sent help to Ethiopia, so in the end Siad Barre lost the war.\n\nEthiopia's new government then began helping Somali rebel groups, who did not like how Siad Barre took over the country, and these rebel groups toppled Siad Barre' government in 1991 and forced him out of the country. After this, however, all of the rebel groups started fighting amongst themselves over who would be in charge now that Siad Barre was gone.\n\nEventually, some of the rebel groups decided to make their own governments in the land that they controlled. One, called Somaliland, declared independence from Somalia entirely, while another called Puntland declared independence \"for now\" until a new Somali national government can be put together. Dozens of attempts to create a new national government failed.\n\nModern history \nBecause there was no government in most of Somalia (except where one had been built from scratch, like Puntland and Somaliland) Somalia's only legal system, beyond the law of the gun, was traditional custom and Islamic Sharia law. Because of this, Sharia legal scholars in the lawless south of Somalia gained quite a bit of influence. Around the same time, the people fighting for Somali lands in Ethiopia to be part of Somalia turned to the example of the Afghani Mujahideen, and created their own group called al-Ittihad al-Islamiyya or the Islamic Union. During the 1990s Ethiopia invaded Somalia several times to attack the Islamic Union, who were helping Somali rebels in Ethiopia.\n\nAfter 2001, the United States of America became very suspicious of both the Sharia courts and the Islamic Union of being terrorists. Warlords made a group called the Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism. The Sharia courts banded together to protect themselves and created the Islamic Courts Union. People liked the Sharia courts and hated the gangsters, so everyone helped the Islamic Courts Union, who defeated the gangsters and drove them out of Mogadishu in 2006. The Islamic Courts Union then formed an army and took over most of southern Somalia.\n\nThe United States of America and Ethiopia was alarmed by this takeover, so Ethiopia invaded southern Somalia in 2007 and put a new government in power that was made up of the rebel groups that Ethiopia had funded 15 years earlier. Almost everyone disagreed with this decision, and that same year a rebellion against this new government broke out in Mogadishu and spread across the whole country by 2008. At around the same time, Somali pirates kidnapped westerners from cargo ships and tourist boats for ransom. In 2006, jihadist group al-Shabaab began an insurgency.\n\nReferences\n\n \nItalian-speaking countries\nLeast developed countries\nMembers of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":12403,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Somalia","title":"Somalia","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Arlington National Cemetery is a cemetery in Arlington County, Virginia. People who served in the United States military are buried here. The cemetery started during the American Civil War. It is on a big farm called Arlington House. Arlington House was the home of Mary Anna Custis Lee. Mary Anna Custis Lee was a great-granddaughter of Martha Washington. She was also the wife of Confederate general Robert E. Lee. Although most of the farm now has graves, the old farmhouse still stands in the middle of the cemetery. The cemetery is across the Potomac River from the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C..\n\nThe cemetery covers . People who died serving the United States in a war, and military veterans are allowed to be buried in the cemetery. People are buried here who fought in wars from American Civil War to the military actions in Afghanistan and Iraq. People who were buried here before the Civil War were reburied after 1900.\n\nArlington National Cemetery is taken care of by the United States Army. Arlington House (Custis-Lee Mansion) and its land are taken care of by the National Park Service as a memorial to Lee. Recently, the way the cemetery is managed caused controversy.\n\nHistory\n\nGeorge Washington Parke Custis was the grandson of Martha Washington, and grew up with Martha and George Washington. He got the land that now is Arlington National Cemetery in 1802. He began building Arlington House, where he lived with his wife Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis. The land and house was given to their only child that lived to be an adult, Mary Anna Custis Lee. She was married to Robert E. Lee, a West Point graduate and United States Army officer. When Fort Sumter was forced to surrender at the beginning of the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln asked Lee to be the general of the federal army. Lee did not give an answer right away, but waited to see if his home state of Virginia would leave the Union.\n\nLee left the federal army when Virginia said it was leaving the United States.  He decided he could not fight against his home state. He became the leader of the armed forces of the Commonwealth of Virginia. He then became commander of the Army of Northern Virginia. Lee was a great commander and won several battles against the Union forces. Most Union officers thought Lee had broken his promises to the Union because he chose to fight against them. Part of Arlington was taken away from the Lee family and became a graveyard. Mostly Union dead are buried there.\n\nBefore the Civil War, the United States did not have large military-only cemeteries.  Important generals were buried in the Congressional Cemetery with other important leaders. American military cemeteries were needed on distant frontiers, and near battles and hospitals where many soldiers died. When dead Civil War soldiers filled the burial grounds near Washington, D.C., Quartermaster General Montgomery C. Meigs proposed in 1864 that  of the Robert E. Lee family property at Arlington be taken for a cemetery.\n\nDuring the Civil War, people invented tricks to capture or to make life hard for Americans that fought on the other side of the war. The government assessed taxes on properties and insisted that the owners appear in person to pay them. If the plantation owner did not come, the government would sell the land. The government bought Arlington at tax sale in 1864 for $26,800.  Mrs. Lee did not show up in person, but rather had sent an agent to pay the $92.07 in property taxes that were owed for the land. The government turned away her agent, refusing to accept the tax payment. In 1874, Custis Lee, heir under his grandfather's will passing the estate in trust to his mother, sued the United States claiming ownership of Arlington. After the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5-4 in Lee's favor in United States v. Lee, deciding that Arlington had been taken illegally, Congress returned the land to him. The next year, Custis Lee sold it back to the government for $150,000. Custis Lee and Robert Todd Lincoln, Secretary of War and son of President Lincoln, were both present when the property was officially turned over to the government.\n\nIn 2011, Hurricane Irene killed six large trees at the cemetery. The 220-year-old \"Arlington Oak\" fell down near the grave of John F. Kennedy.\n\nSections\n\nArlington National Cemetery is divided into 70 sections, with some sections in the southeast part of the cemetery saved for future use. Section 60, in the southeast part of the cemetery, is the burial ground for military personnel killed in the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan. In 2005, Arlington National Cemetery bought another  from the National Park Service, along with  from the Department of Defense that was part of Fort Myer and  that is the site of the Navy Annex.\n\nSection 21, also known as the Nurses Section, is the area of Arlington National Cemetery where many nurses are buried. The Nurses Memorial is there. In the cemetery, there is a Confederate section with graves of soldiers of the Confederate States of America and a Confederate Memorial. All Confederate headstones are peaked rather than rounded. In Section 27, there are buried more than 3,800 former slaves, called \"Contrabands\" during the Civil War. Their headstones are designated with the word \"Civilian\" or \"Citizen\".\n\nGrave markers, niches and headstones\nThe United States Department of Veterans Affairs takes care of the National Cemetery Administration's requests for the words and faith emblems (a cross, Jewish star, etc.) at no charge to the family of the dead put on upright marble headstones or columbarium niche covers. There are 39 authorized faith emblems available for placement to represent the deceased's faith. \"Available Emblems of Belief for Placement on Government Headstones\" and \"Markers\" Markers\n\nThe cemetery had allowed privately-purchased markers in certain burial areas. Since 2001, the areas that the cemetery permitted such markers in are filled.  The older sections of the cemetery have many different private markers, including artillery pieces.\n\nTomb of the Unknowns\n\nThe Tomb of the Unknowns at Arlington National Cemetery is also called the \"Tomb of the Unknown Soldier\". It stands on top of a hill overlooking Washington, D.C. It honors soldiers who died without their bodies being identified.\n\nThe Tomb is one of the more popular sites at the Cemetery. The tomb is made from Yule marble quarried in Colorado. It consists of seven pieces, with a total weight of 79 short tons (72 metric tons). The tomb was completed and opened to the public April 9, 1932, at a cost of $48,000.\n\nU.S. Army guards have stood watch at the Tomb of the Unknowns at all times since July 2, 1937. The 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment (\"The Old Guard\") began guarding the Tomb April 6, 1948.\n\nArlington Memorial Amphitheater\n\nThe Tomb of the Unknowns is part of the Arlington Memorial Amphitheater. The Memorial Amphitheater has hosted state funerals and Memorial Day and Veterans Day ceremonies. Ceremonies are also held for Easter. About 5,000 people attend these holiday ceremonies each year. The structure is mostly built of Imperial Danby marble from Vermont. The Memorial Display room, between the amphitheater and the Tomb of the Unknowns, uses Botticino stone, imported from Italy. The amphitheater was the result of a campaign by Ivory Kimball to construct a place to honor America's soldiers. Congress authorized the structure March 4, 1913. Woodrow Wilson laid the cornerstone for the building on October 15, 1915. The cornerstone contained 15 items including a Bible and a copy of the Constitution.\n\nNetherlands Carillon\n\nThe Netherlands Carillon is a carillon (bell tower) that was a gift from the Netherlands to the people of the United States in 1954, in thanks for their efforts during World War II. The bells are played by people with special training.  This happens regularly during the summer and on special days. Recorded tunes are played on the hour and during the day.  It is next to Arlington National Cemetery, on the north side.\n\nMemorials\n\nIt is now hard to find space to build new memorials at the cemetery.  The army worries that new memorials take up space that could otherwise be used for graves. The army requires a joint or concurrent resolution from Congress before it will place new memorials onto the cemetery grounds. Still, there are several memorials on the cemetery grounds, and groups regularly ask for space for new memorials.\n\nThe Space Shuttle Challenger Memorial was dedicated on May 20, 1986, in memory of the crew of flight STS-51-L, who died during launch on January 28, 1986. Written on the back of the stone is the text of the John Gillespie Magee, Jr. poem High Flight. Although many remains were identified and returned to the families for private burial, some were not, and were laid to rest under the marker. Two of the crew members, Scobee and Smith, are buried in Arlington, as well. There is a similar memorial to those who died when the Shuttle Columbia broke apart during reentry on February 1, 2003.  It was dedicated on the first anniversary of the disaster. Astronauts Laurel Clark, David Brown and Michael Anderson are also buried in Arlington.\n\nThe Cairn, the Lockerbie memorial is a memorial to the 270 killed in the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. The memorial is made up of 270 stones, one for each person killed in the disaster. In section 64, there is a memorial to the 184 victims of the September 11 attacks on the Pentagon. The memorial takes the shape of a pentagon, and lists the names of all the victims that were killed.\n\nThere are only two mausoleums located within the confines of the cemetery. One is for the family of General Nelson Appleton Miles in Section 3 and the other one belongs to the family of General Thomas Crook Sullivan and it is in Section 1.\n\nThere is a Commonwealth Cross of Sacrifice with the names of all the citizens of the USA who lost their lives fighting in the Canadian forces during the Korean War and the two world wars.\n\nThe Women in Military Service for America Memorial is at the Ceremonial Entrance to Arlington National Cemetery.\n\nNotable burials\n\nThe first soldier to be buried in Arlington was Private William Henry Christman of Pennsylvania on May 13, 1864.\n\nNotable civilians \n Julian Bartley, Sr. (54) and his son Jay Bartley (20), killed together in the 1998 bombing of the U.S. embassy in Nairobi\n Harry Blackmun, Thurgood Marshall, William O. Douglas, Potter Stewart and Ruth Bader Ginsburg, five justices of the Supreme Court of the United States\n Leslie Coffelt, Secret Service member killed fighting off would-be-assassins of President Harry S. Truman in the 1950 assassination attempt at Blair House\n George Washington Parke Custis, founder of Arlington Plantation, grandson of Martha Washington, step-grandson of President George Washington, father to Mary Anna Custis Lee.\n Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis, wife to George Washington Parke Custis, daughter of William Fitzhugh and Ann Bolling Randolph Fitzhugh, mother to Mary Anna Custis Lee.\n Albert Sabin, scientists who helped develop an oral polio vaccine.\n Charles Durning, actor and personality.\n Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, former First Lady and widow of John F. Kennedy\n Phyllis Kirk, famous TV and movie actress, alongside her husband.\n James Parks, freedman, the only person buried at Arlington Cemetery who was born on the grounds.\n Manuel Quezon (1878\u20131944), President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines (1935\u20131944), later transferred to a cemetery in Manila\n Mary Randolph, first person to be buried at Arlington Plantation, descendant of Pocahontas and John Rolfe, cousin to Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis.\n Marie Teresa Rios, author of Fifteenth Pelican, basis for The Flying Nun television show.\n John Gibson and Jacob Chestnut, United States Capitol Police officers killed in the 1998 Capitol shooting attack\n Leslie Sherman, student killed in the 2007 Virginia Tech massacre (her parents Holly and Anthony Sherman are both veterans and will be buried next to their daughter).\n\nWhether or not they were wartime service members, U.S. presidents are eligible to be buried at Arlington, since they oversaw the armed forces as commanders-in-chief.\n\nFour state funerals have been held at Arlington: those of Presidents William Howard Taft and John F. Kennedy, that of General John J. Pershing, and that of U.S. Senator Edward M. Kennedy.\n\nMilitary burials\nAs of May 2006, there were 367 Medal of Honor recipients buried in Arlington National Cemetery. Nine of these recipients are Canadians.\n Creighton Abrams (1914\u20131974), United States Army General who commanded U.S. military operations in the Vietnam War, 1968\u20131972\n Henry Harley \"Hap\" Arnold (1886\u20131950), first (and so far only) General of the Air Force (5-Stars)\n Gordon Beecher (1904\u20131973), United States Navy Vice Admiral and composer\n Jeremy Michael Boorda (1939\u20131996), US Navy Admiral and Chief of Naval Operations\n Gregory \"Pappy\" Boyington (1912\u20131988), World War II Marine Corps fighter ace, Medal of Honor recipient, and commander of VMF-214, the \"Black Sheep Squadron\" (basis for the 1970s TV series Baa Baa Black Sheep)\n Omar Nelson Bradley (1893\u20131981), commanded the 12th Army Group in Europe during World War II, first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the last living five star general.\n Ruby G. Bradley (1907\u20132002), Colonel and, with 34 medals, one of the most decorated women in U.S. military history\n Alfred Winsor Brown (1885\u20131938), World War I Navy officer and Governor of Guam\n Miles Browning (1897\u20131954), World War I and World War II Navy officer and hero of the Battle of Midway\n Frank Buckles (1901\u20132011), last known American veteran of World War I.\n Omar Bundy (1861\u20131940), World War I Major General who commanded the 1st Brigade, 1st Expeditionary Division in France, awarded the French Legion of Honor and the Croix de Guerre.\n John Allen Campbell (1835\u20131880), Brevet Brigadier General; American Civil War, first Governor of Wyoming Territory in 1869 and Third Assistant Secretary of State.\n Roger Chaffee (1935\u20131967) and Gus Grissom (1926\u20131967), astronauts killed in the Apollo 1 fire (Edward White was buried at West Point)\n Claire Lee Chennault (1893\u20131958), was a United States military aviator who commanded the \"Flying Tigers\" during World War II.\n Bertram Tracy Clayton (1862\u20131918), Congressman from New York, killed in action in 1918\n Charles Austin Coolidge (1844\u20131926), Brigadier General, served in Civil War, Indian Wars, Spanish-American War, Philippine-American War and the China Relief Expedition.\n William P. Cronan (1879\u20131929), US Naval officer and 19h Naval Governor of Guam.\n Scott Crossfield (1921\u20132006), US Naval aviator and test pilot, first to fly at twice the speed of sound; played a major role in the design and development of the North American X-15.\n Louis Cukela (1888\u20131956), Marine Corps Major, awarded two Medals of Honor for same act in World War I\n Jane Delano (1862\u20131919), Director, Army Nursing Corps\n Sir John Dill (1881\u20131944), British Diplomat and Field Marshal\n William \"Wild Bill\" Donovan (1883\u20131959), Major General and Chief of the OSS during World War II\n Abner Doubleday (1819\u20131893), Civil War general credited with inventing baseball\n Clarence Ransom Edwards (1860\u20131931), commanded the 26th \"Yankee\" Division in World War I\n Frank J. Fletcher (1885\u20131973), Admiral, U.S. Navy, World War II; operational commander at Coral Sea and Midway; awarded Medal of Honor.\n Nathan Bedford Forrest III (1905\u20131943) Brigadier General of the United States Army Air Forces, and a great-grandson of Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest. First American general to be killed in action in Europe during World War II\n Rene Gagnon, Ira Hayes and Michael Strank: three of the six servicemen in Joe Rosenthal's famous picture, Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima (Strank was killed in action just days after the photo was taken)\n John Gibbon (1827\u20131896), Brigadier General, Union Army, Civil War, most notably commander of 2nd Division, US II Corps that repelled Pickett's Charge at the Battle of Gettysburg.\n David Haskell Hackworth (1930\u20132005), Colonel and most decorated American soldier\n William \"Bull\" Halsey (1882\u20131959), World War II Navy five-star Fleet Admiral\n Grace Hopper (1906\u20131992), rear admiral, pioneering computer scientist\n Kara Spears Hultgreen (1965\u20131994), the first female naval carrier-based fighter pilot\n James Jabara (1923\u20131966), the first American jet ace in history. He's credited with shooting down 15 enemy aircraft during aerial combat.\n Daniel \"Chappie\" James, Jr. (1920\u20131978), USAF, first African American four-star General in the U.S. Armed Forces\n Philip Kearny (1815\u20131862), \"fearless\" one-armed cavalry general killed at Chantilly during the Civil War\n W\u0142odzimierz B. Krzy\u017canowski (1824\u20131887), Polish military leader and Civil War Union general\n Henry Louis Larsen (1890\u20131962), Marine Lieutenant General; commanded the first deployed American troops in both World Wars; Governor of Guam and American Samoa.\n Mark Matthews (1894\u20132005), last surviving Buffalo Soldier\n Francis Lupo (1895\u20131918), Private killed in France during World War I; holds the distinction of possibly being the longest U.S. service member missing in action to be found (1918\u20132003)\n John S. McCain, Sr. (1884\u20131945), USN Admiral \u2013 grandfather of Senator John McCain and father of McCain Jr.\n John S. McCain, Jr. (1911\u20131981), USN Admiral \u2013 father of Senator John McCain\n Henry Pinckney McCain (1861\u20131941), US Army officer and Adjutant Generals of the U.S. Army; Uncle to McCain Sr, grand-uncle of McCain Jr\n David McCampbell (1910\u20131996), Captain, the US Navy's top World War II Ace with 34 kills\n Montgomery Cunningham Meigs (1816\u20131892), Brigadier General. Arlington National Cemetery was established by Brig. Gen. Montgomery C. Meigs, who commanded the garrison at Arlington House and took over the grounds on June 15, 1864, for use as a military cemetery. He wanted to make the house not usable for living, in case the Lee family tried to return. A stone and masonry burial vault in the rose garden,  wide and  deep, and containing the remains of 2,111 Civil War dead, was among the first monuments to Union dead erected under Meigs' orders. Meigs himself was later buried within  of Arlington House with his wife, father and son.\n Glenn Miller (1904\u20131944), Major and well known band leader who disappeared over the English Channel while flying to Paris. His body was never found, but he has a memorial headstone.\n Audie Murphy (1924\u20131971), U.S. Army, Recipient of the Medal of Honor, actor, and the most decorated U.S. Soldier during World War II.\n Edward Ord (1818\u20131883), Major General, Army of the James during the Appomattox Campaign, Union Army, Civil War.\n George S. Patton IV (1923\u20132004), Major General of the Army and son of famed WWII General, George S. Patton\n John J. Pershing (1860\u20131948), America's first General of the Armies, commanded American forces in World War I\n David Dixon Porter (1813\u20131891), Admiral, Union Navy, Civil War, most notable as the Union naval commander during the Vicksburg Campaign, a turning point of the war, which split the Confederacy in two.\n Francis Gary Powers (1929\u20131977), American U-2 pilot shot down over the Soviet Union in 1960\n John Aaron Rawlins (1831\u20131869), Civil War general, chief of staff and later Secretary of War to Ulysses S. Grant\n Alfred C. Richmond (1902\u20131984), Commandant of the United States Coast Guard\n Hyman G. Rickover (1900\u20131986), father of the Nuclear Navy\n Matthew Ridgway (1895\u20131993), WWII and Korea General, Chief of Staff of the Army\n William S. Rosecrans (1819\u20131898), Major General, Army of the Cumberland, Union Army, Civil War\n William T. Ryder (1913\u20131992), Brigadier General, first American paratrooper\n Thomas Selfridge (1882\u20131908), First Lieutenant in the U.S. Army and the first person to die in a crash of a powered airplane\n Philip Sheridan (1831\u20131888), commanding general, Union Army, Civil War\n Daniel E. Sickles (1819\u20131914), Major General, III Corps, Army of the Potomac, Union Army, Civil War. Also served as U.S. Minister to Spain and as U.S. Representative from New York\n Robert F. Sink (1905\u20131965), Lt. General, and former Regimental Commander of the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division, portrayed by Vietnam Veteran, and retired Marine Captain Dale Dye in the HBO\/BBC miniseries Band of Brothers.\n Walter Bedell Smith (1895\u20131961), General, U.S. Army, World War II, Dwight D. Eisenhower's Chief of Staff during Eisenhower's time at SHAEF and Director of the CIA from 1950 to 1953. Also served as U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1946 to 1948.\n Lauri T\u00f6rni, a.k.a. Larry Thorne (1919\u20131965), Finnish soldier who served in the US special forces and was a World War II veteran; called \"soldier who fought under three flags (Finland, Germany and USA)\".\n Matt Urban (1919\u20131995), Colonel, U.S Army, most highly decorated soldier for valor in the history of the US Military\n Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright IV (1883\u20131953), Major General, hero of Bataan and Corregidor; highest ranking POW in World War II\n Robert Webb (1922\u20132002), B-17 Flying Fortress pilot\n Joseph Wheeler (1836\u20131906), served as a Major General for two opposing forces: the Confederate Army during the Civil War, and the U.S. Army during the Spanish-American War and Philippine-American War\n Orde Charles Wingate (1903\u20131944), British major general, creator and commander of the Chindits\n Clark H. Woodward (1877\u20131968), Vice Admiral, served in five wars: the Spanish-American War, Philippine-American War, Boxer Rebellion and both World Wars\n Charles Young (1864\u20131922), first African-American Lieutenant colonel in the US Army\n\nBurial under protest \nWarrant Officer Gregory S. Crandall's helicopter was shot down over Savannakhet province, Laos, on  February 18, 1971. In May of that year the military listed him KIA. According to Arlington National cemetery records John Manning, chief of the Army's Mortuary Affairs Branch stated that witnesses to the crash reported that the ...\"helicopter burst into flames and exploded when it hit the ground.\". It was also reported that there were a series of seven explosions. The remains of Crandall and two other soldiers were recovered in February 1991 and on September 17, 1993, with full military honors, a full sized steel casket, and at the protest of the family, the remains of Warrant Officer Gregory S. Crandall, a single No. 4 maxillary premolar tooth, was buried.\n\nService members with other distinguished careers \n\n Sosthenes Behn, businessman and founder of ITT Corporation\n Hugo Black, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States\n William J. Brennan, Jr., Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States\n Ron Brown, United States Secretary of Commerce\n William Jennings Bryan, Secretary of State, three-time presidential candidate, orator\n William Francis Buckley, CIA Station Chief, murdered in Beirut.\n Clark Clifford, Secretary of Defense, advisor to four presidents\n Charles \"Pete\" Conrad, Jr., Apollo astronaut, third man to walk on the Moon\n Denver Dickerson (1914\u20131981), U.S. Army veteran of World War II, Secretary of Guam (1963\u20131969)\n Dwight F. Davis, Secretary of War, established the Davis Cup\n Michael E. DeBakey, famous cardiovascular physician, U.S. Army soldier during World War II\n John Foster Dulles, Secretary of State\n Medgar Evers (1925\u20131963), U.S. Army veteran of World War II, civil rights activist\n Stanley L. Greigg, U.S. Congressman from Iowa\n Dashiell Hammett, author\n Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, wounded three times in the Civil War, \"The Great Dissenter\"\n Robert G. Ingersoll, political leader and orator, noted for his agnosticism\n Edward Stanley Kellogg (1870\u20131948), U.S. Navy Captain, 16th Governor of American Samoa (1923\u20131925).\n Edward M. Kennedy (1932\u20132009), U.S. Army Veteran (1951\u20131953), U.S. Senator from Massachusetts (1962\u20132009).\n John F. Kennedy (1917\u20131963), U.S. Navy officer during World War II, U.S. Representative (1947\u20131953), U.S. Senator (1953\u20131961), President of the United States, (1961\u20131963).\n Robert F. Kennedy (1925\u20131968), Navy veteran, Attorney General of the United States (1961\u20131964), U.S. Senator from New York (1965\u20131968).\n Frank Kowalski, U.S. Army veteran of World War II; U.S. Representative from Connecticut\n Pierre Charles L'Enfant, French military engineer, architect, and urban planner; designed the city of Washington\n Robert Todd Lincoln, Secretary of War, son of former U.S. President Abraham Lincoln\n Joe Louis, world heavyweight boxing champion\n Allard Lowenstein, U.S. Congressman from New York.\n John R. Lynch, freedman, U.S. Army major, and Member of Congress\n Mike Mansfield, longest-serving Senate Majority Leader, United States Ambassador to Japan\n George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff of the Army, General of the Army, Emissary to China, Secretary of State, and Secretary of Defense. Instrumental in developing the Marshall Plan after World War II\n Lee Marvin, Marine Corps veteran and actor\n Bill Mauldin, editorial cartoonist; noted for World War II\u2013era work satirizing military life in Stars and Stripes\n George B. McClellan, Jr. (1865\u20131940) Mayor of New York (1904\u20131909), son of Union Army Major General George B. McClellan\n John C. Metzler, World War II sergeant, former superintendent of Arlington National Cemetery (1951\u20131972)\n Daniel Patrick Moynihan, U.S. Senator from New York\n Phelps Phelps, 38th Governor of American Samoa and United States Ambassador to the Dominican Republic\n Spot Poles, considered among the greatest outfielders of the Negro Leagues\n William Rehnquist, Chief Justice of the United States\n Earl W. Renfroe, orthodontist who helped originate the concept of preventive and interceptive orthodontics.\n Frank Reynolds, ABC television anchorman\n Samuel W. Small, journalist, evangelist, prohibitionist.\n Johnny Micheal Spann, CIA officer, first American killed in Afghanistan. Although Spann had served in the USMC, he was not in the military when killed. However, because he had received the CIA's Intelligence Star, considered the equivalent of the US Military's Silver Star and recognized as such by President George W. Bush, Spann was approved for burial in Arlington National Cemetery.\n Ted Stevens, US Senator from Alaska\n Samuel S. Stratton, 15-term U.S. Representative from New York\n William Howard Taft, Secretary of War, President of the United States, Chief Justice of the United States\n George Westinghouse, Civil War veteran, Westinghouse Electric founder\n Harvey W. Wiley, first Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration, \"father\" of the Pure Food and Drug Act\n Charles Willeford, World War II veteran and author\n William Christman First soldier to be buried at Arlington Cemetery\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Poole, Robert M., On Hallowed Ground: The Story of Arlington National Cemetery , Walker & Co, 2009.\n\nOther websites\n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n1864 establishments in the United States\nMilitary monuments and memorials in the United States\nCommonwealth War Graves Commission\n19th-century establishments in Virginia\n1864 establishments\n1864 in the United States\nBurials at Arlington National Cemetery\nHistory of Virginia\nNational Register of Historic Places\nUnited States Army\nBuildings and structures in Washington, D.C.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":302856,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arlington%20National%20Cemetery","title":"Arlington National Cemetery","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Explosives are chemical compounds that cause explosions; they flare up and burst with a loud sound. Explosive material has many special characteristics: it is a chemically unstable material, it changes its form very fast and, while changing its form, it explodes by bursting and making loud sounds. \n\nThere are two types of explosives: low explosives and high explosives. This classification depends on their rate of explosion. Low explosives conflagrate (= burn very fast). High explosives detonate (= explode with bursts). A low explosive is a material, which burns very fast, but does not explode generally. For exploding them, people mix them with high explosives. Sometimes, even a low explosive may detonate. A high explosive bursts and explodes very fast. High explosives produce more pressure than low explosives but low explosives are more safe to use. People use low explosives in fuses, rocket engines and fireworks, and high explosives in mining and demolition (destroying old bridges and buildings). Guns use low explosives as propellants; most bombs use high explosives. \n\nGunpowder and ammonium nitrate are low explosives.\n\nHigh explosives may belong to different groups: primary explosives and secondary explosives. Primary explosives are very unstable and rapidly react to shock, friction, and heat. Any shock, friction, or heat makes primary explosives to burn or blast fast. Secondary explosives are much more safe to use and do not react very fast to shock, friction, and heat. Any shock, friction, or heat may burn such explosives, but not make them to burst and blast. Some people call secondary explosives as base explosives. Some people also tell about another group of explosives. These are tertiary explosives. These explosives do not react to shock, friction, and heat. For explosion, tertiary explosives may need a mixture with secondary explosives. \n\nPrimary explosives are used as detonators: that is, to cause the secondary explosives to explode. Mercury fulminate, picric acid, lead azide, nitroglycerine and iodine nitride are examples of primary explosives. TNT, dynamite, hexogen, HMX and Torpex are examples of secondary explosives.\n\nWhile sending explosives from one place to another, the packs containing different types of explosives may have different types of markings on the boxes. The United Nations has advised use of such markings. Some examples are:\n\n 1.1 Mass Explosion Hazard\n 1.2 Nonmass explosion, fragment-producing\n 1.3 Mass fire, minor blast or fragment hazard\n 1.4 Moderate fire, no blast or fragment: a consumer firework is 1.4G or 1.4S\n 1.5 Explosive substance, very insensitive (with a mass explosion hazard)\n 1.6 Explosive article, extremely insensitive\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":159,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-14":4,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":5,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":5,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":32064,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Explosive%20material","title":"Explosive material","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ne gjuha, nje archaism (nga, archa\u00efk\u00f3s, 'old-fashioned, antiquated', ultimately , archa\u00eeos, 'from the beginning, ancient') is the use of a form of speech or writing that is no longer current. This can either be done deliberately (to achieve a specific effect) or as part of a specific jargon (for example in law) or formula (for example in religious contexts). Many nursery rhymes contain archaisms. Archaic elements that occur only in certain fixed expressions (for example 'be that as it may') are not considered to be archaisms.\n\nPerdorimi \n\nArkaizmat jane most frequently encountered in poetry, law, science, technology, geography and ritual writing and speech. Their deliberate use can be subdivided into literary archaisms, which seeks to evoke the style of older speech and writing; and lexical archaisms, the use of words no longer in common use. Archaisms are kept alive by these ritual and literary uses and by the study of older literature. Should they remain recognised, they can be revived, as the word anent was in this past century.\n\nBecause they are fields of continual discovery and re-invention, science and technology have historically generated forms of speech and writing which have dated and fallen into disuse relatively quickly. However the emotional associations of certain words (for example: 'Wireless' rather than 'Radio' for a generation of British citizens who lived through the second world war) have kept them alive even though the older word is clearly an archaism.\n\nA similar desire to evoke a former age means that archaic place names are frequently used in circumstances where doing so conveys a political or emotional subtext, or when the official new name is not recognised by all (for example: 'Persia' rather than 'Iran', 'Bombay' rather than 'Mumbai', 'Madras' rather than 'Chennai'). So, a restaurant seeking to conjure up historic associations might prefer to call itself Old Bombay or refer to Persian cuisine in preference to using the newer place name. A notable contemporary example is the name of the airline Cathay Pacific, which uses the archaic Cathay (\"China\").\n\nArchaisms are frequently misunderstood, leading to changes in usage. One example is found in the phrase \"the odd man out\", which originally came from the phrase \"to find the odd man out\", where the verb \"to find out\" has been split by its object \"the odd man\", meaning the item which does not fit.\n\nThe compound adverbs and prepositions found in the writing of lawyers (e.g. heretofore, hereunto, thereof) are examples of archaisms as a form of jargon. Some phraseologies, especially in religious contexts, retain archaic elements that are not used in ordinary speech in any other context: \"With this ring I thee wed.\" Archaisms are also used in the dialogue of historical novels in order to evoke the flavour of the period. Some may count as inherently funny words and are used for humorous effect.\n\nMendimet alternative \n\nNe studimet kulturore anthropologjike , arkaizmat jane perkufizuar si the absence of writing and subsistence economy. Ne histori, arkaizma is used to connote a superior, albeit mythical, \"golden age.\"\n\nShih edhe \n Legal English\n List of alternative country names\n List of archaic technological nomenclature\n Thou\n\nReferenceat \n George Orwell, Politics and the English Language (1946)\n\nLeksikologji","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3}},"id":88665,"url":"https:\/\/sq.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arkaizmat","title":"Arkaizmat","language":"sq"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u300a\u9418\u8072\u980c\u6b4c\u300b()\u6216\u8b6f\u300a\u8056\u8a95\u9418\u8072\u300b,\u662f\u7531\u70cf\u514b\u862d\u4f5c\u66f2\u5bb6\u7c73\u79d1\u62c9\u00b7\u83b1\u6602\u6258\u7ef4\u5947\u57281914\u5e74\u6240\u767c\u8868\u7684\u8056\u8a95\u980c\u6b4c,\u70cf\u514b\u862d\u6587\u539f\u6b4c\u8a5e\u7248\u70ba\u300a\u4ec0\u5fb9\u5fb7\u91cc\u514b\u300b\u3002\n\n\u82f1\u6587\u6b4c\u8a5e \nHark how the bells,\nsweet silver bells,\nall seem to say,\nthrow cares away\n\nChristmas is here,\nbringing good cheer,\nto young and old,\nmeek and the bold,\n\nDing dong ding dong\nthat is their song\nwith joyful ring\nall caroling\n\nOne seems to hear\nwords of good cheer\nfrom everywhere\nfilling the air\n\nOh how they pound,\nraising the sound,\no'er hill and dale,\ntelling their tale,\n\nGaily they ring\nwhile people sing\nsongs of good cheer,\nChristmas is here,\nMerry, merry, merry, merry Christmas,\nMerry, merry, merry, merry Christmas,\n\nOn on they send,\non without end,\ntheir joyful tone\nto every home\n\nDing dong ding: dong!\n\n\u70cf\u514b\u862d\u97f3\u6a02\n\u5723\u8bde\u9882\u6b4c\n\u8056\u8a95\u6b4c\u66f2","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":749,"dup_dump_count":98,"dup_details":{"2024-30":7,"2024-26":7,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":9,"2017-13":18,"2015-18":9,"2015-11":9,"2015-06":9,"2014-10":7,"2013-48":5,"2013-20":16,"2023-50":7,"2023-40":7,"2023-23":11,"2023-14":11,"2023-06":8,"2022-49":6,"2022-40":6,"2022-33":5,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":9,"2022-05":9,"2021-49":6,"2021-43":6,"2021-39":6,"2021-31":8,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":10,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":5,"2021-04":6,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":8,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":4,"2019-39":9,"2019-35":8,"2019-30":6,"2019-26":7,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":5,"2019-09":12,"2019-04":9,"2018-51":15,"2018-47":10,"2018-43":7,"2018-39":12,"2018-34":8,"2018-30":10,"2018-26":12,"2018-22":4,"2018-17":9,"2018-13":20,"2018-09":10,"2018-05":11,"2017-51":12,"2017-47":11,"2017-43":13,"2017-39":12,"2017-34":8,"2017-30":10,"2017-26":13,"2017-22":15,"2017-17":12,"2017-09":12,"2017-04":12,"2016-50":6,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":5,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":18,"2014-49":7,"2014-42":19,"2014-41":16,"2014-35":10,"2014-23":14,"2014-15":5}},"id":5740958,"url":"https:\/\/zh.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E9%90%98%E8%81%B2%E9%A0%8C%E6%AD%8C","title":"\u9418\u8072\u980c\u6b4c","language":"zh"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Mercury-Redstone 4 was the second United States human spaceflight, on July 21, 1961. The suborbital Project Mercury flight was launched with a Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle, MRLV-8. The spacecraft, Mercury capsule #11, was nicknamed Liberty Bell 7. It was piloted by astronaut Virgil \"Gus\" Grissom.\n\nThe spaceflight lasted 15 minutes 30 seconds, reached an altitude of more than , and flew  downrange, landing in the Atlantic Ocean. The flight went as expected until just after splashdown, when the hatch cover, designed to release explosively in the event of an emergency, accidentally blew. Grissom was at risk of drowning, but was recovered safely via a U.S. Navy helicopter. The spacecraft sank into the Atlantic and was not recovered until 1999.\n\nMission parameters\n Mass: 1\u00a0286\u00a0kg\n Maximum altitude: 190.39\u00a0km\n Range: 486.15\u00a0km\n Launch vehicle: Redstone rocket\n\nSpacecraft\nThe MR-4 spacecraft, Mercury capsule #11, was designated to fly the second crewed suborbital flight in October 1960. It came off McDonnell's St. Louis production line in May 1960. Capsule #11 was the first Mercury operational spacecraft with a centerline window instead of two portholes. It was closer to the final orbital version than was Alan Shepard's Freedom 7. Dubbed Liberty Bell 7 by its pilot, it featured a white, diagonal, irregular paint stripe starting at the base of the capsule and extending about two-thirds toward the nose, emulating the crack in the famed Liberty Bell in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\n\nExplosive hatch\n\nLiberty Bell 7 also had a new explosive hatch release. This would allow an astronaut to exit the spacecraft quickly in the event of an emergency. Emergency personnel could also trigger the explosive hatch from outside the spacecraft by pulling on an external lanyard. Both the pop-off hatch and the lanyard are standard features of ejection seats used in military aircraft, but in the Mercury design, the pilot still had to exit the craft himself, or be removed by emergency personnel. The original exit procedure was to climb out through the antenna compartment, after removing a small pressure bulkhead. This was a difficult and slow procedure. Removal of an injured or unconscious astronaut through the top hatch would be nearly impossible. The original side hatch was bolted shut with 70 bolts and covered with several spacecraft shingles, making it a slow process to open the original hatch.\n\nMcDonnell Aircraft engineers devised two different quick release hatches for the Mercury spacecraft. The first had a latch, and was used on Ham's (a chimpanzee) MR-2 and Shepard's MR-3 missions. The second design was an explosive release hatch. The quick release latching hatch weighed 69\u00a0lb (31\u00a0kg), too much of a weight addition to use on the orbital version of the spacecraft. The explosive hatch design used the 70 bolts of the original design, but each quarter-inch (6.35\u00a0mm) titanium bolt had a  hole bored into it to provide a weak point. A mild detonating fuse (MDF) was installed in a channel between the inner and outer seal around the periphery of the hatch. When the MDF was ignited, the resulting gas pressure between the inner and outer seal would cause the bolts to fail in tension.\n\nThere were two ways to fire the explosive hatch during recovery. On the inside of the hatch was a knobbed plunger. The pilot could remove a pin and press the plunger with a force of 5 or 6\u00a0lbf (25\u00a0N). This would detonate the explosive charge, which would shear off the 70 bolts and propel the hatch  away in one second. If the pin was left in place, a force of 40\u00a0lbf (180\u00a0N) was required to detonate the bolts. An outside rescuer could blow open the hatch by removing a small panel near the hatch and pulling a lanyard. The explosive hatch weighed .\n\nWindow\nThe new trapezoidal window on Liberty Bell 7 replaced the two  side portholes that were on Freedom 7. The Corning Glass Works of Corning, New York designed and developed the multilayered panes that comprised the new window. The outer pane was  thick Vycor glass. It could withstand temperatures of . The inner pane was made of three inner glass panels bonded to form a single inner pane. One panel was a  thick sheet of Vycor, while the others were tempered glass. This new window assembly was as strong as any part of the spacecraft pressure vessel.\n\nControls\nThe manual controls of Liberty Bell 7 incorporated a new rate stabilization control system. This allowed fine control of spacecraft attitude movements by small turns of the hand controller. Previously a lot of jockeying of the device was needed to maintain the desired attitude. This rate damping, or rate augmentation system, gave finer and easier handling qualities and a redundant means of firing the pitch, yaw, and roll thrusters.\n\nBefore the Mercury-Redstone 4 mission, Lewis Research Center and Space Task Group engineers had determined that firing the posigrade rockets into the booster-spacecraft adapter, rather than in the open, developed 78 percent greater thrust. This achieved a greater spacecraft-booster separation through a kind of \"pop-gun\" effect. By using this technique, the spacecraft separated at velocity of about  rather than  using the old procedure. The Mercury-Redstone 4\/Liberty Bell 7 mission would take advantage of this new procedure.\n\nAdditional hardware changes to Liberty Bell 7 were a redesigned fairing for the spacecraft-Redstone adapter clamp-ring and additional foam padding added to the head area of the contour couch. The fairing changes and additional foam were used to reduce vibrations the pilot experienced during the boost phase of flight. The spacecraft instrument panel was rearranged to provide a better eye scan pattern.\n\nNaming\nCaptain Grissom dubbed his capsule \"Liberty Bell 7\", the seven in honor of the the seven original astronauts selected for Mercury, a tradition inadvertently started by prior Mercury pilot, Alan Shepard, who incorporated the seven in \"Freedom 7\" as his spacecraft was factory model no. 7. The other astronauts liked the symbolism, and so each appended 7 to their spacecraft names as well.\n\nGrissom chose \"Liberty Bell\" due to the capsule's resemblance to a bell, and because it evoked the iconic Liberty Bell. Grissom went as far as having the Liberty Bell on the spacecraft complete with the crack that characterizes the real bell. This detail motivated a degree of teasing of Grissom after the spacecraft sank in the ocean at the end of its mission.\n\nMission description\nIn January 1961, NASA's Director of the Space Task Group, Robert Gilruth, told Gus Grissom that he would be the primary pilot for Mercury-Redstone 4. John Glenn was the backup pilot for the mission.\n\nRedstone launch vehicle MRLV-8 arrived at Cape Canaveral on June 8, 1961. A mission review on July 15, 1961, pronounced Redstone MRLV-8 and Mercury spacecraft #11 ready to go for the Mercury-Redstone \n4 mission.\n\nThe Mercury 4 mission was planned as a repeat of MR-3. It was to reach an apogee of . The planned range was . Grissom would experience a maximum acceleration of 6.33\u00a0g (62\u00a0m\/s) and deceleration of 10.96\u00a0g (107\u00a0m\/s).\n\nThe launch of Liberty Bell 7 was first planned for July 16. The cloud cover was too thick and the launch was postponed until July 18. On July 18, it was again postponed due to weather. Both times, the pilot had not yet boarded the spacecraft. On July 19, 1961, Grissom was on board when the flight was delayed again due to weather. At that point, it had just 10 minutes 30 seconds to go before launch.\n\nOn the morning of July 21, 1961, Gus Grissom entered the Liberty Bell 7 at 8:58 UTC and the 70 hatch bolts were put in place. At 45 minutes prior to the scheduled launch, a pad technician discovered that one of the hatch bolts was misaligned. During a 30-minute hold that was called, McDonnell and NASA Space Task Group engineers decided that the 69 remaining bolts should be sufficient to hold the hatch in place and blow it at the appropriate time. The misaligned bolt was not replaced.\n\nLiberty Bell 7 was launched at 12:20:36 UTC, July 21, 1961.\n\nLaunch\n\nGrissom later admitted at the postflight debriefing that he was \"a bit scared\" at liftoff, but he added that he soon gained confidence along with the acceleration increase. Hearing the engine roar at the pedestal, he thought that his elapsed-time clock had started late. Like Shepard, he was amazed at the smooth quality of the liftoff, but then he noticed gradually more severe vibrations. These were never violent enough to impair his vision.\n\nGrissom's cabin pressure sealed off at the proper altitude, about , and he felt elated that the environmental control system was in good working order. The cabin and suit temperatures, respectively about  were quite comfortable. Watching his instruments for the pitch rate of the Redstone, Grissom saw it follow directions as programmed, tilting over at about one deg\/s.\n\nDuring a 3\u00a0g (29\u00a0m\/s) acceleration on the up-leg of his flight, Grissom noticed a sudden change in the color of the horizon from light blue to jet black. His attention was distracted by the noise of the tower-jettison rocket firing on schedule. Grissom felt the separation, and he watched the tower through the window as it drifted off, trailing smoke, to his right. At two minutes and 22 seconds after launch, the Redstone's Rocketdyne engine cut off after building a speed of . Grissom had a strong sensation of tumbling during the transition from high to zero acceleration, and, while he had become familiar with this sensation in centrifuge training, for a moment he lost his bearings.\n\nThe Redstone coasted for 10 seconds after its engine cut off; then a sharp report signaled that the posigrade rockets were popping the spacecraft loose from the booster. Although Grissom peered out his window throughout his ship's turnaround maneuver, he never caught sight of his booster.\n\nBallistic flight\nWith turnaround accomplished, the Air Force jet pilot for the first time became a space pilot, assuming manual-proportional control. A constant urge to look out the window made concentrating on his control tasks difficult. He told Shepard back in Mercury Control that the panorama of Earth's horizon, presenting an  arc at peak altitude, was fascinating. His instruments rated a poor second to the spectacle below.\n\nTurning reluctantly to his dials and control stick, Grissom made a pitch movement change, but was past his desired mark. He jockeyed the handcontroller stick for position, trying to damp out all oscillations, then made a yaw movement and went too far in that direction. By the time the proper attitude was attained, the short time allocated for these maneuvers had been used, so he omitted the roll movement altogether. Grissom found the manual controls very sluggish when compared to the Mercury procedures trainer. He then switched to the new rate command control system and found perfect response, although fuel consumption was high.\n\nAfter the pitch and yaw maneuvers, Grissom made a roll-over movement so he could see the ground from his window. Some land beneath the clouds (later determined to be western Florida around the Apalachicola area) appeared in the hazy distance, but the pilot was unable to identify it. Suddenly Cape Canaveral came into view so clearly that Grissom found it hard to believe that his slant-range was over .\n\nHe saw Merritt Island, the Banana River, the Indian River, and what appeared to be a large airport runway. South of Cape Canaveral, he saw what he believed to be West Palm Beach.\n\nReentry\nWith Liberty Bell 7 at an altitude of , it was now time to position the spacecraft in its reentry attitude. Grissom had initiated the retrorocket sequence and the spacecraft was arcing downward. His pulse reached 171 beats per minute. Retrofire gave him the distinct and peculiar feeling that he had reversed his backward flight through space and was actually moving face forward. As he plummeted downward, he saw what appeared to be two of the spent retrorockets pass across the periscope view after the retrorocket package had been jettisoned.\n\nPitching the spacecraft over into a reentry attitude of 14 degrees from Earth-vertical, the pilot tried to see the stars out his observation window. Instead the glare of sunlight filled his cabin, making it difficult to read the panel dials, particularly those with blue lights. Grissom thought that he would not have noticed the 0.05\u00a0g (0.5\u00a0m\/s) light if he had not known it was about to flash on.\n\nReentry presented no problem. Grissom could not feel the oscillations following the acceleration buildup; he could only read them on the rate indicators. Meanwhile, he continued to report to the Mercury Control Center on his electric current reading, fuel quantity, acceleration, and other instrument indications. Condensation and smoke trailed off the heatshield at about  as Liberty Bell 7 plunged back into the atmosphere.\n\nThe drogue parachute deployed on schedule at . Grissom said he saw the deployment and felt some resulting pulsating motion, but not enough to worry him. Main parachute deployment occurred at , which was about  higher than the design nominal altitude. Watching the main chute unfurl, Grissom spotted a  L-shaped tear and another  puncture in the canopy. Although he worried about them, the holes grew no bigger and his rate of descent soon slowed to about . Dumping his peroxide control fuel, the pilot began transmitting his panel readings.\n\nSplashdown\nA \"clunk\" confirmed that the landing bag had dropped in preparation for impact. Grissom then removed his oxygen hose and opened his visor, but deliberately left the suit ventilation hose attached. Impact was milder than he had expected, although the spacecraft heeled over in the water until Grissom was lying on his left side. He thought he was facing downward. The spacecraft gradually righted itself, and, as the window cleared the water, Grissom jettisoned the reserve parachute and activated the rescue aids switch. Liberty Bell 7 still appeared to be watertight, although it was rolling badly with the swells.\n\nPreparing for recovery, he disconnected his helmet and checked himself for debarkation. The neck dam did not unroll easily; Grissom tinkered with his suit collar to ensure his buoyancy in the event that he had to get out of the spacecraft quickly. When the recovery helicopters, which had taken to the air at launch time and visually followed the contrails and parachute descent, were still about  from the impact point, which was only  beyond the bullseye, Lieutenant James L. Lewis, the pilot of the primary recovery helicopter, radioed Grissom to ask if he was ready for pickup. He replied that he wanted them to wait five minutes while he recorded his cockpit panel data. Using a grease pencil with the pressure suit gloves was awkward, and several times the suit ventilation caused the neck dam to balloon, but Grissom simply placed his finger between neck and dam to allow the air to escape.\n\nHatch blows open\n\nAfter logging the panel data, Grissom asked the helicopters to begin the approach for pickup. He removed the pin from the hatch-cover detonator and lay back in the couch. \"I was lying there, minding my own business,\" he said afterward, \"when I heard a dull thud.\" The hatch cover blew away, and salt water splashed into the spacecraft as it bobbed in the ocean. The capsule began taking on water and started to sink.\n\nGrissom had difficulty recollecting his actions at this point, but he was certain that he had not touched the hatch-activation plunger. He had earlier unbuckled himself from most of his harness; he now removed his helmet, grasped the instrument panel with his right hand, and climbed though the hatchway.\n\nThe copilot of the nearest recovery helicopter said that as he was preparing, per procedure, to cut off the spacecraft's antenna whip with a squib-actuated cutter at the end of a pole, the hatch cover flew off, struck the water about  away, then skipped over the waves. Next he saw Grissom climb through the hatch and swim away.\n\nFailed spacecraft recovery\n\nLeaving aside the swimming astronaut, Lewis completed his approach to the sinking spacecraft, as both he and co-pilot John Reinhard were intent on spacecraft recovery. This action was a conditioned reflex based on past training experience. While training off the Virginia beaches the helicopter pilots had noted that the astronauts seemed at home in and to enjoy the water. So Reinhard quickly cut the high-frequency antenna as soon as the helicopter reached Liberty Bell 7. Throwing aside the antenna cutting device, Reinhard picked up the shepherd's-hook recovery pole and carefully threaded the crook through the recovery loop on top of the spacecraft. By this time Lewis had lowered the helicopter to assist Reinhard in his task to a point that the helicopter's three wheels were in the water. The capsule sank out of sight, but the pickup pole tangled as the attached cable went taut, indicating to the helicopter pilots that they had made the catch.\n\nReinhard immediately prepared to pass the floating astronaut the personnel hoist, but at that moment Lewis called a warning that a detector light had flashed on the instrument panel, indicating that metal chips were in the oil sump because of engine strain. Considering the implication of impending engine failure, Lewis told Reinhard to retract the personnel hoist while he called the second helicopter to retrieve Grissom.\n\nMeanwhile, Grissom, having made certain that he was not snared by any lines, noticed that the primary helicopter was having trouble raising the submerged spacecraft. He swam back to the spacecraft to see if he could assist, but found the cable properly attached. When he looked up for the personnel line, he saw the helicopter start to move away.\n\nSuddenly, Grissom realized that he was not riding as high in the water as he had been. All the time he had been in the water he kept feeling air escape through the neck dam. The more air he lost, the less buoyancy he had. Moreover, he had forgotten to secure his suit inlet valve. Swimming was becoming difficult, and now with the second helicopter moving in he found the rotor wash between the two aircraft was making swimming more difficult. Bobbing under the waves, Grissom was scared, angry, and looking for a swimmer from one of the helicopters to help him tread water. Then he caught sight of a familiar face, that of George Cox, aboard the second helicopter. Cox was the copilot who had retrieved both the chimpanzee Ham and Shepard on the first Mercury flight. With his head barely above water, Grissom found the sight of Cox heartening.\n\nCox tossed the \"horse-collar\" lifeline straight to Grissom, who immediately wrapped himself into the sling backwards. Lack of orthodoxy mattered little to Grissom now, for he was on his way to the safety of the helicopter, even though swells dunked him twice more before he got aboard. His first thought was to get a life preserver on. Grissom had been either swimming or floating for a period of only four or five minutes, \"although it seemed like an eternity to me,\" as he said afterward.\n\nAs the first helicopter moved away from Grissom, it struggled to raise the spacecraft high enough to drain the water from the impact bag. At one point the spacecraft was almost clear of the water, but like an anchor it prevented the helicopter from moving forward. The flooded capsule weighed over ,  beyond the helicopter's lifting capacity. The pilot, watching his insistent red warning light, decided not to chance losing two craft in one day. He finally cast loose, allowing the spacecraft to sink swiftly. Martin Byrnes, aboard the carrier, suggested that a marker be placed at the point so that the spacecraft might be recovered later. Rear Admiral J. E. Clark advised Byrnes that in that area the depth was about .\n\nAftermath\nSubstantial controversy ensued, as Grissom reported that the hatch had blown prematurely without his authorization. An independent technical review of the incident between August and October 1961 raised doubts regarding the theory that Grissom had blown the hatch and was responsible for the loss of the spacecraft. There is strong evidence that the Astronaut Office did not accept Grissom's guilt in the fact that he was maintained in the prime rotation spot for future flights, commanding the first Gemini flight, and the first planned Apollo flight.\n\nThree Mercury flights later, Astronaut Wally Schirra manually blew Sigma 7'''s hatch after recovery when his spacecraft was on the deck of the recovery ship, in a deliberate attempt to dispel the rumor that Grissom might have blown the capsule's hatch deliberately. As anticipated, the kickback from the manual trigger left Schirra with a visible injury to his right hand. Grissom was uninjured when he exited the spacecraft, as documented by his postflight physical. This strongly supports his assertion that he did not accidentally hit the trigger, since in that case he would have been even more likely to injure himself.\n\nIn a 1965 interview, Grissom said that he believed the external release lanyard came loose, triggering the hatch release. On the Liberty Bell 7, this release lanyard was held in place by only one screw. This theory was accepted by Guenter Wendt, the Pad Leader for most early American crewed spaceflights.\n\nDuring a launch simulation on Apollo 1 in 1967, the combination of a cabin fire and an inward-opening hatch contributed to the death of Grissom, as well as that of the astronauts Ed White and Roger B. Chaffee in a launch-pad fire. Use of an explosive hatch had been rejected following the discovery by engineers that, in fact, an explosive egress system on a spacecraft could inadvertently fire without being triggered. Following the Apollo fire, Block II Apollo spacecraft were equipped with rapid-opening systems.\n\nIn 2021, analysis of video of the recovery suggested that static electricity may have caused the premature detonation of the hatch bolts. Helicopters are known to build up a charge of static electricity due to the rotors moving through the air. Marine Corps Lt. John Reinhard, the crewman aboard the helicopter who used a set of shears containing explosive charges to snip off the antenna on the floating spacecraft (to allow the helicopter to go lower) reported that \"when I touched the antenna there was an arc, and both cutters fired. At the same time, the hatch came off. It could be that some static charge set [the hatch] off.\"\n\nRecovery of Liberty Bell 7\n\nAfter several unsuccessful attempts in 1992 and 1993, Oceaneering International, Inc. lifted the Liberty Bell 7 off the floor of the Atlantic Ocean and onto the deck of a recovery ship on July 20, 1999, the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 lunar landing. The team was led by Curt Newport and financed by the Discovery Channel.\nThe spacecraft was found after a 14-year effort by Newport at a depth of nearly ,  east-southeast of Cape Canaveral. Among the items found within were part of the flight gear and several Mercury dimes which had been taken to space to be souvenirs of the flight.\n\nAfter Liberty Bell 7 was secured on the deck of the recovery ship, the \"Ocean Project\", experts removed and disposed of an explosive device (SOFAR bomb) that was supposed to detonate in the event of the spacecraft's sinking, but which failed to explode. The spacecraft was then placed in a container filled with seawater to prevent further corrosion. The Cosmosphere, in Hutchinson, Kansas, disassembled and cleaned the spacecraft, and it was released for a national tour through September 15, 2006. The spacecraft was then returned to the Cosmosphere where it is on permanent display. In 2016, it was temporarily lent to The Children's Museum of Indianapolis.\n\nDramatization in film\nPhilip Kaufman's 1983 film The Right Stuff includes a dramatization of the Liberty Bell 7 mission in which Fred Ward played Gus Grissom.\nAdditional fictional representations also occur in HBO's 1998 From the Earth to the Moon with Mark Rolston as Gus Grissom and 2016's Hidden Figures movie with Devin McGee as Gus Grissom.\n\nTimeline\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\n Mercury-Redstone 4 transcripts on Spacelog \n This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury - NASA SP-4201 \n NASA MR-4 News Conference July 22, 1961, Cocoa Beach, FL\n Results Of The Second U.S. Manned Suborbital Spaceflight July 21, 1961 (NASA)\n Liberty Bell 7 Recovery Evaluation and Nondestructive Testing - NASA - December 1999 (PDF format)\n NASA Mercury MR4 press kit - July 13, 1961\n\nExternal links\n Field Guide to American Spacecraft Pictures of Liberty Bell 7'' on display after recovery and restoration.\n\n1961 in spaceflight\nProject Mercury\nSuborbital human spaceflights\n1961 in Florida\nJuly 1961 events\nGus Grissom","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":7,"2014-15":2}},"id":213236,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mercury-Redstone%204","title":"Mercury-Redstone 4","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The bivalves are a large class of molluscs, also known as pelecypods.\n\nThey have a hard calcareous shell made of two parts or 'valves'. The soft parts are inside the shell. The shell is usually bilaterally symmetrical.\n\nThere are over 30,000 species of bivalves, including the fossil species. There are about 9,200 living species in 1,260 genera and 106 families. All of them live in the water, most of them in the sea or in brackish water. Some live in fresh water. All are filter feeders: they lost their radula in the course of evolution. A few are carnivorous, eating much larger prey than the tiny microalgae eaten by other bivalves.\n\nThe best known examples of bivalves are clams, mussels, scallops and oysters.\n\nShell \nBivalves have two shells or valves connected by a hinge with hinge teeth. They are made of a calcareous mineral, calcite or aragonite. The valves are covered by a periostracum, which is an organic horny substance. This forms the familiar coloured layer on the shell.\n\nThe shells are usually held shut by strong adductor muscles. Scallops can use their muscles to flap the valves and swim.\n\nFood \nA bivalve takes in water that has plankton and other things floating in it.\n\nSome (but not all) molluscs have a part of their mantle known as the siphon (a tube). Siphons, if they exist, come in pairs, one to suck in, one to expel.\n\nAnything that is small enough to fit inside the hole of its incurrent siphon enters the bivalve. When the floating material comes in, it gets stuck in slimy mucus that is on the surface of the bivalve's gills. The food is moved down to the mouth, which is on the other side of the siphon. Food is digested in the bivalve's stomach and intestine, and everything that is not digested goes out through the other siphon, with water.\n\nThe siphons are an adaptation of burrowing molluscs. Those that live above the substrate (sediment), such as scallops and oysters, do not need them.\n\nFeeding types \nThere are four feeding types, defined by their gill structure: \nProtobranchs use their ctenidia solely for respiration, and the labial palps to feed\nSeptibranchs possess a septum across the mantle cavity which pumps in food.\nFilibranchs and lamellibranchs trap food with a mucous coating on the ctenidia; the filibranchs and lamellibranchs are differentiated by the way the ctenidia are joined\n\nMovement\n\nDigging \nAs a group, the bivalves are adapted to penetrate into, and to move along horizontally along, soft ground such as mud and sand. Common examples of this are razor shells, which can dig themselves into the sand with great speed to escape enemies, and cockles.\n\nSwimming \nScallops and file clams can swim to escape a predator, clapping their valves together to create a jet of water. Cockles can use their foot to leap from danger. However these methods quickly exhaust the animal. In the razor shells the siphons can break off only to grow back later.\n\nDefensive secretions \nThe file shells can produce a noxious secretion when threatened, and the fan shells of the same family have a unique, acid-producing organ.\n\nComparison with brachiopods\nBivalves are superficially similar to brachiopods, but the construction of the shell is completely different in the two groups. In brachiopods, the two valves are on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body, while in bivalves, they are on the left and right sides.\n\nBivalves appeared late in the Cambrian explosion and came to increase in the Palaeozoic, and dominate over brachiopods during the Mesozoic. So, it was thought that bivalves are better adapted to aquatic life than the brachiopods, and this caused brachiopods to be out-competed and relegated to minor niches.\n\nHowever, after the Permian-Triassic extinction event bivalves had a huge adaptive radiation while brachiopods were devastated, losing 95% of their diversity.\n\n\"The supposed replacement of brachiopods by clams is not gradual and sequential. It is a product of one event: the Permian extinction (which affected brachiopods profoundly and clams relatively little)\".\n\nThe upshot was that bivalves took over the desirable inshore habitats. Brachiopods now live in deeper waters where food is scarcer.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":166,"dup_dump_count":92,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":33127,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bivalve","title":"Bivalve","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Worcester may refer to:\n\nPlaces\n\nUnited Kingdom\n Worcester, England, a city and the county town of Worcestershire in England\n Worcester (UK Parliament constituency), an area represented by a Member of Parliament\n City of Worcester, a district of Worcestershire\n Worcester Park, London, England\n Worcestershire, a county in England\n\nUnited States\n Worcester, Massachusetts, the largest city with the name in the United States\n Worcester County, Massachusetts\n Worcester, Missouri\n Worcester, New York, a town\n Worcester (CDP), New York, within the town\n Worcester Township, Pennsylvania\n Worcester, Vermont\n Worcester (CDP), Vermont, within the town\n Worcester, Wisconsin, a town\n Worcester (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community\n Worcester County, Maryland\n Barry, Illinois, formerly known as Worcester\n Marquette, Michigan, formerly known as New Worcester\n\nOther places\n Worcester, Limpopo, South Africa\n Worcester, Western Cape, South Africa\n Worcester Summit, Antarctica\n\nTransportation\n Worcester, a GWR 3031 Class locomotive that was built for and run on the Great Western Railway between 1891 and 1915\n Union Station (Worcester, Massachusetts), called \"Worcester\" by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority\n HMS Worcester, several ships of the British Royal Navy\n USS Worcester, several ships of the United States Navy\n Worcester, a 1785 launched British East Indiaman\n\nPeople\n John of Worcester, English monk and chronicler\n Roger of Worcester, Bishop of Worcester\n Sylvester of Worcester, Bishop of Worcester\n Worcester (surname)\n\nFoods\n Worcester Pearmain, an English apple cultivar\n Worcestershire sauce, often \"Worcester sauce\", a spicy condiment devised in Worcester, England, in the 19th c.\n\nOther uses\n Worcester Academy\n Worcester, Bosch Group, a British domestic heating company\n Worcester College (disambiguation)\n Royal Worcester, an English bone china and porcelain manufacturer\n\nSee also\n Worcester v. Georgia, an 1832 U.S. Supreme Court Case\n Wooster (disambiguation)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":507,"dup_dump_count":9,"dup_details":{"2024-22":43,"2024-18":29,"2024-10":46,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":6,"2022-49":162,"2022-40":40,"2022-33":178}},"id":58594,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Worcester","title":"Worcester","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Jesus or Jesus Christ wis a Jewish prophet that lived in the 1st century in Roman Palestine. In Christianity, he is the anly son o God an Mary is his mither. Jesus is kent as prophet in Islam an aw. In Christianity, Jesus Christ sacrifeed hissel for humanity an his follaeers fur that they can be forgien for their sins.\n\n(Aw Biblical quotes in this airticle haes been taen frae W.L Lorimer's translate)\n\nHis Life an Darg\n\nBairnheid an Early Life \nGaun by the Gospels, Jesus wis born in the clachan o Bethlehem, sax mile frae Jesusalem. Tho his faimily wis frae Nazareth, his faither haed come frae Bethlehem oreeginally an haed tae gang there for tae be registrate durin a census, an while there Jesus wis born. Maist modren historians jalouses that he was born atween 6 an 4 BC. Christians jalouses that he wis born (or \"begatten\") o the Haly Speerit an his mither Mary, wha they threap wis a maiden at the time. E'en sae, he haed a yirdly faither, cried Joseph. Joseph semss tae hae been a skeely craftsman o some kynd, aften hauden tae hae been a jyner, an it is for ordinar said that Jesus wis a jyner an aw whan he grew up. Like aw Jewish lads, he wad hae been circumcised at aicht day auld an brocht up wi kennin o the Torah (Jewish Law) an Jewish customs.\n\nGey little is kent anent his bairnheid, tho in his Gospel Matthew scrieves that efter his birth his faimily flee'd for some time tae Egypt for tae evyte King Herod, wha haed ordered that aw bairns in Bethlehem be kilt, syne the wyce men frae the East tauld him they jaloused the King o the Jews haed been born. This pit Herod in a richt fankle an, syne he kent fine weel he wisna popular ava wi the fowk, he thocht this new born bairn micht kythe as a leader o opposeetion tae him. Joseph wis wairned anent this in a dream, an teuk the gate tae Egypt till Herod wis deid.\n\nThe ae story o Jesus' bairnheid kythes in The Gospel o Luke tellin that the faimily war in Jerusalem for the Passower festival (ane o the maist important Jewish festivals). The story gaes that Jesus cam tae be skailed frae his fowks, an whan they realised this, they gaed tae the Temple for tae find him. There he wis settin toung tae issues anent the Torah wi Doctors o the Law that wwis amazed at his kennin (syne tradeetion hauds that he wis anerly aboot twal year auld, tho this nummer disna kythe in the accoont Luke gies). Some scholars haes threapit that Jesus wisna a bairn at the time, an the Doctors o the Law wis in fact amazed bi a laich jyner kennin sae muckle anent the Law.\n\nBapteesim an Temptation \nAw three o The Seenoptic Gospels records the Bapteesm o Jesus bi John the Bapteezer, (that Luke threaps wis Jesus' kizzen) an pynt tae this as the stairtin o Jesus' meenistry-darg. It seems that Jesus gaed doun tae the River Jordan whaur John wad bapteeze the fowk that cam til him, an speired that John dae the same til him. John wis at first sweirt tae dae sae syne he jaloused Jesus wis greater nor himsel:\n\nBut John socht tae hender him: \"I hae need tae be bapt\u00edzed by ye,\" qo he, \"an come ye tae me?\nBut Jesus answert, \"Lat it be sae for the nou; we behuive tae dae this, gin we ar tae dae God's will in aathing.\" Syne John loot him hae his will. (Matthew 3: 14-15)\n\nEfter this, God sent doun his Speerit in the form o a dou, for tae bliss him. Syne Jesus gaed tae the muirs for fowerty days for tae fast an pray afore his meenistry-darg. While he wes there, Sautan cam til him an temptit him for tae turn him aside frae the gate he ettelt tae tak (i.e. Sautan ettelt tae rauchle Jesus' meenistry-darg wi sin). Housome'ev, Jesus resistit thir temptations an efter the fowerty days wis ower he quat the muirs for tae stairt his wark.\n\nMeenistry-Darg \nEfter he quat the muirs, Jesus stairtit his meenistry-darg. Hou lang this lestit for isna clear. The Gospel o John seems tae indicate that it lestit for three year (syne three sindry Passower feasts kythes in his Gospel), but some interpretations o The Seenoptic Gospels coud be said tae haud that it lestit anerly the ae year. The problem is made mair teuch bi the fact that the Gospels aften taks a raither theological sklant tae chronology, sae events coud be pitten in deeferent orders for tae mak a theological pynt.\nStill an on, it is certain that while he wis at his darg, Jesus wis attractin muckle thrangs that cam tae hear him speak an preach the Kinrick o Heiven. His teachins wis anent sic things as bein hummle, luve for God an Man an ither things sib tae them forby thon. He taucht anent the need tae repent o sins an the comin o the end o the yird an aw. The Gospels records that durin his meenistry-darg, Jesus performed mony ferlies, sic as healins, ruisin up the deid an siclike. Muckle o his time wes spent ettlin tae bring ower sinners sic as hures an tax-gaitherers (that war seen as traitors tae their ain fowk syne they sidit wi the Romans) syne he threapit that:\n\n\"It isna the haill an fere hes need o the doctor, but the s\u00edck an dwinin...I haena come tae inv\u00edte the weill-l\u00edvin, but outlans an ill-daers. (Matthew 9: 12-13)\n\nForby thon, Jesus taucht anent the heepocrisy o the Jewish leaders an agin strict legalism, that made-him-na popular wi the authorities. His claims anent himsel (re: bein the Messiah) gart mony o the leaders tae haud him as a blasphemer an aw, an it seems it wisna lang afore they war drauchtin again him.\n\nArrest, Trial, Daith an Yirdin \nSomtime aboot the Passower, the Jewish leaders decidit tae kill Jesus, an teuk in the hulp o Judas Iscariot, ane o Jesus' follaers. He begeckit Jesus tae thaim, an he wis reestit an pitten on trial. Efter bein speired at bi the Sanhedrin (the Jewish waldin cooncil) an Pontius Pilate (the Roman heidman o Jerusalem), it wis decidit that he wad be execute. Syne Jesus' releegious \"crimes\" wadna be wirth the daith penalty unner Roman Law, the Jewish leaders tauld Pilate that syne he threapit tae be \"King o the Jews\" he wis a thrait tae Rome an Roman owerins - a rebel (anti-Roman sentiment wis dreidit, an unco common, an wad later lead tae open rebellion an the rauchle o Jerusalem in AD 70). Sae it wis that Jesus wis crucifee'd. The Gospels aw grees that Jesus dee'd muckle faster nor maist fowk that's crucifee'd.\n\nChristians jalouses that Jesus haed tae dee as a saicrifice for aw the sins o aw the fowk, an that he kent anent Judas' begeckin aforehaund. In Judaism, saicrifices o beasts sic as sheep an gaits wis needit for the forgien o sins, but Christains haud that Jesus wis the ae perfit saicrifice, an that he cam til the yird:\n\ntae g\u00ede his life as a ransom for monie. (Mark 10:45)\n\nEfter he wis deid, ane o the Seenagogue leaders, a chiel cried Joseph o Arimathea teuk his corp an yirdit him in his ain graff.\n\nThe feck o Muslims hauds that Jesus dee'dna on the cross ava, an haes twa-three theories anent hou he joukit frae daith includin that he wis substitute for anither chiel (sic as Judas Iscariot or Simon o Cyrene) afore the crucifeection, an that he joukit frae Jerusalem.\n\nRaisin Up \nChristians jalouses that Jesus wis raised up days efter his daith. He wis kilt on the Friday efternuin, an gaun by The Gospels he wis raised up frae the deid on the Sunday morn that in Jewish upcastin is three days (syne in Jewish upcast pairt o a day coonts as ae day). Tho The Gospel accoonts isna exact the same, they aw gree that a smaw curn o weemen, includin Mary Magdalene an Mary the Mither o Jesus cam til the graff for tae annynt Jesus' corp wi spices efter the Jewish cuistom. They record twa-three kythins tae the disciples an Luke scrieves o his gaun up til the lift afore a thrang. Christians jalouses that in his raisin up, Jesus defeatit daith an the pouer o Sautan, an this is ane o the maist important Christian beliefs.\n\nName \nThe name Jesus is an translate o a common Jewish name kent as Joshua (bein in Ebrue Yahosha - The Laird is ma hulp). He is aften cried Jesus Christ - frae the Greek \u03a7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 (Christ\u00f3s) that means The Annyntit Ane that in Ebreu is \u05de\u05b8\u05e9\u05b4\u05c1\u05d9\u05d7\u05b7 (Ma\u0161\u00eda), for ordinar transleeterate as Messiah. This comes frae the Jewish custom o annyntin kings wi ile at their crounin. It shoud be merkit that Christ an Messiah is teetles an no names. Jesus is cried Jesus o Nazareth forby, syne Nazareth is the clachan whaur he is jaloused tae hae bidit for maist o his life.\n\nIther airticles sib tae this ane \n Christenmas\n The Bible\n The New Testament\n Lorimer's translate\n\nFremmit Airtins \n Papist Kirk Encyclopaedia entries anent Jesus \n Jesus in airt\n Wassup With Jesus?\n\nChristianity\nReleegion\n0s BC births\n30s daiths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":3745,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jesus%20Christ","title":"Jesus Christ","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cost is the value of money that has been used up to produce something or deliver a service, and hence is not available for use anymore. In business, the cost may be one of acquisition, in which case the amount of money expended to acquire it is counted as cost. In this case, money is the input that is gone in order to acquire the thing. This acquisition cost may be the sum of the cost of production as incurred by the original producer, and further costs of transaction as incurred by the acquirer over and above the price paid to the producer. Usually, the price also includes a mark-up for profit over the cost of production.\n\nMore generalized in the field of economics, cost is a metric that is totaling up as a result of a process or as a differential for the result of a decision.  Hence cost is the metric used in the standard modeling paradigm applied to economic processes.\n\nCosts (pl.) are often further described based on their timing or their applicability.\n\nTypes of accounting costs \n\nIn accounting, costs are the monetary value of expenditures for supplies, services, labor, products, equipment and other items purchased for use by a business or other accounting entity. It is the amount denoted on invoices as the price and recorded in book keeping records as an expense or asset cost basis.\n\nOpportunity cost, also referred to as economic cost is the value of the best alternative that was not chosen in order to pursue the current endeavor\u2014i.e., what could have been accomplished with the resources expended in the undertaking. It represents opportunities forgone.\n\nIn theoretical economics, cost used without qualification often means opportunity cost.\n\nComparing private, external, and social costs\n\nWhen a transaction takes place, it typically involves both private costs and external costs.\n\nPrivate costs are the costs that the buyer of a good or service pays the seller. This can also be described as the costs internal to the firm's production function.\n\nExternal costs (also called externalities), in contrast, are the costs that people other than the buyer are forced to pay as a result of the transaction. The bearers of such costs can be either particular individuals or society at large. Note that external costs are often both non-monetary and problematic to quantify for comparison with monetary values. They include things like pollution, things that society will likely have to pay for in some way or at some time in the future, even so that are not included in transaction prices.\n\nSocial costs are the sum of private costs and external costs.\n\nFor example, the manufacturing cost of a car (i.e., the costs of buying inputs, land tax rates for the car plant, overhead costs of running the plant and labor costs) reflects the private cost for the manufacturer (in some ways, normal profit can also be seen as a cost of production; see, e.g., Ison and Wall, 2007, p.\u00a0181). The polluted waters or polluted air also created as part of the process of producing the car is an external cost borne by those who are affected by the pollution or who value unpolluted air or water. Because the manufacturer does not pay for this external cost (the cost of emitting undesirable waste into the commons), and does not include this cost in the price of the car (a Kaldor-Hicks compensation), they are said to be external to the market pricing mechanism. The air pollution from driving the car is also an externality produced by the car user in the process of using his good. The driver does not compensate for the environmental damage caused by using the car.\n\nCost estimation\n\nWhen developing a business plan for a new or existing company, product or project, planners typically make cost estimates in order to assess whether revenues\/benefits will cover costs (see cost-benefit analysis). This is done in both business and government. Costs are often underestimated, resulting in cost overrun during execution.\n\nCost-plus pricing is where the price equals cost plus a percentage of overhead or profit margin. In business economics, the profitability of a trade or sales prospect relies on the ability of an enterprise to sustain market prices that cover all costs and leave a surplus for owner interest, as expressed by:\n\nManufacturing costs vs. non-manufacturing costs \n\nManufacturing costs are those costs that are directly involved in manufacturing of products. Examples of manufacturing costs include raw materials costs and charges related to workers. Manufacturing cost is divided into three broad categories:\n\nDirect materials cost.\nDirect labor cost.\nManufacturing overhead cost.\n \nNon-manufacturing costs are those costs that are not directly incurred in manufacturing a product. Examples of such costs are salary of sales personnel and advertising expenses. Generally, non-manufacturing costs are further classified into two categories:\n\nSelling and distribution costs.\nAdministrative costs.\n\nOther costs\n\nA defensive cost is an environmental expenditure to eliminate or prevent environmental damage. Defensive costs form part of the genuine progress indicator (GPI) calculations.\n\nLabour costs would include travel time, holiday pay, training costs, working clothes, social insurance, taxes on employment &c.\n\nPath cost is a term in networking to define the worthiness of a path, see Routing.\n\nSee also\n\n Average cost\n Cost accounting\n Cost curve\n Cost object\n Direct cost\n Fixed cost\n Incremental cost\n Indirect cost\n Life-cycle cost\n Outline of industrial organization\n Repugnancy costs\n Semi-variable cost\n Total cost\n Variable cost\n\nNotes\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":218,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2021-43":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":6,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":7,"2015-14":6,"2014-52":10,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":11,"2014-35":8,"2014-23":9,"2014-15":9,"2017-13":5,"2015-18":6,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":10,"2014-10":10,"2013-48":7,"2013-20":3}},"id":166789,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cost","title":"Cost","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u8be5\u662f\u5370\u5ea6\u4e2a\u5357\u65b9\u90e8\u5206\u3002\n<P>\n\u52d2\u300a\u5927\u5510\u897f\u57df\u8bb0\u300b\u91cc\u5411\u6709\u8bb2\u5230\u53e4\u8001\u4e2a\u8fb0\u5149\u5357\u5370\u5ea6\u6709\u5341\u516b\u4e2a\u738b\u56fd\u00a0:\u00a0\u6848\u8fbe\u7f57\u56fd\u3001\u9a6e\u90a3\u7faf\u78d4\u8fe6\u56fd\u3001\u73e0\u5229\u8036\u56fd\u3001\u8fbe\u7f57\u6bd7\u837c\u56fd\u3001\u79e3\u7f57\u77e9\u54a4\u56fd\u3001\u606d\u5efa\u90a3\u8865\u7f57\u56fd\u3001\u6469\u8bc3\u524c\u4ed6\u56fd\u3001\u8dcb\u7984\u7faf\u5360\u5a46\u56fd\u3001\u6469\u814a\u5a46\u56fd\u3001\u963f\u54a4\u5398\u56fd\u3001\u5951\u54a4\u56fd\u3001\u4f10\u814a\u6bd7\u56fd\u3001\u963f\u96be\u9640\u8865\u7f57\u56fd\u3001\u82cf\u524c\u4ed6\u56fd\u3001\u77bf\u6298\u7f57\u56fd\u3001\u90ac\u9607\u884d\u90a3\u56fd\u3001\u63b7\u67b3\u9640\u56fd\u3001\u6469\u91af\u6e7f\u4f10\u7f57\u8865\u7f57\u56fd\u3002\u3002\u3002\n\n\u4e43\u6b47\u5305\u542b\u4ed4 \n\n Andhra Pradesh\n Karnataka\n Kerala \n \u642d\u4ed4Tamil Nadu \n \u642d\u4ed4 territories of Lakshadweep \n and Pondicherry\n\nThe South India lies in the peninsular Deccan Plateau and is bounded by the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal in the west, south and east respectively. The geography of the region is diverse, encompassing two mountain ranges \u2014 the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats and a plateau heartland. Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri rivers are important non-perennial sources of water. Inhabitants of South India are referred to as South Indians. A majority of South Indians speak one of the four Dravidian languages \u2014 Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu. During its history, a number of dynastic kingdoms ruled over parts of South India whose invasions across southern and southeastern Asia impacted the history and cultures of modern nation-states such as Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia. The region was colonised by Britain and gradually incorporated into the British Empire.\n\n\u5916\u90e8\u94fe\u63a5 \n\n More about South India\n A list of attractions of South India \n\n\u5370\u5ea6\u5357\u90e8\u4e2a\u5730\u65b9\n\u5370\u5ea6","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":11811,"url":"https:\/\/wuu.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E5%8D%97%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6","title":"\u5357\u5370\u5ea6","language":"wuu"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Liste over fylker i Missouri. Den amerikanske delstaten Missouri best\u00e5r av 114 fylker.\n\n Adair County\n Andrew County\n Atchison County\n Audrain County\n Barry County\n Barton County\n Bates County\n Benton County\n Bollinger County\n Boone County\n Buchanan County\n Butler County\n Caldwell County\n Callaway County\n Camden County\n Cape Girardeau County\n Carroll County\n Carter County\n Cass County\n Cedar County\n Chariton County\n Christian County\n Clark County\n Clay County\n Clinton County\n Cole County\n Cooper County\n Crawford County\n Dade County\n Dallas County\n Daviess County\n DeKalb County\n Dent County\n Douglas County\n Dunklin County\n Franklin County\n Gasconade County\n Gentry County\n Greene County\n Grundy County\n Harrison County\n Henry County\n Hickory County\n Holt County\n Howard County\n Howell County\n Iron County\n Jackson County\n Jasper County\n Jefferson County\n Johnson County\n Knox County\n Laclede County\n Lafayette County\n Lawrence County\n Lewis County\n Lincoln County\n Linn County\n Livingston County\n Macon County\n Madison County\n Maries County\n Marion County\n McDonald County\n Mercer County\n Miller County\n Mississippi County\n Moniteau County\n Monroe County\n Montgomery County\n Morgan County\n New Madrid County\n Newton County\n Nodaway County\n Oregon County\n Osage County\n Ozark County\n Pemiscot County\n Perry County\n Pettis County\n Phelps County\n Pike County\n Platte County\n Polk County\n Pulaski County\n Putnam County\n Ralls County\n Randolph County\n Ray County\n Reynolds County\n Ripley County\n Saline County\n Schuyler County\n Scotland County\n Scott County\n Shannon County\n Shelby County\n St. Charles County\n St. Clair County\n St. Francois County\n St. Louis County\n St. Louis City\n Ste. Genevieve County\n Stoddard County\n Stone County\n Sullivan County\n Taney County\n Texas County\n Vernon County\n Warren County\n Washington County\n Wayne County\n Webster County\n Worth County\n Wright County\n\nReferanser \n\nMissouri","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":7,"dup_details":{"2024-30":21,"2024-26":21,"2024-22":11,"2024-18":17,"2024-10":24,"2017-13":2,"2013-20":5,"unknown":11}},"id":211608,"url":"https:\/\/no.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liste%20over%20fylker%20i%20Missouri","title":"Liste over fylker i Missouri","language":"no"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"IEEE 1394 is the name for a set of standards. The standards specify a serial bus which can be used to transfer information. Other names for the standards include Firewire, i.Link and Lynx. The standard is often used to connect a computer to an external device, like a hard drive or digital camcorder. It also has uses to transfer data in cars and airplanes.\nIt is similar to the contemporary USB. Firewire replaced the earlier SCSI for many applications: Making a device understand Firewire is easier than having it understand SCSI; handling Firewire cables is also much easier than SCSI cabling.\n\nAdvantages \nFireWire is popular in industrial systems for machine vision and professional audio systems. It is preferred over the more common USB because of its greater effective speed and power distribution capabilities, and because it does not need a computer host. Perhaps more importantly, FireWire makes full use of all SCSI (older connecting possibility) capabilities. Compared to USB 2.0, it usually has higher data transfer rates. This feature is important for audio and video editors.\nAlso many computers intended for home or professional audio\/video use have built-in FireWire ports, including all Apple Inc. and Sony laptop computers and most Dell and Hewlett-Packard models currently produced. It is available to general public on retail motherboards for do-it-yourself PCs, alongside USB.\nFireWire is produced in wireless, optical fiber, and coaxial cable versions.\nHowever, the copyright fees demanded from users of FireWire and the more expensive hardware needed to implement it has prevented FireWire from displacing USB in mass-market, where cost of product is crucial.\n\nHistory and development \nFireWire is Apple Inc.'s name for the IEEE 1394 High Speed Serial Bus. Apple intended FireWire to be a serial replacement for the parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) bus while also providing connectivity for digital audio and video equipment.\nApple's development of the original IEEE 1394 was completed in 1995.It was followed by several modifications: The IEEE Std. 1394a-2000, the IEEE Std. 1394b-2002, and the IEEE Std. 1394c-2006 amendment. The aim of current work is to incorporate all four of these documents into new revision of the 1394 standard.\nSony's version of the system is known as i.LINK, and uses only the four signal pins, omitting the two pins which provide power to the device because of a separate power connector on Sony's i.LINK products\n\nVersions\n\nFireWire 400 (IEEE 1394) \nFireWire 400 can transfer data between devices at 100, 200, or 400 Mbit\/s data rates. The 6-pin connector is commonly found on desktop computers, and can supply the connected device with power.\nTypically a device can pull about 7 to 8 watts from the port; However, the voltage varies significantly from different devices.\n\nEnhancements (IEEE 1394a) \nModification IEEE 1394a was released in 2000. It standardized the 4 pin connector already widely in use. The 4-pin version is used on many consumer devices such as camcorders, some laptops and other small FireWire devices. It is fully data compatible with 6-pin interfaces.\n\nFireWire 800 (IEEE 1394b) \n9-pin FireWire 800 was introduced commercially by Apple Inc. in 2003. This newer specification (1394b) and corresponding products allow a transfer rate of 786.432 Mbit\/s. It is backwards compatibility to the slower rates and 6-pin connectors of FireWire 400. However, while the IEEE 1394a and IEEE 1394b standards are compatible, connectors are different, making the cables used by previous versions incompatible.\n\nFireWire S3200 \nIn December 2007, the 1394 Trade Association announced the products will soon be available using S3200 mode. It will use the same 9-pin connectors as the existing FireWire 800 and will be fully compatible with existing S400 and S800 devices. The future products are intended to compete with the USB 3.0.\n\nTechnical description\n\nSpeeds \nThe numbers given after the FireWire, or the S give the approximate speed in MBit\/s, rounded up to the next 100. The first version can transfer 98.304.000 Bits\/s, or 12.288.000 Bytes\/s. The versions that came afterwards can do this speed, and multiples of it. Using the SI prefix, this is exactly 98.304 kbit\/s, using the binary prefix, it is 96.000 kiBit\/s. To avoid confusion, it is rounded to the next closest 100. That way, S3200 does not transfer 3.200 Mbit\/s, nor 3.200 MiBit\/s, but 3.145,728 Mbit\/s, or 3.000 MiBit\/s. This is approximately 2,93 Gibit\/s.\n\nAddressing and Bus management \nUnlike with USB, there is no one device that manages the bus all the time. Each device is able to manage the bus. When a new device is connected, there will be negotiations between the devices which of them does the management.\n\nAddresses have a length of 64 Bits. Of these, 10 are used to identify segments (as part of the network), 6 are used for nodes, and 48 are freely available. The standard used to connect several segments has not yet been ratified. For this reason, all Firewire networks currently only use one segment.\n\nSecurity issues \nDevices on a FireWire bus can communicate by direct memory access. With Direct Memory access (DMA) a device can use hardware to map internal memory to FireWire's \"Physical Memory Space\". The SBP-2 (Serial Bus Protocol 2) used by FireWire disk drives uses this capability to minimize interrupts and buffer copies. In SBP-2, the initiator (controlling device) sends a request by remotely writing a command into a specified area of the target's FireWire address space. This command usually includes buffer addresses in the initiator's FireWire \"Physical Address Space\". The target is supposed to use this space to move I\/O data to and from the initiator.\n\nMany implementations use hardware to do the mapping between the FireWire \"Physical Memory Space\" and device physical memory. Among these, are those used by PCs and Macs, especially those using OHCI. In this case, the operating system is not involved in the transfer. This allows for high speed transfers with a low latency and avoids that the data is copied around unnecessarily. It can however be a security risk if devices that are not trusted are connected to the bus. Installations where security is a concern will therefore either use newer hardware, which use virtual memory to map the Firewire Physical memory space, or disable the mapping the OHCI does. They might also disable the whole Firewire subsystem, or not provide Firewire at all.\n\nThis feature can also be useful, for example to debug a machine where the operating system has crashed. Some systems can use it to provide a remote console. On FreeBSD, the dcons driver provides both, using gdb as debugger. Under Linux, firescope and fireproxy exist.\n\nRelated pages\n USB\n SCSI\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Apple FireWire technology\n IEEE 1394 _Citizendium\n\nComputer buses\nElectrical connectors","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":32231,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE%201394","title":"IEEE 1394","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125, is a symphony written by Ludwig van Beethoven. It is one of the most famous pieces of music ever written.\n\nA symphony is a piece of music for orchestra. Beethoven wrote nine symphonies. This one, the last one he wrote, is very unusual because the last movement also has singing in it: there are four soloists (soprano, alto, tenor and bass) and a choir. This is why it is known as the \"choral\" symphony (\"choral\" means: \"for choir\"). It is a very long work, lasting more than an hour. This, too, was unusual.\n\nThis symphony has four movements. The first movement is in sonata form. The second and third movements come the other way round from the usual order: the second movement is the scherzo and the third movement is the slow movement. It is a theme and variations. The last movement sets the words of a poem by Friedrich Schiller, a famous poet who had only recently died. The poem was called Ode an die Freude (in English: Ode to Joy). The poem has a strong message to all mankind: it is about living in peace and harmony together. It was written at the time of the French Revolution when these ideas were becoming very important in Europe.\n\nThe main tune of the last movement (sung to the words: \"Freude, sch\u00f6ne G\u00f6tterfunken, Tochter aus Elysium\") is one of the best known tunes in the world. Many children like to play it on instruments because the first part of the tune only uses five notes (it can be played on C, D, E, F, G). When the tune comes the first time in the symphony it is played by the cellos and double basses.\n\nThe Ode to Joy was adopted as Europe's \"National anthem\" in 1972, with an official arrangement for orchestra written by Herbert von Karajan.\n\nBeethoven had been interested in Schiller's famous poem since he was young. In 1817 he started to write the first two movements of the symphony. In 1822 he decided to use Schiller's poem in the symphony. Most of the rest of the symphony was written in 1823 and he finished it in 1824. It was first performed in May of that year. Beethoven conducted the performance. The story is told that he wondered why the audience were not applauding when it had finished. They were applauding, but Beethoven was deaf so he could not hear. Caroline Unger, the alto soloist, made him turn round, and he saw that people were applauding enthusiastically.\n\nSymphony 09","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":192,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":8}},"id":60354,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symphony%20No.%209%20%28Beethoven%29","title":"Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A deity is thought to be a powerful spirit that controls events and the nature of things. Deities are also called gods. A female god is often called a goddess. The adjective of deity is 'divine'. This word comes from the Latin deus (female: dea).\n\nDifferent religions believe in different deities. Since there are many religions in the world there are many different ideas about how many deities there are, what they are, and what they can do.  Followers of many ancient religions and some modern religions believe in many deities, which is called polytheism. \n\nThe two largest religions on earth, Christianity and Islam, believe in only one God, which is called monotheism. Deism is the belief that a deity exists, but that the deity does not very often change or never changes things in the universe. Pantheism is the belief that the universe is the deity, while atheism is the belief that there are no deities.\n\nIn most religions, believers think deities are immortal (cannot die), and have powers far beyond human powers.\n\nExamples \n\nSome of the deities of different religions are:\n\nFrom the Ancient Greek religion: Zeus, Apollo, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Poseidon, Hades, Thanatos, Dionysus, Hera, Artemis, Hephaestus, Hermes, nymph\nFrom the Ancient Norse religion: Thor, Odin, Tyr, Frey, Freya, Baldur, Loki, Idunn, Njord, Frigg\nFrom the Ancient Roman religion: Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Juno, Vulcan, Pluto, Bacchus, Neptune,\nFrom the Ancient Egyptian religion: Isis, Osiris, Horus, Thoth, Ra, Hathor,  Bastet, Nut, Geb, Seth, Shu, Apophis, \nFrom Christianity: Jesus, Yahweh, the Holy Spirit (Considered to Christians as the three parts of one God)\nFrom Judaism: Hashem\nFrom Hinduism: Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Durga, Ganesha and many more. \nFrom Buddhism: Deva\nFrom Islam: Allah\nFrom Shinto called kami: Amaterasu the Sun goddess, Inari the Fox god, Izanagi the first human, Ryuujin the Sea god, Shinigami the death gods, Susanoo the Storm god\nFrom Aztec Mythology: Nanahuatl, Tecuciztecatl, Teotihuacan, Quetzalcoatl, Coatlicue,\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":220,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-30":4,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":4,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":6,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":5,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":5,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":7,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":5,"2020-05":8,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":6,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":4,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":5,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3}},"id":20464,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deity","title":"Deity","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A shield is the name used to refer to any object or force used to block something.\n\nHistory \nThe oldest shield known was a device used to block hand weapons and arrows. The shield has been constructed differently over time, even animal hides were used, and the size and weight were largely different as well.\n\nMiddle Ages \n\nIn the Middle Ages, Kite shields were commonly used. The Kite shield is a shield in the form of a kite. Because of the lack of mobility due of the kite shields' weight, kite shields were given up for more mobility and two handed weapons. The Buckler was a shield with a round shape. It was commonly used as a replacement for the heavy Kite shields.\n\nModern Shields \n\nShields were used even after gunpowder weapons. the shield is still used by police and army forces today. Many shields now in days are usually made from advanced material, as well as electronics. Shields also vary from not only hand helds, but clothing, such as vests and, in a way, boots and gloves.\n\nFuture \nThe future of shields have varied from multiple ideas and fiction, usually force fields and energy shields.\n\nArmour","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":135,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3}},"id":60592,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shield","title":"Shield","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Plato (; Greek:  , Pl\u00e1t\u014dn, \"broad\"; 428\/427 BC \u2013 348\/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science. In the famous words of A.N. Whitehead:\nThe safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them.\n\nPlato's sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues; thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him.  Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts.\n\nPlato's dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and mathematics.\n\nItokasi \n\n\u00e0w\u1ecdn am\u00f2ye","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":224,"dup_dump_count":44,"dup_details":{"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2020-29":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":10,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":11,"2017-43":11,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":5,"2017-30":14,"2017-26":8,"2017-22":13,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":15,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":9,"2016-30":21,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":18,"2015-48":24,"2015-40":20,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-41":1,"2014-23":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":10056,"url":"https:\/\/yo.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plato","title":"Plato","language":"yo"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In engineering mechanics, deformation is a change in shape that is result of a force that influences the object.  \n\nIt can be a result of tensile (pulling) forces, compressive (pushing) forces, shear, bending or torsion (twisting).\n\nTypes of deformation \n\nDepending on the type of material, size and shape of the object, and the forces used, various types of deformation may result.\n\nElastic deformation\n\nThis type of deformation is reversible. Once the forces are no longer applied, the object returns to its original shape. As the name implies, elastic (rubber) has a rather large elastic deformation range. The thermoplastics and metals have moderate elastic deformation ranges while ceramics, crystals, and hard thermosetting polymers undergo almost no elastic deformation. Malleable materials do not undergo elastic deformation.\n\nMetal fatigue\n\nA phenomenon only discovered in modern times is metal fatigue, which occurs primarily in ductile metals. It was originally thought that a material deformed only within the elastic range returned completely to its original state once the forces were removed. However, faults are introduced at the molecular level with each deformation. After many deformations, cracks will begin to appear, followed soon after by a fracture, with no apparent plastic deformation in between. Depending on the material, shape, and how close to the elastic limit it is deformed, failure may require thousands, millions, billions, or trillions of deformations. \n\nMetal fatigue has been a major cause of aircraft failure, especially before the process was well understood.\n\nPlastic deformation\n\nThis type of deformation is not reversible.  But an object in the plastic deformation range will first have undergone elastic deformation, which is reversible, so the object will return part way to its original shape.  Soft thermoplastics have a rather large plastic deformation range as do ductile metals such as copper, silver, and gold.  Steel does, too, but not iron.  Hard thermosetting plastics, rubber, crystals, and ceramics have minimal plastic deformation ranges.  Perhaps the material with the largest plastic deformation range is wet chewing gum, which can be stretched dozens of times its original length.\n\nFracture\n\nThis type of deformation is also not reversible.  A break occurs after the material has reached the end of the elastic, and then plastic, deformation ranges.  At this point forces accumulate until they are sufficient to cause a fracture.  All materials will eventually fracture, if sufficient forces are applied.\n\nMisconceptions\n\nA popular misconception is that all materials that bend are \"weak\" and all those which do not are \"strong\".  In reality, many materials which undergo large elastic and plastic deformations, such as steel, are able to absorb stresses which would cause brittle materials, such as glass, with minimal elastic and plastic deformation ranges, to break.  There is even a story to describe this observation (paraphrased below):\n\n\"The mighty oak stands strong and firm before the wind, while the willow yields to the slightest breeze.  However, in the strongest storm, the oak will break while the willow will bend, and thus survive.  So, in the end, which is the stronger of the two ?\"\n\nSolid mechanics\nMaterials science","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":48891,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deformation","title":"Deformation","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Norse or Scandinavian mythology is the belief and legends of the Scandinavian people.  Norse mythology is a version of the older Germanic mythology and was later replaced by Christianity for the most part.\n \nNorse mythology is a set of beliefs and stories shared by Northern Germanic tribes. It was not handed down from the gods to the mortal. It had no scripture. The mythology was passed on from one generation to the next in the form of poetry. It continued to be passed down this way through the time of the Vikings. The original beliefs were long lost. Our knowledge about it is mainly based on the Eddas and other medieval texts. These were written down while and after they turned to Christianity.\n\nCosmology\n\nIn Norse mythology, the universe was thought to have 9 realms or \"worlds\". Asgard is where the gods lived. Asgard could only be reached by walking across the rainbow (the Bifr\u00f6st bridge). The Frost Giants lived in a place called J\u00f6tunheimr. J\u00f6tunheimr means giant realm.\n\nA cold, dark place called Niflheim was ruled by Hel. She was the daughter of Loki. This was the eventual home of most of the dead. Located somewhere in the south was the fiery realm of Muspelheim, home of the fire giants. \n\nIn between Asgard and Niflheim was Midgard, the world of men.\n\nSupernatural beings\n\nThere are three \"clans\" of deities, the \u00c6sir, the Vanir, and the J\u00f6tnar (referred to as giants in this article). After a long war, the \u00c6sir and Vanir made peace and joined together. \n\nThe \u00c6sir and the Vanir are enemies with the J\u00f6tnar or giants. The \u00c6sir are descendants of J\u00f6tnar. Both \u00c6sir and Vanir intermarry with them. There are two kinds of giant: frost-giants and fire-giants. \n\nThere are many other supernatural beings. These include: \nFenrir the gigantic wolf\nJ\u00f6rmungandr the sea-serpent that is coiled around the world.\nHugin and Munin (thought and memory), the two ravens who keep Odin informed of what is happening on earth.\nRatatoskr, the squirrel which scampers in the branches of the world tree, Yggdrasil.\n\nSources \nMost of this mythology was passed down orally as Skaldic poetry, and much of it has been lost. Some of it was recorded by Christian scholars. The earlier detailed records come from the Eddas and the Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson though the mentioning of their deities And mythology goes back to Cornelius Tacitus' report \"Germania\" in 98 AD. \n\nThere are also several runestones and image stones that show scenes from Norse mythology, such as Thor's fishing trip and Odin being devoured by Fenrir.\n\nModern influences\n\nThe Germanic gods have affected elements of every day western life in most countries that speak Germanic languages. An example is some of the names of the days of the week. The days were named after Roman gods in Latin (named after Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn). The names for Tuesday through Friday were replaced with Germanic versions of the Roman gods. In English, Saturn was not replaced. Saturday is named after the sabbath in German, and is called \"washing day\" in Scandinavia.\n\nModern popular culture\n\nJ.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings was influenced by the myths of the Northern Europeans. As it became popular, parts of its fantasy world moved into how people see the fantasy genre. In almost any modern fantasy novel, you can find Norse creatures like elves, dwarves, and giants.\n\nOther websites\n W. Wagner's \"Asgard and the Home of the Gods\" e-book \n  Peter Andreas Munch's \"Norse Mythology: Legends of Gods and Heroes\" e-book \n heimskringla.no Old Norse Prose and Poetry \n Timeless Myths - Norse Mythology - Information and tales from Norse and Germanic literatures \n Norse Gods, Goddesses, Giants, Dwarves and Wights \n CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Norse Mythology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":40357,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norse%20mythology","title":"Norse mythology","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"[[File:Capital punishment in the world.svg|thumb|500px|\n\n{{legend|#E0A040|Abolitionist-in-practice countries (have executed nobody during the last 10 years or more '  and   have an established practice of not carrying out executions): 28}}\n\n]]\n\nDeath penalty, a form of capital punishment, is when a government or state executes (kills) someone, usually but not always because they have committed a serious crime. A crime that can be punished with the death penalty is called a capital crime or a capital offense.\n\nExecutions in most countries have become rarer in recent centuries. The death penalty is a disputed and controversial topic. Generally, right-wing parties are supportive of the death penalty: centrist and left-wing parties are opposed to it.\n\nAbout one third of the countries in the world have laws that allow the death penalty. The United States, the People's Republic of China, Japan, Indonesia and Iran are examples of countries that have a death penalty. Canada, Australia, Mexico and all members of Council of Europe are examples of countries that have abolished the death penalty. 109 countries have gotten rid of the capital punishment for all crimes. Another 28 can be considered abolitionist in practice. Countries are considered abolitionist in practice if they retain the death penalty in law but have not carried out any executions for the past 10 years or more. \n\nMost of the countries that have a death penalty use it on murderers, and for other serious crimes such as rape or terrorism. Other countries especially ones with Authoritarian or Totalitarian governments, however, also use it for smaller crimes like theft, drugs, or for saying bad things about the government.\n\n Which countries execute the most people? \nA study by Amnesty International found that the following countries did the most executions in 2012: \n\n China (4000+) data not officially released.\n Iran (at least 314+)\n Iraq (at least 129+)\n Saudi Arabia (79+)\n United States (43)\n Yemen (28+)\n Oman (25+)\n Sudan (19+)\n Afghanistan (14)\n\nHere's the list for 1998:\n China (1,067)\n Democratic Republic of the Congo (100)\n United States (68)\n Iran (66)\n Egypt (48)\n Belarus (33)\n Taiwan (32)\n Saudi Arabia (29)\n Singapore (28)\n Rwanda (24)\n Sierra Leone (24)\nAlthough unconfirmed, Amnesty International also received reports of many hundreds of executions in Iraq.\n\nA total of 557 people were executed in the United States between 1977, when the death penalty was reintroduced after a 10-year break, and 2000. During this period, 20 states did not carry out any executions. Here are the states with the most executions during this time:\n Texas (239)\n Virginia (81)\n Florida (50)\n Missouri (46)\n Oklahoma (30)\n Louisiana (26)\n South Carolina (25)\n Alabama (23)\n Arkansas (23)\n Georgia (23)\n\n First countries to abolish capital punishment \n*The Russian Soviet Socialist Republic, as part of the Soviet Union, reinstated capital punishment during the time of the Soviet Union.\n\n Common reasons for execution \nIt is common to have people executed for crimes including murder, manslaughter and attempted murder, but there are also other crimes that carry the death penalty. Some of these are:\n Bank robbery (Saudi Arabia)\n Kidnapping (India)\n Treason (North Korea, India)\n Trafficking with human beings (this is like slavery) (China)\n General robbery if at least one person dies (America)\n Rape (North Korea, China, Saudi Arabia)\n Trafficking or possessing certain illegal drugs in a certain quantity (Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan, North Korea and others)\n Bribery and Corruption (China)\n Piracy (North Korea)\n Adultery (Saudi Arabia, Iran and Afghanistan)\n Homosexuality (Iran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Sudan and Mauritania)\n Prostitution (both prostituting oneself and forcing others to do the same) (Iraq until 2003, Saudi Arabia)\n Apostasy in Islam (Afghanistan, Iran, Yemen, Mauritania, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia and Sudan)\n Witchcraft (Saudi Arabia, Qatar)\n\nDuring war time, the following crimes are punished by death:\n Treason (attempting to overthrow a government)\n Espionage (spying)\n Sabotage\n Desertion\n\n Who may not be executed \nAccording to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that became valid in 1976, people that were less than eighteen years old when they committed the crime may not be executed. According to the European Convention on Human Rights (which is effective in many European countries), specifically its 13th amendment (2002), no one can be executed. \n\n Controversy \n\nThere is a lot of different opinions on the topic of capital punishment.  As it is an important topic, each country has very strong feelings. Many people say the death penalty is reasonable because it scares people away from doing things that are illegal. However, many others say there is a potential of executing an innocent person. Some people say the death penalty supports justice, retribution, and punishment. The other side says that execution is murder. Most people know the threat of crime to their lives, but the question lies in the methods and action that should be used to deal with it. \n\nThroughout human history, governments and rulers have used many death penalty methods to execute people, such as crucifixion, flaying, and hanging. Some methods like crucifixion and flaying are no longer used by governments, because people think that these methods of killing are too cruel. The gas chamber was found unconstitutional in the United States (that is: against the United States constitution not allowing \"cruel and unusual punishments\") and is no longer used. \n\nThe Council of Europe has abolished all death penalty by 13th amendment of the European Convention on Human Rights. Amnesty International oppose all death penalty on ground of the right to life and prohibition of all tortures or any cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment insisted by Universal Declaration of Human Rights.\n\n Forms of death \n\nThe following forms of execution are in use today:\n Electric chair: The prisoner is killed by a strong source of electricity attached to their head and leg.\n Lethal injection: The prisoner is poisoned with a mix of chemicals that are put into their body. Some countries use chemicals that are controversial. After the electric chair was abolished as a form of death penalty in the United States by be considered a too brutal punishment and be replaced by lethal injection, this method became the most widely used since then. China also use lethal injection. \n Firing squad: Some people shoot the prisoner with rifles. Firing squads are often used for soldiers during wars. One or more of those firing may have false ammunition that does not kill so that no one knows which person fired the shot that killed. A firing squad is a traditional military execution. Deserters, traitors and spies are sometimes shot. The firing squad is still used in Cuba, Indonesia and Nigeria, and was used in Mexico, Chile and Philippines in the past.\n Hanging: The prisoner has a rope tied around their neck. They are then dropped from a height. The person can die from their neck being broken. They might die from choking (asphyxiation), if the drop is too small or knot was badly made. If the drop is too long or the prisoner too heavy, their head might be torn off. Japan, India and former British colonies use hanging.\n Strangulation, by hand or by garrote. The garrote was the main type of capital punishment in Spain for hundreds of years. Originally, the convict was killed by hitting him with a club (garrote'' in Spanish). This later developed into putting a loop of rope placed around the neck.  A wooden stick was placed in the loop, and rotated to tighten the rope until the condemned person was strangled to death. \n Stoning: Stones are thrown at the prisoner until they die. Stoning is still used in some Middle Eastern countries.\n Decapitation: The victim has his or her head cut off with a sharp blade, such as sword, axe or guillotine. This was the traditional means of execution in central Europe and many other places. Decapitation is also called beheading'''. Decapitation is still used in some Middle Eastern countries, but the only country to actively use it is Saudi Arabia.\n\nGallery\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nOther websites\nTen anti-death penalty fallacies: the case against capital punishment relies on myth, misinformation, and misplaced emotionalism. (Crime and Punishment)- The Open Library\n \n\n \nPunishments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":263,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-22":3,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":6,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":5,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":7,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":7,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":7,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":5}},"id":6659,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Death%20penalty","title":"Death penalty","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A rock is a naturally occurring solid. Rocks are made of collections of mineral grains that are held together in a firm, solid mass. They are made of minerals (which are crystalline), or other mineral-like substances. \n\nThe Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. That means the Earth's crust is made of rock. The different minerals in the rocks make different kinds of rock. \n\nRock is often covered by soil or water. It is beneath the oceans, lakes, and rivers of the earth, and under the polar icecaps. Petrology is the scientific study of rocks.\n\nRock classification \nRocks are classified by their minerals and chemical make-up. The processes that formed them are also noted. Rocks may be igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Rock types may change in a so-called 'rock cycle'.\n\nIgneous rocks \nFor the main article, see Igneous rock\n\nIgneous rocks are formed when molten magma cools, either above or below the surface. They are divided into two main categories: plutonic rock and volcanic rock. Plutonic or intrusive rocks are made when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust (example granite). Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or ejecta (examples pumice and basalt). There are over 700 hundred types of igneous rocks, and they are generally the hardest and heaviest of all rocks.\n\nSedimentary rock \nFor the main article, see Sedimentary rock\n\n \n\nSedimentary rocks are the most common rocks on Earth. They form at or near the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rock is formed in layers which were laid down one by one on top of another. Some of the layers are thin, some are thick. Layers are made by deposition of sediment, organic matter, and chemical precipitates. Of the rocks exposed on the Earth's surface, 66 percent of it are sedimentary rocks. \nDeposition is followed by squeezing of sediment under its own weight, and cementation. This process is called 'consolidation': it turns the sediment into a more or less hard substance.\n\nThe approximate amounts of different kinds of sedimentary rock are:\nShale (including mudstone, and siltstone): 60%\nSandstones 20%.\nCarbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite): 15%.\nAll others: 5%.\n\nOnly sedimentary rocks have fossils.\n\nMetamorphic rock \nFor the main article, see Metamorphic rock\n\nMetamorphic rocks are formed by rocks coming under great pressure and high temperatures. These temperatures and pressures are found under mountains and volcanoes, especially when continental plates move together. These conditions change the make-up of the original minerals.\n\nImpact on human life \nRocks have had an impact on human life. They have been used by humans for over two million years. The mining of rocks for their metals has been one of the most important things in human advancement. Rocks are mined for building materials of all kinds.\n\nRelated pages\n Geology\n Quarrying\nBedrock\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-26":3,"2024-18":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":78599,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rock%20%28geology%29","title":"Rock (geology)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A hamlet is a small settlement, smaller than a village. Usually, all settlers in a hamlet are centered around a single economic activity. A hamlet may consist of a farm, a mill, a mine or a harbor. All the people living there would be workers on that farm, mill, mine or harbour. Hamlets, especially those with a medieval church may have resulted from a medieval village, that was abandoned for some reason.\n\nBecause of the small size of the settlement, there are usually no buildings which have a central or admninistratrive function. There usually is no church, town hall or pub. Roads and streets in the hamlet do not have names, most of the time. 5-6 families may live there usually within a 2km radius area. \n\nIn Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the Alsace region of France, such hamlets often have names that end in -wil, -wil(l)er, -wyhl or -viller.\n\n \nTypes of settlements","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":50813,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hamlet%20%28place%29","title":"Hamlet (place)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Colonialism occurs when a country or a nation takes control of other countries, regions, or territories outside of its borders (boundaries of the country) by turning those other countries, regions, or territories into a colony. Usually, it is a more powerful, richer country that takes control of a smaller, less powerful region or territory. Sometimes the words \"colonialism\" and \"imperialism\" are used to mean the same thing. Colonialism is one of the main results of imperialism.\n\nIn the 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, many of the richer, more powerful European countries (such as Britain, Portugal, France, Spain, and the Netherlands) established colonies in the continents of Africa, South America, Asia, and the Caribbean.\n\nSome countries use colonialism to get more land for their people to live in. They helped settlers move to the new area. The indigenous people living in the land or territories were usually moved away by using force and violence from armies. To protect these settlers from the indigenous people who were pushed aside, colonial nations often set up a military fort or colonial police system. \n\nOther countries use colonialism to get more land so that they can use the land for farming or to extract (take out) resources such as trees (wood), coal, or metals, or to create a local government or military fort.\n\nOther countries use colonialism so that they can get workers from the poorer country to work in factories or farms (either in the richer country, or in the poorer country). In the past, powerful countries that were colonizing poorer countries or regions often forced the people from the poorer countries to work as slaves.\n\nHistory \n\nThe Phoenicians started many trade colonies around the Mediterranean. Carthage was the largest and most famous colony, and also made other colonies including Cartagena in Spain. \n\nLater, the Ancient Greeks expanded their territories with colonies. Ancient Greece was many city-states. Each city was independent with a government in place. Those cities also fought wars against each other and traded goods. To get more influence, or to secure a trade route, the city would send settlers to a new place. These people would then make a new city called a colony. Sometimes a new city had to pay some form of taxes to the mother city in exchange for protection, for example. The colonies, however, ruled themselves. The mother city did not send them a governor. Syracuse is the most famous of these Greek colonies. \n\nIf the Greek settlers found a local tribe living in the new territory, they would fight to force them to leave. The local tribe was usually made into slaves. The new colony would exploit the land it found, by growing crops or by raising cattle.\n\nAncient Rome invented the word \"colonia\" from the word \"colonus\" meaning \"farmer\". \"Colonia\" at that time meant a new town to which some Romans moved, including farmers. Many of the settlers were veterans. In later centuries the word \"colony\" less often meant settlers, and more often meant rule by foreigners.\n\nTypes of colonialism \nThere are several different types of colonialism.  Some countries that expanded their territory made settler colonies.  Some countries that started out as settler colonies include the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the states of Latin America.  In all of these countries, people from European countries moved to the best parts of the new place, and forced the indigenous peoples (such as Indians, Maori, etc.) to move. When the local people or tribes had to move, it caused a lot of problems. Many of these indigenous peoples were also enslaved, killed through genocide or died in pandemics because they had no immunity against infectious diseases brought by the settlers.\n\nWith the plantation colony, the powerful, rich country use the poorer country's land to grow crops.  Typically, slaves work on the farms.  Examples of plantation colonies include Barbados, Saint-Domingue and Jamaica. \n\nIn some regions which were colonized, the settlers married the local people and had children with them. An example is Mexico, where a new people called the mestizos came from the marriages of the settlers and the local tribes. In other regions which were colonized, the settlers and the local people lived in separate areas, without living together or marrying. An example of this situation is French Algeria (when France colonized the African country of Algeria) or Southern Rhodesia. \n\nAnother type of colonialism is when a powerful country sets up (establishes) dependencies. With a dependency, the colonizing country does not send over thousands of settlers to the new territory. Instead, the colonizing country sets up administrators (a governing organization) that controls the existing local (native) populations or tribes. Examples include the British Raj, (geraldine) in which the British government controlled India; the Dutch East Indies, in which the Netherlands controlled parts of the East Indies; and the Japanese colonial empire, in which Japan controlled Asian territories.\n\nAnother type of colony is the trading post colony. Rich and powerful countries set up trading post colonies so that there would be a territory where trading, selling, and business could be conducted. The rich and powerful countries usually set up military forts or police forces to enforce the rules and laws of the colonizing country. Examples of trading colonies include Macau, Malacca, Deshima and Singapore.\n\nMassive colonization took place in Ancient India too. But the history of colonization is attributed to Greece only. In Ancient India Colonization began not with political conquest but with cultural conquest. Hinduism, and after centuries Buddhism became the main source of colonization. It was a colonization that began with cultural expansion leading to economic colonization. Indians were in the role of masters for a few centuries and in the role of slaves for centuries.\n\nRelated pages\n Colonization\n Neocolonialism\n\nOther websites\n Liberal opposition to colonialism, imperialism and empire (pdf)  - by professor Daniel Klein\n Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry\n Colonialism -Citizendium","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":60,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":4,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2017-13":2}},"id":23965,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Colonialism","title":"Colonialism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Politics of Germany are based on a federal parliamentary democratic republic. The government is elected by the people in elections where everyone has an equal vote. The constitution is called the Grundgesetz. As well as setting out the rights of the people, it describes the jobs of the President, the Cabinet, the Bundestag, Bundesrat and the Courts.\n\nThe President is the head of state. The Federal Chancellor is the head of government, and of the majority group in the legislature (law making body) which is called the Bundestag. Executive power is exercised by the government. The power to make federal law is given to the government and the two parts of parliament, the Bundestag and Bundesrat. The ministers of the government are members of the parliament, and need parliamentary support to stay in power.\n\nFrom 1949 to 1990, the main political parties were the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), with its \"sister party\", the Christian Social Union of Bavaria (CSU). After the reunification of Germany the Green Party and Alliance '90(B\u00fcndnis 90\/Die Gr\u00fcnen) became more important and was in government between 1999 and 2005. Other important political parties after reunification have been the PDS (Party of Democratic Socialism) which was based on East Germany's Socialist Unity Party of Germany. It joined with The Left Party (Die Linkspartei or Die Linke) of western Germany. In 2007 Die Linke and WASG joined together under the leadership of Oskar Lafontaine\n\nAs Germany is a federal country, a lot of the work of government is done by the 16 states (L\u00e4nder). Power is shared between the national (or federal) government and state governments. The national government cannot abolish the state governments.\n\nRights and the constitution \n\nThe political system is set out in the 1949 constitution, the Grundgesetz (Basic Law), which stayed in effect after 1990's German reunification.\n\nThe constitution puts freedom and human rights first. It also splits powers both between the federal and state levels and between the legislative (law-making), executive (government), and judicial (courts) branches. The 1949 Grundgesetz was written to correct the problems with the Weimar Republic's constitution. The Weimar Republic collapsed in 1933 and was replaced by the dictatorship of the Third Reich.\n\nThe Federal Courts \nThe courts of Germany are independent of the government and the lawmakers. Senior judges are appointed by the Bundestag for a fixed term.\n\nFederal executive branch\nThe Bundeskanzler (Federal Chancellor) heads the Bundesregierung (Federal Cabinet) and thus the executive branch of the federal government. He or she is chosen by and must report to the Bundestag, Germany's parliament. Germany, like the United Kingdom, can thus be said to have a parliamentary system.\n\nKonstruktives Misstrauensvotum \nThe Chancellor cannot be removed from office during a 4-year term unless the Bundestag has agreed on a successor. This Constructive Vote of No Confidence () is meant to stop what happened in the Weimar Republic. There the government did not have a lot of support in the parliament. The small parties often joined together to vote against the government, but could never stay together and choose a new government.\n\nExcept in the periods 1969-72 and 1976-82, when the social democratic party of Chancellor Brandt and Schmidt came in second in the elections, the Chancellor has always been the candidate of the largest party. Usually the largest party is helped by one or smaller more parties to get a majority in the parliament. Between 1969-72 and 1976-82 the smaller parties decided not to help the largest party, but the second biggest party instead.\n\nThe Chancellor appoints a Vice-Chancellor (Vizekanzler), who is a member of his cabinet, usually the Foreign Minister. When there is a coalition government (which has, so far, always been the case, except for the period of 1957 to 1961), the Vice-Chancellor usually belongs to the smaller party of the coalition.\n\nThe Federal Cabinet\nThe Chancellor is responsible for policy guidelines. This means he, or she, sets the broad ideas of what the government will do. To help carry out these ideas the Chancellor can change the make-up of the federal ministries whenever they want. For example, in the middle of January 2001, the Federal Ministry of Agriculture was renamed to Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture. This was to help fight the \"Mad Cow Disease\" BSE problem. At the same time some of the jobs (competencies) of the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Economy, and the Ministry of Health were moved to the new Ministry of Consumer Protection.\n\nReporting to the cabinet is the Civil service of Germany.\n\nThe Federal President \nThe duties of the Bundespr\u00e4sident (Federal President) are mostly representative and ceremonial; The power of the executive is exercised by the Chancellor.\n\nThe President is elected every 5 years on May 23 by the Federal Assembly (Bundesversammlung). The Bundesversammlung only meets to elect the President. Its members are the entire Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates selected especially for this purpose in proportion to election results for the state parliaments.\nIn February 2017, Frank-Walter Steinmeier of the SPD was elected. The reason that the President is not directly elected by the people is to stop him from claiming to be more powerful than the government and the constitution, which happened in the Weimar Republic.\n\n|President\n|Frank-Walter Steinmeier\n| --- 1)\n|19 March 2017\n|-\n|Chancellor\n|Olaf Scholz\n|SPD\n|8 December 2021\n|-\n|Other government parties\n|\n|Green, FDP\n|\n|}\n\n1) Although Mr. Steinmeier has been a member of the SPD, the German Basic Law requests in Article 55 that the Federal President does not hold another office, practice a profession or hold membership of any corporation. Federal President has let his party membership rest dormant and does not belong to a political party during his term of office.\n\nFederal parliament\n\nGermany has a bicameral legislature, which means that the parliament has two houses. The Bundestag (Federal Diet) has at least 598 members, elected for a four-year term. Half of the members (299) are elected in single-seat constituencies according to first-past-the-post. The other 299 members are chosen from statewide party lists.\n\nThe total percentage of constituency members and regional list members a party has should equal the percentage of votes that a party gets. This is called proportional representation.\n\nBecause Voters vote once for a constituency representative, and a second time for a party Germany is said to have mixed-member proportional representation.\n\nSometimes a party already has more constituency seats in a land (state) than it should have to keep the percentage of votes and seats equal. The party does not lose seats. Instead, it gets no land seats. This means that the Bundestag sometimes has more than 598 members. In the current parliament, there are 16 overhang seats, giving a total of 614.\n\nA party must get 5% of the national vote or win at least three constituency seats to be represented in the Bundestag. This rule is often called the \"five percent hurdle\", was made to stop lots of small parties from being in the Bundestag. Small parties were blamed for the problems of the Weimar Republic's Reichstag.\n\nThe first Bundestag elections were held in the Federal Republic of Germany (\"West Germany\") on August 14, 1949. Following reunification, elections for the first all-German Bundestag were held on December 2, 1990. The last election was held on September 24, 2017, the 19th Bundestag met on October 24, 2017.\n\nThe Bundesrat (Federal Council) is the representation of the state governments at the federal level. The Bundesrat has 69 members who are delegates of the 16 Bundesl\u00e4nder. Usually, the 16 Ministers President are members, but they do not have to be. The L\u00e4nder each has from three to six votes in the Bundesrat, depending on the population. Bundesrat members must vote as their state government tell them.\n\nPowers of the legislature\nThe legislature has powers of exclusive jurisdiction (it can make laws by itself) and concurrent jurisdiction with the L\u00e4nder (the l\u00e4nder can also make laws). What laws and what type of laws are set out in the Basic Law.\n\nThe Bundestag does most lawmaking.\n\nThe Bundesrat must concur (agree) to laws about money shared by the federal and state governments and those making more work for the states. Often this means that the Bundesrat often needs to agree to a law because federal laws are often carried out by state or local agencies.\n\nSince the political make-up of the Bundesrat is often different from that of the Bundestag, the Bundesrat is often the place for opposition parties to put their point of view, rather than for the states to look after their interests, as the constitution intended.\n\nTo limit, members of the Bundestag and the Bundesrat form a Vermittlungsauschuss which is a joint committee to try to reach an agreement when the two chambers can not agree on a certain piece of legislation.\n\nPolitical parties and elections\nFor other political parties see List of political parties in Germany.\n\nBundestag \nThe following parties are represented in the German Bundestag since the federal elections of 2017:\n\n CDU\/CSU: 246\n SPD: 152\n AfD: 89\n FDP: 80\n Linke: 69\nGreens: 67\n\nTotal 709 seats.\n\nThe Pirate Party Germany and the National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD) got no seats.\n\nBundesrat \nThe Federal Council is composed by representatives of the State governments.\n\n->See also: Bundesrat - States.\n\nJudicial branch\nGermany has had a court system that was free of government control for longer than it has had democracy.\n\nThis means that the courts have traditionally been strong, and almost all state actions are subject to judicial review (being looked at by the court).\n\nOrganization \nThere is the \"ordinary\" courts system that handles civil and criminal cases\n\nThis has four levels\n Amtsgericht - local courts\n Landesgericht - state courts\n Oberlandesgericht - state appeals courts\n Bundesgerichtshof - the federal supreme criminal and civil court\n\nThere is also a system of specialist courts, that deals with certain areas of the law. These generally have a state court and state appeals court before coming to the federal supreme court for that area of law. The other federal supreme courts are\n Bundesfinanzhof - tax affairs\n Bundesarbeitsgericht - Labour law\n Bundessozialgericht - Social security law\n Bundesverwaltungsgericht - Administrative law. This includes government regulations not covered by one of the other three specialist courts.\n\nUnlike the United States, all courts are state courts, except for the top-level supreme courts.\n\nBundesverfassungsgericht\nGermany also has another supreme court, the Bundesverfassungsgericht Federal Constitutional Court. The Grundgesetz says that every person may complain to the Federal Constitutional Court when his or her constitutional rights, especially human rights, have been violated by the government or one of its agencies and after he or she has gone through the ordinary court system.\n\nThe Bundesverfassungsgericht hears complaints about laws passed by the legislative branch, court decisions, or acts of the administration.\n\nUsually, only a small percentage of these constitutional complaints, called (Verfassungsbeschwerden) are successful. Even so, the Court has often angered both the government and the lawmakers. The judges even say that they do not care about the reactions of the government, the Bundestag, or public opinion or about the cost of one of the court's decisions. All that matters is the constitution.\n\nThe Bundesverfassungsgericht is very high popular with ordinary people because it protects them from government wrongdoing.\n\nOnly the Constitutional Court can handle some types of cases, including arguments between government bodies about their constitutional powers.\n\nOnly the Constitutional Court has the power to ban political parties for being unconstitutional. However so far the Constitutional court has only used this power twice, outlawing the KPD (Communist Party of Germany) and the SRP (Socialist Reich Party, a successor to the NSDAP) because both parties ideas went against the constitution.\n\nRecent political issues\n\n\"Red-Green\" vs. Conservative-led coalitions\n\nIn the 1998 election the SPD said they wanted to reduce high unemployment rates and said new people were needed in government after 16 years of Helmut Kohl's government.\n\nGerhard Schr\u00f6der said he was a centrist \"Third Way\" candidate like Britain's Tony Blair and America's Bill Clinton.\n\nThe CDU\/CSU said people should look at how well off they were because of Kohl's government, and that the CDU\/CSU had experience in foreign policy.\n\nBut the Kohl government was hurt at the polls by slower growth in the east in the previous two years, which meant the gap between east and west widened as the west got richer and the east did not.\n\nThe final seat count was enough to allow a \"red-green\" coalition of the SPD with Alliance '90\/The Greens (B\u00fcndnis '90\/Die Gr\u00fcnen), bringing the Greens into a national government for the first time.\n\nThe first months of the new government had policy disputes between the moderate and traditional left wings of the SPD, and some voters got fed up. The first state election after the federal election was held in Hesse in February 1999. The CDU increased its vote by 3.5%. The CDU became the largest party and replaced an SPD\/Green coalition with a CDU\/FDP coalition. The result was seen in part as a referendum on the federal government's ideas for a new citizenship law, which would have made it easier for long-time foreign residents to become German citizens, and also to keep their original citizenship as well.\n\nIn March 1999, SPD chairman and Minister of Finance Oskar Lafontaine, who represented a more traditional social democratic position, resigned from all offices after losing a party-internal power struggle against Schr\u00f6der.\n\nIn state elections in 2000 and 2001, the respective SPD- or CDU-led coalition governments were re-elected into power.\n\nThe next election for the Bundestag was September 22, 2002. Gerhard Schr\u00f6der led the coalition of SPD and Greens to an 11-seat victory over the CDU\/CSU headed by Edmund Stoiber (CSU). Two factors are generally cited that enabled Schr\u00f6der to win the elections despite poor approval ratings a few months before: good handling of the 2002 European floods and firm opposition to the USA's 2003 invasion of Iraq.\n\nThe coalition treaty for the second red-green coalition was signed on October 16, 2002. There were a lot of new ministers.\n\nConservative comeback\nIn February 2003, elections took place in the states of Hesse and Lower Saxony, was won by the conservatives. In Hesse, the CDU minister president Roland Koch was re-elected, with his party CDU gaining enough seats to govern without the former coalition partner FDP.\n\nIn Lower Saxony, the former SPD minister president Sigmar Gabriel lost the elections, leading to a CDU\/FDP-government headed by new minister president Christian Wulff (CDU).\nThe protest against the Iraq war changed this situation a bit, favoring SPD and Greens.\n\nThe latest election in the state of Bavaria led to a landslide victory of the conservatives, gaining not just the majority (as usual), but two thirds of parliamentary seats.\n\nIn April 2003, chancellor Schr\u00f6der announced massive labor market reforms, called Agenda 2010. This included a shakeup of the system of German job offices (Arbeitsamt), cuts in unemployment benefits and subsidies for unemployed persons who start their own businesses. These changes are commonly known by the name of the chairman of the commission which conceived them as Hartz I - Hartz IV. Although these reforms have sparked massive protests they are now credited with being in part responsible for the economic upswing and the fall of unemployment figures in Germany in the years 2006\/7.\n\nThe European elections on June 13, 2004, brought a staggering defeat for the Social Democrats, who polled only slightly more than 21%, the lowest election result for the SPD in a nationwide election since the Second World War. Liberals, Greens, conservatives, and the far left were the winners of the European election in Germany, because voters were disillusioned by high unemployment and cuts in social security, while the governing SPD party seems to be concerned with quarrels between its members and gave no clear direction. Many observers believe that this election marked the beginning of the end of the Schr\u00f6der government.\n\nRise of the Right\nIn September 2004, elections were held in the states of Saarland, Brandenburg and Saxony. In the Saarland, the governing CDU was able to remain in power and gained one additional seat in the parliament and the SPD lost seven seats, while the Liberals and Greens re-entered the state parliament. The far-right National Democratic Party, which had never got more than 1 or 2% of the vote, received about 4%, although it failed to earn a seat in the state parliament (a party must obtain at least 5% of the vote to achieve state parliamentary representation).\n\nTwo weeks later, elections were held in the eastern states of Brandenburg and Saxony: once again, overall, the ruling parties lost votes and although they remained in power, the right to far-right parties made the big leaps. In Brandenburg, the Deutsche Volksunion (DVU) re-entered the state parliament after winning 6.1% of the vote. In Saxony, the NPD entered a non-competition agreement with the DVU and obtained 9.2% of the vote, thus winning seats in the state parliament. Due to their losses at the ballots, the ruling CDU of Saxony was forced to form a coalition with the SPD. The rise of the right to far-right worries the ruling political parties.\n\nGerman federal election 2005\nOn May 22, 2005, as predicted the SPD was defeated in its former heartland, North Rhine-Westphalia. Half an hour after the election results, the SPD chairman Franz M\u00fcntefering announced that the chancellor would clear the way for premature federal elections by deliberately losing a vote of confidence.\n\nThis took everyone by surprise, especially because the SPD was below 25% in polls at the time. On the following Monday, the CDU announced Angela Merkel as a conservative candidate for chancellorship.\n\nWhereas in May and June 2005 victory of the conservatives seemed highly likely, with some polls giving them an absolute majority, this changed shortly before the election on September 18, 2005, especially after the conservatives introduced Paul Kirchhof as potential minister of the treasury, and after a TV duel between Merkel and Schr\u00f6der where many considered Schr\u00f6der to have performed better.\n\nNew for the 2005 election was the alliance between the newly formed Electoral Alternative for Labour and Social Justice (WASG) and the PDS, planning to join into a common party (see Left Party.PDS). With the former SPD chairman Oskar Lafontaine for the WASG and Gregor Gysi for the PDS as prominent figures, this alliance soon found interest in the media and in the population. Polls in July saw them as high as 12%.\n\nAfter success in the state election for Saxony, the alliance between the far right parties National Democratic Party and Deutsche Volksunion (DVU), which planned to leapfrog the \"five-percent hurdle\" on a common party ticket was another media issue.\n\nThe election results of September 18, 2005, were surprising. They were very different from the polls of the previous weeks. The conservatives lost votes compared to 2002, reaching only 35%, and failed to get a majority for a \"black-yellow\" government of CDU\/CSU and liberal FDP. The FDP polled 10% of the votes, one of their best results ever. But the red-green coalition also failed to get a majority, with the SPD losing votes, but polling 34% and the greens staying at 8%. The left party alliance reached 8.7% and entered the German Parliament, whereas the NPD only got 1.6%.\n\nThe most likely outcome of coalition talks was a so-called \"grand coalition\" between the conservatives (CDU\/CSU) and the social democrats (SPD), with the three smaller parties (liberals, greens, and the left) in the opposition. Other possible coalitions include a \"traffic light coalition\" between SPD, FDP, and Greens and a \"Jamaica coalition\" between CDU\/CSU, FDP, and Greens. Coalitions involving the Left Party were ruled out by all parties (including the Left Party itself), although the combination of one of the major parties and any two small parties would mathematically have a majority. Of these combinations, only a red-red-green coalition is politically even imaginable. Both Gerhard Schr\u00f6der and Angela Merkel announced that they had won the election and should become the next chancellor.\n\nOn October 10, talks were held between Franz M\u00fcntefering, the SPD chairman, Gerhard Schr\u00f6der, Angela Merkel, and Edmund Stoiber, the CSU chairman. In the afternoon it was announced that the CDU\/CSU and SPD would begin formal coalition negotiations with the aim of a Grand Coalition with Angela Merkel as the next German chancellor.\n\nAngela Merkel is the first woman, the first East German and the first scientist to be chancellor as well as the youngest German chancellor ever. On November 22, 2005, Angela Merkel was sworn in by president Horst K\u00f6hler for the office of Bundeskanzlerin.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages\n Political culture of Germany\n German emergency legislature\n German federal election, 2017\n List of political parties in Germany\n\nOther websites\n Official Site of the Bundesregierung\n Official source of election results \n Official source from the German Embassy in Washington, DC\n\n \nGovernment of Germany","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":155,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5}},"id":87185,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Politics%20of%20Germany","title":"Politics of Germany","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Edward, the Black Prince (Woodstock Palace, Oxfordshire, 15 June 1330 \u2013 Westminster Palace, 8 June 1376) was the eldest son of King Edward III of England.  \n\nEdward was born at Woodstock Palace, near Oxford. He was made Prince of Wales in 1343, and followed his father into battle against France. He became a famous soldier, helping win the Battle of Cr\u00e9cy and commanding the Battle of Poitiers.  He was a founding member of the Order of the Garter.  In 1361, he married his cousin, Joan of Kent. They had two sons, Edward and Richard. The older son, Edward, died when he was only six.  \n\nEdward of Woodstock has become known in history as \"the Black Prince\", but no one is quite sure of the reason for the nickname. He died at the age of 45, and was buried at the Canterbury Cathedral. As his father was still living, he never became king himself. He asked his father to give the title Prince of Wales to his son Richard, who later became King Richard II of England. .\n\n1330 births\n1376 deaths\nHouse of Plantagenet\nPeople from Oxfordshire\nPrinces and Princesses of Wales","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":151,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":91502,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward%2C%20the%20Black%20Prince","title":"Edward, the Black Prince","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural history around the Mediterranean. It includes the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, known as the Greco-Roman world. \n\nClassical antiquity is the period in which Greek and Roman literature (such as Aeschylus, Ovid, and others) flourished. By convention, the period starts with the works of Homer, (8th\u20137th century BC), and ends with the arrival of Christianity and the decline of the Roman Empire (5th\u20136th century AD).\n\nArchaic period (8th to 6th centuries BC) \n\nThe earliest period of classical antiquity took place before the re-appearance of historical sources after the Bronze Age collapse. The earliest Greek alphabetic inscriptions are in the first half of the 8th century. Homer is usually assumed to have lived in the 8th or 7th century, and his lifetime is often taken as marking the beginning of classical antiquity. The traditional date for the first Ancient Olympic Games, in 776 BC, was also around this time.  In Roman legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC.  The earliest settlement at the Roman Forum seems to have taken place around this time.\n\nPhoenicians\n\nThe Phoenicians originally expanded from Levantine ports, by the 8th century dominating trade in the Mediterranean. Carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had firmly established strongholds in Sicily, Italy and Sardinia, which brought about conflicts of interest with Etruria.\n\nGreece \nThe Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages, and saw the rise of democracy, philosophy, theatre, poetry, as well as the revitalisation of the written language (which had been lost during the Dark Ages).\n\nPottery styles of the later part of the Archaic age are the black-figure pottery, started in Corinth during the 7th century BC. Its successor was the red-figure style, developed by the Andokides in about 530 BC.\n\nClassical Greece (5th to 4th centuries BC) \n\nThe classical period of Ancient Greece was from the fall of the Athenian tyranny in 510 BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. During this period came the long struggle between Sparta and Athens, and the wars between the Greeks and the Persians. The rise of Macedon in the 4th century overturned all other political systems, at least for a while.\n\nHellenistic period (330 to 146 BC) \nThe Hellenistic period began with Alexander, when Greek became the lingua franca far beyond Greece itself, and Hellenistic culture came in contact with the cultures of Persia, Central Asia, India and Egypt. \nThe Hellenistic period ended with the rise of the Roman Republic to a super-regional power in the 2nd century BC and the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC.\n\nRoman Republic (5th to 1st centuries BC) \nThe Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed.\n\nThe republican period of Ancient Rome began with the overthrow of the Monarchy at about 509 BC and lasted over 450 years until its subversion, through a series of civil wars and the Imperial period.\n\nRoman Empire (1st century BC to 5th century AD) \n\nDetermining the precise end of the Republic is a matter of dispute.  Roman citizens of the time did not recognize that the Republic had ceased to exist. \n\nIt could be said that Rome was already of imperial character. It had no emperor when it conquered Gaul, Illyria, Greece Hispania, and the Roman province of Asia.\n\nLate Antiquity (4th to 6th centuries AD) \n\nDuring Late Antiquity Christianity rose under Constantine I, and finally became the Roman imperial cult in 393. Successive invasions of Germanic tribes meant the end of the Western Empire in the 5th century, but the Eastern Empire persisted throughout the Middle Ages as the Byzantine Empire.\n\nRevivalism\n\nRespect for the ancients of Greece and Rome affected politics, philosophy, sculpture, literature, theater, education, architecture and even sexuality.\n\nIn politics, the presence of a Roman Emperor was felt to be desirable long after the empire fell.  This tendency reached its peak when Charlemagne was crowned \"Roman Emperor\" in the year 800, an act which led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire.  The notion that an emperor is a monarch who outranks a mere king dates from this period.  In this political ideal, there would always be a Roman Empire, a state whose jurisdiction extended to the entire civilized western world.\n\nSubtopics\nAncient history\nAncient Greece\nAncient Rome\nClassics\nDacia\nRoman Dacia\nRoman Britain\nHispania\nAncient Macedonia\nGaul\nCarthage\n\nRelated pages\n Kofun period (Japan, 250 CE \u2013 538 CE)\n Asuka period (Japan, 538 CE \u2013 710 CE)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences \n Grinin L.E. 2008. Early states in the classical world: statehood and ancient democracy. In Grinin L.E. et al. (eds) Hierarchy and power in the history of civilizations: ancient and medieval cultures. Moscow: URSS. \n\nAncient Greece\nAncient Rome","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":256630,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classical%20antiquity","title":"Classical antiquity","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Olmecs were a group of people who lived about 3000 years ago in what is today south-central Mexico. The Olmec were the first civilization in the ancient area known as Mesoamerica. Because they were the first civilization, many later Mesoamerican civilizations used and repeated Olmec features and characteristics.  \n\nThe Olmec people discovered and made use of many natural resources in the area, including rubber and corn. Dozens of mysterious stone heads were discovered in the Olmec territory as well; archaeologists are still not sure what their purposes were.\n\nOverview\nThe Olmecs lived from 1200 BC to about 400 BC. They had two important cities, first San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan and then La Venta. The Olmecs were able to thrive due to the fertile land around the Coatzacoalcos river basin. The reason for the fall of the Olmec empire is unknown. They developed many different cultures.\n\nArt \nThe Olmecs created a range of artwork such as altars, jade masks and stone carvings.\n\nColossal heads \nThe Olmec colossal heads are the most recognized symbol of the Olmec civilization. The height and weights of the heads vary, but the largest head is about twice the height of an average human male. They include seventeen heads found in the southern Mexican cities of La Venta, San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, Tres Zapotes, and Rancho la Cobata. Each head shows a unique facial expression and wears a helmet bearing distinctive decorations.  No two are alike. The origins and meaning of the heads are mysterious, and they are the subject of much speculation among scholars and archaeologists.\n\nScholars have tried to explain how the Olmecs might have made and moved such big objects. The heads were sculpted out of a hard, dense rock called basalt. Archaeologists think the Olmecs found most of the basalt in the Tuxtlas Mountain range. According to this theory, the basalt heads were sculpted roughly in the mountains and then either floated or dragged by thousands of people from the construction site to the Olmec cities. \n\nPerhaps the most notable features of the sculptures \u2013 and a clue as to their meaning \u2013 are the helmets worn by all the Olmec heads. These helmets, and the rubber balls found near the sculptures, may be evidence that the Mesoamerican ball game originated with the Olmec civilization.  The Mesoamerican ball game was a team sport with profound religious and cultural significance for the indigenous people of Mexico and Central America. The Olmec heads were once thought to have represented Mesoamerican ball players who were sacrificed after losing a match.  The current theory, however, is that the heads honor Olmec rulers.\n\nReferences \n http:\/\/www.crystalinks.com\/olmec.html\n\nHistory of North America\nNative Americans","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":134,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-30":7,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-23":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":70187,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Olmec","title":"Olmec","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSA) are large metropolitan areas of the United States as defined by the Office of Management and Budget. These areas are urban areas with a lot of people. An earlier version of the MSA was the \"Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area\" (SMSA). MSAs are used for official purposes.\n\nMSAs are made up of counties and for some county equivalents. In New England, because of the greater importance of towns over counties, similar areas are based on town units. These are called New England City and Town Areas (NECTAs).\n\nMSAs are created around a central urban area \u2014an areawhere there are a lot of people. The counties with the urbanized area are known as the central counties of the MSA. Other nearby counties (known as outlying counties) can be a part of the MSA if these counties have strong social and economic connections to the central counties. Some areas within these outlying counties may actually be rural areas.\n\nThe population estimates for some metro areas are not always agreed upon. In some cases, different sources give numbers of people which differ by millions. The definitions used for the last U.S. Census differed from those for previous censuses. This makes it hard to compare official information from different dates. MSA boundaries do not stretch into Canada or Mexico. This can affect the number of people in several cities. For example, Detroit, Buffalo, El Paso and San Diego are often much larger than their MSA figures.\n\nAs of June 2003, there is now an additional classification, \"Metropolitan Division.\" The term metropolitan division is used for a county or group of counties that are a distinct employment area within a metropolitan statistical area that has at least 2.5 million people. A metropolitan division is a part of a larger metropolitan statistical area but it is often a distinct social, economic, and cultural area within the larger region.\n\nTop 25 \nThe following is a list of the 25 most populated metropolitan statistical areas and metropolitan divisions in the United States, according to the July 1, 2007 U.S. Census Bureau estimates:\n\nFor all U.S. Metropolitan Statistical Areas, see the Table of United States Metropolitan Statistical Areas.\nFor a list including combined metropolitan areas, see the Table of United States primary census statistical areas.\n\nNotes \n\nCities in the United States","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":123065,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United%20States%20metropolitan%20area","title":"United States metropolitan area","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Linguistics is the study of language. People who study language are called linguists.\n\nThere are five main parts of linguistics: the study of sounds (phonology), the study of parts of words, like \"un-\" and \"-ing\" (morphology), the study of word order and how sentences are made (syntax), the study of the meaning of words (semantics), and the study of the unspoken meaning of speech that is separate from the literal meaning of what is said (for example, saying \"I'm cold\" to get someone to turn off the fan (pragmatics). \n\nThere are many ways to use linguistics every day. Some linguists are theoretical linguists and study the theory and ideas behind language, such as historical linguistics (the study of the history of language, and how it has changed), or the study of how different groups of people may use language differently (sociolinguistics). Some linguists are applied linguists and use linguistics to do things. For example, forensic linguistics is used in crime investigations, and computational linguistics is used to help make computers understand languages, as in speech recognition.\n\nSpecialties \nLinguistics, in its broader context, includes evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language; historical linguistics, which explores language change; sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures; psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which looks at language processing in the brain; language acquisition, how children or adults acquire language; and discourse analysis, which involves the structure of texts and conversations.\n\nAlthough linguistics is the scientific study of language, a number of other intellectual disciplines are relevant to language and intersect with it. Semiotics, for example, is the general study of signs and symbols both within language and without. Literary theorists study the use of language in literature. Linguistics additionally draws on and informs work from such diverse fields as acoustics, anthropology, biology, computer science, human anatomy, informatics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology, sociology, and speech-language pathology. Discourse analysis is the study of entire conversations or texts. \n\nMany linguists compare languages to find similar properties. That makes it possible to find things shared by all the languages of the world and also learn the languages that are related in a language family. Linguists who study how languages are structured and how they work are said to study theoretical linguistics.\n\nAnother part of linguistics is involved in understanding how languages are used in society or in the world. Sociolinguistics studies how language is used in society, and historical linguistics studies how languages change over time and how languages were in the past. One part of historical linguistics is etymology, the study of the history of words.\n\nThe part of linguistics that aims to find out how language works in the mind is known as psycholinguistics.\n\nHistory\n\nThe study of language began in India with P\u0101\u1e47ini, the 5th century BC grammarian who wrote about the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit grammar, which described the different kinds of vowels and consonants of Sanskrit as well as its verb and noun classes. In the Middle East, Sibawayh (\u0633\u06cc\u0628\u0648\u06cc\u0647) wrote a book about Arabic in 760 AD, Al-kitab fi al-nahw (\u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u062d\u0648, The Book on Grammar) and was the first known author to talk about the difference between sounds and phonemes.\n\nLinguistics started in the West as early as it did in the East, but Western linguistics at that time was more like philosophy and less the study of language. Plato was the first western philosopher to write about semantics in his Cratylus in which he argues that words represent concepts that are eternal and exist in the world of ideas. The word etymology is first used to talk about the history behind a word's meaning.\n\nFor many centuries most linguistic work was \"philology\".\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":178,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2023-50":4,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":6,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":5,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":7,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":6,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":20194,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linguistics","title":"Linguistics","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A secret is information or facts that only one person or group knows about. There are many reasons for not telling or sharing the truth with others. \n\nSome secrets are good. These are ones that should be kept secret. An example of a good secret is respect for a citizen's privacy.  But some secrets are bad, if keeping facts hidden causes harm. An example of a bad secret is child abuse. Some things might be kept secret only for a short time, such as a surprise party. Other things may need to be kept secret forever. Sometimes things might be kept secret from someone because it is believed that it would upset them to know. \n\nSome things need to be kept secret for security reasons. If a person has a bank account they must keep their password secret. No one else should know it. Espionage is snooping for someone else's secrets. Criminals like to keep their crimes secret.  \n\nIn a business, some information is kept secret. This is also called \"confidential\". Conversations at meetings are sometimes confidential. People who were at the meeting cannot go telling everyone else what was discussed. Usually, managers will make this a rule for an employee. Trade secrets are protected by law.\n\nAnother type of secret is Cryptography. These are codes that unlock other secrets. So, secrets are being used to protect secrets.\n\nRelated pages\n Classified information\n Information security\n Security\n\nOther websites\n\n \nHuman communication","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":162,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4}},"id":27304,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secrecy","title":"Secrecy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Continental drift is a historical, scientific theory. The theory was first proposed by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. It was fully developed by the German geologist and meteorologist Alfred Wegener in 1915. \n\nThe theory said that parts of the Earth's crust move slowly on top of a liquid mantle of higher density. The theory has now been included in the wider theory of plate tectonics.\n\nEvidence \nThe theory was supported by finding the same minerals and fossils in western Europe and eastern North America.  There are also similar fossils on the western coast of Africa and the eastern South America. The shapes of these continents nearly fit together. The theory was plausible (believable), but there was no known mechanism to drive these great movements. This problem was later solved by plate tectonics.\n\nThe pattern of volcanic activity, mountain building (orogeny) and earthquakes is explained by continental drift. The existence of identical rocks widely apart supports the theory. \n\nExamples (there are hundreds):\nFossils of the fern Glossopteris are found in rocks from Australia, South America, Antarctica, India, Africa and Madagascar. These were all together in the supercontinent Gondwana, after the global continent Pangaea broke up.\nTable Mountain at the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and mountains south of Rio de Janeiro are made of identical rocks. This corresponds to the fit of Africa with South America in Pangaea. \nThe Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland, and Fingal's Cave on Staffa, Inner Hebrides, Scotland is the same rock formation.\n\nMechanism \nThe basic machine driving continental movement is heat moving from the Earth's mantle through the crust and out of the planet. The effect of this it to cause convection, and plate movement. \n\nTwo events in particular are of huge importance:\nThe production of new crust at places such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.\nThe removal of crust by subduction (moving under) at the points where plates collide.\n\nFootnote \n\nPlate tectonics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":76567,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continental%20drift","title":"Continental drift","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The nucleus is the center of an atom.  It is made up of nucleons called protons and neutrons and is surrounded by the electron cloud.  The size (diameter) of the nucleus is between 1.6 fm (10\u221215 m) (for a proton in light-weight hydrogen) to about 15 fm (for the heaviest atoms, such as uranium).  These sizes are much smaller than the size of the atom itself by a factor of about 23,000 (uranium) to about 145,000 (hydrogen).  Although it is only a very small part of the atom, the nucleus has most of the mass.  Almost all of the mass in an atom is made up from the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Only a small amount of mass is from the orbiting electrons.\n\nNeutrons have no electric charge and protons are positively charged. Because the nucleus is only made up of protons and neutrons it is positively charged. Things that have the same charge repel each other: this repulsion is part of what is called electromagnetic force. Unless there was something else holding the nucleus together it could not exist because the protons would push away from each other. The nucleus is actually held together by another force known as the strong nuclear force.\n\nThe word nucleus is from 1704, meaning \"kernel of a nut\". In 1844, Michael Faraday used nucleus to describe the \"central point of an atom\". The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The use of the word nucleus in atomic theory, however, did not happen immediately. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis wrote in his famous article The Atom and the Molecule that \"the atom is composed of the kernel and an outer atom or shell\".\n\nComposition \nThe nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons (two types of baryons) joined by the nuclear force. These baryons are further made up of sub-atomic fundamental particles known as quarks joined by the strong interaction. The nucleus is more or less a spheroid and may be somewhat prolate (long) or oblate (flat) or otherwise not entirely round.\n\nIf the nucleus can be considered to have a radius of the order of 5 fm (= 10 \u00d7 10-15 m), this means its cross-section is of the order of 10-28 m2, and its volume is about 10-42 m3.\n\nIsotopes and nuclides \n\nThe isotope of an atom is based on the number of neutrons in the nucleus.  Different isotopes of the same element have very similar chemical properties.  Different isotopes in a sample of a chemical can be separated by using a centrifuge or by using a mass spectrometer.  The first method is used in producing enriched uranium from regular uranium, and the second is used in carbon dating.\n\nThe number of protons and neutrons together determine the nuclide (type of nucleus).  Protons and neutrons have nearly equal masses, and their combined number, the mass number, is about equal to the atomic mass of an atom. The combined mass of the electrons is very small when compared to the mass of the nucleus; protons and neutrons weigh about 2000 times more than electrons.\n\nHistory \nThe discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson was the first sign that the atom had internal structure. At the turn of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's \"plum pudding\" model in which the atom was a large positively charged ball with small negatively charged electrons embedded inside of it. By the turn of the century physicists had also discovered three types of radiation coming from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments in 1911 by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energies that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it indicated that energy was not conserved in these decays. The problem would later lead to the discovery of the neutrino (see below).\n\nIn 1906 Ernest Rutherford published \"Radiation of the \u03b1 Particle from Radium in passing through Matter\".  Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society with experiments he and Rutherford had done passing \u03b1 particles through air, aluminum foil and gold foil.  More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Marsden and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger, In 1911-2 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it.\n\nAround the same time that this was happening (1909) Ernest Rutherford performed a remarkable experiment in which Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden under his supervision fired alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a thin film of gold foil. The plum pudding model predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. He was shocked to discover that a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards in some cases. The discovery, beginning with Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, eventually led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom has a very small, very dense nucleus consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge. As an example, in this model nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons, and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons.\n\nThe Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons had a spin of 1\/2, and in the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14 the 14 protons and six of the electrons should have paired up to cancel each other's spin, and the final electron should have left the nucleus with a spin of 1\/2. Rasetti discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 has a spin of one.\n\nIn 1930 Wolfgang Pauli was unable to attend a meeting in T\u00fcbingen, and instead sent a famous letter with the classic introduction \"Dear Radioactive Ladies and Gentlemen\". In his letter Pauli suggested that perhaps there was a third particle in the nucleus which he named the \"neutron\". He suggested that it was very light (lighter than an electron), had no charge, and that it did not readily interact with matter (which is why it had not yet been detected). This desperate way out solved both the problem of energy conservation and the spin of nitrogen-14, the first because Pauli's \"neutron\" was carrying away the extra energy and the second because an extra \"neutron\" paired off with the electron in the nitrogen-14 nucleus giving it spin one. Pauli's \"neutron\" was renamed the neutrino (Italian for little neutral one) by Enrico Fermi in 1931, and after about thirty years it was finally demonstrated that a neutrino really is emitted during beta decay.\n\nIn 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert L. Becker, Ir\u00e8ne and Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a massive particle that he called the neutron. In the same year Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that neutrons were in fact spin 1\/2 particles and that the nucleus contained neutrons and that there were no electrons in it, and Francis Perrin suggested that neutrinos were not nuclear particles but were created during beta decay. To cap the year off, Fermi submitted a theory of the neutrino to Nature (which the editors rejected for being \"too remote from reality\"). Fermi continued working on his theory and published a paper in 1934 which placed the neutrino on solid theoretical footing. In the same year Hideki Yukawa proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus holds together.\n\nWith Fermi and Yukawa's papers the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay).\n\nThe study of the strong and weak nuclear forces led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of particle physics, the most important of which is the standard model of particle physics which unifies the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces.\n\nModern nuclear physics \n\nA nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons  which means that with some approximation it can be treated as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one. In the resulting liquid-drop model, the nucleus has an energy which arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission.\n\nSuperimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert-Mayer. Nuclei with certain numbers of neutrons and protons (the magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126, ...) are particularly stable, because their shells are filled.\n\nMuch of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high spin and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of American footballs) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator.\nBeams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark-gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons.\n\nTopics in nuclear physics\n\nNuclear decay \n\nIf a nucleus has too few or too many neutrons it may be unstable, and will decay after some period of time. For example, nitrogen-16 atoms (7 protons, 9 neutrons) beta decay to oxygen-16 atoms (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created.  In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is turned into a proton and an electron by the weak nuclear force.  The element of the atom changes because while it previously had seven protons (which makes it nitrogen) it now has eight (which makes it oxygen).  Many elements have multiple isotopes which are stable for weeks, years, or even billions of years.\n\nNuclear fusion \n\nWhen two light nuclei come into very close contact with each other it is possible for the strong force to fuse the two together.  It takes a great deal of energy to push the nuclei close enough together for the strong force to have an effect, so the process of nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high densities.  Once the nuclei are close enough together the strong force overcomes their electromagnetic repulsion and squishes them into a new nucleus.  A very large amount of energy is released when light nuclei fuse together because the binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up until nickel-62.  Stars like our sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos.  The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. Research to find an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction is currently being undertaken by various research establishments (see JET and ITER).\n\nNuclear fission \n\nFor nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones. This splitting of atoms is known as nuclear fission.\n\nThe process of alpha decay may be thought of as a special type of spontaneous nuclear fission. This process produces a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely.\n\nFor certain of the heaviest nuclei which produce neutrons on fission, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a so-called chain reaction. [Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions]. The fission or \"nuclear\" chain-reaction, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for nuclear power plants and fission type nuclear bombs such as the two that the United States used against Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II. Heavy nuclei such as uranium and thorium may undergo spontaneous fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay.\n\nFor a neutron-initiated chain-reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the element present in a certain space under certain conditions (these conditions slow and conserve neutrons for the reactions). There is one known example of a natural nuclear fission reactor, which was active in two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, over 1.5 billion years ago. Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain-reactions.\n\nProduction of heavy elements \n\nAs the Universe cooled after the big bang  it eventually became possible for particles as we know them to exist.  The most common particles created in the big bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons (hydrogen) and electrons (in equal numbers).  Some heavier elements were created as the protons collided with each other, but most of the heavy elements we see today were created inside of stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process.\nProgressively heavier elements are made during the evolution of a star.\n\nSince the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron, energy is only released in fusion processes occurring below this point. Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion costs energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture.  Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus.  The heavy elements are created by either a slow neutron capture process (the so-called s process) or by the rapid, or r process.   The s process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth.  The r process is thought to occur in supernova explosions because the conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter are present.  These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers).  The r process duration is typically in the range of a few seconds.\n\nRelated pages\n Radioactivity\n Nuclear fusion\n Nuclear fission\n Nuclear medicine\n Nuclear physics\n Atomic number\n Atomic mass\n Isotope\n Liquid drop model\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n The Nucleus - a chapter from an online textbook \n - Study of the NUCLEAR STRUCTURE by R. Kolessin\n\nNuclear physics\nMatter","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":247,"dup_dump_count":97,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":4,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":4,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":6,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":6,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":6,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":6,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":6,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":9,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":4,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":111794,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atomic%20nucleus","title":"Atomic nucleus","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Le Mont-Saint-Michel (; ) is an island and commune in Normandy, France. It is in the Manche department. It is located about one kilometre () from the country's northwestern coast. It is at the mouth of the Couesnon River near Avranches. It is  in size and it has a population of 44 (2009). People that live there are called the Montois.\n\nThe island has had strategic fortifications since ancient times. The name Mont-Saint-Michel comes from the monastery built there in the eighth century AD. The way in which the town is built is an example of how feudal society worked. At the top there is God, the abbey and monastery. Below this, there are the great halls, then stores and houses. At the bottom, outside the walls, there are the houses of fishermen and farmers.\n\nMont-Saint-Michel is one of France's most famous landmarks. The island and its bay are part of the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. Every year, more than 3 million people visit it.\n\nGeography\n\nFormation\nIn prehistoric times, the Mont was on dry land. It is now a rocky tidal island. Sea levels became higher and erosion changed the landscape of the coast. Several layers of granite or granulite came to the surface in the bay. These layers of rock resisted the damage by the ocean better than the other rocks around them. These included Lillemer, the Mont-Dol, Tombelaine (a small island just to the north), and Mont Tombe, which later became Mont-Saint-Michel. The mount has a circumference of about 960 metres (3,150\u00a0ft). It is 92 metres (301\u00a0ft) above sea level at its highest point.\n\nTides\nThe difference between the high and low water marks is about . Medieval pilgrims who crossed the flat land sometimes called the mount \"St. Michael in peril of the sea\". Today, it can still be dangerous for visitors who do not use the causeway. It can be a risk to walk across the sands from the opposite coast. This is because of quicksand.\n\nPolderisation and occasional flooding have created salt marsh meadows. They are ideal for sheep. The meat has a good flavour because of the sheep's diet. The pr\u00e9 sal\u00e9 (salt meadow, in French) is home to agneaux de pr\u00e9-sal\u00e9 (salt meadow lamb). This is made into a local specialty (a famous type of food). The local lamb is sometimes on the menus of restaurants in the area.\n\nTidal island\n\nBefore 2013, Mont-Saint-Michel was linked to the mainland with a tidal causeway. It was a path covered at high tide and shown at low tide. This connection changed over the centuries. The coastal flats (the sand) have been polderised to make pastureland. This means Mont-Saint-Michel became closer to the coast. The Couesnon River was canalised. This helped make the flow of water similar every time the tide rises or falls. However, it developed a silting-up of the bay. In 1879, the tidal causeway was changed into a raised, dry causeway. This stopped the tide from cleaning the silt around the mount.\n\nOn 16 June 2006, the French prime minister and regional authorities announced a \u20ac164 million project (Projet Mont-Saint-Michel). The wanted to build a hydraulic dam using the waters of the river Couesnon and of tides. This would help remove all of the silt deposited by the rising tides. It would make Mont-Saint-Michel an island again.\n\nThe construction of the dam began in 2009. It was completed in 2013. The project was also to remove the causeway and its visitor car-park. The new car-park is on the mainland. It is about two kilometres () from the island. Visitors can use small shuttle buses to cross the causeway. The bridge is also open to pedestrians and vehicles without a motor.\n\nArchitect Dietmar Feichtinger designed the bridge. It opened to the public on 22 July 2014. The bridge lets the waters go freely around the island. It makes the dam more efficient. The project cost \u20ac209 million, \u20ac45 million more than planned. President Fran\u00e7ois Hollande officially opened the bridge.\n\nSometimes, weather conditions make the tide very high. This is called a \"supertide\". For example, the sea completely covered the new bridge on 21 March 2015. It was the highest sea level for at least 18 years. Many people travelled to Mont-Saint-Michel to take photos.\n\nHistory\nMont-Saint-Michel was an Armorican stronghold of Gallo-Roman culture in the sixth and seventh centuries. In the seventh century, the Franks took the mount. From about the fifth to the eighth century, Mont-Saint-Michel was part of a region called Neustria. At the start of the ninth century, it was an important place in the marches of Neustria.\n\nBefore the eighth century, the island was called Mont Tombe (). The Catholic Church built the first religious building in the eighth century, and the mount became Mont-Saint-Michel. According to legend, the Archangel Michael appeared in 708 to St. Aubert, the bishop of Avranches. The angel told him to build a church on the mount. Aubert didn't listen to the angel until Michael burned a hole in the bishop's skull with his finger.\n\nThe king of the Franks could not defend his kingdom against the attacks of the Vikings. The king agreed to give the Cotentin peninsula and the Avranchin, including Mont-Saint-Michel, to the Bretons in the 867 Treaty of Compi\u00e8gne. For a short time, the mount belonged to the Bretons. In effect, these lands and Mont-Saint-Michel never belonged to the duchy of Brittany. They remained separate bishoprics from the newly created Breton archbishopric of Dol. When Rollo named Franco as archbishop of Rouen, the diocese of Rouen took the lands and the mount. They became part of Normandy once again, but not officially.\n\nThe mount became strategically important again in 933 when William \"Long Sword\" (the Duke of Normandy) annexed the Cotentin Peninsula from the weakened Dukes of Brittany. This made the mount part of Normandy officially. This is shown in the Bayeux Tapestry, which commemorates (helps remember) the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The tapestry shows Harold, Earl of Wessex helping two Norman knights from the quicksand around Mont-Saint-Michel during a battle with Conan II, Duke of Brittany. Norman dukes paid for the development of the abbey in the following centuries. It became a good example of Norman architecture.\n\nIn 1067, the monastery of Mont-Saint-Michel gave its support to Duke William of Normandy in his claim to the throne of England. William gave houses and grounds on the English side of the Channel as a reward. These included a small island off the southwestern coast of Cornwall. It became a Norman priory named St Michael's Mount of Penzance. It looks similar to Mont-Saint-Michel.\n\nDuring the Hundred Years' War, the English made many attacks on the island. They were not able to take it due to the abbey's very good fortifications. The English first attacked the mount in 1423, and then again in 1433. Thomas Scalles was the leader of the English army. Scalles left two wrought iron bombards when he stopped his attack. They are still there today. They are known as les Michelettes. The resistance at Mont-Saint-Michel gave hope to the French, especially Joan of Arc.\n\nWhen Louis XI of France founded the Order of Saint Michael in 1469, he wanted the church of Mont-Saint-Michel to become the chapel for the Order. However, it was far from Paris so this was not possible.\n\nThe wealth and influence of the abbey helped other foundations, for example St Michael's Mount in Cornwall. However, it started to become less popular as a centre of pilgrimage due to the Reformation. At the time of the French Revolution, there were almost no monks living there. The republicans closed the abbey. It became a prison. At first, this was to hold clerical enemies of the French republic. Later, there were also important political prisoners at the mount. In 1836, famous figures, such as Victor Hugo, started a campaign to restore the mount. The prison closed in 1863, and the mount became a historic monument in 1874. Mont-Saint-Michel and its bay became UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1979. The factors for listing included cultural, historical, and architectural importance, as well as man-made and natural beauty.\n\nAbbey design\n\nIn the 11th century, Richard II of Normandy chose an Italian architect called William de Volpiano to build the abbey of Mont-Saint-Michel. Volpiano had already built the Abbey of F\u00e9camp, in Normandy. He designed the Romanesque church of the abbey. He chose to place the transept crossing at the top of the mount. He also built a lot of crypts and chapels below the ground. These are to support building above, because it is very heavy. Today, Mont-Saint-Michel has a church of Romanesque style.\n\nRobert de Thorigny was a great supporter of Henry II of England. Henry was also Duke of Normandy at this time. Thorigny made the structure of the buildings stronger. He also built the main fa\u00e7ade of the church in the 12th century. In 1204, the Breton Guy de Thouars, a friend of the King of France, attacked the mount with an army. He set fire to the village and killed lots of people. However, he had to retreat (leave) under the powerful walls of the abbey. The fire extended to the buildings, and the roofs burnt. Philip Augustus, Thorigny's friend, was unhappy about the cruel actions and the destruction. He offered Abbot Jourdain some money to build a new Gothic-style architectural set. The abbot added the refectory (dining room) and cloister.\n\nCharles VI added big fortifications to the abbey-mount. He also added building towers and courtyards, and he made the ramparts stronger.\n\nDevelopment\n\nAdministration\n\nThe islet is part of the French commune of Mont-Saint-Michel. It is in the department of Manche, in Normandy. As of 2009, 44 people live there. The nearest large town, with a train station, is Pontorson. Mont-Saint-Michel is part of the Organization of World Heritage Cities.\n\nMont-Saint-Michel is also the subject of a traditional rivalry between Normans and Bretons. Bretons say that the Couesnon River marks the limit between Normandy and Brittany. It is only because the river has changed its course over the centuries that the mount is on the Norman side. This legend amuses the area's inhabitants. They state that the border is not located on the Couesnon river. They say it is on the mainland,  to the west, at the foot of the solid mass of Saint-Brelade.\n\nPopulation\n\nUp to 20,000 people a day visit the city in July and August. Among the 43 inhabitants (2006), 5 were monks and 7 nuns.\n\nTwin towns \u2013 Sister cities\n Hatsukaichi, Hiroshima, Japan. Itsukushima Shrine is also an island-temple and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.\n\nMont-Saint-Michel has historical links with St Michael's Mount in Cornwall, UK. Edward the Confessor gave it to the Benedictines of Mont-Saint-Michel in the 11th century.\n\nHistorical monument\n61 buildings of Mont-Saint-Michel are on the list of historical monuments. They were added from 1928 to today.\n\nIn popular culture\n\n French composer Claude Debussy went to the island. He was maybe inspired by the legend of the mythical city of Ys and Mont-Saint-Michel's cathedral for his piano prelude La Cathedrale Engloutie.\n 1950 : The Elusive Pimpernel by Powell and Pressburger.\n 1991 : Mindwalk\n 2003 : Mont-Saint-Michel was the inspiration for the design of Minas Tirith in the film The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King.\n Renaissance Mont-Saint-Michel is a playable multiplayer map in the video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood (2010), and Assassin's Creed: Revelations (2011) by Ubisoft Montreal.\n 2013 : Mont-Saint-Michel was the end of the stage 11 of the Tour de France. The stage was a time trial.\n\nRelated pages\n St Michael's Mount\n Saint Michael (Roman Catholic)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n Mont-Saint-Michel Celebrates 1,300 yrs of History \n Official Mont-Saint Michel Tourist site (English version) \n A visit to Mont St. Michel \n Virtual recreation of Mont St. Michel in Second Life\n Pano at 360\u00b0 of Mont St Michel\n INSEE population figures\n\nTidal islands\nIslands of France\nWorld Heritage Sites in France\nCommunes in Manche","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":44,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2017-26":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":429213,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mont-Saint-Michel","title":"Mont-Saint-Michel","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Binocular vision is vision in which both eyes are used together. It can mean having two eyes instead of one, but more often it means having a visual field which is put together by the brain with input from both eyes. This is the standard equipment for vertebrates and many other types of animals.\n\nHumans have a maximum horizontal field of view of about 200 degrees with two eyes. About 120 degrees make up the binocular field of view (seen by both eyes), and two side fields of about 40 degrees seen by only one eye.\n\nOur system of vision uses parallax to give precise depth information, called stereopsis. Such binocular vision is usually accompanied by singleness of vision or binocular fusion, in which a single image is seen even though each eye has its own image of an object.  \n\nStereopsis is the impression of depth we get when we look at a scene with both eyes. Binocular viewing of a scene creates two slightly different images of the scene in the two eyes due to the eyes' different positions on the head. These differences give information that the brain uses to calculate depth in the visual scene. The term 'stereopsis' is often used as short hand for 'binocular vision', 'binocular depth perception' or 'stereoscopic depth perception', though strictly speaking, the impression of depth associated with stereopsis can also be got under other conditions, such as when an observer views a scene with only one eye while moving. Observer motion creates differences in the single retinal image over time similar to binocular disparity; this is referred to as motion parallax.\n\nField of view and eye movements\nSome animals, usually but not always prey animals, have their two eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads to give the widest possible field of view. Examples include rabbits, buffaloes, and antelopes. In such animals, the eyes often move independently to increase the field of view. Even without moving their eyes, some birds have a 360-degree field of view.\n\nOther animals, usually but not always predatory animals, have their two eyes positioned on the front of their heads, thereby allowing for binocular vision and reducing their field of view in favor of stereopsis. Examples include humans, eagles, wolves, and snakes.\n\nSome predator animals, particularly large ones such as sperm whales and killer whales, have their two eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads. Other animals that are not necessarily predators, such as fruit bats and a number of primates also have forward facing eyes. These are usually animals that need fine depth discrimination\/perception; for instance, binocular vision improves the ability to pick a chosen fruit or to find and grasp a particular branch.\n\nIn animals with forward-facing eyes, the eyes usually move together. Some animals use both strategies. A starling, for example, has laterally placed eyes to cover a wide field of view, but can also move them together to point to the front so their fields overlap giving stereopsis. A remarkable example is the chameleon, whose eyes appear to be mounted on turrets, each moving independently of the other, up or down, left or right. Nevertheless, the chameleon can bring both of its eyes to bear on a single object when it is hunting.\n\nReferences \n\nVision\nPhysiology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2022-21":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-18":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-26":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1,"2024-30":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":371539,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Binocular%20vision","title":"Binocular vision","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann (born K\u00f6nigsberg 24 January 1776; died Berlin 25 June 1822) was a German writer, composer, music critic, painter, caricaturist and lawyer. He liked the music of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart so much that he changed his third name from Wilhelm to Amadeus. He is always known as E. T. A. Hoffmann. He was a man of many talents, but his greatest importance is as a Romantic writer. He wrote fantasy and horror stories which had a very large influence on German literature in the 19th century. His stories had a lot of influence in music. He is the hero of Jacques Offenbach's famous opera The Tales of Hoffmann. His fantasies were used in other musical works such as Delibes's ballet Copp\u00e9lia and in operas by Busoni and Hindemith.\n\nLife\n\nEarly years\n\nHoffmann studied law at the University of K\u00f6nigsberg from where he graduated when he was only 16 years old. He finished his studies in Glogau and Berlin. His first job was in Posen. He married in 1802, but in the same year he had to leave his job because he had made fun of some people in his caricature drawings. He soon went to Warsaw where he worked as a lawyer as well as meeting famous writers. He composed music, including a symphony, a harp quintet and music for plays. Because of the political situation after the French invasion in 1806 he lost his job. He tried to get a job in Berlin but without success. In 1808 he went to Bamberg where he spent five years. His job there was as a conductor and theatre designer. He fell in love with a young girl called Julia Marc and composed sacred music and operas. He wrote musical criticism as well as stories for the newspaper Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung. These include the famous short stories Ritter Gluck, Don Juan and the series called Kreisleriana (Johannes Kreislers, des Kapellmeisters musikalische Leiden, i.e. The musical suffering of the Director of Music Johannes Kreisler).\n\nLater career\n\nIn 1813 he left Bamberg and spent some time in Dresden, Leipzig and, from 1814 onwards, Berlin. He was an excellent lawyer and was able to work very sensibly as a court official while, at the same time, spending some time devoted to art. He often met with literary friends to discuss literature and wrote more stories including Die Lebensansichten des Katers Murr (Tom-cat Murr's views on life). His health started to become poor. He suffered from creeping paralysis. Once again he got into trouble because of his satire, but before his punishment could be sorted out he fell in and died.\n\nHis stories\nHoffmann wrote various kinds of stories. Some of them are about fate, e.g. Elixiere des Teufels which is about a Capuchin monk who is tempted by the drink offered by the devil. Some of them are fairy tales, e.g. Der goldene Topf (The golden pan) and Nussknacker und Mausek\u00f6nig (Nutcracker and Mouse King). Very often in these stories the supernatural meets everyday reality. Some of his stories are autobiographical because they fantasies about himself. In particular, the story about Kreisler became very popular and was used by musicians, e.g. Robert Schumann in his piano pieces called Kreisleriana.\n\nHoffmann is one of the great writers of German prose. He brought his imaginary world to life with his Romantic characters.\n\n1776 births\n1822 deaths\nGerman painters\nGerman writers\nMusic critics\nPeople from former German territories\nPeople from Kaliningrad","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":74710,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ernst%20Theodor%20Amadeus%20Hoffmann","title":"Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A cave is a natural underground hollow space. They can have narrow passageways (corridors) and chambers (caverns). They are usually formed when underground acidic (sour) water wears away softer stones, such as limestone. Only the hard rock, such as granite, is left. Caves can also be formed during natural catastrophes, such as earthquakes, or by ice and glaciers.\n\nCaves can have formations in them such as stalagmites and stalactites. These are made over thousands of years by water dripping and leaving mineral deposits.\n\nMany creatures live in the entrance areas of caves, for example snakes, mice, spiders & porcupines. Only a few animals are found deep in caves. Bats often live in caves. Another common creature found in caves is cave crickets. \n\nIn the past, people lived in caves. People used to live in many European caves in the Stone Age. Caves still provide shelter for trekkers. Some caves have beautiful paintings on the walls. \n\nPeople who explore caves are called cavers or speleologists. (The study of caves is called speleology.) They go into caves for fun, exercise and to see the different formations. This can be a dangerous sport because caves sometimes have deep holes. Cavers also have to climb and crawl through the passages. Cavers usually go into caves with four or more people. Each person has 2 or 3 light sources. One light is attached to each helmet. People go into caves to try and explore more about the world.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2}},"id":214942,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cave","title":"Cave","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bankruptcy is a legal process which happens when a person or an organization does not have enough money to pay all of its debts.  Legally they are insolvent.\n\nWhere it is a person who cannot pay their debts, the person's creditors may ask the court to appoint a trustee in bankruptcy.   This is a professional accountant who is appointed by the court, to take control of the bankrupt person's assets.  Some assets are protected by law, but the trustee in bankruptcy will sell off all of the other assets and use the money to pay as much of that person's debts as possible.  After the process is complete the person is discharged from bankruptcy, and the person is free from any further liability to pay those claims, but normally that person will be limited in their ability to borrow money again because their credit rating will be damaged.\n\nWhere it is an organisation which cannot pay its debts, the creditors may ask the court to appoint a liquidator.  The liquidator does a very similar job to the trustee in bankruptcy except that there are no assets which are protected so the liquidator can sell everything.  Once all of the assets of the organisation have been sold, the organisation is then dissolved and no longer exists.  Organisations do not get discharged from bankruptcy in the same way that a living person does.\n\nInsolvency or bankruptcy \nPeople often confuse the terms bankruptcy and insolvency, and sometimes they use one word when they really mean the other.  Insolvency usually just means that a someone does not have enough money to pay their debts or (sometimes) that the total amount of their debts is worth more than the total amount of their assets.  Bankruptcy is a formal legal process in front of the courts.  Although the two terms are connected, just because a person is insolvent does not necessarily mean that they will go into bankruptcy.\n\nAlternatives to bankruptcy \nMany countries have alternatives to bankruptcy to try and allow people and businesses to try and avoid the bankruptcy process.\n\nIn various countries, individual people can try and reach individual voluntary arrangements (or IVAs) with their creditors.  This means that the creditors agree to take less money to discharge their debts.  There are similar processes for companies and other organisations, and they go by various different names in different countries, but in many countries they are called schemes of arrangement.\n\nBankruptcy protection \nIn many countries a company or business can ask the courts for bankruptcy protection to try and protect the business so that the creditors cannot destroy all of the physical capital and goodwill by breaking it apart and moving it away. The aim of this is to provide more time for the business to reorganise itself and to work out a new deal between the owners and the people with whom the business owes money.  In many countries this is called going into administration.\n\nHowever, not all countries have bankruptcy protection laws for businesses.\n\nDebt slavery \nOften a creditor threatens a debtor with debt slavery in many parts of the world. In some cases the debtor does not know that they have a right to go bankrupt. This is a human rights problem in some countries. Also, some creditors continue to harass a debtor even though bankruptcy laws say they should not, hoping that the debtor will pay them money that they do not deserve.\n\nUnited States \nBankruptcy in the United States falls mostly under federal law, Title 11 of the United States Code (Bankruptcy Code). The types of bankruptcy available in the United States are named after the primary divisions, or \"chapters\", of that law. The person or business that files a bankruptcy case is known as the debtor.\n\nWhen a bankruptcy case is filed, a trustee is chosen by the court. The trustee has authority over the property of the bankrupt person or business and may use some of the debtor's assets to pay the creditors. After a bankruptcy is filed, creditors are notified that they are to stop trying to collect money directly from the debtor and are to make claims for payment to the bankruptcy court.\n\nChapter 7 \nThe most common form of bankruptcy is the Chapter 7 Bankruptcy, which can be filed by businesses or individuals. It is also called liquidation bankruptcy because some of a debtor's property may be sold (liquidated) to satisfy creditors.  When a business is in debt which it cannot pay, it may ask or be forced to file bankruptcy in court under Chapter 7.  This usually makes a company stop doing business.  Employees often lose their jobs when company files for chapter 7.\n\nChapter 11\nChapter 11 bankruptcy is a complicated type of bankruptcy that reorganizes the debtor's finances, usually reducing the amount of debt owed and changing debt repayment terms. A Chapter 11 bankruptcy case allows a business to keep running while it finds ways to reduce and arrange payment of its debts.\n\nAlmost all Chapter 11 bankruptcies are filed by businesses. Ordinary people do not usually file Chapter 11 bankruptcy, because a Chapter 13 bankruptcy will almost always be cheaper and easier for them.\n\nChapter 13\nChapter 13 is the most popular form of bankruptcy in the United States for ordinary people. In a Chapter 13 bankruptcy some of your debts may be forgiven (discharged), but you will have to pay back a portion of your debt. The debt repayment plan is supervised by the bankruptcy court and usually lasts for three to five years. Businesses cannot file for Chapter 13 bankruptcy.\n\nOther bankruptcy chapters\n\nLess common forms of bankruptcy may be filed under Chapter 9 and Chapter 12 of the bankruptcy code.\n\n Chapter 9 bankruptcy allows municipalities, smaller units of government such as cities and towns, to restructure their debts.\n Chapter 12 bankruptcy is a special type of bankruptcy for family farms and fishermen. It combines elements of Chapter 11 and Chapter 13 bankruptcy to allow smaller farms and fishing businesses to stay open while they restructure their debts.\n\nReferences \n\nFinance\nBusiness law","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-22":2,"2024-10":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":4,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3}},"id":71,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bankruptcy","title":"Bankruptcy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A hallucination is seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling or feeling things that do not really exist. Usually, people have to be awake and conscious to have hallucinations. That way, a person who sees or hears something that is not really there has a hallucination. Hallucinations are different from dreams. When people dream, they are not awake. Hallucinations are also different from illusions. Illusions are based on real perceptions, which are distorted or interpreted in a wrong way. \n \nCertain drugs can cause hallucinations. Some illegal drugs are taken because they cause hallucinations. Certain mental illnesses can also cause hallucinations. In some cases, withdrawal of a drug can also cause hallucinations. This has especially been reported by people trying to stop taking sleeping pills, or by alcoholics. \n\nPeople who have hallucinations are not necessarily ill, lack of sleep can also cause hallucinations. Hallucinations just before going to sleep or just after waking up are considered normal.\n\nTypes of hallucinations \nHallucinations can affect all of a person's senses. People with the mental illness of schizophrenia may hear sounds or voices that are not really there. People with certain mental illnesses may also have hallucinations in which they see a person or thing which is not really there. People are less likely to have hallucinations in which they smell or touch something that is not really there. Certain forms of epilepsy can cause hallucinations. Finally, hallucinations can be the result of certain substances taken or of certain physical constellations. Most of the time, these substances are taken to get the hallucinations. Sometimes, (severe) lack of sleep, or high fever can lead to hallucinations brought on by such viruses as the common cold.\n\nHow people are affected by hallucinations \n\nMany studies have shown hallucinatory experiences take place across the world. Several studies, one of them done as early as 1894, have reported that approximately 10% of the population experience hallucinations. A recent survey of over 13,000 people reported a much higher figure. According to the study, almost 39% of the people reported hallucinatory experiences. 27% of the people reported daytime hallucinations, mostly outside the context of illness or drug use. From this survey, hallucinations affecting smell or taste seem the most common in the general population.\n\nCauses of hallucinations\n\nIllnesses\n\nDiseases or illnesses \nSome diseases such as brain disorders or infections may cause a person to have hallucinations. As well, an alcoholic (person who is addicted to alcohol) who stops drinking alcohol suddenly may experience a type of hallucinations called delirium tremens (or \"DT's\"). Some people have hallucinations if they do not sleep  for a number of days, or if they do not eat for a number of days.\n\nChemicals or drugs \nSome people have hallucinations because they purposefully or accidentally put chemicals or drugs into their bodies.\n\nIllegal drugs \nSome people use illegal drugs that cause vivid hallucinations, such as LSD (\"acid\") and PCP (\"angel dust\"). Many kinds of drugs - even legal ones - will cause hallucinations, if very large doses are taken, and it is seen as a side effect.\n\nLegal drugs \nSome legal drugs that dentists, doctors, or surgeons use cause hallucinations. The dentists, doctors, and surgeons use drugs called anaesthetics to make people not feel pain, or to make people become unconscious. But the drugs also have some other additional effects, which are called side effects, such as nausea (feeling sick) and hallucinations. \n\nMany dentists use an anaesthetic called nitrous oxide (\"laughing gas\"). Inhaling large quantities of nitrous oxide can cause people to have hallucinations. Doctors and surgeons use many types of anaesthetic gases so that patients who are being operated become unconscious. When a person inhales anaesthetic gases, they may have hallucinations for several minutes, until they become unconscious.\n\nAccidental poisoning \nSome adults accidentally swallow a poisonous chemical because it is in a bottle that has the wrong label. In some cases, children swallow a poisonous chemical because they think that it is a food product or a drink. Some dangerous, poisonous chemicals which can make people very sick or even kill them also cause hallucinations.\n\nLack of sleep \nSome people have hallucinations when they have not slept for a long time; other people have something resembling a hallucination before falling asleep. This is usually called hypnagogia. Most of the time, the people experiencing this kind of hallucination are aware of the fact that they are not real.\n\nReferences \n\nPsychology\nPerception","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":21018,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hallucination","title":"Hallucination","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Vodka is a Russian alcoholic drink that is usually about 40% alcohol. It is clear (but can be flavoured), though it is sometimes mixed with other liquids before people drink it. It was first popular in the Slavic countries of Eastern Europe and former republics of the Soviet Union.\n\nThings that are made into vodka \n\nVodka can be made from different things:\n Molasses (which comes from the production of sugar) are used to produce the cheapest vodka. Because of the ingredient, this kind usually tastes sweeter than vodka made from grain. Soy beans, grapes or sugar beets may also be used, but are less common.\n Potatoes have been used for centuries to make vodka.\n Grain is used to produce the highest grade vodka - like potatoes, vodka is also traditionally made from grain.\n\nThe process to make vodka is:\n\n The raw material is crushed and dissolved in water. This is called mashing\n The mash is heated to 60\u00a0\u00b0C. All starch will break up into sugars.\n Yeast is added and the mash vessel is closed airtight with airlock. The yeast will ferment the sugar into alcohol.\n The fermented mash is then distilled. It can be made either in simple pot still or sophisticated industrial patent still.\n If the still used is a pot still, the distillation is usually repeated at least twice to remove any foul-tasting or poisonous impurities away. If the still used is a patent still, the result is spirit; very high contents alcohol unsuitable for drinking. Pure water is added to lower the alcohol contents to desired. This is called dilution.\n\nUnlike cognac or whisky, vodka is not usually matured in barrels, but bottled immediately. Some Scandinavian vodkas called akvavit (Latin aqua vitae, \"water of life\") are matured in oak barrels before they are bottled. When the vodka is bottled, it is ready for drinking.\n\nHistory \n\nMost people think the name vodka comes from the Slavic word for water in its diminutive form, \"little water\". The earliest mention of Vodka in Poland is in 1405. The Russians are known to have first used the word in June 8, 1751. It is not known if it was the Russians or the Poles who made the first drinks that could be classified as vodka, as sources provide various views on this topic (though it's important to remember that the first mention of the word \"vodka\" in Cyrillic refers to a medicinal drink bought by the merchants of Kievan Rus from Poland). It is also worth noting that vodka was first used as medicine. When it became a popular drink, it was first known in Polish as gorza\u0142ka - from the Old Polish word gorze\u0107, meaning burn. At first, gorza\u0142ka was a people's drink, but in the Slavic countries it soon became common among the nobility as well. it is worth noting that the common Ukrainian word for vodka is horilka which bears an extremely close resemblance to the Polish gorzalka. Both words roots have the same meaning (hority - to burn; gorze\u0107, also to burn)\n\nDifferent kinds of vodka \n\nThere are two basic kinds of Vodka: clear vodka and flavored vodka. Some types of vodka have plants or herbs added to the unflavored vodka to make it taste better. Contrary to popular belief, flavoured vodka is not new - it has been a part of Polish drinking tradition for centuries. It is only relatively recently in history that clear and flavoured vodkas have found their way to Western countries such as the UK or US.\n\nHow vodka is consumed \nVodka is either drunk pure, or cocktails are made with it. The simplest form of cocktail is to mix it with orange or lemon juice. Usually, vodka is drunk during a longer meal. Usually salty or sour things (not sweets) are served. In Poland and Russia (as well as some of their neighbours, such as Ukraine or Lithuania), vodka is drunk from glasses that can hold about 100 grams (0,1 litres) of vodka. The glass is usually emptied in one draught, while holding the breath. Directly afterwards something small is eaten. In most Eastern European countries it is consumed with pickled cucumbers. Before drinking, a toast is given.\n\nCultural \nVodka is a key element of Slavic tradition in some countries of Eastern Europe (especially Poland, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia). It has also spread to become a part of national culture in Baltic countries like Lithuania and Nordic countries like Sweden. It's traditional in Russia and other Slavic countries (as well as some Roma communities in Eastern Europe) to put a glass of vodka with a slice of bread (usually black bread) on top on graves or near photos of the deceased in their memory. This is similar to what people in Western countries do with flowers.\n\nReferences \n\nAlcoholic spirits","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":31140,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vodka","title":"Vodka","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Environmental full-cost accounting (EFCA) is a  method of cost accounting that traces direct costs and allocates indirect costs by collecting and presenting information about the possible environmental, social and economical costs and benefits or advantagesin short, about the \"triple bottom line\"for each proposed alternative. It is also known as true-cost accounting (TCA), but, as definitions for \"true\" and \"full\" are inherently subjective, experts consider both terms problematic.\n\nSince costs and advantages are usually considered in terms of environmental, economic and social impacts, full or true cost efforts are collectively called the \"triple bottom line\". Many standards now exist in this area including Ecological Footprint, eco-labels, and the United Nations International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives approach to triple bottom line using the ecoBudget metric. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has several accredited standards useful in FCA or TCA including for greenhouse gases, the ISO 26000 series for corporate social responsibility coming in 2010, and the ISO 19011 standard for audits including all these.\n\nBecause of this evolution of terminology in the public sector use especially, the term full-cost accounting is now more commonly used in management accounting, e.g. infrastructure management and finance. Use of the terms FCA or TCA usually indicate relatively conservative extensions of current management practices, and incremental improvements to GAAP to deal with waste output or resource input.\n\nThese have the advantage of avoiding the more contentious questions of social cost.\n\nConcepts \nFull-cost accounting embodies several key concepts that distinguish it from standard accounting techniques. The following list highlights the basic tenets of FCA.\n\nAccounting for:\n Costs rather than outlays (see explanation below);\n Hidden costs and externalities;\n Overhead and indirect costs;\n Past and future outlays;\n Costs according to lifecycle of the product.\n\nCosts rather than outlays\nExpenditure of cash to acquire or use a resource. A cost is the cash value of the resource as it is used. For example, an outlay is made when a vehicle is purchased, but the cost of the vehicle is incurred over its active life (e.g., ten years). The cost of the vehicle must be allocated over a period of time because every year of its use contributes to the depreciation of the vehicle's value.\n\nHidden costs\nThe value of goods and services is reflected as a cost even if no cash outlay is involved. One community might receive a grant from a state, for example, to purchase equipment. This equipment has value, even though the community did not pay for it in cash. The equipment, therefore, should be valued in an FCA analysis.\n\nGovernment subsidies in the energy and food production industries keep true costs low through artificially cheap product pricing. This price manipulation encourages unsustainable practices and further hides negative externalities endemic to fossil fuel production and modern mechanized agriculture.\n\nOverhead and indirect costs\nFCA accounts for all overhead and indirect costs, including those that are shared with other public agencies. Overhead and indirect costs might include legal services, administrative support, data processing, billing, and purchasing. Environmental costs as indirect costs include the full range of costs throughout the life-cycle of a product (Life cycle assessment), some of which even do not show up in the firm's bottom line.  It also contains fixed overhead, fixed administration expense etc.\n\nPast and future outlays\nPast and future cash outlays often do not appear on annual budgets under cash accounting systems. Past (or upfront) costs are initial investments necessary to implement services such as the acquisition of vehicles, equipment, or facilities. Future (or back-end) outlays are costs incurred to complete  operations such as facility closure and postclosure care, equipment retirement, and post-employment health and retirement benefits.\n\nExamples\n\nWaste management\nThe State of Florida uses the term full-cost accounting for its solid waste management. In this instance, FCA is a systematic approach for identifying, summing, and reporting the actual costs of solid waste management. It takes into account past and future outlays, overhead (oversight and support services) costs, and operating costs.\n\nIntegrated solid waste management systems consist of a variety of municipal solid waste (MSW) activities and paths. Activities are the building blocks of the system, which may include waste collection, operation of transfer stations, transport to waste management facilities, waste processing and disposal, and sale of byproducts. Paths are the directions that MSW follows in the course of integrated solid waste management (i.e., the point of generation through processing and ultimate disposition) and include recycling, composting, waste-to-energy, and landfill disposal. The cost of some activities is shared between paths. Understanding the costs of MSW activities is often necessary for compiling the costs of the entire solid waste system, and helps municipalities evaluate whether to provide a service itself or contract out for it. However, in considering changes that affect how much MSW ends up being recycled, composted, converted to energy, or landfilled, the analyst should focus the costs of the different paths. Understanding the full costs of each MSW path is an essential first step in discussing whether to shift the flows of MSW one way another.\n\nBenefits\n Identify the costs of MSW management  When municipalities handle MSW services through general tax funds, the costs of MSW management can get lost among other expenditures. With FCA, managers can have more control over MSW costs because they know what the costs are.\n\n See through the peaks and valleys in MSW cash expenditures  Using techniques such as depreciation and amortization, FCA produces a more accurate picture of the costs of MSW programs, without the distortions that can result from focusing solely on a given year's cash expenditures.\n\n Explain MSW costs to citizens more clearly  FCA helps you collect and compile the information needed to explain to citizens what solid waste management actually costs. Although some people might think that solid waste management is free (because they are not billed specifically for MSW services), others might overestimate its cost. FCA can result in \"bottom line\" numbers that speak directly to residents. In addition, public officials can use FCA results to respond to specific public concerns.\n\n Adopt a business-like approach to MSW management  By focusing attention on costs, FCA fosters a more businesslike approach to MSW management. Consumers of goods and services increasingly expect value, which means an appropriate balance between quality and cost of service. FCA can help identify opportunities for streamlining services, eliminating inefficiencies, and facilitating cost-saving efforts through informed planning and decision-making.\n\n Develop a stronger position in negotiating with vendors  When considering privatization of MSW services, solid waste managers can use FCA to learn what it costs (or would cost) to do the work. As a result, FCA better positions public agencies for negotiations and decision-making. FCA also can help communities with publicly run operations determine whether their costs are competitive with the private sector.\n\n Evaluate the appropriate mix of MSW services  FCA gives managers the ability to evaluate the cost of each element of their solid waste system, such as recycling, composting, waste-to-energy, and landfilling. FCA can help managers avoid common mistakes in thinking about solid waste management, notably the error of treating avoided costs as revenues.\n\n Fine-tune MSW programs  As more communities use FCA and report the results, managers might be able to \"benchmark\" their operations to similar communities or norms. This comparison can suggest options for \"re-engineering\" current operations. Furthermore, when cities, counties, and towns know what it costs to manage MSW independently, they can better identify any savings that might come from working together.\n\nFood and Agriculture\nOver the last ten years there has been considerable attention for Full Cost Accounting (FCA) or True Cost Accounting (TCA) in the field of food and agriculture. In 2013 and 2016, the Sustainable Food Trust organised two conferences on True Cost Accounting in food and farming, in the UK and the USA respectively. The FAO published two studies in 2014 and 2015 with a TCA-analysis of the impact of food wastage (\"Food wastage footprint: full cost accounting\" ) and another TCA-analysis of the total impact of world food production on Natural Capital (\"Natural Capital Impacts in Agriculture\" ). In the first report, the FAO comes to the conclusion that the yearly hidden impact of food wastage on Natural Capital amounts to USD 700 billion while the hidden impact on social capital amounts to USD 900 billion dollars. In the second report, the FAO estimates the environmental damage of the world food production at USD 2330 billion per year.\n\nMotives for adoption \n\nVarious motives for adoption of FCA\/TCA have been identified.  The most significant of which tend to involve anticipating market or regulatory problems associated with ignoring the comprehensive outcome of the whole process or event accounted for.  In green economics, this is the major concern and basis for critiques of such measures as GDP.  The public sector has tended to move more towards longer term measures to avoid accusations of political favoritism towards specific solutions that seem to make financial or economic sense in the short term, but not longer term.\n\nCorporate decision makers sometimes call on FCA\/TCA measures to decide whether to initiate recalls, practice voluntary product stewardship (a form of recall at the end of a product's useful life).  This can be motivated as a hedge against future liabilities arising from those who are negatively affected by the waste a product becomes.  Advanced theories of FCA, such as Natural Step, focus firmly on these.  According to Ray Anderson, who instituted a form of FCA\/TCA at Interface Carpet, used it to rule out decisions that increase Ecological Footprint and focus the company more clearly on a sustainable marketing strategy.\n\nThe urban ecology and industrial ecology approaches inherently advocate FCA\u00a0\u2014 treating the built environment as a sort of ecosystem to minimize its own wastes.\n\nSee also \nEnvironmental accounting\nEnvironmental pricing reform\nEnvironmental profit and loss account\nExternalities\nGenuine Progress Indicator\nOpportunity cost\nPollution credit\nTotal cost\nTotal cost of ownership\nWhole-life cost\n\nNotes\n\nReferences \n\nIndustrial ecology\nEcological economics\nManagement accounting\nWaste management concepts\nManagement cybernetics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-16":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":188644,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental%20full-cost%20accounting","title":"Environmental full-cost accounting","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Humanitarianism is a way of behaving out of kindness to other people.  Someone who is a humanitarian is a person who helps to improve the lives of other people without thinking about their race, belief or nationality.\n\nHumanitarianism is not the same thing as Humanism which is about not believing in a god.  \n\nA good example of Humanitarianism is the well-known story from the New Testament about the Good Samaritan who goes to help the poor man who has been robbed.\n\nHumanitarianism also means basic morality indispensable for human being. There are international laws called \"international humanitarian laws\" considered to created out of humanitarianism of this mean. Among them, Geneva Conventions on the matter made at the time of wars are well known.\n\nRelated pages\nCharity\nHumanism\nHumanitarian aid\nGeneva Conventions\n\nEthics\nSociety\nAltruism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":139,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":208495,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Humanitarianism","title":"Humanitarianism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An epidemic is a disease that spreads over a large area and affects many people at the same time. Epidemics are when a disease spreads from person to person faster than doctors can control. If the disease spreads over the whole world, sometimes it is called a pandemic.\n\nSuch diseases must be treated quickly and properly otherwise they can infect people on large scale and pose a danger to the world. It is very important that timely vaccination and treatment is provided. The study of epidemics is part of epidemiology.\n\nInfectious diseases\nEpidemiology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":14066,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epidemic","title":"Epidemic","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A pilot is a person that drives a vehicle (form of transportation) such as an airplane, spacecraft, or boat. All types of pilots must pass a number of tests and obtain a license before they can operate the vehicle. The pilot of a flying machine is usually in charge for the whole trip. A ship pilot usually only guides the ship through an especially difficult place such as a harbor. \n\nOccupations in aviation\nWater transport","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":149,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4}},"id":19076,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pilot","title":"Pilot","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"David was an important King of Israel. He is described in the Qu'ran, Bah\u00e1'\u00ed scripture and the Old Testament books of 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel. He was the father of King Solomon, and an ancestor of Jesus.\n\nEarly years\nDavid was the youngest of the eight sons of Jesse, a shepherd; Jesse was the grandson of Ruth (Ruth 4: 17, 22). David was a shepherd, like his father. While taking care of the sheep, he would use a sling to keep wild animals from hurting them. He would also play his harp. Many of the songs he wrote during his life are found in the book of Psalms.\n\nIn Saul's service\nWhen Saul, the first King of Israel, disobeyed the Lord's wikt:command to destroy Amalek, God sent an evil spirit in him to torment him.\nHe called David, the shepherd, to his palace because David was good at playing the harp, and the soft music soothed Saul when he was being tormented by the evil sprit. Saul \"liked him very much, and David became one of his armor-bearers.\" So, \"...whenever the spirit from God came upon Saul, David would take his harp and play. Then relief would come to Saul; he would feel better, and the evil spirit would leave him.\"  He unknowingly puts in his court the person God chose to replace him.\n\nDavid's first victory\n\nWhen David was about twelve years old, his older brothers had to join the army to fight for Israel, under the leadership of King Saul. His father was worried about them, and sent David to check on them.  He took his harp with him, and King Saul, who was very troubled, heard him play and found it soothing. He asked for David to remain with the army.\n\nAt the time David arrived, a giant Philistine enemy, Goliath, was mocking the Israelites and God, saying, \"Who will come and fight me? If he wins, we will be your slaves, but if I win, then you will be our slaves!\" All the Israelites were afraid. When David saw this, he was very angry, and he said, \"I will go and fight him!\"\n\nDavid's faith was very different from that of King Saul, who, not thinking about God, immediately said, \"You are not able...you are only a boy...\" But David said confidently, \"The Lord who delivered me from the paw of the lion and the paw of the bear will deliver (save) me from the hand of this Philistine.\" He had faith, not in his own fighting skills, but in the power of God, whose honor has been hurt by the Philistines and whose covenant promises had been forgotten by the Israelites.\n\nWhen King Saul saw that David was brave enough to fight Goliath, he agreed to send him. Saul gave David armour and weapons, but they were too heavy for him. David told Saul that he would use his sling instead. He then used a smooth stone and hit Goliath in the forehead, killing him instantly. Using Goliath's own sword, David cut off Goliath's head. Although Saul was pleased at the victory, he began to worry that David would begin to seek power.\n\nJealousy erupts\nLater, because of David's excellent fighting skills and loyalty to God, King Saul appointed David to a high rank in the army and married him to one of his own daughters, Michal. Whenever David went into battle, he returned with a victory, and all the people were pleased with him, and King Saul treasured him very much. David became a close companion and friend of Saul's son Jonathan. But one day, when King Saul was coming out to greet his people, the women of the town came out, singing and dancing, with tambourines and lutes. And as they danced, they sang the following words:\n\"Saul has slain his thousands,\nand David his tens of thousands.\"\nSaul, hearing this song, was seized with fury and jealousy, and began to suspect that the people liked David more than him.\n\nSaul tries to kill David\nSaul's jealousy then began to heat into hatred, and he wanted to kill David, but not yet with his own hand - and so he asked David to marry his daughter, Merab, but David refused politely, and Merab was married to Adriel of Meholah. Then he asked, again, for David to marry Michal, who was in love with David. David again refused. Finally, he asked him to bring a hundred Philistine foreskins, and then he would give the bride over. David was pleased to become Saul's son-in-law when he heard this, and agreed. Saul thought, \"Now he will be killed by the Philistine's hand!\" But God was with David, and he was not hurt. Saul tells Jonathan and all the officials to kill David, but Jonathan loved David very much (and had made a covenant of friendship with him), and warned Saul not to. Saul listened, but later he grew angry again, and kept trying to kill David. Many times David did not kill Saul when he had a chance to, but instead said, \"How can I kill the Lord's anointed?\" and spared Saul; and many times Saul blessed David and repented, and determined to stop trying to kill David - but he always returned with a spear.\n\nDavid crowned king\n\nIn battle with the Philistines, Saul's sons Jonathan, Abinadab and Malki-Shua were killed (the surviving son, Ish-Bosheth or Esh-Baal, was later made king by Abner). Saul was injured, and he said to his armor-bearer to kill him before \"...these uncircumcised fellows will come and run me through and abuse me.\"  The armor-bearer was too afraid to do it, so Saul \"...took his own sword and fell on it\", killing himself. The armor-bearer killed himself, as well. \"So Saul and his three sons and his armor-bearer and all his men died together that same day.\" \n\nAn Amalekite came to David and lied that he had killed Saul, probably hoping that David would reward him. David realized that Saul was dead, and ripped his clothes and wept. He was not happy to hear that Saul was dead, and even killed the Amalekite, thinking that he was Saul's murderer. He was anointed again in front of everybody.\n\nMeanwhile, Ish-Bosheth, the only son of Saul left, was made king by Abner, a relative of Saul. \"The war between the house of Saul and the house of David lasted a long time. David grew stronger and stronger, while the house of Saul grew weaker and weaker.\", Later, Abner slept with one of Saul's concubines, and Ish-Bosheth asked, \"Why did you sleep with my father's concubine?\" Ish-Bosheth suspected that Abner wanted to be king instead of him (sleeping with the concubine of a king was thought very important). Abner became very angry and decided to help David instead. However, Joab, the commander of David's army, did not like Abner because Abner had killed his brother. Maybe he also thought his job as the leader of the army would not be safe if Abner helped David, because Abner was very powerful in the northern tribes of Israel. So, Joab killed him by stabbing him in the stomach. David cursed Joab for murdering Abner and said that he did not join in the killing.\n\nWhen Ish-Bosheth heard that Abner had died, he became very worried: the northern tribes were now without a strong leader. Two men, Recab and his brother Baanah, killed Ish-Bosheth in his house and brought his head to David, saying, \"This day the LORD has avenged my lord the king against Saul.\" David was very angry, and killed them: cutting off the hands that had killed Ish-Bosheth and the feet that had run with the news. They buried the head of Ish-Bosheth in Abner's tomb.\n\nAll the tribes of Israel then came to David and made him king over Israel.\n\nA promise not forgotten\n\nA few years after David had captured Jerusalem, he asked, \"Is there anyone...to whom I can show kindness for Jonathan's sake?\" remembering the promise he had made. They found a servant of King Saul named Ziba, who said that there was still a son of Jonathan who was crippled in both feet named Mephibosheth. David told Mephibosheth that he would get back all the land Saul had when he was king, and that Mephibosheth would always eat at his table - a mark of great honor. Mephibosheth bowed down and cried, \"What is your servant, that you should notice a dead dog like me?\"  From then on, Mephibosheth lived in Jerusalem and always ate at the king's table like one of David's sons.\n\nDavid and Bathsheba\n\nOne day, David was walking around on the roof of his palace when he saw a very beautiful woman bathing. David found out that her name was Bathsheba, the daughter of Eliam and the wife of Uriah the Hittite, who was one of David's royal guards. David \"sent messengers to get her...and he slept with her.\"  Because of this, David eventually broke the sixth, seventh, ninth and tenth commandments  She soon became pregnant. The law said that both David and Bathsheba must die for their sin. David made Uriah come back from battle and tried to make him go back home and sleep with Bathsheba, so everybody would think it was Uriah's son. But Uriah did not go home, saying, \"The ark and Israel and Judah are staying in tents...How could I go to my house...and lie with my wife?\"  His devotion demonstrated how sinful David was. Finally, when David could not make him go home, he decided to make Uriah die so he could marry Bathsheba himself quickly. He said, \"Put Uriah in the front line where the fighting is fiercest (most violent).  Then withdraw (go away) from him so he will be struck down and die.\"  Because of this, Uriah died.\n\nDavid married Bathsheba, but \"...the thing David had done displeased the LORD.\" So, Nathan the prophet went and told him that he had done a very bad sin. David saw he was guilty and was very sorry. He said, \"I have sinned against the Lord.\"  Nathan told David that he was forgiven, and the LORD mercifully did not make David die, as the law said he must. However, Nathan said that Bathsheba's first son, born as a result of their sins would die. After Nathan had gone home, the child became sick and died. David was very sad, but humbly accepted the results of his sin. Bathsheba had another son, and they named him Solomon. The LORD loved him, and said to name him Jedidah (it means loved by the LORD)  This name showed that the LORD loved Solomon from when he was born, and also showed that the LORD still loved David, even though he had sinned.\n\nDescendants\nAfter the overthrow of King Zedekiah of the House of David his lineage was carried on by the Exilarchs.Descendants of the house of exilarchs were living in various places long after the office became extinct. A descendant of Hezekiah, Hiyya al-Daudi, Gaon of Andalucia, died in 1154 in Castile according to Abraham ibn Daud. Several families, as late as the 14th century, traced their descent back to Josiah, the brother of David ben Zakkai who had been banished to Chorasan (see the genealogies in [Lazarus 1890] pp.\u00a0180 et seq.). The descendants of the Karaite Exilarchs have been referred to above.A number of Jewish families in the Iberian peninsula and within Mesopotamia continued to preserve the tradition of descent from Exilarchs in the Late Middle Ages, including the families of Abravanel, Benveniste, Hajj Yachya and Ben-David. One tradition also traces the ancestry of Judah Loew ben Bezalel to Babylonian Exilarchs (during the era of the geonim) and therefore also from the Davidic dynasty, which is however disputed. According to another tradition, Rabbi Elazar Rokeach of Amsterdam of the Belz (Hasidic dynasty) was a descendent from the house of King David. Another Rabbanic Dynasty Charlap also are reportably from the House of King David.\n\nCultural references\nLeonard Cohen's song \"Hallelujah\" has references to David (\"there was a secret chord that David played and it pleased the Lord\", \"The baffled king composing Hallelujah\") and Bathsheba (\"you saw her bathing on the roof\") in its opening verses.\n\nReferences\n\nOld Testament people\nKings of ancient Israel\nKings of ancient Judah\nPeople from Bethlehem\n11th-century BC people\n10th-century BC people","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":160,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5}},"id":118176,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David","title":"David","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Basil (Ocimum basilicum) ( or ) is a plant of the Family Lamiaceae. It is also known as Sweet Basil or Tulsi. It is a tender low-growing herb that is grown as a perennial in warm, tropical climates. Basil is originally native to India and other tropical regions of Asia. It has been cultivated there for more than 5,000 years. It is prominently featured in many cuisines throughout the world. Some of them are Italian, Thai, Vietnamese and Laotian cuisines. It grows to between 30\u201360\u00a0cm tall. It has light green, silky leaves 3\u20135\u00a0cm long and 1\u20133\u00a0cm broad. The leaves are opposite each other. The flowers are quite big. They are white in color and arranged as a spike. Is the Medicinal plant. \n\nThe plant tastes somewhat like anise, with a strong, pungent, sweet smell. Basil is very sensitive to cold. It is best grown in hot, dry conditions. While most common varieties are treated as annuals, some are perennial, including African Blue and Holy Thai basil. \n\nThe word basil comes from the Greek \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2 (basileus), meaning \"royal\". This is because it is believed to have grown above the spot where St. Constantine and Helen discovered the Holy Cross. The Oxford English Dictionary quotes speculations that basil may have been used in \"some royal unguent, bath, or medicine\". Basil is still considered the \"king of herbs\" by many cookery authors. An alternative etymology has \"basil\" coming from the Latin word basilicus, meaning dragon and being the root for basilisk, but this likely was a linguistic reworking of the word as brought from Greece.\n\nBasil for cooking \n\nMost of the time, Basil should be used fresh. In recipes it is generally added at the last moment. Cooking it quickly destroys the meal. The fresh herb can be kept for a short time in plastic bags in the refrigerator. Using a freezer will allow for it to be kept a longer time. In both cases, it needs being blanched quickly in boiling water. The dried herb also loses most of its flavour, and what little flavour remains tastes very different, with a weak coumarin flavour, like hay.\n\nMediterranean and Indochinese cuisines frequently use basil. In Mediterranean cuisines it is often combined with tomato. Basil is one of the main ingredients in pesto\u2014a green Italian oil-and-herb sauce from the city of Genoa. The other two main ingredients  of Pesto are olive oil and pine nuts. The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are \"Genovese\", \"Purple Ruffles\", \"Mammoth\", \"Cinnamon\", \"Lemon\", \"Globe\", and \"African Blue\". Chinese also use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods. In Taiwan, people add fresh basil leaves into thick soups (\u7fb9\u6e6f; g\u0113ngt\u0101ng). They also eat fried chicken with deep-fried basil leaves.\n\nBasil is sometimes used with fresh fruit and in fruit jams and sauces. Most commonly this is done with strawberries, but also raspberries or dark-colored plums. Some people say that the flat-leaf basil used in Vietnamese cooking is more suitable for use with fruit.\n\nBasil seeds \n\nWhen soaked in water the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous. They are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as falooda or sherbet. Such seeds are known variously as sabja, subja, takmaria, tukmaria, falooda, or h\u1ed9t \u00e9. They are used for their medicinal properties in Ayurveda, the traditional medicinal system of India.\n\nother types \n\nSeveral other basils, including some other Ocimum species, are grown in many regions of Asia. Most of the Asian basils have a clove-like flavour that is generally stronger than the Mediterranean basils. In China, the local cultivar is called \u4e5d\u5c64\u5854 (ji\u01d4c\u00e9ngt\u01ce; literally \"nine-level pagoda\"), while the imported varieties are specifically called \u7f85\u52d2 (lu\u00f3l\u00e8) or \u5df4\u897f\u91cc (b\u0101x\u012bl\u01d0), although [\u5df4\u897f\u91cc] often refers to another different kind plant\u2014parsley.\n\n'Lemon basil' has a strong lemony smell and flavour very different from those of other varieties because it contains a chemical called citral. It is widely used in Indonesia, where it is called kemangi and served raw, together with raw cabbage, green beans, and cucumber, as an accompaniment to fried fish or duck. Its flowers, broken up, are a zesty salad condiment.\n\nGrowing Basil \nBasil grows well in hot weather. It  behaves like an annual if there is any chance of a frost. In Northern Europe, the northern states of the U.S., and the South Island of New Zealand it will grow best if sown under glass in a peat pot. It can be planted out in late spring\/early summer, when there is little risk of frost. It fares best in a well-drained sunny spot.\n\nAlthough basil will grow best outdoors, it can be grown indoors in a pot. Like most herbs, it will do best on a south-facing windowsill (in the Northern Hemisphere). It should be kept away from extremely cold drafts. It grows best in strong sunlight. A greenhouse or cloche is ideal if available. Basil plants can even be grown  in a basement, under fluorescent lights.\n\nIf its leaves have wilted from lack of water, it will recover if watered thoroughly and placed in a sunny location. Yellow leaves towards the bottom of the plant are an indication that the plant needs more sunlight or less fertilizer.\n\nIn sunnier climates such as Southern Europe, the southern states of the U.S., the North Island of New Zealand, and Australia, basil will thrive when planted outside. It also thrives over the summertime in the central and northern United States, but dies out when temperatures reach freezing point, to grow again the next year if allowed to go to seed. It will need regular watering, but not as much attention as is needed in other climates.\n\nBasil can also be propagated very reliably from cuttings in exactly the same manner as \"Busy Lizzie\" (Impatiens), with the stems of short cuttings suspended for two weeks or so in water until roots develop.\n\nIf a stem successfully produces mature flowers, leaf production slows or stops on any stem which flowers, the stem becomes woody, and essential oil production declines.To prevent this, a basil-grower may pinch off any flower stems before they are fully mature. Because only the blooming stem is so affected, some can be pinched for leaf production, while others are left to bloom for decoration or seeds. \n\nOnce the plant is allowed to flower, it may produce seed pods containing small black seeds. These can be saved and planted the following year. Picking the leaves off the plant helps \"promote growth\", largely because the plant responds by converting pairs of leaflets next to the topmost leaves into new stems.\n\nDiseases \n\nBasil suffers from several plant diseases that can ruin the crop and reduce yield. Fusarium wilt is a soilbourne fungal disease that will quickly kill younger basil plants. Seedlings may also be killed by Pythium damping off. \n\nA common foliar disease of basil is gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea, can also cause infections post-harvest and is capable of killing the entire plant. Black spot can also be seen on basil foliage and is caused by the fungi genus Colletotrichum.\n\nHealth issues \nBasil, like other aromatic plants such as fennel and tarragon, contains estragole, a known carcinogen and teratogen in rats and mice. While human effects are currently unstudied, the rodent experiments indicate that it would take 100\u20131000 times the normal anticipated exposure to become a cancer risk.\n\nCultural aspects \n\nThere are many rituals and beliefs associated with basil. The French call basil \"herbe royale\". Jewish folklore suggests it adds strength while fasting. It is a symbol of love in present-day Italy, but represented hatred in ancient Greece, and European lore sometimes claims that basil is a symbol of Satan. African legend claims that basil protects against scorpions, while the English botanist Culpeper cites one \"Hilarius, a French physician\" as affirming it as common knowledge that smelling basil too much would breed scorpions in the brain.\n\nHoly Basil, also called 'Tulsi', is highly revered in Hinduism and also has religious significance in the Greek Orthodox Church, where it is used to prepare holy water. It is said to have been found around Christ's tomb after his resurrection. The Serbian Orthodox Church, Macedonian Orthodox Church and Romanian Orthodox Church use basil (Macedonian: \u0431\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043a;  Romanian: busuioc, Serbian: \u0431\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0459\u0430\u043a) to prepare holy water and pots of basil are often placed below church altars.\n\nIn Europe, they place basil in the hands of the dead to ensure a safe journey. In India, they place it in the mouth of the dying to ensure they reach God. The ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks believed that it would open the gates of heaven for a person passing on. \n\nIn Boccaccio's Decameron a memorably morbid tale (novella V) tells of Lisabetta, whose brothers slay her lover. He appears to her in a dream and shows her where he is buried. She secretly disinters the head, and sets it in a pot of basil, which she waters with her daily tears. The pot being taken from her by her brothers, she dies of her grief not long after.  Boccaccio's tale is the source of John Keats' poem Isabella or The Pot of Basil.  A similar story is told of the Longobard queen Rosalind.\n\nReferences \n\n Diseases of Basil and Their Management\n\nOther websites \n\n Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages explain the culinary use of basil in European and Asian cooking; further web links.\n\nLamiaceae\nHerbs","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":73985,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basil","title":"Basil","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryo Dynasty also called the \"Kingdom of Goryeo\", is one of the Korean dynasties which existed from 918 to 1392. It began in 918 with Emperor Taejo. The name \"Goryeo\" came to be said as \"Korea\" by foreigners and is still the name of the country. Goryeo united the Later Three Kingdoms of Korea (Later Baekje, Later Goguryeo, and Silla) and by 1374 ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392. Goryeo increased its borders to Chung-cheon river and Youngheong (936~943) and the Amnok River (933).\n\nBackground\nSilla had accomplished a unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in 668. But it weakened as local lords achieved power during the end of the 9th century. The country entered a period of civil war and rebellion, led by Gung Ye, Gi Hwon, Yang Gil, and Gyeon Hwon. Gung Ye established Hugogureo (meaning \"Later Goguryeo\") and Wang Geon (Later, Taejo) made a contribution as Gung Ye's subordinate. However, Gung Ye became more and more tyrannical and finally killed his own wife and son. Also he insisted that he was Maitreya (the future Buddha). Meanwhile, Wang Geon increased his power as he conquered Geumsung area in Later Baekje. Finally, some people who followed Wang Geon broke out the rebellion and he named the dynasty as Goryeo and changed its capital city to Song-ak. \n\nGoryeo made the policy to win the favor of people and maintained good relationship with Silla. As a result, Silla surrendered unconditionally to Goryeo. Meanwhile, Later Baekje collapsed by itself as princes fought each other over uccession to the throne. Because of the internal conflict, Later Baekje became weaker and weaker and was conquered by Goryeo. Finally, Goryeo united the Later Three Kingdoms again (936) and accomplished re-unification of Korean people. \n \nTaejo made important policies. First, he insisted that Goryeo should expand its territory to further North. It is because he succeed to Goguryeo (ancient Korean kingdom founded in 37 BC\u2013668) and Goguryeo had the biggest territory in Korean history. So, Taejo named the dynasty as Goryeo from Goguryeo and tried to take back the territory of Goguryeo. He emphasized the importance of Sukyung area because it is placed in the North part and kept in check Gu Ran (kind of Mongolian) that made an effort to come down to Goryeo. Later, all of these policies contributed to expanding its territory to Apnok River. Taejo unified all people from different Korean kingdoms (Baekje, Silla, Goguryeo, Balhae). Because of this policy, Goryeo is considered to have united Korea.\n\nRelated pages\n\nHistoric Monuments and Sites in Kaesong\n\nHistory of Korea\nRoyal dynasties\n918 establishments\n1392 disestablishments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":274530,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Goryeo","title":"Goryeo","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Peta atawa atlas mangrupa gambaran dua-dim\u00e9nsi pikeun rohangan tilu dim\u00e9nsi. \u00c9lmu nyieun peta disebut kartografi.\n\nPedaran \nAtlas baheula mah tara jelas, sarta biasana mah sok dilieurkeun ku masalah mana nu jadi puseurna. Sigana mah tujuan dijieunna peta g\u00e9 lain pikeun tujuan g\u00e9ografis, sabab leuwih condong midangkeun sajarah nu patali jeung \u00e9ta wewengkon.\n\nPeta \u00e9l\u00e9ktronik \n\nFor maps on a computer display, e.g. from the web or locally stored on CD-ROM or harddisk, zooming in m\u00e9ans enlarging the scale, either by showing a smaller ar\u00e9a in the same viewing window or by showing the same ar\u00e9a in a larger viewing window, and one of the following:\n replace the map by a more detailed one\n enlarge the same map without enlarging the pixels, hence show more detail\n enlarge the same map with the pixels enlarged (replaced by rectangles of pixels); no additional detail is shown, but, depending on the quality of one's vision, possibly more detail can be seen; if a computer display does not show adjacent pixels r\u00e9ally separate, but overlapping inst\u00e9ad (this does not apply for an LCD display, but may apply for a CRT), then replacing a pixel by a rectangle of pixels does show more detail.\n\nCombinations are possible, e.g. the second applying for text and the third for the outline of a map f\u00e9ature such as a forest, a building etc. Also the map may have layers which are partly raster graphics and partly vector graphics.\n\nFor a single raster graphics image the second applies until the pixels in the image file correspond to the pixels of the display; on further zooming in, the third applies.\n\nFor a PDF-file typically the second applies. The incr\u00e9ase in detail is, of course, limited to the information contained in the file: enlarging a curve it may eventually become a series of straight line segments, or other standard g\u00e9ometric figures such as arcs of circles.\n\nA variation of the third possibility is that interpolation is performed.\n\nText is not necessarily enlarged when zooming in. Similarly, a road represented by a double line may or may not become wider when one zooms in. A variation of the first possibility above is that more text is displayed (such as more town names), but that for the rest of the image the second applies.\n\nSee also Webpage#Graphics, Portable Document Format#Layers.\n\nPeta na Wikip\u00e9dia \nUnggal artikel nagara kudu nyadiakeun peta nagarana, og\u00e9 bagian-bagian tina nagara \u00e9ta. Tempo og\u00e9 Peta dunya, Peta na Wikip\u00e9dia.\n\nTumbu jeung acuan\n\nAcuan \n David Buisseret, ed., Monarchs, Ministers and Maps: The Emergence of Cartography as a Tool of Government in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, [ISBN 0-226-07987-2]\n Mark Monmorier, How to Lie with Maps, [ISBN 0-226-53421-9]\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n Atlas (kartografi)\n Peta topografik\n Peta g\u00e9ologis\n\nTumbu kaluar \n Multimap world atlas: on UK, US, Canada, Australia and Western Europe more detailed than the rest of the world\n  - Microsoft\/Encarta\/Expedia world atlas, for North America and Europe to street level.\n MapQuest: on US, Canada and Western Europe more detailed than the rest of the world\n Yahoo Maps: on US, Canada, Germany, France, Spain, Italy\n Yahoo Germany: on France, UK, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Austria, Switzerland, Benelux\n Map South Pacific: on Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia\n  - ESRI atlas of the US\n National Atlas of the United States\n Small country maps, conveniently linked from continent maps\n UT scanned collection: by the University of Texas at Austin\n Example of legend (Cito-Plan city maps) \n https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20040619192908\/http:\/\/www.geocities.com\/marcoschmidt.geo\/geo-data.html\n USGS National Map\n\nKartografi","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":1072,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atlas","title":"Atlas","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The larynx (plural larynges), also known as the voice box, is an organ in the neck of humans and animals. It  helps to protect the wind pipe by stopping it from inhaling food. It also helps with breathing and making sounds. The larynx houses the vocal cords.\n\nFunction \nThe larynx makes the voice. Both pitch and loudness are controlled here. It has a small slit through which air passes and makes the vocal cords vibrate. The vibrating vocal cords make the air vibrate. This sound changes as it travels through the vocal tract. It becomes a different sound based on the position of the tongue, lips, mouth, and pharynx.\n\nWhen swallowing, the backward motion of the tongue forces part of the larynx called the epiglottis to cover up the opening to the larynx, also called the laryngeal opening. This is to stop the food swallowed from entering the lungs. The larynx is also pulled upwards to help with this process. If the larynx is irritated by something that is swallowed, a strong cough reflex is used to protect the lungs.\n\nDisorders of the larynx\n\nThere are several things that can cause a larynx to not function properly. Some symptoms are hoarseness, loss of voice, pain in the throat or ears, and breathing difficulties. Larynx transplant is not done very often. The world's first successful operation took place in 1998 at the Cleveland Clinic, and the second took place in October 2010 at the University of California Medical Center in Sacramento.\n\n Acute laryngitis is the sudden inflammation and swelling of the larynx. It is caused by the common cold or by excessive shouting. It is not serious. Chronic laryngitis is caused by smoking, dust, frequent yelling, or prolonged exposure to polluted air. It is much more serious than acute laryngitis.\n Presbylarynx is age-related hardening of the soft tissues of the larynx. It results in weak voice and restricted vocal range. Bowing of the front portion of the vocal cords is found on laryngoscopy (an examination of the larynx).\n Polyps and nodules are small bumps on the vocal cords. They can be caused by prolonged exposure to cigarette smoke and vocal misuse.\n Two related types of cancer of the larynx, namely squamous cell carcinoma and verrucous carcinoma, are strongly associated with repeated exposure to cigarette smoke and alcohol.\n Laryngeal spasm.\n Laryngopharyngeal reflux is a condition in which acid from the stomach irritates and burns the larynx. Similar damage can occur with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).\n Laryngomalacia is a very common condition of infancy. The soft, immature cartilage of the upper larynx collapses inward during inhalation, causing the airway to be (partly) blocked.\n Laryngeal perichondritis, the inflammation of the perichondrium (a connective tissue around the cartilage) of laryngeal cartilages, causing the airway to be (partly) blocked.\n\nReferences \n\nSpeech and Hearing Science: Anatomy and Physiology 3rd edition. Willard R. Zemlin. 1988. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. \n\nAnatomy of the respiratory system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":78623,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Larynx","title":"Larynx","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The doctrine or theory of immanence holds that the divine encompasses or is manifested in the material world. It is held by some philosophical and metaphysical theories of divine presence. Immanence is usually applied in monotheistic, pantheistic, pandeistic, or panentheistic faiths to suggest that the spiritual world permeates the mundane. It is often contrasted with theories of transcendence, in which the divine is seen to be outside the material world.\n\nMajor faiths commonly devote significant philosophical efforts to explaining the relationship between immanence and transcendence but do so in different ways, such as:\n casting immanence as a characteristic of a transcendent God (common in Abrahamic religions), \n subsuming immanent personal gods in a greater transcendent being (such as with Brahman in Hinduism), or\n approaching the question of transcendence as something which can only be answered through an appraisal of immanence.\n\nWestern Esotericism \nAnother meaning of immanence is the quality of being contained within, or remaining within the boundaries of a person, of the world, or of the mind. This meaning is more common within Christian and other monotheist theology, in which the one God is considered to transcend his creation.  Pythagoreanism says that the nous is an intelligent principle of the world acting with a specific intention. This is the divine reason regarded in Neoplatonism as the first emanation of the divine. From the nous emerges the world soul, which gives rise to the manifest realm. Neoplatonic gnosticism goes on to say the Godhead is the Father, Mother, and Son (Zeus). In the mind of Zeus, the ideas are distinctly articulated and become the Logos by which he creates the world. These ideas become active in the Mind (nous) of Zeus. With him is the Power and from him is the nous. This theology further explains that Zeus is called Demiurge (D\u00eamiourgos, Creator), Maker (Poi\u00eat\u00eas), and Craftsman (Technit\u00eas). The nous of the demiurge proceeds outward into manifestation, becoming living ideas. They give rise to a lineage of mortal human souls. The components of the soul are 1) the higher soul, seat of the intuitive mind (divine nous); 2) the rational soul (logistikon) (seat of discursive reason \/ dianoia); 3) the nonrational soul (alogia), responsible for the senses, appetites, and motion. Zeus thinks the articulated ideas (logos). The idea of ideas (eidos - eid\u00f4n), provides a model of the Paradigm of the Universe, which the Demiurge contemplates in his articulation of the ideas and his creation of the world according to the Logos.\n\nBuddhism \n\nTantric Buddhism and Dzogchen posit a non-dual basis for both experience and reality that could be considered an exposition of a philosophy of immanence that has a history on the subcontinent of India from early CE to the present. A paradoxical non-dual awareness or rigpa (Tibetan \u2014 vidya in Sanskrit) \u2014 is said to be the 'self-perfected state' of all beings. Scholarly works differentiate these traditions from monism. The non-dual is said to be not immanent and not transcendent, not neither, nor both. One classical exposition is the Madhyamaka refutation of extremes that the philosopher-adept Nagarjuna propounded.\n\nExponents of this non-dual tradition emphasize the importance of a direct experience of non-duality through both meditative practice and philosophical investigation. In one version, one maintains awareness as thoughts arise and dissolve within the 'field' of mind; one does not accept or reject them, rather one lets the mind wander as it will until a subtle sense of immanence dawns. Vipassana, or insight, is the integration of one's 'presence of awareness' with that which arises in the mind. Non-duality or rigpa is said to be the recognition that both the quiet, calm, abiding state as found in samatha and the movement or arising of phenomena as found in vipassana are not separate.\n\nChristianity\n\nCatholicism, Protestantism, and Eastern Christianity \n\nAccording to Christian theology, the transcendent God, who cannot be approached or seen in essence or being, becomes immanent primarily in the God-man Jesus the Christ, who is the incarnate Second Person of the Trinity. In Byzantine Rite theology the immanence of God is expressed as the hypostases or energies of God, who in his essence is incomprehensible and transcendent. In Catholic theology, Christ and the Holy Spirit immanently reveal themselves; God the Father only reveals himself immanently vicariously through the Son and Spirit, and the divine nature, the Godhead is wholly transcendent and unable to be comprehended.\n\nThis is expressed in St. Paul's letter to the Philippians, where he writes:\n\nThe Holy Spirit is also expressed as an immanence of God.\n\nThe immanence of the triune God is celebrated in the Catholic Church, traditional Protestant Churches, and Eastern Churches during the liturgical feast of the Theophany of God, known in Western Christianity as the Epiphany.\n\nPope Pius X wrote at length about philosophical-theological controversies over immanence in his encyclical Pascendi dominici gregis.\n\nMormonism \nAccording to Latter Day Saint theology, all of material creation is filled with immanence, known as the light of Christ. It is also responsible for the intuitive conscience born into man. The Light of Christ is the source of intellectual and spiritual enlightenment, and is the means by which God is in and through all things. LDS scriptures identify the divine Light with the mind of God, the source of all truth and conveyor of the characteristics of the divine nature through God's goodness. The experienced brilliance of God reflects the \"fullness\" of this spirit within God's being. Similarly, mankind can incorporate this spiritual light or divine mind and thus become one with God. This immanent spirit of light bridges the scientific and spiritual conceptualizations of the universe.\n\nJudaism \n\nTraditional Jewish religious thought can be divided into Nigleh (\"Revealed\") and Nistar (\"Hidden\") dimensions. Hebrew Scripture is, in the Kabbalistic tradition, explained using the four level exegesis method of Pardes. In this system, the first three approaches, Simple, Hinted and Homiletical interpretations, characterise the revealed aspects. The fourth approach, the Secret meaning, characterises a hidden aspect. Among the classic texts of Jewish tradition, some Jewish Bible commentators, the Midrash, the Talmud, and mainstream Jewish philosophy use revealed approaches. Other Bible commentators, the Kabbalah, and Hasidic philosophy, use hidden approaches. Both dimensions are seen by adherents as united and complementary. In this way, ideas in Jewish thought are given a variety of ascending meanings. Explanations of a concept in Nigleh are given inherent, inner, mystical contexts from Nistar.\n\nDescriptions of divine immanence can be seen in Nigleh, from the Bible to Rabbinic Judaism. In Genesis, God makes a personal covenant with the forefathers Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Daily Jewish prayers refer to this inherited closeness and personal relationship with the divine, for their descendants, as \"the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob\". To Moses, God reveals his Tetragrammaton name, that more fully captures divine descriptions of transcendence. Each of the Biblical names for God describe different divine manifestations. The most important prayer in Judaism, that forms part of the Scriptural narrative to Moses, says \"Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One.\" This declaration combines different divine names, and themes of immanence and transcendence. Perhaps the most personal example of a Jewish prayer that combines both themes is the invocation repeatedly voiced during the time in the Jewish calendar devoted to Teshuva (Return, often inaccurately translated as Repentance), Avinu Malkeinu (\"Our Father, Our King\"). Much of the later Hebrew Biblical narrative recounts the reciprocal relationship and national drama of the unfolding of themes of immanence and transcendence. Kabbalistic, or Hasidic Jewish thought and philosophy describe and articulate these interconnected aspects of the divine-human relationship.\n\nJewish mysticism gives explanations of greater depth and spirituality to the interconnected aspects of God's immanence and transcendence. The main expression of mysticism, the Kabbalah, began to be taught in 12th-Century Europe, and reached a new systemisation in 16th-Century Israel. The Kabbalah gives the full, subtle, traditional system of Jewish metaphysics. In the Medieval Kabbalah, new doctrines described the 10 Sephirot (divine emanations) through which the Infinite, unknowable divine essence reveals, emanates, and continuously creates existence. The Kabbalists identified the final, feminine Sefirah with the earlier, traditional Jewish concept of the Shekhinah (immanent divine presence). This gave great spirituality to earlier ideas in Jewish thought, such as the theological explanations of suffering (theodicy). In this example, the Kabbalists described the Shekhinah accompanying the children of Israel in their exile, being exiled alongside them, and yearning for Her redemption. Such a concept derives from the Kabbalistic theology that the physical World, and also the Upper spiritual Worlds, are continuously recreated from nothing by the Shefa (flow) of divine will, which emanates through the Sefirot. As a result, within all creations are divine sparks of vitality that sustain them. Medieval Kabbalah describes two forms of divine emanation, a \"light that fills all worlds\", representing this immanent divine creative power, and a \"light that surrounds all worlds\", representing transcendent expressions of Divinity.\n\nThe new doctrines of Isaac Luria in the 16th Century completed the Kabbalistic system of explanation. Lurianic Kabbalah describes the process of Tzimtzum (\u05e6\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05dd meaning \"Contraction\" or \"Constriction\") in the Kabbalistic theory of creation, where God \"contracted\" his infinite essence in order to allow for a \"conceptual space\" in which a finite, independent world could exist. This has received different later interpretations in Jewish mysticism, from the literal to the metaphorical. In this process, creation unfolds within the divine reality. Luria offered a daring cosmic theology that explained the reasons for the Tzimtzum, the primordial catastrophe of Shevirat Hakelim (the \"Breaking of the Vessels\" of the Sefirot in the first existence), and the messianic Tikkun (\"Fixing\") of this by every individual through their sanctification of physicality. The concept of Tzimtzum contains a built-in paradox, as it requires that God be simultaneously transcendent and immanent:\n\n On the one hand, if the Infinite did not \"restrict itself\", then nothing could exist. There would be no limits, as the infinite essence of God, and also His primordial infinite light (Kabbalistic sources discuss God being able to reign alone, a revealed 'light' of the Sefirah of Kingship, \"before\" creation) would comprise all reality. Any existence would be nullified into the divine infinity. Therefore, we could not have the variety of limited, finite things that comprise the creations in the universe that we inhabit. (The number of such creations could still be potentially limitless, if the physical universe, or Multiverse had no end). Because each limited thing results from a restriction of God's completeness, God Himself must transcend (exist beyond) these various limited things. This idea can be interpreted in various ways. In its ultimate articulation, by the Hasidic leader Shneur Zalman of Liadi, in the intellectual Hasidic method of Chabad, the Tzimtzum is only metaphorical, an illusion from the perspective of man. Creation is panentheistic (taking place fully \"within God\"), and acosmic (Illusionary) from the divine perspective. God himself, and even his light, is unrestricted by Tzimtzum, from God's perspective. The Tzimtzum is merely the hiding of this unchanged reality from creation. Shneur Zalman distinguishes between the \"Upper Level Unity\" of God's existence from the divine perspective, with the \"Lower Level Unity\" of God's existence as creation perceives him. Because God can be above logic, both perspectives of this paradox are true, from their alternative views. The dimension of the Tzimtzum, which implies divine transcendence, corresponds to the Upper Level Unity. In this perspective, because God is the true, ultimate infinity, then creation (even if its physical and spiritual realms should extend without limit) is completely nullified into literal non-existence by the divine. There is no change in the complete unity of God as all Reality, before or after creation. This is the ultimate level of divine transcendence.\n On the other hand, in Lurianic Kabbalah, the Tzimtzum has an immanent divine dimension. The Tzimtzum formed a \"space\" (in Lurianic terminology, the Halal, \"Vacuum\") in which to allow creation to take place. The first act of creation was the emanation of a new light (Kav, \"Ray\") into the vacated space, from the ultimate divine reality \"outside\", or unaffected, by the space. The purpose of the Tzimtzum was that the vacated space allowed this new light to be suited to the needs and capacities of the new creations, without their being subsumed in the primordial divine infinity. Kabbalistic theology offers metaphysical explanations of how divine and spiritual processes unfold. In earlier, mainstream Jewish philosophy, logical descriptions of creation ex nihilo (from nothing) describe the new existence of creation, compared to the preceding absence. Kabbalah, however, seeks to explain how the spiritual, metaphysical processes unfold. Therefore, in the Kabbalistic system, God is the ultimate reality, so that creation only exists because it is continuously sustained by the will of God. Creation is formed from the emanated \"light\" of the divine Will, as it unfolds through the later Sefirot. The light that originated with the Kav later underwent further contractions that diminished it, so that this immanent expression of Divinity could itself create the various levels of Spiritual, and ultimately, Physical existence. The terms of \"light\" and temporal descriptions of time are metaphorical, in a language accessible to grasp. In this immanent divine dimension, God continuously maintains the existence of, and is thus not absent from, the created universe. In Shneur Zalman's explanation, this corresponds to the conscious perception by Creation of \"Lower Level Unity\" of God. In this perspective, Creation is real, and not an illusion, but is utterly nullified to the immanent divine life force that continuously sustains and recreates it. It may not perceive its complete dependence on Divinity, as in our present World, that feels its own existence as independent reality. However, this derives from the great concealments of Godliness in our present World. \"The Divine life-force which brings all creatures into existence must constantly be present within them ... were this life-force to forsake any created being for even one brief moment, it would revert to a state of utter nothingness, as before the creation ...\". (Tanya, Shaar Hayichud, Chapter 2\u20133. Shneur Zalman of Liadi).\n\nContinental philosophy \nGiordano Bruno, Baruch Spinoza and possibly Hegel espoused philosophies of immanence versus philosophies of transcendence such as Thomism or Aristotelian tradition. Kant's \"transcendental\" critique can be contrasted to Hegel's \"immanent dialectics.\"<ref>For further information on Hegel's immanent dialectics, see J. T. Fraser, F. C. Haber, G. H. M\u00fcller (eds.), The Study of Time: Proceedings of the First Conference of the International Society for the Study of Time Oberwolfach (Black Forest) \u2014 West Germany, Springer Science & Business Media, 2012, p. 437.<\/ref>\n\nGilles Deleuze qualified Spinoza as the \"prince of philosophers\" for his theory of immanence, which Spinoza resumed by \"Deus sive Natura\" (\"God or Nature\"). Such a theory considers that there is no transcendent principle or external cause to the world, and that the process of life production is contained in life itself. When compounded with Idealism, the immanence theory qualifies itself away from \"the world\" to there being no external cause to one's mind.\n\nThomas Carlyle's idea of \"Natural Supernaturalism\" posited the immanence of the divine in nature, history and man. Clement Charles Julian Webb explained that \"Carlyle had done more than any other nineteenth-century writer to undermine belief in the transcendence of God and the origin of the material world in an act of creation in time, and to put in its place an 'essentially immanentist' theology, drawn largely from the writings of the German Idealists.\" Carlyle's \"Natural Supernaturalism\" was highly influential on American Transcendentalism and British Idealism.\n\nGiovanni Gentile's actual idealism, sometimes called \"philosophy of immanence\" and the metaphysics of the \"I\", \"affirms the organic synthesis of dialectical opposites that are immanent within actual or present awareness\". His so-called method of immanence \"attempted to avoid: (1) the postulate of an independently existing world or a Kantian Ding-an-sich (thing-in-itself), and (2) the tendency of neo-Hegelian philosophy to lose the particular self in an Absolute that amounts to a kind of mystical reality without distinctions.\"\n\nPolitical theorist Carl Schmitt used the term in his book Politische Theologie (1922), meaning a power within some thought, which makes it obvious for the people to accept it, without needing to claim being justified. The immanence of some political system or a part of it comes from the reigning contemporary definer of Weltanschauung, namely religion (or any similar system of beliefs, such as rationalistic or relativistic world-view). The Nazis took advantage of this theory creating, or resurrecting, basically religious mythology of race, its heroes, and its destiny to motivate people and to make their reign unquestionable, which it became.\n\nThe French 20th-century philosopher Gilles Deleuze used the term immanence to refer to his \"empiricist philosophy\", which was obliged to create action and results rather than establish transcendents. His final text was titled Pure Immanence: Essays on a Life'' and spoke of a plane of immanence.\n\nFurthermore, the Russian Formalist film theorists perceived immanence as a specific method of discussing the limits of ability for a technological object. Specifically, this is the scope of potential uses of an object outside of the limits prescribed by culture or convention, and is instead simply the empirical spectrum of function for a technological artifact.\n\nSee also \n\n Buddha-nature\n Hasidic Judaism\n Iman (concept)\n Immanent evaluation\n Immanentize the eschaton\n Metaphysical naturalism\n Plane of immanence\n Substance (God is either transcendent or immanent, as is the case in Spinoza's philosophy)\n Transcendence (philosophy), often considered as the opposite of immanence\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Catholic encyclopedia: Immanence\n \"Immanence and Deterritorialization: The Philosophy of Gilles Deleuze and F\u00e9lix Guattari\"\n \"the culture of Immanence\", Ricardo Barreto and Paula Perissinotto\n\nPantheism\nReligious philosophical concepts\nMetaphysical properties\nMysticism\nAttributes of God in Christian theology\nSpinozism\nNature of Jesus Christ","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":5,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":6,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":4}},"id":237890,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immanence","title":"Immanence","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A nymph is a kind of female nature entity\/spirit in Greek mythology. They are often companions of Greek gods and goddesses. Nymphs can be divided into different kinds, such as:\n Dryads (trees)\n Naiads (fresh water)\n Oreads (mountains)\n the Okeanids, the daughters of Okeanos, and the Nereids, the daughters of Nereus (seas)\n the Pleiades (stars)\n\nOther websites","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":29080,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nymph","title":"Nymph","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sound recording and reproduction is the storage of sound and playing it back so that a person can hear the same sound more than once. It is a process wherein sound waves are captured by a machine. The machine converts the waves into electrical signals or digital data, that are then stored on recording media (such as gramophone records, cassette tapes, compact discs or computer hard drives). The sound can then be played back by reversing the process.\n\nMost recordings are of music, people speaking or singing, and sound effects. They are usually used for entertainment (fun), or for scientific and historical reasons.\n\nSound is recorded onto a medium by different methods. The ways that recordings are made have changed a lot since sound was first recorded.\n\nTechnology\n\nAnalog cylinder\nThe first machines for recording sound were mechanical, not electrical. The phonograph was invented by Thomas Alva Edison in 1877. Phonographs have a spinning cylinder covered in a soft material such as tin foil, lead, wax, or amberol. Sound waves shake a small needle so that its motion carries the waves. As the cylinder turns, the needle draws the motion of the sound waves in the soft coating. This made the cylinder a recording of the sound that was in the needle.\n\nThis recording is played back by tracing another needle through the groove in the cylinder. This recreates the small vibrations in the playback needle. These vibrations could be amplified (made louder) to create louder, more audible sound.\n\nThe phonograph was useful for making single recordings, but a big disadvantage was the difficulty of making copies of the cylinders.\n\nAnalog disk\nThe problem of copying recordings got better with the invention of the gramophone (also called the phonograph in American English) around 1888. The gramophone works in much the same way as the phonograph, but instead of a cylinder, the needle's grooves are etched into a disk record which turns on a spinning table. Because the record media was flat, copying recordings was much simpler. Pressing the original recording onto a plate of shellac created a negative master, where the grooves were bumps on the surface instead of being scratched into the surface. The master could be used to produce many copies through the opposite process.\n\nThe first records were made mostly of rubber or shellac, but later records were made of  vinyl.\n\nOriginally, records spun at a rate of 78 rotations per minute, or 78 rpm. As technology got better, records could spin more slowly, but still reproduce sound better and play for longer amounts of time. 45 rpm became common in the middle 20th century, and by the late 1900s most records were 33 rpm.\n\nTape\n\nIn the late 1930s the tape recorder appeared. Tape recorders use a magnetic tape as a medium, with a recording head to store the sound on the tape. Sound waves are converted into an electrical signal inside the recorder. This signal goes into the head, where it changes the polarity of very small magnets. Tape moves past the head at a constant speed, and its magnetic particles are rearranged by these magnets to a pattern that represents the sound wave. These magnetic patterns are much like the small grooves of a cylinder or disc record in the way that they represent the vibration energy of sound waves.\n\nWhen a tape is played back, it runs past a playback head which reads the magnetic patterns off the tape and converts them back into an electrical signal. The electrical signal can then be converted into sound waves or copied to some other kind of sound-processing machine.\n\nA magnetic tape is divided into several tracks. Each track uses up part of the width of the tape, and can store a completely different recording that can be played back at the same time as the other tracks. A two-track tape has one track on half of the tape and another track on the other half. A four-track tape has four tracks all lying next to one another, like a highway with four lanes. Most tape recordings today are stereophonic (or stereo), meaning that they have two tracks which are meant to be played together. Usually one is played on the listener's left side and the other is on the listener's right side, to match the listener's two ears.\n\nEarly tapes were wound flat on a storage reel and transferred to a take-up reel as they were recorded or played. After recording or playback, they were rewound so that they were stored only on the storage reel. This kind of system is usually called reel to reel today. It is still used today for some professional recording and playback, but for home use reels were mostly replaced with other kinds of tape in the 1970s. Cassettes are small cartridges containing two reels inside. Cassettes move a four-track tape in either of two directions, corresponding to their side A and side B labels. The reel on the left contains the unplayed or unrecorded tape, and the reel on the right contains the tape that has already passed the recording or playback head. When you turn the cassette over, the tape still moves from left to right, but this is really the opposite direction. The \"side A\" recording plays two tracks as stereo, and the \"side B\" recording plays the other two.\n\nEight-track tapes were popular for a while in the 1970s and 1980s. Eight-tracks work much like cassettes, but the tape is a loop: it repeats after being played all the way through. Because it has eight tracks, there are four programs to select from, each in stereo. Eight-tracks are not very popular anymore, but can still be found in hobbyist collections.\n\nProfessional tape-recording systems may have even more tracks, or might use them differently. Usually a system like this is designed to allow someone to mix the tracks in different ways than they were originally recorded. However, there is a kind of recording called quadraphonic that uses four-track tape to play four different tracks at the same time. A good quadraphonic recording can sound much more \"real\" than stereo or monophonic recordings.\n\nDigital Audio Tape\nTape recording technology was used from the early days of computing to store digital information. As computer technology improved, so did magnetic tape technology. In the 1980s Digital Audio Tape (DAT) technology emerged.  DAT is designed to work much like cassette, except DAT's magnetic patterns represent digital data instead of sound vibrations. This digital data is a digital audio recording which can be copied and reproduced with many different computer systems. Moving to digital takes the medium one step farther from the original sound. Instead of being a sound medium, the DAT is a data medium, and the data is a sound medium. This is more technically complex, but also more flexible. DAT has been used for many kinds of data recording, in addition to sound.\n\nCompact Disc\nThe compact disc (CD) medium was developed in the 1980s as a new way to bring digital recordings of music to the market. Except for the introduction of the CD-ROM and several kinds of recordable CD, the CD has not changed much since then. Like DAT, it is a data medium rather than a way of recording vibrations directly. It was introduced to provide music in a way that is cheap for manufacturers but relatively high-quality, but it has since been adapted to meet many data-storage needs. Like DAT, the CD requires computer technology to record and to play.\n\nBy the 1990s, CDs had replaced cassettes and records as the main kind of commercial music media. Today, although CDs are still very popular, \"online\" digital recordings like MP3s are gaining fast.\n\nTechniques\nThe earliest methods of recording sound involved the live recording of the performance directly to the recording medium. This was an entirely mechanical process, often called \"acoustical recording\". The sound of the performers was captured by a diaphragm with the cutting needle connect to it. The needle made the grooves in the recording medium.\n\nTo make this process as efficient as possible the diaphragm was located at the apex of a cone and the performer(s) would crowd around the other end. If a performer was too loud then they would need to move back from the mouth of the cone to avoid drowning out the other performers. As a result of this, in early Jazz recordings a block of wood was used in place of the bass drum.\n\nThe introduction of electrical recording made it possible to use microphones to capture the sound of the performance. The leading record labels switched to the electric microphone process in 1925, and most other record companies followed their lead by the end of the decade. Electrical recording increased the flexibility and sound quality. However once the performance was still cut to the recording medium, so if a mistake was made the recording was useless.\n\nElectrical recording made it possible to record one part to disc and then play that back while playing another part, recording both parts to a second disc. This is called over-dubbing. The first commercially issued records using over-dubbing were released by the Victor Talking Machine Company in the late 1920s. However overdubbing was of limited use until the introduction of analog audio tape. Use of tape overdubbing was pioneered by Les Paul and is called 'sound on sound' recording. In this way performances could be built up over time.\n\nThe analog tape recorder made it possible to erase or record over a previous recording so that mistakes could be fixed. Another advantage of recording on tape is the ability to cut the tape and join it back together. This allows the recording to be edited. Pieces of the recording can be removed, or rearranged. See Audio editing\n\nThe introduction of electronic instruments (especially keyboards and synthesisers), effects and other instruments has led to the importance of MIDI in recording. For example, using MIDI timecode, it is possible to have different equipment 'trigger' without direct human intervention at the time of recording.\n\nIn more recent times, computers (digital audio workstation) have found an increasing role in the recording studio, as their use eases the tasks of cutting and looping, as well as allowing for instantaneous changes, such as duplication of parts, the addition of affects and the rearranging of parts of the recording.\n\nHistory  \n\nThe French bookseller and printer \u00c9douard-L\u00e9on Scott de Martinville was the earliest known inventor of sound recording. It is believed he invented the first ever sound recording device known as the Phonautograph.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n Mix Magazine\/Primedia 2005 directory of Audio Engineering Programs\n Sound recording and reproduction formulas and calculators\n Audio Engineering Society\n The Engineer's Notebook \n A selection of artefacts held at the British Library \n WikiRecording An Online Guide to Audio Recording anyone can edit.\n\nSound","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":89040,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sound%20recording%20and%20reproduction","title":"Sound recording and reproduction","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Twenty-Second United States Census, known as Census 2000 was a count of the population of the United States. It was done by the Census Bureau. It found that the population of the United States on April 1, 2000 was 281,421,906. This was an increase of 13.2% over the 248,709,873 people counted during the 1990 Census. This was the twenty-second federal census. It was the largest single administrative effort in the history of the United States that was not done during wartime.\n\nAbout 16 percent of households received a \"long form\" of the 2000 census. It had over 100 questions.\n\nOther websites \n\n Census 2000 gateway\n Population Profile of the United States: 2000\n Population Profile Introductory slide show, in MS Powerpoint format\n State and County QuickFacts , the most requested information\n American FactFinder, for population, housing, economic, and geographic data\n How the Census Works via Howstuffworks.com\n\nCensus\nUnited States Census","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":181,"dup_dump_count":92,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":4,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":6,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":4,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":49560,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2000%20United%20States%20Census","title":"2000 United States Census","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Lawon nya\u00e9ta bahan (mat\u00e9rial) anu dijieun tina anyaman kant\u00e9h\/benang, boh benang alam atawa benang Sint\u00e9tik\/ buatan. Benang sorangan dijieunna ku cara muntirkeun jeung ngarara atawa mintal (id: memintal, en:spinning) serat, nya\u00e9ta sarupaning serat wol, sutra, katun, atawa serat s\u00e9j\u00e9nna dina hiji pakakas pintal benang. \n\n'Lawon' ilahar disebut og\u00e9 'ka\u00e9n' minangka kapangaruhan ku basa Indon\u00e9sia.\n\nTerminology \n\nThe words fabric and cloth are commonly used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres. Fabric refers to any material made through w\u00e9aving, knitting, crocheting, or bonding. Cloth refers to a finished piece of fabric that can be used for a purpose such as covering a bed.\n\nHistory \n\nThe production of textiles is an important craft, whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of mod\u00e9rn manufacturing techniques.  However, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill or satin weave there is little difference between the ancient and mod\u00e9rn methods.\n\nIncan Indians have been crafting quipus (or khipus) made of fibers either from a protein, such as spun and plied thr\u00e9ad like wool or hair from camelids such as alpacas, llamas and camels or from a cellulose like cotton for thousands of y\u00e9ars. Khipus are a series of knots along pieces of string. They have been believed to only have acted as a form of accounting, although new evidence conducted by Harvard professor, Gary Urton, indicates there may be more to the khipu than just numbers. Preservation of khipus found in mus\u00e9um and archive collections follow general textile preservation principles and practice.\n\nUses \nTextiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and containers such as bags and baskets. In the household, they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, covering for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. In the workplace, they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellan\u00e9ous uses include flags,backpack, tents, nets, cleaning devices, such as handkerchiefs; transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails, and parachutes; strengthening in composite materials such as fibre glass and industrial geotextiles, and smaller cloths are used in washing by \"soaping up\" the cloth and washing with it rather than using just soap.\n\nTextiles used for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than their app\u00e9arance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (e.g. implants), g\u00e9otextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection), protective clothing (e.g. against h\u00e9at and radiation for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection, and bullet proof vests. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met.\n\nFashion and textile designs \n\nFashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others.  \nMarisol Deluna, Nicole Miller, Lilly Pulitzer, the late Gianni Versace and Emilio Pucci can be \u00e9asily recognized by their signature print driven designs.\n\nSources and types \n\nTextiles can be made from many materials. These materials come from four main sources: animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, and mineral sources. In the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum.\n\nTextiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas. The relative thickness of fibres in cloth is m\u00e9asured in deniers. Microfiber refers to fibers made of strands thinner than one denier.\n\nAnimal textiles \nAnimal textiles are commonly made from hair or fur.\n\nWool refers to the hair of the domestic goat or sheep, which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with an oil known as lanolin, which is waterproof and dirtproof. Woollen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted refers to a finer yarn which is spun from longer fibres which have been combed to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for warm clothing. Cashmere, the hair of the Indian cashmere goat, and mohair, the hair of the North African angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness.\n\nOther animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicu\u00f1a wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets, and other warm coverings. Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbit.\n\nWadmal is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 1000~1500CE.\n\nSilk is an animal textile made from the fibers of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm. This is spun into a smooth, shiny fabric prized for its sleek texture.\n\nPlant textiles \nGrass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope. In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibres from the plant are utilized. Coir (coconut fiber) is used in making twine, and also in floormats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking.\n \nStraw and bamboo are both used to mak\u00e9 hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is kapok.\n\nFibres from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and nettle are used in making paper.\n\nCotton, flax, jute, hemp and modal are all used in clothing. Pi\u00f1a (pineapple fiber) and ramie are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fabrics such as cotton.\n\nAcetate is used to incr\u00e9ase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, velvets, and taffetas.\n\nSeaweed is used in the production of textiles. A water-soluble fiber known as alginate is produced and is used as a holding fiber; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, l\u00e9aving an open ar\u00e9a\n\nMineral textiles \nAsbestos and basalt fiber are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting, and adhesives, \"transite\" panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.\n\nGlass Fiber is used in the production of spacesuits, ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fiber for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibers.\n\nMetal fiber, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold and jewelry.  Hardware cloth is a coarse w\u00e9ave of steel wire, used in construction.\n\nSynthetic textiles \n\nAll synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing.\n\nPolyester fiber is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.\n\nAramid fiber (e.g. Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armor.\n\nAcrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools, including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.\n\nNylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose.  Thicker nylon fibers are used in rope and outdoor clothing.\n\nSpandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane fibre that stretches \u00e9asily and can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement.  It is used to mak\u00e9 activew\u00e9ar, bras, and swimsuits.\n\nOlefin fiber is a fiber used in activew\u00e9ar, linings, and warm clothing.  Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly.  A sintered felt of olefin fibers is sold under the trade name Tyvek.\n\nIngeo is a polylactide fiber blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing.  It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration.\n\nLurex is a metallic fiber used in clothing embellishment.\n\nProduction methods \n\nWeaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longer threads (called the warp) with a set of crossing thr\u00e9ads (called the weft). This is done on a frame or machine known as a loom, of which there are a number of types. Some w\u00e9aving is still done by hand, but the vast majority is mechanised.\n\nKnitting and crocheting involve interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on a knitting needle or on a crochet hook, together in a line. The two processes are different in that knitting has several active loops at one time, on the knitting needle waiting to interlock with another loop, while crocheting never has more than one active loop on the needle.\n\nBraiding or plaiting involves twisting thr\u00e9ads together into cloth. Knotting involves tying thr\u00e9ads together and is used in making macrame.\n\nLace is made by interlocking thr\u00e9ads together independently, using a backing and any of the methods described above, to cr\u00e9ate a fine fabric with open holes in the work. Lace can be made by either hand or machine.\n\nCarpets, rugs, velvet, velour, and velveteen, are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, cr\u00e9ating a tufted layer known as a nap or pile.\n\nFelting involves pressing a mat of fibers together, and working them together until they become tangled.  A liquid, such as soapy water, is usually added to lubricate the fibers, and to open up the microscopic scales on strands of wool.\n\nTreatments \nTextiles are often dyed, with fabrics available in almost every colour. Coloured designs in textiles can be cr\u00e9ated by w\u00e9aving together fibres of different colours (tartan or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (embroidery), cr\u00e9ating patterns by resist dyeing methods, tying off ar\u00e9as of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dye), or drawing wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik), or using various printing processes on finished fabric. Woodblock printing, still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at l\u00e9ast 220CE in China.\n\nTextiles are also sometimes bleached. In this process, the original colour of the textile is removed by chemicals or exposure to sunlight, turning the textile pale or white.\n\nTextiles are sometimes finished by starching, which makes the fabric stiff and less prone to wrinkles, or by waterproofing, which makes the fabric slick and impervious to water or other liquids. Since the 1990s, finishing agents have been used to strengthen fabrics and mak\u00e9 them wrinkle free.\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n Textile preservation\n Textile manufacturing\n Textile manufacturing terminology\n Timeline of clothing and textiles technology\n Textile printing\n Quipu\n\nRujukan \n\n Good, Irene. 2006. \"Textiles as a Medium of Exchange in Third Millennium B.C.E. Western Asia.\" In: Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Edited by Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu. Pages 191-214. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4\n Fisher, Nora (Curator Emirta, Textiles & Costumes), Museum of International Folk Art. \"Rio Grande Textiles.\" Introduction by Teresa Archuleta-Sagel. 196 pages with 125 black and white as well as color plates, mus\u00e9um of New Mexico Press, Paperbound.\n David H. Abrahams, \"Textile chemistry\", McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Science\u2014available in AccessScience@McGraw-Hill, DOI 10.1036\/1097-8542.687500, last modified: February 21, 2007.] (Subscription access)\n\nTumbu luar \n\n Global Textile and Clothing Trade Textile and Clothing Information and Reporting.\n The Museum of International Folk Art\n Weaving document archive\n union of textile industries \n Textiles Nanotechnology Laboratory at Cornell University\n Compact informations about materials German textile site.\n Textile Technology - Textile Machinery, News and Directory\n Tex.in - Textile & Apparel Directory & WWW Database\n \n\nBahan nu bisa didaur ulang","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":162,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":6,"2024-26":3,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":25297,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lawon","title":"Lawon","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Howard E. Woodford (June 21, 1921 \u2013 June 7, 1945) was a soldier in the United States Army who received the Medal of Honor in World War II during actions in the campaign to recapture the Philippines from Japanese forces in 1945. He was killed in action while helping a Filipino guerrilla battalion repulse enemy forces.\n\nHe is buried in Akron, Ohio.\n\nMedal of Honor citation\n\nHe volunteered to investigate the delay in a scheduled attack by an attached guerrilla battalion. Reaching the line of departure, he found that the lead company, in combat for the first time, was immobilized by intense enemy mortar, machinegun, and rifle fire which had caused casualties to key personnel. Knowing that further failure to advance would endanger the flanks of adjacent units, as well as delay capture of the objective, he immediately took command of the company, evacuated the wounded, reorganized the unit under fire, and prepared to attack. He repeatedly exposed himself to draw revealing fire from the Japanese strongpoints, and then moved forward with a 5-man covering force to determine exact enemy positions. Although intense enemy machinegun fire killed 2 and wounded his other 3 men, S\/Sgt. Woodford resolutely continued his patrol before returning to the company. Then, against bitter resistance, he guided the guerrillas up a barren hill and captured the objective, personally accounting for 2 hostile machinegunners and courageously reconnoitering strong defensive positions before directing neutralizing fire. After organizing a perimeter defense for the night, he was given permission by radio to return to his battalion, but, feeling that he was needed to maintain proper control, he chose to remain with the guerrillas. Before dawn the next morning the enemy launched a fierce suicide attack with mortars, grenades, and small-arms fire, and infiltrated through the perimeter. Though wounded by a grenade, S\/Sgt. Woodford remained at his post calling for mortar support until bullets knocked out his radio. Then, seizing a rifle he began working his way around the perimeter, encouraging the men until he reached a weak spot where 2 guerrillas had been killed. Filling this gap himself, he fought off the enemy. At daybreak he was found dead in his foxhole, but 37 enemy dead were lying in and around his position. By his daring, skillful, and inspiring leadership, as well as by his gallant determination to search out and kill the enemy, S\/Sgt. Woodford led an inexperienced unit in capturing and securing a vital objective, and was responsible for the successful continuance of a vitally important general advance.\n\nNamesake\nA transport ship was named in his honor the Sgt. Howard E. Woodford.  Woodford elementary school in Barberton, Ohio, is also named in his honor.\n\nSee also\n\nList of Medal of Honor recipients\nList of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II\n\nExternal links\n\n1921 births\n1945 deaths\nUnited States Army Medal of Honor recipients\nUnited States Army non-commissioned officers\nPeople from Barberton, Ohio\nUnited States Army personnel killed in World War II\nWorld War II recipients of the Medal of Honor","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":55,"dup_details":{"unknown":2,"2023-40":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":8,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2}},"id":11461282,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Howard%20E.%20Woodford","title":"Howard E. Woodford","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Excretion is one of the most basic functions of life. It is the process of eliminating waste products of metabolism and other non-useful materials. It is an essential process in all forms of life. It contrasts with secretion, where the substance may have specific tasks after leaving the cell.\n\nIn single-celled organisms, waste products are discharged directly through the surface of the cell. Multicellular organisms use more complex methods. Higher plants eliminate gases through the stomata on the surface of leaves. Animals have special excretory organs.\n\nMammalian excretion \nIn mammals, excretion is the formation of urine in the kidneys, and expelling carbon dioxide from the lungs. These waste products are eliminated by urination and breathing out respectively. If excretion does not occur in an organism, waste products accumulate, which eventually kill the organism.\n\nAlso, food waste is expelled through the anus. Other substances are secreted into the bile, and then eliminated in the faeces. The skin and lungs also have excretory functions: the skin eliminates metabolic wastes like urea and lactic acid through sweating,p395 and the lungs expel carbon dioxide.\n\nSome terms \n Mucociliary excretion is the excretion of mucus in the respiratory system. Cilia work to clear the small passages, and coughing removes phlegm.\n Biliary excretion goes through the bile duct to the duodenum and removed in the faeces.\n Perspiration is the excretion of salts and water from the body, although the main purpose is to cool the body.\n\nOther vertebrates \nAquatic animals usually excrete ammonia directly into the water, as this compound is soluble and there is ample water available for dilution. In terrestrial animals ammonia-like compounds are converted into other nitrogenous materials as there is less water in the environment, and ammonia itself is toxic.\n\nReptiles and birds excrete their nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the form of a white paste. This allows efficient water retention and it can be stored more easily in the egg. Both uric acid and faeces are expelled through a common opening called the cloaca. Their waste is usually two-coloured: part white (uric acid) and part green or black (organic waste).\n\nMany bird species, especially seabirds, can also excrete salt via specialized nasal salt glands, the saline solution leaving through nostrils in the beak.\n\nReferences \n\nPhysiology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":259668,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Excretion","title":"Excretion","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The 1850s was the decade that began on January 1, 1850 and ended on December 31, 1859.\n\nEvents \n Production of steel revolutionised by invention of the Bessemer process\n Benjamin Silliman fractionates petroleum by distillation for the first time\n First transatlantic telegraph cable laid\n First safety elevator installed by Elisha Otis\n Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species, putting forward the theory of evolution by natural selection\n Epidemiology begins when John Snow traces the source of an outbreak of cholera in London to a contaminated water pump.\n Discovery of Neandertal fossils in Neanderthal, Germany\n Solar flares discovered by Richard Christopher Carrington\n Crimean War (1854\u20131856) fought between Imperial Russia and an alliance consisting of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire. The majority of the conflict takes place around Crimea, on the northern coasts of the Black Sea.\n The Indian Mutiny: revolt against the East India Company's British rule in India\n Dissolution of the Mughal Empire by the British.\n 156 are killed in Paris in a failed assassination attempt on Napoleon III, Emperor of France\n Moldavia and Wallachia are unified and form Romania.\n Gideon T. Stewart attempts to create a Prohibition Party.\n\nWorld leaders \n Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary)\n Emperor Napoleon III (Second French Empire)\n King Frederick William IV (Germany)\n Pope Pius IX\n Queen Maria II (Portugal)\n King Peter V (Portugal)\n Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)\n Emperor Alexander II (Russia)\n Queen Isabella II (Spain)\n Queen Victoria, (United Kingdom)\n Prime Minister Lord John Russell (United Kingdom)\n Prime Minister Lord Aberdeen (United Kingdom)\n Prime Minister Lord Palmerston (United Kingdom)\n President Millard Fillmore (United States)\n President Franklin Pierce (United States)\n President James Buchanan (United States)\n Nasser-al-Din Shah of Qajar dynasty (Persia)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":17474,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1850s","title":"1850s","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Afrikaners are white South Africans who speak Afrikaans as mother tongue and follow the Afrikaans culture. Most of them have Dutch, German, French Huguenot, ancestors. Also known as Boere, Voortrekkers and Burgers, although under slightly different contexts. In South Africa there are about 3 million white people with Afrikaans as mother tongue, that can be assumed to be Afrikaners if they chose to follow the Afrikaans culture.\n\nEthnic groups in South Africa","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":7710,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Afrikaner%20people","title":"Afrikaner people","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Gothic cathedrals are important examples of gothic architecture. Gothic architecture was a way of planning and designing buildings that began in Western Europe in the Late Middle Ages. Gothic architecture grew out of Romanesque architecture, in France in the 12th century. The architecture spread across Europe and lasted until the 16th century when Renaissance architecture became popular. \n\nThe single most characteristic feature of Gothic architecture is the pointed arch. This is the main difference from Romanesque architecture which had rounded arches. Other important features are the ribbed vault, flying buttress, and windows with patterns of stone lace called tracery. \n\nMany of the great cathedrals, abbeys and churches of Europe are Gothic architecture. It is also the architecture of many castles, and palaces. It is also found in some  town halls, universities, and some houses.\n\nMany church buildings still remain from this time. Even the smallest Gothic churches are often beautiful, while many of the larger Gothic churches and cathedrals are thought to be priceless works of art. Many are listed with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as World Heritage Sites.\n\nIn the 19th century, the Gothic style became popular again, particularly for building churches and universities. This style is called Gothic Revival architecture.\n\nAbout the word \"Gothic\" \nGothic architecture was at first called \"the French Style\" ().\nThe word \"Gothic\" was used later during the Renaissance as an insult, relating to the uncivilized ancient Goths, Germanic-people documented living near lower Vistula river.\n\nAn Italian writer named Giorgio Vasari used the word \"Gothic\" in the 1530s, because he thought buildings from the Middle Ages were not carefully planned and measured like Renaissance buildings or the buildings of ancient Rome. He said that, as the barbaric Goths had destroyed the classical world, so this \"modern art\" had destroyed the architecture of the twelfth century.  After Vasari, many other people used the word \"Gothic\" to describe architecture with pointed arches.\n\nBackground\n\nTowns, states and countries\nAt the end of the 12th century, Western Europe was divided into different states. Many of these were beginning to become the countries that exist today. \n\nThe Holy Roman Empire ruled a big part of Europe including the modern countries of Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Austria, eastern France and much of northern Italy, apart from Venice. Emperor Charlemagne began the Holy Roman Empire in 800 AD.\n\nThe modern countries of France and Spain were each divided into different kingdoms. England was ruled by a king whose family also had a lot of land in France. Norway was influenced by England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by German states.\n\nTrade between towns and states began to make the towns grow larger. Germany, Holland and Belgium had many big towns that grew peacefully, often trading with each other. Because of the peace and wealth of these towns, they showed their pride by building huge town halls, often with very tall towers.\n\nIn England and France, most people did not live in towns. They lived on farms. Rich noblemen or lords owned these farms. The house of the lord was called a manor house. Italy was mostly split up into small city-states which often fought each other. Cities often had high walls and many of the houses built at this time were tall, high towers.\n\nThe Church \nIn Western Europe, in the Middle Ages, almost everyone belonged to the Roman Catholic Church. The Roman Catholic Church has one head - the Pope. During the Middle Ages, one language was used in churches all across Europe - Ecclesiastical Latin, sometimes called Church Latin, which had developed from ancient Latin. \nThe churches of each area had a local bishop who came under the Pope. Each Bishop had a throne where he could sit when priests and people came to him. A church which has a Bishop's throne is called a \"cathedral\". Cathedrals were usually the biggest and most beautiful churches.\n\nIn the early Middle Ages, many monasteries were built all over Europe. A group of holy men lived and worked and prayed there.  Monks belonged to different \"orders\" which had different rules. The biggest number of monasteries were homes to the monks of the Benedictine Order. Their monasteries were generally in towns and they often built very big churches called \"Abbeys\" for the monks and the townspeople to worship in. Other orders of monks, like the Cistercians, did not live near towns. Nowadays their abbeys are seen as beautiful ruins in the English countryside.\n\nIn France, there were also Benedictines, as well as Cluniac Orders. The great monastery at Cluny, built in the Romanesque style, was the biggest in Europe. The abbey and other buildings were very well planned so for hundreds of years other monasteries were influenced by that plan.\n\nIn the 13th century St. Francis of Assisi started the Franciscans, who were often called the \"Grey Friars\" because of their grey-brown robes.  The Dominicans were founded by St. Dominic in Toulouse and Bologna. The Dominicans built many of Italy's Gothic churches.\n\nAbbot Suger and the first Gothic building\nAbbot Suger was the head of a large monastery just north of Paris in France. The monastery had a large church, the Abbey of Saint-Denis. There was also a royal palace where the French kings sometimes stayed. Abbot Suger was a close friend to two kings, Louis VI and Louis VII.\n\nIn 1127 Suger decided to rebuild the great abbey Church of Saint-Denis. He began by changing the \"West Front\" or facade. This side of the church was about 200 years old and had only one small door. Suger planned for three big doors like the arches on the Arch of Constantine in Rome. These large entrances let in all the crowds on special Holy Days. The facade also had a big round window in the centre, called a rose window, which was the first one in France.\n\nAbbot Suger did not rebuild the church inside the west doors where most of the ordinary people stood. Next, he rebuilt the eastern end. Suger wanted the east facade to make people think of Heaven. He wanted it to be very light and bright, with very big windows of beautifully coloured glass. He looked at all the most modern designs, and all the clever things that other architects had done. He put all the new ideas together in one building. It was the first building of the new \"Gothic\" style. It was not yet called Gothic at this time. It was called \"the French Style\".\n\nThe new East End was dedicated or \"given to God\" on June 11, 1144. Other architects soon copied the design for other big churches and cathedrals in northern France. After Abbot Suger's death, the rest of the church was also rebuilt in the new style, and got two more much larger and more decorated rose windows, one on either side.\n\nThe style soon spread to England and through France, the Low Countries, Germany, Spain and northern Italy and Sicily.\n\nArchitectural features of Gothic churches \nNote:- The architectural vocabulary words are written in bold type and are explained and\/or shown on the plan and cross-section.\n\nRomanesque architecture \n\"Romanesque\" was the style of architecture in Europe before the \"Gothic\" style. Gothic architecture grew out of Romanesque architecture. There was not a clean break between the two styles.  Many of the features of Gothic architecture did not begin in the Gothic period. They were already there in Romanesque architecture, and slowly changed to become Gothic. The main changes were the pointed arch and the flying buttress. These two developments allowed many other changes to happen.  \n\nRomanesque buildings had thick walls, small windows, round arches and flat buttresses. Gothic buildings had thinner walls, larger windows, pointed arches and large buttresses. \n\nAll the types of buildings, and the general shape of the buildings were already there in the Romanesque period. The types of buildings were:- the cathedral church, the parish church, the monastery, the castle, the palace, the great hall and the gatehouse.\n\nBefore the 20th century, the landmark building in almost every town was a church, cathedral, abbey, or town hall with its tall tower or spire rising high above all the houses. Many of these buildings were from the Middle Ages and were Romanesque or Gothic in style.\n\nPlans\n\nThe groundplan of most Gothic churches is shaped like a cross. The long nave makes the body of the church and, crossing it, the arms are called the transept. On the other side of the transept is the chancel which is often called the choir because that is where the priest and the choir sing the services.\n\nThe nave usually has a passageway or aisle on either side. Sometimes there are two aisles on each side. The nave is usually a lot taller than the aisles, and has high windows which light up the central space. The upper part of the building, where these windows are, is called the clerestory (or clear storey). (It is pronounced \"clair-rest-tree\")\n\nSome Gothic churches in Germany and Austria and also Milan Cathedral (which was built in the German style) often have nave and aisles of almost the same height and are called \"hallenkirke\" (hall church). The Cathedral of St. Stephen of Vienna is an example.\n\nIn some churches with double aisles, like Notre Dame, Paris, the transept does not stick out beyond the aisles. In English cathedrals the transepts always stick out a long way and sometimes there are two transepts as at Salisbury Cathedral.\n\nIt is at the eastern end that Gothic churches are the most different from each other.\n\nIn England the eastern end it is usually long and often has two parts. It is usually square or has a \"Lady Chapel\", a place to pray to the Virgin Mary.\n\nIn France the eastern end is often polygonal and has by a passage for walking called an ambulatory. Often French churches have a ring of chapels called a chevette. German churches are often like those of France at the eastern end.\n\nIn Italy, there is no long chancel jutting out beyond the transept. There is usually just a semicircular chapel as at Florence Cathedral.\n\nFeatures of the Gothic style\n\n Pointed arches\n Very high towers and spires and roofs\n Clustered columns: tall columns that looked like a group of thin columns bundled together\n Ribbed vaults: arched ceilings made of stone. In the Gothic style they were held up by stone ribs.\n A skeleton of stonework with great big glass windows in between.\n Tracery: carved stone lace in the windows and on the walls\n Stained glass: richly colored glass in the windows, often with pictures telling stories\n Buttresses: narrow stone walls jutting out from the building to help hold it up\n Flying buttresses: buttresses that help to hold the vault up. They are made with an arch that jumps over a lower part of the building to reach the outside wall.\n Statues: of Saints, Prophets and Kings around the doors\n Many sculptures, sometimes of animals and legendary creatures. Gargoyles spout water from the roof.\n\nGrand facade\nThe \"facade\" or West Front of a large church or cathedral is designed to make a big impression on the worshippers. One of the best known is Notre Dame de Paris.\n\nIn the centre of the facade is the main door or portal, often with two side doors as well. In the arch of the middle door is often an important piece of sculpture, usually \"Christ in Majesty\". Sometimes there is a stone post in the middle of the doorway where there is a statue of the \"Madonna and Child\". There are many other carved figures in niches set all around the portals. Sometimes there are hundreds of stone figures carved all across the front of the building.\n\nAbove the middle door there is a large window, which is usually a rose window like that at Reims Cathedral, but not in England, Scotland, Belgium or Scandinavia where there will nearly always be a very large pointed window to let in lots of light.\n\nIn Italy, the facade is often decorated with coloured marble and mosaic made of little coloured tiles, and not so many statues, as at Orvieto Cathedral\n\nThe facade of a French cathedral and many English, Spanish and German cathedrals usually has two towers.\n\nHeight\nLarge Gothic churches and cathedrals are often very tall. On the inside, the nave is usually at least twice as high as it is wide, which gives the church a very tall narrow look. Some of the churches in France and Germany have naves that are three times as high as they are wide. Cologne Cathedral is an example. The tallest nave is at Beauvais Cathedral which is 157.5 feet high. Westminster Abbey is 102 feet high.\n\nOn the outside most Gothic churches, both big and small, have at least one tower. In Italy there are domes on the churches, and the tower stands to one side. But in most other countries, cathedrals generally have two towers and quite often have three. Some have even more. Laon Cathedral was planned to have seven, but they were not all built.\n\nSometimes there is just one tower with a huge spire as at Salisbury. Lincoln Cathedral had the tallest spire of the Middle Ages at 527 feet (160 metres).\n\nBecause a pointed arch points upwards, it makes people look upwards. In Gothic architecture, the whole building is designed to make people look up. There are long narrow columns, long narrow windows and high pointed roofs. On the inside the arches of the roof rise up like branches. On the outside, there are often lots of fancy bits along the edge of the roof and on the tops of buttresses and above the windows. These are called  pinnacles. Milan Cathedral has hundreds of them.\n\nLight\nGothic architecture usually has a lot of windows. Sainte Chapelle is a famous example. At Gloucester Cathedral in England, the East window is as big as a tennis court. Milan Cathedral also has windows of about the same size.\n\nThe flying buttresses which arch across the roof of the aisle were used to support the roof above the windows, so the walls did not have to be so thick.\n\nThe columns of the inside, the ribs of the vault (or roof) and the flying buttresses, made a strong stone skeleton. in between these parts, the walls and the filling of the vaults could be of lighter thinner material. Between the narrow buttresses, the walls could be opened up into large windows.\n\nThrough the Gothic period, because of the pointed arch, Gothic windows were able to change from simple openings to very rich designs. The windows were very often filled with stained glass which made coloured light in the building, and was used for story-telling pictures.\n\nThe pointed arch\nPointed arches were used in Persian architecture, and from 641 AD onwards, they were a feature of Islamic architecture. Knowledge of the pointed arch spread into Europe through the Crusaders who travelled to the Middle East from 1096 onwards. Also, Islamic forces had taken over parts of Spain, where they built cities and Mosques with pointed arches.\n\nArchitectural historians think that the pointed arch was also used by some European architects because it was a very strong way of making an arch.\n\nIn Gothic Architecture, the pointed arch is used in every place where an arch is needed, both for strength and for decoration. Gothic openings such as doorways, windows, arcades and galleries have pointed arches. A row of arches is called an arcade. A row of arches that is up high on a building is a gallery.\n\nRows of pointed arches were used to decorate walls. This is known as blind arcading. Often walls were made with tall narrow arched openings in them that could be used to stand statues in. An opening like this is called a niche which is pronounced \"neesh\".\n\nVaulted roofs with pointed arches\nAn arched roof built of bricks or stone is called a vault. In the Romanesque period before the Gothic, some churches had vaulted roofs. They were always based on perfectly semi-circular shapes. There were two main ways to make a nave vault in the Romanesque period. A vault could be long like a tunnel. Churches with this type of vault were always rather dark. Or it could be square, like two tunnels crossing each other. This meant that the columns that carried the vault always had to be placed on a perfectly square ground plan, which was not always possible.\n\nOne of the good things about pointed arches was that they could be narrow and tall, or flattened and wide. Using pointed arches, architects could make vaults of very different shapes. They did not even have to be rectangular. A Gothic architect could make a vault with one side narrow, two sides wide and the last side even wider. They could make a vault with three sides or five sides quite easily, by using pointed arches.\n\nThe vaults were made of ribs which met each other at the highest part of the vault. In between the ribs were sloping surfaces of stone or brick that could be much thinner and lighter than the ribs. At first the pattern made by the ribs was quite plain, like Romanesque vaults, but architects, particularly in England, soon started adding small ribs in between the main ones and making different patterns. Some vaults like this can also be seen in Spain and Germany, but not usually in France or Italy.\n\nDifferent shapes of Gothic arches\nIn the Gothic period the shape and style of pointed arches changed. But the changes were not the same in every country.\n\nWith pointed arches, windows could be made very large. Architects made many designs of pointed arches crossing each other in different ways. These designs were often used in windows, which look as if they are filled with beautiful stone lace. This is called \"tracery\". The stone tracery was used to hold the glass in place. An Architectural Historian can often tell just how old a part of a building is by looking at the window tracery design.\n\nLancet arch\nThe simplest Gothic arch is a long opening with a pointed arch known in England as the lancet. A \"lancet\" is a sharp knife, so these windows are knife-shaped. Very often lancet windows are put together in a group of three or five.\n\nSalisbury Cathedral is famous for the beauty of its Lancet Gothic Architecture. In England the style is called \"Early English Gothic\". York Cathedral in England has a group of five lancet windows that are 50 feet high and are still full of ancient glass. They are called the Five Sisters.\n\nThese simple windows are also found at Chartres Cathedral and Laon Cathedral in France. They are the most usual sort of Gothic windows in Italy.\n\nEquilateral arch\nMany Gothic openings have tops that are based upon an equilateral triangle. The Equilateral Arch has a very pleasing look and gives a wide opening useful for doorways, arcades and big windows.\n\nThese arches are often filled with tracery in circular designs. In England this style is called Geometric Decorated Gothic. It can be seen at many English and French Cathedrals, for example Lincoln cathedral in England and Notre Dame in Paris.\n\nFlamboyant arch\nSome Gothic windows have designs in the tracery, or even in the top of the window itself, that rises up like a flame. This is called Flamboyant Gothic. Tracery like this makes a very rich and lively effect.\n\nSome of the most beautiful and famous windows of Europe have this type of tracery. It can be seen at St Stephen's Vienna, Sainte Chapelle in Paris, at the Cathedrals of Limoges and Rouen in France, and at Milan Cathedral in Italy. In England the most famous windows like this are the West Window of York Minster with its design based on the Sacred Heart, the East Window at Carlisle Cathedral and the East window of Selby Abbey. Architectural Historians sometimes argue about which of these is the most beautiful.\n\nFlame-shaped arches are not as strong as ordinary pointed arches. It is never used for making a vaulted roof. If this shape is used to make a doorway, there is generally another stronger arch around it. Another way is to make a square topped door that has Flamboyant decoration over the top. In France there are many doorways, both in churches and in houses, that are like this. They are rare in England but there is one at Rochester Cathedral.\n\nIn England the Flamboyant style was used wall arcading and niches. The most famous examples in are in the Lady Chapel at Ely, the Screen at Lincoln and the facade of Exeter Cathedral. In German and Spanish Gothic architecture the Flamboyant style is often used for opnwork stone screens. The famous \"pulpit\" in Vienna Cathedral is made like this.\n\nDepressed arch\nThe Depressed arch is wide and looks as if it has been pushed almost flat. When arches like this are used to make great big windows they need to be supported by many tall thin vertical shafts and horizontal transoms, so that the window looks as if it has been divided up into a grid (lots of rectangles). This sort of decoration is used on walls as well. In England the style is called Perpendicular Gothic style.\n\nAt Gloucester Cathedral the Perpendicular East Window is said to be as large as a tennis court. There are three very famous large chapels in this style- King's College Chapel, Cambridge; St. George's Chapel at Windsor Castle; Henry VII's Chapel at Westminster Abbey. The other famous example is Bath Abbey.\n\nDecoration\nA Gothic cathedral was designed to be like a model of the universe. Everything about the building was designed to tell a message about God.\n\nThe statues, the decoration, stained glass windows and wall paintings told Bible stories such as how God created the world and how he rules over everything that is in the universe, the seasons of the year and the stars in the sky.\n\nCarvings near the door often show the signs of the Zodiac because the patterns of stars in the sky were very important to farming people who did not have calendars to tell them when to plant and when to harvest.\n\nAbove the main door is often a sculpture of Jesus on a throne, judging the people of the Earth. Many pictures and sculptures are there to remind people to live good lives because they never know what will happen next.\n\nMany churches were very richly decorated, both inside and out. the statues were often painted in bright colours but nowadays only tiny bits remain at Chartres cathedral and some other places. Wooden ceilings were usually brightly coloured. Sometimes the stone columns were painted as well.\n\nRegional differences\nEven though some things about Gothic architecture stay the same, other things look different in different countries.\n\nBuilding materials\nDifferent building materials were found in different parts of Europe. This is one of the differences in the architecture between different places.\nIn France, there was limestone. It was good for building because it was soft to cut, but got much harder when the air and rain got on it. It was usually a pale grey colour. France also had beautiful white limestone from Caen which was perfect for making very fine carvings.\n\nEngland had coarse limestone, red sandstone and dark green Purbeck marble which was often used for architectural decorations like thin columns.\n\nIn Northern Germany, Netherlands, Denmark, Baltic countries and northern Poland there was no good building stone, but there was clay for making bricks and tiles. So many of these countries have Brick Gothic churches and even Brick Gothic castles.\n\nIn Italy, limestone was used for city walls and castles, but brick was used for other buildings. Because Italy had lots of beautiful marble in many different colours, many buildings have fronts or \"facades\" decorated in coloured marble. Some churches have very rough brick facades because the marble was never put on. Florence Cathedral, for example, did not get its marble facade until the 1800s.\n\nIn some parts of Europe, there were many tall straight trees that were good for making very large roofs. But in England, by the 1400s, the long straight trees were running out. Many of the trees were used for building ships. The architects had to think of a new way to make a wide roof from short pieces of timber. That is how they invented the hammer-beam roofs which are one of the beautiful features seen in many old English churches.\n\nFrance\nFrench cathedrals, and those in Germany and Belgium are often very high, both inside and outside. The transepts do not stick out far. The facades in France nearly always have three doors, a rose window and two towers. There are often facades with doors on the transepts as well as the front.\n\nEngland\nThe thing that makes English cathedrals different from the others is that they are long, and look horizontal, like big ocean liners.\nEnglish cathedrals nearly all took hundreds of years to build, and every part is in a style that is quite different to the next part. (Only Salisbury Cathedral was not built in lots of styles.)\nThe West window is very large and is never a rose window. The west front may have two towers like a French Cathedral, or none. There is nearly always a tower at the middle of the building, which may have a big spire.\n\nHoly Roman Empire\nIn the territory of the Holy Roman Empire, the towers and spires are often enormously large. Sometimes they are so big that it was impossible to finish them until modern times. The spires are quite different to English spires because they are made of lacy \"openwork\".\nThere are also many hallenkirke (or hall-churches) which have no clerestorey windows. The nave and the aisles are about the same height.\n\nSpain and Portugal\nLike an English Cathedral, a Spanish or Portuguese Gothic Cathedral is often built in many different styles. They are often wide. Spanish cathedrals often have chapels all around them. The roof often has many different types of towers and spires. Often the central towers are polygonal.\n\nItaly\nItalian Gothic cathedrals use lots of colour, both outside and inside. On the outside, the facade is often decorated with marble. On the inside, the walls are often painted plaster. The columns and arches are often decorated with bright coloured paint. There are also mosaics with gold backgrounds and beautifully tiled floors is geometric patterns.\nThe facades often have an open porch with a wheel windows above it. There is often a dome at the centre of the building. The bell tower is hardly ever attached to the building, because Italy has quite a few earthquakes. The windows are not as large as in northern Europe and, although stained glass windows are often found, the favorite way of decorating the churches is fresco (wall painting).\n\nRelated pages\n Castle\n Gothic Revival architecture\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nWorks cited\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n , from Project Gutenberg\n\nOther websites\n GothicMed. A virtual museum of Mediterranean Gothic architecture \n Photographs of 1,700 gothic and romanesque churches\n\nGothic architecture","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":4,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":5578,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gothic%20cathedrals","title":"Gothic cathedrals","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Rugby league is a ball sport. Two teams of thirteen players play against each other. The ball used is oval in shape. The field is a rectangle shape. It is 100 metres long and 70 metres wide. It is played for 80 minutes (40 minutes each half). \n\nA try is scored when a player scores or touches the ball down in the in-goal area (the try line included). A try is worth 4 points and if it's converted (the goal kicker kicks the ball in between the goal posts), the team gets an extra 2 points. Another method of scoring points is through drop goals which are worth 1 or 2 points, or penalty goals which are worth 2 points.\n\nRugby league is played in over 30 countries in the world. The countries that play it the most are Australia, England, Ireland and New Zealand. The Rugby League World Cup has been played by Australia, New Zealand, England, Ireland, France, Wales, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Scotland, United States, Italy, Cook Islands, Lebanon, Russia and South Africa. The current world champions are Australia, who won the 2017 Rugby League World Cup. The 2021 Rugby League World Cup will be held in England.\n\nOther websites\n\nRugby league","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":5,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":27526,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rugby%20League","title":"Rugby League","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A lawn mower (or lawnmower) is a machine that uses blades to cut a lawn. There are different types of lawn mowers. The smallest are pushed by a human, they are good for small lawns and gardens. Ride-on mowers are good for larger lawns. The largest are pulled behind a tractor, they are made for grass at places like golf courses and parks. Always wear safety equipment while working with these machines.\n\nA lawn mower functions  by spinning either a thin blade or a small piece of cable, to cause lacerations on the stems of grass & other plants. Severing the plant and reducing the height of the plant to a more pleasing appearance. \n\nThere are several types of lawn mowers available in the market. Some of the most common types are Push mowers, Self-propelled mowers, Riding mowers, Robotic mowers, Tractor mounted mowers, and Hover mowers.\n\nReferences \n\nCutting tools\nGardening tools\nAgricultural machinery\nHome appliances","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":191347,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lawn%20mower","title":"Lawn mower","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Pectin is a food supplement. It is a source of dietary fiber. It is used to make jellies and jams. Usually it comes in the form of a white powder. It is made from parts of fruit, like oranges. People use pectin to thicken things, like jelly and jam. \n \n\nFood supplements\nIt is also seen as a large polysaccharide molecule found in the cell wall of many cells.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":56,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5}},"id":79026,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pectin","title":"Pectin","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A trade union (U.S: labor union, UK also trades union) is an organization or group of workers who join together to negotiate pay, hours, benefits, and working conditions. Union members and supporters of unions claim that they are necessary because the people that run companies want to pay as little as possible.\n\nActivities \nUnions do many things for their members. This includes:\n Collective bargaining: The leaders of a union work with management (the people who run the business) in order to get a contract that gives workers what they want. This is because union leaders can threaten to strike.\n Benefits: Early unions would give their members unemployment pay in case they were hurt on the job, unfairly fired, or sick. This is usually done by the government today. Unions may also give their members a lawyer to represent them if they are ever sued in court or charged with a crime.\n Politics: Unions often work to get laws passed which help their cause. Some raise money for politicians who are friendly to unions. They also lobby for laws which help out unions. Some political parties are very close to unions, like the Labour Party in the United Kingdom.\n\nArticle 8 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ensure the right to form and join trade union and use strikes.\n\nStrikes \nIf collective bargaining does not work, unions often use strikes to get their demands. However, the threat of a strike is usually enough: over 98% of union contracts are renewed without a strike.\n\nHistory \nTrades unions are the descendants of the trade guilds of mediaeval times. These guilds were made up of independent skilled workers (or artisans) who had been apprenticed and qualified by a guild.\n\nBritish trades union 1750\u20131850 \nA trades union is a collection of people from different trades who want to keep and improve their jobs and their working and living conditions. Member of a trades union will usually working in the same industry.\n\nTrade unionism eventually became accepted as a fact of life by British governments and employers \u2013 but with much struggle. The acceptance of trades unions was no coincidence; it took place when British industry was at its most confident, steady economic growth had dampened revolutionary enthusiasm. At the same time providing the means whereby employers could buy off discontent with higher wages and improved conditions of work.\n\nThis did not mean that unions were well liked by the Establishment. In fact, trades unions had to take care to create a good image in mid-Victorian terms in order to win tolerance and acceptance. However, in the early part of the nineteenth century the future of Trade Unionism was not certain.\n\nThe development of trades unionism \nTrades unions developed slowly in Britain but they can be traced right back to the Middle Ages. In medieval towns and villages, trade guilds started to develop. With both the master and the employees assigned to the guild of their particular craft.\n\nIn 1563 The Statute of Artificers was passed by Elizabeth 1's government. The Statute had some negative effects such as not allowing apprentices to look for work outside of their parish but it had positive effects as well such as requiring justices of the peace to maintain living standards and to monitor apprentices in their district. This meant that craftsmen received some protection from the state.\n\nBy the 19th century attitudes had changed. People now hated government interference in their businesses. As the population increased so did the size of businesses and it was no longer possible for employers to have a personal relationship with each employee. Due to this in 1813 the Statute was repealed. Now workers began to form trade clubs and associations to protect industrial and personal interests.\n\nEarly trades unions were only for skilled \"artisan\" trades. These craft trade unions or \"societies\" were mainly formed amongst cobblers, printers and mechanics.\nCraft trade unions were distinctive because they had:\n Welfare benefits.\n Apprenticeship regulations \u2013 new entrants to the trade were strictly limited.\n Entry fees.\n Collective bargaining with employees to fix wage levels.\n\nCraft societies had only a few members and were restricted to a certain trade in a certain town. Members were usually literate and rationalist. The actual society was usually based on a public house, with meetings etc. convened there.\n\nFriendly societies \nThese were different from trades unions but had some functions in common. Friendly societies were \"self help\" organisations. In exchange for a subscription fee, they would provide financial support to workers in the event of, for example, death or illness.\nThey were usually locally based; Tyneside in the 1820s had 165 societies with a total of 10,000 members.\nGradually the societies or groups of workers were formed into larger bodies called \"combinations\". Instead of just paying out benefits, they became more militant and begun to lobby for better conditions and better pay etc.\nWorkers were also able to petition parliament when they had a particular grievance over working conditions or wages for instance.\nOver the 18th century, these trade clubs became more aggressive and powerful. Small groups joined together into \"combinations\" and campaigned to improve working conditions and demanded higher wages. Some combinations organised local strikes.\n\nCombination acts \nThe government realised that something had to be done about combinations. The Aristocracy were worried about the number and power of combinations. The French Revolution only scared them more. As a result of the above-mentioned situation, the Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 were introduced. The acts forbade Labour Unions from combining to campaign for better working conditions and for an increase in wages. If workers broke this new law they could be sent to prison for up to 3 months. This act was strictly enforced.\n\nThe combination acts had little success, trades union simply carried on in secret. E.P. Thomson claimed that the number of trade unions had even increased. Some unions called themselves \"friendly societies\" and thus continued to work. In 1823 a London tailor called Francis Place led the movement for repeal. With the support of MP Joseph Hume the government was convinced to set up a parliamentary committee to look into the issue of repeal. The government no longer feared revolution, combinations and peaceful bargaining now seemed acceptable. The committee recommended the repeal of the Combination Acts and parliament acted accordingly. The combination acts were repealed in 1824. Trades unions were now legal.\n\nStrikes quickly occurred across the country. The government then decided to bring in the Amending Combination Act in 1825 which allowed the existence of trades union but refused them the right to stage protests.\n\nThe problems of early trades unionism \nTrades unionism faced quite a few problems in their creation and organisation:\n\n1. Preventative legislation (laws etc.) most notably the Combination Acts 1799\u20131800\n2. The prevalence of the domestic system of working.\n3. an identity of interest between employer and the domestic employee (domestic employees only had contact with their employer and not with their fellow employees \u2013 employers adopted a \"paternalistic\" approach to their workers)\n4. Factory works was undeveloped in the early 19th century. As soon as factories had taken off the 'working classes emerged. The traditional bond of trust between employer and employees were later eroded and working people began to club together.\n5. Government fears. The government believed that all working people could club together and react en masse to social change scared the government. The ruling classes associated 'combinations' with revolution. The many Combination acts of 1700\u20131800 aimed to prevent trade unions from being formed.\n\nEarly national trades unions \nIn the 1820s the idea of creating a national union was spreading.\n\nA cotton spinner from Manchester named John Doherty summoned a conference on the Isle of Man in 1829 to discuss the idea of a national trade union. He then formed the Grand General Union of Operative Spinners of Great Britain and Ireland. The following July he formed National Association for the Protection of Labour which was to be made of most trades. In 1831 the association had disintegrated; mainly due to poor communication links which made it impossible to organise events.\n\nRobert Owen and the GNCTU \nIn February 1834, the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union was formed, largely as a result of Robert Owen. Owen dreamed of a socialist society, he hoped that a national union would help this happen.\n\nRobert Owen was an important figure in the formation of the GNCTU. Owen and Doherty were associates and the GNCTU was based on Doherty's Grand General Union. The union was heavily influenced by Owenite socialism.\n\nWhy was the GNCTU Formed? \nThe objectives of the GNCTU were straightforward and traditionalist, thus strike action was to be used:\n To improve wages and\/or conditions;\n To protect workers from any erosion of wages and\/or conditions.\n\nThe failure of the GNCTU \nIt is disputed whether of not his union succeeded. It lasted just six months (February to August 1834). Owen claimed that there was around half a million members, but other estimates put the figure at around 16,000 members.\n\nThe union failed for a number of reasons. Owen did not really understand or empathise the suffering of the workers, who had genuine and immense concerns. The general body or workers favoured militant action but Owen preferred a steady, more legalistic approach. The size of the GNTCU also made any strikes difficult to organise. A further problem was the fact that many employers forbade their employees from joining the GNTCU, and refused to let them work if they had not signed a document which renounced the organisation.\n\nTolpuddle martyrs \nIn February 1834 six workers for Tolpuddle in Dorset formed a union. 13 shillings was what the average family need to survive but the men were being paid just 9 shillings. Led by George Loveless the farm labourers fought for increased wages. James Frampton, the landowner, was determined to stop industrial action; he reported the group to the Home Secretary Lord Melbourne. The men were arrested, tried and sentenced to seven years transportation. The judge said that he made he did this to make an example of them for the sake of the stability of the nation. The men became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs, and the judge's wishes were carried out. Support for the GNCTU fell dramatically and by August 1834 it had collapsed.\n\nTrades unions between 1835 and 1850 \nThe orthodox view is that trade unionism virtually stopped for the next 15 years after the collapse of the GNCTU, with many workers becoming involved in the alternative reforms adopted by Chartism. However, in the skilled trades unions were flourishing, with trade unions having an estimated 100,000 memberships in the early 1840s.\n\nCriticism \nUnions have been criticized for increasing the cost of workers. Because of this, it is said that fewer people will be hired. A union might also protect workers an employer feels are not productive enough. For example, many unions protect workers who have worked for a job for a long time from being punished or fired, even if new workers are faster.\n\nSome unions are also tied to organized crime, political corruption, or even tied to the employers of the workers they represent.\n\nReferences\n\nRelating page \nFreedom of assembly","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":209,"dup_dump_count":91,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":5,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":8,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":5,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":51913,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trades%20union","title":"Trades union","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Analisa faktor nya\u00e9ta t\u00e9hnik statistik nu aslina tina psikologi matematis. Ilahar dipak\u00e9 dina elmu sosial jeung marketing, manajem\u00e9n produk, ris\u00e9t operasi, sarta elmu praktis s\u00e9j\u00e9nna nu merlukeun wilangan data anu loba. Maksudna keur manggihkeun pola di antara variasi nilai sabarabaha variabel. Hal ieu dilakukeun ku jalan ngabangkitkeun dimensi jieunan (disebut faktor) nu patali kacida kuatna jeung variabel nyata.\n\nAnalisis faktor dina pamasaran\n\nL\u00e9ngkah dasarna nya\u00e9ta:\n Identify the salient attributes consumers use to evaluate products in this category.\n Use quantitative marketing research techniques (such as surveys) to collect data from a sample of potential customers concerning their ratings of all the product attributes.\n Input the data into a statistical program and run the factor analysis procedure. The computer will yield a set of underlying attributes (or factors).\n Use these factors to construct perceptual maps and other product positioning devices.\n\nNgumpulkeun informasi \n\nThe data collection stage is usually done by marketing res\u00e9arch professionals. Survey questions ask the respondant to rate a product from one to five (or 1 to 7, or 1 to 10) on a range of attributes. Anywhere from five to twenty attributes are chosen. They could include things like: \u00e9ase of use, weight, accuracy, durability, colourfulness, price, or size. The attributes chosen will vary depending on the product being studied. The same question is asked about all the products in the study. The data for multiple products is codified and input into a statistical program such as SPSS or SAS.\n\nAnalisis \nThe analysis will isolate the underlying factors that explain the data. Factor analysis is an interdependence technique. The complete set of interdependent relationships are examined. There is no specification of either dependent variables, independent variables, or causality.  Factor analysis assumes that all the rating data on different attributes can be reduced down to a few important dimensions. This reduction is possible because the attributes are related. The rating given to any one attribute is partially the result of the influence of other attributes. The statistical algorithm deconstructs the rating (called a raw score) into its various components, and reconstructs the partial scores into underlying factor scores. The degree of correlation between the initial raw score and the final factor score is called a factor loading. There are two approaches to factor analysis: \"principal component analysis\" (the total variance in the data is considered); and \"common factor analysis\" (the common variance is considered).\n\nThe use of principal components in a semantic space can vary somewhat because the components may only \"predict\" but not \"map\" to the vector space.  This produces a statistical principle component use where the most salient words or themes represent the preferred Basis\n\nKapunjulan\n both objective and subjective attributes can be used\n it is fairly \u00e9asy to do, inexpensive, and accurate\n it is based on direct inputs from customers\n there is flexibilty in naming and using dimensions\n\nKalemahan\n usefulness depends on the res\u00e9archers ability to develop a complete and accurate set of product attributes - If important attributes are missed the procedure is valueless.\n naming of the factors can be difficult - multiple attributes can be highly correlated with no app\u00e9arent r\u00e9ason.\n factor analysis will always produce a pattern between variables, no matter how random.\n\nanalisis faktor dina psikom\u00e9trika\n\nSajarah\n\nCharles Sp\u00e9arman pioneered the use of factor analysis in the field of psychology, m\u00e9asuring the intelligence of children in a village school.  During his testing, he discovered a high correlation between all scores on the tests.  Sp\u00e9arman believed that the empirically observed correlation was less than the true correlation between two test subjects.  Using a correctional formula devised from knowledge of the degree of the unreliability of the observed factors, he discovered a perfect correlation between all kinds of intelligence.  This led to the postulation of a general intelligence, or g, that is innate in all humans.  Sp\u00e9arman went on to test the th\u00e9ory of specialized intelligence, or s.  S, supposedly, d\u00e9als with specific ar\u00e9as, such as logic or verbal ability.  According to his th\u00e9ory, all tasks require some use of g and an s factor, so it could be concluded that som\u00e9one with a high g will perform well on another test for g.\n\nRaymond Cattell expanded on Sp\u00e9arman's id\u00e9a of a two-factor th\u00e9ory of intelligence after performing his own tests and factor analysis. He used a multi-factor th\u00e9ory to explain intelligence.  Cattell's th\u00e9ory addressed alternate factors in intellectual development, including motivation and psychology.  Cattell also developed several mathematical methods for adjusting psychometric graphs, such as his \"scree\" test and similarity coefficients.  His res\u00e9arch l\u00e9ad to the development of his th\u00e9ory of crystallized and fluid intelligence, in which crystallized is a set memory and reflexive actions, and fluid is the ability for a person to adjust or r\u00e9ason (think on their feet).  Cattell was a strong advocate of factor analysis and psychometrics.  He believed that all th\u00e9ory should be derived from res\u00e9arch, which supports the continued use of empirical observation and objective testing to study human intelligence. All of their res\u00e9arch, of course, is based on the id\u00e9a that intelligence is m\u00e9asur\u00e9able.\n\nAplikasi dina psikologi\nFactor analysis has been used in the study of human intelligence as a method for comparing the outcomes of (hopefully) objective tests and to construct matrices to define correlations between these outcomes, as well as finding the factors for these results.  The field of psychology that m\u00e9asures human intelligence using quantitative testing in this way is known as psychometrics (psycho=mental, metrics=m\u00e9asurement).\n\nKapunjulan\n Offers a much more objective method of testing intelligence in humans\n Allows for a satisfactory comparison between the results of intelligence tests\n Provides support for th\u00e9ories that would be difficult to prove otherwise\n\nKalemahan\n \"...each orientation is equally acceptable mathematically.  But different factorial theories proved to differ as much in terms of the orientations of factorial axes for a given solution as in terms of anything else, so that model fitting did not prove to be useful in distinguishing among theories.\" (Sternberg, 1977).  This m\u00e9ans that even though all rotations are mathematically equal, they all come up with different results, and it is impossible to judge the proper rotation.\n \"[Raymond Cattell] believed that factor analysis was 'a tool that could be applied to the study of behavior and ... might yield results with an objectivity and reliability rivaling those of the physical sciences (Stills, p. 114).'\"    In other words, one's gathering of data would have to be perfect and unbiased, which will probably never happen.\n Interpreting factor analysis is based on using a \"heuristic\", which is a solution that is \"convenient even if not absolutely true\" (Richard B. Darlington). More than one interpretation can be made of the same data factored the same way.\n\nBibliograpi\nCharles Sp\u00e9arman. Retrieved July 22, 2004, from http:\/\/www.indiana.edu\/~intell\/spearman.shtml \nFactor Analysis. (2004). Retrieved July 22, 2004, from http:\/\/comp9.psych.cornell.edu\/Darlington\/factor.htm\nFactor Analysis. Retrieved July 23, 2004, from http:\/\/www2.chass.ncsu.edu\/garson\/pa765\/factor.htm \nRaymond Cattell. Retrieved July 22, 2004, from http:\/\/www.indiana.edu\/~intell\/rcattell.shtml \nSternberg, R.J.(1990). The g\u00e9ographic metaphor. In R.J. Sternberg, Metaphors of mind: Conceptions of the nature of intelligence (pp.\u00a085\u2013111). New York: Cambridge. \nStills, D.L. (Ed.). (1989). International encyclopedia of the social sciences: Biographical supplement (Vol. 18). New York: Macmillan.\n\nTempo oge\n product positioning\n perceptual mapping\n marketing research\n product management\n list of marketing topics\n Recomendation system\n\nPsikom\u00e9trika","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":54,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":1405,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analisis%20faktor","title":"Analisis faktor","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Palazzo Pitti (in English sometimes called the Pitti Palace) is a palace in Florence, Italy. It is from the Renaissance period. The palace was bought by the Medici family in 1549. It became the main home of the ruling families of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. It was the centre of government for the 300 years that Tuscany was a monarchy. Later the palace was used as a base by Napoleon. During the Risorgimento, for a short time it was the royal palace of the newly united Italy.\n\nThe palace and its contents were given to the Italian people by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1919. Its doors were opened to the public as one of Florence's largest art galleries. It is the largest museum complex in Florence. It is divided into several main galleries or museums: the Palatine Gallery, the Royal Apartments, the Gallery of Modern Art, the Silver Museum, the Porcelain Museum, the Costume Gallery and the Carriages Museum.\n\nBehind the Pitti palace there is the Boboli's Garden. It is a historical park visited every year by about 800,000 tourists. The park is famous for the beauty of the flowers and for the very old sculptures.\n\nBuildings and structures in Florence\nPalaces in Italy\nFormer royal residences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":323802,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Palazzo%20Pitti","title":"Palazzo Pitti","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Flavour or flavor (US English) is the main quality of anything which affects the taste. When someone remarks on the flavor of something they are trying to describe the specific way something tastes.\n\nFlavor can also be used to describe the act of adding a taste alteration (to change the taste) to something. This is usually done by adding spices or sugars, though in processed food there are oftentimes artificial (fake) flavors. A person who develops natural and\/or artificial food additives is called a flavourist or flavorist (US English).\n\nFood and drink\nCharacteristics\n\nhu:Aroma","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-21":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":3940,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flavor","title":"Flavor","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The azuki bean is a type of reddish-brown colored bean. It can also be spelled adzuki. The bean is grown in East Asia and the Himalayas. It is often boiled in sugar to make a red bean paste. This paste is used in Chinese, Korean, and Japanese cooking. Azuki beans are eaten in many places in the world.  Especially, azuki beans are used in sweet meals, snacks and dishes in Japan, China, Korea and Vietnam. Azuki beans have a long and varied history and there are many recipes.\n\nHistory and origin \n\nAzuki beans are very famous red beans in Japan.  Excavations suggest that people have been eating Azuki beans since the Jomon period.  At that time, Azuki beans were called \"shozu\". \n\nAzuki beans have been grown since the Yayoi  period.  The first time the word \"Azuki\" was used was in the book \"Koziki\".  Old Japanese said \"Aka\" for red.  And Azuki beans were called \"zuki\" because  Azuki beans get soft when they are boiled.  \"Aka\" plus \"zuki\" is \"Azuki\" and this is the origin of Azuki bean's name.  Another Azuki beans has many origins.\n\nAzuki beans are red, so many old people believed Azuki beans were a good luck charm. Azuki beans were used in many events and ceremonies in Japan, China and Korea.  In the Edo period, people made rice mixed with Azuki         \nbeans.  This was called sekihan and many people gave sekihan at ceremonies. Azuki beans were used as medicine, because Azuki beans are nutritious.  Now many people eat sekihan when there are ceremonies in Japan. In addition Azuki beans are used in many Japanese cakes, Many sweets use Azuki raw materials for the taste and colour.  So Azuki beans are closely related to Japanese life from ancient times.\n\nAzuki bean jam\nAzuki beans make bean jam. A sweet porridge of boiled and crushed azuki beans are eaten with rice-flour dumplings. Oval-shaped sweets are made from glutinous rice and covered with azuki bean. Bean-jam pancakes and bean-jam filled buns are also popular snacks. Azuki beans are also used in pillows and beanbags.\n\nRecipe \nFirst, the azuki beans are boiled until the azuki skin stretches. The beans are then put into a perforated basket. Next, the azuki are boiled again for a short time to remove harshness. They are again put into perforated basket to drain. While they are draining, a big pan for steaming is prepared. The azuki are put in the pan and covered with a lid. The azuki beans are steamed and then heat is turned off. After steaming you have azuki bean mash, which is then dried on a cloth. The next step is putting them back in a pan to bring to a hot temperature. The azuki are taken out of the pan which is hot from flame. Sugar is added.  The sugar and azuki are mixed and the water from the azuki is left. Finally, the azuki is cooled. When the beans are cold, it is finished.\n\nAzuki bean jam is used in many foods. For example, a fish-shaped waffle is filled with azuki bean jam. Azuki bean jam foods are famous in Japan, and they are eaten by many Japanese.\n\nBeans","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":60,"dup_details":{"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1}},"id":45457,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Azuki%20bean","title":"Azuki bean","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An institution is a social structure in which people cooperate and which influences the behavior of people and the way they live.\n\nAn institution has a purpose. Institutions are permanent, which means that they do not end when one person is gone. An institution has rules and can enforce rules of human behavior. The word \"institution\" can be used in two ways. It can mean a very broad idea, or a very \"specific\" (narrow) one. For example: \n Government is an institution in the broad sense. Westminster Parliament is an institution in the specific sense. \n Education is an institution in the broad sense. Harvard University is an institution in the specific sense.\n\nInstitutions, in the broad sense, are found in every society. The way that each institution works is different in different cultures. Some important institutions are: \n Marriage- This is how society protects itself by controlling the way people live together, have children and care for them. \n Education- A society controls how young ones are prepared to be useful adult members of society. \n Kinship- Society controls how people who are related, or not related, should act to each other. This includes inheritance. \n Religion- Societies have ways in which people's religious beliefs are celebrated.\n Law- Societies decide what is right and wrong, and what punishments there are for doing wrong. \n Trade- Societies have ways of controlling the way food and other goods pass from one person to another. \n Defence- Societies set up institutions to protect themselves against attack.\n\nSome societies have many institutions in the \"specific\" sense. These societies have an organised government, schools, hospitals, churches, clubs, armies, markets, courts and places for entertainment. Some societies have very few of these things, but this does not mean that there are no \"institutions\". The way in which the people relate to each other may have just as many \"controls\" as in a society with schools, markets and a government. An example of a society that has lots of \"specific\" institutions is Western Europe. \n \nHistorians look at institutions to find differences between eras or periods. They sometimes judge political and military events by the effect that they had on institutions.\n\nSources \n\n Berger, P. L. and T. Luckmann (1966), The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Anchor Books, Garden City, NY.\n Greif, Avner (2006), Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade , Cambridge University Press.\n North, D. (1990), Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.\n Schotter, A. (1981), The Economic Theory of Social Institutions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.\n\nRelated pages \n State\n Establishment\n\nOther websites \n International Society for New Institutional Economics\n Institutional reform\n\nReferences \n\nSocial sciences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":60256,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institution","title":"Institution","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Lied (pronounced \"leet\") is the German word for \"song\" (the plural is Lieder \u2013 pronounced \"leader\").  \n\nThe word Lied is used in music to describe the songs that were written by German-speaking composers of classical music.  Songs composed by classical composers are sometimes called \"art songs\".\n\nLieder are normally songs for a singer with piano accompaniment.  They were mostly composed in the 19th century which was the period known as the Romantic period.  The most famous composers of Lieder were Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Hugo Wolf and Richard Strauss.\n\nIn German culture the Lied as an art song goes back to the Middle Ages.  Walther von der Vogelweide was a 12th-13th century minnesinger who composed and sang songs for important people at the royal court.  Like most minnesinger, he was a poet as well as a composer, writing words for his own songs.\nThe Lied in the Romantic period was usually written by two different people: the poet wrote the words and then the composer \"set the words\" to music.  19th century composers mostly took great care to choose good poetry for their songs.  The poetry was often by famous poets such as Goethe and Schiller.\nAlthough most Lieder were composed in the Romantic period, the beginnings were there in the Classical music period.  Mozart wrote a song called Das Veilchen (The Violet) and Beethoven wrote several songs.\n\nIt was Schubert who was to be the greatest of all Lieder composers.  Schubert wrote over 600 songs.  Very often he wrote in a form which had been used by Walther von der Vogelweide: three verses of which the first two have the same music (A-A-B, or as von der Vogelweide called them: \"Stollen, Stollen, Abgesang\").  Other songs of his are what is known as \"durchkomponiert\" (\"through composed\").  Here each verse is different, so that the composer can express the words of each verse with different music.  The wonderful thing about Schubert's songs is the way in which the piano accompaniments help the voice and show the meaning of the words. The piano was a fairly new instrument at the time and could do things that would have been impossible on the harpsichord.   One of his earliest songs is the famous Erlk\u00f6nig (Erlking).  The piano accompaniment is very difficult to play because the right hand has continuous repeated octaves which describe the galloping of the horse in the wild, stormy night.  Grettchen am Spinnrade is a song which sets a poem from Goethe's Faust.  The young girl is sitting at the spinning-wheel thinking of her lover.  The piano has a rippling accompaniment which sounds like the gentle clatter of the spinning-wheel.  At the moment when the girl imagines her lover's kiss the piano part comes to a stop, then gradually starts up again as the girl wakes up to the world around her.\n\nComposers often composed groups of songs which belong together.  These are called a \"song cycle\" (\"Liederkreis\" in German).  Schubert wrote two long ones: Die Winterreise (The Winter Journey) and Die sch\u00f6ne M\u00fcllerin (The Miller's beautiful daughter).  Both are about love affairs which end sadly. \n\nRobert Schumann wrote many fine songs.  He was a pianist before he became a composer, so it is not surprising that the piano parts of his songs are at least as important as the voice part.   His song-cycle Dichterliebe (Poet's love) contains some of his best songs. They often have a dream-like atmosphere.  He especially liked setting words by the poets Joseph von Eichendorff and Heinrich Heine.\n\nJohannes Brahms always made the singer's part more important than the piano part.  He learned a lot by studying Schubert's songs and wrote some very famous Lieder.  One of his best is the humorous Vergebliches St\u00e4ndchen (Serenade in vain).  His Four Serious Songs are very powerful.  His famous Wiegenlied (Lullaby), a tune which everybody knows, is one of his songs.\n\nHugo Wolf is known almost only for his songs.  They are very dramatic and he used some unusual harmonies which he had learned by listening to Wagner's music.  Some of Wolf's songs are very short, he says a lot in a short space of time.  His Italian song book and Spanish song book have some of his best songs.\n\nRichard Wagner and Gustav Mahler both wrote wonderful Lieder, although they are mostly with orchestral accompaniment.  Mahler's songs are inspired by folksong.  He even uses them in his symphonies.  Das Lied von der Erde is a song cycle for two singers (mezzo soprano and tenor) and orchestra.\n\nRichard Strauss is one of the last great Lieder composers.  His Four last songs (with orchestra) seem to be saying \"goodbye\" to a great period of music history.\n\nSong forms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":50192,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lied","title":"Lied","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An actor is a person who acts, or has a role (a part) in a movie, television show, play, or radio show. Actors may be professional or not. Sometimes actors only sing or dance, or sometimes they only work on radio. A woman actor is actress, but the word \"actor\" is used for both men and women when referring to a group. Actors are also known as 'thespians' because of the first known Greek actor 'Thespis'.\n\nHistory \nThe first time we know an actor worked was in 534 B.C. The changes in calendar between then and now make the year uncertain. This actor was called Thespis and he was Greek. The place where the play happened was called the Theatre Dionysus in Athens, and he won a competition. He was the first person to speak words as a character.  This was a big change in storytelling. Before then, people sang and danced stories, but no one had been a person in the story. Today we call actors \"thespians\" because of Thespis.\n\nWomen \nIn the past, the name \"actor\" was only for men. Women only began performing often in the 17th century.  People called them \"actresses\".   In the ancient world and in the Middle Ages, people thought it was bad (shameful) for a woman to act.\n\nToday, the word \"actor\" is for both men and women, because some people think the name \"actress\" is sexist. But people also use the word actress very often.\n\nSwapped Roles\n\nActresses in Men's Roles \nWomen actors sometimes act the roles of young boys, because in some ways a woman is more similar to a boy than a man is. For example, a woman usually plays the role of Peter Pan. In pantomime, a sort of play for children (not the same as mime), the most important young man is also a woman. Opera has some \"pants roles\" which women traditionally sing. These women are usually mezzo-sopranos, which means they sing with a voice that is high but not very high. Examples are Hansel in , and Cherubino in The Marriage of Figaro.\n\nMary Pickford played the part of \"Little Lord Fauntleroy\" in the first film version of the book. Linda Hunt won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in The Year of Living Dangerously, in which she played the part of a man.\n\nIn comic theatre and film, people often use a man for a woman's part, or a woman for a man's part \u2013 this has a long history. Most of Shakespeare's comedies have examples of this. Both Dustin Hoffman and Robin Williams were in popular comedy films where they played most scenes as men in women's clothes, pretending to be women.\n\nActors in Women's Roles \nIn the time of Shakespeare, and earlier, all roles in an English play were played by men, meaning even characters such as Juliet, Lady Macbeth, and Cleopatra were first played by men or boys.  After the English Restoration women were allowed to perform on-stage.\n\nMore recently, men have played female roles as a type of humor. Movies with this role reversal include Mrs. Doubtfire, Tootsie, Big Momma's House, Hairspray, and The Nutty Professor starring Eddie Murphy.\n\nVoice acting \nVoice acting is a special type of acting. It is most commonly used in animation for both television and movies. Voice actors are the people who make the voices for the characters. They may be the narrator in non-animated works.\n\nTypes \nActors working in theatre, film, and television have to learn different skills. Skills that work well in one type of acting may not work well in another type of acting.\n\nIn theatre \nTo act on stage, actors need to learn the stage directions that appear in the  script, such as \"Stage Left\" and \"Stage Right\". These directions are based on the actor's point of view as he or she stands on the stage facing the audience. Actors also have to learn the meaning of the stage directions \"Upstage\" (away from the audience) and \"Downstage\" (towards the audience)\n\nTheatre actors need to learn blocking, which is \"...where and how an actor moves on the stage during a play.\"\nMost scripts specify some blocking. The Director will also give instructions on blocking, such as crossing the stage or picking up and using a prop.\n\nTheatre actors need to learn stage combat, which is simulated fighting on stage. Actors may have to simulate \"hand-to-hand [fighting] or with sword[-fighting].\" Actors are coached by fight directors, who help them to learn the choreographed sequence of fight actions.\n\nIn movies \nD. W. Griffith first developed acting that would \"suit the cinema rather than the theater.\" He realized that theatrical acting did not look good on film. Griffith had his actors and actresses to go through weeks of movie acting training.\n\nMovie actors have to learn to get used to and be comfortable with a camera being in front of them. They need to learn to find and stay on their \"mark.\" This is a position on the floor marked with tape. This position is where the lights and camera focus are best. Movie actors also need to learn how to prepare well and perform well on screen tests. Screen tests are a filmed audition of part of the script.\n\n\"Unlike the theater actor, who gets to develop a character during...a two- or three-hour performance, the film actor lacks continuity, forcing him or her to come to all the scenes (often shot in reverse order in which they'll ultimately appear) with a character already fully developed.\"\n\n\"Since film captures even the smallest gesture and magnifies it..., cinema demands a less flamboyant and stylized bodily performance from the actor than does the theater.\" \"The performance of emotion is the most difficult aspect of film acting to master: ...the film actor must rely on subtle facial ticks, quivers, and tiny lifts of the eyebrow to create a believable character.\" Some theatre stars \"...have made the theater-to-cinema transition quite successfully (Olivier, Glenn Close, and Julie Andrews, for instance), others have not...\"\n\nIn television \n\"On a television set, there are typically several cameras angled at the set. Actors who are new to on-screen acting can get confused about which camera to look into.\"  TV actors need to learn to use lav mics (Lavaliere microphones). They need to understand the concept of \"frame.\" \"The term frame refers to the area that the camera's lens is capturing.\"\n\nReferences \n\n \nEntertainment occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":420,"dup_dump_count":91,"dup_details":{"2024-30":4,"2024-26":4,"2024-22":6,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":2,"2023-50":5,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":8,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":7,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":10,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":8,"2022-05":6,"2021-49":6,"2021-43":8,"2021-39":10,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":11,"2021-21":8,"2021-17":10,"2021-10":11,"2021-04":6,"2020-50":7,"2020-45":9,"2020-40":9,"2020-34":8,"2020-29":10,"2020-24":8,"2020-16":7,"2020-10":5,"2020-05":12,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":11,"2019-43":10,"2019-39":8,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":11,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":8,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":8,"2019-09":4,"2019-04":8,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":4,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":5,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":6371,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actor","title":"Actor","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Rural areas are areas which are not towns or cities. They are often farming or agricultural areas. These areas are sometimes called \"the country\" or \"countryside\". People who live \"in the country\" often live in small villages, but they might also live somewhere where there are no other houses nearby.\n\nRural is the opposite of urban, which means places such as cities where buildings and places where people work and live are all close together.\n\nMany people who live in cities like to go to the country to relax. They go there for recreation, often for their holidays, or to read.\n\nIn the U.S. and Angola the term \"rural area\" technically describes a place that has less than 500 inhabitants per square mile.\n\nHuman geography\nUrban and regional sciences\n\noc:Campagne","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":185,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":17634,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rural%20area","title":"Rural area","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Barn-owls (family Tytonidae) are one of the two families of owls.  The other is the true owls, Strigidae. They are medium to large sized owls with large heads and heart-shaped faces. They have long, strong legs with powerful talons.\n\nThe barn owls are a wide ranging family.  They are not found in northern North America, Saharan Africa and large areas of Asia. They live in a wide range of habitats from deserts to forests, and from temperate latitudes to the tropics.\n\nThe barn-owls' main characteristic is the heart-shaped facial disc, formed by stiff feathers. The feathers help to amplify and locate the source of sounds when the bird hunts. Adaptations to the wing feathers eliminate sound caused by flying. This helps both the owl's hearing, and keeps the prey unaware of the owl. To summarise: the owl hunts mainly at dusk and night-time. Its uses sound to detect prey movement: its hearing is sensitive, and its wings are almost silent.\n\nSpecies\nGenus Tyto\n Greater sooty-owl, T. tenebricosa\n Lesser sooty-owl, T. multipunctata\n Australian masked owl, T. novaehollandiae\n Cave-nesting masked owl, T. novaehollandiae troughtoni - disputed; probably extinct (1960s)\n Golden masked owl, T. aurantia\n Lesser masked owl, T. sororcula\n Buru masked owl, T. (sororcula) cayelii - possibly extinct (mid-20th century?)\n Manus masked owl, T. manusi\n Taliabu masked owl, T. nigrobrunnea\n Minahassa masked owl, T. inexspectata\n Sulawesi owl, T. rosenbergii\n Peleng masked owl, T. rosenbergii pelengensis - probably extinct (mid-20th century)\n Common barn owl, T. alba\n Eastern barn Owl, T. (alba) delicatula\n Ashy-faced owl, T. glaucops\n Red owl T. soumagnei\n African grass owl T. capensis\n Australasian grass owl T. longimembris\n\nGenus Phodilus\n Oriental bay owl P. badius\n Samar bay owl P. (badius) riverae\n Congo bay owl, P. prigoginei - sometimes placed in Tyto\n\nFossil genera. The fossil record of the barn-owls goes back to the Eocene.\n Nocturnavis (Late Eocene\/Early Oligocene) - includes \"Bubo\" incertus\n Necrobyas (Late Eocene\/Early Oligocene - Late Miocene) - includes \"Bubo\" arvernensis and Paratyto\n Selenornis (Late Eocene\/Early Oligocene of Quercy, France) - includes \"Asio\" henrici\n Prosybris (Late Eocene\/Early Oligocene of Quercy?  Early Miocene of France)\n\nReferences\n Bruce M.D. 1999. Family Tytonidae (Barn-owls). In: del Hoyo J.; Elliott A. & Sargatal J. (eds): Handbook of birds of the world, Volume 5: Barn-owls to Hummingbirds: 34-75, plates 1-3. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. \nSteadman, David William 2006. Extinction and biogeography of tropical Pacific island birds. University of Chicago Press. .\n\nStrigiformes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":158,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"unknown":6,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":7}},"id":361143,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tytonidae","title":"Tytonidae","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A concert (as in a \"concert tour\") is a performance in which a musician or many musicians play music together to a group of listeners (called an audience). In the case of a concert of classical music there may be an orchestra. There is often an important visual element to the performance, such as with a rock concert. However, if acting out a story is an important part of the performance, then this is called \"musical theater\" or \"opera\" but some concerts have dramatic, theatrical music, with lights and special effects. Informal names for a concert include \"show\" or sometimes, \"gig\" for musicians who play in lots of different concerts, with different groups. A concert tour is a set of concerts where the performers travel to different cities or towns.\n\nThe performers at a concert are usually raised above the level of the audience on a stage. Concerts may be held in concert halls which are built for the purpose, or they may be held in any other suitable large building such as a school hall, a nightclub, a barn or a large house or castle. Some concerts are given to very large audiences in the open air. They may take place in a field or in a stadium. The music for these \"open-airs\" is usually amplified by loudspeakers so that large audiences can hear it.\n\nA concert given by just one performer (or perhaps two) is usually called a recital.\n\nA group of concerts in one place or in one area that takes place for several days may be called a \"festival\". Examples are: The Proms, the Edinburgh Festival, the Glastonbury Festival etc.\n\nBefore the days of recording, a concert would have been the only opportunity most people would have of hearing concerts given by groups.\n\nUsually people who go to a concert have to pay an admission charge. The money that is made from the ticket sales will usually go to paying the performing artistes, producers, and organisers. However, there are also benefit concerts where either the proceeds (all the ticket money) or profits (the money earned) will go to charity. Tickets for concerts can often be bought at the box-office of the concert hall or bought online. Sometimes concerts are free.\n\nTypes of concert\n\nThe nature of a concert will vary by musical genre and the individual performers. Concerts by a small jazz combo or small bluegrass band may have the same order of program, mood, and volume, but vary in music and dress. In a similar way, a particular musician, band, or genre of music might attract concert attendees with similar dress, hairstyle, and behavior. For example, the hippies of the 60s often toted long hair (sometimes in dread lock form), sandals and inexpensive clothing made of natural fibers. The regular attendees to a concert venue might also have a recognizable style, comprising that venue's \"scene\".\n\nTheatrical\n\nSome performers or groups put on very elaborate and expensive affairs, with parts of the show being similar to a theater performance. In order to create a memorable and exciting atmosphere and increase the spectacle, artists will have additional entertainment devices within their concerts. These tend to include: elaborate stage lighting; an image-magnification (IMAG) system and\/or pre-recorded video; inflatables, artwork or other set pieces; various special effects, such as theatrical smoke and fog and pyrotechnics; and unusual costumes or wardrobe. Some singers, especially in genres of popular music, augment the sound of their concerts with pre-recorded accompaniment, back-up dancers, and even broadcast vocal tracks of the singer's own voice. Activities which may take place during these concerts include dancing, sing-alongs, and moshing. Some performers well known for including these elements in their performances include: Pink Floyd, Jean Michel Jarre, Sarah Brightman and KISS.\n\nFestivals\n\nConcerts involving a greater number of artists, especially those that last for days, are known as festivals. Unlike other concerts, which typically remain in a single genre of music or work of a particular artist, festivals often cover a broad scope of music and arts. Due to their size, festivals are almost always held outdoors. A few examples of the hundreds of festivals include: Bayreuth Festival, Big Day Out, Coachella, Falls Festival, Glastonbury Festival, Mostly Mozart Festival, Newport Jazz Festival, Oxegen, Parachute Music Festival, Rock In Rio, Rockwave Festival,  Salzburg Festival, Summer Sonic Festival, Tanglewood Music Festival, Woodstock Music and Art Festival, the Warped Tour, or the Umbria Jazz Festival.\n\nConcert tour\n\nA concert tour is a series of concerts by an artist or group of artists in different cities or locations. Often, concert tours are named, to differentiate different tours by the same artist and associate a specific tour with a particular album or product (for example: Michael Jackson's Bad Tour). Especially in the popular music world, such tours can become large-scale enterprises that last for several months or even years. They are seen by thousands or millions of people, and bring in millions of dollars (or the equivalent) in ticket revenues.\n\nDifferent segments of longer concert tours are known as \"legs\". The different legs of a tour are denoted in different ways, dependent on the artist and type of tour, but the most common means of separating legs are dates (especially if there is a long break at some point), countries and\/or continents, or different opening acts. In the largest concert tours, it is becoming more common for different legs to employ separate touring production crews and equipment, local to each geographical region. Concert tours are often managed on the local level by concert promoters or by performing arts presenters.\n\nRevenue\nWhile admission to some concerts is free, charging for tickets is very common. Historically, concerts were the main source of revenue for musicians. Revenue from ticket sales typically goes to the performing artists, producers, venue and organizers. In the case of benefit concerts, a portion of profits will often go towards a charitable organization.\n\nAdditional revenue is also often raised through in-concert advertising, from free local concerts for local sponsorships to sponsorships from corporations during major tours, such as 2009's \"Vans' Warped Tour Presented by AT&T\". Both Vans and AT&T would have paid significant amounts to have their company names included at the forefront in all marketing material for the Warped Tour.\n\nConcessions and merchandise are also often sold during and after concerts, often by the venue in the case of the former, and by the performing band or artist in the case of the latter.\n\nThe highest-grossing concert tour of all time is The Rolling Stones' A Bigger Bang Tour which earned approximately $558 million in between 2005 and 2007. The highest earning tour by a solo artist is the Sticky & Sweet Tour by pop artist Madonna, which earned $408 million in 2008 and 2009.\n\nRelated pages\n Concert hall\n Music festival\n Audience\n Applause\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n  National Memorial Day Concert - PBS webpage for U.S. concert on Memorial Day","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":169,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":4,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":5,"2021-21":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":6,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":23103,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concert","title":"Concert","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The ensign of the United States is the flag of the United States when worn as an ensign (a type of maritime flag identifying nationality, usually flown from the stern of a ship or boat, or from an installation or facility of the United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, United States Coast Guard or the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration ashore).  International maritime law\u2014see International Treaty on Law of the Sea, articles 91 and 92\u2014provides that vessels have a \"national character\" and thus should display a flag (ensign) that corresponds to this national character, especially when in international or foreign waters. Vessels that are formally documented under the federal vessel documentation act, vessels owned by government bodies in the United States, and vessels in the U.S. military unquestionably have U.S. national character, and thus properly hoist a U.S. ensign to show their national character.  Vessels that are numbered by the states (see 46 USC section 411) and small, non-registered craft owned by U.S. citizens and not registered in other countries may also hoist a U.S. ensign to show their national character.\n\nThe U.S. Yacht Ensign (a variation of the national ensign;  see below) is often used in place of the national flag by U.S. pleasure craft when operating within U.S. waters; this flag was legally required for licensed yachts from 1848 to 1980, and the practice continues among all U.S. pleasure craft in U.S. waters by longstanding historical use and custom.  Additionally, a few smaller pleasure craft operated by members of the United States Power Squadrons will fly the U.S. Power Squadrons flag as an ensign in inland waters in lieu of the national flag (see below). All vessels of U.S. national character should display the national ensign when operating in international and non-U.S. waters.\n\nMilitary ensigns\n\nThe naval ensign and its first salute \n\nThe Grand Union Flag was the de facto first U.S. naval ensign. It was first raised aboard Continental Navy Commodore Esek Hopkins' flagship  on the Delaware River on December 3, 1775; John Paul Jones, then the ship's senior lieutenant, personally claimed this honor.\n\nThe current \"Stars and Stripes\" design was first adopted when the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution of June 14, 1777: \"Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation.\"  Subsequent flag acts have revised the design as new states joined the union.\n\nDenmark and the Netherlands were the first countries to salute the Grand Union flag, when gun salutes by U.S. ships were returned by officials in the West Indies in late 1776: on Danish St. Croix in October, and on Dutch St. Eustatius in November. (Though later, the better documented St. Eustatius incident involving the  is traditionally regarded as the \"first salute\".) France was the first country to salute the Stars and Stripes, when a fleet off the French mainland returned a gun salute by Captain John Paul Jones commanding  on February 14, 1778.\n\nIn the 19th century the ensigns were quite large; the biggest ensign in 1870 measured . By the early 20th century, as warships took on distinctive forms and could no longer be easily mistaken for merchantmen at a distance, ensigns began to shrink and today are a fraction of their earlier size \u2014 the largest ensign for daily use on ships is now .\n\nDuring the 19th century, for its smaller-sized ensigns, the U.S. Navy used a 13-star flag which became known as \"boat flag\" due to its predominant use on boats (i.e., launches, gigs and tenders). The Navy appears to have started this practice in the 1850s and is formally documented in the Navy Regulations of 1864. The reason for the lesser number of stars was so that the stars in a smaller size flag would have greater visibility at a distance. Because they flew smaller-sized ensigns, the U.S. Navy's first submarines and destroyers in the early 20th century also used the 13-star ensigns.  In 1912, President President Taft formally recognized the Navy's longstanding use of the 13-star ensign in Executive Order 1637, which defined the flag's precise dimensions.  The \"boat flags'\" formal recognition lasted just four more years however, as President Wilson acting through Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels discontinued the practice in 1916 with Executive Order 2390, after which all ensigns were supposed to have the full complement of stars.  However, some of the flags remained in the supply system until the 1950s.\n\nCoast Guard Ensign and the Customs Ensign\n\nThe United States Coast Guard flies a unique ensign to show that it has the authority to stop, board, examine, and seize vessels.  The U.S. Customs Service flies a very similar flag, but it lacks the badge in the fly. These flags have their origins in a flag that was created in 1799 that was, at that time, intended to be used as an ensign and was in fact so used (i.e., a full standing flag of national character). Today, however, these two flags are called \"ensigns\" but they are flown in conjunction with, and subordinate to, the U.S. national ensign on Coast Guard and on Customs vessels. Most small craft operated by the U.S. Coast Guard routinely display both the national ensign and Coast Guard Ensign.\n\nThese two present-day flags had their origins in a flag that designed by Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott for use by the Revenue Cutter Service in August 1799. On August 1, 1799, Secretary of the Treasury, Oliver Wolcott, issued an order announcing that in pursuance of authority from the President, the distinguishing ensign and pennant for the Cutter Service would consist of, \"16 perpendicular stripes, alternate red and white, the union of the ensign to be the arms of the United States in a dark blue on a white field.\" From 1799 onwards, this flag was used as the national ensign in Revenue Cutters and at the same time, was also flown over Customs Houses ashore. In June 1910, however, President William H. Taft ordered that the plain ensign continue to be flown over Customs Houses ashore, and ordered that the Revenue Cutter Service add their department's emblem to the fly of the ensign in order to distinguish between the differing two branches. The order said: \"By virtue of the authority vested in me under the provisions of Sec. 2764 of the revised Statutes, I hereby prescribe that the distinguishing flag now used by vessels of the Revenue Cutter Service be marked by the distinctive emblem of that service, in blue and white, placed on a line with the lower edge of the union, and over the center of the seventh vertical red stripe from the mast of said flag, the emblem to cover a horizontal space of three stripes. This change to be made as soon as practicable.\"\n\nFrom 1910 onwards, the U.S. Customs Service has continued to use the plain version of the ensign, while the Revenue Cutter Service (which became the Coast Guard) used the defaced version (version with the badge).\n\nThe U.S. Coast Guard inherited the \"badged\" version of the ensign when the Coast Guard came into being in 1915, and in 1927 the cutter badge was updated to use the Coast Guard's own emblem. The Coast Guard badge was slightly modified in 1966. The Coast Guard continues to use the \"badged\" or \"defaced\" version of the ensign, although it is now flown by Coast Guard cutters and facilities in conjunction with the U.S. national ensign, and not as a stand-alone ensign.\n\nThe design of both flags' (Customs and Coast Guard) cantons (i.e., the eagle and stars) was altered in 1951 to make them conform to \"the arms of the United States,\" as was specified in Wolcott's original design statement in 1799.\n\nCivilian ensigns\n\nStriped merchant ensign\nInformation about early U.S. civil ensigns is scant, but there is evidence that at the time of the American Revolution some U.S. merchant ships flew a horizontally striped flag of 13 alternating red and white stripes.  These flags with vertical stripes are similar to ones flown by the Sons of Liberty  (Such ensigns may also have served as early U.S. naval jacks in conjunction with the Grand Union Flag used as a naval ensign.)  In the early years of the United States, ensigns were not yet standardized, leading to number of known variations, such as the Serapis ensign used by John Paul Jones.\n\nYacht ensign\n\nA modification of the national flag and ensign but with a fouled anchor in a circle of thirteen stars in the canton, was created by Act of Congress in August 1848 as a flag to be used by licensed U.S. yachts. The design was recommended by the New York Yacht Club in 1849. Yachts eligible for the license were initially 20 net tons and over (later reduced to 15 net tons) and otherwise eligible to be enrolled as a U.S. vessel;  the license allowed the yacht to proceed from port to port without the formality of clearing customs.  The 1848 act used the word 'signal' to describe the flag that a licensed yacht would use to identify herself, and use of this flag was required by all licensed yachts (\"All such licensed yachts shall use a signal of the form, size, and colors prescribed by the Secretary of the Navy.\").  The Secretary of the Navy approved a modification of \"the American Ensign\" as the signal, and Treasury Decision No. 2727 (March 24, 1876) issued by the Treasury Department confirmed that the flag was to be used as an ensign (\"Licensed yachts are required by law to use the American ensign prescribed by the Secretary of the Navy.\"), and its use as an ensign was reiterated in Treasury Decision 9426 of June 11, 1889 (referring to the \"yacht ensign\").  While formally licensed yachts were legally required to fly this modification of the national ensign, unlicensed U.S. yachts also started flying this flag as their ensign, too, and eventually the U.S. Navy confirmed that it recognized this practice for all U.S. yachts.  In 1939, the Secretary of the Navy approved the ruling of the Judge Advocate General of the Navy \"...that a ship of the Navy should return a dip made by a yacht flying the yacht ensign and that the yacht ensign may properly be made the object of a hand salute to be rendered on boarding or leaving a yacht.\"\n\nThe legal requirement for licensed yachts to fly the Yacht Ensign that was part of United States statute (46 U.S.C. section 109) was repealed by the Vessel Documentation Act of 1980 (Public Law 96\u2013594), which removed several legal provisions pertaining to the by-then very rare category of \"licensed yachts\" and treated all documented recreational vessels the same.  Nevertheless, owing to its long usage by all U.S. yachts, as well as the fact that the freedom-from-clearance privilege first extended to \"licensed yachts\" in 1848 had long since been extended to all U.S. pleasure craft regardless of whether they are federally documented or state numbered (see 19 U.S.C. sec. 1441), the yacht ensign is widely flown by many U.S. yachts and pleasure boats in U.S. waters today, continuing a tradition that dates back to the mid-nineteenth century.  The states of Arkansas, Maryland, and Washington<ref>[http:\/\/www.secstate.wa.gov\/flag\/boats.aspx Use of the U.S. Ensign and Washington State Flag on Recreational Boats\"] from Washington Secretary of State website.  Retrieved March 5, 2007.<\/ref> have each adopted flag protocols which provide that the U.S. ensign \"and the U.S. Yacht Ensign, with a canton of 13 stars, are interchangeable on all types of recreational vessels while in national waters.\"  Similarly, the United States Power Squadrons' guide to flags and flag etiquette, prepared in consultation with the Coast Guard, Coast Guard Auxiliary, New York Yacht Club, and others, provides that the Yacht Ensign may be flown as the ensign by U.S. recreational boats of all types and sizes instead of the national ensign in domestic waters, but that the ordinary national ensign should be worn in international or foreign waters.\n\nPower Squadrons ensign\n\nThe United States Power Squadrons (or USPS) is a non-profit educational organization whose mission is to improve maritime safety and enjoyability through classes in seamanship, navigation, and other related subjects. In 1914, it adopted its own flag, which was then patented in 1916.  This flag may be worn as a signal flag on the signal hoist, typically in the starboard rigging.  Despite its name and the original intent of its designers, it was never recognized by the U.S. government or navy as a national ensign; however, some smaller boats will wear this flag in place of a national ensign, usually because they lack a mast and do not operate outside home waters. The U.S. Power Squadrons manual of flag etiquette states, \"The preferred location for flying the USPS ensign is the starboard yardarm or spreader halyard. It may be worn there day and night.\"\n\nState Maritime Flags\n\nIn April 1776, the Massachusetts Navy adopted, as its flag, a white field charged with a green pine tree and the motto \"An Appeal to Heaven.\"  In 1971 the motto was removed, and the flag was designated \"the naval and maritime flag of the Commonwealth\".\n\nMaine also has a separate ensign, which is rarely seen. It features symbols from the current flag and the older one, with a white field and green pine tree. The green pine tree has the seaman's anchor, and the words \"MAINE\" and \"DIRIGO\" around it.  Dirigo'' (Latin \"I direct\" or \"I lead\") is the state motto of Maine.\n\nMassachusetts and Maine are the only two states with their own maritime flags.  These flags are not \"ensigns\" in the true sense of the word because they are not flags of national character, and are not used as such;  instead, they are special versions of the state flag for use afloat.  The state laws that create them do not use the term \"ensign\" to describe them, but use the term \"flag\".  The Massachusetts law describes the flag as \"The naval and maritime flag of the commonwealth,\"  Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 2, \u00a7 3, while Maine's state law says:  \"The flag to be known as the merchant and marine flag of the State shall be of white, at the top of which in blue letters shall be the motto \"Dirigo\"; beneath the motto shall be the representation of a pine tree in green color\"  Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 1, \u00a7 207.  Although these flags are intended for use afloat, they are not ensigns and should not be called such.\n\nSee also\nFlags of the U.S. states#Current state ensigns\n\nReferences\n\nUnited States\nFlags of the United States\nMilitary flags of the United States","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":6,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6}},"id":3474910,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ensign%20of%20the%20United%20States","title":"Ensign of the United States","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Electromagnets are temporary and artificial magnets. They are magnets that are only magnetic when there is a coil of wire with electricity running through it. The coil of wire is called a solenoid. The strength of the magnet is proportional to the current flowing in the circuit.  The electricity running through the wire is called a current. The current is the flow of electrons, which are negatively charged particles. Electromagnets are used for a variety of purposes. In a simple example, an electromagnet can pick up pieces of iron, nickel, and cobalt.\n\nElectromagnets can be made stronger by adding more coils to the copper wire, or adding an iron core through the coils (for example a nail). The current can also be increased to make the magnetism stronger. British electrician William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in 1825.\n\nAn electromagnet is useful because it can be turned on and off easily (using an electric current), whereas a permanent magnet cannot be turned off and will continue to affect its immediate environment. \n\nDifferent alloys act differently. Iron stops being an electromagnet very quickly, but steel takes time to wear off. To make an electromagnet, copper wire is wound around an iron rod. The two ends of the wire are connected to the + (positive) and - (negative) side of the battery.\n\nUsage\nElectromagnets are used in everyday items such as burglar alarms, electric relays and fire bells. Electric motors are basically electromagnets. Their ability to change from the state of non-magnetic to magnetic just by passing an electric current through it allows it to be used in many different items. This ability is used in relays.\n\nElectromagnets can also be used to make electricity. Movement of a magnet back and forth in front of the electromagnet will make an electric current.\n\nWhy electromagnets work \nElectromagnets work because when electricity flows through a wire it makes a magnetic field around the wire. The direction of the magnetic field can be found by using the right-hand rule. This means that if a person points the thumb of their right hand in the direction of the current, the magnetic field would go around the wire the same way their fingers would wrap around the wire.\n\nThe magnetic field made by a single wire is not usually very strong. To make an electromagnet normally the wire is wrapped in many loops to make the fields of each piece of wire add together into one stronger magnetic field.\n\nMore reading\n\nOther websites\n\nTools\nElectromagnetism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":27480,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnet","title":"Electromagnet","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Freedom of assembly and freedom of association, is the right  to join together with others peacefully to reach common goals and express common opinions, both in public and in private. This usually includes business groups (or corporation), civic organizations, labor unions, political parties, and protest groups.\n\nRestrictions\nFreedom of assemble does not mean that any group can come together for any purpose. Some governments prohibit militias, or groups of people outside the military that gather weapons and train soldiers, from demonstrating in public with their weapons to cause violence and a disturbance.\n\nProtection\nMany developed nations protect the freedom of assembly. Many have passed laws or constitutional amendments ensuring that people will be able to freely assemble. These include:\n Canada - Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which is Part I of the Constitution of Canada\n France - article 431-1 of the Nouveau Code P\u00e9nal\n Hong Kong - Basic Law Section 27\n Article 27 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran \n Republic of Ireland - Guaranteed by Article 40.6.1 of the Constitution of Ireland\n Turkey - article 33 and 34 of the Constitution of Turkey guarantee the freedom of association and assembly.\n United States - First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States\n United Nations - Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 20 and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 21.\n\nReferences\n\nFreedom","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":120936,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freedom%20of%20assembly","title":"Freedom of assembly","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Music notation or musical notation is a way of writing down music so that anyone can play it. Many systems have been used in the past to write music. Today most musicians in the Western world write musical notes on a stave: five parallel lines with four spaces in between them. However, there are many others, some of which are in use today in different cultures.\n\nWriting music down makes it possible for a composer who makes up (composes) a piece of music to let other people know how the music is supposed to sound. That music can then be played or sung by anybody who can \"read music\". If music is not written down, then people can only learn other people's music by listening to it and trying to copy it. This is how folk music was traditionally learned.\n\nSome early ways of writing music\n\nCuneiform \nThe earliest kind of notation was written on tablets using a way of writing called cuneiform. Music from Nippur from about 2000 B.C. has been found which seems to give an approximate idea of how the music should be played. A tablet from 1250 B.C. has musical notation which shows the names of the strings of a lyre. They are the earliest records we have of written music.\n\nAncient Greece \n\nMusical notation from Ancient Greece showed the notes in more detail than the earlier cuneiform. It shows the pitch (how high or low the note is) and how long it lasts. It sometimes give an idea of the harmony. It was used from at least the 6th century BC until about the 4th century AD.\n\nEarly European musical notation \n\nWhen music started to be written down in Europe it was music for the Roman Catholic church. The monks who wrote it down used a system of dots and strokes called neumes. They gave an idea of how high or low the notes were, but did not show the length of the notes. They may have been used by people who knew the music already and just needed a reminder of when to go up and down.\n\nPeople gradually realized that it was necessary to find a system which showed the exact pitch of the note. The first stave was just one single horizontal line. Gradually this increased to four lines. Guido d'Arezzo, an Italian Benedictine monk who lived in the 11th century developed this system which soon led to the way of writing music that we know. By the 16th century everybody was using the 5 line stave. A system of bars (measures) was used everywhere by the end of the 17th century. At first the bar lines where there to show which notes should be played or sung together. Gradually the system we know today was developed in which each bar lasted the same length of time, and has a particular number of beats (counts) for each bar. By the end of the 17th century this was used by most musicians in European classical music.\n\nThe modern system of musical notation \n\nToday we use a five-line staff. The pitch (highness or lowness of a note) is shown by where the note is put on the staff. There may also be sharps or flats in front of some of the notes. The note value (amount of time for a note) in shown by how the note looks. The music is read from left to right.\n\nA staff of written music usually has a clef in front. This shows exactly which notes are to be played. Notes which are very high or low can be put on extra lines called ledger lines above or below the stave.\n\nAfter the clef there is usually a key signature which shows the key of the piece: it shows which sharps or flats are to be used regularly.\n\nAfter the key signature is the time signature. Bars (measures) divide the piece into regular groupings of beats, and the time signatures show these groupings.\n\nAbove the music there is usually a word, or words, to show the tempo (speed) At various places in the music there will be dynamic marks to show how loud or soft to play.\n\nFor vocal music, words are written underneath the notes.\n\nWhen music is played by a large group of instruments such as an orchestra the music is written in a \"score\". This shows the music played by all the instruments, so there are many staves written underneath one another. The conductor will need to have a score, but the players will play from a \"part\" which has just the notes that they play. All the parts needed for a piece of music is called a \"set of parts\".\n\nSome other systems \nInstruments such as guitars often play from a chord chart or just the names of the chords (C7, Em etc.) written underneath the music or under the words of a song.\n\nA system called solfege has been used by musicians ever since the Renaissance.  This shows the names of the notes of a scale (do, re, mi etc.).\n\nLute music in the Renaissance and Baroque periods used to be written in a system called tabulature. Some 20th century composers have also used tabulature.\n\nSome modern composers such as John Cage have written music by making drawings called graphic notation.\n\nMusic can also be written in Braille for blind musicians.\n\nToday computers are often used for making music. This has led to other forms of music notation which are used in different systems of software. The MIDI file format, stores information about the pitch, duration, speed, volume etc. of notes and can be used to control a MIDI instrument.\n\nThere are other systems in use today for some non-Western music.\n\nRelated pages\n Sheet music\n Stave (music)\n Clef (music)\n Guido d'Arezzo\n Tablature\n\nMusical notation","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":146,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":87186,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Musical%20notation","title":"Musical notation","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Country music (sometimes called Country & Western) is a form of music that has been enjoyed by people all over the United States for decades. Famous singers from this genre include Johnny Cash, Patsy Cline, The Judds, Alan Jackson, Rascal Flatts, Dolly Parton, Glen Campbell, George Jones and Tammy Wynette, George Strait, Kenny Rogers, Loretta Lynn, Randy Travis, Tanya Tucker, Willie Nelson, Reba McEntire, Garth Brooks, Toby Keith and Hank 3.\n\nCountry music's strongest appeal is with American rural and small-town populations, but many American cities have a large audience. The music also has listeners in Canada, in England, and worldwide. The popularity of Country comes and goes with each decade. Sometimes a new movie (like Midnight Cowboy or Urban Cowboy), hit record (like \"She Believes In Me\" by Kenny Rogers), or new performer (like Randy Travis in the 1980s) raises new interest.\n\nHistory \nCountry music has its roots and beginnings in folk music. The old cowboy and pioneer songs of the American frontier were popular in the early twentieth century, and so were arrangements of pop music songs by rural (or rural-sounding) performers. Country musicians also adapted new musical instruments, like the Hawaiian steel guitar.\n\nModern-day Country music started in the years after World War II. The Sons of the Pioneers and The Carter Family performed old and new songs, in a way that reminded people of singalongs and jamborees of the past. Hank Williams is often called the first songwriter of country music. His songs were easy to learn and remember, and their lyrics said things felt by many people. His music is still performed today. Some of the early rock and roll musicians, like Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Elvis Presley, began their career as country performers.\n\nNashville, Tennessee became the center of Country music, much like New Orleans became the center of Jazz. The Grand Ole Opry broadcast performances by The Carter Family and others, and became an important breaking ground in Country music. A television series, Hee-Haw, was a long-running showcase for Country performers, and was hosted by musicians Buck Owens and Roy Clark. When cable television became popular in the United States, The Nashville Network (TNN) and Country Music Television (CMT) brought Country music videos and related programming to nationwide audiences. (In later years, as interests changed, TNN changed its programming. It also changed names, first to \"The National Network\", then to Spike TV, which is its name today.) Country music began in the Southern United States at 1920. And Bob Wills had developed the Western Swing.\n\nCountry comedy \nCountry-styled comedy is also popular, with writers and performers like Jeff Foxworthy, Bill Engvall, Larry the Cable Guy, and others. Many comedians have appeared with Country acts, including Andy Griffith, Ray Stevens, and George Lindsey. Lindsey, Lulu Roman and Junior Samples were cast members of Hee-Haw, and so were Grandpa Jones and Minnie Pearl. Homer and Jethro and Pinkard & Bowden were duos of musicians who made parodies of Country and pop songs.\n\nThe Beverly Hillbillies, a CBS television series, included music by Flatt and Scruggs. Members of the cast appeared in character at Country concerts, and on other television shows, to entertain audiences.\n\nOther websites\n\n Roughstock - country music resource; also has a history of the genre \n CMT (Country Music Television)\n Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum\n The Country Music Association (America)\n Country Weekly magazine\n Grand Ole Opry website\n\n Countryfied Soul","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":21325,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Country%20music","title":"Country music","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury  (; 3 February 183022 August 1903) was a British statesman and Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom three times for a total of over thirteen years. He was also Foreign Secretary before and during most of his tenure. He avoided alignments or alliances, maintaining the policy of \"splendid isolation\".\n\nLord Robert Cecil, also known as Lord Salisbury, was first elected to the House of Commons in 1854 and served as Secretary of State for India in Lord Derby's Conservative government 1866\u20131867. In 1874, under Disraeli, Salisbury returned as Secretary of State for India, and, in 1878, was appointed foreign secretary, and played a leading part in the Congress of Berlin. After Disraeli's death in 1881, Salisbury emerged as the Conservative leader in the House of Lords, with Sir Stafford Northcote leading the party in the Commons. He succeeded William Ewart Gladstone as prime minister in June 1885, and held the office until January 1886.\n\nWhen Gladstone came out in favour of Home Rule for Ireland, Salisbury opposed him and formed an alliance with the breakaway Liberal Unionists, winning the subsequent general election. His biggest achievement in this term was obtaining the majority of the new territory in Africa during the Scramble for Africa, avoiding a war or serious confrontation with the other powers. He remained as prime minister until Gladstone's Liberals formed a government with the support of the Irish nationalists at the 1892 general election. The Liberals, however, lost the 1895 general election, and Salisbury for the third and last time became prime minister. He led Britain to victory in a bitter, controversial war against the Boers, and led the Unionists to another electoral victory in 1900. He relinquished the premiership to his nephew Arthur Balfour in 1902 and died in 1903. He was the last prime minister to serve from the House of Lords.\n\nHistorians agree that Salisbury was a strong and effective leader in foreign affairs, with a wide grasp of the issues. Paul Smith characterises his personality as \"deeply neurotic, depressive, agitated, introverted, fearful of change and loss of control, and self-effacing but capable of extraordinary competitiveness.\" A representative of the landed aristocracy, he held the reactionary credo, \"Whatever happens will be for the worse, and therefore it is in our interest that as little should happen as possible.\" Searle says that instead of seeing his party's victory in 1886 as a harbinger of a new and more popular Conservatism, he longed to return to the stability of the past, when his party's main function was to restrain demagogic liberalism and democratic excess. He is generally ranked in the upper tier of British prime ministers.\n\nEarly life: 1830\u20131852\nLord Robert Cecil was born at Hatfield House, the third son of the 2nd Marquess of Salisbury and Frances Mary, n\u00e9e Gascoyne. He was a patrilineal descendant of Lord Burghley and the 1st Earl of Salisbury, chief ministers of Elizabeth I. The family owned vast rural estates in Hertfordshire and Dorset. This wealth increased sharply in 1821, when his father married his mother, Frances Mary Gascoyne, heiress of a wealthy merchant and Member of Parliament who had bought large estates in Essex and Lancashire.\n\nRobert had a miserable childhood, with few friends, and filled his time with reading. He was bullied unmercifully at the schools he attended. In 1840, he went to Eton College, where he did well in French, German, Classics, and Theology, but left in 1845 because of intense bullying. His unhappy schooling shaped his pessimistic outlook on life and his negative views on democracy. He decided that most people were cowardly and cruel, and that the mob would run roughshod over sensitive individuals.\n\nIn December 1847, he went to Christ Church, Oxford, where he received an honorary fourth class in Mathematics, conferred by nobleman's privilege due to ill health. Whilst at Oxford, he found the Oxford movement or \"Tractarianism\" to be an intoxicating force, and had an intense religious experience that shaped his life. He was involved in the Oxford Union, serving as its secretary and treasurer. In 1853, he was elected a prize fellow of All Souls College, Oxford.\n\nIn April 1850, he joined Lincoln's Inn, but did not enjoy law. His doctor advised him to travel for his health, and so, from July 1851 to May 1853, Cecil travelled through Cape Colony, Australia, including Tasmania, and New Zealand. He disliked the Boers and wrote that free institutions and self-government could not be granted to the Cape Colony because the Boers outnumbered the British three-to-one, and \"it will simply be delivering us over bound hand and foot into the power of the Dutch, who hate us as much as a conquered people can hate their conquerors\". He found the Native South Africans \"a fine set of men \u2013 whose language bears traces of a very high former civilisation\", similar to Italian. They were \"an intellectual race, with great firmness and fixedness of will\" but \"horribly immoral\" because they lacked theism.\n\nAt the Bendigo goldfields in Australia, he claimed that \"there is not half as much crime or insubordination as there would be in an English town of the same wealth and population\". Ten thousand miners were policed by four men armed with carbines and, at Mount Alexander, 30,000 people were protected by 200 policemen, with over  of gold mined per week. He believed that there was \"generally far more civility than I should be likely to find in the good town of Hatfield\" and claimed that was due to \"the government was that of the Queen, not of the mob; from above, not from below. Holding from a supposed right (whether real or not, no matter)\" and from \"the People the source of all legitimate power,\" Cecil said of the M\u0101ori of New Zealand: \"The natives seem when they have converted to make much better Christians than the white man\". A Maori chief offered Cecil  near Auckland, which he declined.\n\nMember of Parliament: 1853\u20131866\n\nCecil entered the House of Commons as a Conservative on 22 August 1853, as MP for Stamford in Lincolnshire. He retained this seat until he succeeded to his father's peerages in 1868 and it was not contested during his time as its representative. In his election address he opposed secular education and \"ultramontane\" interference with the Church of England which was \"at variance with the fundamental principles of our constitution\". He would oppose \"any such tampering with our representative system as shall disturb the reciprocal powers on which the stability of our constitution rests\". In 1867, after his brother Eustace complained of being addressed by constituents in a hotel, Cecil responded: \"A hotel infested by influential constituents is worse than one infested by bugs. It's a pity you can't carry around a powder insecticide to get rid of vermin of that kind\".\n\nIn December 1856 Cecil began publishing articles for the Saturday Review, to which he contributed anonymously for the next nine years. From 1861 to 1864 he published 422 articles in it; in total the weekly published 608 of his articles. The Quarterly Review was the foremost intellectual journal of the age and of the twenty-six issues published between spring 1860 and summer 1866, Cecil had anonymous articles in all but three of them. He also wrote lead articles for the Tory daily newspaper the Standard. In 1859 Cecil was a founding co-editor of Bentley's Quarterly Review, with John Douglas Cook and Rev. William Scott; but it closed after four issues.\n\nSalisbury criticised the foreign policy of Lord John Russell, claiming he was \"always being willing to sacrifice anything for peace... colleagues, principles, pledges... a portentous mixture of bounce and baseness... dauntless to the weak, timid and cringing to the strong\". The lessons to be learnt from Russell's foreign policy, Salisbury believed, were that he should not listen to the opposition or the press otherwise \"we are to be governed... by a set of weathercocks, delicately poised, warranted to indicate with unnerving accuracy every variation in public feeling\". Secondly: \"No one dreams of conducting national affairs with the principles which are prescribed to individuals. The meek and poor-spirited among nations are not to be blessed, and the common sense of Christendom has always prescribed for national policy principles diametrically opposed to those that are laid down in the Sermon on the Mount\". Thirdly: \"The assemblies that meet in Westminster have no jurisdiction over the affairs of other nations. Neither they nor the Executive, except in plain defiance of international law, can interfere [in the internal affairs of other countries]... It is not a dignified position for a Great Power to occupy, to be pointed out as the busybody of Christendom\". Finally, Britain should not threaten other countries unless prepared to back this up by force: \"A willingness to fight is the point d'appui of diplomacy, just as much as a readiness to go to court is the starting point of a lawyer's letter. It is merely courting dishonour, and inviting humiliation for the men of peace to use the habitual language of the men of war\".\n\nSecretary of State for India: 1866\u20131867\nIn 1866 Lord Robert, now Viscount Cranborne after the death of his older brother, entered the third government of Lord Derby as Secretary of State for India. When in 1867 John Stuart Mill proposed a type of proportional representation, Cranborne argued that: \"It was not of our atmosphere\u2014it was not in accordance with our habits; it did not belong to us. They all knew that it could not pass. Whether that was creditable to the House or not was a question into which he would not inquire; but every Member of the House the moment he saw the scheme upon the Paper saw that it belonged to the class of impracticable things\".\n\nOn 2 August when the Commons debated the Orissa famine in India, Cranborne spoke out against experts, political economy, and the government of Bengal. Utilising the Blue Books, Cranborne criticised officials for \"walking in a dream... in superb unconsciousness, believing that what had been must be, and that as long as they did nothing absolutely wrong, and they did not displease their immediate superiors, they had fulfilled all the duties of their station\". These officials worshipped political economy \"as a sort of 'fetish'...\u00a0[they] seemed to have forgotten utterly that human life was short, and that man did not subsist without food beyond a few days\". Three-quarters of a million people had died because officials had chosen \"to run the risk of losing the lives than to run the risk of wasting the money\". Cranborne's speech was received with \"an enthusiastic, hearty cheer from both sides of the House\" and Mill crossed the floor of the Commons to congratulate him on it. The famine left Cranborne with a lifelong suspicion of experts and in the photograph albums at his home covering the years 1866\u201367 there are two images of skeletal Indian children amongst the family pictures.\n\nReform Act 1867\n\nWhen parliamentary reform came to prominence again in the mid-1860s, Cranborne worked hard to master electoral statistics until he became an expert. When the Liberal Reform Bill was being debated in 1866, Cranborne studied the census returns to see how each clause in the Bill would affect the electoral prospects in each seat. Cranborne did not expect Disraeli's conversion to reform, however. When the Cabinet met on 16 February 1867, Disraeli voiced his support for some extension of the suffrage, providing statistics amassed by Robert Dudley Baxter, showing that 330,000 people would be given the vote and all except 60,000 would be granted extra votes. Cranborne studied Baxter's statistics and on 21 February he met Lord Carnarvon, who wrote in his diary: \"He is firmly convinced now that Disraeli has played us false, that he is attempting to hustle us into his measure, that Lord Derby is in his hands and that the present form which the question has now assumed has been long planned by him\". They agreed to \"a sort of offensive and defensive alliance on this question in the Cabinet\" to \"prevent the Cabinet adopting any very fatal course\". Disraeli had \"separate and confidential conversations...carried on with each member of the Cabinet from whom he anticipated opposition [which] had divided them and lulled their suspicions\". That same night Cranborne spent three hours studying Baxter's statistics and wrote to Carnarvon the day after that although Baxter was right overall in claiming that 30% of \u00a310 ratepayers who qualified for the vote would not register, it would be untrue in relation to the smaller boroughs where the register is kept up to date. Cranborne also wrote to Derby arguing that he should adopt 10 shillings rather than Disraeli's 20 shillings for the qualification of the payers of direct taxation: \"Now above 10 shillings you won't get in the large mass of the \u00a320 householders. At 20 shillings I fear you won't get more than 150,000 double voters, instead of the 270,000 on which we counted. And I fear this will tell horribly on the small and middle-sized boroughs\".\n\nOn 23 February Cranborne protested in Cabinet and the next day analysed Baxter's figures using census returns and other statistics to determine how Disraeli's planned extension of the franchise would affect subsequent elections. Cranborne found that Baxter had not taken into account the different types of boroughs in the totals of new voters. In small boroughs under 20,000 the \"fancy franchises\" for direct taxpayers and dual voters would be less than the new working-class voters in each seat. The same day he met Carnarvon and they both studied the figures, coming to the same result each time: \"A complete revolution would be effected in the boroughs\" due to the new majority of the working-class electorate. Cranborne wanted to send his resignation to Derby along with the statistics but Cranborne agreed to Carnarvon's suggestion that as a Cabinet member he had a right to call a Cabinet meeting. It was planned for the next day, 25 February. Cranborne wrote to Derby that he had discovered that Disraeli's plan would \"throw the small boroughs almost, and many of them entirely, into the hands of the voter whose qualification is less than \u00a310. I do not think that such a proceeding is for the interest of the country. I am sure that it is not in accordance with the hopes which those of us who took an active part in resisting Mr Gladstone's Bill last year in those whom we induced to vote for us\". The Conservative boroughs with populations less than 25,000 (a majority of the boroughs in Parliament) would be very much worse off under Disraeli's scheme than the Liberal Reform Bill of the previous year: \"But if I assented to this scheme, now that I know what its effect will be, I could not look in the face those whom last year I urged to resist Mr Gladstone. I am convinced that it will, if passed, be the ruin of the Conservative party\".\n\nWhen Cranborne entered the Cabinet meeting on 25 February \"with reams of paper in his hands\" he began by reading statistics but was interrupted to be told of the proposal by Lord Stanley that they should agree to a \u00a36 borough rating franchise instead of the full household suffrage, and a \u00a320 county franchise rather than \u00a350. The Cabinet agreed to Stanley's proposal. The meeting was so contentious that a minister who was late initially thought they were debating the suspension of habeas corpus. The next day another Cabinet meeting took place, with Cranborne saying little and the Cabinet adopting Disraeli's proposal to bring in a Bill in a week's time. On 28 February a meeting of the Carlton Club took place, with a majority of the 150 Conservative MPs present supporting Derby and Disraeli. At the Cabinet meeting on 2 March, Cranborne, Carnarvon and General Peel were pleaded with for two hours not to resign, but when Cranborne \"announced his intention of resigning...Peel and Carnarvon, with evident reluctance, followed his example\". Lord John Manners observed that Cranborne \"remained unmoveable\". Derby closed his red box with a sigh and stood up, saying \"The Party is ruined!\" Cranborne got up at the same time, with Peel remarking: \"Lord Cranborne, do you hear what Lord Derby says?\" Cranborne ignored this and the three resigning ministers left the room. Cranborne's resignation speech was met with loud cheers and Carnarvon observed that it was \"moderate and in good taste \u2013 a sufficient justification for us who seceded and yet no disclosure of the frequent changes in policy in the Cabinet\".\n\nDisraeli introduced his Bill on 18 March and it would extend the suffrage to all rate-paying householders of two years' residence, dual voting for graduates or those of a learned profession, or those with \u00a350 in governments funds or in the Bank of England or a savings bank. These \"fancy franchises\", as Cranborne had foreseen, did not survive the Bill's course through Parliament; dual voting was dropped in March, the compound householder vote in April; and the residential qualification was reduced in May. In the end the county franchise was granted to householders rated at \u00a312 annually. On 15 July the third reading of the Bill took place and Cranborne spoke first, in a speech which his biographer Andrew Roberts has called \"possibly the greatest oration of a career full of powerful parliamentary speeches\". Cranborne observed how the Bill \"bristled with precautions, guarantees and securities\" had been stripped of these. He attacked Disraeli by pointing out how he had campaigned against the Liberal Bill in 1866 yet the next year introduced a Bill more extensive than the one rejected. In the peroration Cranborne said:\n\nIn his article for the October Quarterly Review, entitled 'The Conservative Surrender', Cranborne criticised Derby because he had \"obtained the votes which placed him in office on the faith of opinions which, to keep office, he immediately repudiated...He made up his mind to desert these opinions at the very moment he was being raised to power as their champion\". Also, the annals of modern parliamentary history could find no parallel for Disraeli's betrayal; historians would have to look \"to the days when Sunderland directed the Council, and accepted the favours of James when he was negotiating the invasion of William\". Disraeli responded in a speech that Cranborne was \"a very clever man who has made a very great mistake\".\n\nIn opposition: 1868\u20131874\nIn 1868, on the death of his father, he inherited the Marquessate of Salisbury, thereby becoming a member of the House of Lords. In 1869 he was elected Chancellor of the University of Oxford and elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Between 1868 and 1871, he was chairman of the Great Eastern Railway, which was then experiencing losses. During his tenure, the company was taken out of Chancery, and paid out a small dividend on its ordinary shares.\n\n[[File:Robert Cecil, Vanity Fair, 1869-07-10.jpg|thumb|The Marquess of Salisbury caricatured by \"Ape\" (Carlo Pellegrini) in Vanity Fair''', 1869]]\n\nFrom 1868 he was Honorary Colonel of the Hertfordshire Militia, which became the 4th (Militia) Battalion, Bedfordshire Regiment, in 1881, and which was commanded in South Africa during the Second Boer War by his eldest son.Army List.\n\nSecretary of State for India: 1874\u20131878\nSalisbury returned to government in 1874, serving once again as Secretary of State for India in the government of Benjamin Disraeli, and Britain's Ambassador Plenipotentiary at the 1876 Constantinople Conference. Salisbury gradually developed a good relationship with Disraeli, whom he had previously disliked and mistrusted.\n\nDuring a Cabinet meeting on 7 March 1878, a discussion arose over whether to occupy Mytilene. Lord Derby recorded in his diary that \"[o]f all present Salisbury by far the most eager for action: he talked of our sliding into a position of contempt: of our being humiliated etc.\" At the Cabinet meeting the next day, Derby recorded that Lord John Manners objected to occupying the city \"on the ground of right. Salisbury treated scruples of this kind with marked contempt, saying, truly enough, that if our ancestors had cared for the rights of other people, the British empire would not have been made. He was more vehement than any one for going on. In the end the project was dropped...\"\n\nForeign Secretary: 1878\u20131880\nIn 1878, Salisbury became foreign secretary in time to help lead Britain to \"peace with honour\" at the Congress of Berlin. For this he was rewarded with the Order of the Garter along with Disraeli.\n\nLeader of the Opposition: 1881\u20131885\nFollowing Disraeli's death in 1881, the Conservatives entered a period of turmoil. The party's previous leaders had all been appointed as Prime Minister by the reigning monarch on advice from their retiring predecessor, and no process was in place to deal with leadership succession in case either the leadership became vacant while the party was in opposition, or the outgoing leader died without designating a successor, situations which both arose from the death of Disraeli (a formal leadership election system would not be adopted by the party until 1964, shortly after the government of Alec Douglas-Home fell). Salisbury became the leader of the Conservative members of the House of Lords, though the overall leadership of the party was not formally allocated. So he struggled with the Commons leader Sir Stafford Northcote, a struggle in which Salisbury eventually emerged as the leading figure. Historian Richard Shannon argues that while Salisbury presided over one of the longest periods of Tory dominance, he misinterpreted and mishandled his election successes. Salisbury's blindness to the middle class and reliance on the aristocracy prevented the Conservatives from becoming a majority party. \n\nReform Act 1884\n\nIn 1884 Gladstone introduced a Reform Bill which would extend the suffrage to two million rural workers. Salisbury and Northcote agreed that any Reform Bill would be supported only if a parallel redistributionary measure was introduced as well. In a speech in the Lords, Salisbury claimed: \"Now that the people have in no real sense been consulted, when they had, at the last General Election, no notion of what was coming upon them, I feel that we are bound, as guardians of their interests, to call upon the government to appeal to the people, and by the result of that appeal we will abide\". The Lords rejected the Bill and Parliament was prorogued for ten weeks. Writing to Canon Malcolm MacColl, Salisbury believed that Gladstone's proposals for reform without redistribution would mean \"the absolute effacement of the Conservative Party. It would not have reappeared as a political force for thirty years. This conviction...greatly simplified for me the computation of risks\". At a meeting of the Carlton Club on 15 July, Salisbury announced his plan for making the government introduce a Seats (or Redistribution) Bill in the Commons whilst at the same time delaying a Franchise Bill in the Lords. The unspoken implication being that Salisbury would relinquish the party leadership if his plan was not supported. Although there was some dissent, Salisbury carried the party with him.\n\nSalisbury wrote to Lady John Manners on 14 June that he did not regard female suffrage as a question of high importance \"but when I am told that my ploughmen are capable citizens, it seems to me ridiculous to say that educated women are not just as capable. A good deal of the political battle of the future will be a conflict between religion and unbelief: & the women will in that controversy be on the right side\".\n\nOn 21 July, a large meeting for reform was held at Hyde Park. Salisbury said in The Times that \"the employment of mobs as an instrument of public policy is likely to prove a sinister precedent\". On 23 July at Sheffield, Salisbury said that the government \"imagine that thirty thousand Radicals going to amuse themselves in London on a given day expresses the public opinion of the day...they appeal to the streets, they attempt legislation by picnic\". Salisbury further claimed that Gladstone adopted reform as a \"cry\" to deflect attention from his foreign and economic policies at the next election. He claimed that the House of Lords was protecting the British constitution: \"I do not care whether it is an hereditary chamber or any other \u2013 to see that the representative chamber does not alter the tenure of its own power so as to give a perpetual lease of that power to the party in predominance at the moment\".\n\nOn 25 July at a reform meeting in Leicester consisting of 40,000 people, Salisbury was burnt in effigy and a banner quoted Shakespeare's Henry VI: \"Old Salisbury \u2013 shame to thy silver hair, Thou mad misleader\". On 9 August in Manchester, over 100,000 came to hear Salisbury speak. On 30 September at Glasgow, he said: \"We wish that the franchise should pass but that before you make new voters you should determine the constitution in which they are to vote\". Salisbury published an article in the National Review for October, titled 'The Value of Redistribution: A Note on Electoral Statistics'. He claimed that the Conservatives \"have no cause, for Party reasons, to dread enfranchisement coupled with a fair redistribution\". Judging by the 1880 results, Salisbury asserted that the overall loss to the Conservatives of enfranchisement without redistribution would be 47 seats. Salisbury spoke throughout Scotland and claimed that the government had no mandate for reform when it had not appealed to the people.\n\nGladstone offered wavering Conservatives a compromise a little short of enfranchisement and redistribution, and after the Queen unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Salisbury to compromise, he wrote to Rev. James Baker on 30 October: \"Politics stand alone among human pursuits in this characteristic, that no one is conscious of liking them \u2013 and no one is able to leave them. But whatever affection they may have had they are rapidly losing. The difference between now and thirty years ago when I entered the House of Commons is inconceivable\".\n\nOn 11 November, the Franchise Bill received its third reading in the Commons and it was due to get a second reading in the Lords. The day after at a meeting of Conservative leaders, Salisbury was outnumbered in his opposition to compromise. On 13 February, Salisbury rejected MacColl's idea that he should meet Gladstone, as he believed the meeting would be found out and that Gladstone had no genuine desire to negotiate. On 17 November, it was reported in the newspapers that if the Conservatives gave \"adequate assurance\" that the Franchise Bill would pass the Lords before Christmas the government would ensure that a parallel Seats Bill would receive its second reading in the Commons as the Franchise Bill went into committee stage in the Lords. Salisbury responded by agreeing only if the Franchise Bill came second. The Carlton Club met to discuss the situation, with Salisbury's daughter writing:\n\nDespite the controversy which had raged, the meetings of leading Liberals and Conservatives on reform at Downing Street were amicable. Salisbury and the Liberal Sir Charles Dilke dominated discussions as they had both closely studied in detail the effects of reform on the constituencies. After one of the last meetings on 26 November, Gladstone told his secretary that \"Lord Salisbury, who seems to monopolise all the say on his side, has no respect for tradition. As compared with him, Mr Gladstone declares he is himself quite a Conservative. They got rid of the boundary question, minority representation, grouping and the Irish difficulty. The question was reduced to... for or against single member constituencies\". The Reform Bill laid down that the majority of the 670 constituencies were to be roughly equal size and return one member; those between 50,000 and 165,000 kept the two-member representation and those over 165,000 and all the counties were split up into single-member constituencies. This franchise existed until 1918.\n\nPrime minister: 1885-1892\n First term: 1885-1886 \n Appointment \n\nSalisbury became prime minister of a minority administration from 1885 to 1886.\nIn the November 1883 issue of National Review Salisbury wrote an article titled \"Labourers' and Artisans' Dwellings\" in which he argued that the poor conditions of working class housing were injurious to morality and health. Salisbury said \"Laissez-faire is an admirable doctrine but it must be applied on both sides\", as Parliament had enacted new building projects (such as the Thames Embankment) which had displaced working-class people and was responsible for \"packing the people tighter\": \"...thousands of families have only a single room to dwell in, where they sleep and eat, multiply, and die... It is difficult to exaggerate the misery which such conditions of life must cause, or the impulse they must give to vice. The depression of body and mind which they create is an almost insuperable obstacle to the action of any elevating or refining agencies\". The Pall Mall Gazette argued that Salisbury had sailed into \"the turbid waters of State Socialism\"; the Manchester Guardian said his article was \"State socialism pure and simple\" and The Times claimed Salisbury was \"in favour of state socialism\".\n \n Early reforms and parliamentary majority \nIn July 1885 the Housing of the Working Classes Bill was introduced by the Home Secretary, R. A. Cross in the Commons and Salisbury in the Lords. When Lord Wemyss criticised the Bill as \"strangling the spirit of independence and the self-reliance of the people, and destroying the moral fibre of our race in the anaconda coils of state socialism\", Salisbury responded: \"Do not imagine that by merely affixing to it the reproach of Socialism you can seriously affect the progress of any great legislative movement, or destroy those high arguments which are derived from the noblest principles of philanthropy and religion\". The Bill ultimately passed and came into effect on 14 August 1885.\n\nAlthough unable to accomplish much due to his lack of a parliamentary majority, the split of the Liberals over Irish Home Rule in 1886 enabled him to return to power with a majority, and, excepting a Liberal minority government (1892\u201395), to serve as prime minister from 1886 to 1902.\n\nSecond term: 1886-1892\n\nSalisbury was back in office, although without a conservative majority; he depended on the Liberal Unionists, led by Lord Hartington. Maintaining the alliance forced Salisbury to make concessions in support of progressive legislation regarding Irish land purchases, education, and county councils. His nephew Arthur Balfour acquired a strong reputation for resolute coercion in Ireland, and was promoted to leadership in the Commons in 1891. The Prime Minister proved adept at his handling of the press, as Sir Edward Walter Hamilton noted in his diary in 1887 he was: \"the prime minister most accessible to the press. He is not prone to give information: but when he does, he gives it freely, & his information can always be relied on.\"\n\nForeign policy\nSalisbury once again kept the foreign office (from January 1887), and his diplomacy continued to display a high level of skill, avoiding the extremes of Gladstone on the left and Disraeli on the right. His policy rejected entangling alliances\u2013which at the time and ever since has been called \"splendid isolation\". He was successful in negotiating differences over colonial claims with France and others.  The major problems were in the Mediterranean, where British interest had been involved for a century. It was now especially important to protect the Suez Canal and the sea lanes to India and Asia. He ended Britain's isolation through the Mediterranean Agreements (March and December 1887) with Italy and Austria-Hungary. He saw the need for maintaining control of the seas and passed the Naval Defence Act 1889, which facilitated the spending of an extra \u00a320\u00a0million on the Royal Navy over the following four years. This was the biggest ever expansion of the navy in peacetime: ten new battleships, thirty-eight new cruisers, eighteen new torpedo boats and four new fast gunboats. Traditionally (since the Battle of Trafalgar) Britain had possessed a navy one-third larger than their nearest naval rival but now the Royal Navy was set to the two-power standard; that it would be maintained \"to a standard of strength equivalent to that of the combined forces of the next two biggest navies in the world\". This was aimed at France and Russia.\n\nSalisbury was offered a dukedom by Queen Victoria in 1886 and 1892, but declined both offers, citing the prohibitive cost of the lifestyle dukes were expected to maintain and stating that he would rather have an ancient marquessate than a modern dukedom.\n\n1890 Ultimatum on Portugal\n\nTrouble arose with Portugal, which had overextended itself in building a colonial empire in Africa it could ill afford. There was a clash of colonial visions between Portugal (the \"Pink Map\", produced by the Lisbon Geographic Society after Alexandre de Serpa Pinto's, Hermenegildo Capelo's and Roberto Ivens's expeditions to Africa) and the British Empire  (Cecil Rhodes's \"Cape to Cairo Railway\") came after years of diplomatic conflict about several African territories with Portugal and other powers. Portugal, financially hard-pressed, had to abandon several territories corresponding to today's Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe in favour of the Empire.\n\nControversies\nIn 1889 Salisbury set up the London County Council and then in 1890 allowed it to build houses. However, he came to regret this, saying in November 1894 that the LCC, \"is the place where collectivist and socialistic experiments are tried. It is the place where a new revolutionary spirit finds its instruments and collects its arms\".\n\nSalisbury caused controversy in 1888 after Gainsford Bruce had won the Holborn by-election for the Unionists, beating the Liberal Lord Compton. Bruce had won the seat with a smaller majority than Francis Duncan had for the Unionists in 1885. Salisbury explained this by saying in a speech in Edinburgh on 30 November: \"But then Colonel Duncan was opposed to a black man, and, however great the progress of mankind has been, and however far we have advanced in overcoming prejudices, I doubt if we have yet got to the point where a British constituency will elect a black man to represent them.... I am speaking roughly and using language in its colloquial sense, because I imagine the colour is not exactly black, but at all events, he was a man of another race\".\n\nThe \"black man\" was Dadabhai Naoroji, an Indian Parsi. Salisbury's comments were criticised by the Queen and by Liberals who believed that Salisbury had suggested that only white Britons could represent a British constituency. Three weeks later, Salisbury delivered a speech at Scarborough, where he denied that \"the word \"black\" necessarily implies any contemptuous denunciation: \"Such a doctrine seems to be a scathing insult to a very large proportion of the human race... The people whom we have been fighting at Suakin, and whom we have happily conquered, are among the finest tribes in the world, and many of them are as black as my hat\". Furthermore, \"such candidatures are incongruous and unwise. The British House of Commons, with its traditions... is a machine too peculiar and too delicate to be managed by any but those who have been born within these isles\". Naoroji was elected for Finsbury in 1892 and Salisbury invited him to become a Governor of the Imperial Institute, which he accepted. In 1888, the New York Times published an article that was extremely critical of Lord Salisbury's remark. It included the following quotation, \"Of course the parsees are not black men, but the purest Aryan type in existence, with an average complexion fairer than Lord Salisbury's; but even if they were ebony hued it would be grotesque and foolish for a Prime Minister of England to insult them in such a wanton fashion as this.\"\n\nDocuments in the Foreign Office archives revealed that Salisbury was made aware of a rape in 1891 and other atrocities carried out against women and children in the Niger Delta by Consul George Annesley and his soldiers but took no action against Annesley, who was \"quietly pensioned off.\"\n\nLeader of the Opposition: 1892\u20131895\nIn the aftermath of the general election of 1892, Balfour and Chamberlain wished to pursue a programme of social reform, which Salisbury believed would alienate \"a good many people who have always been with us\" and that \"these social questions are destined to break up our party\". When the Liberals and Irish Nationalists (which were a majority in the new Parliament) successfully voted against the government, Salisbury resigned the premiership on 12 August. His private secretary at the Foreign Office wrote that Salisbury \"shewed indecent joy at his release\".\n\nSalisbury\u2014in an article in November for the National Review entitled 'Constitutional revision'\u2014said that the new government, lacking a majority in England and Scotland, had no mandate for Home Rule and argued that because there was no referendum only the House of Lords could provide the necessary consultation with the nation on policies for organic change. The Lords defeated the second Home Rule Bill by 419 to 41 in September 1893, but Salisbury stopped them from opposing the Liberal Chancellor's death duties in 1894. In 1894 Salisbury also became president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, presenting a notable inaugural address on 4 August of that year.Jed Z. Buchwald, Robert Fox, The Oxford Handbook of the History of Physics (2013) p. 757, footnote 62. The general election of 1895 returned a large Unionist majority.\n\nPrime minister: 1895\u20131902\n\nSalisbury's expertise was in foreign affairs. For most of his time as prime minister he served not as First Lord of the Treasury, the traditional position held by the prime minister, but as foreign secretary. In that capacity, he managed Britain's foreign affairs, but he was being sarcastic about a policy of \"Splendid isolation\"\u2014such was not his goal.\n\nForeign policy\n\nIn the foreign affairs Salisbury was challenged worldwide, The long-standing policy of \"Splendid isolation\" had left Britain with no allies and few friends. In Europe, Germany was worrisome regarding its growing industrial and naval power, Kaiser Wilhelm's erratic foreign policy, and the instability caused by the decline of the Ottoman Empire. France was threatening British control of Sudan. In the Americas, for domestic political reasons, U.S. President Cleveland manufactured a quarrel over Venezuela's border with British Guiana. In South Africa conflict was threatening with the two Boer republics. In the Great Game in Central Asia, the line that separated Russia and British India in 1800 was narrowing.  In China the British economic dominance was threatened by other powers that wanted to control slices of China. \n\nThe tension with Germany had subsided in 1890 after a deal exchanged German holdings in East Africa for an island off the German coast. However, with peace-minded Bismarck retired by an aggressive new Kaiser, tensions rose and negotiations faltered.  France retreated in Africa after the British dominated in the Fashoda Incident. The Venezuela crisis was settled amicably and London and Washington became friendly after Salisbury gave Washington what it wanted in the Alaska boundary dispute. The Open Door Policy and a 1902 treaty with Japan resolved the China crisis. However, in South Africa a nasty Boer war broke out in 1899 and for a few months it seemed the Boers were winning.\n\nVenezuela crisis with the United States\nIn 1895 the Venezuelan crisis with the United States erupted. A border dispute between the colony of British Guiana and Venezuela caused a major Anglo-American crisis when the United States intervened to take Venezuela's side. Propaganda sponsored by Venezuela convinced American public opinion that the British were infringing on Venezuelan territory. The United States demanded an explanation and Salisbury refused. The crisis escalated when President Grover Cleveland, citing the Monroe Doctrine, issued an ultimatum in late 1895. Salisbury's cabinet convinced him he had to go to arbitration. Both sides calmed down and the issue was quickly resolved through arbitration which largely upheld the British position on the legal boundary line. Salisbury remained angry but a consensus was reached in London, led by Lord Landsdowne, to seek much friendlier relations with the United States.R.A. Humphreys, \"Anglo-American Rivalries and the Venezuela Crisis of 1895\" Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (1967) 17: 131\u2013164 in JSTOR By standing with a Latin American nation against the encroachment of the British, the US improved relations with the Latin Americans, and the cordial manner of the procedure improved American diplomatic relations with Britain. Despite the popularity of the Boers in American public opinion, official Washington supported London in the Second Boer War.\n\n Africa\nAn Anglo-German agreement (1890) resolved conflicting claims in East Africa; Great Britain received large territories in Zanzibar and Uganda in exchange for the small island of Helgoland in the North Sea. Negotiations with Germany on broader issues failed. In January 1896 the reckless German Kaiser Wilhelm II escalated tensions in South Africa with his Kruger telegram congratulating Boer President Paul Kruger of the Transvaal for beating off the British Jameson Raid. German officials in Berlin had managed to stop the Kaiser from proposing a German protectorate over the Transvaal. The telegram backfired, as the British began to see Germany as a major threat. The British moved their forces from Egypt south into Sudan in 1898, securing complete control of that troublesome region. However, a strong British force unexpectedly confronted a small French military expedition at Fashoda. Salisbury quickly resolved the tensions, and systematically moved toward friendlier relations with France.E. R. Turton, \"Lord Salisbury and the Macdonald expedition.\" Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 5.1 (1976): 35-52.\n\nSecond Boer War\n\nAfter gold was discovered in the South African Republic (called Transvaal) in the 1880s, thousands of British men flocked to the gold mines. Transvaal and its sister republic the Orange Free State were small, rural, independent nations founded by Afrikaners, who descended from Dutch immigrants to the area before 1800. The newly arrived miners were needed for their labour and business operations but were distrusted by the Afrikaners, who called them \"uitlanders\". The uitlanders heavily outnumbered the Boers in cities and mining districts; they had to pay heavy taxes, and had limited civil rights and no right to vote. The British, jealous of the gold and diamond mines and highly protective of its people, demanded reforms, which were rejected. A small-scale private British effort to overthrow Transvaal's President Paul Kruger, the Jameson Raid of 1895, was a fiasco and presaged full-scale conflict as all diplomatic efforts failed.\n\nWar started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902 as Great Britain faced the two small far-away Boer nations. The Prime Minister let his extremely energetic colonial minister Joseph Chamberlain take charge of the war. British efforts were based from its Cape Colony and the Colony of Natal. There were some native African allies, but generally both sides avoided using black soldiers. The British war effort was further supported by volunteers from across the Empire. All other nations were neutral, but public opinion in them was largely hostile to Britain. Inside Britain and its Empire there also was a significant opposition to the Second Boer War because of the atrocities and military failures.Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism (1950), pp 605\u201328, 651\u201376\n\nThe British were overconfident and underprepared. Chamberlain and other top London officials ignored the repeated warnings of military advisors that the Boers were well prepared, well armed, and fighting for their homes in a very difficult terrain. The Boers with about 33,000 soldiers, against 13,000 front-line British troops, struck first, besieging Ladysmith, Kimberly, and Mafeking, and winning important battles at Colenso, Magersfontein and Stormberg in late 1899. Staggered, the British fought back, relieved its besieged cities, and prepared to invade first the Orange Free State, and then Transvaal in late 1900. The Boers refused to surrender or negotiate, and reverted to guerrilla warfare. After two years of hard fighting, Britain, using over 400,000 soldiers systematically destroyed the resistance, raising worldwide complaints about brutality. The Boers were fighting for their homes and families, who provided them with food and hiding places. The British solution was to forcefully relocate all the Boer civilians into heavily guarded concentration camps, where 28,000 died of disease. Then it systematically blocked off and tracked down the highly mobile Boer combat units. The battles were small operations; most of the 22,000 British dead were victims of disease. The war cost \u00a3217 million and demonstrated the Army urgently needed reforms but it ended in victory for the British and the Conservatives won the Khaki election of 1900. The Boers were given generous terms, and both former republics were incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910.Judd and Surridge, The Boer War: A History (2013) pp 55\u2013302.\n\nThe war had many vehement critics, predominantly in the Liberal party. However, on the whole, the war was well received by the British public, which staged numerous public demonstrations and parades of support. Soon there were memorials built across Britain. Strong public demand for news coverage meant that the war was well covered by journalists \u2013 including young Winston Churchill \u2013 and photographers, as well as letter-writers and poets. General Sir Redvers Buller imposed strict censorship and had no friends in the media, who wrote him up as a blundering buffoon. In dramatic contrast, Field Marshal Frederick Roberts pampered the press, which responded by making him a national hero.\n\nGerman naval issues\nIn 1897 Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz became German Naval Secretary of State and began the transformation of the Imperial German Navy from a small, coastal defence force to a fleet meant to challenge British naval power. Tirpitz called for a Risikoflotte or \"risk fleet\" that would make it too risky for Britain to take on Germany as part of wider bid to alter the international balance of power decisively in Germany's favour. At the same time German foreign minister Bernhard von B\u00fclow called for Weltpolitik (world politics). It was the new policy of Germany to assert its claim to be a global power. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's policy of Realpolitik (realistic politics) was abandoned as Germany was intent on challenging and upsetting international order. The long-run result was the inability of Britain and Germany to be friends or to form an alliance.\n\nBritain reacted to Germany's accelerated naval arms race by major innovations, especially those developed by Admiral Fisher. The most important development was unveiled \u2013 after Salisbury's death \u2013 the entry of  into service in 1906, which rendered all the world's battleships obsolete and set back German plans.\n\nHistorians agree that Salisbury was a strong and effective leader in foreign affairs. He had a superb grasp of the issues, and was never a \"splendid isolationist\" but rather, says Nancy W. Ellenberger, was:\n\nDomestic policy\nAt home he sought to \"kill Home Rule with kindness\" by launching a land reform programme which helped hundreds of thousands of Irish peasants gain land ownership and largely ended complaints against English landlords. The Elementary School Teachers (Superannuation) Act of 1898 enabled teachers to secure an annuity via the payment of voluntary contributions. The Elementary Education (Defective and Epileptic Children) Act of 1899 permitted school boards to provide for the education of mentally and physically defective and epileptic children.\n\nHonours and retirement\n\nIn 1895 and 1900 he was honoured with appointments as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and High Steward of the City and Liberty of Westminster, which he held for life.\n\nOn 11 July 1902, in failing health and broken hearted over the death of his wife, Salisbury resigned. He was succeeded by his nephew, Arthur Balfour. King Edward VII conferred upon him the Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO), with the order star set in brilliants, during his resignation audience.\n\nLast year: 1902\u20131903\nDue to breathing difficulties caused by his great weight, Salisbury took to sleeping in a chair at Hatfield House. He also experienced a heart condition and later blood poisoning caused by an ulcerated leg. His death in August 1903 followed a fall from that chair.\n\nSalisbury was buried at St Etheldreda's Church, Hatfield, where his predecessor as prime minister, Lord Melbourne, is also interred.  Salisbury is commemorated with a monumental cenotaph near the west door of Westminster Abbey.\n\nWhen Salisbury died his estate was valued at \u00a3310,336, (equivalent to \u00a3 in ).\n\nLegacy\n \n\nMany historians portray Salisbury as a principled statesman of traditional, aristocratic conservatism: a prime minister who promoted cautious imperialism and resisted sweeping parliamentary and franchise reforms. Robert Blake considers Salisbury \"a great foreign minister, [but] essentially negative, indeed reactionary in home affairs\". Professor P.T. Marsh's estimate is more favourable than Blake's; he portrays Salisbury as a leader who \"held back the popular tide for twenty years.\" Professor Paul Smith argues that, \"into the 'progressive' strain of modern Conservatism he simply will not fit.\" H.C.G. Matthew points to \"the narrow cynicism of Salisbury.\" One admirer, conservative historian Maurice Cowling, largely agrees with the critics and says Salisbury found the democracy born of the 1867 and 1884 Reform Acts as \"perhaps less objectionable than he had expected\u2014succeeding, through his public persona, in mitigating some part of its nastiness.\"  Historian Peter T. Marsh states: \"In the field of foreign affairs, where he was happiest and most successful, he kept his own counsel and eschewed broad principles of conduct, preferring close-eyed realism and reliability of conduct.\"\n\nConsiderable attention has been devoted to his writings and ideas. The Conservative historian Robert Blake considered Salisbury \"the most formidable intellectual figure that the Conservative party has ever produced\". In 1977 the Salisbury Group was founded, chaired by Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 6th Marquess of Salisbury and named after the 3rd Marquess. It published pamphlets advocating conservative policies. The academic quarterly The Salisbury Review was named in his honour (by Michael Oakeshott) upon its founding in 1982. Cowling claimed that \"The giant of conservative doctrine is Salisbury\". It was on Cowling's suggestion that Paul Smith edited a collection of Salisbury's articles from the Quarterly Review. Andrew Jones and Michael Bentley wrote in 1978 that \"historical inattention\" to Salisbury \"involves wilful dismissal of a Conservative tradition which recognizes that threat to humanity when ruling authorities engage in democratic flattery and the threat to liberty in a competitive rush of legislation\".\n\nIn 1967, Clement Attlee (Labour Party prime minister, 1945\u201351) was asked who he thought was the best prime minister of his lifetime. Attlee immediately replied: \"Salisbury\".\n\nThe 6th Marquess of Salisbury commissioned Andrew Roberts to write Salisbury's authorised biography, which was published in 1999.\n\nAfter the Bering Sea Arbitration, Canadian Prime Minister Sir John Sparrow David Thompson said of Lord Salisbury's acceptance of the Arbitration Treaty that it was \"one of the worst acts of what I regard as a very stupid and worthless life\".\n\nThe British phrase 'Bob's your uncle' is thought to have derived from Robert Cecil's appointment of his nephew, Arthur Balfour, as Chief Secretary for Ireland.\n\nFort Salisbury (now Harare) was named in honour of him when it was founded in September 1890. Subsequently, simply known as Salisbury, the city became the capital of Southern Rhodesia, from 1890, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland from 1953 to 1963, Rhodesia from 1963 to 1979, Zimbabwe Rhodesia, in 1979, and finally Zimbabwe, from 1980. The name was changed to Harare in April 1982, on the second anniversary of Zimbabwe's independence. Cecil Square, near to Parliament, was also named after him and not, as is erroneously but popularly thought, after Cecil Rhodes. Other Rhodesian\/Zimbabwean connections include the suburbs of Hatfield, Cranborne and New Sarum.\n\nTo date he is the only British prime minister to sport a full beard. At  tall, he was also the tallest prime minister.\n\nFamily and personal life\nLord Salisbury was the third son of James Gascoyne-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury, a minor Conservative politician. In 1857, he defied his father, who wanted him to marry a rich heiress to protect the family's lands. He instead married Georgina Alderson, the daughter of Sir Edward Alderson, a moderately notable judge and of lower social standing than the Cecils. The marriage proved a happy one. Robert and Georgina had eight children, all but one of whom survived infancy. He was an indulgent father and made sure his children had a much better childhood than the one through which he suffered. Cut off from his family money, Robert supported his family through journalism and was later reconciled with his father.\n\nLady Beatrix Maud Cecil (11 April 185827 April 1950); she married William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne on 27 October 1883. They had four children.\nLady Gwendolen Cecil (28 July 186028 September 1945), author, and biographer of her father; she never married. , launched in 1899 on Lake Nyasa, was named after her.\nJames Edward Hubert Gascoyne-Cecil, 4th Marquess of Salisbury (23 October 18614 April 1947); he married Lady Cicely Gore on 17 May 1887. They had seven children.\nLord Rupert Ernest William Cecil, Lord Bishop of Exeter (9 March 186323 June 1936); he married Lady Florence Bootle-Wilbraham on 16 August 1887.\nLord Edgar Algernon Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood (14 September 186424 November 1958); he married Lady Eleanor Lambton on 22 January 1889.\n Hon. Fanny Georgina Mildred Cecil (186524 April 1867)\nLord Edward Herbert Cecil (12 July 186713 December 1918); he married Violet Maxse on 18 June 1894. They had two children.\nLord Hugh Richard Heathcote Cecil, 1st Baron Quickswood (14 October 186910 December 1956)\n\nSalisbury had prosopagnosia, a cognitive disorder which makes it difficult to recognize familiar faces.\n\nCabinets of Lord Salisbury\n\n1885\u20131886\n\n1886\u20131892\n\n1895\u20131902\n\nSee also\n Victorian era\n Historiography of the British Empire\n International relations of the Great Powers (1814\u20131919)\n Splendid isolation\n Timeline of British diplomatic history\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\nAdonis, A. Making Aristocracy Work: The Peerage and the Political System in Britain, 1884\u20131914 (1993).\n Benians, E.A. et al. eds.  The Cambridge History of the British Empire Vol. iii:  The Empire - Commonwealth 1870\u20131919' (1959) p.\u00a0915 and passim; coverage of Salisbury's foreign and imperial policies; online\n Bentley, Michael. Lord Salisbury's World: Conservative Environments in Late-Victorian Britain (2001). online edition\n Lord Blake and H. Cecil (eds.), Salisbury: The Man and His Policies (1987).\n Bright, J. Franck. A History of England: Period V. Imperial Reaction Victoria 1880\u20131901 (vol 5, 1904); detailed political narrative; 295pp; online; also   another copy \n  Brumpton, Paul R. Security and Progress: Lord Salisbury at the India Office (Greenwood Press, 2002) online edition\n Cecil, Algernon. British Foreign Secretaries 1807-1916 (1927) pp 277\u2013314. online\n Cecil, C. Life of Robert, Marquis of Salisbury (4 volumes, 1921\u201332). online\n  This is a long biography, written in the context of 1911, with a Conservative point of view.\n Cooke, A.B. and J. Vincent, The Governing Passion: Cabinet Government and Party Politics in Britain, 1885\u201386 (1974).\nGrenville, J. A. S., Lord Salisbury and Foreign Policy: The Close of the Nineteenth Century (1964).\n Jones, A.The Politics of Reform, 1884 (1972).\n Kennedy, A. L. Salisbury 1830\u20131903: Portrait of a Statesman (1953).\n Gibb, Paul. \"Unmasterly Inactivity? Sir Julian Pauncefote, Lord Salisbury, and the Venezuela Boundary Dispute.\" Diplomacy and Statecraft 16#1 (2005): 23\u201355.\n Gillard, D.R.\"Salisbury's African Policy and the Heligoland Offer of 1890,\" The English Historical Review, Vol. LXXV, 1960.\nThomas P. Hughes, \"Lord Salisbury's Afghan Policy,\" The Arena, Vol. VI, 1892.\nJones, Andrew, and Michael Bentley, 'Salisbury and Baldwin', in Maurice Cowling. ed., Conservative Essays (Cassell, 1978), pp.\u00a025\u201340.\n Langer, William L. The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890\u20131902 (2nd ed. 1950), a standard diplomatic history of Europe\n Lowe, C. J.Salisbury and the Mediterranean, 1886\u20131896 (1965).\n Marsh, P. The Discipline of Popular Government: Lord Salisbury's Domestic Statecraft, 1881\u20131902 (1978).\n Millman, R. Britain and the Eastern question, 1875\u20131878 (1979).\n Otte, T. G. \"A question of leadership: Lord Salisbury, the unionist cabinet and foreign policy making, 1895\u20131900.\" Contemporary British History 14#4 (2000): 1\u201326.\n Otte, T. G. \"'Floating Downstream'? Lord Salisbury and British Foreign Policy, 1878\u20131902\", in Otte (ed.), The Makers of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt to Thatcher (Palgrave, 2002), pp.\u00a098\u2013127. \n Paul, Herbert. A History of Modern England (vol 5, 1906), covers 1885\u20131895. online\n Penson, Lillian M. \"The Principles and Methods of Lord Salisbury's Foreign Policy.\" Cambridge Historical Journal 5#1 (1935): 87-106. online.\nRoberts, Andrew. Salisbury: Victorian Titan (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1999), a standard scholarly biography; 940pp\n Ryan, A. P. \"The Marquis of Salisbury' History Today (April 1951) 1#4 pp 30-36; online.\n\n Shannon, Richard The Age of Disraeli, 1868\u20131881: The Rise of Tory Democracy (1992).\n Shannon, Richard The Age of Salisbury, 1881\u20131902: Unionism and Empire (1996). 569pp. \n Seton-Watson, R. W. Britain in Europe, 1789\u20131914. (1938); comprehensive history online\n Smith, Paul. 'Cecil, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-, third marquess of Salisbury (1830\u20131903)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, October 2009, accessed 8 May 2010.\nSteele, David. Lord Salisbury: A Political biography (1999). online edition\n Steele, David. \"Three British Prime Ministers and the Survival of the Ottoman Empire, 1855\u20131902.\" Middle Eastern Studies 50.1 (2014): 43\u201360.\n Wang, Shih-tsung. Lord Salisbury and Nationality in the East: Viewing Imperialism in Its Proper Perspective (Routledge, 2019).\n Warren, Allen. \"Lord Salisbury and Ireland, 1859\u201387: Principles, Ambitions and Strategies.\" Parliamentary history 26.2 (2007): 203\u2013224.\n Weston, C. C. The House of Lords and Ideological Politics: Lord Salisbury's Referendal Theory and the Conservative Party, 1846\u20131922 (1995).\n\nHistoriography\n Ellenberger, Nancy W. \"Salisbury\" in David Loades, ed. Reader's Guide to British History (2003) 2:1153\u201355\n Goodlad, Graham, \"Salisbury as Premier: Graham Goodlad Asks Whether Lord Salisbury Deserves His Reputation as One of the Great Victorian Prime Ministers,\" History Review #49. 2004. pp 3+. online\n Lowry, Donal. The South African War Reappraised (Manchester UP, 2000). \n Roberts, Andrew. \"Salisbury,\" History Today, (Oct 1999), Vol. 49 Issue 10, p45-51\n\nPrimary sources\nPaul Smith (ed.), Lord Salisbury on Politics. A Selection from His Articles in the Quarterly Review, 1860\u201383 (Cambridge University Press, 1972).\nJohn Vincent (ed.), A Selection from the Diaries of Edward Henry Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby (1826\u201393) between September 1869 and March 1878 (London: The Royal Historical Society, 1994).\nR. H. Williams (ed.), Salisbury\u2013Balfour Correspondence: Letters Exchanged between the Third Marquess of Salisbury and his nephew Arthur James Balfour, 1869\u20131892 (1988).\n Harold Temperley, and Lillian M. Penson, eds; Foundations of British Foreign Policy from Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902); Or, Documents, Old and New (1938) online edition\n  Robert Cecil Salisbury. Essays by the Late Marquess of Salisbury (1905) online\n Temperley, Harold and L.M. Penson, eds. Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902)'' (1938), primary sources pp 365 ff online\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n\nRobert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury on the Downing street website.\n Salisbury, The Empire Builder Who Never Was \u2013 article by Andrew Roberts; historytoday.com\n \nAncestors of Lord Salisbury\n\n \n1830 births\n1903 deaths\n19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom\n20th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom\nAlumni of Christ Church, Oxford\nBritish Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs\nBritish Secretaries of State\nBurials in Hertfordshire\nRobert, Salisbury 3\nChancellors of the University of Oxford\nConservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies\nConservative Party prime ministers of the United Kingdom\nDeputy Lieutenants of Kent\nEnglish Anglicans\nFellows of All Souls College, Oxford\nFellows of the Royal Society\nKnights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order\nKnights of the Garter\nLeaders of the Conservative Party (UK)\nLeaders of the House of Lords\nLords Privy Seal\nLords Warden of the Cinque Ports\nSalisbury3\nRobert\nMembers of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom\nPeople educated at Eton College\nPeople of the Victorian era\nPresidents of the Oxford Union\nPrime Ministers of the United Kingdom\nBritish royalty and nobility with disabilities\nSecretaries of State for India\nUK MPs 1852\u20131857\nUK MPs 1857\u20131859\nUK MPs 1859\u20131865\nUK MPs 1865\u20131868\nSalisbury, M3\nAccidental deaths from falls\nBritish politicians with disabilities","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":247,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":4,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":7,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":6,"2018-47":5,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":4,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":7,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":4,"2016-07":6,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":5,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":7,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":7,"2014-15":6}},"id":232328,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert%20Gascoyne-Cecil%2C%203rd%20Marquess%20of%20Salisbury","title":"Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Eroticism is the quality of sexual excitement. In other words, if something is sexually exciting, then it is said to be erotic. Eroticism is an erotic feeling. It is named after Eros, the Ancient Greek god of love.\n\nMany types of things can be part of eroticism. Things that make a person feel erotic (sexually aroused or excited) include the sight, touch, smell, and sound of another person. A person may feel erotic when they see or touch or smell, or hear someone that they love in a sexual way. \n\nSometimes eroticism has nothing to do with another person. A person might feel erotic from watching a movie, looking at pictures in a magazine, listening to a piece of music, reading a story or article, or just thinking their own thoughts, or being aware of their own body. In fact, everything can be eroticism for someone.\n\nWhat makes eroticism?\n\nSome things are designed and made especially to make people feel erotic. Things that are designed to make people feel erotic are called \"erotica\". This word is most often used for art, books and magazines.\n\nArt - Sometimes artists create erotic works of art such as drawings, paintings and sculpture. They might do this because they want to make a record of a person or a relationship that is special to them. But more often, artists make erotic art for people who would like to buy it. \nBooks - Many books have been written that tell erotic stories, or which give advice about how to make love in an erotic way.\nMovies - Many people enjoy watching erotic movies. \nMagazines - Many magazines have lots of photos of people naked or in sexy clothing, and with erotic expressions and gestures (actions). \nAvertising - Erotic photos are often used for advertising. For example, a beautiful young woman with an erotic expression on her face might be used to advertise hair products, clothes, chocolates, cars, and all sorts of other things. \nClothing - Some clothing is designed to look erotic. Some underwear, in particular, is especially designed to look erotic. \nFood - Some food is said to make people feel erotic. Food can also be used as an erotic sign or be eaten in an erotic way.\nPerfume - Many perfumes have substances in them that effect the human brain in a way that makes a person feel erotic.\n\nEroticism and pornography\n\nMost people believe there is a difference between erotica and pornography, but some people have argued that all erotica is \"pornographic\". (In other words, some people believe that all pictures, movies or writing which are sexually exciting are rude and wrong, and should not be made.)\n\nPeople who have studied this subject say that erotica is not harmful to anyone, and may be helpful with people's loving relationships. The same writers say that pornography, which generally shows a person being treated without respect or love, is not helpful with people's loving relationships.\n\nRelated pages\n Sex \n Pornography\n Romance (love)\n Ecchi\n Sexual attraction\n Physical attractiveness\n\nReferences\n\nHuman sexuality","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":135,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":35541,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eroticism","title":"Eroticism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Alzheimer's Disease (AD)  is a brain disease that slowly destroys brain cells. As of now, there is no cure for Alzheimer's disease. With time, the different symptoms of  the disease become more marked. Many people die because of Alzheimer's disease. The disease affects different parts of the brain but has its worst effects on the areas of the brain that control memory, language, and thinking skills. Alzheimer's Disease is the most common form of senile dementia accounting for up to 70% of cases.\n\nThe clinical symptoms of AD usually occurs after age 65, but changes in the brain which do not cause symptoms and are caused by Alzheimer's, may begin years or in some cases decades before. Although the symptoms of AD begin in older people it is not a normal part of aging.\n\nAt this time there is no cure for Alzheimer's, but there are treatments that can help some patients with the signs and symptoms so they do not affect them as badly. There are also treatments which slow down the disease so the damage to the brain does not happen as quickly. There are also certain personal habits that people can learn which may help to delay the onset of the disease.\n\nWhile it is not yet known exactly what causes Alzheimer's disease, there are a number of risk factors which may make a person more likely to get it. Some of these risk factors are genetic; changes to four different genes have been found which increase the risk.\n\nThe current lifetime risk for a 65-year-old person to get Alzheimer's disease is estimated to be at 10.5%. It is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States causing about 83,500 deaths a year. In 2007, there were more than 26.6 million people throughout the world who were affected by AD.\n\nAlzheimer's disease was named after Alois Alzheimer, a German psychiatrist and neuropathologist who first described the disease after studying the case of a middle-aged woman, Auguste Deter, who was a patient at a hospital in Frankfurt, Germany in 1906. The disease was named Alzheimer's disease in 1910 by Dr. Emil Kraepilin a co-worker of Alzheimer.\n\nTangles and plaques\n\nTwo of the main features found in the brains of people with of Alzheimer's disease, are neurobrillary tangles ('tangles' for short), which are made up of a protein called tau, and senile plaques (which are made mostly from another protein called beta-amyloid, they are also sometimes called beta-amyloid bundles or 'bundles' for short). The tau proteins that form the tangles previously held together a structure inside the neurons called a microtubule which is an important part of the neuron; it forms part of the cytoskeleton (cell skeleton) which is what maintains a cell's shape, and microtubules plays a part in cell communication.\n\nBoth tangles and plaques may be caused by other diseases, such as Herpes simplex virus Type 1 which is being investigated as a possible cause or contributor in developing Alzheimer's. It is not known for sure if tangles and plaques are part of what causes Alzheimer's, or if they are the results.\n\nMicrotubules\n\nMicrotubules are made of a protein called tubulin. The tubulin is polymerized, which is when molecules form the same shapes over and over again that are linked together in groups, and these groups are linked together. They can form long chains or other shapes; in this case the polymerized tubulin forms microtubules. The microtubules are rigid tubes like microscopic straws which are hollow inside. Microtubules help keep the shape of the neuron, and are inolved in passing signals through the neuron.\n\nTau\n\nTau is a protein that is found mostly in the neurons of the central nervous system. They help hold together the microtubules within the neurons.  and when changes happen in the way the tau proteins are supposed to work the microtubules break apart. The tau proteins which are no longer holding the microtubules together form strands called fibrils, which then clump together inside the neuron to make what are called neurofibrillary tangles . These clumps, also known as 'tau tangles', are all that remain after a neuron has died. \n \n\nBeta-amyloid \n\nBeta-amyloid(A\u03b2) (also called 'amyloid beta') plaques start with a protein called amyloid precursor protein (APP). APP is one of the proteins that make up a cell's membrane or outer covering, that protects the cell. In this case a neuron.. As it is made inside the cell, APP sticks out through the membrane of the cell.\n\nIn different parts of the of cell including the outermost part of the cell membrane, chemicals called enzymes snip the APP into small pieces.  These enzymes that do the snipping are alpha-secretase, beta-secretase, and gamma-secretase.  Depending on which enzyme is doing the snipping and what parts of the APP are snipped, two different things can happen. One that is helpful and one that causes the formation of beta-amyloid plaques.\n\nThe plaques are formed when beta-secretase snips the APP molecule at one end of the beta-amyloid peptide, releasing sAPP\u03b2 from the cell. Gamma-secretase then cuts the pieces of APP that is left and, still sticking out of the neuron's membrane, at the other end of the beta-amyloid peptide. After this snipping the beta-amyloid peptide is released into the space outside the neuron and begins to stick to other beta-amyloid peptides. These pieces stick together to form oligomers. Different oligomers of various sizes are now floating around in the spaces between the neurons, which may be responsible for reacting with receptors on neighboring cells and synapses, affecting their ability to function.\n\nSome of these oligomers are cleared from the brain. Those that are not cleared out clump together with more pieces of beta-amyloid. As more pieces clump togther the oligomers get bigger larger, and the next size up are called protofibrils and the next size after that are called fibrils. After a while, these fibrils clump together with other protein molecules, neurons and non-nerve cells floating around in the space between the cells and form what are called plaques.\n\nCerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA)\n\nDeposits of beta-amyloid also form in the walls (in the tunica media, the middle layer, and  tunica adventitia or tunica externa, the outer layer) of small and mid-sized arteries (and sometimes veins) in the cerebral cortex and the leptomeninges (the leptomeninges are the two inner layers - pia mater and arachnoid - of the meninges, a protective 3-layer membrane covering the brain.)\n\nCAA is found in 30% of people over the age of 60 years who do not have any dementia but is found in 90%-96% of people with Alzheimer disease and is severe in one third to two thirds of these cases.\n\nStages\nThe first area of the brain to be affected by Alzheimer's is the \"transentorhinal region\" which is part of the medial temporal lobe located deep within the brain.  Neurons start dying in this area first. It then spreads into the adjacent entorhinal cortex (EC) which acts as a central hub, for a widespread network that handles signals for memory and movement(like a main train station with train tracks going to different areas). \n\nThe EC is the main area for communication between the hippocampus, and the neocortex - which is the outer portion of the brain responsible for higher functioning such as how the brain perceives information from the five senses; (smell, sight, taste, touch and hearing; Ex. seeing a person's face and recognizing them,) generating motor commands (Ex, moving and arm or leg, walking, running) spatial reasoning, conscious thought and language.\n\nThe disease then spreads into the hippocampus which is part of the limbic system. The hippocampus is the part of the brain that is involved in forming new memories, organizing them, and storing them for later recall. It is also where emotions and senses, such as smell and sound are attached to specific memories. Example 1.: A memory might make you happy or sad. Example 2.: A smell might bring up a certain memory.\n\nThe hippocampus then sends memories to the different parts of the cerebral hemisphere where they are placed in long-term storage and it helps retrieve them when necessary. Example: An adult trying to remember the name of a classmate from kindergarten.\n\nIn addition to handling memory the hippocampus is also involved in emotional responses, navigation (getting around) and spatial orientation (knowing your sense of place as you move around Example: Knowing your way around your bedroom even with the lights off).\n\nThere are actually two parts of the hippocampus which is shaped like a horseshoe with one in the left part of the brain and the other in the right part of the brain.\n\nDiagnosis\n\nPreclinical\nRed Blue Green Purple Orange Purple Orange Green Blue Red\n\nBlue Orange Purple Green Red Purple Green Red Blue Orange\n\nThe Stroop Color\u2013Word Test\nThis is a short example of the test. The test is used to measure different cognitive functions such as selective attention.\n\nNaming the colors of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second, because in the first set, the colors match the words, in the second set they do not. So a person has to pay more attention.\n\nPeople having problems with attention as may happen in early-stage Alzheimer's tend to do poorly on this test.Cognitive Neuropsychology Of Alzheimer's Disease. Eds. Robin G. Morris, James T. Becker. Oxford University Press, USA; 2 edition (2005) pp-109-110 \n\nWith current research using advances in neuroimaging such as FDG-PET and PIB-PET scans, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) assays, it is now possible to detect the beginning processes of Alzheimer's disease that occur before symptoms begin. The research suggests that clinically normal older people (no symptoms at all) have biomarker evidence of amyloid beta (A\u03b2) build-up in the brain. This amyloid beta (A\u03b2) is linked to changes in the structure of the brain and how it works that is the similar to what is seen in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) - which may lead to Alzheimer's - and people with Alzheimer's.\n\nThese small preclinical changes (no symptoms) in the brain may occur many years, to even a few decades before a person is diagnosed with Alzheimer's. With a stage where there is some memory loss, or mild cognitive impairment. These changes put a person at risk of developing the clinical symptoms of full-blown  Alzheimer's but not everyone who has these changes will get the disease. Even though there is no cure for Alzheimer's, there are new treatments which are being developed which would work better in the very first stages of the disease.\n\nAt this time exactly what makes up the preclinical phase of Alzheimer's is still being researched, such as why some people with go on to develop Alzheimer's and others do not. So the term preclinical phase is being used for research only. There is a worldwide effort in various countries doing research in this area known as the World Wide Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (WW-ADNI) which is the umbrella organization for neuroimaging studies being carried out through the North American ADNI, European ADNI (E-ADNI), Japan ADNI, Australian ADNI (AIBL), Taiwan ADNI, Korea ADNI, China ADNI and Argentina ADNI.\n\nBeginning stages\n\n\"Misdiagnosis in very early stages of Alzheimer's is a significant problem, as there are more than 100 conditions that can mimic the disease. In people with mild memory complaints, our accuracy is barely better than chance,\" according to study researcher P. Murali Doraiswamy, MBBS, professor of psychiatry and medicine at Duke Medicine, \"Given that the definitive gold standard for diagnosing Alzheimer's is autopsy, we need a better way to look into the brain.\"\n\nHistory\n\nIn 1901, a 51-year-old woman named Auguste Deter, was committed to the City Asylum for the Insane and Epileptic, (St\u00e4dtischen Anstalt f\u00fcr Irre und Epileptische) in Frankfurt am Main, Germany which had the nickname  \"Irrenschloss\" (Castle of the Insane). She was married and had a normal life until eight months prior to her commitment, when she started having psychological and neurological problems, such as problems with memory and language, paranoia, becoming disorientated and having hallucinations.\n\nShe was studied by a doctor on staff named Alois Alzheimer (1864\u20131915).  Alzheimer became interested in her case because of her age; while the effects of senile dementia were known at the time, they usually did not start until a person was in their early to mid-sixties. Her case was also notable because of the rapid onset of dementia, only eight months, from the first reported symptoms, until she was committed.\n\nWhile conducting one of his examinations of Ms. Deter, he asked her to perform a series of simple writing tasks. Unable to do what was asked such as write her name, she said \"I have lost myself, so to speak\" (\"Ich habe mich sozusagen selbst verloren\").\n\nAlzheimer left the hospital in Franfkurt in 1902 to begin working with Emil Kraepelin at the Psychiatric University Hospital in Heidelberg-Bergheim, and in 1903 both he and Kraepelin began working at Ludwig Maximilian University in Munich.\n\nWhen Ms. Deter died of septicemia on 8 April 1906, Alzheimer was informed and her brain was sent to Munich for him to study. Studying samples of her brain under a microscope he noticed neurofibriallry tangles and bundles made up of beta-amyloid plaque, which are two of the main features of the disease.  On 3 November 1906, Alzheimer presented the results of his findings in Auguste's case at the Conference of South-West German Psychiatrists in T\u00fcbingen, and he published his findings in the case in 1907.\n\nIn 1910, Emil Kraepelin named the disease 'Alzheimer's disease'. Alzheimer's disease usually beigins affecting people between ages 60\u201365, in Ms. Deter's case - who was 55-years-old when she died - she had a form of what is now known as Early-onset Alzhiemer's disease.\n\nFamous cases\n\nAnyone can get Alzheimer's disease, rich people or poor famous people and unfamous people. Some of the famous people who have gotten Alzheimer's disease are former United States President Ronald Reagan and Irish writer Iris Murdoch, both of whom were the subjects of scientific articles examining how their cognitive capacities got worse with the disease.\n\nOther cases include the retired footballer Ferenc Pusk\u00e1s, the former Prime Ministers Harold Wilson (United Kingdom) and Adolfo Su\u00e1rez (Spain), the actress Rita Hayworth, the Nobel Prize-winner Raymond Davis, Jr., the actors Charlton Heston and Gene Wilder, the novelist Terry Pratchett, politician and activist Sargent Shriver, the Blues musician B.B. King, director Jacques Rivette, Indian politician George Fernandes,\nand the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics recipient Charles K. Kao. In 2012, Nobel Prize writer Gabriel Garc\u00eda M\u00e1rquez was diagnosed with the disease. Former Finnish President Mauno Koivisto died of the disease in May 2017. Country singer Glen Campbell died of the disease in August 2017.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n  video\n \n \n \n\nDementia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":8642,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alzheimer%27s%20disease","title":"Alzheimer's disease","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\"Love's Philosophy\" is a poem written by Percy Bysshe Shelley in 1820.\n\nOriginal text\n\nThe fountains mingle with the river\nAnd the rivers with the Ocean,\nThe winds of Heaven mix for ever\nWith a sweet emotion;\nNothing in the world is single;\nAll things by a law divine\nin one spirit meet and mingle.\nWhy not I with thine?--\n\nSee the mountains kiss high Heaven\nAnd the waves clasp one another;\nNo sister-flower would be forgiven\nIf it disdained its brother;\nAnd the sunlight clasps the earth\nAnd the moonbeams kiss the sea:\nWhat is all this sweet work worth\nIf thou kiss not me?\n\n19th-century British poems\n1820s works","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":12,"dup_details":{"2024-30":10,"2024-26":14,"2024-22":13,"2024-18":7,"2024-10":19,"2017-13":26,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":5,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":8}},"id":202548,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Love%27s%20Philosophy","title":"Love's Philosophy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A prediction is a statement that someone makes about what they think is going to happen. It is often very helpful to know what is going to happen to help prepare for these future events. Predictions are based on the idea that two beginning positions that are like each other will have similar results. By watching something happen, it is possible to predict what will happen if something similar happens. Predictions are given by science or fortune tellers or horoscopes. \n\nThe most common example of a prediction is the weather forecast. Studying how weather happens lets people predict what the weather will be by looking at what is currently happening. This is helpful because by knowing that it is going to rain, a person can wear the right clothes for it.\n\nNostradamus has made many predictions about the future.\n\nRelated pages \nForecasting\nHypothesis\n\nFuture events","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":630,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prediction","title":"Prediction","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Reactivity is a measure of how much a substance tends to react with other things. Some substances are more reactive, and others are less reactive. Reactivity is set by several factors:\n the range of circumstances (conditions that include temperature, pressure, or presence of catalysts) in which the substance reacts,\n the range of substances that will react with it,\n the equilibrium point of the reaction (that is, the extent to which all of it reacts), or\n the speed of the reaction.\n\nReactivity involves both the thermodynamics and kinetics of the particular chemical reaction. A reaction will be more reactive if the total energy of the products is less than the total energy of the reactants. A reaction will be more reactive if the energy of its transition is low.\n\nLithium reacts with water and air. Gold does not react with water or air. Gold is unreactive, thus low on the reactivity series. Lithium is reactive. There are several ways to measure reactivity. Some are reducing agents, and others can be oxidizing agents. Some absorb water easily. Some break down easily.\n\nReferences\n\nChemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2024-10":1}},"id":313661,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reactivity%20%28chemistry%29","title":"Reactivity (chemistry)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The knee is the joint that links 4 of the upper and lower bones of the leg, which are called the femur, tibia, fibula and the patella. The knee joint is the largest joint in the body and is an extensive network of ligaments and muscles. Basically, it is a hinge which allows movement of the lower leg in only one direction. The lower leg (tibia+fibula+foot) can swing back from the knee, and that is all.\n\nThe knee is held together by ligaments which connect the bones and produces fluid which lubricates the movement at the joint. The meniscus is a cartilage \nthat lies on the inner and outer edges of the upper surface of the tibia. These are the shock\nabsorbers of the knee and supply proper weight distribution.\n\nBasic English 850 words\nJoints","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":30128,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knee","title":"Knee","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The trachea, or windpipe, is the bony tube that connects the nose and mouth to the lungs, and is an important part of the vertebrate respiratory system. In mammals, the trachea begins at the lower part of the larynx and continues to the lungs, where it branches into the right and left bronchi. Inflammation of the trachea can lead to other conditions, such as tracheitis, which is the inflammation of the linings of the trachea.\n\nInvertebrate trachea \n\nThe invertebrate trachea refers to the open respiratory system of terrestrial arthropods. It consists of spiracles, tracheae, and tracheoles that take metabolic gases to and from tissues.  The distribution of spiracles varies, but in general each segment of the body has only one pair of spiracles, each of which connects to an atrium and has a relatively large tracheal tube behind it.\n\nThe smallest tubes, tracheoles, penetrate cells and diffuse water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Gas may be moved actively or by passive diffusion. Unlike vertebrates, insects do not generally carry oxygen in their haemolymph.\nThis is one of the factors that may limit their size.\n\nA tracheal tube may contain ridge-like circumferential rings of taenidia in various geometries such as loops or helices. In the head, thorax, or abdomen, tracheae may also be connected to air sacs. Many insects, such as grasshoppers and bees, which actively pump the air sacs in their abdomen, are able to control the flow of air through their body. In some aquatic insects, the tracheae exchange gas through the body wall directly, in the form of a gill, or function as normal, via a plastron. Despite being internal, the tracheae of arthropods are shed during moulting (ecdysis).\n\nReferences \n\nAnimal anatomy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":140,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2024-30":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":307684,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trachea","title":"Trachea","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Prussia (; , , Old Prussian: Pr\u016bsa or  Pr\u016bsija) was a series of countries. Originally it was a historically prominent German state that originated in 1525. Mostly, the name is used for the Kingdom of Prussia, which was in northern Europe. It was part of Germany for a while, and it included land in Poland, France, and Lithuania. The name \"Prussian\" has had a lot of different meanings in the past and now:\n The land of the Baltic Prussians (today parts of southern Lithuania, Kaliningrad, and north-eastern Poland);\n The lands of the Teutonic Knights (a group of religious soldiers in the 12th century);\n Part of the lands of the Polish Crown, Royal Prussia;\n A fief of the Polish Crown, Ducal Prussia, later under control of the Hohenzollern family of Brandenburg;\n All Hohenzollern land, inside or outside Germany;\n An independent Kingdom, from the 17th century until 1871;\n The largest part of the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, and Nazi Germany from 1871 to 1945.\n\nIn 1934, Germany stopped using the name Prussia for that area, and in 1947 the Allies abolished the state of Prussia and divided its territory among themselves and the new States of Germany. Today, the name is only for historical, geographical, or cultural use.\n\nThe name Prussia comes from the Borussi or Prussi people who lived in the Baltic region and spoke the Old Prussian language. Ducal Prussia was a fiefdom of the Kingdom of Poland until 1660, and Royal Prussia was part of Poland until 1772. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, most German-speaking Prussians started thinking of themselves as part of the German nation. They thought the Prussian way of life was very important: \n Perfect organization\n Sacrifice (giving other people something you need)\n Obeying the law\n\nFrom the late 18th century, Prussia had a lot of power in northern Germany and throughout central Europe; it was the strongest in politics and economics, and it had the most people. After Chancellor Otto von Bismarck dissolved the German Confederation, Prussia annexed almost all of northern Germany. In 1871, after the Franco-Prussian War, von Bismarck created the German Empire, and Prussia was the center of the empire, with the Kings of Prussia being the Emperors of Germany.\n\nGeography \nPrussia's borders have changed over time.  It has not always been the exact same place.  Mostly, Prussia was a small part of what is today northern Poland. After a small number of Prussian people moved there to live, Germans came to live there too. In 1934, Prussia's borders were with France, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Lithuania. Some parts of Prussia are in eastern Poland. Before 1918, a lot of western Poland was also in Prussia. Between 1795 and 1807, Prussia also controlled Warsaw and most of central Poland.\n\nBefore 1934, these regions were also in Prussia:\n West Prussia and East Prussia, which are now in Poland and Russia\n Pomerania\n Silesia\n Brandenburg\n Lusatia\n Province of Saxony (now Saxony-Anhalt)\n Kingdom of Hanover\n Schleswig-Holstein\n Westphalia\n parts of Hesse\n the Rhineland\n some small areas in the south, for example W\u00fcrttemberg-Hohenzollern, the home of the leaders of Prussia\n\nHowever, some regions were never part of Prussia, such as Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, and the Hanse city-states.\n\nNortheast Germany was Protestant, so Prussians were mostly Protestant. But there were a lot of Catholic people in the Rhineland, East Prussia, Posen, Silesia, West Prussia, and Ermland. The states of south Germany (especially Austria and Bavaria) were Catholic, so they did not want Prussians to rule them. Prussia was mostly German, but in the late 18th century, the new Polish areas had a lot of Polish people too. In 1918, these Polish areas were given to Poland, and in 1945, Pomerania and East Prussia were given to Poland. Northern East Prussia, specifically Kaliningrad, was given to Russia.\n\nHistory \nIn 1226, Polish Prince Conrad of Mazovia (Mazovia is a place in Northern Poland) asked the Teutonic Knights from Transylvania to come to Mazovia. He wanted them to fight the Prussian tribes on his borders. They fought for more than 100 years. Then they created a new state. After some time, this state controlled most of today's Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and parts of northern Poland. In 1466, the Knights were under the King of Poland and Lithuania. In 1525, the leader of the Knights became a Protestant. He made part of the Knights' land into the Duchy of Prussia, which was then part of the Kingdom of Poland. \n\nAt that time, the Duchy of Prussia was only the area east of the place where the Vistula River enters the sea. In 1618, the new Duke of Prussia was the Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg. He was also Margrave of Brandenburg. Brandenburg was ruled by the Hohenzollern family. The Duchy of Prussia was important to the Hohenzollern family because it was not part of the Holy Roman Empire. The name for the new state was Brandenburg-Prussia. In the middle of the state was Polish land, but Brandenburg-Prussia was moving away from Poland. Under Frederick William, who was called the Great Elector, Prussia took some new land in Magdeburg and areas west of the Rhine.\n\nKingdom of Prussia \n\nIn 1701, the Holy Roman Emperor and Polish King allowed Brandenburg-Prussia to call itself \"Kingdom of Prussia\" with Frederick I as its king. Under Frederick II (\"the Great\"), Prussia waged war against Austria and took Silesia. The wars ended in 1763; Prussia was then the most powerful state in eastern Germany. Other parts of Germany, including Pomerania, went to Prussia because of marriage or death.\n\nDuring this time, the Prussian army got bigger, and so did the administration system. Until 1945, these were at the most important parts of the German state. Between 1772 and 1795, Prussia, Russia and Austria divided Poland into parts (the Partitions of Poland). Prussia controlled land in the far east, including the city of Warsaw. \n\nFrederick William II had Prussia join the war with France in 1792. He lost at Valmy and gave his western land to France. Frederick William III started a new war, but lost at Jena. He gave more land to France at the Treaty of Tilsit.\n\nIn 1813, Prussia again started war with Napoleonic France. In 1815, Prussia won back the land it lost in earlier wars and also all the Rhineland and Westphalia and some other land. This land in the west was very important, especially the Ruhr valley. It was the new center of Germany's industrialization and the home of the weapons industry. After the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia was the strongest power in Germany and more powerful than Austria.  \n\nIn the early 19th century, there were two political groups in Germany.  The liberals wanted a democratic system with one strong central government. The conservatives wanted Germany to be made of a group of independent, weak states . In 1848, revolution came to Europe. Frederick William IV was worried. He allowed a National Assembly and a constitution. The new Frankfurt Parliament wanted to give Frederick William the crown of all Germany, but he did not want it. He said that revolutionaries could not name kings. Now Prussia had a semi-democratic constitution, but really the nobility with land (the Junkers) had the power, especially in the east.\n\nImperial Prussia\n\nIn 1862, Prussian King Wilhelm I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the prime minister of Prussia. Bismarck wanted the liberals and the conservatives to lose. He wanted to create a strong, united Germany, but he wanted to do so under the Junker, not under the western German liberals. So, he started three wars:\n with Denmark in 1864 \u2013 this gave Prussia control of the Schleswig-Holstein area\n with Austria in 1869 (Austro-Prussian War) \u2013 this allowed Prussia to take Hanover and most other northern German territories that had been ruled by Austria\n with France in 1870 (Franco-Prussian War) - so Bismarck could control Mecklenburg, Bavaria, Baden, W\u00fcrttemberg, and Saxony.  After this, these states (but not Austria) became part of a united German Empire, and Wilhelm I took the title of Emperor (Kaiser). \n\nThis was Prussia's high moment. The economic and political future looked good. But after 99 days, in 1888, the state had a new leader, Kaiser Wilhelm II. He fired Bismarck, who lost his job in 1890, and Wilhelm II started a new foreign policy.  He made the army bigger, and the navy much bigger, and he took risks. This is part of why Germany entered World War I. When the Germans and their allies lost that war, the Prussian Junkers lost power.  The Prussian king and the other German kings had to leave.  Germany became the Weimar Republic. In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles re-created the Polish state, and Prussia had to give up much of its land.  The Polish Corridor was split between East Prussia and Germany.\n\nThe end of Prussia \n\nAt the end of World War I, the Treaty of Versailles separated West Prussia from the rest of Germany to make the Free City of Danzig and Polish Corridor, so Poland would have access to the ocean instead of being landlocked. Some people also wanted to break Prussia into smaller states, but this did not happen. Prussia became the \"Prussian Free State\" (Freistaat Preu\u00dfen), the largest state in the Weimar Republic.   The Prussian Free State made up more than 60% of all the land in the Weimar Republic. The Prussian Free State contained the industrial Ruhr area the city of Berlin, so many people with left-leaning political ideas lived there. The Social Democrats and the Catholic Centre had power for most of the 1920s.  \n\nIn 1932, Germany's conservative Chancellor Franz von Papen took control of Prussia, ending the state's democratic constitution. It was the end of German democracy too. In 1933, Hermann G\u00f6ring became Interior Minister of Prussia; he was now very strong. In 1934, the Nazis took the German states' power.   \n\nIn 1945, the Soviet Union's army captured all of eastern and central Germany (and Berlin). Poland took everything east of the Oder-Neisse line, e.g. Silesia, Pomerania, eastern Brandenburg, and East Prussia. The Soviet Union took the northern third of East Prussia, including K\u00f6nigsberg, now Kaliningrad.  About ten million Germans had to run away from these areas. Polish and Russian people moved in in their place. Because of this, and because the Communists took control of land in the GDR, also called East Germany, the Junker and Prussia were finished. \n\nIn 1947, the United States, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union formally agreed the end of Prussia. In the Soviet Zone (which was called the GDR starting in 1949), which included Prussian lands, were now the states of Brandenburg and Saxony-Anhalt. The Prussian parts of Pomerania went to Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. In 1952, the GDR government stopped using states and used districts instead. In 1990, the end of the GDR, the states returned. In the West, (called the Federal Republic of Germany or West Germany starting in 1949), the Prussian lands went to North Rhine-Westphalia, Lower Saxony, Hesse, Rhineland-Palatinate and Schleswig-Holstein. Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg took the Hohenzollern land.\n\nThe idea of Prussia is not completely dead in Germany. Some people want to put together the states of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and Berlin and call them Prussia. But German politicians are not interested in the idea.  The constitution of Berlin allows for Berlin and Brandenburg to become one state, but the people of Berlin voted against doing this on May 5, 1996.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n \n \n 1660 map of Prussia 1660 \n map of Prussian Provinces\n Part Map of Prussia by Gerard Mercator, Atlas sive cosmographica., Amsterdam 1594 \n Part Map of Prussia by Kasper Henneberger, Koenigsberg 1629 \n Map of Old Prussia by K. Henneberger, 17th century. \n Map of Prussia by K. Henneberger  in: Christoph Hartknoch, Alt- und neues Preussen..., Frankfurt 1684\n Map of Prussia and Freie Stadt Danzig from 18th c. \n Map of East Prussia  K. Flemming, F. Handtke, G\u0142og\u00f3w ca. 1920, after Treaty of Versailles\n\n1525 establishments\nHouse of Hohenzollern\n \nStates and territories disestablished in the 20th century\n1947 disestablishments\n16th-century establishments in Germany\n1940s disestablishments in Europe\n\nGerman Empire","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":231,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":4,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":5,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":6,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":7,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":5,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":5,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":7,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":9,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":6,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":4,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":4,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":5354,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prussia","title":"Prussia","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The stack is one of the most important data structures in computer science. To understand how a stack works, think of a deck of playing cards that is face down. We can only easily access the card that is on top. When we want to look at the top card, there are two things we can do: we can peek at it, but leave it on the stack, or we can pop it off. When we pop off the top object, we are taking it off the stack. If we want to add another card to the top of the stack, we push. \n\nA stack is called a last-in-first-out (LIFO) collection. This means that the last thing we added (pushed) is the first thing that gets pulled (popped) off. If the last card we put on our stack of cards was an ace, then the first card we pulled from the top is that same ace.\n\nHistory \nThe stack was first proposed in 1955, and then patented in 1957, by the German Friedrich L. Bauer. The same concept was developed independently, at around the same time, by the Australian Charles Leonard Hamblin.\n\nOther operations \nIn modern computer languages, the stack is usually implemented with more operations than just \"push\" and \"pop\". Some implementations have a function which returns the current length of the stack. Another typical helper operation is \"top\" (also known as \"peek\"), which can return the current top element of the stack without removing it. Another common operation is \"dup,\" which makes a copy of the element at the top of the stack.\n\nRelated pages\n Stack machine\n\nComputer science\nData structures","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":168125,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stack%20%28data%20structure%29","title":"Stack (data structure)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"E Prime (it means English Prime) defines a way of speaking English without using the verb \"to be\" in any way (\"be, is, am, are, was, were, been, and being\"). Instead, an E Prime speaker or writer uses different verbs like \"to become,\" \"to remain,\" and \"to equal\" or they might choose to rearrange the sentence to show that the \"thing\" does not actually \"act\". For example, in E Prime, a writer would change the statement \"Mistakes were made\" to \"Joe made mistakes.\" This change in wording reveals an actor (Joe) where the previous form concealed the actor. Users of E Prime would consider the changed sentence more accurate.\n\nWhat E Prime is \nD. David Bourland, Jr. first suggested E Prime in 1965. Bourland had studied the discipline (way of thinking) of General Semantics. The main idea of General Semantics is that people can only know what they observe and experience when they see, hear, touch, taste, smell, think, and feel, and furthermore, that what they observe and experience can affect how they observe and experience in the future. Because each person has different experiences throughout their lives, they interpret their experiences differently. \n\nStudents of General Semantics and users of E Prime contend that to say \"This cat is soft\" leaves out many other attributes, and implies that the outside \"object\" of the cat is the \"same as\" the inside experience of \"softness\". Instead, E Prime users say \"This cat feels soft TO ME\" to remind themselves of the following:\nThat their experience of \"softness\" involves both the outside \"object\" called \"cat\" and the eyes, hands, brain and nervous system of the observer.\n That someone else might experience different aspects of the cat.\n That they themselves might experience something different at a different time or in different circumstances. (The cat might scratch them, or look or feel wet or matted with dirt.)\n\nWhat E Prime is not \nAlthough languages like Russian, Arabic, Turkish, and Cantonese do not always use a separate verb for \"to be,\" they do have the idea of \"being.\" For example, an English speaker might say \"This apple is red.\" An Arabic speaker might say \"This apple red.\" Most languages can be used to express the idea of a red apple. An E Prime user chooses to say \"This apple looks red to me\" to remind themselves that \"seeing red\" involves both the apple and the eye and brain of the person looking at the apple.\n\nMany teachers of English encourage students to use verbs other than \"to be.\" To them, using more active verbs makes writing clearer and more interesting. These teachers want to improve their students' writing and may not agree with the ideas of General Semantics or E Prime.\n\nDifferent functions of 'to be'\nIn English, 'to be' can have different functions:\nIt talks about Identity: The cat is my only pet, The cat is Garfield\nIt talks about belonging to a class, or a group: The cat is an animal\nIt can talk about properties: The cat is furry\nIt can be an auxiliary verb: The cat is sleeping, The cat is bitten by the dog\nIt can talk about existence: There is a cat\nIt can talk about location: The cat is here\n\nEnglish language","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":227,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E%20Prime","title":"E Prime","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ultraviolet is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum shown on the left side of the picture below as black\u2014because humans cannot see light of such short wavelength (or high frequency). Many animals such as some insects, some reptiles, crocodiles, salamanders, and small birds can see things that reflect this light. UV is a common abbreviation of ultraviolet, mainly used in technical contexts.\n\nUltraviolet is beyond the visible violet light in terms of frequency, wavelength, and energy. Its wavelengths are between about 10 nanometers (nm) to about 400 nanometers. Frequency and wavelength are closely related. The equation that shows this relationship is: \u03bd = c\/\u03bb . Saying that something has a short wavelength is the same as saying that it has a high frequency.\n\nUltraviolet radiation \nUltraviolet light is a type of ionizing radiation. It can damage or kill cells. Any electromagnetic radiation (light) that has a wavelength shorter than 450\u00a0nm may cause trouble. Therefore, humans that live in places with more ultraviolet light have adapted by getting darker skins. Pigments absorb the ultraviolet radiation, so it does not get through the skin to kill or injure cells inside. Injury to the skin by ultraviolet is called \"sunburn.\"\n\nThe violet light and ultraviolet light differ in their wavelength, frequency, and quantum energy. The differences between ultraviolet light and x-rays are also wavelength, frequency and quantum energy. In the electromagnetic spectrum, ultraviolet is beyond violet, x-rays are beyond ultraviolet, and gamma rays are beyond x-rays.\n\nElectromagnetic waves with a wavelength from about 400\u00a0nanometers down to about 10\u00a0nanometers are commonly called ultraviolet. Their characteristic photon energy is about 3 to 124 electronvolts.\n\nAlthough the air of the Earth is transparent to a broad range of ultraviolet, some ultraviolet sunlight is absorbed at a very high altitude by the ozone layer. Recent and ongoing destruction of ozone in high altitudes caused by human influence\u2014mostly by industrial chemicals and air travel\u2014has greatly increased the amount of ultraviolet light reaching the Earth's surface. This, in turn, has increased the risk of skin cancer to mankind, and this risk will only increase with time unless the ozone layer is better protected.\n\nUltraviolet wavelengths less than 200\u00a0nanometers, X-rays, and gamma rays, are collectively called ionizing radiation since the energy in any such light quantum is high enough to 'kick' an electron out of an atom. This is why these kinds of radiation are dangerous to life. Ultraviolet light is subdivided into three main bands. UV-C has the shortest wavelengths and is dangerous ionizing radiation. Nitrogen and oxygen absorb the UV-C from solar radiation. UV-B has medium wavelength and is less dangerous to living things. The Earth's ozone layer absorbs most of it. UV-A from the Sun gets through the atmosphere entirely. It has wavelength almost as long as visible light, and many animals can see it but humans cannot.\n\nOrdinary glass does not let radiation through if its wavelength is less than 200\u00a0nanometers, so it acts as a shield against the more dangerous range of ultraviolet light, but some special sorts of glass do not shield as well, including many car windows.\n\nOne use for ultraviolet radiation is tanning. Use of tanning devices can cause skin cancer because ultraviolet goes through the skin and causes destruction to cells, causing sunburn.\n\nBecause of the destructive power of ultraviolet light, it can be used to kill germs. Sunlight is a powerful disinfectant.\n\nPeople need some ultraviolet light to convert cholesterol into vitamin D.\n\nUltraviolet lamp \n\nAn ultraviolet lamp is one that emits mostly ultraviolet light. These germicidal lamps are often used to kill microbes (germs). They can be very powerful, so the people who work around them when they are turned on may need to wear protective glasses and keep their skin covered to avoid injury.\n\nIn the laboratory pictured, ultraviolet lights are turned on when the workers are gone, so that anything on the table surface will be killed. Besides ultraviolet light, which makes up most of the light produced by these lamps, there is also a little violet and blue light. This lets people know when the ultraviolet lamps are turned on.\n\nElectromagnetic radiation","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":164,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":5,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":4,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":5,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":12509,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ultraviolet","title":"Ultraviolet","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Abba Judan (or Judah) was a philanthropist who lived in Antioch in the early part of the second century. As an example of his generosity, it is recorded that once he sold half of his property, already considerably reduced by the demands of charity, to avoid turning away empty-handed Rabbis Eliezer, Joshua, and Akiba, who were collecting donations for educational purposes. The record adds that the blessings conferred upon him by these rabbis bore fruit, for shortly afterward, by a happy accident, he discovered a treasure. His name was not permitted to fall into oblivion, and for centuries later the name \"Abba Judan\" seems to have been applied in Palestine to every unusually benevolent man. It is thus the Jewish parallel to the name M\u00e6cenas which is still applied, two thousand years after the life of its original bearer, to every great patron of art.\n\nReferences\n\n2nd-century people\nPeople from Antioch\nTurkish philanthropists\nTurkish Jews","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":191,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":5,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":4,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":4,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":3,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":3}},"id":35756791,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abba%20Judan","title":"Abba Judan","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The short story is a genre of literature. It is usually fictional narrative prose and tends to be more direct and less-detailed than longer works of fiction, like novels.\n\nShort stories are closely related to oral (spoken) story-telling traditions and prose anecdotes. They all develop the story very quickly and come to a conclusion quickly too.\n\nMany authors today release their short stories together in a book, instead of one at a time. A short story can be written in only 10 words or less.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":146,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":73997,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Short%20story","title":"Short story","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cley, clabber or glaur is a kynd o syle that is slairgy tae the titch. It is aften uised in the makkin o gairdenin pats. Dependin on the kynd, it whiles haes a shairp textur, an is whiles gey mingin. Cleys are complex materials containin mony different kynds o atoms, houaniver, aw cleys conteen muckle nummers o silicon (Si) an oxygen (O) atoms, jyned thegether for tae mak silicate. Thay furm whan stanes are brak doun or wathered. For tae mak laim, cley is moolded in shape, dried, an than fired in a furnace or kil for tae mak it haird.\n\nTeeps o syle\nSculptur materials\nNaitural materials\nSedimentology\nSediments\nPhyllosilicates","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":14796,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cley","title":"Cley","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A bass guitar (also called an electric bass or bass) is a string instrument which is related to the electric guitar. The bass guitar is shaped like an electric guitar, but it is longer than an electric guitar. The electric bass has many of the same parts as an electric guitar. However, the bass guitar produces lower tones than the electric guitar.\n\nThe bass guitar is used to play low musical sounds called \"bass lines\" in many styles of music such as rock, pop, country, jazz fusion and many more.\n\nHistory \nThe idea for the bass guitar was first made in the 1930s by inventor Paul Tutmarc in Seattle, Washington. However, very few musicians were interested in the instrument that Tutmarc made. The need for a new instrument developed in the 1950s. At that time, the double bass was the main bass instrument used in jazz, blues, folk, early rock music and bluegrass. The problem was that the double bass was big, heavy, hard to carry around, hard to play precise notes on, and it was hard to make it louder with a bass amplifier. Musicians wanted a smaller instrument that weighed less and was easier to play and amplify. Inventors tried to think of ways of building a smaller and lighter bass instrument. One of these inventors was a man named Leo Fender in the United States. Leo Fender developed a bass guitar in the 1950s using the ideas developed by Tutmarc.\n\nLeo Fender used many parts for the bass guitar that are similar to the parts of an electric guitar. Leo Fender called the instrument the \"Fender Precision Bass\". He used the word \"Precision\" in the name because his instrument had metal frets on the neck. The double bass did not have frets on its neck. The frets on the bass guitar made it easier for musicians to play precise notes. The bass guitar developed by Leo Fender became very popular. In the 2000s, many bass guitars are still designed to look like his Fender Precision Bass.\n\nDescription \n\nBass guitars are normally made out of wood. The main pieces are the body, neck, fingerboard, frets, and strings. The body is made out of wood. A wooden neck is glued or bolted onto the body. A wooden fingerboard is then glued onto the neck. Thin metal strips called frets are glued onto the fingerboard. The frets are placed at specific places along the fretboard, with each fret representing one half step in the Western tonal scale.\n\nAt the bottom of the body is an assembly called the bridge, a large metal assembly into which one end of the strings are fitted. On some designs, the strings are fasted through the back of the body into the bridge; on others, the strings fit into the front side of the bridge. In some basses, there is a cavity inside the back of the body that contains the electrical parts of the bass. These are usually called active basses. The bridge often has adjustments that allow the height of the strings to be changed. Other components found on the body include one or more pickups and various knobs or switches that control the sound of the bass.\n\nThe pickups are magnetic devices that sit below the strings. As the strings vibrate, an electrical signal is produced which is sent via an instrument cable to an amplifier. Pickups are either \"passive\", which means they send the signal with no additional amplification, or \"active\", which process the signal through a pre-amplifier. Some basses have pickups that can be set to passive or active mode. Basses that have two pickups (generally referred to as bridge and neck pickups) often have a switch that lets the player select neck-only, bridge-only, or a blended signal. Each pickup may have different tonal qualities that results from its placement relative to the bridge and its components.\n\nAt the other end of the fretboard from the body sits the headstock, which generally holds the tuners that letsthe  player adjust the tuning of the strings. At the very en of  the fretboard, where the strings pass from the fretboard to the tuners, there is a nut, a piece made of metal or plastic, with grooves to hold the strings off the fretboard.\n\nInside most fretboards is a long metal rod, called a truss rod, that is used to adjust the tension on the neck. The neck is slightly concave, which allows the strings to clear all frets without \"buzzing.\" The amount of bow, along with adjustments made on the bridge, will determine the height of the strings along the fretboard.\n\nThe scale of an electric bass - the length of the strings from the nut to the bridge - is generally 34 inches (84 centimeters), although shorter and longer basses are produced. In earlier decades, short-scale basses were more common, since many designers adapted guitar parts for early models. Because in some styles of music, such as heavy metal, the strings are tuned down, longer scaled basses are sometimes favored for such styles, as string tension is higher.\n\nStandard bass guitars have four metal strings, but models with five, six or eight strings are also made. The strings themselves are made in different ways and with different materials to change their tonal qualities.\n\nIn the 1960s and 1970s some musicians took the frets off their bass guitars. This changes the sound of the bass, particularly as the player slides their fingers along the strings. A bass guitar without frets is called a fretless bass guitar. For example, Pino Palladino played a fretless bass during the 1980s. He was a session musician, playing for high-profile musicians like Eric Clapton and David Gilmour. While fretless basses are often used in jazz and jazz fusion, bassists from other genres use fretless basses, such as metal bassist Steve DiGiorgio and Colin Edwin of modern\/progressive rock band [Porcupine Tree].\n\nStrings and sound \nThe standard design for the electric bass guitar has four strings, generally tuned E, A, D and G (low to high). It is not uncommon for players to tune strings to a lower pitch, particularly in styles, such as heavy metal, that favor deeper sounds. Five string basses add a lower string, usually tuned to B, while six-string-basses add a higher string tuned to C. In standard tunings, each string is tuned a perfect fourth interval above the next lower string (e.g. E to A).\n\nSounds are produced from the strings in a number of ways. The most common form of playing is called fingerstyle, in which the player plucks the fingers upwards with the ends of the fingers. It is common to use the index and middle fingers as the plucking fingers, but players may use more fingers or even employ their thumb to pluck downwards. Other finger-based techniques include slap-and-pop, in which the player strikes the lower-pitched strings firmly with their thumb, and pulls higher-pitched strings upwards and lets them snap against the fretboard, and tapping, in which the player hammers downward with their fingertips on the fretboard.\n\nPicks made of metal or plastic may also be used, and yield a sharper sound than plucking with fingers. Picking is sometimes combined with muting techniques to create distinctive sounds.\n\nThe bridge of the bass guitar may be fitted with a tremolo, which enables the player to vary the pitch of their strings while playing.\n\nWhere the strings are struck relative to bridge changes to the tone of the sound considerably. Plucking or picking close the bridge generally produces a more muted note, while sounding the string closer to the neck produces a fuller, more resonant tone.\n\nBass guitars also have magnetic pickups mounted on the body underneath the strings. A musician plucks the strings with their fingers. This makes the strings vibrate. The magnetic pickups detect the vibrations. Then the vibrations from the strings are converted into an electronic signal which is sent with a metal cable to an electronic amplifier and a loudspeaker. The musician rotates a volume control knob that is located on the body of the bass to make the sound\n\nReferences\n\nBass guitars\nJazz instruments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":177,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6}},"id":14408,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bass%20guitar","title":"Bass guitar","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"George Gershwin (September 26, 1898; Brooklyn, New York \u2013 July 11, 1937; Hollywood, California) was an American composer and a pianist.\n\nStory of his life\n\nChildhood \nGeorge Gershwin was born on September 26, 1898, in Brooklyn, New York.\nHis family immigrated to the United States. Gershwin, his two brothers and sister had a close, happy family life. George liked playing games on the streets of New York. He liked exploring the city, but he did not like school or studying.\n\nWhile exploring the city, Gershwin heard jazz and blues music spilling out of public drinking places. However, he did not become seriously interested in music until he heard another boy playing the violin in a concert at his school. Gershwin began to take piano lessons. His teacher was a fine classical musician. He immediately recognized Gershwin's unusual ability. The teacher wrote about him to a friend: \"I have a student who will make his mark in music, if anybody will. The boy is a genius, without doubt.\"\n\nYounger days as a student \nGershwin studied classical piano, and he was a first-rate pianist,but his strongest interest continued to be jazz and popular music. He loved playing piano and it was his passion. At the age of fifteen, he left school and went to work in the music business. The New York City street where most music publishers had their offices was called \"Tin Pan Alley.\"\n\nThe phonograph and radio had been invented in the late 1800s. But it would be many years before there were musical recordings or regular radio broadcasts. Tin Pan Alley publishers needed another way to sell new songs, so they employed people to play the piano to do this.\n\nThe piano players played the songs all day long to interested singers and other performers. Gershwin was one of the youngest piano players in Tin Pan Alley. Soon, he was considered one of the finest there. He was already writing his own songs. He succeeded in getting one published when he was only 18 years old. It had a long title: \"When You Want 'Em, You Can't Get 'Em, When You've Got 'Em, You Don't Want 'Em. \"\n\nSuccess as a songwriter \nGershwin was now a real composer. The rest of his life was an unbroken record of success. He wrote song after song. His ideas were so endless that he was not even troubled when he once lost some music he had been writing. \"There is plenty more where that came from,\" he said.\n\nGershwin had his first big hit in 1919, when he was twenty-one years old. It was a song called \"Swanee.\" A popular entertainer, Al Jolson, sang the song. \"Swanee\" was made into one of the first musical recordings. Gershwin was suddenly famous. He also was in the Grammy Hall of Fame.\n\nMusic critics note that \"Swanee\" is not like most of Gershwin's music. Later, he wrote true love songs. Some were light and funny. Some were full of intense feeling. Many of these songs were written for the popular musical theater. One of his most emotional love songs never became part of a musical play, however. It is called \"The Man I love.\" The song was sung by the Francine Evans role [played by Liza Minnelli in Martin Scorsese's film, New York, New York] and supposedly 'written' by her character for her soon to be husband, Jimmy Doyle [superbly played by Robert De Niro], of the Jimmy Doyle Orchestra. His character also 'wrote' the title song, New York, New York, who was actually written by Fred Ebb, music by Kanter, his partner. The song became New York's official anthem in 1985.\n\nHis brother Ira \nGershwin's older brother, Ira, wrote the words to \"The Man I Love\". As George became famous, Ira wrote the words to more and more of his songs.\n\nThe two brothers were very different. Ira, the writer, was quiet and serious. George, the musician, was outgoing\u2014the life of any party. When they had to finish a new musical Ira locked George in a hotel room until it was done. But George wrote better songs with Ira than with anyone else.\n\nMusic of Gershwin\n\nAs a songwriter \nOne of many examples of the Gershwin's combined work is the song \"They Can't Take That Away From Me.\" The Gershwins wrote the song for dancer and actor Fred Astaire for the film \"Shall We Dance.\" That was George and Ira Gershwin's first movie musical.\n\nMany of George Gershwin's songs were first written for musical plays performed in theaters in New York City. These comedies, with plenty of songs, were a popular form of entertainment in the 1920s and 1930s.\n\nOne of Gershwin's musical plays, \"Girl Crazy,\" introduced a young singer named Ethel Merman. She became one of the most celebrated performers in America. In the play, Merman sang a song George Gershwin wrote just for her. It was called \"I Got Rhythm\".\n\nMany songs that George Gershwin wrote for musical plays and movies have remained as popular as ever. Over the years, they have been sung and played in every possible way\u2014from jazz to country.\n\nOne example is the song, \"Someone to Watch Over Me.\" It was written for the 1926 musical \"Oh, Kay!\"\n\nJazz and his music \nIn the nineteen twenties, there was a debate in the United States about jazz music. Could jazz, some people asked, be considered serious music?\n\nIn 1924, jazz musician and orchestra leader Paul Whiteman decided to organize a special concert to show that jazz was serious music. Gershwin agreed to compose something for the concert before he realized how little time he had to do it. The concert was just a few weeks away. Gershwin got busy, and, in that short time, he composed a piece for piano and orchestra. He called it \"Rhapsody in Blue.\"\n\nGershwin himself played the piano part of \"Rhapsody in Blue\" at the concert. The audience included some of the greatest classical musicians of the time. When they heard his music, they were electrified. It seemed to capture, for the first time, the true voice of modern American culture. Today, we can still hear Gershwin playing \"Rhapsody in Blue.\" An old mechanical piano recording Gershwin created has been reproduced exactly. There are also very early versions of \"Rhapsody in Blue\" which feature Gershwin playing the piano with Whiteman's orchestra. Those recordings, because they are early, do not sound like modern recordings. But they are recordings of Gershwin at the piano. This makes those recordings important.\n\n\"Rhapsody in Blue\" made George Gershwin famous all over the world. Several hundred thousand copies of the printed music sold immediately. Gershwin was satisfied that he had shown that jazz music could be both serious and popular.\n\nMusical works and opera \nGershwin also wrote an opera, \"Porgy and Bess. \" It was based on a book by DuBose Heyward. It is a tragic love story about black Americans along the coast of South Carolina.\n\n\"Porgy And Bess\" opened in Boston, Massachusetts in 1935. Audiences loved it. But most critics did not know what to think of it. It was not like any other opera or musical play they had ever seen.\n\nGershwin did not care about the critics' opinions. He believed some of his greatest music had gone into the opera. He said he had created a new musical form\u2014an opera based on popular culture. Today \"Porgy And Bess\" is considered a masterpiece.\n\nAnother well-known Gershwin piece is \"An American in Paris. \" It is a long tone poem for orchestra. Its first public performance was by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in 1928.\n\nOnce again, opinion was mixed. Most people loved \"An American in Paris,\" as they loved all of Gershwin's music. Some critics liked it, too. They called it happy and full of life. Others hated it. They called it silly and long-winded.\n\nLast days \nGeorge Gershwin died in 1937, just days after doctors learned he had brain cancer. He died while having surgery to remove the brain tumor. He was only thirty-eight years old. Newspapers all over the world reported his death on their front pages. Everyone mourned the loss of the man and all the music he might have written. Gershwin is still considered one of America's greatest composers. His works still are performed by many singers and groups. They are probably performed more often than any other serious American composer.\n\nAustrian composer Arnold Schoenberg was one of the people who praised George Gershwin. Schoenberg said Gershwin was a man who lived in music and expressed everything through music, because music was his native language.\n\nInfluences\nGershwin stated composers like Henry Cowell, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Chopin, Maurice Ravel, Stephen Foster, Aaron Copland, Igor Stravinsky, Scott Joplin and Zez Confrey as influences.\n\nReferences\nThe most part of the above article originally came from Voice of Ameria's program, which was broadcast in the past.\n\nOther websites \n\n Gershwin Collection from the Library of Congress\n \n\nAmerican songwriters\nAmerican pianists\nAmerican Jews\n20th-century American composers\nDeaths from brain cancer\n1898 births\n1937 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":12465,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George%20Gershwin","title":"George Gershwin","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Photografie is a wey o makin a pictur uisin a camera. A body that maks picturs uisin a camera is cried a photographer. A pictur made uisin a camera is cried a photograph or photae.\n\nCamera \n\nA camera is like a wi a hole in the front. There is a byordinar bit o gless afore the hole cried a lens. Tae mak a photograph o something, the lens thraws a wee pictur o't inside the camera. The lens daes this by focusin licht. A lens in a camera wirks like a lens in glesses (spectacles) or a magnifeein gless.\n\nFor tae mak a photae wi a camera the shutter release button is pressed. Pressin the button opens the shutter. The shutter is like a door. It kivers the hole in the camera. The shutter is ahint the lens. Whan the shutter is closed nae licht can enter the camera. Whan the shutter is open licht can enter the camera. Whan the button is pressed the shutter opens an syne closes. This happens gey fast. The lenth o time the shutter steys open for is cried the shutter speed. The shutter speed can chynge atween 1\/1000t o a seicont (0.001 s) tae a puckle seiconts. Maistlins the time it taks for the shutter tae open an close is faur less nor a seicont.\n\nA camera haes an apertur ring forby. The apertur ring is ahint the lens, but afore the shutter. The purpose o the apertur ring is tae control whitna licht enters the camera. The apertur ring is a flat circle wi a smaw hole in the centre. The smaw hole is cried the apertur. The size o the apertur can be chynged. Whan the apertur is real smaw juist a bit licht can enter the camera. Whan the apertur is lairge, loads o licht can get in.\n\nFilm \nThe pictur the lens maks is recordit on photographic film. Film is pitten intil the camera. Licht comin throu the lens, apertur an open shutter shines on the film. Photographic film is coatit wi chemicals that reacts whan licht shines on it. Lattin licht shine on the film is cried exposin the film.\n\nThere's mony differin kinds o photographic film. There's films for takkin colour photographs an films for takin black an white photographs. There's differin sizes o film. The maist common size is 35 mm. It is cried 35\u00a0mm sith the width o the film is 35 millimetres. Maist cameras uises 35\u00a0mm film.\n\nAnither differ atween films is hou sensitive they are tae licht. Films haes a code nummer, cried an ISO nummer. The ISO nummer says hou fast a film reacts whan licht shines on it. Exemplars o ISO nummers is ISO 50, ISO 100, IS0 200, ISO 400, ISO 800, an ISO 1600. The ISO nummer is whiles cried the ASA number or the film speed. Whan the ISO nummer is law, ISO 50 for exemplar, the film taks a lang time tae record the pictur. This is cried a slaw film. This means the shutter haes tae stey open for a lang time. Whan the ISO nummer is heich, ISO 800 for exemplar, the pictur is duin gey quick. This is a fast film. This means the shutter haes tae open an close quick.\n\nProcessin \nAnce the film haes been exposed, it is processed. Processin haes to be duin in richt darkness or the film will be exposed ower muckle an the pictur will be tint. Processin stops the film reactin tae licht ony mair. Efter the film haes been processed the pictur can be seen on the film.\n\nA photographic prent is a photograph creatit on paper. A licht-sensitive paper is uised. The pictur on the film is pitten in an enlairger. An enlairger is a machine that sheens licht throu the film an maks a bigger pictur on the licht-sensitive paper. A chemical reaction happens in the paper. Syne the paper is processed for tae stop it bein licht-sensitive. Lastly it is developed. Developin maks the pictur kythe on the paper \u2013 nou it is a photograph.\n\nDeegital photography \nDeegital photography is photography duin uisin a deegital camera. Whiles it is cried deegital eemagin. A deegital camera haes a lens, apertur, an shutter. The pictur the lens maks is recordit by a licht-sensitive lectronic sensor. A deegital camera daesna uise photographic film tae record a pictur. Deegital photographs is hained in a computer but paper prints can be made forby frae deegital picturs. Deegital cameras can be dear tae keep an aw. Tae hae yer picturs prented at hame the same wey commercial prents is made, ye need a byordinar kind o prenter an paper.\n\nMakkin a photograph \nThe maist important thing whan takkin a photograph is focusin the lens. Gin the lens daesna focus the pictur weel, the photograph will be bleart. Autofocus cameras focus themsels whan the shutter release is pressed. The photographer haes tae focus manual cameras (maistlins aulder anes).\n\nThree ither things is important whan takin a photograph. They control hou bricht or dark the photograph will be. \n The shutter speed \u2013 hou lang the shutter is open for.\n The apertur \u2013 whitna licht gangs intil the camera.\n The film speed \u2013 hou quick the film records the pictur.\n\nA slaw shutter speed, a bigger apertur, an a fast film will mak a brichter pictur. A fast shutter speed, a smaw apertur, an a slaw film will gie a darker pictur. A guid pictur isna ower bricht nor ower dark. An automatic camera chynges thae things itsel whan the shutter release is pressed.\n\n \nFrench inventions\nOptics\n1822 introductions","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-17":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":6771,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photografie","title":"Photografie","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Berikut adalah daftar kota di Iowa, Amerika Serikat:\n\nA \n Ackley\n Ackworth\n Adair\n Adel\n Afton\n Agency\n Ainsworth\n Akron\n Albert City\n Albia\n Albion\n Alburnett\n Alden\n Alexander\n Algona\n Alleman\n Allerton\n Allison\n Alyssa\n Alta\n Alta Vista\n Alton\n Altoona\n Alvord\n Ames\n Anamosa\n Andover\n Andrew\n Anita\n Ankeny\n Anthon\n Aplington\n Arcadia\n Archer\n Aredale\n Argyle\n Arion\n Arispe\n Arlington\n Armstrong\n Arnolds Park\n Arthur\n Asbury\n Ashton\n Aspinwall\n Atalissa\n Atkins\n Atlantic\n Auburn\n Audubon\n Aurelia\n Aurora\n Avoca\n Ayrshire\n\nB \n Badger\n Bagley\n Baldwin\n Balltown\n Bancroft\n Bankston\n Barnes City\n Barnum\n Bassett\n Batavia\n Battle Creek\n Baxter\n Bayard\n Beacon\n Beaconsfield\n Beaman\n Beaver\n Bedford\n Belle Plaine\n Bellevue\n Belmond\n Bennett\n Benton\n Berkley\n Bernard\n Bertram\n Berwick\n Bettendorf\n Bevington\n Birmingham\n Blairsburg\n Blairstown\n Blakesburg\n Blanchard\n Blencoe\n Blockton\n Bloomfield\n Blue Grass\n Bode\n Bonaparte\n Bondurant\n Boone\n Booneville\n Bouton\n Boxholm\n Boyden\n Braddyville\n Bradford\n Bradgate\n Brandon\n Brayton\n Breda\n Bridgewater\n Brighton\n Bristow\n Britt\n Bronson\n Brooklyn\n Brunsville\n Buckeye\n Buck Grove\n Buffalo\n Buffalo Center\n Burlington\n Burt\n Bussey\n\nC \n Calamus\n Callender\n Calmar\n Calumet\n Camanche\n Cambridge\n Cancun\n Cantril\n Carbon\n Carlisle\n Carpenter\n Carroll\n Carson\n Carter Lake\n Cascade\n Casey\n Castalia\n Castana\n Cedar Falls\n Cedar Rapids\n Center Junction\n Center Point\n Centerville\n Central City\n Centralia\n Chariton\n Charles City\n Charlotte\n Charter Oak\n Chatsworth\n Chelsea\n Cherokee\n Chester\n Chillicothe\n Churdan\n Cincinnati\n Clare\n Clarence\n Clarinda\n Clarion\n Clarksville\n Clayton\n Clearfield\n Clear Lake\n Cleghorn\n Clemons\n Clermont\n Clinton\n Clio\n Clive\n Clutier\n Coburg\n Coggon\n Coin\n Colesburg\n Colfax\n College Springs\n Collins\n Colo\n Columbus City\n Columbus Junction\n Colwell\n Conesville\n Conrad\n Conway\n Coon Rapids\n Coppock\n Coralville\n Corning\n Correctionville\n Corwith\n Corydon\n Cotter\n Coulter\n Council Bluffs\n Craig\n Crawfordsville\n Crescent\n Cresco\n Creston\n Cromwell\n Crystal Lake\n Cumberland\n Cumming\n Curlew\n Cushing\n Cylinder\n\nD \n Dakota City\n Dallas Center\n Dana\n Danbury\n Danville\n Davenport\n Davis City\n Dawson\n Dayton\n Decatur City\n Decorah\n Dedham\n Deep River\n Defiance\n Delaware\n Delhi\n Delmar\n Deloit\n Delphos\n Delta\n Denison\n Denver\n Derby\n Des Moines\n De Soto\n De Witt\n Dexter\n Diagonal\n Dickens\n Dike\n Dixon\n Dolliver\n Donahue\n Donnellson\n Doon\n Dougherty\n Dow City\n Dows\n Drakesville\n Dubuque\n Dumont\n Duncombe\n Dundee\n Dunkerton\n Dunlap\n Durango\n Durant\n Dyersville\n Dysart\n\nE \n Eagle Grove\n Earlham\n Earling\n Earlville\n Early\n East Peru\n Eddyville\n Edgewood\n Elberon\n Eldon\n Eldora\n Eldridge\n Elgin\n Elkader\n Elkhart\n Elk Horn\n Elkport\n Elk Run Heights\n Elliott\n Ellston\n Ellsworth\n Elma\n Elvira\n Ely\n Emerson\n Emmetsburg\n Epworth\n Essex\n Estherville\n Evansdale\n Everly\n Exira\n Exline\n\nF \n Fairbank\n Fairfax\n Fairfield\n Farley\n Farmersburg\n Farmington\n Farnhamville\n Farragut\n Fayette\n Fenton\n Ferguson\n Fertile\n Floris\n Floyd\n Fonda\n Fontanelle\n Forest City\n Fort Atkinson\n Fort Dodge\n Fort Madison\n Fostoria\n Franklin\n Fraser\n Fredericksburg\n Frederika\n Fredonia\n Fremont\n Fruitland\n\nG \n Galt\n Galva\n Garber\n Garden Grove\n Garnavillo\n Garner\n Garrison\n Garwin\n Geneva\n George\n Gibson\n Gilbert\n Gilbertville\n Gillett Grove\n Gilman\n Gilmore City\n Gladbrook\n Glenwood\n Glidden\n Goldfield\n Goodell\n Goose Lake\n Gowrie\n Graettinger\n Graf\n Grafton\n Grand Junction\n Grand Mound\n Grand River\n Grandview\n Granger\n Grant\n Granville\n Gravity\n Gray\n Greeley\n Greene\n Greenfield\n Greenville\n Grimes\n Grinnell\n Griswold\n Grundy Center\n Gruver\n Guernsey\n Guthrie Center\n Guttenberg\n\nH \n Halbur\n Hamburg\n Hamilton\n Hampton\n Hancock\n Hanlontown\n Hansell\n Harcourt\n Hardy\n Harlan\n Harper\n Harpers Ferry\n Harris\n Hartford\n Hartley\n Hartwick\n Harvey\n Hastings\n Havelock\n Haverhill\n Hawarden\n Hawkeye\n Hayesville\n Hazleton\n Hedrick\n Henderson\n Hepburn\n Hiawatha\n Hills\n Hillsboro\n Hinton\n Holland\n Holstein\n Holy Cross\n Hopkinton\n Hornick\n Hospers\n Houghton\n Hubbard\n Hudson\n Hull\n Humboldt\n Humeston\n Huxley\n\nI \n Ida Grove\n Imogene\n Independence\n Indianola\n Inwood\n Ionia\n Iowa City\n Iowa Falls\n Ireton\n Irwin\n\nJ \n Jackson Junction\n Jamaica\n Janesville\n Jefferson\n Jesup\n Jewell Junction\n Johnston\n Joice\n Jolley\n\nK \n Kalona\n Kamrar\n Kanawha\n Kellerton\n Kelley\n Kellogg\n Kensett\n Kent\n Keokuk\n Keomah Village\n Keosauqua\n Keota\n Keswick\n Keystone\n Kimballton\n Kingsley\n Kinross\n Kirkman\n Kirkville\n Kiron\n Klemme\n Knierim\n Knoxville\n\nL \n Lacona\n Ladora\n Lake City\n Lake Mills\n Lake Park\n Lakeside\n Lake View\n Lakota\n Lambs Grove\n Lamoni\n Lamont\n La Motte\n Lanesboro\n Lansing\n La Porte City\n Larchwood\n Larrabee\n Latimer\n Laurel\n Laurens\n Lawler\n Lawton\n LeClaire\n Ledyard\n Le Grand\n Lehigh\n Leighton\n Leland\n Le Mars\n Lenox\n Leon\n Le Roy\n Lester\n Letts\n Lewis\n Libertyville\n Lidderdale\n Lime Springs\n Lincoln\n Linden\n Lineville\n Linn Grove\n Lisbon\n Liscomb\n Littleport\n Little Rock\n Little Sioux\n Livermore\n Lockridge\n Logan\n Lohrville\n Lone Rock\n Lone Tree\n Long Grove\n Lorimor\n Lost Nation\n Lovilia\n Lowden\n Low Moor\n Luana\n Lucas\n Luther\n Lu Verne\n Luxemburg\n Luzerne\n Lynnville\n Lytton\n\nM \n McCallsburg\n McCausland\n McClelland\n Macedonia\n McGregor\n McIntire\n Macksburg\n Madrid\n Magnolia\n Malcom\n Mallard\n Maloy\n Malvern\n Manchester\n Manilla\n Manly\n Manning\n Manson\n Mapleton\n Maquoketa\n Marathon\n Marble Rock\n Marcus\n Marengo\n Marion\n Marne\n Marquette\n Marshalltown\n Martelle\n Martensdale\n Martinsburg\n Marysville\n Mason City\n Masonville\n Massena\n Matlock\n Maurice\n Maxwell\n Maynard\n Maysville\n Mechanicsville\n Mediapolis\n Melbourne\n Melcher-Dallas\n Melrose\n Melvin\n Menlo\n Meriden\n Merrill\n Meservey\n Middletown\n Miles\n Milford\n Millersburg\n Millerton\n Millville\n Milo\n Milton\n Minburn\n Minden\n Mingo\n Missouri Valley\n Mitchell\n Mitchellville\n Modale\n Mondamin\n Monmouth\n Monona\n Monroe\n Montezuma\n Monticello\n Montour\n Montrose\n Moorhead\n Moorland\n Moravia\n Morley\n Morning Sun\n Morrison\n Moulton\n Mount Auburn\n Mount Ayr\n Mount Pleasant\n Mount Sterling\n Mount Union\n Mount Vernon\n Moville\n Murray\n Muscatine\n Mystic\n\nN \n Nashua\n Nemaha\n Neola\n Nevada\n New Albin\n Newell\n Newhall\n New Hampton\n New Hartford\n New Liberty\n New London\n New Market\n New Providence\n New Sharon\n Newton\n New Vienna\n New Virginia\n Nichols\n Nodaway\n Nora Springs\n Northboro\n North Buena Vista\n North English\n North Liberty\n North Washington\n Northwood\n Norwalk\n Norway\n Numa\n\nO \n Oakland\n Oakland Acres\n Oakville\n Ocheyedan\n Odebolt\n Oelwein\n Ogden\n Okoboji\n Olds\n Olin\n Ollie\n Onawa\n Onslow\n Orange City\n Orchard\n Orient\n Orleans\n Osage\n Osceola\n Oskaloosa\n Ossian\n Osterdock\n Otho\n Oto\n Ottosen\n Ottumwa\n Owasa\n Oxford\n Oxford Junction\n Oyens\n\nP \n Pacific Junction\n Packwood\n Palmer\n Palo\n Panama\n Panora\n Panorama Park\n Parkersburg\n Parnell\n Paton\n Patterson\n Paullina\n Pella\n Peosta\n Perry\n Persia\n Peterson\n Pierson\n Pilot Mound\n Pioneer\n Pisgah\n Plainfield\n Plano\n Pleasant Hill\n Pleasanton\n Pleasant Plain\n Pleasantville\n Plover\n Plymouth\n Pocahontas\n Polk City\n Pomeroy\n Popejoy\n Portsmouth\n Postville\n Prairieburg\n Prairie City\n Prescott\n Preston\n Primghar\n Princeton\n Promise City\n Protivin\n Pulaski\n\nQ \n Quasqueton\n Quimby\n\nR \n Radcliffe\n Rake\n Ralston\n Randalia\n Randall\n Randolph\n Rathbun\n Raymond\n Readlyn\n Reasnor\n Redding\n Redfield\n Red Oak\n Reinbeck\n Rembrandt\n Remsen\n Renwick\n Rhodes\n Riceville\n Richland\n Rickardsville\n Ricketts\n Ridgeway\n Rinard\n Ringsted\n Rippey\n Riverdale\n Riverside\n Riverton\n Robins\n Rock Falls\n Rockford\n Rock Rapids\n Rock Valley\n Rockwell\n Rockwell City\n Rodman\n Rodney\n Roland\n Rolfe\n Rome\n Rose Hill\n Rossie\n Rowan\n Rowley\n Royal\n Rudd\n Runnells\n Rushville\n Russell\n Ruthven\n Rutland\n Ryan\n\nS \n Sabula\n Sac City\n Sageville\n St. Ansgar\n St. Anthony\n St. Charles\n St. Donatus\n St. Lucas\n St. Marys\n St. Olaf\n St. Paul\n Salem\n Salix\n Sanborn\n Sandyville\n Scarville\n Schaller\n Schleswig\n Scranton\n Searsboro\n Sergeant Bluff\n Seymour\n Shambaugh\n Shannon City\n Sharpsburg\n Sheffield\n Shelby\n Sheldahl\n Sheldon\n Shell Rock\n Shellsburg\n Shenandoah\n Sherrill\n Shueyville\n Sibley\n Sidney\n Sigourney\n Silver City\n Sioux Center\n Sioux City\n Sioux Rapids\n Slater\n Sloan\n Smithland\n Soldier\n Solon\n Somers\n South English\n Spencer\n Spillville\n Spirit Lake\n Spragueville\n Springbrook\n Spring Hill\n Springville\n Stacyville\n Stanhope\n Stanley\n Stanton\n Stanwood\n State Center\n Steamboat Rock\n Stockport\n Stockton\n Storm Lake\n Story City\n Stout\n Stratford\n Strawberry Point\n Struble\n Stuart\n Sully\n Sumner\n Superior\n Sutherland\n Swaledale\n Swan\n Swea City\n Swisher\n\nT \n Tabor\n Tama\n Templeton\n Tennant\n Terril\n Thayer\n Thompson\n Thor\n Thornburg\n Thornton\n Thurman\n Tiffin\n Tingley\n Tipton\n Titonka\n Toledo\n Toronto\n Traer\n Treynor\n Tripoli\n Truesdale\n Truro\n Turin\n\nU \n Udell\n Underwood\n Union\n Unionville\n University Heights\n University Park\n Urbana\n Urbandale\n Ute\n\nV \n Vail\n Valeria\n Van Horne\n Van Meter\n Van Wert\n Varina\n Vedic City\n Ventura\n Victor\n Villisca\n Vincent\n Vining\n Vinton\n Volga\n\nW \n Wadena\n Wahpeton\n Walcott\n Walford\n Walker\n Wallingford\n Wall Lake\n Walnut\n Wapello\n Washington\n Washta\n Waterloo\n Waterville\n Waucoma\n Waukee\n Waukon\n Waverly\n Wayland\n Webb\n Webster\n Webster City\n Weldon\n Wellman\n Wellsburg\n Welton\n Wesley\n West Bend\n West Branch\n West Burlington\n West Chester\n West Des Moines\n Westfield\n Westgate\n West Liberty\n West Okoboji\n Westphalia\n West Point\n Westside\n West Union\n Westwood\n What Cheer\n Wheatland\n Whiting\n Whittemore\n Whitten\n Willey\n Williams\n Williamsburg\n Williamson\n Wilton\n Wilton\n Windsor Heights\n Winfield\n Winterset\n Winthrop\n Wiota\n Woden\n Woodbine\n Woodburn\n Woodward\n Woolstock\n Worthington\n Wyoming\n\nY \n Yale\n Yarmouth\n Yetter\n Yorktown\n\nZ \n Zearing\n Zwingle\n\nLihat pula \n Daftar kota di Amerika Serikat\n Daftar county di Iowa\n Daftar tempat di Iowa\n\nIowa","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":300,"dup_dump_count":92,"dup_details":{"unknown":10,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":5,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":5,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":6,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":5,"2019-09":5,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":5,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":5,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":4,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":6,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":8,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":7,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":5,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":4,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":3,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":10,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":6}},"id":594816,"url":"https:\/\/id.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daftar%20kota%20di%20Iowa","title":"Daftar kota di Iowa","language":"id"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of six main parts of the United Nations. The Security Council deals with maintaining peace and security between nations.\n\nMembership \nThere are 15 members of the UNSC but only five are permanent members. They are:\n China\n France\n Russia\n United Kingdom\n United States\n\nThe ten temporary seats are held for two years with member states (countries) voted in by the United Nations General Assembly on a regional basis. The Presidency of the Security Council (i.e. the leadership) is rotated alphabetically each month. Currently, the members are:\n\nPowers \nIf a country has behaved in a way seen as bad, the member countries of UNSC can make a ruling, known as a United Nations Security Council Resolution. All five of the permanent member countries must either agree to this ruling or at least not vote against it; if any of them do, it is said to have been \"vetoed\" and does not come into effect. This Resolution may call for UN members to take certain actions to punish the country, called \"sanctions\". \n\nAn example is that the UNSC had long banned all imports of nuclear fuel to Iran as they felt Iran was going to make nuclear weapons. These sanctions resulted in rules which made it much harder for Iran to do business with people in the rest of the world. These actions made life harder in Iran, both for its government and regular people as well. Most people think that is why Iran was willing to promise to change how it used nuclear material in order to end these rules. The Permanent Members of the Security Council worked together in ending this problem; Germany has also conferenced with the permanent UN Security Council members about this issue. \n\nThe United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is the most powerful part of the United Nations. The Security Council deals with maintaining peace and security between nations. For members of the UN to engage in war or major military activity against another country or a large armed group outside of their own country they are supposed to have the agreement of the Security Council to do so but recent history shows that this rule is often not closely followed by everyone. All members of the UN retain the right to \"self-defense\"; they can engage in actions to defend their people and land whenever this becomes necessary but are then expected to refer the matter to the Security Council as soon as they can.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n UNSC website\n\nSecurity Council","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1}},"id":14285,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United%20Nations%20Security%20Council","title":"United Nations Security Council","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal. \n\nThe difference from a digital signal is that also very small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. When one speaks of analog one often means an electrical context, however mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey analog signals.\n\nAn analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. \nAny information may be conveyed by an analog signal, often such a signal is a measured change in physical phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure.\n\nFor example, in sound recording, changes in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone which causes related changes in a voltage or the current in an electric circuit.  The voltage or the current is said to be an \"analog\" of the sound.\n\nSee digital for a discussion of digital vs. analog.\n\nPhysics\nElectronics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"unknown":8}},"id":76841,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analog%20signal","title":"Analog signal","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In spoken leids, a phoneme is a basic, theoretical unit o soond that disteenguishes wirds (that is, bi chyngin a phoneme in ae \nwird,  the ootcome is anither wird that's meanin differs). The phoneme is a basic soond lith, that's lingueestic function is tae disteenguish \nthe  morphemes o a wird.  Phonemes isna pheesical soonds, but abstractions. Phonemes is for ordinar seen as a faimlie o phones, \nthat's seen as a single soond, an is pitten ower wi a common seembol. Phones that's phoneme instance variants, an represents the \nphonetic qualities o actual soond lithes, is kent as allophones. The basic soond unit comes oot throu phonemic analysis. Phonemic \nseembology is pitten atween slashes (\/\/). A cuttit wey tae descrieve the notion o a phoneme is the wee-est differ atween wirds, that's ootcome is an unalike meanin. \n\nA phoneme micht weel represent a wheen categorically  phonetically seemilar or phonologically sib soonds. \nThe sibness micht no be phonetically obvious, whit is itsel, ane o the kinches wi this conceptual scheme.\n\nLeid","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":1051,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phoneme","title":"Phoneme","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A garden is usually a piece of land that is used for growing flowers, trees, shrubs, and other plants. The act of caring for a garden by watering the flowers and plants and removing the weeds is called gardening.\n\nTypes of gardens \nThere are many types of gardens. People have small private gardens in the backyard outside their house. Some gardens are built indoors in malls, public buildings, or greenhouses. Greenhouses are special buildings where plants are grown. A greenhouse has a transparent glass or plastic roof and walls that let sunlight in.\n\nWater gardens are plants that are grown in ornamental (decorative) pools and ponds. People doing water gardening plant water lilies and other aquatic (water) plants.\n\nGardening can be done outside of the home, as well. There are in city gardens, botanical gardens (places where plants are grown), zoos which have gardens, and theme parks which have gardens. These types of gardens are cared for by people called gardeners or groundskeepers.\n\nGardens compared with farms \nGardens are related to farms (agriculture); both gardens and farms are used for growing plants. But farms are much larger than gardens. A farm may have hundreds of square kilometers of plants and crops. A garden in a person's backyard is usually only measures a few square meters. \n\nFarms are businesses which sell the crops, fruit, and vegetables that are produced. Some gardens are businesses, which charge a fee to enter the garden. However, private gardens in people's backyards are usually used as a hobby or as a recreation, not as a business.\n\nFeatures of gardens \n\nIn addition to plants, many gardens also have landscaping features such as pathways, seats, rock gardens, ponds, fountains, a small stream with or without a waterfall. Some incorporate gazebos and structural designs to accommodate for places to sit or to place a hammock for a siesta. Roman gardens will have its own columns, fountains and statures placed at strategic places depending on its sizes and uses. Japanese gardens have their own unique designs and features.\n\nRole of gardens \nSome gardens are created in people's backyards, outside their home (note that in Britain the whole area is called a \"garden\", not a \"yard\"). People with gardens in their backyards use gardens as a place to do gardening. Gardening is a type of physical activity which can use enough energy and increase your heart rate that it can be rated as a form of exercise for to relax and exercise certain muscles depending on whether on the activity you do that day such as planting, pruning, weeding, or simply just walk around your garden continuously for 15 minutes or more. \n\nMany people find gardens relaxing especially if the garden is full flowers with strong scents. Some flowers like roses, bougainvilleas, orchids and many others are just beautiful to look at. Many people think that gardens are very beautiful and a place to relax and \/or entertain. A garden can have a place to barbecue, to sit and to read.\n\nIn many countries and cultures, designing pretty gardens is considered to be an art. In Japan, for instance, Zen monks build decorative gardens with stone and waterfall features using natural materials such as bamboo, rock and BONSAI trees like spruce, pine, and other trees with they trained into miniature forms. In Europe in the 1700s, kings and queens had formal gardens built (for example, the gardens at Versailles, France). In China they also feature Chinese forms of gardens. Now some enterprising people start to have herbal gardens to feature useful herbs used in alternative, traditional, and homeopathic medicine\n\nRelated pages\n\n Botanical garden\n List of garden plants\n Zoo\n\n \nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":7102,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Garden","title":"Garden","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Island of the Hungry Ghosts is a hybrid documentary film by director Gabrielle Brady that explores the conflict faced by trauma therapist Poh Lin Lee, who works in the Australian Detention Centre for Asylum Seekers on Christmas Island.\nIt premiered at Tribeca Film Festival in 2018 where it won the Award for Best International Documentary. It was shown at festivals all over the world, winning several prizes. It was also released in cinemas in the United Kingdom, Australia, North America and Germany.\n\nSummary\n\nLocated off the coast of Indonesia, the Australian territory of Christmas Island is inhabited by migratory crabs travelling in their millions from the jungle towards the ocean, in a movement that has been provoked by the full moon for hundreds of thousands of years.\n\nPoh Lin Lee is a \"trauma therapist\" who lives with her family in this seemingly idyllic paradise. Every day, she talks with the asylum seekers held indefinitely in a high-security detention centre hidden in the island's core, attempting to support them in a situation that is as unbearable as its outcome is uncertain. As Poh Lin and her family explore the island's beautiful yet threatening landscape, the local islanders carry out their \"hungry ghost\" rituals for the spirits of those who died on the island without a burial. They make offerings to appease the lost souls who are said to be wandering the jungles at night looking for home.\n\nIn the intimacy of her therapy sessions, as Poh Lin listens to the growing sense of despair of the people she counsels, she begins to feel the creeping dystopia reverberate through her own life.\n\nIsland of the Hungry Ghosts is a hybrid documentary that moves between the natural migration and the chaotic and tragic migration of the humans, which is in constant metamorphoses by the unseen decision-making structures.\n\nAccolades\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n  Official Website\n\n2018 films\nDocumentaries about psychology\nDocumentary films about immigration\nChristmas Island\n2010s English-language films","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":43,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":5,"2024-22":2,"2024-10":5,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":9,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":5,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":6,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1}},"id":62847749,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Island%20of%20the%20Hungry%20Ghosts","title":"Island of the Hungry Ghosts","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ramadan (sometimes spelled Ramazan, Ramzan, Ramadhan) is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, during which Muslims  fast or do not eat or drink during the daytime. It is the holiest month in Islam. As mentioned in Sura Bakarah, verse number 183: \nO ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to \nthose before you, that ye may [learn] self-restraint,-\n\nOverview\nThe date for the start of Ramadan is slightly different each year, depending on the position of the moon.  Once Ramadan starts, Muslims should not eat or drink between dawn and sunset. This usually continues for thirty days, but sometimes twenty-nine days.\n\nFasting is supposed to teach Muslims about patience and ibadah (faith).  It is a time for Muslims to think about how the poor and homeless suffer without lots of food, it helps Muslims to be more obedient, and less greedy.  During Ramadan, Muslims ask to be forgiven for their sins, and they pray for help in stopping them from doing bad things.\nMuslims believe Ramadan is the month in which the first verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad.  \n\nNot everyone has to fast in Ramadan.  Children do not have to fast.  They should start when they reach the age of puberty, so long as they are healthy.  People who are travelling long distances do not have to fast. Pregnant women do not have to if they think it might harm their unborn baby.  Sometimes sportsmen do not observe the fast, although there are disagreements about this.  For example, the Olympic Games in 2012 fell in the middle of the holy month.  This made it very difficult for the sportsmen who could not eat or drink during daytime.\n\nWhen the sun goes down and it gets dark the Muslim people will start eating again (this is called \"breaking the fast\").  This meal is known as Iftar.  There are often big meals enjoyed together by lots of Muslims.  Sometimes markets open after Iftar and stay open during the night. Ramadan is also the month when the \"Quran\" was sent down into Earth by an Angel called \"Jibrill\" (\"Gabriel\").\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Ramadan 2016  - Islamic calendar makkah\n\nArabic words and phrases","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":145,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":4,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":26221,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ramadan","title":"Ramadan","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Robert Burns Woodward (April 10, 1917 \u2013 July 8, 1979) was an American organic chemist. He made many important discoveries in modern organic chemistry. He worked on the synthesis and structure of complex natural products. He worked closely with Roald Hoffmann on the theory of chemical reactions. Woodward won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 1965.\n\nEarly life and education\nWoodward was born in Boston, Massachusetts. When he was one year old, his father died in the influenza pandemic of 1918.\n\nHe was interested in chemistry at an early age. By the time he entered high school, he had already done most of the experiments in Ludwig Gattermann's textbook of experimental organic chemistry. In 1928, Woodward asked the Consul-General of the German consulate in Boston, to send him copies of a few original papers published in German journals. He was fascinated to read Otto Diels and Kurt Alder's original communication about the Diels\u2013Alder reaction. \n\nIn 1933, he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), but did not do well enough to continue. MIT readmitted him in 1935, and by 1936 he had received the Bachelor of Science degree. Only one year later, MIT awarded him the doctorate. This was very unusual at the time, because most MIT students earned only a Bachelor of Science degree after four years. Woodward's studies were about the synthesis of the female sex hormone estrone, a natural type of estrogen. He held a Junior Fellowship at Harvard University from 1937 to 1938, and stayed at Harvard for the rest of his life. In the 1960s, Woodward was named Donner Professor of Science, a post which allowed him to spend all his time on research.\n\nEarly work\nIn the early 1940s Wooward was using ultraviolet spectroscopy to discover the structure of natural products. Woodward collected a large amount of information, and then worked out a series of rules, later called the Woodward's rules. These rules could be used to find out the structures of new natural products, as well as non-natural synthesized molecules. Woodward was always quick to use newly developed techniques. Woodward's discovery saved chemists from spending a lot of time using chemical methods to work out the structures of compounds.\n\nIn 1944 Woodward and William von Eggers Doering reported the synthesis of the alkaloid quinine, used to treat malaria. The synthesis was a breakthrough, as quinine was hard to get from Japanese occupied southeast Asia. In fact, Woodward's method could not be used on a practical scale, but it was a landmark for chemical synthesis. Organic synthesis was still largely a matter of trial and error, and nobody thought such complex structures could actually be constructed. Woodward showed that organic synthesis could be made into a science. Woodward's synthesis of quinine was the first of many of his very complicated and elegant syntheses.\n\nLater work and its impact\nBy the 1930s, the British chemists Christopher Ingold and Robert Robinson among others had studied the mechanisms of organic reactions. They had come up with rules which could predict reactivity of organic molecules. Woodward was probably the first synthetic organic chemist who used these rules to predict what steps would work in a synthesis.\n\nOrganic syntheses and Nobel Prize\nDuring the late 1940s, Woodward synthesized many complex natural products including quinine, cholesterol, cortisone, strychnine, lysergic acid, reserpine, chlorophyll, cephalosporin, and colchicine. With these, Woodward opened up a new era of synthesis, sometimes called the 'Woodwardian era'. He showed that natural products could be synthesized by careful applications of the principles of physical organic chemistry, and by very careful planning.\n\nMany of Woodward's syntheses were described as spectacular by his colleagues. Before he did them, some people thought it would be impossible to create these substances in the lab. Woodward's syntheses were also described as having an element of art in them, and since then, synthetic chemists have always looked for elegance as well as utility in synthesis. His work also involved the exhaustive use of the then newly developed techniques of infrared spectroscopy and later, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Another important feature of Woodward's syntheses was their attention to stereochemistry or the particular configuration of molecules in three dimensional space. Most natural products of medicinal importance are effective, for example as drugs, only when they possess a specific stereochemistry. This creates the demand for 'stereospecific synthesis', producing a compound with a defined stereochemistry. Woodward was a pioneer in showing how one could conduct reactions that were stereospecific. Many of his syntheses involved forcing a molecule into a certain configuration by installing rigid structural elements in it, another tactic that has become standard today. In this regard, especially his syntheses of reserpine and strychnine were landmarks.\n\nDuring World War II, Woodward was an advisor to the War Production Board on the penicillin project.  \nWoodward also applied the technique of infrared spectroscopy and chemical degradation to determine the structures of complicated molecules. Notable among these structure determinations were santonic acid, strychnine, magnamycin and terramycin.  About terramycin, Woodward's colleague and Nobel Laureate Derek Barton said:\n\"The most brilliant analysis ever done on a structural puzzle was surely the solution (1953) of the terramycin problem. It was a problem of great industrial importance, and hence many able chemists had performed an enormous amount of work trying to determine the structure. There seemed to be too much data to resolve the problem, because a significant number of observations, although experimentally correct, were very misleading. Woodward took a large piece of cardboard, wrote on it all the facts and, by thought alone, deduced the correct structure for terramycin. Nobody else could have done that at the time.\"\n\nIn each one of these cases, Woodward again showed how rational facts and chemical principles, combined with chemical intuition, could be used to achieve the task.\n\nIn the early 1950s, Woodward, and British chemist Geoffrey Wilkinson, proposed a structure for ferrocene, a compound consisting of a combination of an organic molecule with iron. This marked the beginning of the field of transition metal organometallic chemistry. The field later grew which grew to be important to the chemical industry. Wilkinson won the Nobel Prize for this work in 1973, with Ernst Otto Fischer. Some historians think that Woodward should have shared this prize along with Wilkinson. Woodward himself thought so, and voiced his thoughts in a letter sent to the Nobel Committee.\n\nWoodward won the Nobel Prize in 1965 for his synthesis of complex organic molecules. In his Nobel lecture, he described the total synthesis of the antibiotic cephalosporin, and claimed that he had pushed the synthesis schedule so that it would be completed around the time of the Nobel ceremony.\n\nB12 synthesis and Woodward-Hoffmann rules\nIn the early 1960s, Woodward began work on what was the most complex natural product synthesized to date- vitamin B12. In a remarkable collaboration with his colleague Albert Eschenmoser in Zurich, a team of almost one hundred students and postdoctoral workers worked for many years on the synthesis of this molecule. The work was finally published in 1973, and it marked a landmark in the history of organic chemistry. The synthesis included almost a hundred steps, and involved the rigorous planning and analyses that had always characterised Woodward's work. This work, more than any other, convinced organic chemists that the synthesis of any complex substance was possible, given enough time and planning. However, as of 2006, no other total synthesis of Vitamin B12 has been published.\n\nThat same year, based on observations that Woodward had made during the B12 synthesis, he and Roald Hoffmann devised rules (now called the Woodward\u2013Hoffmann rules) for elucidating the stereochemistry of the products of organic reactions. Woodward based his ideas on his experiences as a synthetic organic chemist; he asked Hoffman to perform theoretical calculations to verify the ideas. This was done using Hoffmann's Extended H\u00fcckel method. The predictions of these rules were verified by many experiments. Hoffmann shared the 1981 Nobel Prize for this work along with Kenichi Fukui, a Japanese chemist who had done similar work using a different approach. Woodward had died two years before and so was not eligible to share this Prize.\n\nA recent paper in the journal Nature describes how mechanical stress can be used to reshape chemical reaction pathways to lead to products that apparently violate Woodward\u2013Hoffman rules.\n\nWoodward Institute and later life\nWhile at Harvard, Woodward took on the directorship of the \nWoodward Research Institute, based at Basel, Switzerland in 1963. He also became a trustee of his alma mater, MIT, from 1966 to 1971, and of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.\n\nWoodward died in Cambridge, Massachusetts from a heart attack in his sleep. At the time, he was working on the synthesis of an antibiotic, erythromycin. A student of his said:\n\n\"I owe a lot to Woodward. He showed me that one could attack difficult problems without a clear idea of their outcome, but with confidence that intelligence and effort would solve them. He showed me the beauty of modern organic chemistry, and the relevance to the field of detailed careful reasoning. He showed me that one does not need to specialize. Woodward made great contributions to the strategy of synthesis, to the deduction of difficult structures, to the invention of new chemistry, and to theoretical aspects as well. He taught his students by example the satisfaction that comes from total immersion in our science. I treasure the memory of my association with this remarkable chemist.\"\n\nPublications\nDuring his lifetime, Woodward authored or coauthored almost 200 publications, of which 85 are full papers. The remainder comprising preliminary communications, the text of lectures, and reviews. The pace of his scientific activity soon outstripped his capacity to publish all experimental details, and much of the work in which he participated was not published until a few years after his death. Woodward trained more than two hundred Ph.D. students and postdoctoral workers, many of whom later went on to distinguished careers.\n\nIdiosyncracies\nHis lectures were legendary and frequently used to last for three or four hours. [His longest known lecture defined the unit of time known as the \"Woodward\", and thereafter his other lectures were deemed to be so many \"milli-Woodwards\" long!] In many of these, he eschewed the use of slides and used to draw beautiful structures by using multicolored chalk. As a result, it was always easy to take good notes at a Woodward lecture. Typically, to begin a lecture, Woodward would arrive and lay out two large white handkerchiefs on the countertop.  Upon one would be four or five colors of chalk (new pieces), neatly sorted by color, in a long row.  Upon the other handkerchief would be placed an equally impressive row of cigarettes. The previous cigarette would be used to light the next one.  His famous Thursday seminars at Harvard often lasted well into the night. He had a fixation with blue, and all his suits, his car, and even his parking space were coloured in blue. In one of his laboratories, his students hung a large black and white photograph of the master from the ceiling, complete with a large blue \"tie\" appended. There it hung for some years (early 1970s), until scorched in a minor laboratory fire.  He detested exercise, could get along with only a few hours of sleep every night, was a heavy smoker, and enjoyed Scotch whisky and a martini or two. Hoffmann would correspond with Woodward using blue paper.\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n \n Robert Burns Woodward: Architect and Artist in the World of Molecules; Otto Theodor Benfey, Peter J. T. Morris, Chemical Heritage Foundation, April 2001.\n Robert Burns Woodward and the Art of Organic Synthesis: To Accompany an Exhibit by the Beckman Center for the History of Chemistry (Publication \/ Beckman Center for the History of Chemistry); Mary E. Bowden; Chemical Heritage Foundation, March 1992\n\nOther websites\nRobert Burns Woodward\nVideo podcast of Robert Burns Woodward talking about cephalosporin \n\n1917 births\n1979 deaths\nScientists from Boston\nAmerican chemists\nAmerican Nobel Prize winners\nForeign Members of the Royal Society\nDeaths from myocardial infarction","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3}},"id":302732,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert%20Woodward","title":"Robert Woodward","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Pamagat\nChristmas in the Trenches\nPetsa\nMang-aawit\nKompositorJohn McCutcheon\n\nLiriko\nMy name is Francis Tolliver, I come from Liverpool.\n\nTwo years ago the war was waiting for me after school.\n\nTo Belgium and to Flanders, to Germany to here\n\nI fought for King and country I love dear.\n\n'Twas Christmas in the trenches, where the frost so bitter hung,\n\nThe frozen fields of France were still, no Christmas song was sung\n\nOur families back in England were toasting us that day\n\nTheir brave and glorious lads so far away.\n\nI was lying with my messmate on the cold and rocky ground\n\nWhen across the lines of battle came a most peculiar sound\n\nSays I, ``Now listen up, me boys! each soldier strained to hear\n\nAs one young German voice sang out so clear.\n\n``He's singing bloody well, you know! my partner says to me\n\nSoon, one by one, each German voice joined in harmony\n\nThe cannons rested silent, the gas clouds rolled no more\n\nAs Christmas brought us respite from the war\n\nAs soon as they were finished and a reverent pause was spent\n\n``God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen struck up some lads from Kent\n\nThe next they sang was ``Stille Nacht. ``Tis `Silent Night', \nsays I\n\nAnd in two tongues one song filled up that sky\n\n``There's someone coming toward us! the front line sentry cried\n\nAll sights were fixed on one long figure trudging from their side\n\nHis truce flag, like a Christmas star, shown on that plain so bright\n\nAs he, bravely, strode unarmed into the night\n\nSoon one by one on either side walked into No Man's Land\n\nWith neither gun nor bayonet we met there hand to hand\n\nWe shared some secret brandy and we wished each other well\n\nAnd in a flare-lit soccer game we gave 'em hell\n\nWe traded chocolates, cigarettes, and photographs from home\n\nThese sons and fathers far away from families of their own\n\nYoung Sanders played his squeezebox and they had a violin\n\nThis curious and unlikely band of men\n\nSoon daylight stole upon us and France was France once more\n\nWith sad farewells we each prepared to settle back to war\n\nBut the question haunted every heart that lived that wonderous night\n\n``Whose family have I fixed within my sights?''\n\n'Twas Christmas in the trenches where the frost, so bitter hung\n\nThe frozen fields of France were warmed as songs of peace were sung\n\nFor the walls they'd kept between us to exact the work of war\n\nHad been crumbled and were gone forevermore\n\nMy name is Francis Tolliver, in Liverpool I dwell\n\nEach Christmas come since World War I, I've learned its lessons well\n\nThat the ones who call the shots won't be among the dead and lame\n\nAnd on each end of the rifle we're the same\n\nAwiting Pamasko\nPamaskong Ingles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":12,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-26":5,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":5,"2024-10":4,"2017-13":17,"2015-18":15,"2015-11":14,"2015-06":9,"2014-10":13,"2013-48":16,"2013-20":20}},"id":18366,"url":"https:\/\/tl.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christmas%20in%20the%20Trenches","title":"Christmas in the Trenches","language":"tl"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"tos ditampi sailaharna, Linguistik nya\u00e9ta \u00e9lmu panggunaan basa manusya, sertos linguist nya\u00e9ta jalmi nu kalebet dina widang ulikan ieu. Ulikan linguistik wisa dipikirkeun sapanjang tilu hal utami, nu tungtungna tiasa dij\u00e9ntr\u00e9keun saperti di handap:\n\n Sinkronis jeung diakronis\u2014Ulikan basa sinkronis tumali jeung wangun dina hiji kajadian; ulikan diakronis ngawengku sajarah basa (grup) sertos parobahan strukturalna sapanjang waktu.\n T\u00e9oritis jeung terapan\u2014Linguistik T\u00e9oritis paduli kana carangka pikeun ngagambarkeun basa sertos t\u00e9ori individual ngeunaan asp\u00e9k universal tina basa; lingusitik terapan nerapkeun t\u00e9ori ieu ka widang s\u00e9j\u00e9n.\n Kont\u00e9kstual jeung indep\u00e9nden\u2014Linguistik disawang gumantung kana kumaha basa kumait jeung dunya sabudeureunana: fungsi sosialna, kumaha \u00e9ta diakuisisi, kumaha \u00e9ta diproduksi sertos dirasa. Linguistik Independen narimbang basa pikeun tujuan manusya saindividuna, iwal externalities nu nyambung jeung hiji basa. Istilah pikeun dikotomi ieu lain pohara mapan\u2014Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica ngagunakeun macrolinguistics sertos microlinguistics minangka gantina.\n\nKalawan dikotomi ieu, sarjana nu nyebut dirina ngan ahli basa atawa ahli basa t\u00e9oritis ba\u00e9, kalawan tanpa kualifikasi deui, condong ka independen, linguistik sinkronis anu t\u00e9oritis, nya\u00e9ta ngaku ayana sabot inti ti disiplin \u00e9lmu.\n\n T\u00e9oritis jeung terapan\u2014Th\u00e9oretical linguistics is concerned with frameworks for describing individual languages and th\u00e9ories about universal aspects of language; applied lingusitics applies these th\u00e9ories to other fields.\n Kont\u00e9kstual jeung indep\u00e9nden\u2014Contextual linguistics is concerned with how language fits into the world: its social function, how it is acquired, how it is produced and perceived. Independent linguistics considers languages for their own sake, aside from the externalities related to a language.  Terms for this dichotomy are not yet well established\u2014the Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica uses macrolinguistics and microlinguistics inst\u00e9ad.\n\nGiven these dichotomies, scholars who call themselves simply linguists or theoretical linguists, with no further qualification, tend to be concerned with independent, th\u00e9oretical synchronic linguistics, which is acknowledged as the core of the discipline.\n\nLinguistic inquiry is pursued by a wide variety of specialists, who may not all be in harmonious agreement; as Russ Rymer flamboyantly puts it:\n\n\"Linguistics is arguably the most hotly contested property in the academic realm. It is soaked with the blood of poets, theologians, philosophers, philologists, psychologists, biologists, and neurologists, along with whatever blood can be got out of grammarians.\"  1\n\nWidang linguistik t\u00e9oritis \nTh\u00e9oretical linguistics is often divided into a number of separate ar\u00e9as, to be studied more or less independently. The following divisions are currently widely acknowledged:\n\n Fon\u00e9tik, the study of the different sounds that are employed across all human languages;\n Fonologi, the study of patterns of a language's basic sounds;\n Morfologi, the study of the internal structure of words;\n Sintaksis, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences\n Semantik, the study of the m\u00e9aning of words (lexical semantics), and how these combine to form the m\u00e9anings of sentences;\n Stilistik, the study of style in languages;\n Pragmatik, the study of how utterances are used (literally, figuratively, or otherwise) in communicative acts;\n\nThe independent significance of \u00e9ach of these ar\u00e9as is not universally acknowledged, however, and n\u00e9arly all linguists would agree that the divisions overlap considerably. Nevertheless, \u00e9ach subar\u00e9a has core concepts that foster significant scholarly inquiry and res\u00e9arch.\n\nLinguistik diakronis \nWher\u00e9as the core of th\u00e9oretical linguistics is concerned with studying languages at a particular point in time (usually the present), diachronic linguistics examines how language changes through time, sometimes over centuries. Historical linguistics enjoys both a rich history (the study of linguistics grew out of historical linguistics) and a strong th\u00e9oretical foundation for the study of language change.\n\nIn American universities, the non-historic perspective seems to have the upper hand. Many introductory linguistics classes, for example, cover historical linguistics only cursorily. The shift in focus to a non-historic perspective started with Saussure and became predominant with Noam Chomsky.\n\nExplicitly historical perspectives include historical-comparative linguistics and etymology.\n\nLinguistik terapan \nWher\u00e9as th\u00e9oretical linguistics is concerned with finding and describing generalities both within languages and among all languages, as a group, applied linguistics takes the results of those findings and applies them to other ar\u00e9as. Usually applied linguistics refers to the use of linguistic res\u00e9arch in language t\u00e9aching, but linguistics is used in other ar\u00e9as, as well. Speech synthesis and Speech recognition, for example, use linguistic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers.\n\nLinguistik kont\u00e9kstual \nContextual linguistics is that r\u00e9alm where linguistics interacts with other  academic disciplines. Wher\u00e9as core th\u00e9oretical linguistics studies languages for their own sake, the inder-disciplinary ar\u00e9as of linguistic consider how language interacts with the rest of the world. But that rather depends upon their world-view.\n\nSociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology are where the social sciences that consider societies as whole and linguistics interact.\n\nCritical discourse analysis is where rhetoric and philosophy interact with linguistics.\n\nPsycholinguistics and neurolinguistics is the where the medical sciences meets linguistics.\n\nOther cross-disciplinary ar\u00e9as of linguistics include  language acquisition, evolutionary linguistics, stratificational linguistics, and cognitive science.\n\nIndividual speakers, language communities, and linguistic universals \nLinguists also differ in how broad a group of language users they study. Some analyze a given sp\u00e9aker's language or language development in gr\u00e9at detail. Some study language pertaining to a whole speech community, such as the language of all those who sp\u00e9ak Black English Vernacular. Others try to find linguistic universals that apply, at some abstract level, to all users of human language everywhere. This latter project has been most famously advocated by Noam Chomsky, and it interests many p\u00e9ople in psycholinguistics and cognitive science. It is thought that universals in human language may rev\u00e9al important insight into universals about the human mind.\n\nDescription and prescription \nMost work currently done under the name \"linguistics\" is purely descriptive; the linguists seek to clarify the nature of language without passing value judgments or trying to chart future language directions. Nonetheless, there are many professionals and amateurs who also prescribe rules of language, holding a particular standard out for all to follow.\n\nWher\u00e9as prescriptivists might want to stamp out what they perceive as \"incorrect usage\", descriptivists seek to find the root of such usage; they might describe it simply as \"idiosyncratic\", or they may discover a regularity that the prescriptivists don't like because it is perhaps too new or from a dialect they don't approve of.\n\nSpeech versus writing \nMost contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken language is more fundamental, and thus more important to study, than writing. r\u00e9asons for this standpoint include:\n Speech app\u00e9ars to be a human universal, wher\u00e9as there are and have been many cultures that lack written communication;\n P\u00e9ople l\u00e9arn to sp\u00e9ak and process oral language \u00e9asier and \u00e9arlier than writing; \n A number of cognitive scientists argue that the brain has an innate \"language module\", knowledge of which is thought to come more from studying speech than writing.\n\nOf course, linguists agree that that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For linguistic res\u00e9arch that uses the methods of corpus linguistics and computational linguistics, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpuses of spoken language are difficult to cr\u00e9ate and hard to find.\n\nFurthermore, the study of writing systems themselves falls under the aegis of linguistics.\n\nResearch areas of linguistics \n\nphonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, etymology, lexicology, lexicography, theoretical linguistics, historical-comparative linguistics and descriptive linguistics, linguistic typology, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics,  semiotics.\n\nInterdisciplinary linguistic research \n\napplied linguistics, historical linguistics, orthography, writing systems, comparative linguistics,  cryptanalysis, decipherment, sociolinguistics, critical discourse analysis, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, evolutionary linguistics, anthropological linguistics, stratificational linguistics, text linguistics, cognitive science, neurolinguistics, and in Computational linguistics there is\nnatural language understanding, speech recognition, speaker recognition (authentication), speech synthesis, and more generally, speech processing\n\nImportant linguists and schools of thought \n\n\u00e9arly scholars of linguistics include Jakob Grimm, who devised the principle of consonantal shifts in pronunciation known as Grimm's Law in 1822, Karl Verner, who discovered Verner's Law, August Schleicher who cr\u00e9ated the \"Stammbaumtheorie\" and Johannes Schmidt who developed the \"Wellentheorie\" (\"wave model\") in 1872. Ferdinand de Saussure was the founder of mod\u00e9rn structural linguistics. Noam Chomsky's formal mod\u00e9l of language, transformational-generative grammar, developed under the influence of his t\u00e9acher Zellig Harris, who was in turn strongly influenced by Leonard Bloomfield, has been the dominant one from the 1960s.\n\nOther important linguists and schools include Michael Halliday, whose systemic functional grammar is pursued widely in the U.K., Canada, Australia, China, and Jepang; Dell Hymes, who developed a pragmatic approach called The Ethnography of Sp\u00e9aking; George Lakoff, Len Talmy, and Ronald Langacker, who were pioneers in cognitive linguistics; Charles Fillmore and Adele Goldberg, who are associated with construction grammar; and linguists developing several varieties of what they call  functional grammar, including Talmy Givon and Robert Van Valin, Jr..\n\nRepresentation of speech \n\n International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), a system used to write down and reproduce the sounds of human speech.\n SAMPA, an ASCII-only transcription for the IPA used by some authors. See also http:\/\/www.phon.ucl.ac.uk\/home\/sampa\/home.htm\n\nNarrower conceptions of \"linguistics\" \n\n\"Linguistics\" and \"linguist\" may not always be m\u00e9ant to apply as broadly as above. In some contexts, the best definitions may be \"what is studied in a typical university's department of linguistics\", and \"one who is a professor in such a department.\" Linguistics in this narrow sense usually does not refer to l\u00e9arning to sp\u00e9ak foreign languages (except insofar as this helps to craft formal mod\u00e9ls of language.) It does not include literary analysis. Only sometimes does it include study of things such as metaphor. It probably does not apply to those engaged in such prescriptive efforts as found in Strunk and White's The Elements of Style; \"linguists\" usually seek to study what p\u00e9ople do, not what they should do. One could probably argue for a long while about who is and who is not a \"linguist\".\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n Daptar linguist\n Sajarah linguistik\n Jejer dasar linguistik, a page designed to organize information about linguistics on Wikipedia\n Daptar jejer linguistik\n Filologi, ulikan t\u00e9ks kuna jeung basana. \n Strukturalisme\n\nRujukan \n Geoffrey Sampson: \"Schools of Linguistics.\", Hutchinson, London (1980), ISBN 0-8047-1084-8 \n Rymer, p.\u00a048, quoted in Fauconnier and Turner, p.\u00a0353)\n Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner (2002). The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind's Hidden Complexities. Basic Books.\n Rymer, Russ (1992). \"Annals of Science: A Silent Childhood-I\". New Yorker, April 13.\n Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct\n\nTumbu luar \n Multilingual Morphology Software \n Grammar Book\n Automated word analysis for the German language\n Syllabification algorithm \n The hyphenation block","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":1064,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linguistik","title":"Linguistik","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In music, a musical note, otherwise referred to as a musical tone or simply a note or tone, is a small bit of sound of a note system known as the solfege, especially in the United States, similar to a syllable in spoken language. For example: in the first two lines of the song \"Twinkle, twinkle, little star, how I wonder what you are\" there are 14 notes: one for each syllable.\n\nConfusingly, the word \"note\" can also mean the pitch of a note (how high or low it is). For example: the whole of the song \"Twinkle, twinkle, little star\" can be played using six different notes: C, D, E, F, G and A.\n\nThe word \"note\" can also mean the written symbol of the note, which shows the note value.\n\nNearly all music is made up of notes. Music without notes might be sound effects.\n\nMusic \nIn some Western countries, like the United Kingdom, Germany and the US, the notes (in the sense of the pitches) are given a letter of the alphabet according to their pitch. From lowest sounding to highest sounding: Rest, C, D, E, F, G, A, B. This pattern repeats, so that after G will come A. This A is an octave higher than the first A.\n\nBecause there are 12 notes needed in Western music, these 7 notes can have modifiers (symbols or words that change them). The two main modifiers are sharps, which raise the pitch a half-step, and flats, which lower the pitch a half-step. The symbol for a sharp is \u266f (like the hash symbol (American: number symbol): #). The symbol for a flat is \u266d (like a lower-case italic b). To un-flat or un-sharp a note, the natural symbol, \u266e, is written before the note. When writing in words (like this page), the symbols are written after the note name, for example: \"B\u266d\" means B flat and \"F\u266f\" represents F sharp. However, when writing in music notation, the flat, sharp or natural signs are written before the note. A way to remember this is to say: if the sign came after the note, it would be too late, and you would have already played it, so it must go before so that you know what is coming.\n\nSharps and flats can also be written in key signatures. A key signature is written at the beginning of the piece, and repeated at the beginning of each line. It gives the sharps or flats which are going to be regular in the piece.\n\nTwo other modifiers are double sharps, which raise the note a whole step, and double flats, which lower the note a whole step. These are much less common that the simple sharp or flat, but can still be seen in some types of music. The symbol for a double sharp is \u00d7 and the symbol for a double flat is \u266d\u266d. For example, E\u266d\u266d is another name for D. This is called an enharmonic equivalent. Another enharmonic equivalent is C and B\u266f.\n\nOther note names \n\nIn some languages, such as the Romance languages (Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian), seven of the notes are named \"Do\", \"Re\", \"Mi\", \"Fa\", \"Sol\", \"La\" and \"Si\" (or \"Ti\") instead of \"C\", \"D\", \"E\", \"F\", \"G\", \"A\" and \"B\". These names are the focus for a song in The Sound of Music.\n\nDrum kits do not have notes; they have places on the manuscript where each line means each Drum,\neach symbol means each Cymbak on the Kit - how many times to hit it in what speed and beats\nin a bar there are usually shown as 4\/4 and you count 1 2 3 4 each bar.\n\nMusical notation","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":184,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":22971,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Musical%20note","title":"Musical note","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884 \u2013 December 26, 1972) was the 33rd president of the United States, from 1945 to 1953. He became president when President Franklin D. Roosevelt died in office. Truman served as the 34th vice president of the United States for a short time, from January to April 1945.\n\nAs president, Truman made important foreign policy decisions, such as using atomic weapons on Japan to end World War II; repairing Europe (which was destroyed during the war); beginning the Cold War, and getting the U.S. involved in the Korean War.\n\nEarly years\n\nHarry S. Truman was born on May 8, 1884, in Lamar, Missouri. The initial, \"S\", in Truman's name has no meaning.\n\nTruman was raised in Independence, Missouri. He lived for 12 years as a Missouri farmer.\n\nThe presidential election of 1892 happened when Truman was eight years old. He wanted Grover Cleveland, a Democrat like Truman's family, to win. Grover Cleveland did win.\n\nTruman joined the United States Military in 1917. He went to France in World War I and became a captain in the Field Artillery.\n\nTruman left the military in 1919. That same year, he married Elizabeth Virginia Wallace. He opened a clothing store in Kansas City.\n\nOn February 17, 1924, Bess had a baby girl and named her Mary Margaret Truman.\n\nPolitical life\nTruman was active in the Democratic Party. In 1922, he was elected judge of Jackson County Court.\n\nTwo years later, Truman lost the next county judge election. However, he was elected county judge again in  1926.\n\nIn 1934, Truman was elected Senator of Missouri. He became a member of the Interstate Commerce Committee. He was also the vice-chairman of a subcommittee on railroad safety.\n\nIn 1940, Truman ran for re-election to the Senate. First he would have to beat another Democrat, Governor Lloyd Stark, in a primary election. The primary election would decide which Democrat would go on to face a Republican candidate in the final elections in November.\n\nPresident Franklin Roosevelt and St. Louis Mayor Bernard Dickmann both wanted Stark to win. Truman had a hard time getting money. Most people thought he would lose. However, about a month before the primary election, the railroad unions said that they wanted Truman to win. Then, two days before primary election day, Bernard Dickmann also said that he wanted Truman to win.\n\nTruman won by about 8,000 votes. He also won the election in November.\n\nTruman became the head of a committee that looked at how much money the United States was spending on defense during World War II. He found billions of dollars of spending that he thought was a waste, and could be cut out of what the U.S. was spending. Truman supported Roosevelt's leadership of the country in the war, but wanted to make the government less wasteful and more effective. He became well known for leading that committee.\n\nVice Presidency, 1945 \nIn 1944, President Roosevelt ran for reelection again. Roosevelt was in bad health and he did not have much longer to live. The Democratic Party realized that whoever they selected as Vice President could be the next president of the United States. (In the U.S. government, if the President dies, the Vice President automatically becomes the new president.)\n\nHenry A. Wallace, Roosevelt's former vice president, was not chosen because he had a friendly attitude toward the Soviet Union, which many people saw as a dictatorship. Roosevelt wanted Truman as his vice president, and Truman was chosen.\n\nThey won the election, and Roosevelt began his fourth term as president. On April 12, 1945, shortly after his fourth inauguration, Franklin Delano Roosevelt died. Truman became president.\n\nPresidency, 1945\u201353\nAbout becoming president, Truman said: \"it felt like the moon, the stars, and all of the planets had fallen upon me.\"\n\nTruman had become president during the last few months of World War II. While Truman was vice president, Roosevelt never told him much about World War II. At that time, people did not think of the Vice Presidency as an important job in politics. Because of this, Truman entered the presidency knowing not much more than the average person about what the U.S. military was doing in World War II.\n\nNazi Germany surrendered less than a month after Truman became president. This ended the war in Europe. However, the Japanese kept fighting. The Allies of World War II made the Potsdam Declaration, telling Japan to surrender or it would face \"prompt and utter destruction.\" Japan did not surrender, so Truman ordered the first atomic bomb to be dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6th, 1945. Three days later, Truman ordered the second atomic bomb to be dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. Japan surrendered and the war ended.\n\nThe huge destructive power of the atomic bombs razed both cities, and killed over one hundred thousand people, with many more dying of radiation induced illnesses over subsequent years. People who disagreed with the decision, like General and future president Dwight Eisenhower, believe it was a cruel and inhumane attack on innocent people, when Japan was already close to being beaten. Other people thought it was a good decision because it ended the war early. Truman thought that if the U.S. had invaded Japan instead of using the bombs to end the war quickly, many more Americans would have died.\n\nAfter the war \n\nAfter the war, Truman ordered Europe (which was destroyed during the war) to be repaired with the Marshall Plan. Germany was divided into two parts after the war. The Soviet Union controlled East Germany. The United States, Britain, and France controlled West Germany. During the Soviet blockade of West Berlin, Truman ordered the Berlin Airlift, which flew in tons of food to West Germany to feed the starving people.\n\nTruman also helped create the United Nations, an organization which was based on the League of Nations. The United Nations still exists today. Its goal is for different countries to work together to help humanity and to promote peace.\n\nAfter World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States were the only two powerful countries left. With Germany being divided between the Soviet Union and the United States, tensions began to increase between the two countries. The Cold War began. This was a war where the Soviet Union and the United States did not fight directly, but each wanted to have a bigger influence than the other over the world. The Soviet Union wanted to spread communism around the world. (Communism is the belief that the government should own the economy to make everybody equal). Truman believed in a policy called containment: that the U.S. should contain communism and stop it from spreading. Truman declared the Truman Doctrine, which said the United States should give money to Turkey and Greece so that they could be strong enough to defend themselves from communism.\n\nTruman sent Congress his \"Fair Deal.\" It was based on Roosevelt's New Deal. It gave more money to education, more money to farmers, and a higher minimum wage for workers. Labor union leaders asked him for higher wages and more benefits.\n\nAfter coal miners went on strike, Truman had the Department of the Interior take over the mines. While Truman sympathized with the working class, when there was a huge railroad strike, Truman believed it was illegal. He also thought it was unfair to people who could not get to work because the railroads were not running. He reacted by threatening to force the strikers to go into the army if they did not return to work.\n\nTruman de-segregated the military, allowing blacks and whites to fight together.\n\n1948 election \nFurther information: 1948 United States presidential election\n\nIn 1948, Truman ran for a second term as president against Thomas Dewey. He was the underdog and everyone thought he was going to lose. The Chicago Tribune published a newspaper on the night of the election with the title \"Dewey Defeats Truman\". To everyone's surprise, Harry Truman won the election.\n\nThe Korean War \nOn June 25, 1950, North Korea attacked South Korea. China supported North Korea. North Korea wanted to bring Communism into South Korea.\n\nThe U.S. fought the Korean War to defend South Korea and keep communism from spreading there. General Douglas MacArthur wanted to bomb China. Truman thought it was too dangerous to do that, so he fired MacArthur. Many people respected MacArthur, so they were angry at Truman. He made Mathew B. Ridgeway general.\n\nDuring the end of his term, Harry Truman's approval rating was at an all-time low. He was very unpopular because thousands of Americans died in the Korean War; there was a medium amount of corruption in his government; and people were accusing many of Truman's employees of being communists. He left office on January 20, 1953. The Korean War ended about six months later.\n\nAs time passed, Truman's reputation got a lot better. Many historians now believe that Harry Truman was one of the greatest presidents.\n\nLater life\nTruman moved back to Missouri. He died on December 26, 1972 in Kansas City, Missouri of multiple organ failure caused by pneumonia at the age of 88.\n\nRelated pages \n Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\n Marshall Plan\n Cold War\n Truman Doctrine\n Korean War\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n WW2DB: Harry Truman\n White House biography on Truman \n\n1884 births\n1972 deaths\nAmerican military personnel of World War I\nAmerican people of World War II\nAmerican Presbyterians\nAnti-communists\nAmerican colonels\nDeaths from multiple organ failure\nDeaths from pneumonia\nInfectious disease deaths in Missouri\n \nPeople from Independence, Missouri\nPeople of the Korean War\nTime People of the Year\nUnited States senators from Missouri\nDemocratic Party (United States) politicians\n20th-century American politicians\nMilitary people from Missouri","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":142,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2022-21":1,"2021-43":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":4,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":2,"2019-26":5,"2019-13":4,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1}},"id":5422,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harry%20S.%20Truman","title":"Harry S. Truman","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The 1872 Republican National Convention was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, June 5\u20136, 1872. President Ulysses S. Grant was unanimously nominated for reelection by the convention's 752 delegates. Massachusetts Senator Henry Wilson replaced sitting Vice President Schuyler Colfax as the Republican vice presidential nominee.\n\nPresidential nomination\n\nPresidential candidate \n\nVice President Colfax was considered a potential rival to Grant for the presidential nomination. Although Colfax declared himself open to the prospect should Grant decide not to run for a second term, his stance alienated him from both the President and his many supporters.\n\nGrant's nomination was co-seconded by William Henry Grey of Arkansas, the first African-American to address a major U.S. political party national convention. Grant received the nomination unanimously on the first ballot. Grant's re-nomination would be the last time the Republican party nominated a candidate unanimously until McKinley's re-nomination in 1900.\n\nPresidential Balloting \/ 2nd Day of Convention (June 6, 1872)\n\nThe platform \nThe platform, significantly so in the first section, boasted of the party's achievements since it had attained power in 1861:\n\nThe Republican party of the United States, assembled in National Convention in the city of Philadelphia, on the 5th and 6th days of June, 1872, again declares its faith, appeals to its history, and announces its position upon the questions before the country:\n\nFirst: During eleven years of supremacy it has accepted with grand courage the solemn duties of the time. It suppressed a gigantic rebellion, emancipated four millions of slaves, decreed the equal citizenship of all, and established universal suffrage. Exhibiting unparalleled magnanimity, it criminally punished no man for political offenses, and warmly welcomed all who proved loyalty by obeying the laws and dealing justly with their neighbors. It has steadily decreased with firm hand the resultant disorders of a great war, and initiated a wise and humane policy toward the Indians. The Pacific railroad and similar vast enterprises have been generously aided and successfully conducted, the public lands freely given to actual settlers, immigration protected and encouraged, and a full acknowledgment of the naturalized citizens' rights secured from European Powers. A uniform national currency has been provided, repudiation frowned down, the national credit sustained under the most extraordinary burdens, and new bonds negotiated at lower rates. The revenues have been carefully collected and honestly applied. Despite large annual reductions of the rates of taxation, the public debt has been reduced during General Grant's Presidency at the rate of a hundred millions a year, great financial crises have been avoided, and peace and plenty prevail throughout the land. Menacing foreign difficulties have been peacefully and honorably composed, and the honor and power of the nation kept in high respect throughout the world. This glorious record of the past is the party's best pledge for the future. We believe the people will not in trust the Government to any party or combination of men composed chiefly of those who have resisted every step of this beneficent progress.\n\nSecond: The recent amendments to the national constitution should be cordially sustained because they are right, -not merely tolerated because they are laws, -and should be carried out according to their spirit by appropriate legislation, the enforcement of which can safely be entrusted only to the party that secured those amendments.\n\nThird: Complete liberty and exact equality in the enjoyment of all civil, political, and public rights should be established and effectually maintained throughout the Union by efficient and appropriate state and federal legislation. Neither the law nor its administration should admit any discrimination in respect of citizens by reason of race, creed, color, or previous condition of servitude.\n\nFourth: The national government should seek to maintain honorable peace with all nations, protecting its citizens everywhere, and sympathizing with all peoples who strive for greater liberty.\n\nFifth: Any system of the civil service, under which the subordinate positions of the government are considered rewards for mere party zeal, is fatally demoralizing, and we therefore for a reform of the system by laws which shall abolish the evils of patronage, and make honesty, efficiency, and fidelity the essential qualifications for public positions, without practically creating a life-tenure of office.\n\nSixth: We are opposed to further grants of public lands to corporations and monopolies, and demand that the national domain be set apart for free homes and people.\n\nSeventh: The annual revenue, after paying current expenditures, pensions, and the interest on the public debt, should furnish a moderate balance for the reduction of the principal, and that revenue, except so much as may be derived from a tax upon tobacco and liquors, should be raised by duties upon importations, the details of which should be so adjusted as to aid in securing remunerative wages to labor, and to promote the industries, prosperity, and growth of the whole country.\n\nEight: We hold in undying honor the soldiers and sailors whose valor saved the Union. Their pensions are a sacred debt of the nation, and the widows and orphans of those who died for their country are entitled to the care of a generous and grateful people. We favor such additional legislation as will extend the bounty of the government to all our soldiers and sailors who were honorably discharged, and who, in the line of duty, became disabled, without regard to the length of service or the cause of such discharge.\n\nNine: The doctrine of Great Britain and other European powers concerning allegiance- \"once a subject always a subject\" -having at last, through the efforts of the Republican party, been abandoned, and the American idea of the individual's right to transfer allegiance having been accepted by European nations, it is the duty of our government to guard with jealous care the rights of adopted citizens against the assumption of unauthorized claims by their former governments, and we urge continued careful encouragement and protection of voluntary immigration.\n\nTenth: The franking privilege ought to be abolished, and the way prepared for a speedy reduction in the rates of postage.\n\nEleventh: Among the questions which press for attention is that which concerns the relations of capital and labor, and the Republican party recognizes the duty of so shaping legislation as to secure full protection and amplest field for capital, -and for labor, the creator of capital, the largest opportunities and a just share of the mutual profits of these two great servants of civilization.\n\nTwelfth: We hold that congress and the President have only fulfilled an imperative duty in their measures for the suppression of violent and treasonable organizations in certain lately rebellious regions, and for the protection of the ballot-box, and therefore they are entitled to the thanks of the nation.\n\nThirteenth: We denounce repudiation of the public debt, in any form or disguise, as a national crime. We witness with pride the reduction of the principal of the debt, and of the rates of interest upon the balance, and confidently expect that our excellent national currency will be perfected by a speedy resumption of specie payment.\n\nFourteenth: The Republican party is mindful of its obligations to the loyal women of America for their noble devotion to the cause of freedom. Their admission to wider fields of usefulness is viewed with satisfaction, and the honest demand of any class of citizens for additional rights should be treated with respectful consideration.\n\nFifteenth: We heartily approve the action of congress in extending amnesty to those lately in rebellion, and rejoice in the growth of peace and fraternal feeling throughout the land.\n\nSixteenth: The Republican party proposes to respect the rights reserved by the people to themselves, as carefully as the powers delegated by them to the state and to the federal government. It disapproves of the resort to unconstitutional laws for the purpose of removing evil, by interference with rights not surrendered by the people to either the state or national government.\n\nSeventeenth: It is the duty of the general government to adopt such measures as may tend to encourage and restore American commerce and shipbuilding.\n\nEighteenth: We believe that the modest patriotism, the earnest purpose, the sound judgement, the practical wisdom, the incorruptible integrity, and the illustrious services of Ulysses S. Grant have commended him to the heart of the American people, and with him at our head we start to-day upon a new march to victory.\n\nNineteenth: Henry Wilson, nominated for the Vice-Presidency, known to the whole land from the early days of the great struggle for liberty as an indefatigable laborer in all campaigns, an incorruptible legislator, and a representative man of American institutions, is worthy to associate with our great leader, and share the honors which we pledge our best efforts to bestow upon them.\n\nAnti-Temperance and the Raster Resolution \nThe late 19th century saw a massive and nationwide growth of the temperance movement, and until 1872 the Republican Party had not formally adopted a stance on the prohibition of alcohol. Famous German American editor and political figure Hermann Raster of Chicago wrote a passionate and carefully worded resolution, dubbed the Raster Resolution, for the 1872 convention. The resolution attacked the temperance movement and solidified the Republican Party's opposition to prohibition, and it was inserted in condensed form as the sixteenth section of the official platform.\n\nVice Presidential nomination\n\nVice Presidential candidates\n\nNot Nominated \n\nColfax's chances for re-nomination were further damaged when a small movement within the Liberal Republican Party sought to enter his name for their presidential nomination. While the rumors of Colfax's nomination for either party's nomination amounted to little more than speculation, it likely cost him his bid for re-nomination. Colfax narrowly missed the mark by garnering 308.5 delegates compared to Massachusetts Senator Henry Wilson's 399.5 on a revised first ballot. President Grant was among many notables who remained on the sideline during the vice presidential balloting.\n\nVice Presidential Balloting \/ 2nd Day of Convention (June 6, 1872)\n\nSee also \n History of the United States Republican Party\n U.S. presidential nomination convention\n List of Republican National Conventions\n U.S. presidential election, 1872\n 1872 Democratic National Convention\n Temperance movement\n Hermann Raster\n\nReferences \n\n Presidential election, 1872.: Proceedings of the National union Republican convention held at Philadelphia, June 5 and 6, 1872 ...\/ Reported by Francis H. Smith, Official reporter.\n\nExternal links \n Republican Party Platform of 1872 at The American Presidency Project\n\nRepublican National Conventions\n1872 United States presidential election\nPolitical conventions in Philadelphia\n1872 in Pennsylvania\n1872 conferences\nJune 1872 events\n19th-century political conferences\n1870s political events\n19th century in Philadelphia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":173,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":3,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":9,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":5}},"id":11248012,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1872%20Republican%20National%20Convention","title":"1872 Republican National Convention","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Let It Be is a 12th and final studio album it was release 8 May 1970 and movie, by rock band The Beatles. It was the last Beatles project finished before the band broke up.\n\nHistory \nAfter the \"White Album\" (The Beatles) was released in late 1968, the Beatles talked about making a television special, where they would play songs from the album for an audience. It would be the band's first live public performance since 1966.\n\nAs 1969 began, the band decided instead to begin work on a new set of songs, and film the process of rehearsing and recording all the songs, then performing them live. The project was titled Get Back, and a song by that name was worked up during rehearsals. The band agreed to perform all the songs without studio  or , as they had long used.\n\nFirst week: Twickenham Film Studios \nThe Beatles rented a  at Twickenham Film Studios, where their instruments and equipment were set up. They were used to working from afternoons until late at night on music, but had to arrive between eight and ten o'clock in the morning, to meet the filming schedule. The band did not use this setup for long. The early hours and the cold, huge soundstage made them uncomfortable.\n\nThere was also  between the Beatles, and it showed. The Beatles could not agree on where to perform the show, and for how large an audience. The suggested locations ranged from Los Angeles, California to Tunisia, and the size of the audience from a few dozen to thousands of people. Nobody had a location in mind that the rest liked, and George Harrison decided he did not want to perform a public concert at all.\n\nPaul McCartney took charge of the rehearsals, and drove the band hard to play his new songs just the way he imagined them. The other Beatles became tired of this, because it did not give them much chance to , the way they were used to doing. George Harrison got especially tired of McCartney telling him what to play, and his own songs not getting the attention they deserved. John Lennon also had new songs, but was more interested in spending time with Yoko Ono than in making another Beatles record. He was also  of Harrison's new songs. Yoko Ono gave her opinions on the band's music, which they were not used to hearing from anyone but their producer, George Martin. McCartney and Harrison  Ono's being at Lennon's side constantly. Ringo Starr tried to play the peacemaker, but did not always succeed. Harrison walked out during one lunch break, saying he had had enough. The band stopped work on the production, and decided to find a new location to work.\n\nThe next weeks: Apple Studio \nHarrison went to a Beatles business meeting, a few days after he left the rehearsal. McCartney agreed to mend his ways, and let Harrison have more input. Lennon and Harrison also made up. The idea of finishing Get Back with a public show was dropped. Nobody wanted to return to the movie studio, and they began to look for another place to work on their new songs.\n\n\"Magic Alex\", a Greek-born inventor, had been hired by the Beatles to build them a new recording studio, in the basement of the  which was the home of their company, Apple Corps. Alex spent a great deal of money over many months, trying to make a first-rate facility. He did not understand recording or studio technology well, though, and the studio he made had many technical problems. The Beatles only found this out when they tried to use the place to record. Things did not work, and this added to the tension felt by the band, and the people who worked for them.\n\nGeorge Martin was able to help the Beatles, by working around the problems in the basement studio. He borrowed recording equipment so the band could finish their project. The movie cameras were also set up in the basement, and the Beatles went back to work on their music. This time things were as crowded as the first location was cavernous, and again the band and their crew were uncomfortable.\n\nThe Beatles usually \"warmed up\" by playing old songs they had learned growing up. Many of these were captured on camera or tape during the sessions. Not all the songs were complete, or true to their original versions. When the band went from playing old songs to trying out new ones, problems came up. Lennon, McCartney, and Harrison each wanted certain things for their music, and enough time to make the records the best they could be. This did not always work out, and they sometimes insulted each other for trying to outdo the others, or for letting their musical influences show. It made the sessions unpleasant.\n\nGeorge Harrison helped the  of the band, when he brought a guest musician, Billy Preston, to the sessions. All of the Beatles liked Preston, and got along while he was there. He played keyboards along with the band, and gave the records a fuller sound. McCartney's girlfriend Linda brought her daughter Heather to the studio, and they helped cheer things up. Linda sang background vocals on \"Let It Be\", a gospel-like song by McCartney.\n\nThe question of where and when to finally perform the new songs was settled, when the Beatles decided to give a show on the roof of Apple headquarters. This happened on January 30, 1969, early in the afternoon. The Beatles performed for the movie cameras, and for anyone who could hear them outside.\n\nAs it happened, the music coming from the rooftop caused a traffic jam along Savile Row, where the building was located. Local police came to Apple, and tried to stop the show. Mal Evans, one of the Beatles's most trusted helpers, went downstairs and talked to the police, to stall them until the band could finish playing. After performing \"Get Back\", \"Don't Let Me Down\", \"I've Got A Feeling\", \"One After 909\", \"Dig A Pony\", and another version of \"Get Back\", the band went inside.\n\nThe next day, the Beatles gave another show, back in the Apple basement. This show was for the cameras, though, and not a live audience. They performed \"Two of Us\", \"Don't Let Me Down\", \"Let it Be\", \"Get Back\", and \"The Long and Winding Road\". Some of these songs were too hard to record outdoors, with their keyboard parts.\n\nPostproduction \nThe movie crew shot more than a hundred hours of movie footage, which was more than enough to make a television special. The Beatles worked a little longer on the recordings of the Get Back songs, ending up with over twenty-nine hours of session tapes. The problem was, nobody was happy with the music that had come from the sessions. The band members had argued and disagreed on camera, and did not always make their best efforts on each other's songs, or to get along. This was plain to anyone who saw the footage, or listened to the dialogue between songs.\n\nGeorge Martin tried to remix the recordings, and make an album from the songs, while the Beatles' movie personnel tried to edit the movie footage into the TV special the band wanted. The band's problems were only magnified by the results, and they blamed each other, and the people who worked for them, for what showed. The Beatles decided to abandon the project, and work on other things. Only one single was released from the sessions, with the songs \"Get Back\" and \"Don't Let Me Down\". Billy Preston's name appeared underneath the band's, and stories started that Preston might join the Beatles. He never did, but he signed a recording contract with Apple Records, their record label. The other songs stayed \"in the can\".\n\nThe Get Back project became another problem that was dividing the Beatles. There was also trouble with Apple Corps, and personal issues between the band members. They had begun to make music apart the year before, and this increased as they stopped getting along as people. McCartney and Lennon both married their girlfriends, and lost control of their publishing company, Northern Songs. George Harrison began to play with musicians outside the Beatles. Ringo Starr started a new career as an actor in movies. The Beatles issued a new single, with the songs \"The Ballad of John and Yoko\" and \"Old Brown Shoe\". John and Paul played on the first song, and George and Ringo on the second. They had stopped working as a unit, and George Martin stopped coming to recording sessions, which he had never done before.\n\nAbbey Road \nDuring the summer of 1969, the Beatles felt sorry for the way the Get Back sessions had gone. They wanted to forget that time, and make another new album of songs, back at Abbey Road Studios. George Martin decided to come back, on the band's promise that they really would work together \"like the old days\", with Martin taking charge. The band kept their promise. Abbey Road was the result, and was issued in the early fall. As the record was being released, the Beatles met to discuss future projects. John Lennon, freshly back from his first non-Beatles concert, playing in Toronto, surprised everyone by announcing that he was quitting the band. He agreed to not make a public announcement, because this would have hurt the band's chance to  their recording contract. Lennon instead focused on his and Yoko Ono's new group, the Plastic Ono Band.\n\nLet it Be \nAt the end of the year, Apple's accountants told the Beatles that they would have to release some kind of album and program from the Get Back sessions. They had spent too much money on the project to just forget about it. Glyn Johns, a young music producer, tried to assemble an album from the session tapes, but he also could not please the Beatles. Anxious fans and insiders worked together and released a  album from Johns's mix. Even though it was an  album, it sold many copies and received radio airplay. The public wanted to hear the songs, good or bad.\n\nPhil Spector, a legendary producer who predated the Beatles, had always wanted to work with them. Allen Klein brought Spector to England early in 1970 to meet them. John Lennon and George Harrison got along well with Spector, who produced a record of Lennon's song \"Instant Karma!\" the same day he wrote it. Lennon and Harrison gave their OK for Spector to work on the recordings, and Ringo Starr played along with the musicians Spector hired, to make overdubs. This went against the original plan to present the songs live, but was accepted to \"sweeten\" \u2013 and finish \u2013 the recordings.\n\nAn eighty-minute program was edited together from the movie footage, and the band decided it would make a better movie than a television show. The Beatles had a contract with United Artists, who agreed to distribute the movie, which was titled Let it Be. (The Get Back title was dropped, since \"Get Back\" had already appeared as a single almost a year earlier.)\n\nSome of the new songs that appeared in the movie, including \"Across the Universe\" and \"I Me Mine\", were not finished on record. A session was scheduled in January 1970 to record full versions of some songs, but John Lennon refused to attend. George Harrison made a joke about this, during a take of \"I Me Mine\", referring to Lennon as \"Dave Dee\", another British musician.\n\nSpector applied his \"Wall of Sound\" style to the Beatles recordings, including an old tape of \"Across the Universe\", so it could appear on record. His finished album was listenable, and showed none of the troubles that affected the band during the sessions, but it did not sound the same as other Beatles albums. Paul McCartney hated the changes Spector made to his songs on the album, especially \"The Long and Winding Road\", but he could not stop the album from being issued.\n\nAnother problem was the timing of the record's release. Allen Klein had succeeded in remaking the Beatles's recording deal, and McCartney was not bound by the same promise Lennon had been, to not say he was leaving the band. His first solo album, finished early in 1970, included a press release stating that he had no further plans to work with the Beatles. This effectively broke up the band. He also wanted the album released ahead of Let it Be.\n\nRingo Starr, who also had a solo record (Sentimental Journey), due to appear, was sent to ask McCartney to change his release date. The two argued, and McCartney threw Starr out of his house. The release schedule was changed, so McCartney could have his wish. Starr's album appeared earlier than planned, and Let it Be was pushed back from April to May.\n\nReception \nLet it Be was both a hit movie and a hit album, and won a Grammy Award for Best Soundtrack. Paul McCartney accepted the award. The news that the Beatles were breaking up was very sad to their fans, however, and the knowledge made watching the movie a  experience. Many fans and critics did not like Spector's changes to the Beatles style on record, and said so publicly.\n\nA souvenir book was also issued, but instead of being a real document of the sessions, the book was  and heavily edited, and reflected little of what was intended. It never appeared in the United States.\n\nLate in 1970, John Lennon issued a solo album, John Lennon\/Plastic Ono Band, which made his feelings plain in its last song, \"God\": Lennon sang \"I don't believe in Beatles.\" He gave a long interview to Rolling Stone magazine, which was later published as a book, Lennon Remembers. He told his side of the Let it Be story, declared \"That movie was set up by Paul, for Paul\", and said he regretted not announcing that he quit the Beatles first.\n\nWhen home video came along in the 1970s, Let it Be became a popular rental and sales title. Over time, the Beatles asserted their copyright control over the movie, and copies were withdrawn. The movie has been planned as a reissue many times, but has yet to be officially released on DVD.\n\nIn 2003, recording engineers went back to the old session tapes, and used  to make a new version of the familiar Let it Be songs. The new version was close to what the Beatles had wanted to make in the first place, and had none of Spector's post-production work. The album was issued as Let it Be... Naked, and was praised as a \"real\"-sounding recording.\n\nSongs in the album\n\nOther websites \n Recording data and notes \n The Lost Beatle Tapes \/ The Making of Let It Be \n 'Let it be' entry on BootlegZone \n The song Let It Be on the piano\n\nThe Beatles albums\n1970 albums\n1970 movies\nRock albums\nMovies directed by Michael Lindsay-Hogg","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":69767,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Let%20It%20Be%20%28Beatles%20album%29","title":"Let It Be (Beatles album)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A woodwind instrument is an instrument belonging to the woodwind family.  Traditionally they were always made of wood, although some of them are now made of metal or plastic.\n\nIn an orchestra there are four main types of woodwind instrument. Each of these also has related instruments of different sizes:\n\nThe flute is the highest of the four main instruments.  The lowest note is Middle C and it has a range of 3 octaves.  The piccolo is the smallest and highest instrument in the orchestra.  It plays one octave higher than the flute.  There is also an alto flute which sounds a fifth lower than the ordinary flute.  Flutes are still sometimes made of wood, but mostly they are metal.\n\nThe oboe can play slightly lower than the flute.  There is a larger version called the cor anglais (which means: \"English horn\").\n\nThe clarinet plays nearly an octave lower than the flute.  The bass clarinet plays an octave lower than the clarinet.\n\nThe bassoon is the lowest of the four main members, but the contrabassoon plays right down to the bottom B flat of the piano.\n\nThe recorder is one of the oldest and most popular woodwinds and has been used to great effect by greats, such as Bach, Telemann and Vivaldi.  The general public is normally only familiar with the plastic, child's version of the recorder, but professional and high-quality recorders are still made of wood.\n\nThe saxophone may look like a brass instrument, but it is played like a clarinet and therefore it is a woodwind instrument.  It is usually played in bands and jazz groups.\n\nUse \nWoodwind instruments are played in several ways. The flute is played by blowing across the top of the mouthpiece.  It is like blowing across the top of an empty bottle.  The oboe and bassoon both have a double reed.  It is like blowing through a drinking straw.  Bagpipes have double reeds which are inside the mouthpiece (\"enclosed reeds\"). The clarinet and saxophone have single reeds which are clamped against the opening of the mouthpiece.\n\nIn comparison, brass instruments are all blown in the same way: by blowing against a cup-shaped mouthpiece.  This is why the saxophone cannot be called a brass instrument, although it is made of brass.\n\nThe way that a player shapes his mouth to blow an instrument is called the \"embouchure\".  Woodwind instruments have several different embouchures.\n\nIn an orchestra there may be two each of flutes, oboes, clarinets and bassoons.  In larger orchestras, particularly from the Romantic period onwards, there may be three or four.  Sometimes the extra instruments such as the piccolo are used.  If, for example, in an orchestral piece the third flute is marked \"doubling piccolo\", it means that the person playing flute 3 will also play the piccolo.  However, if the piccolo plays at the same time as flute 3 they will obviously need an extra player for the piccolo part.\n\nWoodwind instruments in an orchestra often have short solos.  These will be played by the first player (the \"section principal\").","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":157,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":32954,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Woodwind%20instrument","title":"Woodwind instrument","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Yerevan () is the capital and largest city of Armenia. In 2004 about 1,088,300 people lived in Yerevan. Some people write Yerevan as Erevan. In past, Yerevan was called Erebuni or Erivan.\n\nIt is on the Hrazdan River, and is the administrative, cultural, and industrial center of the country.\n\nThe history of Yerevan dates back to the 8th century BC, with the founding of the Urartian fortress of Erebuni in 782 BC. Eventually, the letter \"b\" in the name Erebuni changed in the 5th or 4th century BC, becoming \"v\".\n\nClimate \nThe climate of Yerevan is continental, with dry, hot summers and cold, snowy and short winters. The temperature in August can reach 40\u00b0C (104\u00b0F), while January may be as cold as -15\u00a0\u00b0C (5\u00a0\u00b0F). The amount of precipitation is small,  about 350\u00a0mm (14\u00a0in) per year.\n\nCulture \nAs a centre of Armenian culture, Yerevan is the site of Yerevan State University (1919), the Armenian Academy of Sciences, a historical museum, an opera house, a music conservatory and several technical institutes. The Matenadaran archives hold a rich collection of valuable ancient Armenian, Greek, Assyrian, Hebrew, Roman and Persian manuscripts. Yerevan has several large public libraries, a number of museums and theaters, botanical gardens and zoos. It is also at the heart of an extensive rail network and is a major trading centre for agricultural products. In addition, industries in the city produce metals, machine tools, electrical equipment, chemicals, textiles and food products.\n\nTwo major tourist attractions are the Opera House, the ruins of an Urartu fortress and a Roman fortress. The Armenia Marriott Hotel is in the heart of the city at Republic Square (also known as Hraparak).\n\nMetro \nThe Yerevan Metro is a rapid transit system that serves the capital city.\nIts interior resembles that of western former Soviet nations with chandeliers hanging \nfrom the corridors. The metro stations had most of their names changed after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Independence of the Republic of Armenia.\n\nEconomy \n\nYerevan is Armenia's industrial, transportation, and cultural center. Manufactures include chemicals, primary metals, machinery, rubber products, plastics, textiles, and processed food.  Not only is Yerevan the headquarters of major Armenian companies, but of international ones as well, as it's seen as an attractive outsourcing location for Western European, Russian and American multinationals.\n\nDevelopment \nRecently, Yerevan has been undergoing an ambitious redevelopment process in which old Soviet-style apartments and buildings are being demolished and replaced with modern buildings. However, this urban renewal plan has been met with opposition and ( ) criticism from some residents.\n\nReferences \n\nSergey Vardanyan 1995. The capitals of Armenia. Apolo. \nG. Zakoyan, M. Sivaslian, V. Navasardian 2001. My Yerevan. Acnalis.\n\nOther websites \n\n Yerevan Municipality webpage in Armenian and English\n Yerevan.ru - The capital of Armenia online (Russian)\n Erebuni History and excavation description, edited by Rick Ney\n - Online News From Armenia. Edited by John Hughes. \n Yerevan article on Armeniapedia\n Yerevan article on Cilicia.com \n Armenia Info Yerevan page \n The Yerevan Metro system\n Interactive CD - Yerevan Virtual\n\nRelated pages\n Blue Mosque, Yerevan","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":29260,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yerevan","title":"Yerevan","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Reinheitsgebot is a regulation about the purity of beer.  The regulation started in Ingolstadt, in Bavaria, in Germany, in 1516.\n\nThe regulation says several things:\nIt says what can be part of beer, and what can not. Beer may only contain water, barley, and hops.\nIt gives a price to beer. This is important for taxation. The price is set to 1-2 Pfennigs per Ma\u00df.\n\nSome people talk about the Bavarian Reinheitsgebot, or the German Reinheitsgebot. They all mean the same thing.  There are similar acts in the other states which later became known as Germany.\n\nThe Reinheitsgebot is no longer part of German law. It has been replaced by the Provisional German Beer Law,  which allows things prohibited in the Reinheitsgebot, such as wheat malt and cane sugar, but which no longer allows unmalted barley.\n\nYeast was not a part of beer until Louis Pasteur discovered what it did during fermentation. This was around the year 1800. Brewers (the people brewing beer) usually re-used some of the sediments of the fermentation. They took some sediments of an older brew and added those sediments to the next brew.\n\nHops were added as a method of preservation (to stop the beer going bad quickly).   Hops were allowed to stop other things (like adding certain mushrooms to the beer, which was done in the Middle Ages) being done to preserve beer. Other herbs, like stinging nettles had been used. The stinging nettle is part of the same plant family as hops.\n\nA brewer who broke the Reinheitsgebot was punished: The beer barrels were taken by the state and destroyed and he\/she did not receive any money for the loss.\n\nEven today, many brewers are proud of the Reinheitsgebot; most German breweries say they follow it. Some only use it as a marketing tool.  The ''Reinheitsgebot' says that beer is made of barley, so all wheat beers were not allowed by the original Reinheitsgebot).\n\nBelgian beers are different.  The brewers often add sugar (to boost fermentation). Nevertheless, Belgian beers have a brewing tradition at least as long as those of Germany. They taste totally different from the German ones.\n\nReferences\n\nBeer-related culture\nGerman beers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":20297,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinheitsgebot","title":"Reinheitsgebot","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Marshall Plan (officially called the European Recovery Program [ERP]) was a plan of the United States for rebuilding the allied countries of Europe after World War II. One of the main reasons this was done was to stop communism and the USSR.\n\nThe plan was named after Secretary of State George Marshall, but the plan was worked out by other people in the State Department.\n\nThe plan ran for four years beginning in April 1948. During that period US$ 13 billion in economic and technical help were given to help the recovery of the European countries that had joined in the Organization for European Economic Co-operation.\n\nBy the time the plan ended, the economy of every member state had grown well past pre-war levels.\n\nIn recent years some historians have said that another reason for the plan was to make the United States stronger, and to make the countries of western Europe need the United States. They also say that the United Nations (UN) Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, which helped millions of refugees from 1944 to 1947, it also helped the European postwar recovery.\n\nAlternatives to the Marshall Plan\n\nMorgenthau plan\nU.S. Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, Jr. said that if Europe needed money to rebuild what had been destroyed by the war, they should take it from Germany. This money was called war reparations. Morgenthau said it would also stop Germany from ever being rebuilt, and threatening to start another war. Taking money from Germany was done after World War I. It did not work. Instead of helping other countries it hurt them. This is because companies could not sell the coal and steel that they made because it was coming in free from Germany.\n\nMonnet plan\nJean Monnet of France said that France should control the German coal areas of the Ruhr and Saar and use it to rebuild French industry. In 1946 the occupying powers agreed to put strict limits on how quickly Germany could reindustrialize. Limits were placed on how much coal and steel could be produced.\n\nLevel of industry agreement \nThis was the first German industrial plan. It was signed in early 1946 and said that German heavy industry was to be cut down to half% of its 1938 levels by the destroying 1,500 manufacturing plants.\n\nBy the end of 1946 governments could see the problems of the plan, and the agreement was changed several times, the last time in 1949. But dismantling factories went on into 1950. Germany had been very important to the economy of Europe for a long time. This meant that a poor Germany was holding back European recovery, because other countries could not sell so many things to Germany. A poor Germany was also expensive for the occupying powers. They had to give Germany food and other things which it needed and could not grow or make for itself anymore.\n\nBecause of this the Morgenthau and Monnet plans were rejected.\n\nThe Marshall Plan ended in 1952. Ideas to extend it were stopped because of the cost of the Korean War and rearmament. U.S. Republicans hostile to the plan had also gained seats in the 1950 Congressional elections.\n\nCriticism\nThe Marshall Plan has been described as \"the most unselfish act in history.\" However, this may not be the case. The United States benefited from the plan because part of the agreement for giving the aid was that the country would have to open up their economies to US companies.\n\n\"Historical revisionist\" historians, such as Walter LaFeber, during the 1960s and 1970s said that the plan was American economic imperialism. That means, that it was an attempt to gain control over Western Europe just as the Soviets controlled Eastern Europe.\n\nTyler Cowen, economist, has said that nations receiving the most aid from the Marshall Plan (Britain, Sweden, Greece) saw the least returns and grew the least between 1947 and 1955. Those nations who received little (e.g. Austria) grew the most.\n\nWhen he looked at West Germany's economy from 1945 to 1951, German analyst Werner Abelshauser decided that foreign aid was not needed to start the recovery or to keep it going. Cowen found that the economic recoveries of France, Italy, and Belgium, started before the Marshall Plan. Belgium relied heavily on free market economic policies after its liberation in 1944, and had the fastest recovery. It also did not have the severe housing and food shortages seen in the rest of continental Europe.\n\nRelated pages\n Alliance for Progress failed Central and South American Marshall Plan.\n GARIOA (Government and Relief in Occupied Areas) The precursor of the Marshall plan aid.\n Morgenthau plan Post-surrender plan for Germany\n The industrial plans for Germany\n\nReferences\n Arkes, Hadley. Bureaucracy, the Marshall Plan, and the National Interest. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1972.\n Agnew, John and J. Nicholas Entrikin, eds. The Marshall Plan Today: Model and Metaphor. Routledge. (2004) online version \n John Bledsoe Bonds; Bipartisan Strategy: Selling the Marshall Plan Praeger, 2002 online version \n Bothwell, Robert. The Big Chill: Canada and the Cold War. Canadian Institute for International Affairs\/Institut Canadien des Affaires Internationales Contemporary Affairs Series, No. 1. Toronto: Irwin Publishing Ltd., 1998.\n Crafts, Nicholas, and Gianni Toniolo, eds. Economic Growth in Europe Since 1945. Cambridge University Press, 1996.\n Djelic, Marie-Laure A.; Exporting the American Model: The Post-War Transformation of European Business.Oxford University Press, 1998 online version \n Chiarella Esposito; America's Feeble Weapon: Funding the Marshall Plan in France and Italy, 1948 \u2013 1950, Greenwood Press, 1994 online version \n Fossedal, Gregory A. Our Finest Hour: Will Clayton, the Marshall Plan, and the Triumph of Democracy. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1993.\n Gaddis, John Lewis. We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.\n Grogin, Robert C. Natural Enemies: The United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917 \u2013 1991. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2001.\n Hogan, Michael J. The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947 \u2013 1952. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.\n Matthias Kipping and Ove Bjarnar; The Americanisation of European Business: The Marshall Plan and the Transfer of Us Management Models Routledge, 1998 online version \n Mee, Charles L. The Marshall Plan: The Launching of the Pax Americana. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984.\n Milward, Alan S. The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945 \u2013 51. London: Methuen, 1984.\n Schain, Martin, ed. The Marshall Plan: Fifty Years After. New York: Palgrave, 2001.\n Stueck, William Whitney, ed. The Korean War in World History. Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 2004.\n Rhiannon Vickers; Manipulating Hegemony: State Power, Labour and the Marshall Plan in Britain Palgrave Publishers, 2000 online edition \n Wallich, Henry Christopher. Mainsprings of the German Revival. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955.\n Wasser, Solidelle F. and Michael L. Dolfman; \"BLS and the Marshall Plan: The Forgotten Story: The Statistical Technical Assistance of BLS Increased Productive Efficiency and Labor Productivity in Western European Industry after World War II; Technological Literature Surveys and Plan-Organized Plant Visits Supplemented Instruction in Statistical Measurement,\" Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 128, 2005\n Wend, Henry Burke; Recovery and Restoration: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Politics of Reconstruction of West Germany's Shipbuilding Industry, 1945 \u2013 1955. Praeger, 2001 online version\n\nFurther reading\n John Gimbel \"The origins of the Marshall plan\" (Stanford University Press, 1976). (reviewed here)\n Greg Behrman The Most Noble Adventure: The Marshall Plan and the Time When America Helped Save Europe (Free Press, 2007)\n\nNotes\n\nOther websites\n\n The German Marshall Fund of the United States\n Economist Tyler Cowen questions the conventional wisdom surrounding the Plan \n Truman Presidential Library online collection of original Marshal Plan documents from the year 1946 onwards \n The Marshal Plan documents collection at MCE \n Marshall Plan from the National Archives\n Excerpts from book by Allen W. Dulles \n United States Secretary of State James F. Byrnes famous Stuttgart speech, September 6, 1946 The speech marked the turning point away from the Morgenthau Plan philosophy of economic dismantlement of Germany and towards a policy of economic reconstruction.\n Marshall Plan Commemorative Section: Lessons of the Plan: Looking Forward to the Next Century \n U.S. Economic Policy Towards defeated countries  April, 1946.\n \"Pas de Pagaille!\" , Time magazine July 28, 1947\n \"The Marshall Plan as Tragedy,\" comment on Michael Cox and Caroline Kennedy-Pipe, \"The Tragedy of American Diplomacy? Rethinking the Marshall Plan,\" both published in the Journal of Cold War Studies, vol. 7, no. 1 (Winter 2005) (text of comment on pdf ) (text of original article on pdf )\n Luis Garc\u00eda Berlanga's critique of the Marshall Plan in a classic Spanish film: Welcome Mr. Marshall!\n Marshall Plan Still Working, 60 Years Later Cincinnati Enquirer December 10, 2006\n\nEconomic history\nWorld War II","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":82052,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marshall%20Plan","title":"Marshall Plan","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Marvin Gaye (born Marvin Pentz Gay, Jr.,  April 2, 1939 - April 1, 1984) was an American soul and R&B singer and songwriter. He was a famous artist recording on the Motown label in the 1960s and 1970s. He became an independent artist when he released his 1971 album, What's Going On. After living in Europe in the late 1970s, Gaye had a comeback hit with 1982's \"Sexual Healing\". The record won him two Grammy Awards and became his biggest hit. He was killed on April 1, 1984 by his own father, Marvin Gay, Sr.. After his death, he was inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life and career \nMarvin Pentz Gay, Jr. was the eldest son of a Pentecostal minister and the second of four children. His family lived in a mostly African-American community in Washington, D.C. When he was a child, Gaye was abused by his father. He used music to help him cope with the abuse, playing instruments and singing gospel music in his father's church. When he was a teenager, Gaye became a fan of doo-wop and joined several groups before he left high school at the start of his senior year.\n\nIn 1956, when he was seventeen years old, Gaye left home and enlisted in (joined) in the United States Air Force. He was honorably discharged the following year. Gaye moved back to Washington D.C. and formed a group called The Marquees. The group was discovered by musician Bo Diddley and they recorded the songs \"Good Morning Little Schoolgirl\" and \"Wyatt Earp\". They then met Harvey Fuqua and joined with his group The Moonglows. They released a song called \"Mama Loocie\" in 1959. This was the first song recorded with Gaye singing as lead vocalist. The following year, the new Moonglows split up and with Fuqua as his mentor, Gaye traveled to Detroit, Michigan where they met Berry Gordy, who had formed Motown Records. Gordy was impressed by Marvin's talent as a piano player and drummer and signed him as a session drummer for Motown. Gaye played drums on most of Motown's early hits for artists like The Marvelettes, Mary Wells, the Miracles and Stevie Wonder. In 1961, Gordy signed Gaye as a recording artist and released  The Soulful Moods of Marvin Gaye. The album did not sell well.\n\nEarly stardom \nGaye's first became successful when he co-wrote the Marvelettes' top twenty hit, \"Beechwood 4-5789\". In 1962 he released his own song called \"Stubborn Kind of Fellow\". It was partly about his own life and got into the top fifty of the pop chart and number eight on the R&B side. His first top 40 single, \"Hitch Hike\", and his first top ten hit, \"Pride & Joy\", made him a teen idol. These early singles and those on his second release, That Stubborn Kind of Fellow, featured Martha and the Vandellas in the backGaye had more successful songs like early success continued with \"Can I Get a Witness\", \"Baby Don't You Do It\", \"You Are a Wonderful One\" and \"Try It Baby\". In late 1964, Gaye recorded \"How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved By You)\", which peaked at the top ten of the American pop charts and became one of his first hits abroad reaching the top fifty in the United Kingdom. Gaye also worked with his friend, singer Smokey Robinson to write number-one singles, \"I'll Be Doggone\" and \"Ain't That Peculiar\".\n\nDuets with female artists \nAfter his early success, which Marvin had struggles with, Motown began to widen his role as a ladies man, having him record duet albums with Mary Wells, Kim Weston and Diana Ross. His first album with Wells, Together, became Marvin's first charted album, and yielded two popular hits, while his single with Weston, the Sylvia Moy-penned \"It Takes Two\", hit the top twenty on both sides of the Atlantic. But it would be his collaboration with Philadelphia R&B singer Tammi Terrell that landed him his biggest known success in his duet work. Building on songs written by Ashford & Simpson, the team of Marvin and Tammi scored a multitude of hits including their original version of \"Ain't No Mountain High Enough\", \"Your Precious Love\", \"Ain't Nothing Like the Real Thing\" and \"You're All I Need to Get By\". Their success would be short-lived following Tammi's collapse during a show at Virginia in October 1967. Having complained of headaches, Tammi was rushed to the hospital that night and was diagnosed with a brain tumor. Terrell braved it out but by the release of their third and last album together, Easy, was losing her fight with the tumor. Tammi died in March 1970 at the age of 24 from complications of her brain cancer. Marvin was said to be so devastated by Tammi's death that he said he felt a piece of him died with her, and reports state at her funeral, Marvin talked to her remains as if she was gonna respond. Promising not to tour again and not to record another duet album after that, Marvin went into a self-imposed seclusion that ended briefly. In 1973, Marvin would work on his final duet album with Diana Ross. Their recording was hampered by arguments between them as Marvin refused to stop smoking marijuana in the studio as Diana was then pregnant. The resulting album, Diana and Marvin, became a top twenty U.S. success and reached the top ten in the U.K.\n\nBreakthrough from Motown \nIn 1968, Marvin returned to the top of the charts as a solo act with the Norman Whitfield-penned \"I Heard It Through the Grapevine\". The song, originally recorded in 1967, was initially blocked from release since Berry Gordy disapproved of the song. Instead, one of its cover versions by Gladys Knight & the Pips was released, and it ended up reaching number-two. Whitfield was determined to get Gordy to release Marvin's, and in October 1968, Motown finally issued \"Grapevine\" as a single where it eventually reached number-one in December of that year, it also reached number one in the U.K. and became the biggest-selling single in Motown history during the sixties. During this period, Marvin used his \"Grapevine\" success to produce a collection of singles for his background group the Originals. Those songs, \"Baby I'm for Real\" and \"The Bells\" became top 40 recordings. After two more top ten hits that followed, Marvin began working on a more personal production. Inspired by Tammi Terrell's death, his brother Frankie's Vietnam stories, footage of the Vietnam War and race riots in the U.S., Marvin's success with his first productions and a rough draft of a song composed by Four Tops member Obie Benson, Marvin recorded an introspective single titled \"What's Going On\". Like \"Grapevine\", Motown refused to release it due to it being \"uncommercial\" and \"risky\" since Gordy could not find a song to match anything with and also because Gordy was against anyone in his company to talk openly about serious issues. In spite of releases by the Temptations, the Supremes and Edwin Starr, which opened about inner city struggle, illegitimate pregnancy and wars respectively, Motown was afraid the song would ruin Marvin's squeaky-clean teen pop image. Marvin, confident in his own abilities, stood his ground, and in January 1971, the song was released quickly becoming a hit single reaching number two on the Billboard pop chart and number one on the Cashbox pop chart, also hitting number-one on the Billboard R&B chart. A follow-up album of the same name was quickly released that May and with accompanying top ten singles \"Mercy Mercy Me\" and \"Inner City Blues\", songs that also talked about social issues including environmentalism, the album sold over a million copies and permanently made Marvin one of the first independent artists on the label. Inspired by Marvin's success, Stevie Wonder refused to renew his contract with Motown in May 1971 after releasing the non-Motown approved Where I'm Coming From, an album that also dealt with social issues. In 1972, Motown signed Marvin to a $1 million contract, making him at the time the highest-paid black recording artist in music history. Marvin celebrated the contract by releasing the pro-political single \"You're the Man\", which attacked the Nixon administration. Moving from Detroit to Los Angeles that year, he recorded the soundtrack to the movie, \"Trouble Man\". The soundtrack and its title track became top twenty and top ten hits on the charts respectively. In 1973, Marvin dramatically changed direction from social topics to sexual politics with the release of \"Let's Get It On\". The song became Marvin's second number-one Billboard hit and was the biggest-selling R&B single of that year. Its subsequent album became another critical milestone as What's Going On had been and with his new look as a wool hat-wearing, studded jean outfit, bearded \"messiah\", Marvin had become an icon of early seventies soul music.\n\nDecline \nIn 1974, Marvin returned officially to touring after a four-year sabbatical following the death of Tammi Terrell and began to suffer from the effects of a long-developing cocaine addiction, which started in the late sixties. Marvin went a year without producing a record though through yet another new Motown contract, he built a recording studio in the middle of Sunset Boulevard. In 1976, Marvin released the erotic I Want You album, an album that had been delayed by his first wife, Anna Gordy's divorce case against him. The divorce was finalized after Marvin agreed to remit a portion of his royalties from his next album to Ms. Gordy. The result was the controversial Here, My Dear project, which came out in early 1979 after two years of holding the project from release. Marvin recorded a disco hit in 1977 titled \"Got to Give It Up\". The song hit number-one marking his third pop hit to reach the spot and his twelfth on the R&B side. It would end up being his last major hit with the Motown label. Following the release of Here, My Dear, the album tanked and Marvin, already run dry by dwindling finances, numerous lawsuits, a troubling marriage to a second wife and an even more troubling cocaine addiction, eventually left his wife, three children, and the U.S. settling first in Hawaii and then settling in London in 1980 after a European promoter advised him to tour Europe. Recording most of his final Motown release, In Our Lifetime, in London, the album was rush-released by Motown in early 1981 much to Marvin's chagrin: he complained that the label had edited certain songs, including one that seemed unfinished, and had taken off a question mark that he put at the end of the title to ask a question about life. Marvin stated he would no longer record for Motown and was granted his wish when CBS Records brought him out of his contract in April 1982.\n\nReturn from exile \nIn 1981, Marvin settled in Ostend, Belgium thanks to a former Belgian sports promoter and with his encouragement began rebuilding his life cutting away from drugs and also rebuilding his music career. After a successful European tour, Marvin signed with CBS Records and began work on a new album in his adopted home. After his friend and biographer David Ritz arrived to interview him, Marvin and David collaborated on a reggae-styled track in which Ritz titled \"Sexual Healing\" after a conversation between the two evolved into pornography. The song was one of eight Marvin worked on to fit into his comeback release, Midnight Love. Boosted by its Caribbean flavor, the song returned Marvin to the top of the charts, hitting number-one on the R&B chart for a period of ten weeks and also becoming a top ten hit in several countries including number-three in the U.S. pop chart and number-four in England. It also hit number-one in New Zealand. Selling over two million copies, it became Marvin's biggest-selling single to date and won him his first couple of Grammys in 1983. Marvin's comeback was cemented with his emotional performance of the national anthem at the NBA All Star Game and a reunited showcase at Motown 25, where Marvin was reunited with his old Motown buddies. Marvin's performance consisted of him playing piano while speaking on the illustrious history of black music before singing \"What's Going On\" to a receptive audience. That year, Marvin went on the road to promote the Midnight Love album. It would end up being his final tour.\n\nMurder and legacy \nSettling in his parents' Los Angeles home after the tour, Marvin reportedly struggled with drug abuse and his troubling relationship with his father continued spiraling downwards. On the morning of April 1, 1984, Marvin and his father got into an argument after his father verbally assaulted Marvin's mother while they were arguing over misplaced business documents. The two men clashed and Marvin reportedly shoved his father to the ground during the struggle. After returning to his room, Marvin's father reentered Marvin's room with a loaded shotgun Marvin had bought for him for Christmas and shot him twice with one fatal shot to his chest. At approximately 1:10 pm, Marvin Gaye was pronounced dead on the scene at Cedars Sinai Medical Center. He was one day shy of his forty-fifth birthday. Marvin's death shocked his fans though family members and friends knew of Marvin's depression. Over 10,000 well-wishers paid their last respects at a star-studded funeral in Los Angeles. Marvin's ashes were spread to the beaches of the Atlantic Ocean. In 1985, Motown and CBS collaborated on two posthumous records while Motown re-released Marvin's famed material. In 1987, Marvin was posthumously inducted to the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame confirming his status as one of the greatest artists in music history.\n\nPersonal life \nMarvin first dated Anna Gordy in 1961. Anna was said to be the inspiration behind Marvin's sixties hits including \"Stubborn Kind of Fellow\" and \"You Are a Wonderful One\". He married her in 1964 and the couple adopted a boy they named Marvin Pentz Gaye III in 1965. Their marriage was rocky by the time Marvin began courting a beautiful seventeen-year-old high-school student named Janis Hunter in 1973. Hunter was reportedly the inspiration behind the song \"If I Should Die Tonight\" as he had sung the song to her in the studio. His 1976 album, I Want You, was dedicated to Janis, who married him in 1977. The couple had two children together, daughter Nona and son Frankie. They divorced in 1981.\n\nDiscography\nStudio albums\n The Soulful Moods of Marvin Gaye (1961)\n That Stubborn Kinda Fellow (1963)\n When I'm Alone I Cry (1964)\n Hello Broadway (1964)\n How Sweet It Is to Be Loved by You (1965)\n A Tribute to the Great Nat \"King\" Cole (1965)\n Moods of Marvin Gaye (1966)\n In The Groove (a.k.a. I Heard It Through the Crapevine (1968)\n M.P.G. (1969)\n That's the Way Love Is (1970)\n What's Going On (1971)\n Trouble Man (1972)\n Let's Get It On (1973)\n I Want You (1976)\n Here, My Dear (1978)\n In Our Lifetime (1981)\n Midnight Love (1982)\n Dream of a Lifetime (1985)\n Romantically Yours (1985)\n Vulnerable (1997)\n\nReferences \n\nAfrican American musicians\nAmerican manslaughter victims\nAmerican R&B singers\nAmerican singer-songwriters\nAmerican soul musicians\nDeaths by firearm in the United States\nMusicians from Washington, D.C.\n1939 births\n1984 deaths\nMurdered African-American people","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":13194,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin%20Gaye","title":"Marvin Gaye","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Airchitectur is the airt an science o biggins an structurs like yetts, brigs, an ither things that's biggit. Whiles, the pairts aboot the biggins, sic as pads an gairdens, is includit in the design an aw.\n\nFowk that designs biggins is cried airchitects. They micht be needin skeels in a lot o fields, for ensaumple: mathematics, science, airt, technology, social sciences, politics, history an philosophy.\n\nFowk in unalike kintras an periods o history haes designed biggins in different styles. This micht lippen on the climate, the materials tae haund for biggin, an fashion.\n\nThe earliest airchitectur wis the biggin o semple shielins, bothies an hooses.\n\nAs fowk first begoud tae leeve thegither in touns an ceeties, types o airchitectur becam mair complicate. Some o the auldest biggins that's been fund includes the peeramids in Egypt an the ziggurats in Mesopotamia, an ither earlie temples. The hooses ordinar fowk bid in wis fairly semple, wee, an close thegither.\n\nThe airchitectur o the Auncient Greeks an Romans is cried Clessical airchitectur. Some important clessical biggins haes stane columns wi complicate designs. Greek columns haes bauks pitten athort them, bit Romans cleckit the airch in their airchitectur that wis spreid athort the Roman Empire.\n\nIndie airchitectur is weel-kent for the stane cairvin o its temples an pailaces. Unalike airchectural styles cam tae the fore in Cheenae, Japan, Sootheast Asie, Africae, Mexico, an Central an Sooth Americae.\n\nFowk in Wastern Europe in the Middle Ages makkit Romanesque airchitectur, syne Gothic airchitectur. Gothic biggins haes lang, pyntit windaes an airches. A lot o kirks haes Gothic airchitectur. Whan the Normans invadit England it wis merkit that the Ingles likit wee hooses wi a laid o things in them, while the French likit big hooses wi a want o furnitur. A lot o castles wis biggit at that time an aw. In Eastren Europe, the Byzantine influence meant that kirks for ordinar haes domes.\n\nMosques micht hae domes an aw, that's a wey o biggin a braid appen space that can haud mony fowk. This is important for releegious biggins.\n\nThe Industrial Revolution led tae new types o biggins for machines an for fowk tae wirk in. Industrial airchitectur is the airchitectur o factories, mills, an ither wirkin biggins.\n\nModren airchitectur wis a new type o airchitectur creatit aboot 1900. Modren biggins aften haes a bittie decorement an is aften makkit o steel, gless, an concrete.\n\nReferences \n\n \nAirchitectural design","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":6788,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Airchitectur","title":"Airchitectur","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Gioachino Rossini (born Pesaro 29 February 1792; died Passy 13 November 1868) was an Italian composer. He was the most famous composer of operas in his time. His operas had lots of new ideas. Italian operas had become rather unimaginative, with composers such as Cimarosa and Paisiello writing the same sort of thing each time. Rossini made his operas interesting by writing skillfully for the singers, giving them good tunes, as well as giving the orchestra interesting music, and by choosing a variety of stories for his operas. The opera for which he is best known today is the Il Barbiere di Siviglia (The Barber of Seville). Many of the overtures to his operas are played at orchestral concerts. The most popular is the overture to his opera Guillaume Tell (William Tell) with its feature in the British TV show The Adventures of William Tell.\n\nDuring the last 40 years of his life Rossini wrote no more music. His friends begged him to write another opera but he always refused.\n\nLife \nRossini was born on 29 February of the leap year 1792. His birthplace was Pesaro, a small town in Italy on the Adriatic coast. His father played the horn in military bands and opera houses and his mother sang in operas. Often his parents toured together and the young Rossini was left in the care of his grandmother. The family eventually settled in Bologna. Rossini had lessons in singing, cello, piano and counterpoint. He did not like the counterpoint lessons, but it did help him to study different styles of music and he became very good at writing harmony in a clear way.\n\nEarly career \nItalian opera at this time needed a new composer to bring more life into it. Five of his first nine operas were written for the Teatro S Moise in Venice. Other theatres soon asked him to write operas. In 1812 he wrote La pietra del paragone for the Teatro alla Scala in Milan. It was a great success. Many of these early operas were comic operas (opera buffa). Sometimes he had to produce so many new operas that he kept reusing some of the music he had already written in another opera. Nevertheless, they include a lot of fine music, and Rossini was developing his musical personality. His overtures have a fine sense of orchestral colour. He often started with a slow section and then went into fast music with a crescendo. Because he did this a lot it is often called a \"Rossini crescendo\" or \"Rossini rocket\".\n\nIt was not easy for him to earn enough money to keep himself. He only got paid for the operas he took part in. There were no copyright laws in those days. The important singers were well paid, but the composers earned much less. We know very little about his life at this time, but we do know that he travelled a lot. His most famous operas from this period are Tancredi, La Gazza Ladra (The Thieving Magpie) and Il barbiere di Siviglia (The Barber of Seville) which has often been called the greatest of all comic operas.\n\nMid career \nBy 1815 Rossini's operas were famous everywhere in Western Europe except in Naples. Neapolitan opera had been famous throughout the 18th century and the city was proud of its tradition. The Neapolitans did not want a young composer from the north to continue their operatic tradition. Nevertheless, Rossini soon won their hearts. He wrote for the Teatro S Carlo which had a fine orchestra and very good singers. He wrote many of his best serious operas (opera seria) for Naples, and this tradition which he built up made it possible for Verdi to take over thirty years later as Italy's leading opera composer.\n\nLater career \nRossini's international fame took him to Vienna where he met Beethoven. After returning to Italy for a while he travelled to Paris and England. He was only 31 years old and had written 34 operas. The Paris audiences already knew his operas. In London a Rossini Festival was organized. Most of the time in England he spent at social parties at the houses of rich people who were glad to pay him money to come and be their guest. Soon after this he settled in Paris for five years. He was director of the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre-Italien until 1836. His two greatest operas from this period were Le Comte Ory (which was an op\u00e9ra comique) and Guillaume Tell which was based on a play by Schiller. These works have beautifully flowing tunes (like Italian opera) as well as grand drama (like French opera).\n\nRetirement \nIn 1829, at the age of 37, Rossini decided to retire. He had lots of money but his health was not particularly good. Although he wrote a few small pieces of music he never composed another opera. He went back to Bologna, although he returned to Paris nearly 20 years later with his wife. Here his health improved and he wrote a little music. His Petite messe solennelle for 12 voices, two pianos and harmonium is still performed today. When he died in 1868 thousands of people came to his funeral.\n\nRossini's place in music history \nRossini was a composer of the classical period. He was brought up hearing 18th century opera, and much of his best known music is still Classical in style, but he developed a lot as he matured and was writing in a more Romantic way by the end of his career. He gradually stopped writing music which has set numbers all the time: music divided sharply into arias and recitative. His recitative became more expressive and was accompanied by the orchestra instead of by a harpsichord. This helped to make his music more continuous. He did not often write for castrati as they were going out of fashion. The chorus have an important part in the drama of his operas (in 18th century opera they just used to comment on what was going on).\n\n1792 births\n1868 deaths\n19th-century Italian composers\nClassical era composers\nRomantic composers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":5,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":50538,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gioachino%20Rossini","title":"Gioachino Rossini","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Anemia (U.S. spelling) or anaemia is not having enough red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood.\n\nTypes or causes of anemia\n\nMicrocytic anemia \n Iron deficiency anemia is the most common type of anemia overall\n Hemoglobinopathies\u2014much rarer\n Sickle-cell disease (once called sickle-cell anemia)\n Thalassemia\n\nNormocytic anemia \n Acute blood loss\n Anemia of chronic disease \n Aplastic anemia (bone marrow failure)\n\nMacrocytic anemia \n Megaloblastic anemia due to not having enough of either vitamin B12 or folic acid (or both)\n Pernicious anemia is an autoimmune problem with the parietal cells of the stomach\n Alcoholism\n Methotrexate, zidovudine, and other drugs that stop DNA replication. This is the most common cause in nonalcoholic patients.\n\nDimorphic anemia \nDimorphic anemia means two types of anemia at the same time. For example, macrocytic hypochromic, due to hookworm infestation leading to not enough of both iron and vitamin B12 or folic acid or following a blood transfusion.\n\nBlood disorders","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"unknown":3,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":29223,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anemia","title":"Anemia","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Franz Liszt (born Raiding, October 22, 1811; died Bayreuth, July 31, 1886) was a Hungarian composer and pianist. Liszt (pronounced like \"list\") was one of the most influential musicians of the 19 th century. He was the greatest pianist of his time and went on lots of tours through Europe where everyone filled the concert halls to hear him. He wrote a lot of music for piano. Many of his piano pieces were harder to play than anything that had been written before. In this way he developed the technique of piano playing, setting new standards for the future. In his compositions he often used new ideas which sounded very modern in his time. He was very helpful to other composers who lived at that time, helping them to become better known by conducting their works and playing some of their orchestral pieces on the piano.\n\nEarly years \nLiszt's father was an official who worked for Prince Nikolaus Esterh\u00e1zy, the same noble family who employed the composer Joseph Haydn. When he was seven his father started to teach him the piano. He was a child prodigy, and within a year or two he was already playing in concerts. He was so promising that some rich Hungarians said they would pay for his music education.\n\nIn 1821 his family moved to Vienna. He had piano lessons from Czerny and composition lessons from Salieri. He soon became famous although he was still a young boy, and he met famous musicians like Beethoven and Schubert. Beethoven is supposed to have kissed him on the forehead.\n\nIn 1823 his family moved again, this time to Paris. He wanted to go to the Conservatoire to study music but Luigi Cherubini would not let him in because he was a foreigner (i.e. not French). So he studied music theory privately with Reicha and composition with Paer. Soon he was asked to play the piano everywhere in Paris. He travelled to London. On his second visit there in 1825, he played to King George IV at Windsor.\n\nLiszt continued to travel to other countries. After his father died he became a piano teacher in Paris. He fell in love with one of his pupils. It was the first of many love affairs he had with various women. He read a lot of books to try to educate himself properly. He met Berlioz and he liked the music of Berlioz very much. In 1831 he met the violinist Niccol\u00f2 Paganini and was amazed by his virtuoso playing. Liszt was to do for the piano what Paganini had done for the violin. Both men were drawn by cartoonists as devilish characters. Both men wrote music which was incredibly hard for their instruments.\n\nSoon Liszt met a Countess called Marie d'Agoult. He began to have an affair with her. The Countess left her husband and went to live with Liszt in Geneva. They lived together for several years and had three children. When Liszt gave away a lot of his money to help pay for a monument to Beethoven in Bonn he had to earn money by going on tours again, so the countess left him. He still saw her and the children every summer for a few years but finally they separated completely.\n\nLater years \n\nLiszt spent eight years in Rome. He wrote religious music and took holy orders in the Catholic Church. His daughter Cosima, who had married a famous conductor Hans von B\u00fclow, left her husband and lived with Richard Wagner. They had two children together. Liszt and Wagner quarreled for many years about this.\n\nLiszt spent most of his last years travelling to and fro between three cities: Rome, Weimar and Budapest. He called this his \"vie trifurqu\u00e9e\" (three-forked life). He died in Bayreuth July 31, 1886.\n\nHis personality \n\nLiszt had a very strong personality which affected everyone he met. When he played the piano at concerts he was a great showman. People drew caricatures of him playing the piano with his wild mop of hair. He could be very polite and knew how to get on with the aristocracy. He could be very generous, giving both money and time to other musicians and giving praise where it was deserved. He was a powerful, unique character and one of the most important romantic composers of his day. He is known for his dazzling virtuostic piano displays best.\n\nCompositions \n\nMost of Liszt's compositions were for piano. He wrote one piano sonata. It is in B minor. Its form is very different from the sonatas of composers like Beethoven. It is a very Romantic work, but it does not tell a story like a lot of Romantic pieces do. Most of his piano works are shorter pieces that are quite free in form. He often took a theme and transformed it (changed it gradually). He wrote studies which are much more than just pieces to improve one's piano technique. One collection is called Transcendental Studies. In Switzerland he wrote Ann\u00e9es de p\u00e8lerinage (Years of Wandering), a collection of pieces to which he gave titles later. Liszt explored all the possible sounds that the piano could make (it was still a fairly new instrument). Sometimes he made it sound like an orchestra. Some of his last piano works are much simpler to play, although the chords would have sounded very modern for his time. They are like the Impressionistic music of Debussy.\n\nNot all Liszt's piano pieces were original compositions: he also made arrangements or transcriptions. It seems a strange idea to us now to take someone else's symphony and arrange it for piano. This is what Liszt often did. He took symphonies by Beethoven or songs by Schubert and changed them so that they could be played on the piano. Many people did not have the opportunity to hear concerts very often, and they certainly did not have radios or CDs, so Liszt was making these works more famous, helping them to reach a wider audience. He often made difficult transcriptions which meant that he changed the pieces and added ornamental notes, making a new piece out of an old one.\n\nLiszt's orchestral music is also very important. He wrote symphonic poems: pieces which tell a story or describe something. The best known one is called Les pr\u00e9ludes. He also wrote two piano concertos.\n\nHe wrote a lot of church music. Church music was often quite sentimental in those days, but Liszt tried to make his works help people to feel religious devotion. For composing and performing Liszt was using a variety of pianos (fortepiano). In his Portugal tour as well as in Kiev and Odessa tours, he used a Boisselot piano. This model has been recreated in the XXI century. The composer also owned an Erard piano, a Bechstein piano and Beethoven's Broadwood grand piano.\n\nConclusion \n\nIn many ways Liszt was typical of the Romantic artist. He was always looking for a spiritual meaning to life. He carried a walking stick with the heads of St Francis of Assisi and Gretchen and Mephistopheles, characters from Goethe's Faust. He was a 19th-century musician but through his thinking and his music he looked forward to the 20th century.\n\nReferences \n\nThe New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie (1980) \n Demko Miroslav: Franz Liszt compositeur Slovaque, L\u00b4Age d\u00b4Homme, Suisse, 2003.\n\nOther websites \n\n The Franz Liszt Site with timeline\n Piano Society - Liszt  - A short biography and various free recordings in MP3 format.\n The Love Affairs of Great Musicians, Volume 2 by Rupert Hughes, full-text from Project Gutenberg\n Franz Liszt Project  - A comprehensive Liszt site with searchable databases.\n Letters of Franz Liszt \n Concert programme for September 16, 1840 at The Centre for Performance History \n Old cylinder recordings of orchestral arrangements of Liszt Hungarian Rhapsodies, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.\n International Franz Liszt Piano Competition - official page\n Catalogue of the Complete Liszt Recording by Leslie Howard\n WorldCat Identities page for 'Liszt, Franz 1811-1886' \n Lizst in Limerick , The Old Limerick Journal, Richard Ahern\n\n1811 births\n1886 deaths\nHungarian composers\nHungarian pianists\nRomantic composers\nDeaths from pneumonia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":145,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-26":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":43159,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Franz%20Liszt","title":"Franz Liszt","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In feudalism, a fiefdom (also called a fief, feud, feoff, or fee) was a property or right that an overlord gave a vassal in exchange for military service. This property, of whatever size, could be inherited by the man's heirs.  However, not only land but anything of value could be held in fee, including a political office, hunting or fishing rights or monopolies in trade. A fief included the right of possession of something but with conditions.\n\nReferences\n\nMiddle Ages","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":63,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":63825,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fiefdom","title":"Fiefdom","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Luigi Pirandello (Agrigento 28 June 1867 \u2013 Rome 10 December 1936) was an Italian playwright, novelist, and short story writer. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1934, for his \"bold and brilliant renovation of the drama and the stage\". Pirandello's works include novels, hundreds of short stories, and about 40 plays, some of which are written in Sicilian. Pirandello's tragic farces are often seen as forerunners for Theatre of the Absurd.\n\nWorks \nUna boccata d'aria (A Breath of Air)\n L'Esclusa (The Excluded Woman)\n Il Turno (The Turn)\n Il Fu Mattia Pascal (The Late Mattia Pascal)\n Suo Marito (Her Husband)\n I Vecchi e I Giovani (The Old and the Young)\n Quaderni di Serafino Gubbio (Serafino Gubbio's Journals)\n Uno, Nessuno e Centomila (One, No one and One Hundred Thousand)\n Sei Personaggi in Cerca d'Autore (Six Characters in Search of an Author)\n Ciascuno a Suo Modo (Each In His Own Way)\n Questa Sera Si Recita a Soggetto (Tonight We Improvise)\n Enrico IV (Henry IV)\n L'Uomo dal Fiore in Bocca (The Man With The Flower In His Mouth)\n La Vita che ti Diedi (The Life I Gave You)\n Il Gioco delle Parti (The Rules of the Game)\n Diana e La Tuda (Diana and Tuda)\n Il Piacere dell'Onest\u00e0 (The Pleasure Of Honesty)\n L'Imbecille (The Imbecile)\n L'Uomo, La Bestia e La Virt\u00f9 (The Man, The Beast and The Virtue)\n Vestire gli Ignudi (Clothing The Naked)\n Cos\u00ec \u00e8 (Se Vi Pare) (So It Is (If You Think So))\n\nItalian playwrights\nItalian writers\n1867 births\n1936 deaths\nItalian Nobel Prize winners","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":350180,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Luigi%20Pirandello","title":"Luigi Pirandello","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Capua ( , ) is a city and comune in the province of Caserta, in the region of Campania, southern Italy, situated  north of Naples, on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain.\n\nHistory\n\nAncient era\nThe name of Capua comes from the Etruscan Capeva. The meaning is 'City of Marshes'. Its foundation is attributed by Cato the Elder to the Etruscans, and the date given as about 260 years before it was \"taken\" by Rome. If this is true it refers not to its capture in the Second Punic War (211 BC), but to its submission to Rome in 338 BC. This places the date of foundation at about 600 BC, while Etruscan power was at its highest. In the area, several settlements of the Villanovian civilization were present in prehistoric times. These were probably enlarged by the Oscans, and subsequently by the Etruscans.\n\nEtruscan supremacy in Campania came to an end with the Samnite invasion, in the latter half of the 5th century BC.\n\nAbout 424 BC Capua was captured by the Samnites, and in 343 BC sought Roman help against its conquerors. They allied for protection against the Samnite mountain tribes, along with its dependent communities Casilinum, Calatia, Atella, so that the greater part of Campania now fell under Roman supremacy. The citizens of Capua received the  (citizenship without the vote).\n\nIn the second Samnite War with Rome, Capua proved an untrustworthy Roman ally, so that after the defeat of the Samnites, the Ager Falernus on the right bank of the Volturnus was confiscated. In 318 BC the powers of the native officials () were limited by the appointment of officials with the title praefecti Capuam Cumas (taking their name from the most important towns of Campania); these were at first mere deputies of the praetor urbanus, but after 123 BC were elected Roman magistrates, four in number; they governed the whole of Campania until the time of Augustus, when they were abolished. It was the capital of Campania Felix.\n\nIn 312 BC, Capua was connected with Rome by the construction of the Via Appia, the most important of the military highways of Italy. The gate by which it left the Servian walls of Rome bore the name Porta Capena; perhaps the only case in which a gate in this line of fortifications bears the name of the place to which it led. At some time the Via Latina was extended to Casilinum. It afforded a route only  longer, and the difficulties with its construction were much less; it also avoided the troublesome journey through the Pontine Marshes.\n\nThe importance of Capua increased steadily during the 3rd century BC, and at the beginning of the Second Punic War it was considered to be only slightly behind Rome and Carthage themselves, and was able to furnish 30,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. Until after the defeat of Cannae it remained faithful to Rome, but, after an unsuccessful demand that one of the consuls should always be selected from it (or perhaps in order to secure regional supremacy in the event of a Carthaginian victory), it defected to Hannibal. He made it his winter quarters, and he and his army were voluntarily received by Capua. Livy and others have suggested that the luxurious conditions were Hannibal's \"Cannae\" because his troops became soft and demoralized by luxurious living. Historians from Reginald Bosworth Smith onwards have been skeptical of this, observing that his troops gave as good an account of themselves in battle after that winter as before. After a long siege, Capua was taken by the Romans in 211 BC and severely punished in the Second Battle of Capua; its magistrates and communal organization were abolished, the inhabitants who weren't killed lost their civic rights, and its territory was declared  (Roman state domain). Parts of it were sold in 205 BC and 199 BC, another part was divided among the citizens of the new colonies of Volturnum and Liternum, established near the coast in 194 BC, but the greater portion of it was reserved to be let by the state.\n\nConsiderable difficulties occurred in preventing illegal encroachments by private persons, and it became necessary to buy a number of them out in 162 BC. It was, after that period, let, not to large but to small proprietors. Frequent attempts were made by the democratic leaders to divide the land among new settlers. M. Junius Brutus the Elder in 83 BC actually succeeded in establishing a colony, but it was soon dissolved; and Cicero's speeches De Lege Agrania were directed against a similar attempt by Servilius Rullus in 63 BC.\n\nIn the meantime the necessary organization of the inhabitants of this thickly populated district was in a measure supplied by grouping them round important shrines. Many inscriptions testify to a  associated with the shrine to Diana Tifatina; a  is also known.\n\nThe town of Capua belonged to none of these organizations, and was entirely dependent on the . It enjoyed great prosperity, however, due to their growing of spelt, a grain that was put into groats, wine, roses, spices, unguents etc., and also owing to its manufacture, especially of bronze objects, of which both the elder Cato and the elder Pliny speak in the highest terms.\n\nIts luxury remained proverbial, and Campania was especially spoken of as the home of gladiatorial combat. From the gladiatorial schools of Campania came Spartacus and his followers in 73 BC. Julius Caesar as consul in 59 BC succeeded in carrying out the establishment of a Roman colony under the name Julia Felix in connection with his agrarian law, and 20,000 Roman citizens were settled in this territory.\n\nThe number of colonists was increased by Mark Antony, Augustus (who constructed an aqueduct from the Mons Tifata and gave the town of Capua estates in the district of Knossos in Crete valued at 12 million sesterces) and Nero.\n\nIn the war of 69 AD Capua took the side of Vitellius. Under the later empire it is not often mentioned, but in the 4th century it was the seat of the consularis Campaniae and its chief town, though Ausonius put it behind Mediolanum (Milan) and Aquileia in his ordo nobilium urbium.\n\nMiddle Ages\n\nUnder Constantine, a Christian church was founded in Capua. In 456, it was taken and destroyed by the Vandals under Gaiseric, but was likely soon rebuilt.\n\nDuring the Gothic War, Capua suffered greatly. When the Lombards invaded Italy in the second half of the 6th century, Capua was ravaged; later, it was included in the Duchy of Benevento, and ruled by an official styled gastald.\n\nIn 839, the prince of Benevento, Sicard, was assassinated by Radelchis I of Benevento, who took over the throne. Sicard's brother Siconulf was proclaimed independent prince in Salerno and the gastald of Capua declared himself independent.\n\nIn 840, ancient Capua was burned to the ground by a band of Saracen mercenaries called by Radelchis I of Benevento with only the church of Santa Maria Maggiore (founded about 497) remaining (which was purposely spared by the invading Muslims, whose policy was that to leave houses of worship alone). A new city was built in 856, but at some distance from the former site, where another town later appeared under the name of Santa Maria Capua Vetere (\"Capua the Old\").\n\nPrince Atenulf I conquered Benevento in 900 and united the principalities until 981, when Pandulf Ironhead separated them in his will for his children. Capua eclipsed Benevento thereafter and became the chief rival of Salerno. Under Pandulf IV, the principality brought in the aid of the Normans and, for a while had the loyalty of Rainulf Drengot, until the latter abandoned him to aid the deposed Sergius IV of Naples take back his city, annexed by Pandulf in 1027.\n\nUpon Pandulf's death, Capua fell to his weaker sons and, in 1058, the city itself fell in a siege to Rainulf's nephew Richard I, who took the title Prince of Aversa. For seven years (1091\u20131098), Richard II was exiled from his city, but with the aid of his relatives, he retook the city after a siege in 1098. His dynasty lived on as princes of Capua until the last claimant of their line died in 1156 and the principality was definitively united to the kingdom of Sicily. In the 1230s, King Frederick I built the monumental City Gate of Capua.\n\nIn the early 1500s, it was reported to Pope Alexander VI that his son, Cesare Borgia, had captured the city and promptly killed all 6,000 citizens, which included women and children, while commanding French troops during the sieges of Naples and Capua.\n\nModern Age\nOn 3 January 1799, during the French Revolutionary Wars, this community was successfully attacked by a French-controlled 1798\u20131799 Roman Republic Army led by Governor MacDonald.\n \nThe Battle of Volturnus (1860), at the conclusion of Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand, partially took place in and around Capua. Prior to the battle, the Neapolitan army, defeated in earlier engagements, was rebuilt in Capua under marshal Giosu\u00e8 Ritucci. After fighting elsewhere in which the Neapolitans were ultimately defeated, the last of them\u2014around 3,000 troops under Colonel Perrone\u2014were holed up in Capua. The city was attacked by the Garibaldines and one Piedmontese regular Bersaglieri battalion, and captured. In the referendum several months later, its inhabitants voted overwhelmingly to join the new Kingdom of Italy.\n\nMain sights\n The cathedral of Santo Stefano, erected in 856, has a lofty campanile, and a renovated interior with three aisles; both it and the atrium have ancient granite columns. The Romanesque crypt, with ancient columns, has also been restored. It has a fine paschal candlestick, and the fragments of a pulpit with marble mosaic of the 13th century. There are also preserved in the cathedral a fine Exultet roll and an  of the end of the 12th century, bound in bronze decorated with gold filigree and enamels. The mosaics of the beginning of the 12th century in the apses of the cathedral and of San Benedetto, were destroyed about 1720 and 1620 respectively.\n The small church of San Marcello was also built in 856. In 1232\u20131240 the emperor Frederick II erected a castle to guard the Roman bridge over the Volturnus, composed of a triumphal arch with two towers. This was demolished in 1557. The statues with which it was decorated were contemporary imitations of classical sculptures. Some of them were preserved in the Museo Campano.\n The  (the Campania Provincial Museum of Capua) was founded in 1870 and opened to the public in 1874.  Since then it has become a cultural reference point for the whole territory and Campania.\n\nArchaeological sites\n\nRemains\nNo pre-Roman remains have been found within the town of Capua itself, but important cemeteries have been discovered on all sides of it, the earliest of which go back to the 7th or 6th century BC.\n\nThe tombs are of various forms, partly chambers with frescoes on the walls, partly cubical blocks of peperino, hollowed out, with grooved lids. The objects found within them consist mainly of vases of bronze (many of them without feet, and with incised designs of Etruscan style) and of clay, some of Greek, some of local manufacture, and of paintings. On the east of the town, in the Patturelli property, a temple has been discovered with Oscan votive inscriptions originally thought to be Oscan, now recognized as Etruscan, some of them inscribed upon terracotta tablets, the most famous of which is the Tabula Capuana, conserved in Berlin, still, after more than a century of searching, the second-longest Etruscan text. Other brief inscriptions are on cippi. A group of 150 tuff statuettes represent a matron holding one or more children in her lap: three bore Latin inscriptions of the early Imperial period.\n\nThe site of the town being in a perfectly flat plain, without natural defences, it was possible to lay it out regularly. Its length from east to west is accurately determined by the fact that the Via Appia, which runs from north-west to south-east from Casilinum to Calatia, turns due east very soon after passing the so-called Arch of Hadrian (a triumphal arch of brickwork, once faced with marble, with three openings, erected in honour of some emperor unknown), and continues to run in this direction for  (6,000 ancient Oscan feet).\n\nThe west gate was the Porta Romana; remains of the east gate have also been found, although its name is unknown. This fact shows that the main street of the town was perfectly oriented, and that before the Via Appia was constructed, i.e. in all probability in pre-Roman times. The width of the town from north to south cannot be so accurately determined as the line of the north and south walls is not known, though it can be approximately fixed by the absence of tombs. Beloch fixes it at 4,000 Oscan feet = , nor is it absolutely certain (though it is in the highest degree probable, for Cicero praises its regular arrangement and fine streets) that the plan of the town was rectangular.\n\nWithin the town are remains of public baths on the north of the Via Appia and of a theatre opposite, on the south. The former consisted of a large cryptoporticus round three sides of a court, the south side being open to the road; it now lies under the prisons. Beloch (see below) attributes this to the Oscan period; but the construction as shown in Labruzzi's drawing (v. 17) 1 is partly of brick-work and opus reticulatum, which may, of course, belong to a restoration. The stage of the theatre had its back to the road; Labruzzi (v. 18) gives an interesting view of the cavea. It appears from inscriptions that it was erected after the time of Augustus.\n\nOther inscriptions, however, prove the existence of a theatre as early as 94 BC. The Roman colony was divided into regions and possessed a capitolium, with a temple of Jupiter, within the town, and the marketplace, for unguents especially, was called Seplasia; an aedes alba is also mentioned, which is probably the original senate house, which stood in an open space known as albana. But the sites of all these are uncertain. A Mithraeum may also be seen, by appointment.\n\nAmphitheatre\n\nOutside the town, in Santa Maria Capua Vetere, there is the amphitheatre, built in the time of Augustus, restored by Hadrian and dedicated by Antoninus Pius, as the inscription over the main entrance recorded. The exterior was formed by 80 Doric arcades of four stories each, but only two arches now remain. The keystones were adorned with heads of divinities.\n\nThe interior is better preserved; beneath the arena are subterranean passages like those in the amphitheatre at Puteoli. It is one of the largest in existence; the longer diameter is , the shorter , and the arena measures , the corresponding dimensions in the Colosseum at Rome being 188, 155, 85, 53 metres (615, 510, 279 and 174\u00a0ft).\n\nTo the east are considerable remains of baths \u2013 a large octagonal building, an apse against which the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie is built, and several heaps of debris. On the Via Appia, to the south-east of the east gate of the town, arc two large and well-preserved tombs of the Roman period, known as le Carceri vecchie and la Conocchia.\n\nTo the east of the amphitheatre an ancient road, the Via Dianae, leads north to the Pagus Dianae, on the west slopes of the Mons Tifata, a community which sprang up around the famous and ancient temple of Diana, and probably received an independent organization after the abolition of that of Capua in 211 BC. The place often served as a base for attacks on the latter, and Sulla, after his defeat of Gaius Norbanus, gave the whole of the mountain to the temple.\n\nWithin the territory of the pagus were several other temples with their magistri. After the restoration of the community of Capua, magistri of the temple of Diana are still attested, but they were probably officials of Capua itself.\n\nThe site is occupied by the Benedictine church of San Michele Arcangelo in Sant'Angelo in Formis. It dates from 944, and was reconstructed by the abbot Desiderius (afterwards Pope Victor III) of Monte Cassino. It has interesting paintings, dating from the end of the 11th century to the middle of the 12th, in which five different styles may be distinguished. They form a complete representation of all the chief episodes of the New Testament. Deposits of votive objects (favissae), removed from the ancient temple from time to time as new ones came in and occupied all the available space, have been found, and considerable remains of buildings belonging to the Vicus Dianae (among them a triumphal arch and some baths, also a hail with frescoes, representing the goddess herself ready for the chase) still exist.\n\nThe ancient road from Capua went on beyond the Vicus Dianae to the Volturnus (remains of the bridge still exist) and then turned east along the river valley to Caiatia and Telesia. Other roads ran to Puteoli and Cumae (the so-called Via Campana) and to Neapolis, and the Via Appia passed through Capua, which was thus the most important road centre of Campania.\n\nSee also\n History of Santa Maria Capua Vetere\n Archdiocese of Capua\n Battle of Capua\n Capua Leg\n Seconda Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Napoli\n Siege of Capua (211 BC)\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n \n \n \n\n \n856 establishments\nCities and towns in Campania\nRoman sites of Campania\n9th-century establishments in Italy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":56,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":5,"2024-26":1}},"id":75845,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capua","title":"Capua","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Briton Hadden (February 18, 1898 \u2013 February 27, 1929) was the co-founder of Time magazine with his Yale classmate Henry Luce.  He was Times first editor and the inventor of its revolutionary writing style, known as Timestyle.  Though he died at 31, he was considered one of the most influential journalists of the twenties, a master innovator and stylist, and an iconic figure of the Jazz Age.\n\nEarly life \nBorn in Brooklyn, Hadden got his start in newspaper writing at Brooklyn's Poly Prep Country Day School, where he wrote for the school magazine, the Poly Prep, and distributed a hand-written, underground sheet to his classmates that was called The Daily Glonk.  Moving to the Hotchkiss School, he wrote for the Hotchkiss Record, a weekly newspaper.  After an intense competition, he was elected the chairman of the newspaper and Luce the assistant managing editor.  Hadden then turned the Record from a weekly into a bi-weekly.\n\nAt Yale, Hadden was elected to the staff of the Yale Daily News and later served as the paper's chairman twice (1917-1918 and 1919\u20131920).  Luce was the News' managing editor the second time. While at Yale, he was a brother of Delta Kappa Epsilon (Phi chapter) and a member of Skull and Bones.  It was during a break from school, when Hadden and Luce traveled south to Camp Jackson, South Carolina as ROTC officer candidates, that they began seriously discussing the idea of creating a magazine that would condense all the news of the week into a brief and easily readable \"digest.\"\n\nCareer \nAfter receiving his bachelor's degree from Yale University in 1920, Hadden wrote for the New York World, where he was mentored by one of New York's most famous and accomplished newspaper editors, Herbert Bayard Swope.  In late 1921, Hadden wrote to Luce, who had recently been let go by the Chicago Daily News, and suggested that they both go to work for the Baltimore News.  In Baltimore, they spent their nights working on the idea of a news magazine, which, at first, they planned to call Facts.\n\nFounding Time magazine\nIn 1923, Hadden and Luce co-founded Time magazine along with Robert Livingston Johnson and another Yale classmate.  Hadden and Luce served alternating years as the company's president, but Hadden was the editor for four and a half of the magazine's first six years, and was considered the \"presiding genius\".  Johnson served as the magazine's vice president and advertising director.  In its earliest years the magazine was edited in an abandoned beer brewery, subsequently moving to Cleveland in 1925, and returning to New York in 1927.  For the next year and several months, both Time and The New Yorker were edited at 25 W. 45th Street in Manhattan.  Thus two of the major magazine editors of the 1920s\u2014Briton Hadden and Harold Ross\u2014worked in the same building.\n\nIllness and death \nIn December 1928, Hadden became ill.  He died two months later, most likely of streptococcus viridans, which had entered his bloodstream, causing sepsis and ultimately the failure of his heart.  Before he died, Hadden signed a will, which left all of his stock in Time Inc. to his mother and forbade his family from selling those shares for 49 years.  Within a year of Hadden's death, Luce formed a syndicate, which succeeded in gaining hold of Hadden's stock.\n\nLegacy \nLuce took Hadden's name off the masthead of Time within two weeks of his death.  In the next 38 years, he delivered more than 300 speeches around the world, mentioning Hadden four times.  Luce acquired control of Hadden's papers, and he kept them at Time Inc., where no one outside the company was allowed to view the papers as long as Luce lived.  Throughout his life, Luce repeatedly claimed credit for Hadden's ideas in public speeches and in Time magazine.\n\nLuce presided over the growth of the Time-Life empire, and donated funds towards the construction of a building at 202 York Street in New Haven, Connecticut that would eventually become the Yale Daily News' new home.  The office is today called the Briton Hadden Memorial Building.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n Time Magazine biography\n Q & A: Isaiah Wilner Time\n\n1898 births\n1929 deaths\nAmerican magazine founders\nAmerican magazine publishers (people)\nHotchkiss School alumni\nYale University alumni\nDeaths from sepsis\nTime (magazine) people\nPoly Prep alumni\nMembers of Skull and Bones","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":42,"dup_details":{"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2021-21":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-39":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":9,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":7,"2014-15":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":2}},"id":1018094,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Briton%20Hadden","title":"Briton Hadden","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Maurice Ravel (born Ciboure, Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es-Atlantiques, 7 March 1875; died Paris, 28 December 1937) was a French composer. His name is often thought of together with that of Claude Debussy, but their music is really very different. Ravel liked children and animals and his music is often about them. He liked to write about fairy tales and stories from far away lands. He wrote some lovely piano music, most of which is difficult to play. Bol\u00e9ro is a 17-minute piece for orchestra. A short version was used by ice-skaters Torvill and Dean for the dance that made them Olympic champions in 1984.\n\nHis life\n\nEarly years\nMaurice Ravel was born in Ciboure in France. His father was an engineer. Both parents were interested in culture. Soon after he was born the family moved to Paris and stayed there.\n\nIt soon became clear that Maurice was musically gifted, so his father arranged for him to have piano lessons with a well-known teacher. In 1889 he entered the Paris Conservatoire.\n\nIn 1889 there was a big international exhibition: the Paris World Exhibition. Ravel and Debussy both heard gamelan music from Java at this exhibition. They were both influenced by it, especially Debussy. Ravel also heard Russian music at concerts given by Rimsky-Korsakov. He also made friends with a very talented Spanish pianist Ricardo Vi\u00f1es who was in the same class at the Conservatoire. He heard the music of Richard Wagner and got to know the composers Chabrier and Satie.\n\nHe left the Conservatoire in 1895, but went back in 1897 to study composition with Gabriel Faur\u00e9 and counterpoint and orchestration with Andre\u00e9 G\u00e9dalge. At this stage Ravel was not sure of himself as a composer. His first work that was to become very well-known was the short piece for orchestra called Pavane pour une infante d\u00e9funte. Faur\u00e9 had been a very good teacher for Ravel, who dedicated his virtuoso piano piece Jeux d'eau (meaning \"Play of water\" or \"Fountains\") and his String Quartet to Faur\u00e9. However, Ravel never got a prize for composition, so he left Faur\u00e9's class in 1903.\n\nEarly career\nRavel was starting to live the life of a dandy. He always dressed very smartly, and got to know people with similar tastes. He tried to win the Prix de Rome in 1904 and again in 1905. However, the judges liked traditional music and did not understand Ravel's style. There was a big argument at the Conservatoire which led to the director, Dubois, resigning and Faur\u00e9 taking his place. Meanwhile, Ravel left Paris for a time with some friends and started writing some of his best compositions. These included Introduction and Allegro for seven instruments including harp, the Rapsodie espagnole for orchestra, his first opera L'heure espagnole and Gaspard de la Nuit, a virtuoso piece for the piano. In Paris the music critics continued to argue about Ravel's music.\n\nRecognition at last\nIn 1909 the Ballets Russes visited Paris. They were the world's most famous ballet group. Their director Diaghilev asked Ravel to write a ballet for them Ravel took about three years to compose the music for Daphnis et Chlo\u00e9. Other works he completed before the war broke out include Sh\u00e9h\u00e9razade for soprano and orchestra (not to be confused with the work by Rimsky-Korsakov with the same title), and the Piano Trio.\n\nWorld War I\nWhen World War I broke out Ravel felt very strongly that he wanted to do something for his country. However, he was not allowed to join the French army because he was 2 kg underweight. So he became a driver for the motor transport corps. In 1916 he became ill with dysentery. After a time in hospital he was taken back to Paris to get better, but then his mother died and this had a terrible effect on him. The war years had slowed him down as a composer. He had composed Le Tombeau de Couperin (well-known both as a piano solo piece and for orchestra) which looks back to the style of music in the Baroque period. It took him a long time to finish La Valse (The Waltz), one of his most popular pieces.\n\nAfter the war\nAfter the war had ended Debussy was dead and Ravel was seen to be the greatest living French composer. He was offered the award of L\u00e9gion d'honneur but he would not accept it. He bought himself a house outside Paris. Here he could compose in peace and quiet. He wrote his opera L'enfant et les sortileges (The child and magic) and the famous virtuoso piece for solo violin called Tzigane. He toured in Europe and the United States and was welcomed everywhere as a great composer. He was given an honorary doctorate at Oxford University.\n\nRavel worked on several things: some ballet music which resulted in the orchestral piece Bol\u00e9ro, a Piano Concerto in G, and the Piano Concerto for the Left Hand that could be played just with the left hand (written for the pianist Paul Wittgenstein who had lost his right arm in the war), and several other projects which were not finished.\n\nHis final years\nIn 1932 he started to become ill. For several years he had already been finding it difficult to sleep, and this may have been the beginning of the brain disease which would finally kill him. A road accident in 1932 made it worse. Soon he could no longer sign his own name, he could hardly move and hardly speak. He had a brain operation in 1937, but he died.\n\nHis music\nRavel was a very private man. We know nothing about his sexual life. His music came to him during walks on his own, in the country or in Paris, often at night, and in any weather. Then he would come home and write them down. He worked at each composition until it was perfect and never showed it to anybody until it was ready. He liked to collect little things such as toys, and these objects often became part of the music. Baroque music forms, gamelan music, Spanish music, ancient modes and unusual harmonies were all important in his musical style. He only had a few pupils, including Vaughan Williams, but no one could imitate his music because it is always so personal, full of perfection and humour.\n\nReferences\n The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980; \n\n1875 births\n1937 deaths\n20th-century French composers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":29660,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maurice%20Ravel","title":"Maurice Ravel","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Saint Anna is the mother of Virgin Mary and the grandmother of Jesus. Her husband is Saint Joachim. Her name is a version of the Hebrew name Hanna. Anna means grace.\n\nAccording to tradition, Joachim went to a temple to pray, but was not allowed in because he did not have a child. Anna heard, prayed, and sacrificed. She promised God that she would bring up a child in God's name. An angel came to Anna and Joachim and told them that God would grant her a baby. Anna had the baby soon after and named the girl Mary. Anna kept her promise. When Mary was about three years old Joachim and Anna brought her up in the Second Temple.\n\nOnce, as Anna prayed beneath a laurel tree near her home in Galilee, an angel appeared and said to her, \"Anna, Anna, the Lord has heard your prayer, and you shall conceive, and shall bring forth; and your seed shall be spoken of in all the world.\" Anna replied, \"As the Lord my God lives, if I beget either male or female, I will bring it as a gift to the Lord my God; and it shall minister to Him in holy things all the days of its life.\" This is how Anna became the mother of the Blessed Virgin Mary.\n\nThe feast (name) day of St. Anna and St. Joachim is July 26.\n\nEarly Christian saints","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":14410,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saint%20Anna","title":"Saint Anna","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The cerebral cortex is the most important part of the brain. In humans, it is by far the largest part of the brain.\n\nThough this cannot be seen directly, different parts of the cortex have different functions (see diagram). It plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought, language, and consciousness. \n\nIt is a sheet of neural tissue that is outermost to the cerebrum of the mammalian brain. It has up to six layers of nerve cells. The human cerebral cortex is 2\u20134\u00a0mm (0.08\u20130.16\u00a0inches) thick.\n\nIn preserved brains, it is grey, so it is often called 'grey matter'. In contrast to gray matter that is formed from neurons and their unmyelinated fibers, the white matter below them is formed predominantly by myelinated axons interconnecting neurons in different regions of the cerebral cortex with each other and neurons in other parts of the central nervous system.\n\nThe surface of the cerebral cortex is folded in large mammals, such that more than two-thirds of it in the human brain is buried in the grooves.\n\nNeocortex \nThe phylogenetically most recent part of the cerebral cortex, the neocortex, has six horizontal layers; the more ancient part of the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, has at most three cellular layers. Neurons in various layers connect vertically to form small microcircuits, called 'columns'.\n\nThe neocortex is the newest part of the cerebral cortex to evolve. The six-layer neocortex is a distinguishing feature of mammals; it has been found in the brains of all mammals, but not in any other animals. In humans, 90% of the cerebral cortex is neocortex.\n\nAllocortex \nOther parts of the cerebral cortex are:\nAllocortex: fewer than six layers, more ancient phylogenetically than the mammals, evolved to handle olfaction and the memory of smells.\nArchicortex (includes functions related to emotions and memory)\nOlfactory cortex\nHippocampus\nPaleocortex (3 three to five layers)\nThe cellular organization of the old cortex is different from the six-layer structure mentioned above.\n\nNotes \n\nAnatomy of the brain","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":146,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":272296,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cerebral%20cortex","title":"Cerebral cortex","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Modes in music are a kind of scale.\n\nThe Ancient Greeks used several modes in their music. Medieval musicians borrowed the names of these modes to describe the scales used in their music. Western music predominantly usually uses two scales: major and minor, which correspond to the Ionian and Aeolian modes. Like any other scale, a mode can start on any note.\n\nEach mode has a different pattern of tones and semitones (or \"half tones\") (see semitone).\n The Western major scale (e.g. the C major scale C D E F G A B C) starts on its KEY NOTE and goes up using the following pattern of tones and semitones between each note:\ntone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone.\n The Western natural minor scale (e.g. the A natural minor scale A B C D E F G A) does the same, but it has a different pattern of tones and semitones between each note:\ntone, semitone, tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone.\n\nThe modes are easiest to see on a piano keyboard using the white notes only. The most common modern modes are:\n Ionian (C D E F G A B C)\n Dorian (D E F G A B C D)\n Phrygian (E F G A B C D E)\n Lydian (F G A B C D E F)\n Mixolydian (G A B C D E F G)\n Aeolian (A B C D E F G A)\n Locrian (B C D E F G A B)\n\nIt will be seen that\n The Ionian mode is the major scale.\n The Dorian is a natural minor scale with a major sixth.\n The Phrygian is a natural minor scale with a minor second.\n The Lydian is a major scale with an augmented fourth.\n The Mixolydian is a major scale with a minor seventh.\n The Aeolian is the natural minor scale.\n The Locrian sounds rather strange, and was hardly ever used in Medieval music. It is a minor scale with a minor second and a diminished fifth.\n\nEach mode also has a version called \"hypo\u2014\".\nFor example: A to A is Hypodorian. It is the same as Aeolian, but the D is treated as the \"keynote\".\n\nThe names of the modes come from cities in Ancient Greece.\n\nIn the Middle Ages these modes were widely used in church music.\n\nSome composers in recent centuries have enjoyed using the ancient modes from time to time in their music. Folksongs are often modal. Greensleeves is an example of a well-known tune which is modal.\n\nMusic theory","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":46431,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Musical%20mode","title":"Musical mode","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Wimbledon Championships is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments. It is played in Wimbledon, a suburb of London in England, Great Britain. The Championships are unique because they are the only Grand Slam played on a grass court. Wimbledon is the third tennis grand slam of the year and is widely seen as the biggest event on the sport's calendar.\n\nWimbledon was first competed in 1877. The women's single and the mens doubles events began seven years later in 1884. It has always been played during the summer. It is played over two weeks, from late June to the beginning of July. The tournament is played after the French Open and before the U.S. Open. In 1968, the championships were opened up to both professionals and amateurs for the first time, with Rod Laver and Billie Jean King winning their respective singles titles.\n\nThe winners in 2016 were Andy Murray and Serena Williams.\n\nTraditions\n\nSeedings \nIn every tennis competition, players are given a seed to help decide their place in the draw. At Wimbledon, they use a player's performances (whether bad or good) on grass to help decide the seed. At other tennis competitions, seeding are chosen based only on rankings.\n\nClothing \nThe umpires (referees) and linesmen all have to wear special dark green and mauve clothing. The players have to wear all white.\n\nEtiquette \nFemale players used to have their names announced with \"Miss\" or \"Mrs\"; this was unlike any other Grand Slam tournament. However, this changed for the 2009 tournament. In this tournament, only the surnames were used. If The Queen is in the audience, it is normal for players to bow to her.\n\nRecords \nMen - William Renshaw, Pete Sampras and Roger Federer have won the singles 7 times each\nWomen - Martina Navratilova has won the singles 9 times\n\nGallery\n\n1877 establishments in England\nSport in London\nTennis tournaments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":168,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-14":3,"2022-40":5,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":4,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":86903,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The%20Championships%2C%20Wimbledon","title":"The Championships, Wimbledon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"UNIX is a computer operating system. It was first developed in 1969 at Bell Labs. Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and others created it. They used assembly language to write it. In 1972, the Unix code was rewritten with the new C programming language. The Unix operating system is a multiuser and multiprocessing system.  This means it can run several application programs at the same time, for more than one user at the same time.  It also is able to operate well in a network of computers.  Computer security is also important in Unix, because many people can have access to it, both by using a computer directly or over a network.\n\nMany ideas in Unix were new. Other operating systems copied them. Today, there are many operating systems that have some of the ideas of Unix in them. For this reason, some people talk about a \"Unix philosophy\" of doing things. Linux is one of these systems with many of the Unix ideas in it. Linux does not use code from UNIX. Linux only shares some of the ideas and the names of commands. So, Linux is not a UNIX operating system. Instead it is called \"Unix-like\".\n\nThere can be many different users in a Unix and Unix-like operating system. Most of them have a personal area where they can put things. This is called a user account.\n\nOne way of using a Unix system is with the command line interface. Users run commands and programs by typing text characters. This takes time to learn, but it is a very powerful and flexible way of working. It is still used by most Unix administrators. These commands are run in a shell, which can change slightly between one system and another.\n\nA graphical user interface (GUI) is the other method. The X Window System is a very common GUI for Unix systems. The X Window System is only a shell of a graphical interface. It has many protocols. The X Window System itself does not let the user to move and resize windows. Users need a window manager or desktop manager to do that.\n\nSome of the popular desktop and window managers are:\n\n Gnome\n KDE\n Windowmaker\n Xfce\n\nLike most other graphical user interfaces, they use windows, dialog boxes, support the use of a computer mouse, and are designed to be easy to use.\n\nThere are many thousands of programs available for the X Window System. Programs like word processors and spreadsheets are available including free and open-source software.\n\nTwo types of Unix\nToday, there are two kinds of operating systems that are like UNIX.\n\nThe first group is all those that share some kernel code with the original from Bell Labs at AT&T. This includes the commercial UNIX types: Solaris or AIX. \n\nThe second group includes free operating systems that usually have BSD in their name, like FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and NetBSD. These are based on free BSD. Mac OS X is also based on BSD.\n\nThere are also free systems based on the Linux kernel. These do not share any code with the original UNIX. BSD systems share very little code with the original Unix because much of the code has been rewritten over many years. Many people use the terms Unix and Unix-like systems to be clear.\n\nMost applications can run on any modern Unix or Unix-like system. KDE and GNOME were developed for Linux and later changed to run on commercial types of Unix.\n\nOther websites \n Manual Pages for FreeBSD - pages saying exactly what each command does\n\nReferences \n\nOperating systems","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":49,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":7,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3}},"id":4822,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UNIX","title":"UNIX","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Transistor\u2013Transistor Logic (TTL) is a class of digital circuits built from transistors and resistors. It is called transistor\u2013transistor logic because the logic function (e.g., AND) and amplification is performed by transistors. Many integrated circuits have TTL technology. They are used in applications such as computers, industrial controls, test equipment and instrumentation, synthesizers, etc.\n\nTTL gates define a voltage below 0.5V as 0, and a voltage of 4\u20135V as 1.\n\nSeries Type \n\n Bipolar\n 74 - the \"standard TTL\" logic family (long obsolete) had no letters between the \"74\" and the specific part number.\n 74L - Low power (compared to the original TTL logic family), very slow (rendered obsolete by the LS-series)\n H - High speed (rendered obsolete by the S-series, used in 1970s era computers)\n S - Schottky (obsolete)\n LS - Low Power Schottky\n AS - Advanced Schottky\n ALS - Advanced Low Power Schottky\n F - Fast (faster than normal Schottky, similar to AS)\n CMOS\n C - CMOS 4-15V operation similar to 4000 series\n HC - High speed CMOS, similar performance to LS, 12nS\n HCT - High speed, compatible logic levels to bipolar parts\n AC - Advanced CMOS, performance generally between S and F\n AHC - Advanced High-Speed CMOS, three times as fast as HC\n ALVC - Low voltage - 1.65 to 3.3V, tpd 2nS\n AUC - Low voltage - 0.8 to 2.7V, tpd<firstname.lastname@example.com\n FC - Fast CMOS, performance similar to F\n LCX - CMOS with 3V supply and 5V tolerant inputs\n LVC - Low voltage - 1.65 to 3.3V and 5V tolerant inputs, tpd<email@example.com, tpd<firstname.lastname@example.com\n LVQ - Low voltage - 3.3V\n LVX - Low voltage - 3.3V with 5V tolerant inputs\n VHC - Very High Speed CMOS - 'S' performance in CMOS technology and power\n G - Super high speeds at more than 1\u00a0GHz, 1.65V to 3.3V and 5V tolerant inputs, tpd 1nS (Produced by Potato Semiconductor)\n BiCMOS\n BCT - BiCMOS, TTL compatible input thresholds, used for buffers\n ABT - Advanced BiCMOS, TTL compatible input thresholds, faster than ACT and BCT\n\nElectronics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":6}},"id":105798,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor%20logic","title":"Transistor\u2013transistor logic","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A spin-off is something new that comes from something already present. If military technology finds civilian use, for example, that is one kind of spin-off. It is often used for video games, movies, and television programmes, but it can also be used when talking about companies or organisations.  A spin-off may have the same people, places, themes or ideas as the original.\n\nSpin-offs in television\n Frasier (spin-off from Cheers)\n Angel (spin-off from Buffy the Vampire Slayer)\n The Facts of Life (spin-off of Diff'rent Strokes)\n She-Ra: Princess of Power (spin-off from He-Man and the Masters of the Universe)\n Daria (spin-off from Beavis and Butthead, which was a spin-off from Liquid Television)\n The Simpsons (spin-off from The Tracey Ullman Show)\n Torchwood (spin-off from Doctor Who)\nJack and the Pack and All Engines Go (spin-off from Thomas and Friends)\n A.N.T. Farm (spin-off from Kids Incorporated)\n Sam & Cat (spin-off from iCarly and Victorious)\n The Jeffersons (spin-off from All in the Family)\n\nEntertainment","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":2}},"id":13495,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spin-off","title":"Spin-off","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Leprosy is a contagious disease. It has been known for a very long time. Today, it is mostly called Hansen's disease, named after the person who discovered the bacterium, Gerhard Armauer Hansen. It is caused by a bacterium, Mycobacterium leprae. A person with leprosy is called a leper.\n\nAs of 2004, the estimated number of new infections was about 400,000.\n\nGetting the disease is hard, since it requires close contact with someone who has it, over a long period of time. In addition, about 95% of people seem to be naturally immune to it.\n\nMost cases of leprosy occur in India, and other developing countries. It has known to have been in the US before. There are practically no cases of leprosy in the developed world. This is because there are excellent drugs and people regularly take antibiotics which will kill the leprosy bacteria.\n\nIn former times, leprosy was seen as a divine punishment for sins committed.\n\nSymptoms \nThe symptoms of leprosy are irregular spots and patches on the skin. These are either lighter colored than the surrounding skin, or reddish in color. On those patches, hair will fall out, and they will feel numb to the patient. Nerves will form knots there.\nWith the illness progressing the sense of touch will become less and less (until the patient feels completely numb). So called leptomes and ulcers will eat away the skin, the flesh and the organs on the patches.\n\nUsually people do not die of leprosy, but of secondary infections and diseases they get.\n\nFor many years there was a leprosy colony on the Hawaiian Island of Molokai called Kalaupapa. Tens of thousands of people from the United States that had the disease were sent there.\n\nGallery\n\nDiseases caused by bacteria","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":31143,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leprosy","title":"Leprosy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The ancient Egyptians believed the soul was divided into five parts Ren, Ba, Ka, Sheut, and Ib.\n\nIb - Heart \nThe Egyptians believed the heart held the emotions and thoughts. Believed to be weighed on the scales of Anubis by the feather of Maat. The Ib decided what your fate would be after death.\n\nSheut - Shadow \nBelieved to be the shadow of the person. The Sheut was the essence of the person and neither could the shadow exist without the person, nor could the person exist without their shadow.\n\nRen - Name \nGiven at birth. A person was believed to live as long as their name lasted. Egyptians often went to great lengths to keep their names talked about and had them carved into monuments and surrounded by cartouche (magical rope).\n\nBa - Personality and Spirit \nBa is considered the spirit. Ba is believed to have a unique personality based on the person who has it. The Ba was shown as a bird that flew from the body to unite with the Ka at death.\n\nKa - Life Force \nOne of the five parts of the Egyptian idea of the soul. The Ka was thought of as the life force and left the body during death. Ka was believed to be in food and drink and was placed with the dead for offerings. Egyptian Mythology believes that at death the Ba and the Ka unite through Nehebkau before entering Duat.\n\nEgyptian mythology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":129,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1}},"id":148056,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancient%20Egyptian%20concept%20of%20the%20soul","title":"Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin was born 6 June (26 May, Old Style) 1799, Moscow, and died 10 February 1837 (29 January, New Style), St Petersburg. He was a Russian poet, novelist, dramatist and writer of short stories. \n\nMany think he was the greatest Russian poet. He started the great tradition of Russian literature. Pushkin wrote in a way that no other Russian had done before: he used the Russian language as it was spoken instead of writing in a style based on old church books. His influence on other Russian writers was enormous and several Russian composers set his stories and poems to music. His poetry is very hard to translate well into other languages because the words are full of special meanings in Russian culture. His novels, especially Eugene Onegin, are widely read.\n\nPushkin's great-grandfather was an African slave who was set free by Tzar Peter the Great. Pushkin was killed in a duel in 1837 at the age of 37.\n\nEarly years \nPushkin's father came from an old aristocratic family. On his mother's side Pushkin had African ancestors. His great-grandfather Abram Gannibal was an Abyssinian who was living in a palace of the Turkish sultan in Istanbul. The Russian ambassador bought him as a present for Peter the Great, the tsar of Russia. Gannibal became a favourite of Peter the Great and he was sent to Paris to study. He became very rich. Pushkin was proud of his great-grandfather and wrote about him in a novel called The Negro of Peter the Great.\n\nIn 19th century Russia all aristocratic families learned to speak French, so Pushkin and his brother and sister spoke and wrote in French more than in Russian. The children were cared for by a nurse, Arina Rodionovna Yakovleva. It was the nurse who taught them to love the Russian language. She told the children Russian folktales. Pushkin also spoke Russian to the peasants and he read many books in his father's library.\n\nWhen he was 12 he went to a new school called the Imperial Lyceum at Tsarskoye Selo. Years later this school was renamed Pushkin after their famous pupil. He soon started writing romantic poems in Russian using Russian tales of heroes and adventures. Ruslan and Ludmila was a poem that was later to be made into an opera by Mikhael Glinka.\n\nAdulthood \nIn 1817, Pushkin got a job in the foreign office at St. Petersburg. He soon became interested in politics and supported the Decembrist revolt of 1825 when a group of noblemen and army officers tried to put another tsar in power and make him less powerful. Pushkin wrote some political poems. The result was that he was told he had to leave St. Petersburg. He had to spend six years in exile in the south of the country: in the Caucasus and the Crimea. He wrote about his experiences in the south in several romantic narrative poems (long poems which tell a story). He started work on a novel in verse called Yevgeny Onegin (or Eugene Onegin). He did not finish it until 1833. This was to be his most famous work. It was used by many musicians including Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky who made it into an opera. The poem shows typical Russian people in the society of his day. \n\nPushkin was angry that he was still in exile and he wrote many letters to his friends. Many of these letters were later published. He spent a lot of time drinking, gaming and fighting with swords. He fell in love with the daughter of a Count for whom he was working. The Count managed to get Pushkin exiled to his mother's estate near Pskov at the other end of Russia. Pushkin spent two years here. He was lonely, but he studied Russian history and talked to the peasants. The poems he wrote were full of ideas from Russian culture. He wrote one of his major works: Boris Godunov, a drama about a story from Russian history. The composer Modest Mussorgsky later made an opera from it. Boris Godunov was a cruel tsar in the 17th century. Pushkin's play shows that the ordinary people had a lot of power. This made it difficult for Pushkin to get it published.\n\nReturn from exile \nAfter the revolt in 1825 the new tsar Nicholas I realized that Pushkin was by now very famous. He also realized that he had not taken part in the revolt, so he allowed him to return. The tsar said that he himself would censor Pushkin's works before they were allowed to be published. He said that he was going to be a good tsar and help the poor people (the serfs) to become free. Pushkin was in a difficult position because he could not write anything that the tsar would not like.\n\nHe had to be very careful not to say bad things about the rulers of the country. The police watched him very carefully. Yet at this time Pushkin wrote a large number of great works, almost each one of them being the first of their kind in Russian literature. One example is the short story The Queen of Spades, which Tchaikovsky made into an opera and which was to be a great influence on the novels of Fyodor Dostoevsky.\n\nLast years \nIn his last years, Pushkin was again in government service in St. Petersburg. He married in 1831 and had to spend a lot of time in society at court. He wrote more and more prose. He wrote a history of Peter the Great and a historical novel The Captain's Daughter. He kept asking the tsar to let him resign from his job and go to the country to spend his time writing. The tsar would not allow that. In 1837, Pushkin was killed in a duel. He had been forced to fight the duel in order to defend his wife's honour.\n\nPushkin's achievements \nThe Russian language today would be very different if it had not been for Pushkin. Using the language as it was spoken by the people he made it into a language which was simple but which could also express deep feelings. His works were a great influence on later writers like Ivan Turgenev, Ivan Goncharov and Leo Tolstoy. Yevgeny Onegin was the first Russian novel which told a story about the society of the time. His works have been translated into all the major languages\n\nRelated pages\nList of Russian language poets\nList of Russian-language novelists\n\nOther websites \n Eugene Onegin\n Pushkin works available from archive.org (various languanges)\n Pushkin poetical works\n  Alexander Pushkin Fairy Tales: Russian Text\n\nDeaths by firearm in Russia\nRussian writers\nRussian poets\n1799 births\n1837 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":5,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":48558,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alexander%20Pushkin","title":"Alexander Pushkin","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Victoria and Albert Museum (often abbreviated as the V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied art (decorative arts and design). Named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, it was founded in 1852.\n\nThe V&A has a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It covers  and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, in virtually every medium, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum is sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport.\n\nThe holdings of ceramics, glass, textiles, costumes, silver, ironwork, jewellery, furniture, medieval objects, sculpture, prints and printmaking, drawings and photographs are among the largest and most comprehensive in the world.\n\nThe museum possesses the world's largest collection of post-classical sculpture, the holdings of Italian Renaissance items are the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea and the Islamic world. The East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection, with the Mus\u00e9e du Louvre and Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, is amongst the largest in the world.\n\nThe V&A is in what is called London's \"Albertopolis\", an area of immense cultural, scientific and educational importance. Near it are the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum, Imperial College, the Albert Hall and the Albert Memorial.\n\nSince 2001, the Museum has embarked on a major \u00a3150m renovation program which has seen a major overhaul of the departments including the introduction of newer galleries, gardens, shops and visitor facilities. As with other national UK museums, admission to the museum is free.\n\nReferences \n\nMuseums in London\nArt museums in the United Kingdom","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":1,"2024-10":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":234137,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Victoria%20and%20Albert%20Museum","title":"Victoria and Albert Museum","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Vibration means quickly moving back and forth (or up and down) about a point of equilibrium. The vibration may be periodic (having a pattern) or random. Something that is vibrating may shake at the same time.  If it vibrates in a regular way, it may produce a musical note because it can make the air vibrate. This vibration will send sound waves to the ear and to the brain.\n\nIn structural engineering including earthquake engineering, vibrations may be bad. They may cause the structure to fail.\n\nThe time it takes a vibrating object to go back and forth completely is the period. The number of back-and-forth movements in one second is its frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz). The farthest possible distance from the equilibrium point is the amplitude.\n\nTypes of vibration \nFree vibration occurs when vibration is set off with a push and allowed to vibrate freely.  Examples of this type of vibration are pulling a child back on a swing and then letting go or hitting a tuning fork and letting it ring. The mechanical system will then vibrate at a 'Natural frequency' and gradually wind down.\n\nForced  vibration is when an alternating force or motion is applied to a mechanical system.  Examples of this type of vibration include \na shaking washing machine due to an imbalance. \ntransportation vibration (caused by a combination of truck engine, springs, road). \nvibration of a building during an earthquake.  \nIn forced vibration the frequency of the vibration is the frequency of the force or motion applied. The size of the effect depends on the actual mechanical system.\n\nRelated pages\nAcoustics\nOscillation\nWave (physics)\nVibration isolation\nVibration control\nVibrato\n\nReferences\n\nMechanics\nMechanical vibrations\nSound\nEarthquake engineering","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"unknown":7,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":6,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":6,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3}},"id":41360,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vibration","title":"Vibration","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Surrealism was an art and cultural movement which began in the early 1920s.\n\nThe name was first used in 1917. Guillaume Apollinaire wrote the program notes for the ballet Parade, which was created for the Ballets Russes of Serge Diaghilev. This was a collaborative work by Jean Cocteau, Erik Satie, Pablo Picasso and L\u00e9onide Massine. The program notes ran:\n\"From this new alliance... there has come about, in Parade, a kind of super-realism ('sur-r\u00e9alisme'), in which I see the starting point of a series of manifestations of this new spirit\".\n\nThe movement grew out of Dadaism. This was, amid the horrors of World War I, a protest at the meaninglessness of civilised life.\n\nAt the same time, the work of Sigmund Freud began to filter through, and affect the literary and art worlds. Andr\u00e9 Breton was trained in psychiatry, and during the war, he worked in a hospital where he used Freud's methods on shell-shock patients. Not surprisingly, Breton influenced many writers and artists after the war.\n\nFreud's work placed emphasis on the subconscious mind, and its role in steering behaviour and emotion. His way of using free association, and dream analysis to get a clue to the subconscious was picked up by the surrealists. They painted dreamlike fantasies, and practised automatic drawing without sight: 'automatism'.\n\nIn 1924, Breton wrote a Surrealist Manifesto, which defined surrealism as:\n\"Psychic automatism in its pure state, by which one proposes to express -- verbally, by means of the written word, or in any other manner -- the actual functioning of thought. Dictated by the thought, in the absence of any control exercised by reason, exempt from any aesthetic or moral concern\".\n\nBreton discussed his first encounter with the surreal, in a description of a hypnagogic state, in which a strange phrase inexplicably appeared in his mind: There is a man cut in two by the window. This phrase illustrates Breton's view of Surrealism as two distant realities brought together to create a new, uncanny union.\n\nSurrealist works have an element of surprise: unexpected items are placed next to each other for no clear reason. Many Surrealist artists and writers see their work as an expression of the philosophical movement first and foremost. The works are an artifact, and Andr\u00e9 Breton said that Surrealism was above all a revolutionary movement. From the 1920s in Paris it spread around the globe. It influenced films such as the Angel's Egg and El Topo.\n\nTRANSCENDENTAL SURREALISM Is a new artistic approach, that stands as\u00a0 the evolution and redefinition of Surrealism in its classical form, as it became internationally known by Andre Bretton's Manifest in the early 20th century. Transcendental Surrealism in Visual Arts, presented in 2018 by the greek visual artist - architect Giorgios (Gio) Vassiliou (b. 1970). It is based on a completely new theory and philosophy that is summarized in\u00a0 three new foundamental  elements, that follow the evolution of ideas, that have emerged so far during the 21st century, in Visual Arts, Psychology, Physics, and the visual perception of the physical world. These three new foundamental elements are: \n\na) Transcendental perception \n\nb) Creative imagination\n\nc) Slow current of thought\n\nArtists \nMax Ernst, Salvador Dali, Man Ray, Andr\u00e9 Masson, Joan Mir\u00f3 and Marcel Duchamp were some of the best-known surrealist artists.\n\nBooks \n Baznani, Achraf. History of Surrealism. Edilivre, France 2018. \n Hughes, Robert.  The shock of the new: art and the century of change. London: Thames & Hudson. Chapter 5 The threshold of liberty.\n\nSurrealist films \nMan Ray made the first surrealist film: Return to reason (1923). Luis Bu\u00f1uel and Dali made two well-known surrealist films: Un chien andalou (1929) and L'\u00c2ge d'or (1930). Jean Cocteau made three films, known as the Orphic Trilogy: Le Sang d'un po\u00e8te (1930), Orph\u00e9e (1950) and Testament of Orpheus (1960), which includes a cameo appearance by Pablo Picasso.\n\nReferences \n\nArt movements","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":67444,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surrealism","title":"Surrealism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A DNA polymerase is an enzyme which makes DNA molecules from its nucleotide building blocks. DNA polymerases are essential for DNA replication. They usually work in pairs as they copy one double-stranded DNA molecule into two double-stranded DNAs. In DNA replication DNA polymerase \"reads\" a piece of DNA that's already there and uses it to make a new piece that is exactly the same as the old piece.The primary role of DNA polymerases is to accurately and efficiently replicate the genome in order to ensure the maintenance of the genetic information and its faithful transmission through generations. \n\nDNA polymerases also play key roles in other processes within cells, including DNA repair, genetic recombination, reverse transcription, and antibody production. DNA polymerases are widely used in molecular biology laboratories, notably for the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, and molecular cloning.\n\nDNA polymerase can only connect deoxyribonucleotides to a 3'-OH group that is already there, so DNA is always made in the 5'3' direction.\n\nDNA\nEnzymes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-21":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":74955,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA%20polymerase","title":"DNA polymerase","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Robert Schumann (b. Zwickau in Saxony, June 8, 1810; died July 29, 1856) was a famous German composer. He lived in the time called the Romantic period. He had to give up his plans for being a concert pianist because he injured his hand. He published a music magazine and wrote a lot of articles about music that had just been composed. His music is full of things that are typical of Romantic music: it is full of emotion, the pieces often have titles that describe things, and they are often inspired by literature. He wrote a great deal of piano music. Some of this music is hard to play, but other pieces are quite easy. Many children learn to play some of the pieces in his Album for the Young. His songs (Lieder) are among the best ever written. He also wrote larger works like symphonies and concertos and chamber music. Sometimes he felt very happy but at other times he was very depressed. These changes of mood can be heard in a lot of his music.\n\nLife \nRobert Schumann was the fifth and youngest child of a bookseller and publisher. As a boy he liked reading the books in his father's shop. He began to compose when he was seven. At school he was extremely good at music and literature. He passed his school-leaving examination with very high marks. His family wanted him to be a lawyer, so he went to Leipzig to study law but he hardly ever went to any lectures. He was much more interested in music and literature, but also in women and drinking. He took piano lessons from a teacher called Friedrich Wieck. Wieck had a 9-year-old daughter Clara. Many years later she was to become his wife. Clara was a brilliant pianist. Her father took her on concert tours because she was a prodigy.\n\nSchumann started to compose short piano pieces and songs. He loved the music of Schubert and when he heard that Schubert had died he cried all night. He often practised the piano for seven hours a day. However, he started to have problems with his fingers. It has often been said that he hurt his hands because he made something to stretch his fingers, but people now think it was more likely due to mercury poisoning because doctors had used mercury to try to cure his syphilis. Whatever the reason, he could not continue to be a pianist and he spent the rest of his life composing and writing about music. Many of his articles appeared in a journal called Neue Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Musik (New Journal for Music) which he started.\n\nIn 1834 he became engaged to a girl of sixteen called Ernestine, but then Schumann broke off the engagement because he loved Clara Wieck. Clara's parents did not want her to marry him. Her father did everything he could to stop the marriage. Maybe he guessed that Schumann had syphilis, maybe he knew that he was often drunk. In the end, after many arguments, court cases and secret meetings between Robert and Clara, they were married in 1840.\n\nSchumann suffered from manic depression. When he was depressed he hardly wrote anything, but 1840 was a happy year for him and he wrote lots of songs as well as orchestral music. In 1841 he wrote four symphonies. In 1842 they went on a concert tour together, but Schumann found it difficult because Clara was more famous than he was. He returned alone to Leipzig to work at his publishing. He felt depressed again at this time and drank a lot of beer and champagne. He was happy again when Clara returned, and composed some chamber music. In 1844 they toured Russia and played to the Tsar. By August he had a complete nervous breakdown and could not bear to listen to his own music. It took him some time to recover.\n\nBy now he was good at writing all kinds of music. He wrote music for the famous play Faust by Goethe. He wrote one opera, Genoveva, in 1849. His fame spread slowly. For many years Dresden and Leipzig were the only towns where he was famous. In 1850 he became musical director at D\u00fcsseldorf. In 1853 he met Brahms. Brahms became a great friend of the Schumann family. Schumann published an article in the Neue Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Musik with the heading \"Neue Bahnen\" (\"New Paths\") in which he said that Brahms (who was 20 at the time) was going to be a very great composer. He was right.\n\nSchumann had often thought of trying to kill himself. On 27 February 1854 he threw himself into the river Rhine. He was rescued by some boatmen, but when they brought him to land he seemed to have gone quite mad. He was taken to an asylum where he spent the last two years of his life. He died on 29 July 1856.\n\nSchumann's music \n\nSchumann's piano music is very well known. Although he had to give up his career as a pianist his wife Clara played his pieces and helped them to become famous. Many of his piano works are collections of short pieces, each with a title e.g. Papillons (Butterflies), Davidsb\u00fcndlert\u00e4nze, Carnaval. Schumann was thinking of carnival celebrations when he wrote these pieces. The Davidsb\u00fcndler was a group of people Schumann belonged to who did not like the \"Philistines\" (people who did not enjoy good music, named after the Philistines in the Bible) In Carnaval the two sides of Schumann's personality are represented by Florestan and Eusebius. Schumann's manic depression (the happy and the tragic moods that he had) are heard side by side in his music. Other piano works include, Kreisleriana,Album for the Young which has some quite easy pieces like Soldier's March and the popular Scenes from Childhood with its famous Tr\u00e4umerei (Dreaming). There are also longer works for piano: 3 sonatas, a Toccata and a Phantasie.\n\nHis chamber music includes string quartets and a famous piano quintet.\n\nSchumann was one of the great composers of Lieder (German songs). He chose poetry by famous German poets and set them to music in very imaginative ways. The piano has very interesting accompaniments which help to bring out the meaning of the words. He wrote a song-cycle called Dichterliebe (Poet's Love) which is a setting of some poems by Heinrich Heine. Another song-cycle is called Frauenliebe und -leben (Woman's Love and Life) to words by Adalbert von Chamisso.\n\nAlthough the young Schumann seemed to prefer writing short pieces, he became more interested in long works after meeting Mendelssohn. He was also inspired to write symphonies after he discovered Schubert's Symphony no 9 which no one knew that Schubert had written. He found it in a box in Vienna at the house of Schubert's brother. Schumann wrote four symphonies. One of his best is the Third which is often called the Rhenish Symphony (after the river Rhine). The Fourth in d minor is also a great work. Using only a few musical ideas he develops them in many ways and writes a long, four-movement work. His piano concerto is a great favourite. Clara Schumann played it with the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra at its first performance on New Year's Day 1846. \n\nFor writing music and performing at home Robert Schumann was using a grand piano by Conrad Graf - a present from the piano maker on the occasion of Robert and Clara's marriage in 1839. This instrument was later given by Clara Schumann to Johannes Brahms.\n\nAfter Schumann's death Clara devoted herself to playing her husband's music and helping it to become well known. She visited England regularly where she played at concerts. She also edited a lot of Schumann's works for the publisher Breitkopf und H\u00e4rtel.\n\nReferences \n New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie (1980)\n\nRecordings \n Allegro op 8 of Schumann\n\n19th-century German composers\nRomantic composers\nMusic critics\n1810 births\n1856 deaths\nPeople from Saxony","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":38673,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert%20Schumann","title":"Robert Schumann","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A textbook is a book used for the study of a subject. People use a textbook to learn facts and methods about a certain subject. Textbooks sometimes have questions to test the knowledge and understanding of the learner.\n\nA workbook is a type of textbook that has only practice questions and exercises. Workbooks are designed not to teach but to provide practice and to highlight areas which need more learning. A revision guide is a type of textbook that is used to remind the learner about the subject and give him\/her extra practice, especially before an examination.\n\nA textbook is usually lent to students by a school to accompany a course the school is teaching. Sometimes, especially at university, students have to buy the textbooks they need themselves or borrow them from a library.\n\nMost textbooks are only published in printed format. However, some are now available online as electronic books.\n\nLearning","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":21689,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Textbook","title":"Textbook","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The \u00c9lys\u00e9e Palace (, ) is the official residence of the President of the French Republic. Completed in 1722, it was built for nobleman and army officer Louis Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, who had been appointed Governor of \u00cele-de-France in 1719. It is located on the Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honor\u00e9 near the Champs-\u00c9lys\u00e9es in the 8th arrondissement of Paris, the name \u00c9lys\u00e9e deriving from the Elysian Fields, the place of the blessed dead in Greek mythology. Important foreign visitors are hosted at the nearby H\u00f4tel de Marigny, a palatial residence.\n\nThe palace has been the home of personalities such as Madame de Pompadour (1721\u20131764), Nicolas Beaujon (1718\u20131786), Bathilde d'Orl\u00e9ans (1750\u20131822), Joachim Murat (1767\u20131815), and Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry (1778\u20131820). On 12 December 1848 under the Second Republic the French Parliament passed a law declaring the building the official residence of the President of France. The \u00c9lys\u00e9e Palace, which contains the presidential office and residency, is also the meeting place of the Council of Ministers, the weekly meeting of the Government of France presided over by the President of the Republic.\n\nHistory\n\nH\u00f4tel d'\u00c9vreux\n\nThe architect Armand-Claude Mollet possessed a property fronting on the road to the village of Roule, west of Paris (now the Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honor\u00e9), and backing onto royal property, the Grand Cours through the Champs-\u00c9lys\u00e9es. He sold this in 1718 to Louis Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Count of \u00c9vreux (families: Dukes and Princes of Bouillon and Sedan: La Marck | von der Marck), with the agreement that Mollet would construct an h\u00f4tel particulier for the count, fronted by an entrance court and backed by a garden. The H\u00f4tel d'\u00c9vreux was finished and decorated by 1722, and though it has undergone many modifications since, it remains a fine example of the French neo-classical style. At the time of his death in 1753, \u00c9vreux was the owner of one of the most widely admired houses in Paris, and it was bought by the Marquise de Pompadour, on the 24th December 1753 for 730,000 livres. Opponents showed their distaste for the regime by hanging signs on the gates that read: \"Home of the King's whore\". After her death, it was left in her will to the crown.\n\nIn 1773, it was purchased by Nicolas Beaujon, banker to the court and one of the richest men in France, who needed a suitably sumptuous \"country house\" (for the city of Paris did not yet extend this far) to house his fabulous collection of great masters paintings. To this end, he hired the architect \u00c9tienne-Louis Boull\u00e9e to make substantial alterations to the buildings (as well as design an English-style garden). Soon on display there were such well-known masterpieces as Holbein's The Ambassadors (now in the National Gallery in London), and Frans Hals' Bohemian (now at the Louvre). His architectural alterations and art galleries gave this residence international renown as \"one of the premier houses of Paris\".\n\nRoyal and imperial palace\n\nThe palace and gardens were purchased from Beaujon by Bathilde d'Orl\u00e9ans, Duchess of Bourbon in 1787 for 1,300,000 livres. It was the Duchess who named it the \u00c9lys\u00e9e.  She also built a group of cottages in the gardens which she named the Hameau de Chantilly, after the Hameau at her father-in-law's Ch\u00e2teau de Chantilly.  With the French Revolution, the Duchess fled the country and the \u00c9lys\u00e9e was confiscated and leased out. The gardens were used for eating, drinking, and dancing, under the name Hameau de Chantilly, and the rooms became gambling houses.\n\nThe \u00c9lys\u00e9e was sold in 1805 to Joachim and Caroline Murat, who administered major renovations that made the building more grand and \"imperial\". Later, the house was transferred to Caroline's brother, Emperor Napoleon, in 1808; it became known as the \u00c9lys\u00e9e-Napol\u00e9on. After the Battle of Waterloo, Napol\u00e9on returned to the \u00c9lys\u00e9e and signed his abdication there on 22 June 1815. He left the \u00c9lys\u00e9e three days later.\n\nRussian Cossacks camped at the \u00c9lys\u00e9e when they occupied Paris in 1814. The property was then returned to its previous owner, the Duchesse de Bourbon, who then sold it to her royal cousin, Louis XVIII, in 1816. Between 1820 and 1848, the palace was primarily used to host guests of the royal family.\n\nPresidential residence\n\nFollowing the French Revolution of 1848 and the abdication of Louis Philippe I, the provisional government of the Second Republic took over the palace. It was initially used to host musical performances and lectures before being renamed the \u00c9lys\u00e9e National and designated as the official residence of the President of the Republic under the administration of Louis-Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte. The President also has the use of other official residences, including the Ch\u00e2teau de Rambouillet, forty-five kilometres southwest of Paris, as well as the Fort de Br\u00e9gan\u00e7on near Toulon.\n\nIn 1853, following his coup d'\u00e9tat that ended the Second Republic, Louis-Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte, now Napoleon III, tasked architect  with renovations; meanwhile he moved to the nearby Tuileries Palace, but kept the \u00c9lys\u00e9e as a discreet place to meet his mistresses, moving between the two palaces through a secret underground passage that has since been demolished. Since Lacroix completed his work in 1867, the essential look of the Palais de l'\u00c9lys\u00e9e has remained the same.\n\nIn 1873, under the Third Republic, the \u00c9lys\u00e9e became the official presidential residence. In 1899, F\u00e9lix Faure became the only officeholder to die in the palace.\n\nIn 1917, a chimpanzee escaped from a nearby m\u00e9nagerie, entered the palace and was said to have tried to haul the wife of President Raymond Poincar\u00e9 into a tree only to be foiled by \u00c9lys\u00e9e guards. President Paul Deschanel, who resigned in 1920 because of mental illness, was said to have been so impressed by the chimpanzee's feat that, to the alarm of his guests, he took to jumping into trees during state receptions.\n\nThe \u00c9lys\u00e9e Palace was closed in June 1940 and remained empty during World War II. It was reoccupied only in 1946 by Vincent Auriol, President of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, then first President of the Fourth Republic from 1947 to 1954. From 1959 to 1969, the \u00c9lys\u00e9e was occupied by Charles de Gaulle, the first President of the Fifth Republic. De Gaulle did not like its lack of privacy and oversaw the purchase of the luxurious H\u00f4tel de Marigny to lodge foreign state officials in visits to France, saying, \"I do not like the idea of meeting Kings walking around my corridors in their pyjamas.\"\n\nIn the 1970s, President Georges Pompidou had some of the original rooms in the palace redesigned by Pierre Paulin in the modern style, of which only the Salle \u00e0 Manger Paulin survives.\n\nSocialist President Fran\u00e7ois Mitterrand, who governed from 1981 to 1995, is said to have seldom used its private apartments, preferring the privacy of his own home on the more bohemian Rive Gauche. A discreet flat in the nearby presidential annexe Palais de l'Alma housed his mistress Anne Pingeot, mother of his illegitimate daughter Mazarine Pingeot.\n\nBy contrast, his successor Jacques Chirac lived throughout his two terms in office (1995\u20132007) in the \u00c9lys\u00e9e apartments with his wife Bernadette. Chirac increased the Palace's budget by 105% to 90 million euros per year, according to the book L'argent cach\u00e9 de l'\u00c9lys\u00e9e. One million euros per year is spent on drinks alone for the guests invited to the \u00c9lys\u00e9e Palace, 6.9 million euros per year on bonuses for presidential staff and 6.1 million euros per year on the 145 extra employees Chirac hired after he was elected in 1995.\n\nThe \u00c9lys\u00e9e has gardens, in which presidents hosted parties on the afternoon of Bastille Day until 2010. That year, then-President Nicolas Sarkozy decided to stop organising this event because of France's high debt and the economic crisis.\n\nEmmanuel Macron, the President of France since 2017, currently resides at the palace.\n\nDescription\n\nThe heavily guarded mansion and grounds are situated at 55 Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honor\u00e9 at its intersection with . A monumental gate with four Ionic order columns, flanked by walls topped by a balustrade, opens onto a large rounded courtyard. The majestic ceremonial courtyard imparts a degree of grandeur to the house. The main residence is constructed in the French neo-classical style.  An entrance vestibule is aligned with the ceremonial courtyard and gardens. There is a long central building, a great \u2013 or state \u2013 apartment divided in the middle by a large salon that opens into the garden. This building also has a central three-storey section, and two single-floor wings: the Appartement des Bains to the right, and the Petit Appartement (private apartments) to the left. The French-style garden has a central path aligned with the central building, patterned flowerbeds and alleys of chestnut trees edged with hedgerows.\n\nGround floor \n\nThe Vestibule d'Honneur (Hall of Honour) is the room which the main entrance to the palace leads into.  In this room the President of France meets visiting officials, world leaders and spiritual leaders.\n\nThe Salon d'Argent (Silver Room), in the east wing of the palace, was decorated by Caroline Murat, wife of Joachim Murat and sister of Napoleon I. The room is so called because of the silver coloured edges to the wall features, mantelpieces, tables, sofas, and armchairs, of which the last have swan sculptures at the sides. Three notable historical events happened in this room. On 22 June 1815, Napoleon formally signed his abdication warrant after losing the Battle of Waterloo that year; on 2 December 1851 Louis-Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte launched his coup d'\u00e9tat; and in 1899, President F\u00e9lix Faure met his mistress, Marguerite Steinheil.\n\nThe Salle \u00e0 Manger Paulin (Paulin Dining Room), named after its architect, Pierre Paulin, is a complete contrast to most of the other rooms in the palace.  It was designed as a private dining room for President Georges Pompidou and his wife Claude, and the interior and furniture date from the 1970s.  The walls are made of 22 polyester panels, the chairs have a single leg attached to a round base, and the round table is made of glass.  The room is lit by roof panels decorated with glass balls and rods.\n\nThe Salon des Portraits (Portrait Room) was used by the Emperor Napoleon III for portrait medallions of the most important sovereigns of the time, replacing earlier portraits of the Bonaparte family installed by Joachim Murat. The portraits are of: Pope Pius IX, Emperor Franz Josef I of Austria-Hungary, Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, King Frederick William IV of Prussia, Queen Isabel II of Spain, and King William I of W\u00fcrttemberg.  Previously a dining room, President Nicolas Sarkozy used the room as his second office.\n\nThe Salle des F\u00eates (Hall of Festivities) dominates the west wing of the palace. It was designed by  and opened on 10 May 1889 by the then President, Sadi Carnot, to coincide with the Exposition Universelle that year. The room has paintings on the ceiling called \"La R\u00e9publique sauvegarde la Paix\" (The Republic Safeguards Peace), painted by Guillaume Dubufe in 1894. There are also six Gobelins tapestries in the room, which is predominantly laid out in red and gold decor. In 1984 President Fran\u00e7ois Mitterrand added ten windows to the room to let in more light. It is in this room that all French Presidents are inaugurated, and where they host official conferences and banquets.\n\nThe Jardins d'Hiver (Winter Gardens) was built in 1883 as a greenhouse for growing plants. Today it is no longer used for this purpose, being instead an extension of the Salon des F\u00eates, and used for official banquets. There is a Gobelins tapestry on the wall, and three chandeliers hang from the ceiling.\n\nThe Salon Murat (Murat Room) is used every Wednesday by the President for meetings with the Prime Minister and the rest of the Government of France, along with the presidential secretary, known as the \"Secretary-General of the \u00c9lys\u00e9e\". It was also in this room that Konrad Adenauer, Chancellor of Germany, signed the \u00c9lys\u00e9e Treaty in 1963.\n\nThe Salon Cl\u00e9op\u00e2tre (Cleopatra Room) gets its name from a Gobelins tapestry on the wall, installed during the presidency of Sadi Carnot, which depicts Antony and Cleopatra meeting at Tarsus. Also in the room is a portrait of Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma, painted by Alexandre Roslin.\n\nThe Salon des Ambassadeurs (Ambassadors' Room) is where the French President officially receives ambassadors from abroad.\n\nThe Salon Bleu (Blue Room) is used as the office of the First Lady of France.\n\nThe Escalier Murat (Murat Staircase) is the main staircase in the palace, linking the ground and first floors.\n\nFirst floor\nThe Salon Dor\u00e9 (Golden Room) is named after the gold coloured edges to the wall features, doors, tables, and chairs. All the French Presidents have used this room as their main study except Val\u00e9ry Giscard d'Estaing and Emmanuel Macron.\n\nThe Salon Vert (Green Room) is named after the green curtains and chair covers (the doors, chairs, tables, and wall features have gold edges). The room is used for reunions, and it was here that Nicolas Sarkozy married his second wife, Carla Bruni, during his presidency.\n\nThe Salon Angle (Angle Room) is a former dining room that has been the office of the Secretary-General of the \u00c9lys\u00e9e since 2007.\n\nThe Salon de Foug\u00e8res (Flower Room) is named because it has floral patterned wallpaper. In the room is a portrait of King Louis XV, painted by Charles-Andr\u00e9 van Loo.\n\nThe Ancienne Chambre de la Reine and the Ancienne Chambre du Roi were the bedrooms of the former Kings and Queens of France. The latter room was formerly used as the office of the Secretary-General before he moved it to the Salon Angle.\n\nSix other rooms on the first floor, in the east wing, are the President's private living quarters.\n\nSee also\nH\u00f4tel Matignon (official residence of the Prime Minister of France)\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n Ren\u00e9 Dosi\u00e8re, L'argent cach\u00e9 de l'\u00c9lys\u00e9e, Seuil, 2007\n\nExternal links\n\n Official website\n\nBuildings and structures in the 8th arrondissement of Paris\nGovernment of France\nOfficial residences in France\nElys\u00e9e\nPalaces in Paris\nPresidential residences\nHouses completed in 1722\n1722 establishments in France\nJoachim Murat\nMadame de Pompadour\nLouis XVIII","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":160,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":5,"2023-23":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":3}},"id":320314,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%89lys%C3%A9e%20Palace","title":"\u00c9lys\u00e9e Palace","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"There are different definitions of price. Perhaps the simplest definition is to say \"price is the value of a product (good) or service\". A price is expressed in other goods, services, or in money.\n\nHere is an example about price: Peter raises sheep for their wool. Sally raises chickens for their eggs. Winter is coming, so Sally wants to make a warm wool coat.\nShe first measures how much wool she needs for a coat. She thinks she needs the wool from 2 sheep for the coat. She then goes to Peter and asks him what he wants for the wool she needs. Peter then tells her the price he is asking for his wool. Sally might trade some of her chicken eggs for the wool.\n\nSometimes trading eggs for wool is difficult. So people invented something they called money. This is cash or currency used for trading.\n\nIf Peter does not need eggs, he will not trade his wool for eggs. The price for his wool in eggs is zero, but Peter does need something else. So Sally goes to a market and sells some of her eggs for money. Then she goes to Peter and gives him money for the wool. How much money Peter wants for his wool is the price.\n\nBasic English 850 words\nCommerce","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":21425,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Price","title":"Price","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A talk show is a radio or television program where one or more hosts discuss current issues or other topics with guests. Many talk shows (especially those on radio) allow members of the public to join in, through telephone calls, letters, e-mail and Internet chat. Talk shows are often meant to entertain, and many feature comedy or  performing. Many shows, though, do a , by informing the public and discussing issues openly. While some are locally based, and serve only one station's audience, others become  and play on many stations, or are broadcast by a regional or national network.\n\nThe host of a talk show may already be a celebrity, or may become one as their show becomes popular. Some are professionals or experts in a field of knowledge, such as psychology or business. Others are well-known performers who can converse well with others. Guests on a talk show may also be experts in a field of knowledge or work, longtime professionals, or new and familiar celebrities, performers or athletes. Sometimes guests are members of the public who do something that interests others, such as inventors and authors, or someone who comes to public attention through a disaster or mishap.\n\nTelevision \nJohnny Carson hosted NBC's The Tonight Show for thirty years, with guests from every walk of life, including many old and new celebrities. (Comedian Jay Leno took over The Tonight Show when Carson retired.) Singer Mike Douglas hosted a popular, long-running show, co-hosted by weekly guests. Merv Griffin, David Frost and Dick Cavett also had long-running talk shows. Dr. Joyce Brothers was one of the first women to host a national talk show. Other women followed as hosts, including Oprah Winfrey, Joan Rivers, Ricki Lake, Rosie O'Donnell, and Ellen DeGeneres.\n\nMany celebrities host a talk show after they finish work on a television series, to change the direction of their career or to promote things they think are important. Many such series last only a season or two, and some even less. Actresses Gabrielle Carteris, Caroline Rhea and Megan Mullally each hosted short-lived talk shows, after leaving successful series. Nearly every show aired at the same time as The Tonight Show has been cancelled after a short run, including shows hosted by Chevy Chase and Dennis Miller. Arsenio Hall came close, with a show lasting five seasons. Late Show with David Letterman has been the most successful, and is still airing. (Ironically, David Letterman was a hopeful to take over The Tonight Show from Carson when he retired in 1992.)\n\nRadio \nTalk shows became more and more popular on  from the 1970s onward, as AM stations began to play less music. Today talk shows are heard on AM, FM, and also  radio stations, , and the Internet. Larry King began his career on radio, and \"crossed over\" to television after many years as a popular host. Howard Stern led the trend of \"\", using profanity and personal topics to make his show more exciting. Art Bell talked about controversial topics, like UFOs and possible government conspiracies.\n\nCall-in shows are meant especially for members of the public to join in, by telephone. Callers may wish to talk about current topics in politics, economics or social trends, or to seek advice, or help with a personal problem. Dr. Laura Schlesinger, Dr. Joy Browne, and Bruce Williams help callers with problems, while Michael Savage and many other hosts discuss current issues, on their radio shows.\n\nTelevision programs\nRadio","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":64045,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Talk%20show","title":"Talk show","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A diocese is an area of land under the charge of a bishop. He looks after the religious needs of the Christians who live there. The bishop organises the work of the Church in the area, and is responsible for all the\u00a0ministers\u00a0(priests) in his area. Another word for diocese is\u00a0see, or even 'episcopal see'.\n\nThe diocese is the key geographical unit of religious authority in the church. Archbishops have an archdiocese. Inside each diocese are a number of parishes. Each parish is the area supervised by a local priest, and is part of the diocese.\n\nHistory \nAs the Western Roman Empire fell during the 5th and 6th centuries the bishops of the Church took over many of the administrative roles of the former Roman prefects. The areas of ecclesiastical administration always coincided with those of the Roman civil administration. \n\nA thousand years later, the Ottoman Empire conquered the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire. The eastern bishops then continued as the Roman civil structure was stripped away. Many an ancient diocese, though later divided among several dioceses, preserved the boundaries of a long-vanished Roman administrative division.\n\nOther websites\n\nChristian terminology\nChurch organization","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":260259,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diocese","title":"Diocese","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Missouri River is a river in the western United States. It is a tributary of the Mississippi River. It is longer than the Mississippi River. It is, in fact, the longest river in North America.\n\nGeography\n\nFor most of its course, the Missouri flows across the Great Plains, one of the driest parts of North America.\n\nThe source of the Missouri River is in the Rocky Mountains, in the state of Montana. The Missouri flows eastward, across Montana, south of the border with Canada. It enters the state of North Dakota and then it turns south. It flows through South Dakota. Then it flows past Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, and Kansas.\n\nNear the city of Kansas City, Missouri, the Missouri turns eastward into the state of Missouri. It flows eastward across the state of Missouri. It joins the Mississippi just north of the city of Saint Louis, Missouri.\n\nThe Missouri has many important tributaries, including the Yellowstone River, the Platte River, and the Kansas River.\n\nHistory\n\nThe Missouri was very important for the Native Americans who lived on the Great Plains. It was also very important in the history of the United States. The Missouri was used as the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1804-1806. In the 19th century, the Missouri was very important in the North American fur trade and for transportation of army troops and supplies as well as general transportation and trade as the West was settled.\n\nNicknames\n\nThe nickname of the Missouri is \"Big Muddy\", because it has a lot of silt.\n\nRivers of Montana\nRivers of Missouri\nRivers of Iowa\nRivers of Kansas\nRivers of Nebraska\nRivers of South Dakota\nRivers of North Dakota","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":3351,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Missouri%20River","title":"Missouri River","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Eastern Catholic Churches are autocephalous Christian churches. They recognize the Bishop of Rome as their spiritual leader, like other Catholics.They differ on ideas as how a mass should be organised, or which prayers are more important than others. \n\nIn total there are 23 such churches, the probably best known are listed below:\n\n Coptic Catholic Church\n Maronite Church\n Armenian Catholic Church\n Chaldean Catholic Church\n Syro-Malabar Catholic Church\n Syro-Malankara Catholic Church\n\nRelated pages \n\n Eastern Christianity\n\nOther websites\n\nGeneral\n Orientale Lumen - Apostolic Letter of Pope John Paul II on the Eastern Churches\n Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium - original text of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, with concordance\n Code of canons of the Oriental Churchs - defective English translation, with concordance\n Instruction for Applying the Liturgical Prescriptions of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches  - Instruction by Congregation for the Eastern Churches\n What All Catholics Should Know About Eastern Catholic Churches \n Eastern Catholics in the United States of America - adapted from a similar publication by the Australian Catholic Bishops' Conference\n\nIndividual Churches\n Melkite Greek Catholic Patriarchate \u2014Official Website\n Maronite Patriarchate \u2014Official Website\n Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church \u2014Official Website\n Syro Malankara Catholic Church International Homepage \u2014Official Website\n Syro-Malankara Catholic Church\n Byzantine Catholic Church in America\u2014Information and Messageboards\n Byzantine Catholic Archeparchy of Pittsburgh\u2014Official Website","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":158,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":61206,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eastern%20Catholic%20churches","title":"Eastern Catholic churches","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Plankton are drifting organisms that live in the surface layers of the ocean. They live in the top layer of the ocean, called the epipelagic zone. They are not strong enough to swim against ocean currents. The term is in contrast to nekton, who can control their movements. There are three groups:\n Phytoplankton: which live at the surface of the ocean and photosynthesise (use light to make sugars and other molecules). \n Eukaryote algae: diatoms, coccolithophores, some dinoflagellates.\n Bacteria: cyanobacteria.\n Zooplankton: small protozoans or metazoans: Ctenophores; jellyfish; rotifers; foraminifera; tiny crustacea and other animals. Some eggs and larvae of larger animals such as fish, crustaceans, and annelids. Apart from the eggs, they all feed on other plankton. \n Some groups fall into both categories. Dinoflagellates can be either photosynthetic producers or heterotroph consumers; many species are mixotrophic depending upon their circumstances. It is also hard to fit viruses into this scheme; yet they are present in great numbers.\n\nPlankton are important in the ocean's food chain. They are the main source of food for almost all fish larvae as they switch from their yolk sacs to catching prey. Basking sharks and blue whales feed on them directly; other large fish feed on them indirectly, by eating fish of smaller size, such as herrings.\n\nThe distribution of plankton is governed more by nutrients than by temperature. Large tracts of ocean are blue and sterile. The reason is that these areas lack one or more crucial nutrients for the photosynthetic plankton, upon whom all the others depend. Broadly speaking, areas near land masses get nutrients by rivers and wind. The key nutrient lacking in the Pacific ocean is iron, essential in molecules such as ferredoxins, iron-sulfur proteins which do electron transfer in a range of metabolic reactions.\n\nReferences \n\nBiological oceanography","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":160,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":4,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":33466,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plankton","title":"Plankton","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The bar (symbol bar), decibar (symbol dbar) and the millibar (symbol mbar, also mb) are units of pressure. They are not SI units, but they are anyhow also used with (although discouraged) for use with the SI. The bar is still used in descriptions of pressure because it is about the same as atmospheric pressure.\n\nTerms \nThe bar, decibar and millibar are known as:\n 1 bar = 100,000 pascals (Pa) = 1,000,000 dynes per square centimeter (baryes)\n 1 dbar = 0.1 bar = 10,000 Pa = 100,000 dyn\/cm\u00b2\n 1 mbar = 0.001 bar = 100 Pa = 1,000 dyn\/cm\u00b2\n\n(A pascal is one newton per square meter.)\n\nOrigin \nThe word bar has its origin in the Greek word \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (baros), meaning weight. Its official symbol is \"bar\"; the earlier \"b\" is now no longer used, but still often seen especially as \"mb\" rather than the correct \"mbar\" for millibars.\n\nThe bar and millibar were defined by Sir Napier Shaw in 1909 and internationally used in 1929.\n\nOther websites \nOfficial SI website: Table 8. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI \nConversion factors from bar to various pressure units\n\nUnits of pressure","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":64785,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bar%20%28unit%29","title":"Bar (unit)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Singer is a person who sings with their voice. Anyone who is singing is a singer. Some people do it as a job (professional singer), others may sing without being paid (amateur singer). Singers may sing anything: songs, opera, etc. They may be accompanied by an instrument or an orchestra. Some singers also play a musical instrument such as piano, guitar or harp while they sing (they accompany themselves). Singing is important in movies and in the theatre.\n\nThe lead vocalist (or lead singer) is the member of a band who sings the main solo vocal portions of a song. The lead vocalist may also play one or more instruments, and is usually the \"leader\" of their group, often the spokesperson in interviews and before the public. The lead vocalist is sometimes referred to as the frontman. For example, Jerry Garcia was the lead singer and frontman for the Grateful Dead.\n\nQualities \nA good singer will have to think of a lot of different things in a performance. Some attributes of singing skill are good vocal technique, a large vocal range, as well as feeling the song through emotional language and breathing, and also acting to provide a song with meaning. A good singer may be able to learn a song quickly, but it may take some time before they really feel it has become \"part of them.\" A lead singer has to be a strong singer since background vocalists sing accompaniment.\n\nMongolian throat singing has become popular because due to its geographic location and culture. The open landscape of Tuva allows for the sounds to carry a great distance.\n\nSingers can sing as a solo, or in a group or a choir. Choirs can include gospel music, church music and even pop songs where there are usually two male groups of singers (bass and tenor) and two female groups of singers (soprano and alto). Sopranos have a higher range and altos have a lower range. Combining these two can create various harmonies which add textures to songs and make them more interesting to listen to.\n\nPeople may feel like singing for various reasons. They may want to share their feelings with other people. They may be feeling happy about something, or sad, or excited, frustrated or angry. Singing is an art in which mood is expressed through the voice.\n\nNotable singers\n taylor swift\n beyonce\n Adele\n Rihanna\n Billie Eilish\n Justin Bieber\n Freddie Mercury\n Michael Jackson\n Kanye West\n Ariana Grande\n\nRelated pages\n Singing\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n What It Takes to Become a Professional Singer\n\n \nEntertainment occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":145,"dup_dump_count":48,"dup_details":{"2024-30":4,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":7,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":8,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":6,"2022-27":5,"2022-21":8,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":6,"2021-21":9,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":6,"2021-04":8,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1}},"id":15324,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Singer","title":"Singer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A suicide attack is an attack where the attacker (either one person or a group of people) plans on killing people and\/or destroying property while also dying in the process. In a suicide attack, the attacker dies as a result of the attack, for example in an explosion or a crash.\n\nNowadays, suicide attacks are often done with a vehicle or an explosive material such as a bomb (a suicide bombing), or sometimes both (i.e. a car filled with explosives). If everything goes according to plan, the attacker is killed as soon as their attack is complete (when their vehicle crashes or their bomb detonates).\n\nSuicide attacks are often done in a crowded place so that as many people as possible are killed. They are common in the Middle East and South Asia. Most attacks on Israel, carried out by Hamas or other Palestinian terrorist groups are suicide bombings. The kamikaze were suicide attacks by Japanese pilots during World War II.\n\nSuicide attacks","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":21765,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Suicide%20attack","title":"Suicide attack","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An athletic shoe is a name for a shoe designed for sporting and physical activities, and is different in style and build than a dress shoe. Originally used mainly during sports, today they are worn as casual footwear. They are often very comfortable and usually have lots of padding.\n\nAthletic shoes, depending on the location and the actual type of footwear, can also go by the name trainers (British English), sandshoes (Australian English) running shoes or runners (Canadian English, Australian English, Hiberno-English), sneakers (American English, Australian English), sport shoes, gym shoes, tennis shoes, tennies, sneaks, kicks (American English), takkies (South African English).\n\nThey are made of flexible kinds of material featuring soles made from rubber and an upper part made with leather or canvas. Sneakers were originally for sporting use, although today they are used as casual footwear. They are worn in school for their versatility and comfort. They are almost silent; somebody wearing sneakers can sneak up on another person. They are worn for many different types of sports.\n\nImages\n\nOther websites\n\nFootwear\nSports clothing","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":477,"dup_dump_count":48,"dup_details":{"2024-18":16,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2024-30":7,"2024-26":16,"2024-22":18,"2024-10":5,"2023-50":36,"2023-40":6,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":7,"2022-49":35,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":28,"2022-27":17,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":16,"2021-39":14,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":20,"2021-21":7,"2021-17":47,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":17,"2019-30":29,"2019-26":3,"2019-13":47,"2019-04":48,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1}},"id":73841,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Athletic%20shoe","title":"Athletic shoe","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An oath (from Anglo-Saxon \u0101\u00f0) is a promise. An oath is spoken out loud in front of other people who can see and hear what is done and said. They are witnesses to the oath. A person who cannot speak can make a sign that they are \"taking an oath\".  Another way of saying that a person is \"taking an oath\" is to say that they are \"swearing an oath\".  \n\nA person can say \"I promise that I will do this...\" or \"I swear that I will do this...\" \n\nWhen a person swears an oath they often show that the oath is very important to them by calling God to see and remember the promise, and to show that the promise is true, and cannot be taken back later. When a person takes an oath they sometimes raise their right hand, or put their hand on their heart, on the Bible or on another holy book.\n\nOaths are used in many situations when a person needs to be true to what they say: \nA person often swears an oath when they get married that they will love, care for and be true to their partner.\nA person is often asked to take an \"oath\" that they will tell the truth in court.\nA person who has an important position like mayor or governor swears an oath that they will serve their people and country.\nWhen a person becomes a citizen of a country where they were not born, they take an \"oath of allegiance\" and promise that they will be a good and true citizen of their new country.\n\nOther meanings\nThe word \"oath\" is often used to mean any angry expression which includes religious or other strong language and promises that the person will do something horrible.\n\nRelated pages\n Confirmation \n Society\n Institution\n Contract\n Law\n Government\n\nOther websites \n \n\n Courtroom oaths  from the North Dakota Supreme Court adding social workers to oath for their state it's there responsibility website (jury oath, witness oath and so on)\nAustralasian Police Multicultural Advisory Bureau  has several publications for Australia dealing with multi-faith issues and A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police and Emergency Services  covers oaths as well as many other topics (in review as of 12\/2\/2006) but the 2nd Edition is available.\nNorth Carolina faith leaders supporting Quran oath \nfor comments about John Quincy Adams' Oath of Office.\n\nSociety","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":57102,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oath","title":"Oath","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Golden Raspberry Awards or Razzies, first awarded in 1981, were made by John J. B. Wilson in 1980, with the goal of being the opposite of the Academy Awards by dishonoring the worst movies. It is usually a plastic raspberry spray-painted gold and mounted on a plastic base, however Bill Cosby accepted a custom-made one made out of 24 carat (99.99%) gold and Italian marble.\n\nToday, awards are voted by the membership of the \"Golden Raspberry Award Foundation\" (GRAF), and anyone can become a member of the foundation, something that does not happen with the Academy Awards. Usually, nominations are made public one day before the Motion Picture Academy says its Oscar nominations, and the awards are presented one day before the Oscar ceremony.\n\nThe term \"raspberry\" is used as a joke, as in \"blowing a raspberry.\"\n\nMovie awards","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-10":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":64981,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Golden%20Raspberry%20Awards","title":"Golden Raspberry Awards","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Forensic science (or forensics) is when science works to answer questions a lawyer might ask. \n\nMost often, forensics is about proving that someone was present at a place where a crime was committed. Specialists take samples which are later analyzed in a laboratory. Most forensic tests can take from 1 hour to one year, and investigators need to double (and triple) check the answer, so they know that the answer is the right answer. If a forensics team made a mistake the wrong person could be jailed, or they could get into trouble themselves.\n\nSamples commonly taken include fingerprints. People also look for other things that could be used, for example a few hairs (or pieces of skin) and autopsy if dead. Samples like hair or skin can be use for DNA testing, which allows to tell the gender of the person the hair is from, amongst others. \n\nWhen someone is accused of committing the crime, these pieces of evidence can then be matched up. Then, if they are correct, the person is charged.\n\nSubdivisions \n Forensic accounting is the study and interpretation of accounting evidence\n Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology in a legal setting, usually for the recovery and identification of skeletonized human remains.\n Forensic archaeology is the application of a combination of archaeological techniques and forensic science, typically in law enforcement.\n Computational forensics concerns the development of algorithms and software to assist forensic examination.\n Criminalistics applies various sciences to answer questions relating to examination and comparison of biological evidence, trace evidence, impression evidence (such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tire tracks), controlled substances, ballistics, firearm and toolmark examination, and other evidence in criminal investigations. In typical circumstances evidence is processed in a crime lab.  \n Forensic dactyloscopy is the study of fingerprints.\n Digital forensics is the application of proven scientific methods and techniques in order to recover data from electronic \/ digital media.  Digital Forensic specialists work in the field as well as in the lab. \n Forensic document examination or questioned document examination answers questions about a disputed document using a variety of scientific processes and methods. Many examinations involve a comparison of the questioned document, or components of the document, with a set of known standards. The most common type of examination involves handwriting, whereby the examiner tries to address concerns about potential authorship.\n Forensic DNA analysis takes advantage of the uniqueness of an individual's DNA to answer forensic questions such as paternity\/maternity testing and placing a suspect at a crime scene, e.g. in a rape investigation.      \n Forensic engineering is the scientific examination and analysis of structures and products relating to their failure or cause of damage. \n Forensic linguistics deals with issues in the legal system that requires linguistic expertise.\n Forensic pathology applies the medical methods and principles of pathology, including autopsy, to determine a cause of death or injury in the context of a legal inquiry. \n Forensic psychology is the study of the mind of an individual, using forensic methods. Usually it determines the circumstances behind a criminal's behavior. \n Forensic toxicology is the study of the effect of drugs and poisons on\/in the human body.\n Forensic Podiatry is an application of the study of feet footprint or footwear and their traces to analyze scene of crime and to establish personal identity in forensic examinations.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":116179,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic%20science","title":"Forensic science","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A micro-organism or microbe is an organism which is microscopic, which means so small that people cannot see them with the naked eye. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology. \n\nMicro-organisms include bacteria, fungi, archaea, protists and viruses, and are among the earliest known life forms. The first of these four types of micro-organisms may either be free-living or parasitic. Viruses can only be parasitic, since they always reproduce inside other living things. \n\nMost micro-organisms are unicellular organisms with only one cell, but there are unicellular protists that are visible to the human eye, and some multicellular species are microscopic.\n\nMicro-organisms live almost everywhere on earth where there is liquid water, including hot springs on the ocean floor and deep inside rocks within the earth's crust. Such habitats are lived in by extremophiles.\n\nMicro-organisms are critical to nutrient recycling in ecosystems, because they act as decomposers.  Because some micro-organisms can also take nitrogen out of the air, they are an important part of the nitrogen cycle. Pathogenic, or harmful, microbes can invade other organisms and cause disease.\n\nFree-living micro-organisms \nFree-living microbes get their energy in many different ways. Some use photosynthesis, like plants do. Some break down natural chemicals in their environment. Others feed on things that were once living, such as fallen leaves and dead animals, causing them to breakdown or decay. Some fungi and bacteria cause food to decay. Moldy bread or fruit, sour milk, and rotten meat are examples of decayed food. In nature, decayed materials mix with soil, providing essential nutrients for plants to use. Without this process, the nutrients in the soil would run out. These types of organisms are called decomposers. They are the natural recyclers of living things on our planet.\n\nMicrobes also help us make some of our foods, such as bread, cheese, yogurt, beer, and wine. They feed on the sugar in grain, fruit, or milk, giving these foods a special texture and taste.\n\nParasitic microbes \nSome microbes, often called germs, cause illness or disease. They are parasites which live by invading living things. Chickenpox, mumps, and measles are all caused by viruses. Some bacteria are also germs. They cause many infectious diseases including tuberculosis and tetanus. Certain bacteria cause tooth decay. It is possible to protect humans against some harmful microbes by storing and preparing food properly, cleaning the teeth, washing hands, and by avoiding close contact with ill people.\n\nComensalism \nAll animals seem to have bacteria and protozoa living in or on them without doing much harm. Sometimes, as with herbivores, the microorganisms are vital to the digestion of food. The human gut has more organisms living inside it than there are cells in the human body.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Microbe News from Genome News Network\n BBC News, 28 September, 2001: The microbes that 'rule the world' Citat: \"... The Earth's climate may be dependent upon microbes that eat rock beneath the sea floor, according to new research....The number of the worm-like tracks in the rocks diminishes with depth; at 300 metres (985 feet) below the sea floor, they become much rarer...\"\n BBCNews: 16 January, 2002, Tough bugs point to life on Mars Citat: \"...This research demonstrates that certain microbes can thrive in the absence of sunlight by using hydrogen gas...\"\n BBCNews: 17 January, 2002, Alien life could be like Antarctic bugs\n Microbiology \n  Microbe fixes nitrogen at a blistering 92 C \n\nMicrobiology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":202,"dup_dump_count":97,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":6,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":5,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":6,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":6,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":6,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":46120,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microorganism","title":"Microorganism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a wall that separated the city of Berlin in Germany from 1961 to 1989. It separated the eastern half from the western half. Many people believed it was a symbol of the Cold War. The Berlin Wall was taken down on November 9, 1989. The Berlin Wall was about  long. It was built to prevent people from escaping from the eastern half of Berlin.\n\nDivision of Germany \n\nAfter World War II ended, Germany was divided into four zones, one zone for each of the main Allied countries: France, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union. Its capital Berlin was also divided into four zones, so that it was an enclave, like an island inside the Soviet zone. On May 8, 1949, the French, United Kingdom and US zones were made into West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany, Bundesrepublik Deutschland, BRD) and West Berlin. The Soviet zones were made into East Germany and East Berlin. East Germany (German Democratic Republic, Deutsche Demokratische Republik, DDR) was founded on October 7, 1949. Europe, Germany and Berlin were divided by an iron curtain.\n\nWhat led to the building of the wall \n\nAfter Germany split into West and East Germany on May 8, 1949, 2.6 million East Germans left to go to West Germany. In Berlin alone, 3.6 million people fled to the west. To stop this, on August 13, 1961, the Communist government of East Germany built a wall separating East and West Berlin.\n\nThe wall was built to keep the country's people in. But the Soviets and East German government said it was to keep capitalism out. They said that West Germany refused to recognize East Germany as an independent country because they wanted to take over North-East Germany just like Hitler took over Poland.\n\nPeople still tried to escape even though the Berlin Wall was there. They used many methods to get around the guards and barbed wire on the Berlin Wall.\n\nIn the late 1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev said that the Soviet Union would not use the Red Army to stop the people of Eastern and Middle Europe from changing their government. After he said that, several countries began to change the way they governed their people. Hungary opened its border and people from East Germany began moving to the west through Hungary. In October 1989 mass demonstrations against the government in East Germany began. The long-time leader, Erich Honecker, resigned and was replaced by Egon Krenz a few days later. Honecker had predicted in January 1989 that the wall would stand for a \"hundred more years\" if the conditions which had caused its construction did not change. This did not turn out to be true.\n\nIn November, 1989, the Central Committee of East Germany decided to make it easier for East Germans to pass through the wall. A mistake by the press officer meant the border was opened several hours before it should have been. Millions of East German citizens celebrated the opening of the wall. Many collected souvenirs with chisels and some television stations filmed people hitting the wall with sledge hammers.\n\nThis image of people in West Berlin hitting the wall is often said to be East Berliners breaking out. This is not true. The eastern side of the wall had no graffiti on it. All pictures of people chipping away at the wall show people hitting graffiti covered walls. Less than one year after the Berlin Wall was broken down, Germany again became one country.\n\nDeath toll \nIn the 28 years of its existence, between 125 and 206 people were killed when trying to cross the Berlin Wall. At least 800 more people were killed outside Berlin, trying to cross from East Germany to the west.\n\nThe East Germans did not record all of the deaths, so the real number of how many people died may never be known.\n\nThose people who were caught alive in an attempt to flee, had to go to jail for at least five years. The first victim of the Wall was Ida Siekmann. She was fatally injured after jumping out of the window of her apartment. She fell onto the pavement on the west side. The first victim of the Wall to be shot at was G\u00fcnter Litfin. He was 24 years old and was shot by police, near the railway station of Berlin Friedrichstrasse, when he tried to get into the West. This was on 24 August, 1961, only eleven days after the border had been closed.\n\nPeter Fechter bled to death in the death strip, on 17 August, 1962. This led to a public outcry. American troops watched him, but could not help him. The East-German border policemen, who had wounded him, did not help him either.\n\nIn 1966, two children, aged ten and thirteen years, were killed in the border strip. This is unusual because the East German border police had orders to not shoot on pregnant women, children or mentally ill people.\n\nOn 6 February, 1989, border guards shot and killed Chris Gueffroy as he tried to cross the wall. He was the last person to be killed by border guards. On 8 March, 1989, Winfried Freudenberg died after falling from a gas balloon. He was the last person to die trying to cross the Berlin Wall and escape into West Berlin.\n\nThe Riots of Berlin\n \nThe Berlin wall eventually started to fall once people rioted. Many jumped on top of the wall, and even crowded against it. This caused the wall to collapse in some areas, and more people could get through to the refugee camps that were set up on the other side.  \"Tear down this wall!\" was a speech made by United States President Ronald Reagan to Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev to destroy the wall. The speech was made at the Brandenburg Gate near the Berlin Wall on June 12, 1987. It was made to honor the 750th anniversary of Berlin. His speech and its fallout might have aided in the wall's demolition.\n\nFall of the Wall \nBy late 1989 the GDR was suffering from many problems such as a struggling economy, and large-scale protests. The Hungarian regime had collapsed and  was dismantling its border fences with Austria by August 1989. Since the Warsaw Pact allowed citizens to travel within the Soviet bloc, many East German tourists fled to the west via Hungary. When the Hungarian government refused the GDR's demand to stop defectors, East Germany banned all travel to Hungary; prompting demonstrations and protest. This began the GDR's isolation within the bloc.\n\nErich Honecker, leader of the GDR since 1971, was forced to resign on October 18, 1989.   He was replaced by Egon Krenz after a unanimous vote by the politburo. Under Krenz's regime, East Germans could still escape to Hungary via Czechoslovakia.\n\nThe number of defectors grew and caused tensions between East Germany and Czechoslovakia. The Krenz regime decided to allow people to leave directly to the west through border checkpoints in East Berlin. This prompted many East Germans, who learned about it through broadcasts originating from West German media, to go to the border crossings and demand to be let through immediately.\n\nBorder guards at each checkpoint told the people to go back home as they had no orders that the wall would open that night. As time passed, the number of people arriving at the checkpoint was increasing and the guards were becoming alarmed. They began taking the more aggressive people aside and stamped their passports with a special stamp that allowed them access to West Berlin however, the people were not aware that they were effectively revoking their East German citizenship and were shocked to be refused entry back into the GDR. The Chief Guard of the checkpoint frantically telephoned his superiors hoping to get answers as to why so many people thought that the wall was to open. By 22:45, it was clear that the outnumbered and overwhelmed border guards would not use their weapons to suppress the crowds. The Chief Guard surrendered and ordered the gates to West Berlin to be opened. The crowds of East Berliners were met with crowds of West Berliners in a happy scene as the Berlin wall had just fallen.\n\nMany people even climbed up onto the wall by the Brandenburg Gate in protest and began to chisel away at the wall. The GDR authorities responded to this initially by blasting the people with water cannons; this proved to be ineffective. The East German army later climbed up onto the wall to prevent others from standing on the wall. The government began demolishing the wall the next day. The fall of the wall destroyed the SED, the ruling party of the GDR, and caused many of its officials to resign. The German Democratic Republic would cease to exist less than a year later; reuniting with the Federal Republic of Germany on October 3, 1990.\n\nWhat the wall was made of \n\nThe wall was changed and added to several times. It was not really a wall, but a collection of walls and fences and other devices. This is what the border fence was made of, starting from the east, going west\n\n Concrete wall or wire fence, 2\u20133 meters high\n Signalling system in the floor, which would cause an alarm to be sounded when touched\n Contact wire fence with barbed wire fence. Taller than a man.\n (Not in all places) Kennels for dogs. With German Shepherd Dogs or other trained dogs.\n (Not in all places) Equipment and trenches to stop vehicles and tanks. These systems would be removed (if the West paid for the removal). Most were replaced later.\n Streets to get replacements and reinforcements in.\n Watchtowers (in 1989 there were 302 of them). Including searchlights\n death strip. This was an area in which all of the buildings were torn down, with nowhere to hide. Sometimes there were strips of sand where footprints could be detected.\n Metallic fence, then the border itself:\n Concrete wall, 3.75 metres in height. Very hard to climb.\n\nThe whole was done in an a zone of between 30 and 500 m wide. The official (civil border) began before the first fence. Entering the installation required a special permit. The real border was about one or two metres in front of the concrete wall, so that the whole of the wall complex was inside East Germany (only the East Berlin part of the wall was inside East Berlin).\n\nThe border between East Germany and West Germany was also heavily defended with fences and mines. East Germans needed a special permit to live close to the border.\n\nWhat is left today \n\nAfter the Reunification of Germany on October 3, 1990, the Berlin Wall was demolished and taken away. A few sections of the wall remain; some of the sections became a museum.\n Of the total of 302 watchtowers, 5 are left.\n The so-called Todesstreifen (death zone) can still be seen in many places. Some of them are large areas of brown, uncultivated land. Some are now parks.\n There is a private museum at Checkpoint Charlie.\n There is a cemetery near Checkpoint Charlie, remembering the victims of the Wall.\n\nControversies \nThe East Berlin special police who guarded the wall had the order to shoot if this was necessary to stop people fleeing. East German leaders such as Egon Krenz were arrested after German reunification because guards were ordered to shoot to kill.\n\nHowever, after the Wall was built, many people were no longer able to leave East Berlin using normal border posts. The only way they could do so was to race through the Wall or try to dig a tunnel underneath.\n\nAfter the unification of Germany, border guards who had shot people were convicted by West German Courts. The judges said, that some of the laws of the border police (about shooting) were against human rights. They therefore should have refused to shoot.\n\nThe same was of course applied to those people who had shot border police on their flight.\n\nBorder guards who did shoot, and stop someone from fleeing could get a reward of up to 500 Marks. Some of those guards were sentenced after the unification.\n\nThe other choice was to not shoot, or to miss badly. Such guards risked losing their well-paid jobs.\n\nCuriosities \n In 1988, there was a swapping of territory between East and West Berlin. Some territory, called the Lenn\u00e9 triangle (near Potsdamer Platz), was now part of the West. A few days after the swap, a group of ecology protestors fled from the western police into East Berlin, over the Wall. They were given a meal and sent back by the border guards.\n\nAnother strip of land was given to West Berlin. This strip was only the width of a road which joined West Berlin with a tiny exclave.\n\nRelated pages \n Iron Curtain\n Ich bin ein Berliner\n Tear down this wall!\n Wende\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n www.wall-berlin.org\n Berlin Wall Fotos an More (In German)\n Retracing the Berlin Wall \n Bernauer Stra\u00dfe Memorial website \n Allied Forces in Berlin (FR, UK & US Berlin Brigade)\n Photographs of time of the Fall as well as updates on the current situation in Germany\n Reports on reinforcements to Berlin Brigade\n \"Berlin 1969\" includes sections on Helmstedt-Berlin rail operations.\n Includes articles on rail transport for Berlin during the Cold War. (large files) \n Berlin 1983: Berlin and the Wall in the early 1980s  \n Berlin Life: A concise but thorough history of the wall\n\nImages and personal accounts \n Berlin Wall - Pictures Photographs \n Photos of the Berlin Wall 1989 to 1999 \n Images of the Berlin wall \n\n1961 establishments in Europe\n1990 disestablishments in Germany\n \n1960s establishments in Germany","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":22117,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Berlin%20Wall","title":"Berlin Wall","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A square mile (sometimes written mi\u00b2 ) is a British and American unit of measurement of area. It is the area inside a square that has each side equal to one statute mile (5,280 feet or 1,760 yards). This way of talking about area is often used to say how much land there is on a farm, or in a city or country, for example.\n\nOne square mile is just less than 2.6 square kilometres.\nImperial units\nUnits of area","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":4,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":19316,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Square%20mile","title":"Square mile","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Reality television is a genre of television programming which presents unscripted dramatic or humorous situations, document actual events, and have ordinary people instead of professional actors. Although reality television has existed in some form or another since the early years of television, the term \"reality television\" is most commonly used to describe shows since 2000. Documentaries, news and sports shows are not called reality shows.\n\nThere are many different kinds of reality television shows, from game or quiz shows to surveillance-type shows, such as Big Brother.\n\nCritics say that the term \"reality television\" is not accurate. Many shows portray a changed and highly influenced form of reality, with participants put in exotic locations or abnormal situations, sometimes told to act certain ways, and with events on screen sometimes changed by editing.\n\nTypes of reality television \n Documentary-style\u2014watching people do their daily personal and professional activities\n Special living environment\u2014People who did not know each other before the show must live together. They are often given tasks to complete together. Examples: The Real World, Road Rules\n Celebrity reality\u2014A celebrity living his or her normal everyday life. Examples: The Anna Nicole Show, The Osbournes. Sometimes the celebrities are given a task. Examples: The Surreal Life, The Simple Life\n Professional activities\u2014Professionals doing their day-to-day business at their jobs. Examples: COPS, Miami Ink, American Chopper\n Elimination\/Game shows\u2014Participants compete to win a prize, sometimes while living together. Example: The Amazing Race\n Dating-based competition\u2014A person chooses one person to date out of a group of suitors. Examples: The Bachelor, Temptation Island\n Job search\u2014Contestants compete to see who is the best at a certain skill. Examples: America's Next Top Model (for modeling), The Apprentice (for business skills), Hell's Kitchen\"(for cooking)\n Game shows are most numerous, and can be made quickly and cheaply in a television studio.\n Self-improvement\/make-over\u2014A person or group of people try to improve themselves or their lives. Examples: Extreme Makeover, The Biggest Loser, Supernanny, Queer Eye for the Straight Guy Home renovation\u2014Improving homes. Examples: Changing Rooms, Trading Spaces, Extreme Makeover:Home Edition Dating shows\u2014People go on a date. Unlike dating competition shows which have the same contestants all season, dating shows have new people each episode. Example: Blind Date Talk shows\u2014A host interviews people, often about strange or outrageous topics that will cause conflict on-screen. Examples: The Jerry Springer Show, Maury Hidden cameras\u2014A hidden camera records random people in a staged situation. The situations are often meant to confuse, amuse or scare the person. Examples: Candid Camera, Punk'd, Scare Tactics Hoaxes\u2014The show is a prank or trick on one or more cast members. They know that they are on a TV show, they just do not know the true nature of the show. Examples: The Joe Schmo Show, Invasion Iowa''\n\nReferences\n\n \nTelevision genres","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":131,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":64353,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reality%20television","title":"Reality television","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A word is something spoken by the mouth, that can be pronounced. Also, words are using in writing. In alphabetic writing, a word is a collection of letters. The word then communicates a meaning. These can also usually be pronounced. A logogram is also a word.\n\nSome words have more than one meaning, for example 'spring' can refer to the season, the device, or a conjugation of the verb. These are homonyms. Some words have different pronunciation, for example, 'wind' (the noun) and 'wind' (the verb) are pronounced differently. \n\nSome words have different spelling - for example 'color' and 'colour', which are both correct. 'Color' is used in American English and 'colour' is used in British English. Some words can be only one letter, for example \"a\" and \"I\" in English. Besides English, all other languages have their own words. When written with an alphabet, words are usually separated by a space. When written with ideograms, each word is usually a separate symbol.\n\nWords can be invented. This is called neologism. For example, radar was originally an acronym but became an actual word. Two words may be joined to make a compound word.\n\nFuller definition \nA word is the smallest thing which can be said with meaning. For example, hello is a word.\n\nThis contrasts with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but may not stand on its own. A word may consist of a single morpheme (for example: oh!, rock, red, quick, run, expect), or several (rocks, redness, quickly, running, unexpected), whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word (in the words just given, these are -s, -ness, -ly, -ing, un-, -ed).\n\nThe meaning of a word can be found in a dictionary.\n\nRelated pages \n Lexeme\n Parts of speech\n Heteronym \u2014 when two different words have the same spelling\n\nMore reading\n \n\n \nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":173,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-10":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":1}},"id":911,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Word","title":"Word","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Karma is a word meaning the result of a person's actions as well as the actions themselves. It is a term about the cycle of cause and effect. According to the theory of Karma, what happens to a person, happens because they caused it with their actions. It is an important part of many religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism. In Shinto (a religion often syncretised with Buddhism), Karma is interpreted as Musubi (\u3080\u3059\u3073), a view of karma is recognized in Shinto as a means of enriching, empowering and life affirming.\n\nIn terms of spiritual development, Karma is about all that a person has done, is doing and will do. Karma is logically about punishment or reward. It makes a person responsible for their own life, and how they treat other people.\n\nThe \"Theory of Karma\" is a major belief in Hinduism, Ayyavazhi, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism. All living creatures are responsible for their karma - their actions and the effects of their actions.\n\nDefinition\n Karma is often misconstrued as the universal principle of cause and effect. Our actions, both good and bad, come back to us in the future, helping us to learn from life's lessons and become better people. In religions that include reincarnation, karma extends through one's present life and all past and future lives as well.\n\nKarma is basically energy. One person throws out energy through thoughts, words and actions, and it comes back, in time, through other people. Karma is the best teacher, forcing people to face the consequences of their own actions and thus improve and refine their behavior, or suffer if they do not. Even harsh karma, when faced in wisdom, can be the greatest spark for spiritual growth. The conquest of karma lies in intelligent action and unemotional response.\n\nSupporting any action, with the claim, \"I am doing it,\" is karma. Claiming doership of any action, binds karma. To support the action with the belief 'I am the doer' is called binding the karma. It is this support of the belief of 'doership' that binds karma. If you know that you are not the doer and are aware of who the true doer is, 'I am not the doer' and 'who is the doer' then the action will not have any support and the karma will be shed.\n\nExamples of karma\nThe process of action and reaction on all levels\u2014physical, mental and spiritual\u2014is karma. One must pay attention to thoughts, because thought can make karmas\u2014good, bad and mixed.\n\n\"I say kind words to you, and you feel peaceful and happy. I say harsh words to you, and you become ruffled and upset. The kindness and the harshness will return to me, through others, at a later time. Finally, what I give is what I get back.\"\n\n\"An architect thinks creative, productive thoughts while drawing plans for a new building. But were he to think destructive, unproductive thoughts, he would soon not be able to accomplish any kind of positive task even if he desired to do so.\"\n\nKarma in Hinduism\n\nHindus look at time as a circle, as things cycle around again. Karma is a very just law which, like gravity, treats everyone the same. The law of karma puts man at the center of responsibility for everything he does and everything that is done to him. Understanding the way karma works, Hindus try to live a virtuous life. This is called dharma.\n\nThere are three types of karma in Hinduism:\n sanchita karma, the sum total of past karmas yet to be resolved; \n prarabdha karma, that portion of sanchita karma that is to be experienced in this life; and \n kriyamana karma, the karma that humans are currently creating, which will bear fruit in future.\n\nThe role of divine forces\nKarma is considered one of the natural laws of the mind, just as gravity is a law of matter. Just as God created gravity to bring order to the physical world, He created karma as a divine system of justice that is self-governing and infinitely fair. It automatically creates the appropriate future experience in response to the current action.\n\nSeveral different views exist in Hinduism regarding the role of divine beings. In Hinduism, many see the deities or devas as playing some kind of role. Other Hindus, such as the Mimamsakas, reject such notions and see karma as acting independently, considering the natural laws of causation sufficient to explain the effects of karma.\n\nSome interpretations of the Bhagavad Gita suggest an intermediate view, that karma is a law of cause and effect yet God can mitigate karma for His devotees. It is said in Bhagavad Gita that only the karma that is done with a sense of doership and with attachment to the karma could cause good or bad reactions. Karma that is done with an attitude of duty and without attachment to the results will not create any effect and will move one closer to God.\n\nAnother view holds that a Satguru, acting on God's behalf, can mitigate or work out some of the karma of the disciple.\n\nRelated pages \n Just-World phenomenon is like Karma\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Karma as explained in the Buddhist Encyclopedia  (buddhism.2be.net)\n The Law of Karma  (Heart of Hinduism)  \nWhat is Karma ? The Cause and Effect of Karma\nKarma by American Buddhist monk Thanissaro Bhikkhu\n\nHinduism\nPhilosophy\nReligious ethics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2023-23":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":24328,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karma","title":"Karma","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Star-Spangled Banner (engleski: Barjak iski\u0107en zvijezdama) himna je Sjedinjenih Ameri\u010dkih Dr\u017eava. Stihove je 1814. napisao Francis Scott Key, na glazbu britanskog skladatelja Johna Stafforda Smitha iz 1780. godine. Smithova se skladba izvorno zvala \"Anacreontic Song\".\n\nSkladba je postala ameri\u010dkom himnom 1931. godine. Izvodi se, izme\u0111u ostalog, prije profesionalnih sportskih priredbi u SAD-u. Mo\u017eda i najpoznatija izvedba himne ona je Jimija Hendrixa na festivalu u Woodstocku.\n\nRije\u010di na engleskom                                                            \nOh, say can you see, by the dawn's early light,                               \nWhat so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming?                    \nWhose broad stripes and bright stars, through the perilous fight,             \nO'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming?                    \nAnd the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air,                        \nGave proof through the night that our flag was still there.                                  \n                                                                                   \nO say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave                                \nO'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? \n\nOn the shore, dimly seen through the mists of the deep, \nWhere the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes, \nWhat is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, \nAs it fitfully blows, now conceals, now discloses? \nNow it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam, \nIn full glory reflected now shines on the stream: \n\n'Tis the star-spangled banner! O long may it wave \nO'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. \n\nAnd where is that band who so vauntingly swore \nThat the havoc of war and the battle's confusion \nA home and a country should leave us no more? \nTheir blood has wiped out their foul footstep's pollution. \nNo refuge could save the hireling and slave \nFrom the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: \n\nAnd the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave \nO'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. \n\nOh! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand \nBetween their loved homes and the war's desolation! \nBlest with victory and peace, may the heaven-rescued land \nPraise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation. \nThen conquer we must, when our cause it is just, \nAnd this be our motto: \"In God is our trust.\" \n\nAnd the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave \nO'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!\n\nVanjske poveznice \n\nStar-spangled\nAmeri\u010dka Samoa\nStar-Spangled Banner","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":21587,"url":"https:\/\/hr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The%20Star-Spangled%20Banner","title":"The Star-Spangled Banner","language":"hr"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In botany, a fruit is a plant structure that contains the plant's seeds. \n\nTo a botanist, the word fruit is used only if it comes from the part of the flower which was an ovary. It is an extra layer round the seeds, which may or may not be fleshy. However, even in the field of botany, there is no general agreement on how fruits should be classified. Many do have extra layers from other parts of the flower.\n\nIn general speech, and especially in cooking, fruits are a sweet product, and many botanical fruits are known as vegetables. This is how ordinary people use the words. On this page, we describe what botanists call a fruit.\n\nThe fleshy part of a fruit is called the mesocarp. It is between the fruit's skin (exocarp) and the seeds. The white part of an apple, for example, is the \"fleshy\" part of the apple. Usually, when we eat a fruit, we eat the \"fleshy\" part.\n\nTypes of fruits\n\nBerry\nIf the entire fruit is fleshy, except for maybe a thin skin, the fruit is called a berry. A berry might contain one seed or many. Grapes, avocados, and blueberries are berries. They all have a thin skin, but most of the fruit is fleshy. Don't get confused by the name of fruits like strawberries, because actually they are not berries. The seeds are on the outside: on a real berry, the seed or seeds are inside the fruit.\n\nPepo\nA pepo (pronounced pee' po) is a modified berry. Its skin is hard and thick and is usually called a \"rind\". Pumpkins and watermelons, for instance, are pepos.\n\nHesperidium\nA hesperidium is another modified berry. It has a leathery skin that is not as hard as the skin of a pepo. All citrus fruit like oranges and lemon are hesperidiums.\n\nPome\n\nA pome (pohm) is a fruit that has a core surrounded by fleshy tissue that one can eat. The core is usually not eaten. Berries are different - the seeds are inside the fleshy part, not separated from it by a core. apples and pears are pomes.\n\nDrupe\n\nDrupes are also called stone fruit. A drupe is a fleshy fruit with a hard stone around the seed. We usually call this 'stone' the 'pit' of the fruit. Peaches and olives are drupes. Actually, the almond fruit is a drupe, too, though we eat the seed that is inside the 'pit' of the almond fruit.\n\nBotanical fruits\nSince fruits are produced from fertilised ovaries in flowers, only flowering plants produce fruits. Fruits are an evolutionary 'invention' which help seeds get dispersed by animals.\n\nThe botanical term includes many that are not 'fruits' in the common sense of the term. such as the vegetables squash, pumpkins, cucumbers, tomato, peas, beans, corn, eggplant, and bell pepper and some spices, such as allspice and chili\n\n.\n\nAccessory fruits\n\nAn accessory fruit or false fruit (pseudocarp) is a fruit in which some of the flesh is derived not from the ovary but from some adjacent tissue.\n\nA fig is a type of accessory fruit called a syconium. Pomes, such as apples and pears, are also accessory fruits: the core is the true fruit.\n\nNon-botanical fruits\nStrictly speaking, these are not botanical fruits: \n any produced by non-flowering plants, like juniper berries, which are the seed-containing female cones of conifers.\n fleshy fruit-like growths that develop from other plant tissues (like rhubarb).\n\nArea of agreement\nThese are fruits which you can buy in shops, and which are also acceptable as botanical fruits:\n berry fruits: redcurrant, gooseberry, cranberry, blueberry Also, but not commonly known as berry fruits, are tomato, avocado, banana.\n false berries: raspberry, strawberry, blackberry: they are aggregate fruits (see below). The yew berry is not a fruit at all because the yew is a conifer.\n stone fruits or drupes: plum, cherry, peach, apricot, olive.\n citrus fruits, like oranges, grapefruits, and tangerines.\n aggregate fruits: raspberries, blackberries.\n multiple fruits: pineapples, figs.\n\nMany fruits come from trees or bushes. For plants, fruits are a means of dispersal, usually by animals. When the fruit is eaten, the seed(s) are not digested, and get excreted. Where fruits have big stones, just the soft parts are eaten. \n\nMost fruits we eat contain a lot of water and natural sugars, and many are high in Vitamin C. They have a large amount of dietary fibre. Fruits are usually low in protein and fat content, but avocados and some nuts are exceptions to this. Not only humans, but our closest living relatives (primates) are keen fruit-eaters. So are many other groups of herbivorous mammals and many birds.\n\nSeedless fruits\nSeedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial bananas, pineapple, and watermelons are examples of seedless fruits. Some citrus fruits, especially oranges, satsumas, mandarin oranges, and grapefruit are valued for their seedlessness.\n\nSeedless bananas and grapes are triploids, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant which is produced by fertilisation. The method requires normal pollination and fertilisation.\n\nRelated pages\n List of fruit\n\nReferences\n\nBasic English 850 words\n \nPlant anatomy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":308,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":5,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":4,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":5,"2021-39":6,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":6,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":7,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":5,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":7,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":5,"2018-47":4,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":4,"2018-13":4,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":5,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":5,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":10,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":6}},"id":293,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fruit","title":"Fruit","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cellular differentiation is how a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. It is part of developmental biology. Different tissues have different kinds of organelles inside the cells. \n\nDifferentiation occurs many times during the development of a multicellular organism. The organism changes from a single zygote to a complex system of tissues and cell types. Differentiation is also a common process in adults: adult stem cells divide to make fully-differentiated daughter cells during tissue repair and during normal cell turnover.\n\nDifferentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape, metabolic activity, and responsiveness to signals. These changes are largely due to changes in gene expression. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself. It does involve switching off many genes not needed in a particular tissue. Thus, cells in different tissues may have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome.\n\nCell potency is a cell's ability to differentiate into other cell types. A cell that is able to differentiate into many cell types is known as pluripotent. Such cells are called stem cells in animals and meristematic cells in higher plants.  A cell that is able to differentiate into all cell types is known as totipotent. In mammals, only the zygote and early embryonic cells are totipotent, while in plants many differentiated cells can become totipotent with simple laboratory techniques.\n\nReferences \n\nGenetics\nCell biology\nDevelopmental biology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":214739,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cell%20differentiation","title":"Cell differentiation","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Digital Object Identifier (or DOI) is a permanent way to identify an online document.  This identification is not related to its current location.\n\nA typical use of a DOI is to give a scientific paper or article a unique number that can be used by anyone find the location of the paper. It may also make it possible to find an electronic copy, for example, on the Internet. The DOI system has a DOI resolution system which is used to locate where the document is. When the document is moved, the DOI resolution system is updated with the new location of the document.\n\nFor example, doi:10.1016\/j.iheduc.2008.03.001 links to \"Web 2.0 authorship: Issues of Referencing and citation for academic integrity\" by Kathleen Gray et al.  The work was published in The Internet and Higher Education, Vol. 11, Issue 2, 2008.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Welcome to the DOI System\n Factsheet: DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications\n\nDocuments\nIdentifiers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":229,"dup_dump_count":93,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":4,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6}},"id":71721,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital%20Object%20Identifier","title":"Digital Object Identifier","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Elapidae, or elapids, are a family of venomous snakes. These snakes can be found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world. They can also be found in  the Indian Ocean and the Pacific. They are characterized by a set of hollow, fixed fangs through which they inject venom.  There are snakes of different sizes,  from only 18\u00a0cm (Drysdalia) up to 6 m in length (King Cobra). Currently, 61 genera with 231 species are known.\n\nDescription\n\nOn land\nThose elapids that live on land look a lot like the colubrids: almost all have long and slender bodies with smooth scales, a head that is covered with large shields and not always distinct from the neck, and eyes with round pupils. In addition, their behavior is usually quite active and most are oviparous. There are exceptions to all these generalizations: For example, the death adders (Acanthophis) include short and fat, rough-scaled, very broad-headed, cat-eyed, live-bearing, sluggish ambush predators with partly fragmented head shields.\n\nSome species spend most of their lives in trees or bushes; this is called arboreal (African Pseudohaje and Dendroaspis, Australian Hoplocephalus). Many others are  specialised burrowers (e.g. Ogmodon, Parapistocalamus, Simoselaps, Toxicocalamus, Vermicella). Some species have very generalised diets. Others  have specialised on a certain kind of prey. They have also adapted themselves, to better be able to feed on other snakes, certain lizards, squamate eggs, mammals, birds, frogs, fish, etc.\n\nIn the water \nSea snakes, which are also elapids, have adapted to a marine way of life in different ways. All have evolved their tails so they can be used for swimming. They can also excrete salt. Most also have changed bodies, better suited for swimming. Ventral scales are much smaller, the nostrils of the snakes are located dorsally and without scales between them. They give birth to live young (ovoviviparous). In general they have the ability to breathe through their skin; experiments with the yellow-bellied sea snake, Pelamis platurus, have shown that this species can satisfy about 20% of its oxygen requirements in this manner. This makes it possible to stay underwater longer. The sea kraits (Laticauda sp. ), are the least well-adapted to an aquatic life. They spend much of their time on land where they also lay their eggs (oviparous). They have wide ventral scales, the tail is not as well-developed for swimming, and their nostrils are separated by scales.\n\nVenom for hunting and self-defense\nAll elapids have a pair of proteroglyphous fangs that are used to inject venom from glands located towards the rear of the upper jaws. The fangs are the first two teeth on each maxillary bone, which are enlarged and hollow, and usually only one is in place on each side at any time. The maxilla is intermediate in length and mobility between typical colubrids (long, less mobile) and viperids (very short, highly mobile). When the mouth is closed, the fangs fit into grooved slots in the buccal floor; in the longest-fanged elapids (e.g. Acanthophis, Oxyuranus) it is common for the fangs to pierce right through the intermandibular skin, which does not seem to endanger the snake. The fangs are usually below the front edge of the eye and are angled backwards; due to this construction, most elapids must actually bite in order to envenomate. This action is therefore not as quick as with the viperids, that can envenomate with only a quick, stabbing motion. Some elapids (Acanthophis, Oxyuranus, and especially Dendroaspis) have long fangs on quite mobile maxillae (the prefrontal and ectopterygoid contacts are nearly as close together as in viperids), and can therefore make very fast stabbing strikes like viperids. A few species are capable of spraying their venom from forward facing holes at the tips of their fangs as a means of defense. Elapids use their venom both to immobilize their prey and in self-defense.\n\nVenom\nAll elapids are venomous and many are potentially deadly. The venoms are mostly neurotoxic and are considered more dangerous than the mainly proteolytic viper venoms. Members include the black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis), a species many regard as the world's most dangerous snake, the fierce snake (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), which is the most venomous land snake to mice, and Hydrophis belcheri, a sea snake and the most toxic venom of all snakes.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":98963,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elapid","title":"Elapid","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A raspberry is an aggregate fruit, meaning it has many parts joined together. It is similar to a blackberry, but the fruit is hollow on the inside. There are many different species of raspberry plants, but only a few of them have fruit that are sold in stores. Leaves of the raspberry plant are also used fresh or dried in herbal teas. The raspberry is red when ripe, and is also a source of nectar for juices. Raspberries are a popular fruit in some parts of the world.\n\nPlants\nA raspberry plant typically grows in fields or in forest clearings where fire or wood-cutting has produced open space. As a cultivated plant in moist temperate regions, it is easy to grow. It has a tendency to spread unless cut back.\n\nTwo types of raspberry plants can be bought in stores: the older summer-bearing type and double- or \"ever\"-bearing plants. Raspberry plants make stalks each year. The fruit grows on these stalks. These stalks last for 2 years. Both the summer and everbearing plants create the fruit in the summer of the second year of the stalk. The stalks of the everbearing plant also creates fruit in the fall of the first year.\n\nSpecies\nThe raspberry fruit that are sold in stores come from plants that are hybrids between two species, Rubus idaeus, European red raspberry, and Rubus strigosus, American red raspberry. Fruit from Rubus occidentalis, black raspberry, are sometimes available, and hybrids with red fruit exist. These three species are in the same subgenus, Rubus subgenus Idaeobatus.\n\nOther raspberry species in Rubus subgenus Idaeobatus include:\n Rubus crataegifolius (Korean raspberry)\n Rubus gunnianus (Tasmanian alpine raspberry)\n Rubus leucodermis (Whitebark or Western raspberry, Blue raspberry, Black raspberry)\n Rubus parvifolius (Australian native raspberry)\n Rubus phoenicolasius (Wine raspberry or Wineberry)\n Rubus rosifolius (West Indian raspberry)\n Rubus ellipticus (Yellow Himalayan Raspberry)\n Rubus strigosus (American raspberry)\n\nOther raspberry species that are not in Rubus subgenus Idaeobatus include:\n Rubus arcticus (Arctic raspberry)\n Rubus deliciosus (Boulder raspberry)\n Rubus nivalis (Snow raspberry)\n Rubus odoratus (Native Flowering raspberry)\n Rubus sieboldii (Molucca raspberry)\n\nRubus","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":15724,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Raspberry","title":"Raspberry","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Requiem or Requiem Mass, also known as Mass for the dead () or Mass of the dead (), is a Mass of the Catholic Church offered for the repose of the soul or souls of one or more deceased persons, using a particular form of the Roman Missal. It is usually celebrated in the context of a funeral (where in some countries it is often called a Funeral Mass).\n\nMusical settings of the propers of the Requiem Mass are also called Requiems, and the term has subsequently been applied to other musical compositions associated with death, dying, and mourning, even when they lack religious or liturgical relevance.\n\nThe term is also used for similar ceremonies outside the Roman Catholic Church, especially in Western Rite Orthodox Christianity, the Anglo-Catholic tradition of Anglicanism, and in certain Lutheran churches. A comparable service, with a wholly different ritual form and texts, exists in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches as well as some Methodist churches.\n\nThe Mass and its settings draw their name from the introit of the liturgy, which begins with the words  (Latin for \"Eternal rest grant them, O Lord\"), which is cited from 2 Esdras\u2014requiem is the accusative singular form of the Latin noun , \"rest, repose\". The Roman Missal as revised in 1970 employs this phrase as the first entrance antiphon among the formulas for Masses for the dead, and it remains in use to this day.\n\nLiturgical rite\n\nIn earlier forms of the Roman Rite, some of which are still in use, a Requiem Mass differs in several ways from the usual Mass. Some parts that were of relatively recent origin, including some that have been excluded in the 1970 revision of the regular Mass, are omitted. Examples are the psalm Iudica at the start of Mass, the prayer said by the priest before reading the Gospel (or the blessing of the deacon, if a deacon reads it), and the first of the two prayers of the priest for himself before receiving Communion. Other omissions include the use of incense at the Introit and the Gospel, the kiss of peace, lit candles held by acolytes when a deacon chants the Gospel, and blessings. There is no Gloria in excelsis Deo and no recitation of the Creed; the Alleluia chant before the Gospel is replaced by a Tract, as in Lent; and the  is altered.  is replaced with  (May they rest in peace); the  response is replaced with . Black was the obligatory liturgical colour of the vestments in the earlier forms (including the Missal of 1962),  while in the renewed liturgy \"the colour black may be used, where it is the practice, in Masses for the Dead\". The sequence Dies irae, recited or sung between the Tract and the Gospel, was an obligatory part of the Requiem Mass before the changes as a result of the liturgical reform of the Second Vatican Council. As its opening words  (\"Day of wrath\") indicate, this poetic composition speaks of the Day of Judgment in fearsome terms; it then appeals to Jesus for mercy. In the extraordinary form of the Roman Rite, commemorations (i.e. collect, secret, and postcommunion of either lower-ranking liturgical feasts that occur on the same day or votive\/seasonal commemorations) are absent from the liturgy; as a result, it is standard practice for a separate, smaller Requiem Missal containing only the rubrics and various Mass formularies for Masses for the dead to be used, rather than the full Missal containing texts that will never be used at Requiems.\n\nRoman Rite \n\nIn the liturgical reforms of the mid-20th century in the Roman Catholic Church, there was a significant shift in the funeral rites used by the Church. The theme of sorrow and grief was also made to emphasize the whole community's worship of God in which the deceased is entrusted to God's mercy, based on trust in the salvific value of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of Jesus Christ.\n\nIn the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, the Requiem Mass was sometimes termed a \"Mass of the Resurrection\" or Mass of Christian Burial, although the former was never official terminology. In the official English ritual, Order of Christian Funerals, published by the Roman Catholic Bishops of England and Wales in 1990, the title is given as \"Funeral Mass\". \"Requiem Mass\" remains a suitable title for other Masses for the dead and for the Funeral Mass itself (as the proper antiphons remain in force: Introit, \"Eternal rest grant ... \" \/ \"\"; Offertory, \"Lord Jesus Christ, King of glory, deliver the souls of all the faithful departed ... \" \/ \"\"; Communion, \"Let perpetual light shine ...\" \/ \"\"). In keeping with those trends of the latter 21st century, the use of white vestments was made an allowable option by the Missal, though only by an indult; black remains the normal color of all Requiem Masses, including Funeral Masses. Violet, a color of penance, was also allowed by indult, since penance and reparation for the soul, presumably in Purgatory, is encouraged by the Church. The texts used for the liturgy underwent a similar change, and some of the new options for the readings reinforce an overall theme of Jesus'  promise of eternal life.\n\nRequiem in other rites and churches\nRequiem is also used to describe any sacred composition that sets to music religious texts which would be appropriate at a funeral, or to describe such compositions for liturgies other than the Roman Catholic Mass. Among the earliest examples of this type are the German settings composed in the 17th century by Heinrich Sch\u00fctz and Michael Praetorius, whose works are Lutheran adaptations of the Roman Catholic requiem, and which provided inspiration for the German Requiem by Brahms.\n\nSuch works include:\n Greek Orthodox Church\u2014Parastas\n Russian Orthodox Church\u2014Panikhida\n Anglican (English) Requiem\n\nEastern Christian rites\n\nIn the Eastern Orthodox and Greek-Catholic Churches, the requiem is the fullest form of memorial service (, Slavonic: ). The normal memorial service is a greatly abbreviated form of Matins, but the Requiem contains all of the psalms, readings, and hymns normally found in the All-Night Vigil (which combines the Canonical Hours of Vespers, Matins and First Hour), providing a complete set of propers for the departed. The full requiem will last around three-and-a-half hours. In this format it more clearly represents the original concept of parastas, which means literally, \"standing throughout (the night).\" Often, there will be a Divine Liturgy celebrated the next morning with further propers for the departed.\n\nBecause of their great length, a full Requiem is rarely served. However, at least in the Russian liturgical tradition, a Requiem will often be served on the eve before the Glorification (canonization) of a saint, in a special service known as the \"Last Panikhida\".\n\nAnglicanism\n\nThe Book of Common Prayer contained no Requiem Mass, but instead a service named \"The Order for the Burial of the Dead\". Since the liturgical reform movement, provision has been made for a Eucharist to be celebrated at a funeral in various BCPs used in the various Provinces of the Anglican Communion. Prior to these additions, Anglo-Catholics or High Church Anglicans often incorporated parts of the Roman Catholic Requiem Mass as part of a funeral service \u2014 typically passages from the Ordinary of the Mass. Within this service are several texts with rubrics stating that they should be said or sung by the priest or clerks. The first few of these texts are found at the beginning of the service, while the rest are prescribed for the burial itself.  These texts are typically divided into seven, and collectively known as \"funeral sentences\". Composers who have set the Anglican burial service to music include William Croft, Thomas Morley, Thomas Tomkins, Orlando Gibbons and Henry Purcell. The text of these seven sentences, from the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, is as follows:\n I am the resurrection and the life, saith the Lord: he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live: and whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die. (John 11:25-26)\n I know that my Redeemer liveth, and that he shall stand at the latter day upon the earth. And though after my skin worms destroy this body, yet in my flesh shall I see God: whom I shall see for myself, and mine eyes shall behold, and not another. (Job 19:25-27)\n We brought nothing into this world, and it is certain we can carry nothing out. The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be the Name of the Lord. (1 Timothy 6:7 and Job 1:21)\n Man that is born of a woman hath but a short time to live, and is full of misery. He cometh up, and is cut down, like a flower; he fleeth as it were a shadow, and never continueth in one stay. (Job 14:1-2)\n In the midst of life we are in death: of whom may we seek for succour, but of thee, O Lord, who for our sins art justly displeased? Yet, O Lord God most holy, O Lord most mighty, O holy and most merciful Saviour, deliver us not into the bitter pains of eternal death. (Media vita in morte sumus)\n Thou knowest, Lord, the secrets of our hearts; shut not thy merciful ears to our prayer; but spare us, Lord most holy, O God most mighty, O holy and merciful Saviour, thou most worthy judge eternal, suffer us not, at our last hour, for any pains of death, to fall from thee.\n I heard a voice from heaven, saying unto me, Write, From henceforth blessed are the dead which die in the Lord: even so saith the Spirit: for they rest from their labours. (Revelation 14:13)\n\nMusic\n\nThe Requiem Mass is notable for the large number of musical compositions that it has inspired, including settings by Mozart (though uncompleted), Verdi, Berlioz, Saint-Sa\u00ebns, Brahms (from the vernacular German Lutheran Bible), Dvo\u0159\u00e1k, Faur\u00e9, Durufl\u00e9, and others. Originally, such compositions were meant to be performed in liturgical service, with monophonic chant. Eventually, the dramatic character of the text began to appeal to composers to an extent that they made the requiem a genre of its own, and the compositions of composers such as Verdi are essentially concert pieces rather than liturgical works.\n\nMany of the texts in the Requiem Mass have been set to music, including:\n\n Introit\n Kyrie eleison\n Gradual\n Tract\n Sequence (the Dies Irae)\n Offertory\n Sanctus\n Agnus Dei\n Communion\n Pie Jesu\n Libera Me\n In paradisum\n\nHistory of musical compositions\n\nFor many centuries the texts of the requiem were sung to Gregorian melodies. The Requiem by Johannes Ockeghem, written sometime in the latter half of the 15th century, is the earliest surviving polyphonic setting. There was a setting by the elder composer Dufay, possibly earlier, which is now lost: Ockeghem's may have been modelled on it. Many early compositions reflect the varied texts that were in use in different liturgies around Europe before the Council of Trent standardised texts used in liturgies. The requiem of Brumel, circa 1500, is the first to include the Dies Ir\u00e6. In the early polyphonic settings of the Requiem, there is considerable textural contrast within the compositions themselves: simple chordal or fauxbourdon-like passages are contrasted with other sections of contrapuntal complexity, such as in the Offertory of Ockeghem's Requiem.\n\nIn the 16th century, more and more composers set the Requiem Mass. In contrast to practice in setting the Mass Ordinary, many of these settings used a cantus-firmus technique, something which had become quite archaic by mid-century. In addition, these settings used less textural contrast than the early settings by Ockeghem and Brumel, although the vocal scoring was often richer, for example in the six-voice Requiem by Jean Richafort which he wrote for the death of Josquin des Prez. Other composers before 1550 include Pedro de Escobar, Antoine de F\u00e9vin, Crist\u00f3bal Morales, and Pierre de La Rue; that by La Rue is probably the second oldest, after Ockeghem's.\n\nOver 2,000 Requiem compositions have been composed to the present day. Typically the Renaissance settings, especially those not written on the Iberian Peninsula, may be performed a cappella (i.e. without necessary accompanying instrumental parts), whereas beginning around 1600 composers more often preferred to use instruments to accompany a choir, and also include vocal soloists. There is great variation between compositions in how much of liturgical text is set to music.\n\nMost composers omit sections of the liturgical prescription, most frequently the Gradual and the Tract. Faur\u00e9 omits the Dies ir\u00e6, while the very same text had often been set by French composers in previous centuries as a stand-alone work.\n\nSometimes composers divide an item of the liturgical text into two or more movements; because of the length of its text, the Dies ir\u00e6 is the most frequently divided section of the text (as with Mozart, for instance). The Introit and Kyrie, being immediately adjacent in the actual Roman Catholic liturgy, are often composed as one movement.\n\nMusico-thematic relationships among movements within a Requiem can be found as well.\n\nRequiem in concert\nBeginning in the 18th century and continuing through the 19th, many composers wrote what are effectively concert works, which by virtue of employing forces too large, or lasting such a considerable duration, prevent them being readily used in an ordinary funeral service; the requiems of Gossec, Berlioz, Verdi, and Dvo\u0159\u00e1k are essentially dramatic concert oratorios. A counter-reaction to this tendency came from the Cecilian movement, which recommended restrained accompaniment for liturgical music, and frowned upon the use of operatic vocal soloists.\n\nNotable compositions\nMany composers have composed Requiems. Some of the most notable include the following (in chronological order):\n\n Johannes Ockeghem: Requiem (1461?)\n Antoine Brumel: Requiem\n Tom\u00e1s Luis de Victoria: Officium Defunctorum (1603)\n Eustache du Caurroy: Missa pro defunctis quinque vocum (1610)\n Marc-Antoine Charpentier: Messe pour les tr\u00e9pass\u00e9e \u00e0 8, H.2, Dies irae H.12, Motet pour les tr\u00e9pass\u00e9s \u00e0 8, H.311, Messe des morts \u00e0 4 voix H.7 & Messe des morts \u00e0 4 voix et symphonie H.10 (1670\u20131690)\n Jean Gilles: Requiem\n Andr\u00e9 Campra: Requiem\n Antonio Caldara: Requiem in e minor\n Francesco Durante: Requiem in g minor\n Fran\u00e7ois-Joseph Gossec: Requiem (1760)\n Johann Adolph Hasse: Requiem in C major (1763), Requiem in E-flat major (1764)\n Michael Haydn: Missa pro Defunctis, Klafsky I:8, MH 155 (1771)\n Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Requiem, K. 626 (1791)\n Antonio Salieri: Requiem in C minor (1804)\n Luigi Cherubini: Requiem in C minor (1816), Requiem in D minor (1836)\n Hector Berlioz: Requiem, Op. 5 (1837)\n Anton Bruckner: Requiem, WAB 39 (1849)\n Robert Schumann: Requiem, Op. 148 (1852)\n Johannes Brahms: A German Requiem, Op. 45 (1865\u201368)\n Th\u00e9odore Gouvy: Requiem in E-flat minor (1874)\n Giuseppe Verdi: Messa da Requiem (1874)\n Camille Saint-Sa\u00ebns: Requiem, Op. 54 (1878)\n Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k: Requiem, Op. 89, B. 165 (1890)\n Gabriel Faur\u00e9: Requiem, Op. 48 (1887\u201390)\n Charles Villiers Stanford: Requiem, Op. 63 (1896)\n Frederick Delius: Requiem (1913\u201316)\n Herbert Howells: Requiem (1932)\n Bruno Maderna: Requiem (1946)\n Maurice Durufl\u00e9: Requiem, Op. 9 (1947)\n Benjamin Britten: War Requiem, Op. 66 (1961\u201362)\n Gy\u00f6rgy Ligeti: Requiem (1963\u201365)\n Igor Stravinsky: Requiem Canticles (1966)\n Bernd Alois Zimmermann: Requiem f\u00fcr einen jungen Dichter (1967\u201369)\n Krzysztof Penderecki: Polish Requiem (1980\u20132005)\n Andrew Lloyd Webber: Requiem (1985)\n John Rutter: Requiem (1985)\n Serban Nichifor: Requiem (1990)\n Hans Werner Henze: Requiem (1991\u201393)\n Olivier Greif: Requiem (1999)\n Christopher Rouse: Requiem (2002)\n Karl Jenkins: Requiem (2005)\n Dan Forrest: Requiem for the Living (2013)\n\nModern treatments\nIn the 20th century the requiem evolved in several new directions. The genre of War Requiem is perhaps the most notable, which comprise compositions dedicated to the memory of people killed in wartime. These often include extra-liturgical poems of a pacifist or non-liturgical nature; for example, the War Requiem of Benjamin Britten juxtaposes the Latin text with the poetry of Wilfred Owen, Krzysztof Penderecki's Polish Requiem includes a traditional Polish hymn within the sequence, and Robert Steadman's Mass in Black intersperses environmental poetry and prophecies of Nostradamus. Holocaust Requiem may be regarded as a specific subset of this type. The Requiem Ebraico (Hebrew Requiem) (1945) by Austrian-American composer Eric Zeisl, a setting of Psalm 92 dedicated to the memory of the composer's father \"and the other countless victims of the Jewish tragedy in Europe\", is considered the first major work of Holocaust commemoration. John Foulds's A World Requiem was written in the aftermath of the First World War and initiated the Royal British Legion's annual festival of remembrance. Recent requiem works by Taiwanese composers Tyzen Hsiao and Ko Fan-long follow in this tradition, honouring victims of the February 28 Incident and subsequent White Terror.\n\nThe 20th century saw the development of the secular Requiem, written for public performance without specific religious observance, such as Max Reger's Requiem (1915), the setting of a German poem titled Requiem and dedicated to victims of World War I, and Frederick Delius's Requiem, completed in 1916 and dedicated to \"the memory of all young Artists fallen in the war\"; Paul Hindemith's When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd: A Requiem for Those We Love, commissioned in 1945 (premiered 1946) after the passing of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and based on Walt Whitman's elegy written after the passing of Abraham Lincoln; and Dmitry Kabalevsky's Requiem (Op. 72; 1962), a setting of a poem written by Robert Rozhdestvensky especially for the composition.\n\nHerbert Howells's unaccompanied Requiem uses Psalm 23 (\"The Lord is my shepherd\"), Psalm 121 (\"I will lift up mine eyes\"), \"Salvator mundi\" (\"O Saviour of the world\" in English), \"Requiem aeternam\" (two different settings), and \"I\u00a0heard a voice from heaven\". John Rutter combines in his Requiem (1985) some of the parts of the Latin Requiem with two complete psalms, Psalm 130 \"Out of the deep\" and his earlier composition The Lord is my Shepherd, and juxtaposes more biblical verses within the Latin movements.\n\nSome composers have written purely instrumental works bearing the title of Requiem, as famously exemplified by Britten's Sinfonia da Requiem. Hans Werner Henze's Das Flo\u00df der Medusa, written in 1968 as a requiem for Che Guevara, is properly speaking an oratorio; Henze's Requiem is instrumental but retains the traditional Latin titles for the movements. Igor Stravinsky's Requiem Canticles mixes instrumental movements with segments of the \"Introit\", \"Dies irae\", \"Pie Jesu\" and \"Libera me\".\n\nSee also\n Memorial\n Month's mind\n\nNotes\n\nExternal links\n\n Alphabetical Requiems Survey\n Online Guide to Requiem\n Writing\u00a0\u2013 The Requiem Mass : A Literal Translation\n \n British Path\u00e9 News clips of the Catholic Police Guild Annual Solemn Requiem\n  Faur\u00e9's \"Requiem\" - Spanish Radio and Television Symphony Orchestra and Chorus. Petri Sakari, conductor. Live concert.\n\n \nChristian prayer\nChristian terminology\nDeath customs\nDeath music\nMass (liturgy)\nLatin religious words and phrases\nLiturgy of the Hours","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":172,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":4,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":4,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":4,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":6,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":6,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-07":6,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":7,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":9,"2014-15":3}},"id":184798,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Requiem","title":"Requiem","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A license (in American English) or licence (in British English) allows someone to do something that they otherwise are not allowed to do. A person usually has to pay some money, and maybe pass a test to get a license. A license is usually written but it does not have to be. Most kinds of licenses can only be used by the person they were given to. Licenses may be temporary or permanent. Some licenses can not be taken away once they are given. A person with a license is called a licensee.\n\nIn many countries, if a person tries to do something without the correct license to do it, they might have to pay a fine or go to prison.\n\nExamples of licenses\nThere are many different types of licenses.\n\nDriver's license\nThe laws of most countries say that people are only allowed to drive cars if they have a driver's license.  If a person does not have a license, they may have to pay a fine if they are caught by the police.  In many countries, a person must take a test and pay money to get a license. The test would check that they know the road rules, and have the skill to drive a car.\n\nHunting license\nOther licenses give permission to shoot animals (often called a hunting license). The hunting license usually says when a person may hunt. A hunter may have to pass a test to show that they understand the rules about hunting.\n\nTelevision licence\nIn the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, if someone has a television set, they must buy a \"television licence\" every year.\n\nCopyright licenses \nCopyright is a law that gives the owner of a creative work the right to decide what other people can do with it. A person or a company can give a license to a copyright that they own. So in order for another person to use an owner's copyright they need permission from the owner. For example, when someone buys computer software, they also need a license from the creator of the software (a copyright owner) allowing the buyer to use the software.\n\nDifference between license and licence \n\"License\" is a verb and \"licence\" is a noun. \"Licensing sessions\" were the meetings of magistrates which decided about giving licences to sell alcohol.  \n\nIn American English there is no difference in spelling between the verb \"to license\"  meaning to give permission, and the noun \"a license\" meaning the permission to do something.\n\nDistinction between a licence and a qualification \nA degree in medicine is a qualification showing a person has successfully studied medicine. It is awarded for life. A licence to practice medicine is a legal permission to do so within the territory covered by the licensing authority. The licence may be taken away ('revoked') in certain situations.\n\nRelated pages \n Copyright\n Patent\n Trademark\n\nReferences \n\nLaw","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":149,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-26":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":444,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/License","title":"License","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany is the name of Germany's constitution. It was written in 1949 when Germany was split into the countries of East Germany and West Germany. Many parts of the constitution are very different from the constitution of the Weimar Republic.\n\nThe writers decided not to call it the constitution because they hoped it would only be a temporary law for West Germany and that the two Germanys would soon be made into one.\n\nIt was more than 40 years before East Germany and West Germany became one country again, but the old name of Basic Law has been kept.\n\nProtecting the Constitution \nThe Federal Constiutional Court (German: Bundesverfassungsgericht) protects the constitution by banning laws which break the constitution. There are \"eternal clauses\" in the constitution which the court will protect even by banning constitutional amendments (laws to change them). Article 1, about human life and dignity, and article 20's basic principles are protected from change. This is to make sure nothing like the Nazi period happens again. The Nazis were able to pass an Enabling Act which allowed Hitler to rule by decree.\n\nThe Five Constitutional Bodies \nGermany is a federal parliamentary democracy. To show this there are five \"constitutional institutions\".\n\nPresidency \n\nThe Federal President () is the head of state. It is largely ceremonial position with only a small role in daily politics. The president does not have the massive power of the president of the Weimar Republic, or the President of the United States.  He is the formal head of state, and signs laws before they can enter into force and appoints federal officials, he cannot decide when to dissolve the Bundestag or name a new chancellor until a majority of the members of the parliament () vote in favour.\n\nExecutive branch \n\nThe Chancellor is chosen by the Bundestag.  He or she is head of the executive branch, and  heads the federal Cabinet.\n\nJudicial branch \n\nThe Judicial branch is made up of the Federal Constitutional Court and five other Supreme Courts.  There are also local and regional courts which make the first decision about cases.  Their decisions can be overturnned by the courts of appeal or Supreme Courts.\n\nFederal Constitutional Court \n\nThe Federal Constitutional Court is the most important court in Germany.  Its job is to protect the Basic Law. Its decisions are like laws. The court can cancel laws if they break the Basic Law.\n\nFederal Social Court \n\nThe Federal Social Court is the Supreme Court of Appeal for cases about social security, pensions and health insurance\n\nFederal Labour Court \n\nThe Federal Labour Court is the Supreme Court of Appeal for cases about labour law.  This includes contracts of employment, strikes and trade union agreements\n\nFederal Tax Court \n\nThe Federal Tax Court is the Supreme Court of Appeal for cases about tax and customs law\n\nFederal Administrative Court \n\nThe Federal Social Court is the Supreme Court of Appeal for cases involving a government body.  These may be because a person might feel they have been treated unfairly by government or because there is a dispute between two government bodies about which of them is allowed to do something.\n\nFederal Supreme Court \n\nThis court is the Supreme Court of Appeal for cases all civil and criminal cases which are not heard by one of the other supreme courts\n\nLegislative branch \nThe legislative branch has two of the constitutional bodies.\n\nBundesrat \n\nGermany's upper chamber of parliament, the Bundesrat, represents the L\u00e4nder. It also shows that Germany is a federal state. Federalism is one of the \"eternal clauses\" of the constitution, that can never be changed..\n\nBundestag \n\nThe Bundestag is the part of the legislature chosen by election.  The Chancellor must be a member of the Bundestag.\n\nOther stipulations\n\nThe military \nThe Weimar Constitution had the Reichswehr outside of the control of the parliament or the public. The army directly reported to the president, and the president did not have to report to the parliament. \n\nUnder the Basic Law, the Defence Forces Bundeswehr are responsible to parliament, because \n during times of peace the Bundeswehr reports to the minister of defence\n during time of war it reports to the chancellor. \n\nThe chancellor is directly responsible to the parliament, the minister is indirectly responsible to the parliament because it can remove the government by electing a new chancellor.\n\nThe Basic Law also created a soldiers' ombudsman or Wehrbeauftragter, reporting to parliament not to the government. Soldiers can write directly to the Wehrbeauftragter if they feel they have been treated unfairly or unlawfully, or if they think their commanders are acting illegally.  Soldiers cannot be punished for writing to the Wehrbeauftragter.\n\nA number of Constitutional Court cases in the 1990s said that the Bundeswehr cannot be used by the government outside NATO territory unless the Bundestag first gives permission in a resolution.  The resultion must describe where the Bundeswehr is to go, and for who long the mission will last.\n\nReferendums and plebiscites \nThe Basic Law only allows referendums about changing borders of the L\u00e4nder. There have been two referundums:\n\n Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg was created in 1952 after a referendum approved joining together three separate states (W\u00fcrttemberg-Baden, W\u00fcrttemberg-Hohenzollern and Baden). \n\nIn 1996 the people who live in Berlin and Brandenburg decided not to join the two states.\n\nDevelopment of the Basic Law since 1949 \nImportant changes to the Basic Law were the re-introduction of conscription and the establishment of the Bundeswehr in 1956.\n\nDuring reunification East Germany and West Germany decided not to write a new constitution, but to keep the old one, which had worked so well in West Germany. The constitution was amended to allow East Germany to join, and then changed again to strengthen the claim that Germany wanted no more territory. This was a promise made in the Final Settlement.\n\nRelated pages\n\nFormer constitutions \n Constitution of the German Empire (1871-1919)\n Weimar Constitution (1919-1933)\n Constitution of the German Democratic Republic (German Democratic Republic; GDR, 1949-1990)\n\nOthers \n Bremen clause\n Bundesrechnungshof\n German Emergency Acts\n History of Germany\n Politics of Germany\n Constitution\n Constitutionalism\n Constitutional economics\n\nFootnotes\n\nOther websites \n\n Full text:\n Official English translation (status: December 2000)\n Original text: HTML, PDF, non-official table of contents (status: August 2006)\n Former Constitutions:\n Constitution of the German Empire (1871-1919). In English. Full text from Wikisource.\n Constitution of the Weimar Republic (1919-1933). In English, as HTML file.\n Excerpts from the 1968 Constitution of the GDR . In English, as HTML file.\n Other links:\n Introduction to the basic and the constitutional law  (on JurisPedia).\n\nLaw of Germany\nGermany\nPolitics of Germany\n1949 in Europe\n1940s in Germany","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":65670,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basic%20Law%20for%20the%20Federal%20Republic%20of%20Germany","title":"Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Beer is also the name of a place in Devon, England - Beer (Devon)\n\nBeer is a type of alcoholic drink. It is made with water, hops, barley (types of cereal grains), and types of yeast (a fungus that produces alcohol). A process called fermentation turns sugar into alcohol, using yeast. Another product of the fermentation is carbon dioxide.\n\nClassification from the type of fermentation \nIn general, all alcoholic drinks where yeast turns sugar into alcohol are called beer. In these cases, distillation is not used. The difference to wine is that with wine, sugars from plants, such as fruit sugar, or that made by animals is used. As an example, mead is a wine made from honey. Japanese sake is made from rice, and uses yeast for fermentation; so even if some people call it rice wine, sake is really a kind of beer.\n\nMaking beer \nThe act of making beer is called \"brewing\". Beer is made by adding warm water to malted barley and other grains. The enzymes in the barley change the malted barley and other grains into simple sugars. This is called the mash. The water is then sparged (drained) from the grain. The water is now called wort. The wort is boiled and hops are added. Hops provide flavour and preserve the beer. After boiling the wort is cooled and yeast is added. The yeast turns the sugars into alcohol and the wort into beer.\n\nDifferent beers can have different natures, depending on the ingredients used; for example, an ale uses top fermenting yeast. Top fermenting yeasts eat more sugar and produce more alcohol. A lager uses bottom fermenting yeast. Bottom fermenting yeasts eat less sugar and produce a crisper, cleaner taste. Adding hops makes the beer more bitter and aromatic. Specialty malts (different types of cooked barley) produce different flavours and colours. These flavours and colours are most notable in dark beers like Porter and Stout.\n\nDifferent countries have different ways to make beer. In Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Czech Republic, and Slovakia, beer is usually made from just hops, malt, water, and yeast. This is because of the Reinheitsgebot. The Reinheitsgebot was a law that said says that beer can only be made from hops, malt, and water. Yeast was discovered after the Reinheitsgebot. The law was overturned by the European Union in 1992. In Belgium, however, beers have always been made with wheat, sugar, fruit, and other ingredients.\n\nDifferent ways to make beer\nThe type of yeast used determines the kind of beer made:\n Some kinds of yeast ferment at a higher temperature, usually at 15-20\u00a0\u00b0C. The fermentation process is quicker.\n Other kinds ferment at a lower temperature, usually 4-8\u00a0\u00b0C. Beers made with this kind usually have a longer shelf-life.\n Some beers ferment sponaneously from yeast that can be found in the environment.\n\nThe history of beer \n\nThe earliest records of beer were written around 7000 years ago by the Sumerians. It is said that the Sumerians discovered the fermentation process by accident. It is not known exactly how this happened, but it could be that a piece of bread or grain became wet, and a short time later, it began to ferment and made a pulp that caused people to become drunk. A seal around 4,000 years old is a Sumerian \"Hymn to Ninkasi\", the goddess of brewing. This \"hymn\" is also a recipe for making beer. A description of the making of beer on this ancient engraving in the Sumerian language is the earliest account of what is easily recognised as barley, followed by a pictograph of bread being baked, crumbled into water to form a mash, and then made into a drink, that is recorded as having made people feel \"...wonderful and blissful\". It could even be possible that bread was first baked to be a way to make beer that is easy to carry around. The Sumerians were probably the first people to brew beer. They had found a \"divine drink\" -- they felt it was a gift from the gods.\n\nAmount of alcohol in beer \nNormal beers have around 3-5 % alcohol (for the volume, i.e. in 100ml beer there is 3-5ml alcohol). In brewing beer, the amount of alcohol can be made more or less quite easily. The Belgian types of beer are made by adding more sugar. Through the fermentation, this will then turn to alcohol. Today, there are beers with between 2% and about 16% of alcohol (about the same alcohol content as wine). Spirits can have up to 80% alcohol. Some beer labels say there is no alcohol in them because it was taken out later. This is not completely true, though. Beers \"without alcohol\" usually do have less than 1% of alcohol.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":5,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":2020,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Beer","title":"Beer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The constitution of a country (or a state) is a special type of law document that tells how its government is supposed to work. It tells how the country's leaders are to be chosen and how long they get to stay in office, how new laws are made and old laws are to be changed or removed based on law, what kind of people are allowed to vote and what other rights they are guaranteed, and how the constitution can be changed.\n\nLimits are put on the Government in how much power they have within the Constitution (see Rule of Law ). On the other hand, countries with repressive or corrupt governments frequently do not stick to their constitutions, or have bad constitutions without giving freedom to citizens and others. This can be known as dictatorship or simply \"bending the rules\". A Constitution is often a way of uniting within a Federation.\n\nThe UK's constitution is not written in one single document like many other countries' are. In fact, the UK's constitution is not completely written down at all. Some of it can be found in writing, starting with the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights Act 1689 and including more modern Acts of Parliament. Other parts of it are considered common law and are made up of the decisions of judges over many hundreds of years in a system called legal or judicial precedence. Because of this, some people say that the United Kingdom has a de facto or \"unwritten\" constitution.\n \nThe United States in 1787 began a trend in the writing of constitutions. The United States Constitution is also the shortest that people are still using, and it has been changed (amended) many times over the years. It was made after the colonists won their independence from Britain. At first they had the Articles of Confederation but the Articles were replaced with today's Constitution.\n\nThe Indian constitution of 1950 is the longest ever written constitution in the world. It originally consisted of 395 Articles arranged under 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. As of 2021, it has 470 Articles, 12 schedules, and 25 Parts with 5 appendices and 98 amendments.\n\nRelated pages\n Constitutional law\n Constitutionalism\n Constitutional economics\n Democracy\n International law\n Jurisprudence\n Rule of law\n Social contract\n US Constitution\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":142,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2023-50":4,"2021-49":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":4,"2020-24":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-13":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":173,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Constitution","title":"Constitution","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Smithsonian Institution is an educational and research institute and museum complex. Most of the institution is in Washington, D.C., but its 19 museums, zoo, and eight research centers include sites in New York City, Virginia, Panama, and elsewhere. It has over 137 million items in its collections. \n\nA monthly magazine published by the Smithsonian Institution is also named the Smithsonian.\n\nHistory\nThe Smithsonian Institution was founded for the \"increase and diffusion\" of knowledge by a bequest to the United States by the British scientist James Smithson (1765\u20131829), who had never visited the United States himself. In Smithson's will, he stated that should his nephew, Henry James Hungerford, die without heirs, the Smithson estate would go to the United States of America for creating an \"Establishment for the increase & diffusion of Knowledge among men\". After the nephew died without heirs in 1835, President Andrew Jackson informed Congress of the bequest, which amounted to 104,960 gold sovereigns, or USD 500,000 ($9,235,277 in 2005 U.S. dollars after inflation).\n\nEight years later, Congress passed an act establishing the Smithsonian Institution. It is administered and funded by the U.S. government, and by funds from its endowment, contributions, and profits from its shops and magazine.\n\nThe Smithsonian Institution Building on the National Mall is known as \"The Castle\", because its design looks similar to a European castle.\n\nThough the Smithsonian's first leader (called \"Secretary\"), Joseph Henry, wanted the Institution to be a center for scientific research, before long it became the depository for various Washington and U.S. government collections. \n\nThe voyage of the U.S. Navy went around the world between 1838 and 1842. The United States Exploring Expedition collected thousands of animal specimens, herbs, shells, minerals, tropical birds, jars of seawater and ethnographic specimens from the South Pacific. These specimens and artefacts became part of the Smithsonian collections. So did those collected by the military and civilian surveys in the American West.\n\nSmithsonian museums\n\nWashington, DC\n Anacostia Museum and Center for African American History and Culture\n Arthur M. Sackler Gallery\n Arts and Industries Building\n Freer Gallery of Art\n Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden\n National Air and Space Museum (Mall museum)\n National Museum of African American History and Culture\n National Museum of African Art\n National Museum of American History\n National Museum of the American Indian (Mall museum)\n National Museum of Natural History\n National Portrait Gallery\n National Postal Museum\n S. Dillon Ripley Center\n Smithsonian American Art Museum\n Smithsonian Institution Building\n Smithsonian National Zoological Park (National Zoo)\n The National Gallery of Art is affiliated with the Smithsonian, but it is run by a separate charter.\n\nNew York City, NY\n Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum\n National Museum of the American Indian's George Gustav Heye Center\n\nChantilly, VA\n National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center\n\nIn addition, there are many museums that are Smithsonian affiliates.\n\nOther websites\n\n Smithsonian Institution webpage\n Smithsonian Education webpage\n Map of the museums from the Smithsonian Institution \n Smithsonian Networks webpage \n Smithsonian Student Travel, an educational travel partnership .\n\n \n1843 establishments in the United States\n19th-century establishments in Washington, D.C.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":69387,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smithsonian%20Institution","title":"Smithsonian Institution","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language. The process of building a mathematical model is termed mathematical modeling. Mathematical models are used in the natural sciences (such as physics, biology, earth science, meteorology) and engineering disciplines (e.g. computer science, artificial intelligence). They are also used in the social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology and political science). Physicists, engineers, statisticians, operations research analysts and economists use mathematical models a lot.\n\nMathematical models can take many forms.  The types of models include: \ndynamical systems - for systems that change,\nstatistical models - for finding patterns in large groups of measurements or data, \ndifferential equations - to study how variables change over time, or \ngame theoretic models - for studying how many independent decision makers can interact.\nThese and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. Mathematical models can include logical models.  In many cases, the quality of a scientific field depends on how well the mathematical models built on theory agree with results of repeatable experiments.  When theoretical mathematical models do not match experimental measurements, scientists try to correct the model.  Such corrections lead the way to better theories to explain the facts.\n\nMore reading \nBooks\n Bender, E.A. [ 1978 ] ( 2000 ). An Introduction to Mathematical Modeling, New York : Dover. \n Gershenfeld, N., The Nature of Mathematical Modeling, Cambridge University Press, (1998). \n Yang, X.-S., Mathematical Modelling for Earth Sciences, Dudedin Academic, (2008). \n\nSpecific applications\n Peierls, Rudolf. Model-making in physics, Contemporary Physics, Volume 21 (1), January 1980, 3-17\n Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. ( 2006 ). Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Compact Macromodels of the World System Growth. Moscow : Editorial URSS.\n\nOther websites \nGeneral reference material\n McLaughlin, Michael P. ( 1999 )\n Plus teacher and student package: Mathematical Modelling. Brings together all articles on mathematical modeling from Plus, the online mathematics magazine produced by the Millennium Mathematics Project at the University of Cambridge.\n\nPhilosophical background\n Frigg, R. and S. Hartmann, Models in Science, in: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (Spring 2006 Edition)\n Griffiths, E. C. (2010) What is a model?\n\nReferences \n\nMathematics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":321860,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical%20model","title":"Mathematical model","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Pinocchio is the second animated Disney movie, made by Walt Disney Productions and first released to movie theaters by RKO Radio Pictures on February 7, 1940. Based on the story Pinocchio: Tale of a Puppet by Carlo Collodi, it was made in response to the huge success of Snow White and the 7 Dwarfs. \n\nThe American-Italian movie tells the story of Pinocchio, a wooden puppet made by a man named Geppetto and brought to life by the Blue fairy, after Geppetto wishes he could have a son. She tells him he can become a real boy if he proves himself \"brave, truthful, and unselfish.\" Pinocchio must try to be good so he can become a real boy, with the help of his friend, Jiminy Cricket. Thus begins the adventures of the puppet into a real boy, which involve many encounters with a series of unpleasant characters.\n\nThe movie was adapted by Aurelius Battaglia, William Cottrell, Otto Englander, Erdman Penner, Joseph Sabo, Ted Sears, and Webb Smith from Collodi's book. The production was supervised by Ben Sharpsteen and Hamilton Luske, and the film's sequences were directed by Norman Ferguson, T. Hee, Wilfred Jackson, Jack Kinney, and Bill Roberts.\n\nIt features the song, \"When You Wish Upon A Star\", which has been used at the start of most Disney movies since 1985.\n\nThe story \nA man called Gepetto makes a wood puppet called Pinocchio. He wishes that Pinocchio was a real boy, and the Blue Fairy makes Gepetto's wish come true. But to become a real boy instead of a live puppet, Pinocchio has to prove that he's good. The Blue Fairy assigns a cricket named Jiminy Cricket to guide him and keep him out of trouble.  This is a hard job, and Pinocchio does a lot of things wrong.\n\nOn his first day of school, two crooks, a fox named Honest John and his mute sidekick named Gideon, trick Pinocchio to join Stromboli's puppet show instead. Pinocchio is popular in the show, but Stromboli is cruel to him and locks him in a bird cage. The Blue Fairy asks Pinocchio how this happened, but Pinocchio lies, and his nose grows longer.  With the help of the Blue Fairy and Jiminy, Pinocchio escapes from the cage.\n\nThe crooks trick Pinocchio again, and tell him to go to Pleasure Island. He meets Lampwick, a bad boy who convinces him to gamble, smoke, drink, vandalize and other bad things.  The island is magical, and the boys who act like \"jackasses\" (donkeys) turn into donkeys.  These donkeys are sold to work in the local salt mines.\n\nLampwick becomes a donkey, but Pinocchio only changes part way, with donkey ears and a donkey tail.  He escapes from Pleasure Island and returns to Geppetto's house. But Geppetto is not there.  He has gone to sea, to search for Pinocchio.\n\nPinocchio and Jiminy go looking for Geppetto, but they are eaten by the huge whale Monstro.  Monstro has also swallowed Geppetto.  Pinocchio builds a fire to make Monstro sneeze, and this frees them all.  But they are lost in the ocean and Geppetto is drowning.  He tells Pinocchio to swim to shore and save himself, but Pinocchio grabs Geppetto and carries him to shore.  Geppetto survives, but Pinocchio appears to be dead.\n\nGeppetto and Jiminy are sad and return home with Pinocchio's body. The Blue Fairy decides that Pinocchio has proved that he is good enough, and brings him back to life... and also turns him into a real boy. Everyone is happy and they celebrate. The movie ends with Jiminy Cricket getting a badge of soild gold and a chorus sings a reprise of the song \"When You Wish Upon A Star\".\n\nProduction \nThe original plan for the movie was very different from what they made.  Many characters and events from the original book were used in early versions. Producer Walt Disney was unhappy with this version and had them change a lot of the story and characters.\n\nAt first, Pinocchio was going to look like a real wooden puppet, with a long pointed nose, a pointed hat, and bare wood hands.  He was going to act more grown-up and do bad things on purpose, instead of being tricked into doing bad things.  But Walt Disney did not think that people would like this character, so they changed his appearance and the way he acted.  They made him look more like a real boy, with a small nose, a child's hat, and regular hands with gloves. The only parts of him that still looked like a puppet were his arms and legs.\n\nJiminy Cricket (voiced by Cliff \"Ukelele Ike\" Edwards) became a more important character.  He was not included in the first version of the story.  When they added him, he looked more like a real cricket, but Walt wanted more people to like him, so Ward Kimball changed him into \"a little man with no ears. That was the only thing about him that was like an insect.\"\n\nCharacters \n Jiminy Cricket, voiced by Cliff Edwards, is a cricket who acts as Pinocchio's \"conscience\" and tells parts of the story. He is the main protagonist.\n Pinocchio, voiced by Dickie Jones, is a wooden puppet made by Geppetto and turned into a living puppet by the Blue Fairy. He is  the deurtagonist.\n Geppetto, voiced by Christian Rub, is a toymaker who creates Pinocchio and wishes for him to become a real boy.\n Figaro and Cleo are Geppetto's black and white housecat and goldfish.\n J. Worthington \"Honest John\" Foulfellow, voiced by Walter Catlett, is a sly anthropomorphic fox who tricks Pinocchio twice in the movie. Foulfellow is the major antagonist.\n Gideon is Honest John's dumb, mute, anthropomorphic cat sidekick. He was originally to be voiced by Mel Blanc, but they deleted his dialogue in favor of a mute performance. However, Gideon's hiccups were provided by Blanc. Gideon is the minor antagonist.\n Stromboli, voiced by Charles Judels, is a large, sinister, bearded puppet maker who forces Pinocchio to perform onstage in order to make money. He is the primary antagonist. He speaks Italian with an Italian accent.\n The Blue Fairy, voiced by Evelyn Venable, is the beautiful fairy who brings Pinocchio to life and turns him into a real boy at the end.\n The Coachman, voiced by Charles Judels. A corrupt coachman who owns and operates Pleasure Island. He is the secondary antagonist. He speaks Cockney with a Cockney accent.\n Lampwick, voiced by Frankie Darro, is a naughty boy Pinocchio meets on his way to Pleasure Island. He turns into a donkey while the boys are hanging out. He speaks Brooklyn with a Brooklyn accent.\n Monstro is the whale that swallows Geppetto, Figaro, and Cleo during their search for Pinocchio. Monstro is the final antagonist.\n\nCrew \n Supervising Directors: Ben Sharpsteen, Hamilton Luske\n Sequence Directors: Bill Roberts, Norman Ferguson, Jack Kinney, Wilfred Jackson, T. Hee\n Supervising Animators: Fred Moore, Franklin Thomas, Milton Kahl, Vladimir Tytla, Ward Kimball, Arthur Babbitt, Eric Larson, Woolie Reitherman\n Story Adaptation: Ted Sears, Otto Englander, Webb Smith, William Cottrell, Joseph Sabo, Erdman Penner, Aurelius Battaglia\n Character Designers: Joe Grant, Albert Hurter, John P. Miller, Campbell Grant, Martin Provensen, John Walbridge\n Original Songs by Ned Washington and Leigh Harline\n Score Composed and Conducted by Paul J. Smith\n Art Directors: Charles Philippi, Hugh Hennessy, Kenneth Anderson, Dick Kelsey, Kendall O'Connor, Terrell Stapp, Thor Putnam, John Hubley, McLaren Stewart, Al Zinnen\n Backgrounds: Claude Coats, Merle Cox, Ed Starr, Ray Huffine\n Animators: Jack Campbell, Oliver M. Johnston, Berny Wolf, Don Towsley, Don Lusk, John Lounsbery, Norman Tate, John Bradbury, Lynn Karp, Charles Nichols, Art Palmer, Joshua Meador, Don Tobin, Robert Martsch, George Rowley, John McManus, Don Patterson, Preston Blair, Les Clark, Marvin Woodward, Hugh Fraser, John Elliotte\n\nRelease \nWith the re-release of Snow White and the 7 Dwarfs in 1944 came the tradition of re-releasing Disney movies every seven to ten years. Pinocchio has been theatrically re-released in 1945, 1954, 1962, 1971, 1978, 1984, and 1992. The 1992 re-issue was digitally restored by cleaning and removing scratches from the original one scene at a time, getrting rid of blurry sound, and making the color lighter. The movie also received four video releases (and two DVD releases), being a big-seller in 1985 (this print was re-mastered and re-issued in 1986). Then the more complex digital restoration that was done for the 1992 re-issue was released on VHS, followed by the final VHS release (which was also the movie's first release on Disney DVD as well as the first in the Walt Disney Gold Classics Collection VHS\/DVD line) in 1999. The second Disney DVD release (a 60th anniversary) premiered the following year in 2000. The third DVD release and first Blu-ray Disc release (the second Blu-ray in the Walt Disney Platinum Editions series) were released on March 10, 2009 (March 11, 2009 in Australia), and like the 2008 Sleeping Beauty release, the Blu-ray package featured two discs, and a bonus DVD of the movie also included.\n\nHome video release history \n July 16, 1985 (VHS, Betamax and Laserdisc, Classics edition)\n July 16, 1986 (VHS, Betamax and Laserdisc, Hendring UK)\n October 14, 1986 (VHS and Betamax, remastered Classics edition)\n November 3, 1986 (VHS, A.M.T. Video Gems\/Screen Legends UK)\n March 26, 1993 (VHS and Laserdisc, restored Classics edition)\n 1995 (VHS, restored Disney Video UK)\n April 16, 1995 (VHS, Spanish-dubbed Cl\u00e1sicos edition)\n October 26, 1999 (60th Anniversary Edition, as well as a Limited Issue DVD)\n March 7, 2000 (VHS and DVD, Walt Disney Golden Classic Collection)\n March 10, 2009 (70th Anniversary Platinum Edition DVD and Blu-ray)\n February 9, 2016 (Diamond Edition DVD and Blu-ray)\n\nReception \nPinocchio was not successful at the box office when first released, and Disney only earned $1.9 million against a $2.6 million budget. The movie made some success at the American box office, but was not able to profit, due to its poor performance in Europe.  The timing of the move's release was a reason, with World War II cutting off European markets.  Although the United States had not yet gotten into the war, people's interests may have not have meant much among Americans in seeing fantasy stories as they were in the days of Snow White and the 7 Dwarfs.  It also lacked the romance element that had proven popular in Snow White.\n\nNevertheless, there were positive reactions to the movie as well. Archer Winsten, who had criticized Snow White, said that \"The faults (mistakes) that were in Snow White no longer exist. In writing of Pinocchio, you are limited only by your own power of expressing enthusiasm\". Also, despite the poor timing of the release, the movie did do well both critically and at the box office in the United States. Jiminy Cricket's song, \"When You Wish Upon a Star,\" became a major success and still is today, and is the fanfare for The Walt Disney Company. Pinocchio also won the Academy Award for Best Song and the Academy Award for Best Scoring of a Musical Picture. In 1994, Pinocchio was added to the United States National FilmRegistry as being very important in culture,  history, or aesthetic. In 2001 Terry Gilliam picked it as one of the ten best animated movies of all time and in 2005 Time.com named it one of the 100 best movies of the last 80 years. Many movie historians consider this to be the movie that is the closest to technical perfection of all the Disney animated features.\nPinocchio earned $84,254,167 at the box office.\n\nIn June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its \"Ten top Ten\"\u2014the best ten movies in ten \"classic\" American movie genres. After polling over 1,500 people from the creative community, Pinocchio was acknowledged as the second best movie in the animation genre, after Snow White.\n\nSongs \nThe songs in Pinocchio were composed by Leigh Harline, Ned Washington and Oliver Wallace, who had no screen credit as the film conductor while Paul J. Smith composed the incidental music score.\n \"When You Wish upon a Star\" - Jiminy Cricket; Chorus\n \"Little Wooden Head\" - Geppetto\n \"Give a Little Whistle\" - Jiminy Cricket; Pinocchio\n \"Hi-Diddle-Dee-Dee (An Actor's Life for Me)\" - J. Worthington Foulfellow\n \"I've Got No Strings\" - Pinocchio\n \"Hi-Diddle-Dee-Dee (reprise)\" - J. Worthington Foulfellow\n \"When You Wish upon a Star (reprise)\" - Jiminy Cricket; Chorus\n\nOn Classic Disney: 60 Years of Musical Magic, this includes When You Wish upon a Star on the blue disc, Give a Little Whistle on the purple disc, and I've Got No Strings on the orange disc.\nAnd on Disney's Greatest Hits, this also includes When You Wish upon a Star on another blue disc, I've Got No Strings on the green disc, and Give a Little Whistle on the red disc.\n\nSongs written for movie but not used \n \"I'm a Happy-Go-Lucky Fellow\" - Jiminy Cricket (this song eventually showed up in Fun and Fancy Free)\n \"As I Was Saying To the Duchess\" - J. Worthington Foulfellow (this line is spoken briefly by Foulfellow in the movie, however)\n \"Three Cheers For Anything\" - Lampwick; Pinocchio; Alexander; Other Boys\n \"Monstro the Whale\" - Chorus\n \"Honest John\" (this song appears as a bonus feature on the 70th Anniversary Platinum Edition DVD)\n\nTheme park references \n Pinocchio's Daring Journey is a popular ride at Disneyland Park (Anaheim), Tokyo Disneyland, and Disneyland Park (Paris).\n\nIce show \nDisney on ice starring Pinocchio, toured nationally & internationally from 1987 - 1992. A Shorter version of the story is also presented in the current Disney on ice production \"100 Years of Magic\"\n\nDirecting animators \n Fred Moore (Lampwick)\n Frank Thomas (Pinocchio on strings and at the puppet show)\n Ollie Johnston (Pinocchio)\n Milt Kahl (Pinocchio)\n Bill Tytla (Stromboli)\n Ward Kimball (Jiminy Cricket)\n Art Babbitt (Geppetto)\n Wolfgang Reitherman (Monstro)\n Eric Larson (Figaro)\n John Lounsbery (J. Worthington Foulfellow and Gideon)\n\nSequence directors \n Bill Roberts (Monstro)\n Norman Ferguson (Foulfellow and Gideon)\n Jack Kinney (Lampwick)\n Wilfred Jackson (Stromboli)\n T. Hee (Geppetto and Figaro)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Official Site\n \n \n \n \n\n1940 musical movies\nDisney animated movies\nAmerican family movies\n1940s American musical movies\nUnited States National Film Registry movies\nMovies based on books\nMovies composed by Oliver Wallace\nMovies that won the Best Original Song Academy Award","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":25108,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pinocchio%20%281940%20movie%29","title":"Pinocchio (1940 movie)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A patent gives an inventor the right to stop other people making or using their invention.  If someone makes or uses that invention without being allowed to, the inventor can sue that person in court to make them stop.  The inventor can sell the patent to another person or company.\n\nA patent lasts for up to 20 years, depending on the country.  After that, anyone can copy the invention.  \n\nEach country has its own patents.  China gives Chinese patents.  India gives Indian patents.  The United States gives United States patents.  An inventor can get a patent in any country the inventor wants.  An inventor can get patents in many different countries for the same invention.  Each patent in each country costs money to get.\n\nThe rules for patents are similar in most countries.\n\nGetting a patent\nTo get a patent, the inventor must ask the government by describing the invention in writing.  This is called a patent application.  The inventor can write the patent application, but it is usually written by a person trained to write patent applications.  This person is called a patent agent or, if the person is a lawyer, a patent attorney.\n\nThe government does not usually just give the inventor a patent. Instead, the government tries to confirm whether the idea is actually new. This is called patent examination.  The government will try to find books, stories, or other patents that show that the idea was not new. The inventor, or his or her patent attorney, then tries to show how the inventor's idea is actually new and is different from anything that the government finds.\n\nIf the government finds that the inventor's idea is new, it will give the inventor a patent. The government will also send the inventor a copy of his or her patent application with a special seal. This copy is the patent.\n\nThe inventor must also pay the government a tax to get a patent.  Usually, an inventor pays money to ask for the patent, and the inventor pays money when they get a patent.  In some countries, the owner of a patent must also pay money to keep the patent. Some can be cheap and some can be expensive.\n\nUsing a patent \nThe owner of a patent can stop other people from using their invention.  If someone other than the patent owner uses the patent, this is called infringing a patent.  If the owner knows that someone is infringing his or her patent, the patent owner can ask a court to stop them.  If the court agrees that the other person was using the patent, the court can make that person pay a fine to the patent owner.  \n\nThe patent owner can give other people permission to use their patent.  This is called a patent license.  A person who wants to use another person's patent will usually pay money to the patent owner.\n\nWhat can be patented\nPatents most often cover products or processes that contain 'new' functional or technical ideas. They are concerned with how things work, how they are made, or what they are made of. Patents cover many different things such as electronics, medicines, agriculture and transport \u2013 anything in fact, from a small detail in an electric switch to an entire power station.\n\nUsually, to get a patent there are three rules that the idea needs to follow:\nIt must be new, so that nobody else has made the same thing or something similar in the past\nIt must involve an inventive step: this means it is not something that anyone could have easily made\nIt must have an application to the real world: it must be useful.\n\nMarking \nOften a product is marked with a text saying 'patent pending' or 'pat. pending', which means that a patent has been asked for (part of) the product. Then people are warned that they should not copy the invention.\n\nParts of a patent \nPatents are usually very long.  They include a number of smaller parts.  A patent usually includes a section that briefly describes the idea called the abstract.  It also may include a section that describes other people's inventions and how the inventor's idea is different called the \"background of the invention.\"\n\nThe patent also includes a long description of the idea itself called a \"detailed description.\"  In this section, the inventor tries to describe every detail of his or her invention.\n\nThe patent also has a number of pictures called the \"figures.\" The figures are usually drawn by people called draftsman that are trained to draw in a special way.  The pictures are labeled with numbers to show different parts of the invention.\n\nAt the end of most patents is a section called the claims. These are usually numbered. They include a short statement that lists all of the things needed for the invention.  A court will use the claims to decide if another person is \"infringing\" the patent.\n\nRelated pages \nIntellectual property\n\nIntellectual property law\nTechnology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":19139,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patent","title":"Patent","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An organism is an individual living thing. It is easy to recognize a living thing, but not so easy to define it. Animals and plants are organisms, obviously. Organisms are a biotic, or living, part of the environment. Rocks and sunshine are parts of the non-living environment.\n\nOrganisms usually have six basic needs to continue their metabolism. They need air, water, nutrient (food), energy, a place to live, and homeostatsis (being able to maintain itself). However, not all living things need all these at the same time. Some organisms do not need access to air at all.\n\nThe characteristics of living things are if they have cells, take and use energy, grow and develop, share similar chemicals, sense and resond to change (stimulus), and if they reproduce.\n\nA little thought is needed about viruses. There is no agreement as to whether they should be regarded as living. They are made of protein and nucleic acid, and they evolve, which is a really important fact. However, they exist in two quite different phases. One phase is dormant, not active. The other is inside a living cell of some other organism. Then the virus is very active reproducing itself. Consider the parallel with a computer program. When in use it is active; when it is not, it is completely inactive. It is still a program all the same.\n\nAnother example from biology is the spore, which is a distribution phase of a bacteria, fungus or some plants. They are not active until they get to the right situation. They have all the working parts to build a complete organism, but for the moment it is switched off.\n\nSome organisms are made up of millions of cells. They are multicellular organisms. Many can be seen without using a microscope.\n\nMost organisms are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. You need a microscope to see them. They are called microorganisms. Organisms can be made up of just one cell. They are called unicellular organisms or single celled organisms. Examples include bacteria, and protozoa such as the Amoeba and Paramecium.\n\nOrigin\nThe Tree of Life project works on the relationships between living things. Identifying a LUCA (last universal common ancestor) is one of its main aims. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Palaeoarchaean era).\n\n A universal common ancestor is at least 102860 times more probable than having multiple ancestors.\n A model with a single common ancestor but allowing for some gene swapping among species was... 103489 times more probable than the best multi-ancestor model...\n\nThe idea came from Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, \"Therefore... probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form...\"\n\nRelated pages\n\n Earliest known life forms\n Origin of life\n Morphology (biology)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n \n About the Tree of Life Web Project\n Maddison D.R. et al 2007. The Tree of Life Web Project. Pages 19-40 in: Zhang Z.-Q. & Shear W.A., eds. Linnaeus Tercentenary: progress in invertebrate taxonomy. Zootaxa 1668:1-766. Open Access PDF\n\nAn organism is an individual living thing. It is easy to recognize a living thing, but not so easy to define it. Animals and plants are organisms, obviously. Organisms are a biotic, or living, part of the environment. Rocks and sunshine are parts of the non-living environment.\n\nOrganisms usually have six basic needs to continue their metabolism. They need air, water, nutrient (food), energy, a place to live, and homeostatsis (being able to maintain itself). However, not all living things need all these at the same time. Some organisms do not need access to air at all.\n\nThe characteristics of living things are if they have cells, take and use energy, grow and develop, share similar chemicals, sense and resond to change (stimulus), and if they reproduce.\n\nA little thought is needed about viruses. There is no agreement as to whether they should be regarded as living. They are made of protein and nucleic acid, and they evolve, which is a really important fact. However, they exist in two quite different phases. One phase is dormant, not active. The other is inside a living cell of some other organism. Then the virus is very active reproducing itself. Consider the parallel with a computer program. When in use it is active; when it is not, it is completely inactive. It is still a program all the same.\n\nAnother example from biology is the spore, which is a distribution phase of a bacteria, fungus or some plants. They are not active until they get to the right situation. They have all the working parts to build a complete organism, but for the moment it is switched off.\n\nSome organisms are made up of millions of cells. They are multicellular organisms. Many can be seen without using a microscope.\n\nMost organisms are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. You need a microscope to see them. They are called microorganisms. Organisms can be made up of just one cell. They are called unicellular organisms or single celled organisms. Examples include bacteria, and protozoa such as the Amoeba and Paramecium.\n\nOrigin\nThe Tree of Life project works on the relationships between living things. Identifying a LUCA (last universal common ancestor) is one of its main aims. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Palaeoarchaean era).\n\n A universal common ancestor is at least 102860 times more probable than having multiple ancestors.\n A model with a single common ancestor but allowing for some gene swapping among species was... 103489 times more probable than the best multi-ancestor model...\n\nThe idea came from Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, \"Therefore... probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form...\"\n\nRelated pages\n\n Earliest known life forms\n Origin of life\n Morphology (biology)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n \n About the Tree of Life Web Project\n Maddison D.R. et al 2007. The Tree of Life Web Project. Pages 19-40 in: Zhang Z.-Q. & Shear W.A., eds. Linnaeus Tercentenary: progress in invertebrate taxonomy. Zootaxa 1668:1-766. Open Access PDF\n\nAn organism is an individual living thing. It is easy to recognize a living thing, but not so easy to define it. Animals and plants are organisms, obviously. Organisms are a biotic, or living, part of the environment. Rocks and sunshine are parts of the non-living environment.\n\nOrganisms usually have six basic needs to continue their metabolism. They need air, water, nutrient (food), energy, a place to live, and homeostatsis (being able to maintain itself). However, not all living things need all these at the same time. Some organisms do not need access to air at all.\n\nThe characteristics of living things are if they have cells, take and use energy, grow and develop, share similar chemicals, sense and resond to change (stimulus), and if they reproduce.\n\nA little thought is needed about viruses. There is no agreement as to whether they should be regarded as living. They are made of protein and nucleic acid, and they evolve, which is a really important fact. However, they exist in two quite different phases. One phase is dormant, not active. The other is inside a living cell of some other organism. Then the virus is very active reproducing itself. Consider the parallel with a computer program. When in use it is active; when it is not, it is completely inactive. It is still a program all the same.\n\nAnother example from biology is the spore, which is a distribution phase of a bacteria, fungus or some plants. They are not active until they get to the right situation. They have all the working parts to build a complete organism, but for the moment it is switched off.\n\nSome organisms are made up of millions of cells. They are multicellular organisms. Many can be seen without using a microscope.\n\nMost organisms are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. You need a microscope to see them. They are called microorganisms. Organisms can be made up of just one cell. They are called unicellular organisms or single celled organisms. Examples include bacteria, and protozoa such as the Amoeba and Paramecium.\n\nOrigin\nThe Tree of Life project works on the relationships between living things. Identifying a LUCA (last universal common ancestor) is one of its main aims. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Palaeoarchaean era).\n\n A universal common ancestor is at least 102860 times more probable than having multiple ancestors.\n A model with a single common ancestor but allowing for some gene swapping among species was... 103489 times more probable than the best multi-ancestor model...\n\nThe idea came from Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, \"Therefore... probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form...\"\n\nRelated pages\n\n Earliest known life forms\n Origin of life\n Morphology (biology)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n \n About the Tree of Life Web Project\n Maddison D.R. et al 2007. The Tree of Life Web Project. Pages 19-40 in: Zhang Z.-Q. & Shear W.A., eds. Linnaeus Tercentenary: progress in invertebrate taxonomy. Zootaxa 1668:1-766. Open Access PDF\n\nAn organism is an individual living thing. It is easy to recognize a living thing, but not so easy to define it. Animals and plants are organisms, obviously. Organisms are a biotic, or living, part of the environment. Rocks and sunshine are parts of the non-living environment.\n\nOrganisms usually have six basic needs to continue their metabolism. They need air, water, nutrient (food), energy, a place to live, and homeostatsis (being able to maintain itself). However, not all living things need all these at the same time. Some organisms do not need access to air at all.\n\nThe characteristics of living things are if they have cells, take and use energy, grow and develop, share similar chemicals, sense and resond to change (stimulus), and if they reproduce.\n\nA little thought is needed about viruses. There is no agreement as to whether they should be regarded as living. They are made of protein and nucleic acid, and they evolve, which is a really important fact. However, they exist in two quite different phases. One phase is dormant, not active. The other is inside a living cell of some other organism. Then the virus is very active reproducing itself. Consider the parallel with a computer program. When in use it is active; when it is not, it is completely inactive. It is still a program all the same.\n\nAnother example from biology is the spore, which is a distribution phase of a bacteria, fungus or some plants. They are not active until they get to the right situation. They have all the working parts to build a complete organism, but for the moment it is switched off.\n\nSome organisms are made up of millions of cells. They are multicellular organisms. Many can be seen without using a microscope.\n\nMost organisms are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. You need a microscope to see them. They are called microorganisms. Organisms can be made up of just one cell. They are called unicellular organisms or single celled organisms. Examples include bacteria, and protozoa such as the Amoeba and Paramecium.\n\nOrigin\nThe Tree of Life project works on the relationships between living things. Identifying a LUCA (last universal common ancestor) is one of its main aims. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Palaeoarchaean era).\n\n A universal common ancestor is at least 102860 times more probable than having multiple ancestors.\n A model with a single common ancestor but allowing for some gene swapping among species was... 103489 times more probable than the best multi-ancestor model...\n\nThe idea came from Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, \"Therefore... probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form...\"\n\nRelated pages\n\n Earliest known life forms\n Origin of life\n Morphology (biology)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n \n About the Tree of Life Web Project\n Maddison D.R. et al 2007. The Tree of Life Web Project. Pages 19-40 in: Zhang Z.-Q. & Shear W.A., eds. Linnaeus Tercentenary: progress in invertebrate taxonomy. Zootaxa 1668:1-766. Open Access PDF\n\nAn organism is an individual living thing. It is easy to recognize a living thing, but not so easy to define it. Animals and plants are organisms, obviously. Organisms are a biotic, or living, part of the environment. Rocks and sunshine are parts of the non-living environment.\n\nOrganisms usually have six basic needs to continue their metabolism. They need air, water, nutrient (food), energy, a place to live, and homeostatsis (being able to maintain itself). However, not all living things need all these at the same time. Some organisms do not need access to air at all.\n\nThe characteristics of living things are if they have cells, take and use energy, grow and develop, share similar chemicals, sense and resond to change (stimulus), and if they reproduce.\n\nA little thought is needed about viruses. There is no agreement as to whether they should be regarded as living. They are made of protein and nucleic acid, and they evolve, which is a really important fact. However, they exist in two quite different phases. One phase is dormant, not active. The other is inside a living cell of some other organism. Then the virus is very active reproducing itself. Consider the parallel with a computer program. When in use it is active; when it is not, it is completely inactive. It is still a program all the same.\n\nAnother example from biology is the spore, which is a distribution phase of a bacteria, fungus or some plants. They are not active until they get to the right situation. They have all the working parts to build a complete organism, but for the moment it is switched off.\n\nSome organisms are made up of millions of cells. They are multicellular organisms. Many can be seen without using a microscope.\n\nMost organisms are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. You need a microscope to see them. They are called microorganisms. Organisms can be made up of just one cell. They are called unicellular organisms or single celled organisms. Examples include bacteria, and protozoa such as the Amoeba and Paramecium.\n\nOrigin\nThe Tree of Life project works on the relationships between living things. Identifying a LUCA (last universal common ancestor) is one of its main aims. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Palaeoarchaean era).\n\n A universal common ancestor is at least 102860 times more probable than having multiple ancestors.\n A model with a single common ancestor but allowing for some gene swapping among species was... 103489 times more probable than the best multi-ancestor model...\n\nThe idea came from Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, \"Therefore... probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form...\"\n\nRelated pages\n\n Earliest known life forms\n Origin of life\n Morphology (biology)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n \n About the Tree of Life Web Project\n Maddison D.R. et al 2007. The Tree of Life Web Project. Pages 19-40 in: Zhang Z.-Q. & Shear W.A., eds. Linnaeus Tercentenary: progress in invertebrate taxonomy. Zootaxa 1668:1-766. Open Access PDF\n\nAn organism is an individual living thing. It is easy to recognize a living thing, but not so easy to define it. Animals and plants are organisms, obviously. Organisms are a biotic, or living, part of the environment. Rocks and sunshine are parts of the non-living environment.\n\nOrganisms usually have six basic needs to continue their metabolism. They need air, water, nutrient (food), energy, a place to live, and homeostatsis (being able to maintain itself). However, not all living things need all these at the same time. Some organisms do not need access to air at all.\n\nThe characteristics of living things are if they have cells, take and use energy, grow and develop, share similar chemicals, sense and resond to change (stimulus), and if they reproduce.\n\nA little thought is needed about viruses. There is no agreement as to whether they should be regarded as living. They are made of protein and nucleic acid, and they evolve, which is a really important fact. However, they exist in two quite different phases. One phase is dormant, not active. The other is inside a living cell of some other organism. Then the virus is very active reproducing itself. Consider the parallel with a computer program. When in use it is active; when it is not, it is completely inactive. It is still a program all the same.\n\nAnother example from biology is the spore, which is a distribution phase of a bacteria, fungus or some plants. They are not active until they get to the right situation. They have all the working parts to build a complete organism, but for the moment it is switched off.\n\nSome organisms are made up of millions of cells. They are multicellular organisms. Many can be seen without using a microscope.\n\nMost organisms are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. You need a microscope to see them. They are called microorganisms. Organisms can be made up of just one cell. They are called unicellular organisms or single celled organisms. Examples include bacteria, and protozoa such as the Amoeba and Paramecium.\n\nOrigin\nThe Tree of Life project works on the relationships between living things. Identifying a LUCA (last universal common ancestor) is one of its main aims. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Palaeoarchaean era).\n\n A universal common ancestor is at least 102860 times more probable than having multiple ancestors.\n A model with a single common ancestor but allowing for some gene swapping among species was... 103489 times more probable than the best multi-ancestor model...\n\nThe idea came from Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, \"Therefore... probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form...\"\n\nRelated pages\n\n Earliest known life forms\n Origin of life\n Morphology (biology)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n \n About the Tree of Life Web Project\n Maddison D.R. et al 2007. The Tree of Life Web Project. Pages 19-40 in: Zhang Z.-Q. & Shear W.A., eds. Linnaeus Tercentenary: progress in invertebrate taxonomy. Zootaxa 1668:1-766. Open Access PDF\n\nAn organism is an individual living thing. It is easy to recognize a living thing, but not so easy to define it. Animals and plants are organisms, obviously. Organisms are a biotic, or living, part of the environment. Rocks and sunshine are parts of the non-living environment.\n\nOrganisms usually have six basic needs to continue their metabolism. They need air, water, nutrient (food), energy, a place to live, and homeostatsis (being able to maintain itself). However, not all living things need all these at the same time. Some organisms do not need access to air at all.\n\nThe characteristics of living things are if they have cells, take and use energy, grow and develop, share similar chemicals, sense and resond to change (stimulus), and if they reproduce.\n\nA little thought is needed about viruses. There is no agreement as to whether they should be regarded as living. They are made of protein and nucleic acid, and they evolve, which is a really important fact. However, they exist in two quite different phases. One phase is dormant, not active. The other is inside a living cell of some other organism. Then the virus is very active reproducing itself. Consider the parallel with a computer program. When in use it is active; when it is not, it is completely inactive. It is still a program all the same.\n\nAnother example from biology is the spore, which is a distribution phase of a bacteria, fungus or some plants. They are not active until they get to the right situation. They have all the working parts to build a complete organism, but for the moment it is switched off.\n\nSome organisms are made up of millions of cells. They are multicellular organisms. Many can be seen without using a microscope.\n\nMost organisms are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. You need a microscope to see them. They are called microorganisms. Organisms can be made up of just one cell. They are called unicellular organisms or single celled organisms. Examples include bacteria, and protozoa such as the Amoeba and Paramecium.\n\nOrigin\nThe Tree of Life project works on the relationships between living things. Identifying a LUCA (last universal common ancestor) is one of its main aims. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Palaeoarchaean era).\n\nA universal common ancestor is at least 102860 times more probable than having multiple ancestors.\nA model with a single common ancestor but allowing for some gene swapping among species was... 103489 times more probable than the best multi-ancestor model...\nThe idea came from Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, \"Therefore... probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form...\"\n\nRelated pages\n Earliest known life forms\n Origin of life\n Morphology (biology)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\nAbout the Tree of Life Web Project\nMaddison D.R. et al 2007. The Tree of Life Web Project. Pages 19-40 in: Zhang Z.-Q. & Shear W.A., eds. Linnaeus Tercentenary: progress in invertebrate taxonomy. Zootaxa 1668:1-766. Open Access PDF\n\nBiology\nOrganisms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":165,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":5812,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organism","title":"Organism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Platonic realism is the theory of reality developed by Plato, and explained in his theory of forms. Platonic realism states that the visible world of particular things is a shifting exhibition, like shadows cast on a wall by the activities of their corresponding universal Ideas or Forms. Whereas the visible world of particulars is unreal, the Forms occupy the unobservable yet true reality and are real.\n\nPlatonism is a similar, yet sometimes modified, view of reality.\n\nOrigin \n\nAmong the natural philosophers in ancient Greece, the problem of universals was the mystery of where particular things derive their traits that we perceive as universals\u2014for instance red or apple or good or woman or truth.\n\nPlato explained that the particular things of the visible world are imperfect, transient copies of the universal Ideas that are the perfect, lasting Forms. Existing exist outside space and time, the Forms are the universals and act as templates from which particulars manifest.\n\nIn his Metaphysics, Aristotle, a student of Plato, explained that Socrates and his own student Plato held it significant that the world is in flux, much as Heraclitus had commented, \"You cannot step into the same river twice\", a theme of the Eleatics, a group of pre-socratic philosophers.\n\nInfluence\n\nPlato's quest \nPlato considered that only the mind could access the timeless reality of truths, the realm of the Forms casting the visible world. Plato's metaphorical allegory of the cave\u2014whereby humans only know reality as shadows of the real things they see interacting on a wall\u2014suggests the practical consequences of Platonic realism as to natural philosophy in its endeavor to explain the natural world and as to values (theories of which often comprises ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy) in human society.\n\nPlato had led the focused application of geometry, developed by Euclid, to explain the natural world. Yet by his view of nature, Plato regarded astronomy as similar to seeking a theoretical proof in geometry\u2014abstract and not the real world\u2014whereupon the mind's insights derived from a quest to hold other truths through the mind's probing of ethics and aesthetics would yield discovery of truths within the realm of Forms, outside space and time.\n\nAristotle's answer \n\nAristotle, a student of Plato, answered the problem of universals differently. Aristotle explained that universals are concepts corresponding to traits borne and shared by the particular things themselves. Aristotle did not regard all reality as visible, as he recognized existence of souls, yet regarded souls as unobserved parts of the visible world, real in itself. Aristotelianism largely shaped the course of Western thought.\n\nAristotle developed a more or less full description and explanation of the natural world and developed logic\u2014syllogistic logic\u2014to derive conclusions of the relations among things. Aristotle's grounding in the visible world was a metaphysical approach that suggested what evolved by some 2000 years later into empirical science.\n\nPlatonism \n \nSome mathematicians and physicists are Platonists, for instance Max Tegmark and Roger Penrose. Yet today's Platonists usually view entities within the visible world as real, and simply regard universal abstractions like numbers, sets, propositions, and geometry as corresponding to real and timeless entities that also exist, though pure Platonists regard only the Forms or their realm as real.\n\nBy way of string theory and the holographic principle, some physicists conjecture that Plato's allegory of the cave approximates the natural world's structure. Tegmark, who regards only the mathematical structure of the universe as real, has been called a radical Platonist.\n\nNotes\n\nPhilosophical movements and positions\nReality","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-10":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-10":1}},"id":623,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Platonic%20realism","title":"Platonic realism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A reward is getting something good for doing a given task.  It needs someone who has the power to give the good thing. It is the opposite of punishment.\n\nIdeas like risk and reward, reward and punishment are based on the idea that people do things, or avoid doing things, to get rewards. In psychology there is another idea that this is not true. This other idea says that training (conditioning) and emotions (affective factors) are much more important than the rewards or punishments given by others.\n\nIn trying to catch criminals and other bad people, the government often offers money to people. This money is given to people who may capture the criminal, or give information that helps the police catch them. For example, after the Eureka Stockade rebellion in Ballarat, Victoria in 1854, the government offered a big reward of 400 pounds for the capture of the people who had started it.\n\nIn 2001, the US government offered a big reward of 2.5 million dollars for help in capturing the person who had sent anthrax in letters to a newspaper journalist and 2 senators. Anthrax is a disease which can kill people.\n\nRelated pages\n Carrot and Stick\n\nReferences\n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":677,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reward","title":"Reward","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"S.C. Corinthians Paulista is a football club which plays in Brazil.\n\nHistory \nFootball (soccer) had already established itself as the popular new sport in Brazil and when the dry season came and the fields dried out they were soon filled with lovers of the new game. S\u00e3o Paulo's sporting elite had formed several clubs,Germ\u00e2nia, Paulistano and Campos El\u00edseos among them, but access to the game was still largely restricted to the city's well off.\n\nFirst members \n\nSo a group of working class fans - painter and decorators Joaquim Ambr\u00f3sio, Ant\u00f4nio Pereira and C\u00e9sar Nunes; cobbler Rafael Perrone; driver Anselmo Correia; foundry worker; Alexandre Magnani: cook Salvador Lopomo; labourer Jo\u00e3o da Silva and tailor Ant\u00f4nio Nunes - decided to start their own team. Bataglia decided to get involved he was named the club's first president.\n\nName \nThe new club needed a name. Joaquim Ambr\u00f3sio suggested they call themselves after the Corinthians Casuals Football Club, the famous English team that was then on tour in Brazil. The press and fans in Brazil who were following the tour shortened the English club's name to Corinthian's Team and so the founders did away with the aopstrophe and the club won its elegant name Corinthians.\n\nNickames \nCorinthians is also known as Big Team, Coring\u00e3o, The Musketeer and Champion of the Champions.\n\nColours \nFinally, the club picked colours. The club's first strip was beige with black trim and had the distinctive letters \"C\" and \"P\" for Corinthians Paulista. However, when the strips were washed, the black bled into the beige. The directors could not afford to keep buying new strips every time the colours ran so they decided to change their colours. They swapped the beige for white. In present-day, the colours of Corinthians are Black and White.\n\nStadium \nThe name of Corinthians\u00b4s stadium is Arena Corinthians, also known as Itaquer\u00e3o and with a capacity crowd of 68,000.\n\n1st match \nThe team from Varzea Paulista. Playing away from home in their first match, Corinthians were expected to lose heavily but they showed they were not there just to make up the numbers and they battled hard before narrowly going down by a goal to nil.\n\nSecond match and first win \nThe defeat turned out to be a one-off. Four days later, Corinthians proved they would be a name to be reckoned with and beat Estrela Polar 2-0. The honour of scoring the club's first goal went to striker Lu\u00eds Fabi, who wrote himself into the history books by grabbing the opener. They followed the match with an unbeaten streak that lasted two years.\n\nThe \"big league\" \nThey then won 1-0 away at Minas Gerais and then beat S\u00e3o Paulo do Bexiga 4-0 at home. They had secured their place in the big league.\n\nThings got even better the following year and in 1914 a dynasty took hold. In just their second Paulista Championship, Corinthians destroyed the competition and won all 10 games, scoring 39 times in the process. Neco ended the tournament's top goalscorer with 12 goals.\n\nThreepeats \nCorinthians picked up yet another Paulista Championship in 1922 but this victory had something special about it. The winner took the title not only of Paulista Champions but also of Centenary Champions, a title they would hold for at least the next 100 years.\n\nBy this time, winning the Paulista was becoming routine. The team won the league three years in a row in 1922, 1923 and 1924 under the command of Neco, the club's first great idol, and would do so again in 1928, 1929 and 1930.\n\nRivalry \nThe great and only rival of Corinthians is Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras. This is the most derbie and traditional rivalry in Brazilian football. The fans of Corinthians called Palmeiras as a pig and the fans of palmeiras called Corinthians as a skunk.\n\nProblems \nHowever, and between 1931 and 1934 a series of bad results left the team trailing. Corinthians lost to all their big rivals of the time and failed to make an impression in the league, never finishing higher than fourth.\n\nSolutions \nThe turnaround came in 1937, and for the rest of the decade there was only one team in the state. Corinthians won the Paulista Championship in 1937, 1938 and 1939 to become the first team ever to win three back-to-back titles three times. Even today, no other team has managed to equal such a feat. The man who led the way was centre-forward Teleco. One of the club's greatest ever goalscorers, he topped the scoring charts in 1937 and 1939. The former year he scored almost half the club's goals, while in the latter he got an amazing 60 percent.\n\n100th Goal \nThe 100-goal attack made history not only for the club but also for the league. In 1951, a front line made up of Carbone, Cl\u00e1udio, Luizinho, Baltazar and M\u00e1rio scored 103 goals in 30 games in the Paulista Championship, an average of 3.43 per game. The title was theirs, as was the trophy for top goalscorer, which went to Carbone, who got 30 of the team's goals.\n\nAwards \nIn the years that followed, more titles were added to the growing trophy room at Parque S\u00e3o Jorge. In 1952, the Tim\u00e3o won the Paulista Championship for the second successive year, with Baltazar finishing top scorer. In 1953, they took the Rio-S\u00e3o Paulo title and the Little World Cup - the club's first international title - and in 1954 they walked off with another Rio-S\u00e3o Paulo as well as the Paulista do IV centen\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Paulo. In 1956 and 1957, they won the Invencible Trophy, the cup given to the team that went the longest number of games undefeated.\n\nThe Corinthians Invasion \nIn 1976, Corinthians almost won their first Brazilian League title and the club's fans played a starring role in one of the most memorable moments in footballing history. Corinthians were drawn against Fluminense in the semi-finals of the league play offs at the Maracan\u00e3. More than 70,000 Corinthians fans made the six-hour trip up the motorway to Rio de Janeiro in a massive convoy that was christened the \"Corinthians Invasion.\"\n\n10.13.1977\t\nCorinthians won the first game but lost the second and so needed to win a third and deciding match to take the title. It was quite a struggle, with the match goalless until the 81st minute. Then, a Z\u00e9 Maria free kick was directed onto the bar by Vaguinho. Wladimir headed the rebound back towards goal where Oscar was on hand to knock it off the line. The ball fell to Bas\u00edlio in the area and he hammered it into the net and gave Corinthians the goal they so desperately wanted. The 1977 Paulista Championship was theirs.\n\nThe Democracy team \nThe Tim\u00e3o was always one of the most important clubs in Brazil. But the Corinthians Democracy movement was unique in world football. Through organisation, team spirit and democracy, they did something no other team has managed before or since. When players as politically and socially conscientious as S\u00f3crates, Wladimir, Casagrande and Zenon get together then there are bound to be changes in the dressing room. Those four stars were the driving force behind the greatest ideological movement in the history of Brazilian football: Corinthians Democracy. And this in the middle of the country's military dictatorship. Corinthians Democracy did something that seemed impossible. Through football, the most popular sport in the country, they got people talking about all sorts of important and relevant questions concerning society, democracy and the end of military rule. In addition to that not inconsiderable feat, they showed that it was possible to create a society in which everyone's opinions are heard and respected and where democracy, through the imposition of the wishes of the majority, could prevail. They won the Paulista Championship in 1982 and 1983, beating city rivals S\u00e3o Paulo both times. In 1982, they battled back after losing the first game 3-2 to take the next two matches 1-0 and 3-1 and lift the trophy. The next year they won again, thanks to a series of brilliant performances from S\u00f3crates. The good doctor scored all the team's goals in the semi-finals against Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras (1-1 and 1-0) as well as in the final against S\u00e3o Paulo Futebol Clube (1-0 and 1-1). His four goals brought the team their 19th Paulista Championship.\n\nGlorious Decade \nThe 1990s was to prove a glorious decade for Corinthians, who captured three Brazilian Championships (in 1990 beating S\u00e3o Paulo Futebol Clube, in 1998 beating Cruzeiro and in 1999 led the championship since the beginning at the finished and beating Atl\u00e9tico Mineiro at the final game), three State Championships (in 1995 beating Palmeiras, in 1997 beating S\u00e3o Paulo and 1999 beating Palmeiras again) and a Brazilian Cup (in 1995 beating Gr\u00eamio) in quick succession.\n\nFIFA Club World Championship \nIn 2000, Corinthians, who captured FIFA Club World Championship victory against Vasco da Gama(win 4-3 on penalties) at the Maracan\u00e3 Stadium. This match had attendance of 73,000 peoples. This is the most important title of Corinthians. Corinthians played the final game with Dida, \u00cdndio, F\u00e1bio Luciano, Ad\u00edlson & Kl\u00e9ber; Vampeta (Gilmar), Rinc\u00f3n, Marcelinho Carioca & Ricardinho (Edu); Ed\u00edlson (Fernando Baiano) & Luiz\u00e3o. \nCoach: Oswaldo de Oliveira\n\nNew Era \nThe final months of 2004 marked a new era for the Tim\u00e3o and for Brazilian football. The partnership between MSI and Corinthians revolutionised the game and brought internationalists like Carlos T\u00e9vez, Javier Mascherano, Roger, Carlos Alberto and Gustavo Nery to the club. The future was bright for the club and fans could not help but feel optimistic they would enjoy many more triumphs in the coming years.\n\nAnd so it proved, with success coming quicker than they could have hoped for. Led by Argentine star Carlos T\u00e9vez, the Tim\u00e3o had a sensational league campaign in 2005 and won their fourth Brazilian League Title in 2005.\n\nMore signings \nMore new signings were made in 2006 with Ricardinho, Rafael Moura and goalkeeper Silvio Luiz coming to the club in a bid to strengthen a squad that would be competing for another Brazilian League title and the Copa Libertadores.\n\nHonours \n 2 FIFA Club World Championship: 2000, 2012.\n 1 Trophy Ram\u00f3n de Carranza: 1996.\n 1 Trophy International Charles M\u00fcller: 1955. \n 1 Little World Cup: 1953.\n 6 Brazilian Championships: 1990, 1998, 1999, 2005, 2011, 2015.\n 1 Brazilian Championship B: 2008\n 3 Brazilian Cups: 1995, 2002, 2009.\n 5 Rio-S\u00e3o Paulo Tournaments: 1950, 1953, 1954, 1966, 2002.\n 27 S\u00e3o Paulo State Championships: 1914, 1916, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1941, 1951, 1952, 1954, 1977, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1988, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2009, 2013.\n 1 Libertadores Cup: 2012.\n\nPlayers\nAs July 24, 2012.\n\nFirst team squad\n\nLegendary players \nNeco (1913-30), Teleco (1933-44), Serv\u00edlio (1938-48), Domingos da Guia (1944-48), Cl\u00e1udio (1945-57), Baltazar (1947-58), Luizinho (1949-62 & 1964-67), Gilmar (1951-61), Rivelino (1965-74), S\u00f3crates (1978-84), Daniel Gonz\u00e1lez (1982), Dunga (1984-85), Neto (1989-93), Carlos Gamarra (1998-99), Dida (1999-2001), Marcelinho Carioca (1993-97, 1998-2001), Ed\u00edlson (1997-2000), Luiz\u00e3o (1999-2002), Carlos T\u00e9vez (2005-06), Ronaldo (2009), Roberto Carlos (2010), Emerson Sheik (2011-2012).\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Official Home Page  (in Portuguese) \n FIFA Home Page \n About Corinthians vs. Palmeiras\n\nFootball clubs in S\u00e3o Paulo (state)\n1910 establishments in South America\n1910s establishments in Brazil","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":59132,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sport%20Club%20Corinthians%20Paulista","title":"Sport Club Corinthians Paulista","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A wavelength is the length of the shortest repeating part of a \"sine wave\". All waves can be formed by adding up sine waves. That is, every wave is a total of sine waves, which may be identified by Fourier analysis. It is also known as the distance between a crest and another crest of a wave (highest point above equilibrium) or the distance between a trough and another trough of a wave (lowest point below the equilibrium of a wave).\n\nExamples of waves \nWaves are everywhere.  Examples of waves include:\n sound\n electromagnetic spectrum including\n radio wave\n light\n water waves such as ocean surface waves\n earthquake waves\n\n\"Length\" of a sine wave\nThe sine wave has a pattern that repeats. The length of this repeating piece of the sine wave is called the wavelength. The wavelength can be found by measuring the length or distance between one peak of a sine wave and the next peak. The wavelength can be found in many other ways too.  As the frequency of a wave increases, the wavelength decreases Thus, the frequency and wavelength are in inverse proportionality.   \n\nThere are other properties of waves and sine waves, such as their frequency, amplitude, phase, and speed.\n\nA symbol used for wavelength most often is the Greek letter lambda (\u03bb).\n\nWave physics\nMechanical vibrations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2023-50":1}},"id":23389,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wavelength","title":"Wavelength","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Musicology means the study of music by a scholar. A scholar is an academic person, often a professor or lecturer at a university.  Someone who studies musicology is a Musicologist.\n\nMusicologists study all kinds of music. They study the history of music and learn about all the composers and how they developed their ideas and learned from one another. They can do this by studying music scores, or by looking for historical documents which tell us about musicians from the past. Musicologists may also study the philosophy of music (thinking about what music means).  \n\nThey write articles in musical journals or books on music. This can help us to know and understand more about the music we play or listen to.\n\nRelated pages\nAcoustics\nMusic school\nMusic theory\n\nReferences\n\n \nHumanities","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":87188,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Musicology","title":"Musicology","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Operation Overlord was the 1944 campaign for the invasion of continental Europe in World War II. It was fought by the Allied forces against German forces. The most critical part was the Normandy landings, which were to get the Allied armies onto the mainland of Europe. That might have failed, and heavy casualties were expected, even if it succeeded.\n\nThe Battle of Normandy raged until German forces retreated across the Seine on 30 August 1944, which marked the close of Operation Overlord.\n\nThe main Allied forces came from the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. Nine other nations also sent units: Australia, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Greece, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, and Poland.\n\nPreparations were large and complex. Operation Overlord was the largest and deadliest amphibious assault in the history of warfare. Almost three million troops crossed the English Channel from England to Normandy, in German-occupied France.\n\nPlans for D-Day \n\nAllied troops made many practice landings to understand how to land correctly.\n\nMaps of the beaches of Normandy were created. The planners knew that heavy tanks and transport could not travel on the beaches, which had soft peat underneath them. Detailed maps of the area were required. If peat had to be travelled on, the plan was to lay down matting.\n\nOn 7 April and 15 May, Bernard Montgomery presented his plan for the invasion. He planned a 90-day battle, ending when all the forces reached the Seine.\n\nThe goal for the first 40 days was to capture Caen and Cherbourg, the latter for its important deep-water port. Then, Brittany and its Atlantic ports would be captured. Railways and roads in northern France would be bombed to block reinforcements for the defenders. Next, the Allies would go 125 miles (190\u00a0km) to the southwest of Paris. The Allies would then control the land between the Loire River in the south and Seine River in the northeast.\n\nMeanwhile, the Allies made great efforts to make the Germans think that the invasion would happen elsewhere.\n\nTechnology \nThe Allies developed new technology for Overlord. The \"mulberry\", a mobile concrete harbor, allowed the Allies to supply their soldiers on the beach without capturing one of the heavily defended Channel ports. Major-General Percy Hobart, a military engineer, designed modified Sherman and Churchill tanks.\n\nDeception \n\nIn the months leading up to the invasion, the Allies worked at military deception. German coastal defences were stretched thinly in 1944. Once Normandy had been chosen as the site of the invasion, it was decided to attempt to trick the Germans into thinking it was a fake invasion and that the true invasion was to be elsewhere. That was called Operation Bodyguard. In the weeks leading up to the invasion, the Allies tried to make the Germans think that the main invasion would take place at the Pas de Calais and in Norway. The deception was an industry in itself since it included dummy messages, dummy tanks in places near Dover and the southern coast of England, using double agents to spread false information, dummy radio messages, and so on.\n\nThe deception was highly successful. It led Hitler to delay sending reinforcements from the Pas de Calais region for nearly seven weeks (the original plan had specified 14 days). In his memoirs, General Omar Bradley called Bodyguard the \"single biggest hoax of the war\".\n\nRehearsals and security \nAllied forces rehearsed their roles for D-Day months before the invasion. On 28 April 1944, in south Devon on the British coast, 946 American soldiers and sailors were killed when German torpedo boats attacked one of these landing exercises, Exercise Tiger.\n\nThe security of D-Day was supported by stopping unplanned news from getting out of Britain. Travel to and from the Republic of Ireland was banned and movements near the coasts was not allowed. The German embassies and consulates in neutral countries were given false information.\n\nAll the same, there were several leaks before or on D-Day. An embassy spy in Istanbul gave the Germans documents containing references to Overlord, but these documents lacked detail. Another leak was General Charles de Gaulle's radio message after D-Day. He stated that this invasion was the real invasion. This had the potential to ruin the Allied tricks. Eisenhower referred to the landings as the initial invasion. The Germans did not believe de Gaulle and waited too long to move in extra troops against the Allies.\n\nAllied invasion plan\n\nThe British did an airborne assault on the River Orne. The British goal was to capture the Orne River bridges to prevent German armor from using them and to prevent retreating Germans from blowing them up. This way, they could be used by Allied armor and vehicles.\n\nThe British sea attack units would attack through Sword and Gold Beaches. The United States had an airborne division and land units, which were to take Omaha Beach, the Pointe du Hoc and Utah Beach. The Canadians would work with British units to attack Sword Beach. The British and Canadians had separate beaches, Gold Beach and Juno Beach, respectively.\n\nThe Invasion Fleet was made upfrom eight navies made up of warships and submarines, split into the Western Naval Task Force (Rear-Admiral Alan G Kirk) and the Eastern Naval Task Force (Rear-Admiral Sir Philip Vian). The fleet was led by Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay.\n\nCodenames\nThe Allies assigned codenames to the various operations involved in the invasion. Overlord was the name for the landing on the Continent (that is, western Europe). Getting a secure hold on the area was codenamed Neptune. It began on D-Day (6 June 1944) and ended on 30 June 1944. By this time, the Allies had control in Normandy. Operation Overlord also began on D-Day, and continued until Allied forces crossed the river Seine on 19 August 1944.\n\nGerman preparations and defenses\n\nAtlantic Wall \n\nThrough most of 1942 and 1943, the Germans thought successful Allied invasion in the west would not happen. Preparations were limited to building fortifications at the major ports. The number of military forces in Nazi Germany reached its peak during 1944 with 59 divisions in France, Belgium and the Netherlands.\n\nField Marshal Erwin Rommel was in charge of the wall. He improved the defences of the entire coastline. Steel obstacles were put on beaches, concrete bunkers and pillboxes constructed, and low-lying areas were flooded. Pointed stakes were set up on likely landing grounds to make it hard for the Allies to do airborne landings. The Germans fortified the foreshore area as part of their Atlantic Wall defences (including tank turrets and barbed wire).\n\nThese projects were not finished, especially in the Normandy sector. Allied bombing of the French railway system made it hard to move materials, and the Germans were convinced by the Allied tricks that the landings would take place in the Pas de Calais.\n\nThe sector which was attacked was guarded by four divisions, of which the 352nd and 91st were of high quality. The other defending troops included Germans who were not fit for active duty on the Eastern Front, conscripted Poles and former Soviet prisoners-of-war who had agreed to fight for the Germans. These units had German leaders.\n\nMobile reserves \nRommel's defensive measures were made difficult by arguments over how to use armoured forces. Von Geyr and Rommel disagreed over the how to use Panzer divisions.\n\nRommel thought armoured formations be close to the coast, to attack while the invaders were weak. Von Geyr said they should instead be put around Paris and used in a big group when the Germans knew which beach was being invaded. Hitler made a compromise solution.\n\nRommel was given only three tank divisions, one of which was close enough to the Normandy beaches to fight on the first day. The other mechanized divisions were put under the control of the German Armed Forces HQ (OKW) and were placed across France, Belgium and the Netherlands.\n\nWeather forecast\nThe opportunity for launching an invasion was limited to only a few days in each month, because a full moon was needed. This would provide light for the aircraft pilots and create a spring tide. Eisenhower had picked 5 June as the date for the assault. However, on 4 June, conditions were unsuitable for a landing. High winds and heavy seas made it impossible to launch landing craft. Low clouds would prevent aircraft finding their targets.\n\nMeteorologists predicted an improvement in the weather for 6 June. At a meeting on 5 June, Eisenhower and his senior commanders discussed the situation. Eisenhower decided to launch the invasion that night. Had Eisenhower delayed the invasion, the only option was to go two weeks later. This would have been during stormy weather.\n\nInvasion\n\nInland airborne landings  \nTo make it hard for the Germans to launch attacks during the sea attack phase, airborne operations were used to capture bridges and road crossings. The airborne landings behind the beaches were also designed to help the soldiers landing on beaches by destroying German coastal defense artillery.\n\nBeaches \n\nOn Sword Beach, the regular British infantry came ashore with few casualties. They had advanced about  by the end of the day but did not get as far as Montgomery had wanted. Caen was still held by Germans by the end of D-Day and remained so until Operation Charnwood, on 9 July.\n\nThe Canadian forces that landed on Juno Beach had a difficult battle. Both German concrete fortifications and a sea wall twice as high as at Omaha Beach made Juno very difficult to attack. Juno was the most-heavily defended beach on D-Day after Omaha. The Canadians were off the beach within hours and advancing inland. They were the only units to reach their D-Day goals, but most units fell back a few kilometres to make stronger defensive positions.\n\nAt Gold Beach, there were many dead and wounded because the Germans had strongly fortified a village on the beach. The 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division advanced almost to Bayeux by the end of the day. When commando units captured the Port-en-Bessin, the Allies could use their underwater PLUTO pipeline to bring in fuel.\n\nThe Americans who landed on Omaha Beach faced the veteran German 352nd Infantry Division, one of the best trained groups on the beaches. Furthermore, Omaha was the most heavily fortified beach. Commanders considered abandoning the beach, but small units of infantry got past the coastal defences. By the end of the day, two areas had been captured. Control over the beach expanded over the following days and the D-Day goals were accomplished by the third day.\n\nAt Pointe du Hoc, the 2nd Ranger battalion had to climb the  cliffs. While they climbed, the enemy shot at them and dropped grenades. They used ropes and ladders to climb up and to destroy the guns.\n\nThe beach fortifications were important targets since a single artillery observer could have directed fire on the American beaches. The Rangers captured the fortifications. They then had to fight for two days to hold the location and lost more than 60 percent of their men.\n\nThe number of dead and wounded on Utah Beach, the westernmost landing zone, were the lightest of any beach. Only 197 out of the 23,000 troops that landed were killed or wounded. The 4th Infantry Division troops, who landed on the beach, moved inland by early afternoon and linked up with the 101st Airborne Division.\n\nOnce the beaches had been controlled, the Mulberry Harbours were set up around 9 June. One was constructed at Arromanches by British forces and the other at Omaha Beach by American forces. Severe storms on 19 June caused problems with the landing of supplies and destroyed the Omaha harbour. The Arromanches harbour supplied around 9,000 tons daily until the end of August 1944, when the port of Cherbourg had been captured by the Allies.\n\nThe German 21st Panzer division attacked between Sword and Juno beaches and nearly reached the Channel. Allied anti-tank gunners made them pull back before the end of 6 June.\n\nThe Allied invasion plans had called for the capture of Carentan, St. L\u00f4, Caen and Bayeux on the first day. The plan was to link all the beaches except Utah and Sword (the last of which linked with paratroopers) and a front line  from the beaches. None of the goals had been achieved. The number of dead and wounded had not been as heavy as some had feared (around 10,000, compared to the 20,000 that Churchill had estimated), and the bridges had survived the German attacks.\n\nCherbourg \nIn the western part of the invasion area, US troops were to occupy the Cotentin Peninsula, especially Cherbourg, to provide the Allies with a deep-water harbour. The land behind Utah and Omaha was banks and hedgerows and so tanks, gunfire and vision could not get through. That made the place an ideal defensive position.\n\nThe US infantry made slow progress and had many dead and wounded as it moved towards Cherbourg. The airborne troops were used to help with the advance. The far side of the peninsula was reached on 18 June. Hitler told German forces not to retreat to the strong Atlantic Wall fortifications in Cherbourg. The Cherbourg commander, Lieutenant-General Karl-Wilhelm von Schlieben, surrendered on 26 June. Before surrendering, he had most of the facilities destroyed and so made the harbour inoperable until mid-August. By then, the combat front had moved so far east that the harbour was less helpful.\n\nCaen\n\nWhile the Americans headed for Cherbourg, a unit of troops led by the British moved towards Caen. Montgomery made many attrition warfare attacks. The first was Operation Perch, which moved south from Bayeux to Villers-Bocage, where the armour could capture Caen. The attack was halted at the Battle of Villers-Bocage. Caen was bombed and then occupied north of the River Orne in Operation Charnwood from 7 to 9 July. An attack in the Caen area followed with all three British armoured divisions, codenamed Operation Goodwood, from 18 to 21 July. The attack captured the high ground south of Caen. The rest of the city was captured by Canadian forces during Operation Atlantic. A further operation, Operation Spring, from 25 to 28 July, by the Canadians secured limited land south of the city but with many dead and wounded.\n\nBreakout from beachhead\n\nMontgomery's plan included keeping the Germans in the eastern part of the invasion area and protecting Cobra's position. By the end of Goodwood, the Germans had used the last of their reserve divisions. There were six-and-a-half Panzer divisions against the Britishs and the Canadians, compared to the one-and-a-half facing the Americans.\n\nOperation Cobra was launched on 25 July by the US First Army. It was successful, and the VIII Corps entered Coutances at the western end of the Cotentin Peninsula on 28 July, after it had broken through the German lines.\n\nOn 1 August, the VIII Corps became part of Lieutenant General George S. Patton's Third Army. On 4 August, Montgomery changed the invasion plan by sending a corps to occupy Brittany and push the German troops around the ports while the rest of the Third Army continued east. Because of the large number of German forces south of Caen, Montgomery moved the British west and launched Operation Bluecoat from 30 July to 7 August to add to the attacks from the Americans. That pushed the German forces to the west and allowed the launch of Operation Totalize south from Caen on 7 August.\n\nFalaise pocket\nBy early August, more German reserves became available. The German forces were being encircled, and the German High Command wanted those reserves to help with a retreat to the Seine. Hitler demanded an attack at Mortain on 7 August. The attack was pushed back by the Allies, who again had advance warning from the Ultra codebreakers. The original Allied plan was to encircle the Germans as far as the Loire valley. Bradley realized that many of the German forces in Normandy werecoukd no longer move. He got Montgomery's approval by telephone on 8 August to encircle German forces. The task was left to Patton, who moved nearly unopposed through Normandy. The Germans were left in near Chambois. Strong German defenses and the sending of American troops for an attack by Patton towards the Seine at Mantes prevented the Germans from being trapped until 21 August, when 50,000 German troops.\n\nWhether that could have been done earlier and more prisoners taken has been debated.\n\nThe liberation of Paris followed shortly afterwards. The French Resistance in Paris rose attacked the Germans on 19 August. The French 2nd Armoured Division, under General Philippe Leclerc, along with the US 4th Infantry Division, accepted the surrender of the German forces there and liberated Paris on 25 August.\n\nWithdrawal to Seine\nOperations continued in the British and Canadian sector until the end of the month. On 25 August, the 2nd US Armored Division fought its way into Elbeuf and made contact with British and Canadian armoured divisions there. The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division advanced into the For\u00eat de la Londe on the morning of 27 August. The area was strongly held and the 4th and the 6th Canadian Brigades had large numbers of dead and wounded over three days as the Germans defended their position. The Germans pulled back on the 29th and withdrew over the Seine on the 30th.\n\nOn the 30th, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division crossed the Seine near Elbeuf and entered Rouen to a happy welcome.\n\nLandings \n Sword Beach was the easternmost beach on D-Day and was attacked by the British 3rd Infantry Division, supported by units of the 79th Armoured Division. It was successful.\n Juno Beach was the next beach to the west and was attacked by the Canadian 3rd Division. It was also successful.\n Gold Beach was the \"middle\" beach, lying between Sword, Juno, Omaha, and Utah Beaches. It was attacked by the British 50th (Northumbrian) Division.\n Omaha Beach was the second-westernmost beach. It was attacked by the American 1st Division. The bombardment before the assault was successful on every beach except Omaha and so German bunkers and artillery still remained. The battle was hard, but eventually, the Americans won after almost 2,500 of them had died there.\n Omaha Beach on D-Day 6.6.1944\n Utah Beach was the westernmost beach. It was attacked by the American 4th Division. It was mostly successful.\n\nSuccess\n\nThe campaign in Normandy is considered by historians to end at midnight on 24 July 1944 (the start of Operation Cobra on the American front), 25 August 1944 (the liberation of Paris), or 30 August 1944, the date the last German unit retreated across the River Seine.\n\nThe original Overlord plan was for a 90-day campaign in Normandy with the ultimate goal of reaching the Seine, a goal that was met early. American forces were fighting in Brittany as anticipated by General Montgomery during the latter weeks of the campaign. Historians consider the Normandy campaign to have ended with the massive breakout of Operation Cobra.\n\nThe official American history describes the fighting beginning on 25 July as the \"Northern France\" campaign, and includes the fighting to close the Falaise Gap, which the British\/Canadians\/Poles consider to be part of the Battle of Normandy. Volume I of the \"Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War,\" by C.P. Stacey, published in 1955, as well as the Canadian Army's official \"Historical Summary of the Second World War,\" published in 1948, define the Battle of Normandy as lasting from 6 June 1944 to 1 September 1944. The definition of the Battle of Normandy is also evident in another publication by the Army's Historical Section, Canada's Battle in Normandy.\n\nThere were reports of Eisenhower requesting Montgomery's replacement in July. The lack of forward progress was caused by the rough land. However, as at the Second Battle of El Alamein, Montgomery kept to his original attrition warfare strategy and reached the objectives within his original 90-day target.\n\nVictory in Normandy was followed by a pursuit to the French border in short order. Germany was forced once again to reinforce the Western Front with manpower and resources from the Soviet and the Italian fronts.\n\nBy September, Allied forces of seven field armies, two of which came through southern France in Operation Dragoon, were approaching the German frontier. The Allied battle plan was good by drawing on the strengths of both Britain and America. German leadership was often faulty, despite good fighting by German units.\n\nIn a larger context, the Normandy landings helped the Soviets on the Eastern Front, where most of the German forces fought. They shortened of the conflict there.\n\nAllied logistics, intelligence, morale, and air power\nVictory in Normandy stemmed from several factors. The Allies had more weapons and equipment. They also had new inventions like the PLUTO pipelines and Mulberry harbours, which helped the flow of troops, equipment, fuel and ammunition. Movement of cargo over the open beaches went better than expected, even after the destruction of the American Mulberry in the Channel storm in mid-June.\n\nBy the end of July 1944, one million American, British, Canadian, French, and Polish troops; hundreds of thousands of vehicles; and a lot of supplies were ashore in Normandy. Artillery ammunition and other items were plentiful. That was impressive since they held no port until Cherbourg fell.\n\nBy the time of the Normany breakout, the Allies also had superiority in numbers of troops (approximately 3.5:1) and armored vehicles (approximately 4:1), which helped overcome that the natural advantages the rough land gave to the German defenders.\n\nAllied intelligence and counterintelligence efforts were successful. Operation Fortitude before the invasion kept German attention focused on the Pas-de-Calais. High-quality German forces were kept in that area, away from Normandy, until July. Prior to the invasion, few German reconnaissance flights took place over Britain, and those that did saw only the fake camps. Ultra decoding of German Enigma (machine) communications had been helpful as well, which exposed German plans and showed that the Allies' trick was still believed.\n\nGerman leadership \nLack of an organized strategy hurt the German defence. Leadership was split between Field Marshals von Rundstedt and Rommel. Von Rundstedt wanted to keep the powerful units in reserve for a powerful counterattack once the Allied landing had started. Rommel wanted to stop the Allies at the beach and tried to locate units so that they could attack quickly.\n\nRommel's plan was good, but his reserve strategy was not good because units could not move during the day because of Allied air strikes. In the end, the mix of two strategies was a disaster. The beach defences were overcome, and the counterattacks were not strong enough.\n\nGerman commanders at all levels failed to react to the attack quickly. Communication problems added to the problems caused by Allied air and naval firepower. Local commanders did not lead an aggressive defence on the beach. The German High Command focused on the Calais area, and von Rundstedt was not permitted to use the armored reserve.\n\nWhen it was finally released late in the day, success was more difficult. Although the 21st Panzer Division had attacked earlier, it faced strong opposition, which had been allowed to build at the beaches. Overall, the Allied material superiority continued to grow, but the Germans slowed the Allies advance for nearly two months and were aided by the rough land.\n\nAlthough there were several disputes among the Allied commanders, their plans were decided by the main commanders. By contrast, the senior German leaders always had interference by Hitler, who did not know local conditions.\n\nField Marshals von Rundstedt and Rommel repeatedly asked Hitler for more freedom to change plans but were refused. Von Rundstedt was removed from his command on 29 June after he had told Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, the Chief of Staff at OKW (German Armed Forces Headquarters), to make peace. Rommel was severely injured by Allied aircraft on 16 July.\n\nField Marshal G\u00fcnther von Kluge, who took over the posts that had been held by both von Rundstedt and Rommel, was linked with some of the military plotters against Hitler and would not argue with Hitler for fear of arrest. As a result, the German armies in Normandy were pushed by Hitler to counterattack rather than retreat after the American breakthrough. Kluge was relieved of command on 15 August and killed himself. The more independent Field Marshal Walter Model then took command.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n WW2DB: Normandy Campaign\n\nOperation\nOperation\nBattles involving Australia\nBattles involving Canada\nBattles involving France\nBattles involving Germany\nBattles involving New Zealand\nBattles involving the United Kingdom\nBattles involving the United States\nEuropean battles of World War II\nOperation\nOperation\nOperation","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":189,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":6,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":7,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":5,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":4,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":14377,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operation%20Overlord","title":"Operation Overlord","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Marx Brothers were a popular team of sibling comedians who appeared in vaudeville, stage plays, movie, and television. \n\nThe brothers were Chico, Harpo, Groucho, Gummo and Zeppo.\n\nEarly life \nBorn in New York City, the Marx Brothers were the sons of Jewish immigrants from Germany. Their mother, Minnie Sch\u00f6nberg, was from Dornum in East Frisia, and their father Simon Marrix (whose name was changed to Sam Marx, and who was nicknamed \"Frenchy\") was a native of Alsace, now part of France, and worked as a tailor. The family lived in the then-poor Yorkville section of New York City's Upper East Side, between the Irish, German and Italian Quarters.\n\nCareers \nThe Marx Brothers began as a musical group, during the days of vaudeville theater. They would make jokes, play funny characters, and pretend to get into fights when they performed. In time their  got them more applause (and work) than their music, and they became a comedy group. Music stayed in their act, with the brothers performing in character, but their focus was on getting laughs. Makeup and costumes gave their characters their look. When the brothers were out of costume, they could blend into the audience.\n\nGummo did not appear in any of the movies. In the movies, each brother played a role that was mostly the same in every movie. Groucho was a \"wise guy\" who had big bushy eyebrows, glasses, and a moustache who smoked a cigar; Chico spoke with an Italian accent and played the piano; Harpo never spoke and played the harp. Zeppo usually played the straight man. He left the group in 1933, and they worked with other actors. Margaret Dumont played the leading lady role in many of their shows. She did not appear to know when a joke was made about her, and this made her role funnier.\n\nThe brothers had some good years and some bad years. Groucho lost a lot of money in 1929, when the stock market collapsed. (Years later, he visited the New York Stock Exchange, and drew so much attention that trading stopped for several minutes. Groucho joked that he came \"to get his money's worth\" in stopping business.) Chico had a problem with gambling, and lost more money than he won at it. Harpo and his wife could not have children of their own, so they adopted enough to have a large family. (When Adolf Hitler took control of Germany in the 1930s, and stories came back about his mistreatment of Jewish people, Harpo legally changed his name from Adolph to Arthur, even though he was better known as Harpo.)\n\nGroucho kept working after his brothers retired. He hosted a television quiz show called You Bet Your Life, which was more liked for Groucho's way of hosting than for the game itself. He made a few movie and television appearances late in his life. He also appeared at Carnegie Hall, telling stories about his life and career, and singing songs from every part of his career. A recording of his Carnegie Hall show became a .\n\nFilmography \nFilms with the Four Marx Brothers:\n Humor Risk (1921), previewed once and never released; thought to be lost\n The Cocoanuts (1929), released by Paramount Pictures\n Animal Crackers (1930), released by Paramount\n The House That Shadows Built (1931), released by Paramount (short subject)\n Monkey Business (1931), released by Paramount\n Horse Feathers (1932), released by Paramount\n Duck Soup (1933), released by Paramount\n\nFilms with the three Marx Brothers (post-Zeppo):\n A Night at the Opera (1935), released by MGM\n A Day at the Races (1937), released by MGM\n Room Service (1938), released by RKO Radio Pictures\n At the Circus (1939), released by MGM\n Go West (1940), released by MGM\n The Big Store (1941), released by MGM\n A Night in Casablanca (1946), released by United Artists\n Love Happy (1949), released by United Artists\n The Story of Mankind (1957), released by Warner Brothers\n\nSolo endeavors:\n Groucho:\n Copacabana (1947), released by United Artists\n Double Dynamite (1951), released by RKO\n A Girl in Every Port (1952), released by RKO\n Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter? (1957), released by 20th Century Fox (uncredited)\n The Mikado (1960), made for television\n Skidoo (1968), released by Paramount.\n Harpo:\n Too Many Kisses (1925), released by Paramount\n Stage Door Canteen (1943), released by United Artists (cameo)\n Chico:\n Papa Romani (1950), television pilot\n Zeppo:\n A Kiss in the Dark (1925), released by Paramount (cameo)\n\nReferences \n\nAmerican movie actors\nComedians from New York City\nActors from New York City\nVaudeville performers\nAmerican Jews","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":82997,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marx%20Brothers","title":"Marx Brothers","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"United States of America ka national anthem iska naam hai 'The Star Spangled Banner' : \n\nO say can you see, by the dawn's early light,\n\nWhat so proudly we hail'd at the twilight's last gleaming,\n\nWhose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight\n\nO'er the ramparts we watch'd were so gallantly streaming?\n\nAnd the rocket's red glare, the bombs bursting in air,\n\nGave proof through the night that our flag was still there,\n\nO say does that star-spangled banner yet wave\n\nO'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?\n\nOn the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep\n\nWhere the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes,\n\nWhat is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep,\n\nAs it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?\n\nNow it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam,\n\nIn full glory reflected now shines in the stream,\n\n'Tis the star-spangled banner - O long may it wave\n\nO'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!\n\nAnd where is that band who so vauntingly swore,\n\nThat the havoc of war and the battle's confusion\n\nA home and a Country should leave us no more?\n\nTheir blood has wash'd out their foul footstep's pollution.\n\nNo refuge could save the hireling and slave\n\nFrom the terror of flight or the gloom of the grave,\n\nAnd the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave\n\nO'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.\n\nO thus be it ever when freemen shall stand\n\nBetween their lov'd home and the war's desolation!\n\nBlest with vict'ry and peace may the heav'n rescued land\n\nPraise the power that hath made and preserv'd us a nation!\n\nThen conquer we must, when our cause it is just,\n\nAnd this be our motto - \"In God is our trust,\" \n\nAnd the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave\n\nO'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.\nU","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":317,"dup_dump_count":12,"dup_details":{"unknown":2,"2024-30":17,"2024-26":28,"2024-22":13,"2024-18":26,"2024-10":32,"2017-13":50,"2015-18":26,"2015-11":23,"2015-06":18,"2014-10":23,"2013-48":23,"2013-20":36}},"id":54369,"url":"https:\/\/hif.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USA%20National%20Anthem","title":"USA National Anthem","language":"hif"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A concept is an idea that is applied to all objects in a group. It is the way people see and understand something. The name used to identify a concept (the concept's label) is a \"term\". For example, the word \"Dog\" is the term to identify the concept of what a dog is. Everything that a person knows about a dog is the concept of the term dog. \n\nDifferent terms can be used to identify the same concept. Car and Automobile are synonyms for the same concept. Different languages have different terms for the same concept. This is what makes translation possible. The terms may be different in each language, but the concept is the same. The concept of jumping is the same to a person from England and a person from Italy, but one person uses the term \"Jump\" to mean the concept and the other person uses \"Salto\".\n\nRelated pages \nAbstraction\n\n \n\nLanguage\nPhilosophy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":42967,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concept","title":"Concept","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Modern art refers to artistic works produced from the 1860s to about the 1970s. It refers to the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era.p102 The period coincides with the invention of mechanical means of recording images: photography and film.\n\nThe term modern art is usually associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation.p419  Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with fresh ideas about the nature of materials and functions of art. A tendency toward abstraction is characteristic of much modern art, including minimalism . More recent artistic production is often called Contemporary art or Postmodern art.\n\nHistory \nModern art begins with the heritage of painters like Vincent van Gogh, Paul C\u00e9zanne, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec all of whom were essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubist Georges Braque, Andr\u00e9 Derain, Raoul Dufy and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with 'wild', multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism.\n\nHenri Matisse's two versions of The Dance marked a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting. It reflected Matisse's fascination with primitive art: the intense warm color of the figures against the cool blue-green background and the rhythmical succession of the dancing nudes convey the feelings of emotional liberation and hedonism.\n\nPablo Picasso made his first cubist paintings based on C\u00e9zanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone. With the painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon 1907, Picasso dramatically created a new and radical picture depicting a raw and primitive brothel scene with five prostitutes, violently painted women, reminiscent of African tribal masks and his own new Cubist inventions.\n\nAnalytic cubism was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by Synthetic cubism, practised by Braque, Picasso, Fernand L\u00e9ger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and several other artists into the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier coll\u00e9 and a large variety of merged subject matter.\n\nThe notion of modern art is closely related to Modernism.\n\"One way of understanding the relation of the terms 'modern,' 'modernity,' and 'modernism' is that... modernist art is scarcely thinkable outside the context of the modernized society of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Social modernity is the home of modernist art, even where that art rebels against it\".p13\n\nModern art was introduced to the United States in 1913 and through European artists who moved to the U.S. during World War I. It was only after World War II, however, that the U.S. became the focal point of new artistic movements. The 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of Abstract Expressionism, one of the most important of the later modernist art movements.\n\nAuction prices \nModern art and Impressionism dominate the world art markets. Of the 20 top art prices, only one is a work of classical art. The world's highest price for a work of art is Jackson Pollock's No. 5, 1948 privately sold by Sotheby's for (price adjusted) $151.2 million dollars. The modern paintings overtook the old masters in 1987.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \nArt Nouveau\nAvant-garde\nModernism\n\nArt movements","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":268587,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modern%20art","title":"Modern art","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg (2 October 1847 \u2013 2 August 1934) was a German field marshal and statesman.\n\nHindenburg retired from the army in 1911. He rejoined the German army at the start of the First World War. He became famous when he won the Battle of Tannenberg in 1914.\n\nHindenburg retired again in 1919, but returned to public life one more time in 1925 to be elected as the second President of Germany.\n\nHe was 84 years old and in poor health, but deciced to run for re-election in 1932 as the only candidate who could defeat Adolf Hitler, because he saw him as a dangerous extremist. He tried to stop Hitler's and the Nazi Party's rise to power, but Franz von Papen persuaded Hindenburg, that the Conservative elite and the military could control Hitler when he becomes Chancellor of Germany and that the other more dangerous alternative was Communist rule. \n\nAs a result, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. But von Papen's belief in controlling Hitler and his assurances to Hindenburg did not happen, because Hitler started to control them and gain more power. In March he signed the Enabling Act of 1933 which gave special powers to Hitler and his government. \n\nWith this act, Hitler became a dictator in the next months, and crushed all opposition and banned all political parties, except the Nazi Party by the summer of 1933. Hindenburg died the next year, after which Hitler declared the office of President vacant and made himself F\u00fchrer (Head of State and Head of Government) of Germany.\n\nThe famous zeppelin Hindenburg that was destroyed by fire in 1937 had been named in his honour, as is the causeway joining the island of Sylt to mainland Schleswig-Holstein, the Hindenburgdamm, built during his time in office.\n\nPresidency\n\n1925 election \nIn 1925, Hindenburg had no interest in running for public office. After the first round Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, one of the leaders of the DNVP, visited Hindenburg and asked him to run.\n\nHindenburg eventually agreed to run in the second round of the elections as a non-party independent, although he was a conservative. Because he was Germany's greatest war hero, Hindenburg won the election in the second round of voting held on 26 April 1925.\n\nHe was helped when the Bavarian People's Party (BVP), switched its support from Marx, the SPD candidate and the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) to did not withdraw its candidate, Ernst Th\u00e4lmann. If they had their supporters would most likely have voted for the SPD and Hindenburg may not have won.\n\nFirst term \n\nHindenburg tried to stay out of day-to-politics, and be a ceremonial president. He liked the monarchy, but took his oath to the Weimar Constitution seriously.\n\nHindenburg often complained that he missed the quiet of his retirement and, that politics was full of ideas like economics that he did not understand.\n\nHis advisers included his son, Oskar, his old army aide General Wilhelm Groener, and General Kurt von Schleicher. The younger Hindenburg served as his father's aide-de-camp and controlled politicians' access to the President.\n\nSchleicher came up with the idea of Presidential government, and the \"25\/48\/53 formula\".\n\nUnder a \"Presidential\" government the chancellor is responsible to the president), and not the Reichstag. The \"25\/48\/53 formula\" was the three articles of the Constitution that could make a \"Presidential government\" possible:\n Article 25 allowed the President to dissolve the Reichstag.\n Article 48 allowed the President to sign into law emergency bills without the consent of the Reichstag. (The Reichstag could cancel any law passed by Article 48 by a simple majority within sixty days of its signing).\n Article 53 allowed the President to appoint the Chancellor.\n\nSchleicher's wanted to have Hindenburg appoint a chancellor that Schleicher chose. If that chancellor needed any laws he could use article 48. If the Reichstag should threaten to cancel any of those laws, Hindenburg could threaten a dissolution, and call new elections. Hindenburg did not like the idea, but was pressured into going along with them by his son and his other advisors.\n\nPresidential government \nThe first try at \"presidential government\" in 1926\u20131927 failed for lack of political support. During the winter of 1929\u20131930, Schleicher had a series of secret meetings with Heinrich Br\u00fcning, the leader of the Catholic Center Party (Zentrum).\n\nSchleicher then set about splitting the \"Grand Coalition\" government of the Social Democrats and the German People's Party. As a result, the government fell in March 1930 and Br\u00fcning was named Chancellor by Hindenburg.\n\nBr\u00fcning's first act was to introduce a budget calling for steep spending cuts and sharp tax increases. When the budget was defeated in July, Br\u00fcning had Hindenburg sign the budget as an emergency law under Article 48. When the Reichstag voted to cancel the budget, Br\u00fcning had Hindenburg dissolve Reichstag only two years into its mandate, and had the budget passed again by Article 48. The Nazis got 17% of the vote in the September 1930 elections. The Communist Party of Germany also made gains.\n\nBr\u00fcning ruled through Article 48; the Social Democrats never voted not to cancel his Article 48 bills in order not to have another election that could only benefit the Nazis and the Communists.\n\n1932 Election \n\nIn the first round of the election held in March 1932, Hindenburg was the frontrunner, but did not have an absolute majority. In the runoff election of April 1932, Hindenburg beat Hitler for the Presidency.\n\nAfter the presidential elections had ended, Schleicher held a series of secret meetings with Hitler in May 1932, and thought that Hitler had agreed to support the new \"presidential government\" Schleicher was building.\n\nIn May 1932 Schleicher had Hindenburg sack Groener as Defence Minister to humiliate both Groener and Br\u00fcning. On 31 May 1932, Hindenburg sacked Br\u00fcning as Chancellor and replaced him with Schleicher's suggestion, Franz von Papen.\n\nvon Papen's government openly wanted to destroy German democracy. Like Br\u00fcning's government, von Papen's government was a \"presidential government\" that governed through the use of Article 48.\n\nAs Schleicher wanted, Hindenburg dissolved the Reichstag and set new elections for July 1932. Schleicher and von Papen both believed that the Nazis would win the majority of the seats and would support von Papen's government.\n\nThe Nazi party did become the largest party in the Reichstag, and expected Hitler would be Chancellor. When Hindenburg met Hitler on 13 August 1932, in Berlin, Hindenburg rejected Hitler's demands for the Chancellorship.\n\nThe minutes of the meeting were kept by Otto Mei\u00dfner, the Chief of the Presidential Chancellery. According to the minutes:\n\nHindenburg issued a press release about his meeting with Hitler that seemed to say that Hitler had demanded absolute power and that the President had refused. Hitler was enraged by this press release.\n\nWhen the Reichstag met in September 1932, its first and only act was to pass a massive vote of no-confidence in von Papen's government. In response, von Papen had Hindenburg dissolve the Reichstag for elections in November 1932. In the 1949 constitution, a vote of no confidence must be accompanied by the election of a new chancellor, so this could not happen.\n\nIn the second Reichstag elections of 1932 the Nazis lost some support, but stayed the largest party in the Reichstag. There ensued another round of talks between Hindenburg, von Papen, von Schleicher on the one hand and Hitler and the other Nazi leaders on the other.\n\nHitler still demanded that Hindenburg give him the Chancellorship. Hindenburg could not accept this, so von Papen suggested Hindenburg declare martial law and do away with democracy.\n\nVon Papen got Oscar Hindenburg to support the plan, and they persuaded the president to ignore his oath to the Constitution and go along with this plan. Schleicher saw von Papen as a threat so he blocked the martial law plan by saying it would make the Nazi SA and the Communist Red Front Fighters rebel, and that the Poles would invade and the Reichswehr would be unable to cope.\n\nHindenburg hated the idea of Hitler as Chancellor, but under pressure from Mei\u00dfner, von Papen and Oskar Hindenburg the President decided to appoint Hitler Chancellor. On the morning of 30 January 1933, Hindenburg swore Hitler in as Chancellor at the Presidential Palace.\n\nThe Machtergreifung \nHindenburg played key role in the Nazi Machtergreifung (Seizure of Power) in 1933. He was not involved in the planning, but did not stop Hitler. In the \"Government of National Concentration\" headed by Hitler, the Nazis were in the minority. Most of the ministers were from the von Papen and von Schleicher governments. Besides Hitler, the only other Nazi ministers were Hermann G\u00f6ring and Wilhelm Frick.\n\nHindenburg thought that the Nazis' power was limited, especially as his favourite politician, von Papen, was the Vice-Chancellor and the Reich Commissioner for Prussia.\n\nHitler's first act as Chancellor was to ask Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag so that the Nazis and D.N.V.P. could increase their number of seats, Hindenburg agreed.\n\nIn early February 1933, von Papen had an Article 48 bill signed into law that limited the freedom of press. After the Reichstag fire, Hindenburg signed into law the Reichstag Fire Decree.\n\nAt the opening of the new Reichstag on 21 March 1933, at the Kroll Opera House, the Nazis staged an elaborate ceremony, in which Hindenburg played the leading part, that was meant to mark the continuity between the Prussian-German tradition and the new Nazi state.\n\nThe ceremony at the Kroll Opera House had the effect of reassuring many Germans, especially conservative Germans, that life would be fine under the new regime. On 23 March 1933, Hindenburg signed the Enabling Act into law.\n\nHindenburg was still very popular, but his health was getting worse. The Nazis made sure that whenever Hindenburg did appear in public Hitler was with him, and that Hitler was always very respectful to the President. The Nazi propagandists hoped people would think Hindenburg liked Hitler, and Hitler would become more popular.\n\nThe only time Hindenburg ever tried to stop a Nazi bill was in early April 1933. The Reichstag had passed a Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. This said that all Jewish civil servants working for the Reich, the L\u00e4nder, or the local districts should be sacked immediately.\n\nHindenburg refused to sign this bill into law unless all Jewish veterans of World War I, Jewish civil servants who served in the civil service during the war and those Jewish civil servants whose fathers were veterans were allowed to stay in office. Hitler agreed, in order to get the law signed, even though he believed that the Jews had tried to undermine Germany during the Great War. It was Hindenburg who said that Germany lost the First World War because of politicians and others \"stabbing the Army in the back\". Hindenburg did not believe the story. He said it so that his wartime deputy Erich von Ludendorff would not write bad things in his memoirs. But Hitler did believe the story, and used it to gain power.\n\nHindenburg stayed president until he died from lung cancer at his home in Neudeck, East Prussia on 2 August 1934.\n\nOne day before Hindenburg's death, Hitler flew to Neudeck and visited him. Hindenburg, old and senile, thought he was meeting Kaiser Wilhelm II, and called Hitler \"Your Majesty\".\n\nHe would be Germany's last president until 1945, when Karl D\u00f6nitz was appointed president in Hitler's last will. Following Hindenburg's death, Hitler declared the office of President to be permanently vacant, effectively merging it with the office of Chancellor under the title of Leader and Chancellor (F\u00fchrer und Reichskanzler), making himself Germany's Head of State and Head of government.\n\nBurial \nHindenburg was buried in the Tannenberg memorial near Tannenberg, East Prussia (today: St\u0119bark, Poland). But Hindenburg always said he wanted to be buried next to his wife. In 1945, German troops removed his and his wife's coffins, to save them from the approaching Soviet troops, and blew up the memorial with explosives.\n\nReferences\n\nSources \n Asprey, Robert The German High Command at War: Hindenburg and Ludendorff Conduct World War I, New York, New York, W. Morrow, 1991.\n Bracher, Karl Dietrich Die Aufloesung der Weimarer Republik; eine Studie zum Problem des Machtverfalls in der Demokratie Villingen: Schwarzwald, Ring-Verlag, 1971.\n Dorpalen, Andreas Hindenburg and the Weimar Republic, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1964.\n Eschenburg, Theodor \"The Role of the Personality in the Crisis of the Weimar Republic: Hindenburg, Br\u00fcning, Groener, Schleicher\" pages 3\u201350 from Republic to Reich The Making Of The Nazi Revolution edited by Hajo Holborn, New York: Pantheon Books, 1972.\n Feldman, G.D. Army, Industry and Labor in Germany, 1914-1918, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1966.\n G\u00f6rlitz, Walter Hindenburg: Ein Lebensbild, Bonn: Athen\u00e4eum, 1953.\n G\u00f6rlitz, Walter Hindenburg, eine Auswalh aus Selbstzeugnissen des Generalfeldmarschalls und Reichpr\u00e4sidenten, Bielefeld: Velhagen & Klasing, 1935.\n Hiss, O.C. Hindenburg: Eine Kleine Streitschrift, Potsdam: Sans Souci Press, 1931.\n J\u00e4ckel, Eberhard Hitler in History, Hanover N.H.: Brandeis University Press, 1984.\n Kershaw, Sir Ian, Hitler. 1889-1936: Hubris New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998; German edition, Munich, 1998, p.\u00a0659.\n Kitchen, Martin The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916-1918, London: Croom Helm, 1976.\n Maser, Werner Hindenburg: Eine politische Biographie, Rastatt: Moewig, 1990.\n Noakes, Jeremy & Pridham, Geoffrey (editors) Nazism 1919-1945 Volume 1 The Rise to Power 1919-1934, Department of History and Archaeology, University of Exeter, United Kingdom, 1983.\n Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John Hindenburg: the Wooden Titan, London : Macmillan, 1967; New York, Morrow, 1936.\n Turner, Henry Ashby Hitler's thirty days to power : January 1933, Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996.\n\nOther websites \n\n Out Of My Life by Paul von Hindenburg at archive.org\n Date of retirement\n\n1847 births\n1934 deaths\nCancer deaths in Germany\nGerman generals\nGerman military personnel of World War I\nPeople from former German territories\nPeople from Pozna\u0144\nPresidents of Nazi Germany\nPresidents of the Weimar Republic","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":75739,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul%20von%20Hindenburg","title":"Paul von Hindenburg","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"William Shakespeare (bapteesed 26 Aprile 1564 \u2013 23 Aprile 1616) wis an Inglis makar an playwricht, nou cried the brawest writer in the Inglis leid an the warld's maist kenspeckle dramatist. He is aften cried England's naitional poet an the \"Bard o Avon\" (or juist \"The Bard\"). Makkin up his warks is 38 plays, 154 sonnets, twa lang nairative poems, an a puckle ither poems. His plays haes been pitten ower intil ilka great leevin tongue an is played mair nor thir o ony ither playwricht.\n\nShakespeare wis born an raised in Stratford-upon-Avon. Whan he wis 18 he wis mairiet on Anne Hathaway, that buir him three bairns: Susanna, an twins, Hamnet an Judith. Atween 1585 an 1592 he begoud a successfu career in Lunnon as an aictor, writer, an pairt-awner o the troupe, \"the Lord Chamberlain's Men\", later kent as \"the King's Men\". It seems that he retired tae Stratford aboot 1613, whaur he dee'd efter three year. There arena mony extant records o Shakespeare's private life, an muckle speculation haes been biggit up anent sic maiters as tae his sexuality, his releegious conceits, an wha wrote the warks attreebute tae him\n\nShakespeare did maist o his weel-kent wark atween 1590 an 1613. His first plays wis comedies an histories in the main, genres he heised tae the heicht o sopheestication an airtistry by the 1600s. Syne he wrate traigedies up til aboot 1608, makkin plays, like Hamlet, King Lear, an Macbeth, conseedered some o the finest in the Inglis tongue. In his last phase, he wrate tragicomedies an wrocht wi ither playwrichts. Mony o his plays wis setten furth in edeetions o differin quality an accuracy durin his lifetime, an in 1623, twa o his ae time theatrical colleagues set furth the First Folio, a collectit edeetion o his dramatic warks that pit thegither aw but twa o the plays nou recogneesed as Shakespeare's.\n\nShakespeare wis a respectit poet an playwricht in his ain time, but his reputation didna rise til its present heichts till the nineteent century. The Romantics, in parteecular, acclaimed Shakespeare's genius, an the Victorians thocht him sic a gey chiel, that George Bernard Shaw cried their reverence, \"bardolatry\". In the twintiet century, his wark wis taen up an rediscovered bi new muivements in scholarship an performance. His plays is aye unco popular the day an is played time an again an reinterpretit in mony differin cultural an poleetical contexts athort the warld.\n\n1564 births\n1616 daiths\n16t-century Inglis actors\n16t-century Inglis writers\n17t-century Inglis writers\n16t-century dramatists an playwrichts\n17t-century dramatists an playwrichts\n16t-century poets\n17t-century poets\nBuirials in Warwickshire\nInglis dramatists an playwrichts\nInglis poets\nInglis Renaissance dramatists\nFowk eddicatit at Keeng Edward VI Schuil Stratford-upon-Avon\nFowk frae Stratford-upon-Avon\nFowk o the Tudor period\nWilliam\nSonneteers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":6827,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William%20Shakespeare","title":"William Shakespeare","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Vivparous animals have internal fertilisation and the eggs develop inside the mother. The key idea is that the growing embryo gets its nutrition from a placenta in the mother's womb. It is the standard method for all mammals except monotremes.\n\nOvoviviparity \nThose reptiles which do not lay eggs mostly keep soft-shelled eggs inside their bodies. The embryo exists on the material in the egg. They are ovoviviparus, because of the source of nutrition. However, there are some amphibians and a few reptiles which are genuinely viviparous because they get their nutrition direct from the mother.\n\nIn plants \n\nViviparous plants produce seeds that germinate before they detach from the parent. In many mangroves, for instance, the seedling germinates and grows under its own energy while still attached to its parent. Then it drops into the water to transport away. \n\nIn some trees, like jackfruit, the seeds can be found already germinated while the fruit goes overripe. This condition is not vivipary because the moist and humid conditions just mimics a wet soil. However, the seeds can germinate under soil too.\n\nReferences \n\nDevelopmental biology\nBiological reproduction","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":5,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2}},"id":344461,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Viviparity","title":"Viviparity","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Baseball is a bat-and-ball sport played on a field by two teams against each other. In baseball, a player on one team throws a small round ball at a player on the other team, who tries to hit it with a bat. Then the player who hits the ball has to run around the field. Players get runs by running around in a full circle around three points on the ground called bases, to back where they started, which is called home plate. They have to do this without getting caught by the players on the other team.\n\nBaseball started in the United States in the 1700s and 1800s. Many people in North America, South America, and East Asia play baseball, but the sport is most known in the United States and Japan. In the U.S., baseball is called the national pastime, because so many people in the United States used to spend a lot of time playing or watching baseball games. Today, though, most Americans follow football more than baseball, especially when it comes time for the Super Bowl.\n\nHow baseball is played \n\nA game of baseball is played by two teams on a baseball field. Each team has 9 players. There are also 4 umpires. There is one for where young players play. Umpires watch everything carefully to decide what happened, make calls about a play, and make sure everyone follows the rules.\n\nOn a baseball field, there are four bases. The bases form a diamond that goes around the field to the right from the starting base. The starting base is called home plate. Home plate is a pentagon, which is a shape that has five sides. First base is on the right side of the field, second base is at the top of the infield, third base is on the left side of the field, and home plate is at the back of the field, where the catcher plays.\n\nThe game is played in innings. Professional baseball games have 9 innings. In an inning, each team has one turn to bat and try to score runs, adding one point. When one team hits the ball, the other team defends and tries to get three players on the other team out. The team that is playing defense always has the ball. This is different from other team sports. When the team on defense gets three players out, it is their turn to try and score runs. Then the team that was batting starts playing defense, and the team that was playing defense starts batting. After nine innings, the team that has the most runs is the winner. If the teams have the same number of runs, they play more innings until one team wins. At the start of the game, the home team pitches, while players on the visiting team bat. Only one player can bat at a time.\n\nThe baseball field, or diamond, has two main parts, the infield and the outfield. The infield is where the four bases are. The outfield is beyond the bases, from the view of home plate. The lines from home plate to first base and home plate to third base are the foul lines, and the ground outside of these lines is called foul territory. A ball that is hit with a bat and flies between the foul lines is a fair ball, and the batter and runners can try and run around the bases and score. A ball that is outside the foul lines is a foul ball. If the ball hits the ground in  the foul area  rather than being caught in the air, the batter continues to bat, and any runners must return to the base that they were on before the ball was hit. If the batter has fewer than two strikes, a foul ball counts as a strike. If the batter already has two strikes, and the foul ball is not caught in the air, then the batter continues to hit. If a ball is caught by a fielder in fair or foul ground, the batter is out.\n\nThe most important part of the game is between the pitcher and the batter. The pitcher throws, or pitches, the ball towards home plate. The pitcher normally throws the ball close enough for the batter to hit it. If the pitcher throws the ball in the strike zone, which is the area  over home plate and between the hitter's knee and chest, the pitch is a \"strike\", unless the batter hits the ball. The pitch is always a strike, regardless of where it is, if the batter swings the bat and misses, so the batter must have good aim with the bat. Three strikes are a \"strikeout\", and this is one way to make an \"out\". A pitch that the batter does not swing at, and which is not called a strike, is a \"ball.\" On the fourth \"ball\" thrown by a pitcher, the batter \"walks\" to first base, so it is important to pitch well.\n\nThe catcher for the pitcher's team waits behind the batter, and catches any ball that the batter does not hit. The catcher uses signals to tell the pitcher where to throw the ball. If the pitcher does not like what the catcher says, he will shake his head, which signals \"no\". If he agrees with what the catcher has signaled, he will nod his head, which signals \"yes\".\n\nThere are many ways to get batters out, and runners can also be gotten out. Some common ways to get batters out are catching a batted ball in the air, whether in fair or foul territory, throwing the ball to the defensive player at first base (an out if it gets there before the batter), and a strikeout. A runner can be put out by tagging the runner while the runner is not on a base, and by \"forcing him out\" (when a base is touched before a player can get there, with no base for the runner to go back to). When the fielding team has put out three of the batting team's players, the half-inning is over and the team in the field and the team at bat switch places.\n\nThe batting team wants to get runs. In order to get a run, a player must bat, then become a base runner, touch all the bases in order, and then touch home plate without being called out. So first, the batter wants to make other players get to home plate, or to run the bases himself. Runners can not pass each other while running the bases.\n\nA base runner who touches home plate after touching all previous bases in order, and without getting out, scores a run. If the batter hits the ball over the fence (between the foul lines) without touching the ground, it is a home run. The batter, and any base-runners, are allowed to advance to the home plate and score a run. The fielding team can do nothing to stop them.\n\nFielding team \nThe team on the field tries not to let the team who's batting get any runs. The fielding team has a pitcher and a catcher. The remaining seven fielders can stand anywhere in the field. However, there are usually four people that stand around the infield close to the bases and three outfielders who stand around the outfield.\n\nThe four infielders are the first baseman, second baseman, shortstop, and third baseman. The first baseman and third baseman stand close to first base and third base. The second baseman and the shortstop stand on either side of second base.\n\nThe first baseman's job is to make force plays at first base. In a force play, another infielder catches a ball that has touched the ground, and throws it to the first baseman. The first baseman must then touch the batter or the base with the ball before the batter can touch first base. Then the batter is out. First basemen need to have quick feet, stretch well, be quick and know how to catch wild throws. First base is one of the most important positions as a significant number of plays happen there.\n\nThe second baseman's job is to cover the area to the right of second base and to back the first baseman up. The shortstop's job is to cover the area between second and third bases. This is where right-handed batters usually hit ground balls. The shortstop also covers second or third base and the near part of left field. The shortstop is usually the best fielder on the team. The third baseman needs to have a strong throwing arm. This is because many times the batter will hit a ball toward third base. The third baseman must throw the ball very quickly to the first baseman, to get the runner out. Because the balls that go to third base are usually hit very hard, the third baseman must also be very quick.\n\nThe three outfielders are called the left fielder, the center fielder, and the right fielder, because they stand in left field, center field and right field. Left field and right field are on the left and right sides, if you look out from home plate. Center field is straight ahead from home plate. Center field is very big, so the center fielder is usually the fastest.\n\nThe team can decide where to put the infielders and outfielders. Players often stand at slightly different places on the field between some plays. These changes are called \"shifts\". The fielders may shift at any time. Players can shift for many reasons. One of the more popular ones is the defensive shift, where players move in the infield. They do this because they know that some batters can only hit a ball a certain direction. It can also be easier to make a double play when fielders are moved a certain way.\n\nPitching \n\nTeams can change pitchers during a game. Teams change their pitchers often because it is hard for a pitcher to throw a full game of nine innings. A pitcher can sometimes throw a no-hitter where no one on the opposite team gets an earned hit. A team can use as many pitchers as it wants to, but it is rare to use more than eight in a game. The ways that a pitcher throws the ball are called pitches. Many professional pitchers use two or more different pitches. Pitchers change which pitch they throw so that the batter will not know what pitch to expect. This makes it more difficult for the batter to hit the ball. Pitchers can make the ball move differently: faster or slower, closer or farther from the batter, higher or lower. There are also many types of pitches, such as the curveball, slider, splitter, sinker, screwball, cutter, knuckleball, knuckle-curve, changeup, circle changeup, palm ball, and others, including some made from mixing others together .\n\nWhen throwing the ball, the pitcher stand on top of the pitcher's mound with both feet. The pitcher's rubber is on top of the mound. The pitcher cannot take more than one step forward when he throws the ball. That makes the pitcher throw the ball slower. Many major-league pitchers can throw the ball up to 100 miles per hour (145\u00a0km\/h). Throwing a baseball that fast can be bad for the body, and they can be injured often. Doctors often will perform Tommy John surgery on a pitcher with an elbow injury. The operation is named after Tommy John, the first pitcher to have the surgery. Today, pitchers are able to recover from their injuries much faster and better than before Tommy John surgery.\n\nThe batting team \nThe batting team wants to get runs. The batting team sends its players up to home plate in a special order. This order is called the lineup. Each team chooses its lineup at the start of the game. After the game starts, the team cannot change the order. But the team can use a player who was not on the lineup. The new player has to change with an original player. The new player's name is written in the lineup where the original player's name was. After the ninth player has batted, the first player in the lineup starts again. If a runner comes to home plate, he scores a run. Then he is not a base runner. After scoring a run, the player must leave the field until it is his turn again. So a player can only score one run for each time he bats.\n\nSince people began to have more free time, baseball has become the national pastime of America. About 12 million people play baseball in the United States.\n\nBaseball terms\n\nThe field \nSee the image above for a diagram of the playing field.\n Base: Four points on the field the players must run to. The player starts at Home plate and must go to each of the other bases in order and return to Home plate to score a run. The other bases are named First base, Second base and Third base. Home plate is a piece of hard rubber and the other bases are made of cloth. In professional baseball, the bases are 90 feet from each other. The bases on the field are in the shape of a diamond.\n Baseline: the line between each of the bases in order. For example, from home plate to first base, from first base to second base, and so on.\n Base path: The area along the baseline where the players run from base to base.\n Ball: A pitch that was thrown outside the strike zone and that the batter did not swing at.\n Strike: A pitch that was thrown inside the strike zone and that the batter did not swing at, a pitch that the batter swung at and missed, or a ball that the batter hit into foul territory.\n Dugout: the place where the players and coaches who are not on the field sit.\n Bullpen: the place where the pitchers watch the game and warm up before they start playing or when they are not playing.\n Outfield: where three players play, typically where the best arm, the fastest and the second best arm play\n\nThe Game\n Grounder: A ball that bounces and rolls on the ground after being hit.\n Pop Fly: A ball that goes high in the air after being hit. It can be caught for an out or it can fall for a hit\n Double Play: When the defense gets two outs on one play. Often happens when a ground ball is hit to an infielder with a runner on base.\n Bunt: when the batter holds his bat out to try and hit the ball rather than swinging it. A bunted ball does not go far usually. Pitchers often bunt because they are not as good at hitting. A bunt is also often used when trying to advance another runner already on one of the bases. This is called a \"sacrifice\" or \"sacrifice bunt.\"\n Hit: When the batter hits the ball (thrown by the pitcher) in fair territory. \n Home Run: When the batter hits the ball outside the baseball field, he (and any runners on base) gets to run all of the bases and scores at home plate.\n\nRelated pages\nMajor League Baseball\nComparison of baseball and cricket\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Dickson, Paul. The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, 3d ed. (W. W. Norton, 2009). \n Fitts, Robert K. Remembering Japanese Baseball: An Oral History of the Game (Southern Illinois University Press, 2005). \n Gillette, Gary, and Palmer. Pete (eds.). The ESPN Baseball Encyclopedia, 5th ed. (Sterling, 2008). \n Peterson, Robert. Only the Ball was White: A History of Legendary Black Players and All-Black Professional Teams (Oxford University Press, 1992 [1970]). \n Reaves, Joseph A. Taking in a Game: A History of Baseball in Asia (Bison, 2004). \n Ward, Geoffrey C., and Ken Burns. Baseball: An Illustrated History (Alfred A. Knopf, 1996).\n\nOther websites \n World Baseball Softball Confederation\n \"Baseball\". Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Online.\n Baseball Prospectus\n Society for American Baseball Research\n The Rules of Baseball\n Baseball Heritage Museum at League Park in Cleveland, Ohio","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":158,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":4,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":6402,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Baseball","title":"Baseball","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Moses L\u00f6b Bloch (15 February 1815 \u2013 6 August 1909) was a Hungarian rabbi and rector at the Rabbinical Seminary of Budapest.\n\nLife\n\nAfter studying under Philipp Kohner, a pupil of Ezekiel Landau, district rabbi of Pilsen, Bloch was entrusted to the care of his uncle, Wolf L\u00f6w, author of the Sha'are Torah. L\u00f6w, who guided the boy's studies for seven years (1827\u201334) in his house at Gross-Tapolcs\u00e1ny (Hungary), is often quoted in his nephew's lectures.\n\nOn graduating from the gymnasium at Pilsen, he went in 1840 to the University of Prague, and was appointed a rabbi at Wotitz in 1841, when he married Anna Weishut (died 1886). He was called as rabbi to Hermanmiestec, Bohemia, in 1852, and to Leipnik, Moravia, in 1856, where he remained until October 1877. In that year he was called as professor and rector to the Rabbinical Seminary at Budapest.\n\nWorks\n\nBloch published the following works: (1) \"Sha'are Torat ha-Tekanot\" (\"Die Institutionen des Judenthums nach der in den Quellen Angegebenen Geschichtlichen Reihenfolge Geordnet und Entwickelt\"), 4 vols., Vienna and Cracow, 1879\u20131902, 3 vols., Budapest, 1902; (2) 11 Das Mosaisch-Talmudische Polizeirecht\" (special print from the \"Annual Report\" of the Rabbinical Seminary), Budapest, 1879; (3) \"Die Ethik in der Halacha\" (also in Hungarian; appeared in the \"Annual Report\" of the Seminary for 1885), Leipsic, 1886; (4) \"Das Mosaisch-Talmudische Erbrecht\" (in the \"Annual Report\" for 1889); (5) \"Sefer Sha'are Teshubot Maharam\" (\"Die Bisher Unedirten Responsa des R. Me\u00efr von Rothenburg\"), Berlin, 1891 (\"Meki\u1e93e Nirdamim\" publications); (6) \"Der Vertrag nach Mosaisch-Talmudischem Rechte\" (from the \"Annual Report\" for 1893), Budapest, 1893; (7) \"Das Mosaisch-Talmudische Besitzrecht\" (from the \"Annual Report\" for 1897).\n\nThe works published in the reports of the Landes-Rabbinerschule (National Rabbinical School) have all appeared also in the Hungarian language.\n\nFamily\nHe was born a Czech-Jewish family. Among his ancestors were Isaac, rabbi at Cracow; the grandson of the latter,\nPhinehas Selig, author of the \"'A\u1e6deret Paz\"; and the latter's son, Aryeh L\u00f6w, a well-known Talmudist, who was the father of Eleazar L\u00f6w, the author of \"Shemen Ro\u1e33ea\u1e25.\" He later immigrated to Hungary.\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Block M\u00f3zes, Rabbi (Festschrift zu Ehren SR. Ehrw\u00fcrden des Herrn Rabbiners Moses Bloch Anl\u00e4sslich Seines 80. Geburtstages), edited by the professors of the Rabbinical Seminary, 1895.\n Source,\n\n1815 births\n1909 deaths\nPeople from Pob\u011b\u017eovice\nJews from Bohemia\nCzech Orthodox rabbis\n19th-century Hungarian rabbis\nHungarian people of Czech-Jewish descent","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":5}},"id":11483413,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moses%20L%C3%B6b%20Bloch","title":"Moses L\u00f6b Bloch","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Chinese herbs do not grow in China only. If you find the right climate and soil type, you can grow many of those herbs overseas. For instance, American Ginseng is grown in Wisconsin State.\n\nThe raw herbs available in retail have the following natural features:\n Part of a plant: root, leave, seed, flowers, branch, etc.\n Unprocessed except being cut, sliced, and cleansed of dirt.\n Dried because the dried form weighs less and can be stored longer.\n Some herbs can be eaten after boiling because they turn soft.\n Most herbs cannot be eaten for they remain very coarse after boiling.\n Herbs in general do not taste good. Most taste bitter and earthly. Some taste neutral. A few taste even sweet.\n Inexpensive except for a few like Ren Shen \u4eba\u53c3, Chuan Bei Mu \u5ddd\u8c9d\u6bcd, or Dong Chong Xia Cao \u51ac\u866b\u590f\u8349.\n\nHerbal tea \nHow do people take the raw herbs? Raw herbs are usually taken orally by extracting the essence out of them. The natural way being practiced since ancient time is to boil and brew the herbal package in water to get a dark brown solution called herb tea that never tastes good. One hour of brewing should be good enough. Then you drink one or two cups a day. Honey or sugar may be added to make it taste less bad. The herbal package can be conveniently modified by changing some ingredients to make it work for you. So an herbal package is really tailor-made for you only.\n\nTablet form \nRaw herbs can be dried and grounded into a powder then compressed into a tablet which is better than buying your own tablets or having to buy gel capsules\n\nCapsule form \nRaw herbs can be made into capsules at home. All you need is a tailor-made package of raw herbs. Turn it into fine powder with a powerful grinder, and put the powder into empty gel capsules. When you swallow the capsules, your digestive system has to extract the essence out of the raw herb powder. Whereas if you drink the herb tea, the essence extraction is already done after brewing. The herbal solution will readily be absorbed by your body. Furthermore, the herb tea has a history spanning over two thousand years. How many years of history does the tablet or capsule have besides offering convenience?\n\nHealing properties \n Herbs have natural healing effects on organs, blood, and various unhealthy conditions.\n In contrast to Western pharmaceuticals, which are mainly designed to fix or suppress certain health conditions, herbs have additional enhancing and strengthening values on the body.\n Due to their strengthening and enhancing values, herbs can also be used for preventive measures.\n The herbal effects are natural and mild, with little adverse side effects.\n Each herb has multiple effects on the body, in addition to one major effect.\n Herbs do not work singly because the effects of one herb are too gentle.\n The effects of herbs rely on synergies because of their overlapping multiple effects. Therefore, an herbal package of different herbs put together can deliver a much greater effect than a single herb of equal weight.\n How to create synergy for an herbal package is an essential knowledge and experience that distinguish a good herbalist from a mediocre one.\n\nUsage of some Chinese herbs \n\n(A) General Tonics\n\n(1) *** (Tonify Qi) ***\n\nren shen\t\u4eba\u53c2\tradix Ginseng\n\ndang shen\t\u515a\u53c2\tradix Codonopsis\n\nbai zhu\t\u767d\u672e     \trhizoma Atractylodis Macrocephalae\n\ngan cao\t\u7518\u8349\tradix Glycyrrhizae\n\nshan yao\t\u5c71\u836f\trhizoma Dioscoreae\n\nda jao\t\u5927\u67a3\tfructus Jujubae\n\n(2) *** (Tonify Yang) ***\n\nlu rong\t \u9e7f\u8338\tcornu Cervi Pantotrichum\n\nrou cong rong\t\u8089\u84ef\u84c9\therba Cistanches\n\nyin yang huo\t\u6deb\u7f8a\u970d\therba Epimedii\n\ndu zhong\t\u675c\u4ef2\tcortex Eucommiae\n\nxu duan\t \u7eed\u65ad\tradix Dipsaci\n\ngou ji\t\u72d7 \u810a\tfructus Psoraleae\n\nbu gu zhi\t\u8865\u9aa8\u8102   \trhizoma Cibotii\n\ndong chong xia cao\t\u51ac\u866b\u590f\u8349\tCordyceps\n\nyi zhi ren\t\u76ca\u667a\u4ec1\tfructus Alpiniae Oxyphyllae\n\nge jie\t \u86e4\u86a7\tGecko\n\n(3) *** (Tonify Blood) ***\n\ndang gui\t\u5f53\u5f52    \tradix Angelicae Sinensis\n\nhu tao rou\t\u80e1\u6843\u8089\tsemen Juglandis\n\nshu di huang\t\u719f\u5730\u9ec4\tradix Rehmanniae Preparata\n\nhe shou wu\t\u4f55\u9996\u4e4c   \tradix Polgoni Multiflori\n\ne jiao\t\u963f\u80f6\tColla Corii Asini\n\n(4) *** (Tonify Yin) ***\n\nnan sha shen\t\u5357\u6c99\u53c2\tradix adenophorae\n\nbei sha shen\t\u5317\u6c99\u53c2\tradix Glehniae\n\ntian men dong\t\u5929\u95e8\u51ac\tradix Asparagi\n\nmai men dong\t\u9ea6\u95e8\u51ac\tradix Ophiopogonis\n\nshi hu\t\u77f3\u659b\therba Dendrobii\n\nhuang jing\t\u9ec4\u7cbe\trhizoma Polgonati\n\nyu zhu\t\u7389\u7af9\trhizoma Polgonati Odorati\n\nshan zhu yu\t\u5c71\u8331\u8438\tfructus Corni\n\ngou qi zi\t\u67b8\u675e\u5b50\tfructus Lycii\n\nnu zhen zi\t\u5973\u8d1e\u5b50\tfructus Ligustri Lucidi\n\nmo han lian\t\u65f1\u83b2\u8349     \therba Ecliptae\n\nbie jia\t\u9c49\u7532 \tcarapax Trionycis\n\ngui ban\t\u9f9f\u677f\tplastrum Testudinis\n\n(B) Stabilise and Bind \n\nwu wei zi\t\u4e94\u5473\u5b50\tfructus Schisandrae\n\nwu mei\t\u4e4c\u6885\tfructus Mume\n\nwu bei zi\t\u4e94\u500d\u5b50\tgalla Chinensis\n\nfu xiao mai\t\u6d6e\u5c0f\u9ea6\tfructus Tritici Levis\n\nhe zi\t\u8a36\u5b50\tfructus Chebulae\n\nshi liu pi\t\u77f3\u69b4\u76ae\tpericarpium Granati\n\nrou dou kou\t\u8089\u8373\u853b   \tsemen Myristicae\n\nlian zi\t \u83b2\u5b50\tsemen Nelumbinis\n\nqian shi\t\u82a1\u5b9e\tsemen Euryales\n\nsang piao xiao\t\u6851\u87b5\u86f8\tootheca Mantidis\n\nwu zei gu\t\u4e4c\u8d3c\u9aa8\tos Sepiae\n\nbin lang\t\u6ab3\u6994\tsemen Arecae\n\n(C) Transform Phlegm and Stop Coughing\n\nzi wan\t\u7d2b\u83c0\tradix Asteris\n\nbai bu\t\u767e\u90e8\tradix Stemonae\n\nkuan dong hua\t\u6b3e\u51ac\u82b1\tflos Farfarae\n\nsang bai pi\t\u6851\u767d\u76ae\tcortex Mori Radicis\n\nma dou ling\t\u9a6c\u515c\u94c3\tfructus Aristolochiae\n\nting li zi\t\u8476\u9742\u5b50\tsemen Lepidii seu Descurainiae\n\n(D) Regulate Blood:  Stop Bleeding\n\nsan qi (tianqi)\t\u4e09\u4e03\tradix Notoginseng\n\nqian cao\t\u831c\u8349\tradix Rubiae\n\n(E) Regulate Blood:  Invigorate Blood\n\nshui zhi\t\u6c34\u86ed\tHirudo\n\nchuan xiong\t\u5ddd\u828e\trhizoma Chuanxiong\n\nru xiang\t\u4e73\u9999\tOlibanum\n\nmo yao\t\u6ca1\u836f\tMyrrha\n\nyu jin\t\u9b31\u91d1\tradix Curcumae\n\ne zhu\t\u83aa\u672e\trhizoma Zedoariae\n\ndan shen\t\u4e39\u53c2\tradix Salviae Miltiorrhizae\n\n(F) Transform Phlegm-cold\n\nban xia\t\u534a\u590f\trhizoma Pinelliae\n\ntian nan xing\t\u5929\u5357\u661f\trhizoma Arisaematis\n\nbai jie zi\t\u767d\u82a5\u5b50\tsemen Sinapis Albae\n\nxuan fu hua\t\u65cb\u8986\u82b1\tflos Inulae\n\n(G) Regulate Qi\n\nfo shou\t\u4f5b\u624b\tfructus Citri Sarcodactylis\n\nmu xiang\t\u6728\u9999\tradix Aucklandiae\n\nwu yao\t\u4e4c\u836f\tradix Linderae\n\nxiang fu\t\u9999\u9644\trhizoma Cyperi\n\nju pi (chen pi)\t\u9648\u76ae\tpericarpium Citri Reticulatae\n\nju hong\t\u6a58\u7ea2\texocarpium Citri Rubrum\n\nqing pi\t\u9752\u76ae\tpericarpium Citri Reticulatae Viride\n\nzhi ke\t\u67b3\u58f3\tfructus Aurantii\n\nzhi shi\t\u67b3\u5b9e\tfructus Aurantii Immaturus\n\nchen xiang\t\u6c89\u9999\tlignum Aquilariae Resinatum\n\nchuan lian zhi\t\u5ddd\u695d\u5b50\tfructus Toosendan\n\nyan hu suo\t\u5ef6\u80e1\u7d22\trhizoma Corydalis\n\nxie bai\t\u85a4\u767d\tbulbus Allii Macrostemi\n\n(H) Regulate Digestion\n\nshan zhu yu\t\u5c71\u8331\u8438\tfructus Crataegi\n\nmai ya\t \u9ea6\u82bd\tfructus Hordei germinatus\n\ngu ya\t\u7a40\u82bd\tfructus Oryzae germinatus\n\nlai fu zi\t\u83b1\u83d4\u5b50\tsemen Raphani\n\nji nei jin\t\u9e21\u5185\u91d1\tendothelium corneum Gigeriae galli\n\nshen qu\t   \u795e\u9eb4   massa Fermentata Medicinalis\n\n(I) Dispel Wind Dampness\n\ndu huo\t        \u7368\u6d3b\tradix Angelicae Pubescentis\n\nwei ling xian\t\u5a01\u9748\u4ed9\tradix Clematidis\n\nfang ji \t\u9632\u5df1 \tradix Stephaniae Tetrandrae\n\nqin jiao\t\u79e6\u827d\tradix Gentianae Macrophyllae\n\nmu gua\t\u756a\u6728\u74dc\tfructus Chaenomelis\n\nsang ji sheng\t\u6851\u5bc4\u751f\tramulus Taxilli\n\nwu jia pi\t\u4e94\u52a0\u76ae\tcortex Acanthopanacis\n\nbai hua she\t\u767d\u82b1\u86c7\tAgkistrodon seu Bungarus\n\nhu gu\t\u864e\u9aa8\tos Tigris\n\nwu shao she\t\u70cf\u68a2\u86c7\tZaocys\n\ncang zhu\t\u84bc\u672e  \trhizoma Atractylodis\n\nhou po\t\u539a\u6a38\tcortex Magnoliae Officinalis\n\nhuo xiang\t\u85ff\u9999\therba Agastaches\n\npei lan\t\u4f69\u862d\therba Eupatorii\n\nsha ren\t\u7802\u4ec1\tfructus Amomi\n\nbai dou kou\t\u767d\u8c46\u853b   \tfructus Amomi Rotundus\n\ncao guo\t\u8349\u679c\tfructus Tsaoko\n\n(J) Warm, pungent, Release Exterior Wind Cold\n\nsu geng\t        \u82cf\u6897\tcaulis Perillae\n\nzi su ye\t\u82cf\u53f6\tfolium Perillae\n\nxiang ru\t\u9999\u85b7\therba Elsholtziae\n\njing jie\t\u8346\u82a5\therba Schizonepetae\n\nfan feng\t\u9632\u98ce\tradix Ledebouriellae\n\njiang huo\t\u8591\u6d3b\tradix Angelicae Dahuricae\n\nbai zhi\t        \u767d\u82b7\trhizoma seu radix Notopterygli\n\ncang er zi\t\u82cd\u8033\u5b50\tfructus Xanthii\n\nxin yi\t\u8f9b\u8351\u82b1\tflos Magnoliae\n\nbo he\t\u8584\u8377\therba Menthae\n\nniu bang zi\t\u725b\u84a1\u5b50\tfructus Arctii\n\ncan tui\t\u8749\u8715 \tperiostracum Cicadae\n\ndan dou chi\t\u6de1\u8c46\u8c49 \tsemen Sojae preparatum\n\nju hua\t\u83ca\u82b1\tflos Chrysanthemi\n\nge gen\t\u845b\u6839\tradix Puerariae\n\nchai hu\t\u67f4\u80e1\tradix Bupleuri\n\nsheng ma\t\u5347\u9ebb\trhizoma Cimicifugae\n\nma huang\t\u9ebb\u9ec4 \tradix Ephedrae\n\ngui zhi\t        \u6842\u679d\tramulus Cinnamomi\n\n(K) Regulate BloodL  Stop Bleeding\n\nzhu ma gen\t\u82e7\u9ebb\u6839\tradix Boehmeriae\n\nbai mao gen\t\u767d\u8305\u6839   \trhizoma Imperatae\n\nce bai ye\t\u4fa7\u67cf\u53f6\tcacumen Biotae\n\nhuai hua\t\u69d0\u82b1\tflos Sophorae\n\nda ji\t\u5927\u84df\therba seu Radix Cirsii Japonici\n\nxiao ji\t\u5c0f\u84df     \therba Cephalanoploris\n\ndi yu\t\u5730\u6986\tradix Sanguisorbae\n\nxian he cao\t\u4ed9\u9e64\u8349\therba Agrimoniae\n\nbai jiang\t(\u8d25\u9171\u8349)\trhizoma Bletillae\n\nqian cao\t\u831c\u8349\tradix Rubiae\n\nai ye\t\u827e\u53f6\tfolium Artemisiae Argyi\n\npu huang\t\u84b2\u9ec4\tpollen Typhae\n\n(L) Drain Dampness\n\nfu ling \t\u832f\u82d3\tPoria\n\nzhu ling\t\u8c6c\u82d3\tPolyporus Umbellatus\n\nze xie\t        \u6fa4\u7009\trhizoma Alismatis\n\nyi yi ren\t\u858f\u82e1\u4ec1\tsemen Coicis\n\nche qian zi\t\u8f66\u524d\u5b50\tsemen Plantaginis\n\nhua shi\t\u6ed1\u77f3\tTalcum\n\nmu tong\t\u6728\u901a\tcaulis Akebiae\n\njin qian cao\t\u91d1\u94b1\u8349\therba Lysimachiae\n\ntong cao\t\u901a\u8349\tmedulla Tetrapanacis\n\nshi wei\t\u77f3\u82c7\tfolium Pyrrosiae\n\nyin chen hao\t\u8335\u9648\u84bf     \therba Artemisiae Scopariae\n\nbi xie\t\u8406\u85a2\trhizoma Dioscoreae Septemlobae\n\n(M) Drain Fire\n\nshi gao\t        \u77f3\u818f\tgypsum Fibrosum\n\nzhi mu\t        \u77e5\u6bcd\trhizoma Anemarrhenae\n\ntian hua fen\t\u5929\u82b1\u7c89\tradix Trichosanthis\n\nlu gen\t\u82a6\u6839\trhizoma Phragmitis\n\nhuang lian\t\u9ec4\u83b2\trhizoma Coptidis\n\nhuang qin\t\u9ec4\u82a9\tradix Scutellariae\n\nhuang bai\t\u9ec4\u67cf \tcortex Phellodendri\n\nzhi zi\t\u6894\u5b50     \tfructus Gardeniae\n\nlong dan cao\t\u9f99\u80c6\u8349    \tradix Gentianae\n\nxia ku cao\t\u590f\u67af\u8349\tspica Prunellae\n\nku shen\t\u82e6\u53c2\tradix Sophorae Flavescentis\n\njue ming zi\t\u51b3\u660e\u5b50   \tsemen Cassiae\n\n(N) Relieve Fire Toxins\n\njin yin hua\t\u91d1\u94f6\u82b1\tflos Lonicerae\n\nren dong teng\t\u5fcd\u51ac\u85e4\tcaulis Lonicerae\n\nlian qiao\t\u8fde\u7fd8\tfructus Forsythiae\n\npu gong ying\t\u84b2\u516c\u82f1\therba Taraxaci\n\nzi hua di ding\t\u7d2b\u82b1\u5730\u4e01\therba Violae\n\nda qing ye\t\u5927\u9752\u53f6   \tfolium Isatidis\n\nqing dai\t\u9752\u9edb\tindigo Naturalis\n\nban lan gen\t\u677f\u84dd\u6839\tradix Isatidis\n\nchuan xin lian\t\u7a7f\u5fc3\u83b2\therba Andrographitis\n\nyu xing cao\t\u9c7c\u8165\u8349\therba Houttuyniae\n\nshan dou gen\t\u5c71\u8c46\u6839\tradix Sophorae Tonkinensis\n\nshe gan\t\u5c04\u5e72\trhizoma Belamcandae\n\nma chi xian\t\u9a6c\u9f7f\u83a7\therba Portulacae\n\nbai tou weng\t\u767d\u5934\u7fc1\tradix Pulsatillae\n\nhong teng\t\u7ea2\u85e4\tcaulis Sargentodoxae\n\nqin pi\t\u79e6\u76ae\tcortex Fraxini\n\n(O) Cool Blood\n\nshui niu jiao\t\u6c34\u725b\u89d2\tcornu Bubali\n\nsheng di huang\t\u751f\u5730\u9ec4\tradix Rehmanniae\n\nxuan shen\t\u7384\u53c2\tradix Scrophulariae\n\nxi jiao\t        \u897f\u89d2\tcornu Rhinocerotis\n\nbai jiang\t\u8d25\u9171\u8349\therba Patriniae\n\nmu dan pi\t\u7261\u4e39\u76ae\tcortex Moutan Radicis\n\nchi shao\t\u8d64\u828d\tradix Paeoniae Rubra\n\nzi cao\t\u7d2b\u8349\tradix arnebiae seu lithospermi\n\n(P) Cleasr Deficient Heat\n\nqing hao\t\u9752\u84bf\therba Artemisiae Annuae\n\nbai wei\t  \u767d\u8587\tradix cynanchi Atrati\n\ndi gu pi\t\u5730\u9aa8\u76ae\tcortex Lycii Radicis\n\nyin chai hu\t\u9280\u67f4\u80e1\tradix Stellariae\n\n(Q) Purge Downwards, Cathartically Drain Downwards\n\nda huang\t\u5927\u9ec3\tradix et rhizoma Rhei\n\nmang xiao\t\u8292\u785d\tnatrii Sulfas\n\nfan xie ye\t\u756a\u7009\u8449\tfolium Sennae\n\nda ma ren\t\u5927\u9ebb\u4ec1\tfructus Cannabis\n\ngan sui\t     \u7518\u9042\tradix Kansui\n\nyu li ren\t\u90c1\u674e\u4ec1\tsemen Pruni\n\nda ji\t\u5927\u621f\tradix Euphorbiae Pekinensis\n\nyuan hua\t\u82ab\u82b1\tflos Genkwa\n\nqian niu zi\t\u727d\u725b\u5b50\tsemen Pharbitidis\n\n(R) Warm Interior and Expel Cold\n\nrou gui\t        \u8089\u6842     \tcortex Cinnamomi\n\nwu zhu yu\t\u5434\u8331\u8438\tfructus Evodiae\n\nxi xin\t        \u7ec6\u8f9b\therba Asari\n\nhua jiao\t\u82b1\u6912\tpericarpium Zanthoxyli\n\nding xiang\t\u4e01\u9999\tflos Caryophylli\n\ngao liang jiang\t\u9ad8\u83a8\u59dc   \trhizoma Alpiniae Officinarum\n\nxiao hui xiang\t\u5c0f\u8334\u9999\tfructus Foeniculi\n\nfu zi\t\u5730\u80a4\u5b50 \tradix Aconiti Lateralis Preparata\n\nchuan wu tou\t\u5ddd\u4e4c\u5934\tradix Aconiti\n\ncao wu tou\t\u8349\u4e4c\u5934\tradix Aconiti Kusnezoffiae\n\nwu tou\t\u4e4c\u5934\tradix Aconiti Lateralis Preparata\n\ngan jiang\t\u4e7e\u8591\trhizoma Zingiberis\n\n(S) Expel Parasites\n\nshi jun zi\t\u4f7f\u541b\u5b50\tfructus Quisqualis\n\nda fu pi\t\u5927\u8179\u76ae\tpericarpium Arecae\n\nlei wan\t        \u96f7\u4e38\tOmphalia\n\nku lian pi\t\u82e6\u83b2\u76ae\tcortex Meliae\n\nnan gua zi\t\u5357\u74dc\u5b50\tsemen Cucurbitae\n\nhe cao ya\t\u9e64\u8349\u7259 \tgemma Agrimoniae\n\nhe shi\t\tfructus Carpesii\n\nguan zhong\t\u8d2f\u773e(\u8d2f\u4ef2)\trhizoma Dryopteris Crassirhizomae\n\nfei zi\t\u69a7\u5b50\tsemen Torreyae\n\n(T) Calm Shen\n\nlong gu\t     \u9f99\u9aa8\tos Draconis\n\nsuan zao ren\t\u9178\u67a3\u4ec1   \tsemen Ziziphi Spinosae\n\nyuan zhi\t\u8fdc\u5fd7\tradix Polygalae\n\nbai zi ren\t\u67cf\u5b50\u4ec1\tsemen Biotae\n\n(U)Extinguish Internal Wind and Stop Tremors\n\nmu li\t\u7261\u8823\tconcha Ostreae\n\nzhen zhu\t\u73cd\u73e0\tMagarita\n\nzhen zhu mu\t\u73cd\u73e0\u6bcd\tconcha Margaritifera Usta\n\ndai zhe shi\t\u4ee3\u8d6d\u77f3\tHaematitum\n\nling yang jiao\t\u94c3\u7f8a\u89d2\tcornu Saigae Tataricae\n\ntian ma\t\u5929\u9ebb\trhizoma Gastrodiae\n\n(V) Open Orifices\n\nshe xiang\t\u9e9d\u9999 \tMoschus\n\nniu huang\t\u725b\u9ec4\tcalculus Bovis\n\nBing Pian\t\u51b0\u7247\tborneolum Syntheticum\n\nsu he xiang\t\u82cf\u5408\u9999\tStorax\n\nshi chang pu\t\u77f3\u83d6\u84b2\trhizoma Acori Graminei\n\nNotes \n \n(1)The terms used here reflect typical TCM usage (as translated literally from individual Chinese characters), and may not reflect their meanings in TCM, namely, meanings that are normative, figurative or metaphorical when read in context. The meanings of these terms are therefore different from that in common English usage. In particular, they are not to be used for purposes of self-diagnosis, much less for self-medication. For example, \"Xia Huo\" means \"To reduce fire\", but \"fire\" here does not refer to combustion involving oxygen. Even within TCM, there are various meanings of \"fire\", and it can refer to \"real\" or \"false\" fire. The 3 herbs mentioned above cannot be used to reduce \"false fire\", or fires of yin deficiency in the zhang organs.\n\n(2) An example of the non-literal use of transliterated characters is \"long gu\" which literally means \"dragon bones\". This term cannot possible refer to Chinese dragons, since they do not exist. However, one can easily buy \"long gu\" from any TCM herbal shop. Another term that cannot be taken literally is \"di long\" which literally means \"earth dragon\".\n\n(3) Although the above herbs are common in TCM prescriptions, they cannot be purchased if we refer only to their Latin names. One likely reason is that TCM pharmacists rarely, if ever, use the Latin names of the herbs. The Chinese names, or the transliterated names (pinyin) should be used instead. For example, if we ask for \"flos Lonicerae\" we will almost certainly get a blank look. However, if we ask for \"Jin Yin Hua\" or\t\u91d1\u94f6\u82b1 we will connect immediately, even though the pharmacist may speak any of the large number of Chinese dialects (such as Cantonese, where the herb is known as \"Kum Gen Fa\", or Golden Silver Flower, in Hong Kong). Wherever possible, use the written form (\u91d1\u94f6\u82b1) to avoid miscommunication and\/or mis-pronunciation, since there is no dialect form of the written language.\n\n(4) There are a large number of synonyms of the herb names, in both Chinese, English and Latin. This makes it even more essential to use the written form of the Chinese names to ensure accuracy.\n\n(5) Some herbs are prone to adulteration, substitution, or both. For example, Ling Zhi Cao (Cordyceps) can be substituted with an inactive form of the herb. If an extract is first made with water, the herb will be tasteless when dried and re-used\/recycled. On the other hand, the genuine Ling Zhi tastes bitter, but few consumers would know the difference, especially if the herb is mixed in a prescription and boiled together with other herbs. The pharmacists themselves may not be aware, as some may trust their suppliers implicitly, and do not conduct regular testing.\n\n(6) Animal-based \"herbs\" are prone to substitution or adulteration, including Xiong Dan (bear bile \/ gall bladder) which looks very much like Niu Dan (bovine bile \/gall bladder) when the gall bladder is dried, although Niu Dan is far less bitter in taste. Some are simply unavailable because they are banned in many countries. These include tiger parts, such as Hu Gu (tiger bone) which is substituted by bobcat bone, and Chuan San Jia (scales of the pangolin) which has no animal-based substitute. Niu Huang (bovine gallstone) is unavailable in many Western countries and Singapore because of its potential impact on pregnant women, although Niu Huang Pills with about 2% of Niu Huang are available in many Asian countries.\n\nHerbs","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":54,"dup_details":{"2022-40":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":151714,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese%20herbology","title":"Chinese herbology","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"S\u01e3\u01bfeard is an organization devoted to saving the lives of shipwrecked mariners or people in danger at sea.  In some countries it is part of the military.  In other countries it is a civilian or even volunteer organization.  Most coast guards operate ships and aircraft including helicopters and seaplanes for this purpose.\n\nCoast guards also enforce maritime law, maintain aids to navigation such as beacons and buoys, and provide other services for the benefit of mariners.  Most coast guards are run on military lines and serve as an auxiliary to the national navy.  During wartime coast guards are responsible for harbour defense, port security, naval counterintelligence and coastal patrols.\n\n\u00de\u0113odli\u010be s\u01e3\u01bfeardas \n\nIn the United States, the United States Coast Guard is a military service under the United States Department of Homeland Security in peacetime.  In wartime the Coast Guard reports to the Secretary of the Navy but does not become part of the United States Navy; however, its boats and cutters are integrated into U.S. military operations. The U.S. Coast Guard Academy is located in New London, Connecticut. The U.S. Coast Guard Chief Petty Officers Academy is located in Petaluma, California. http:\/\/www.uscg.mil\/hq\/tcpet\/cpoa\/index.shtm\n\nIn Canada, the Canadian Coast Guard is a civilian service under the Department of Fisheries and Oceans.  The Canadian Coast Guard College is located near Sydney, Nova Scotia.\n\nIn India, the Indian Coast Guard is a paramilitary unit. It secures the country's coast, carries out rescues, and aids shipping.\n\nIn Singapore, the coast guard comes under the command of the Singapore Police Force. Hence, it is called the Police Coast Guard (PCG).\n\nIn the United Kingdom coastguard functions are split between four organisations: HM Coastguard deals with rescue co-ordination and carries out land-based rescues, Trinity House and the Northern Lighthouse Board maintain buoys and lighthouses, and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution carries out rescues from the sea, assisted by Royal Air Force, Royal Navy and Coastguard air-sea rescue helicopters when necessary.\n\nS\u01e3weardas\n\nAustralia - two rival privately-run volunteer Coast Guard organizations exist:\nAustralian Volunteer Coast Guard\nRoyal Volunteer Coastal Patrol\nCanada- Canadian Coast Guard\nGreece - Hellenic Coast Guard\nHong Kong - Hong Kong Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre\nJapan - Japan Coast Guard (ex Maritime Safety Agency)\nPhilippines - Philippine Coast Guard\nTaiwan (Republic of China) - Republic of China Coast Guard\nUnited Kingdom\nHM Coastguard\nRoyal National Lifeboat Institution\nUnited States -  United States Coast Guard\n\n\u016atanwearde bendas\nUS S\u01e3weard\nRNLI\n\u00der\u012bnesh\u016bs\nGuardia Costiera\n\ncoast guards Types of military","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-31":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":2877,"url":"https:\/\/ang.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S%C7%A3weard%C3%BEr%C4%93at","title":"S\u01e3weard\u00fer\u0113at","language":"ang"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A trophy is an object given to someone because of an accomplishment. These are often given out through sporting events.  \n\nA trophy can be in the shape of a cup, a bowl, a plaque, a mug (these usually painted or engraved with something), a human shape (like the Emmy Award), or a spaceship (like the Hugo Award for science-fiction).  \n\nTrophies can also be an animal head. These are often taken as trophies by hunters.\n\nHistory\n\nIn ancient times people would take heads or other body parts of enemies they had killed in a battle to show how good a warrior they were.\nMany years ago (in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome) the winners did not get any trophy, only a wreath (a wreath is made of flowers and looks like a crown). The winner also got olive oil in a container that was similar to today trophies. In local games, the winners got different trophies, such as a vase or a silver cup.\nIn ancient Rome, the tradition of getting a trophy was slowly forgotten and money were given instead.\nTrophies were introduced back in the world on large scale in last century. Football, rugby and baseball trophies were introduced.\nToday trophies are mostly made from plastic and are easily accessible to public thanks to low prices.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":77103,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trophy","title":"Trophy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Internet Archive (IA) is a non-profit organization based in San Francisco, California that has an on-line library and archive of Web and multimedia resources. The Internet Archive was founded by Brewster Kahle in 1996.\n\nThis archive includes \"snapshots of the World Wide Web\" (archived copies of pages, taken at various points in time), software, movies, books, and audio recordings. To make the books available on the Internet, they are first placed into special scanning machines by volunteers and employees of the library. These machines take very high quality pictures of the books' pages, and then images and text of the books are freely available on the Website. This process is called \"digitization\". The old collections of films and sound are digitized in this way too before being made available online. All of the original books, movies, records and so on are stored in a giant warehouse in California, just like normal libraries store their smaller collections of books or other records. This collection is called the Open Library and aims to create \"one web page for every book ever published.\" It was created by computer programmer and activist, Aaron Swartz.\n\nThe Archive also purchases new electronic books and loans them out to readers just like any other normal library. These electronic books can be read by viewing the Website, on the reader's own computer or electronic reading device, and even in special reading areas inside the Archive where the tables have touchscreens and computers built into them.\n\nTo ensure the stability and endurance of the archive, The Internet Archive is mirrored at Bibliotheca Alexandrina in Egypt, the only library in the world with a mirror. The Internet Archive makes the collections available at no cost to researchers, historians, and scholars. The Internet Archive is a member of the American Library Association and is officially recognized by the State of California as a library.\n\nRelated pages\nAlexa Internet\nProject Gutenberg\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\nThe Internet Archive home page\nThe Open Library - Digital library index\nWayback Machine - historical \"snapshots\" of the World Wide Web\nInternet Archive Blogs - A blog from the team at archive.org\nThe International Internet Preservation Consortium (IIPC)\nLibrary of Congress, Web Capture\nNational Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program\nPetabox, a useful invention created in collaboration with the Internet Archive\nPictures and descriptions of the Wayback Machine hardware in 2003 (prior to the Petabox), with cost information\nForm 990-PF for Internet Archive (2003)\nArchive-It 1.5 Press Release and Archive-It FAQ\nWarrick  \u2013 a tool for recovering websites from the Internet Archive and search engine caches\nVideo interview with Internet Archive founder Brewster Kahle (short intro in German language, the interview is in English with German subtitles)\nThe European Archive in Amsterdam\nRecover websites from Web Archive and search engines caches\nInternet Archive by Deepspeed media - Short documentary and interview with Brewster Kahle (hosted on YouTube)\n\nInternet-related organizations\nArchives\nNon-profit organizations of California\n1996 establishments in California","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":61295,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet%20Archive","title":"Internet Archive","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A writing system is a type of symbolic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in language.\n\nGeneral properties\nWriting systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that one must usually understand something of the associated spoken language to comprehend the text. By contrast, other possible symbolic systems such as information signs, painting, maps, and mathematics often do not require prior knowledge of a spoken language.\n\nEvery human community possesses language, a feature regarded by many as an innate and defining condition of mankind. However the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication has been sporadic, uneven and slow. Once established, writing systems on the whole change more slowly than their spoken counterparts, and often preserve features and expressions which are no longer current in the spoken language. The great benefit of writing systems is their ability to maintain a persistent record of information expressed in a language, which can be retrieved independently of the initial act of formulation.\n\nAll writing systems require:\n a set of defined base elements or symbols, individually termed characters or graphemes, and collectively called a script;\n a set of rules and conventions understood and shared by a community, which arbitrarily assign meaning to the base elements, their ordering, and relations to one another;\n a language (generally a spoken language) whose constructions are represented and able to be recalled by the interpretation of these elements and rules;\n some physical means of distinctly representing the symbols by application to a permanent or semi-permanent medium, so they may be interpreted (usually visually, but tactile systems have also been devised).\n\nBasic terminology\n\nThe study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines in the examination of individual scripts, and as such the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field. \n\nThe generic term text may be used to refer to an individual product of a writing system. The act of composing a text may be referred to as writing, and the act of interpreting the text as reading. In the study of writing systems, orthography refers to the method and rules of observed writing structure (literal meaning, \"correct writing\"), and in particular for alphabetic systems, includes the concept of spelling. \n\nA grapheme is the technical term coined to refer to the specific base or atomic units of a given writing system. Graphemes are the minimally significant elements which taken together comprise the set of \"building blocks\" out of which texts of a given writing system may be constructed, along with rules of correspondence and use. The concept is similar to that of the phoneme used in the study of spoken languages. For example, in the Latin-based writing system of standard contemporary English, examples of graphemes include the majuscule and minuscule forms of the twenty-six letters of the alphabet (corresponding to various phonemes), marks of punctuation (mostly non-phonemic), and a few other symbols such as those for numerals (logograms for numbers).\n\nNote that an individual grapheme may be represented in a wide variety of ways, where each variation is visually distinct in some regard, but all are interpreted as representing the \"same\" grapheme. These individual variations are known as allographs of a grapheme (compare with the term allophone used in linguistic study). For example, the minuscule letter a has different allographs when written as a cursive, block, or typed letter. The selection between different allographs may be influenced by the medium used, the writing instrument, the stylistic choice of the writer, and the largely unconscious features of an individual's handwriting. \n\nThe terms glyph, sign and character are sometimes used to refer to a grapheme. Common usage varies from discipline to discipline; compare cuneiform sign, Maya glyph, Chinese character. The glyphs of most writing systems are made up of lines (or strokes) and are therefore called linear, but there are glyphs in non-linear writing systems made up of other types of marks, such as Cuneiform and Braille. \n\nWriting systems are conceptual systems, as are the languages to which they refer. Writing systems may be regarded as complete according to the extent to which they are able to represent all that may be expressed in the spoken language.\n\nHistory of writing systems \n \n\nWriting systems were preceded by proto-writing, systems of ideographic and\/or early mnemonic symbols. The best known examples are:  \n Jiahu Script, symbols on tortoise shells in Jiahu, ca. 6600 BC\n Vin\u010da script (T\u0103rt\u0103ria tablets), ca. 4500 BC\n Early Indus script, ca. 3500 BC\n\nThe invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late Neolithic of the late 4th millennium BC. The Sumerian archaic cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400\u20133200 BC with earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC.\n\nThough the Ge'ez writing system of Ethiopia is considered Semitic it is likely of semi-independent origin, having roots in the Meroitic Sudanese ideogram system.\n\nThe Chinese script likely developed independently of the Middle Eastern scripts, around 1600 BC.\n\nThe pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems (including among others Olmec and Maya scripts) are also generally believed to have had independent origins. \n\nIt is thought that the first true alphabetic writing appeared around 2000 BC, as a representation of language developed for Semitic slaves in Egypt by Egyptians (see History of the alphabet).  Most other alphabets in the world today either descended from this one innovation, many via the Phoenician alphabet, or were directly inspired by its design.\n\nFunctional classification of writing systems\n\nThe oldest-known forms of writing were primarily logographic in nature, based on pictographic and ideographic elements. Most writing systems can be broadly divided into three categories: logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic (or segmental); however, all three may be found in any given writing system in varying proportions, often making it difficult to categorise a system uniquely. The term complex system is sometimes used to describe those where the admixture makes classification problematic.\n\nLogographic writing systems\n\nA logogram is a single written character which represents a complete grammatical word. Most Chinese characters are classified as logograms.\n\nAs each character represents a single word (or, more precisely, a morpheme), many logograms are required to write all the words of language. The vast array of logograms and the memorization of what they mean are the major disadvantage of the logographic systems over alphabetic systems. However, since the meaning is inherent to the symbol, the same logographic system can theoretically be used to represent different languages. In practice, this is only true for closely related languages, like the Chinese languages, as syntactical constraints reduce the portability of a given logographic system. Japanese uses Chinese logograms extensively in its writing systems, with most of the symbols carrying the same or similar meanings. However, the semantics, and especially the grammar, are different enough that a long Chinese text is not readily understandable to a Japanese reader without any knowledge of basic Chinese grammar, though short and concise phrases such as those on signs and newspaper headlines are much easier to comprehend. \n\nWhile most languages do not use wholly logographic writing systems many languages use some logograms. A good example of modern western logograms are the Hindu-Arabic numerals \u2014 everyone who uses those symbols understands what 1 means whether he or she calls it one, eins, uno, yi, ichi or ehad. Other western logograms include the ampersand &, used for and, the at sign @, used in many contexts for at, the percent sign % and the many signs representing units of currency ($, \u00a2, \u20ac, \u00a3, \u00a5 and so on.)\n\nLogograms are sometimes called ideograms, a word that refers to symbols which graphically represent abstract ideas, but linguists avoid this use, as Chinese characters are often semantic\u2013phonetic compounds, symbols which include an element that represents the meaning and element that represents the pronunciation.  Some nonlinguists distinguish between lexigraphy and ideography, where symbols in lexigraphies represent words, and symbols in ideographies represent words or morphemes.\n\nThe most important (and, to a degree, the only surviving) modern logographic writing system is the Chinese one, whose characters are or were used, with varying degrees of modification, in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, and other east Asian languages. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs and the Mayan writing system are also systems with certain logographic features, although they have marked phonetic features as well, and are no longer in current use.\n\nSyllabic writing systems\n\nAs logographic writing systems use a single symbol for an entire word, a syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables, which make up words. A symbol in a syllabary typically represents a consonant sound followed by a vowel sound, or just a vowel alone. \n\nIn a \"true syllabary\", there is no systematic graphic similarity between phonetically related characters (though some do have graphic similarity for the vowels). That is, the characters for \"ke\", \"ka\", and \"ko\" have no similarity to indicate their common \"k\"-ness. However, another type of syllabic writing system is known as the abugida, where each grapheme typically represents a syllable, but where the characters representing related sounds are similar graphically (typically, a common consonantal base is annotated in a more or less consistent manner to represent the vowel in the syllable).  The nomenclature used to make this distinction was only introduced by linguists relatively recently, borrowing the term abugida from Ethiopian languages that call their own Ge'ez script by this name.\n\nSyllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. The English language, on the other hand, allows complex syllable structures, with a relatively large inventory of vowels and complex consonant clusters, making it cumbersome to write English words with a syllabary. To write English using a syllabary, every possible syllable in English would have to have a separate symbol, and whereas the number of possible syllables in Japanese is no more than about fifty to sixty, in English there are many thousands. \n\nOther languages that use true syllabaries include Mycenaean Greek (Linear B) and Native American languages such as Cherokee.  Several languages of the Ancient Near East used forms of cuneiform, which is a syllabary with some non-syllabic elements.\n\nAlphabetic writing systems\n\nAn alphabet is a small set of letters \u2014 basic written symbols \u2014 each of which roughly represents or represented historically a phoneme of a spoken language. The word alphabet is derived from alpha and beta, the first two symbols of the Greek alphabet.\n\nIn a perfectly phonemic alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. Each language has general rules that govern the association between letters and phonemes, but, depending on the language, these rules may or may not be consistently followed.\n\nPerfectly phonemic alphabets are very easy to use and learn, and languages that have them (for example Serbocroatian or Finnish) have much lower barriers to literacy than languages such as English, which has a very complex and irregular spelling system. As languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages for which they were not designed, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language. In modern times, when linguists invent a writing system for a language that didn't previously have one, the goal is usually to develop a phonemic alphabet. It should be noted that a truly phonetic alphabet for a natural spoken language would be very cumbersome, as it would have to have a huge variety of phonetic variation. An example of such a writing system is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).\n\nAbjads\n\nThe first type of alphabet that was developed was the abjad. An abjad is an alphabetic writing system where there is one symbol per consonant. Abjads differ from other alphabets in that they have characters only for consonantal sounds. Vowels are not usually marked in abjad. \n\nAll known abjads (except maybe Tifinagh) belong to the Semitic family of scripts, and derive from the original Northern Linear Abjad. The reason for this is that Semitic languages and the related Berber languages have a morphemic structure which makes the denotation of vowels redundant in most cases.\n\nSome abjads (such as Arabic and Hebrew) have markings for vowels as well, but use them only in special contexts, such as for teaching. Many scripts derived from abjads have been extended with vowel symbols to become full alphabets, the most famous case being the derivation of the Greek alphabet from the Phoenician abjad. This has mostly happened when the script was adapted to a non-Semitic language. \n\nThe term abjad takes its name from the old order of the Arabic alphabet's consonants Alif, B\u00e1, Jim, D\u00e1l, though the word may have earlier roots in Phoenician or Ugaritic.\n\nAbjad is still the word for alphabet in Arabic, Malay, and Indonesian.\n\nAbugidas\n\nAn abugida is an alphabetic writing system whose basic signs denote consonants with an inherent vowel and where consistent modifications of the basic sign indicate other following vowels than the inherent one.\n\nThus, in an abugida there may or may not be a sign for \"k\" with no vowel, but also one for \"ka\" (if \"a\" is the inherent vowel), and \"ke\" is written by modifying the \"ka\" sign in a way that is consistent with how one would modify \"la\" to get \"le\". In many abugidas the modification is the addition of a vowel sign, but other possibilities are imaginable (and used), such as rotation of the basic sign, addition of diacritical marks, and so on.\n\nThe contrast with \"true syllabaries\" is that the latter have one distinct symbol per possible syllable, and the signs for each syllable have no systematic graphic similarity. The graphic similarity of most abugidas comes from the fact that they are derived from abjads, and the consonants make up the symbols with the inherent vowel, and the new vowel symbols are markings added on to the base symbol.\n \n\nIn the Ge'ez script, for which the linguistic term abugida was named, the vowel modifications do not always appear systematic, although they originally were more so. Canadian Aboriginal syllabics can be considered abugidas, although they are rarely thought of in those terms. The largest single group of abugidas is the Brahmic family of scripts, however, which includes nearly all the scripts used in India and \u0d85\u0d9c\u0dca\u0db1\u0dd2\u0daf\u0dd2\u0d9c \u0d86\u0dc3\u0dd2\u0dba\u0dcf\u0dc0.\n\nThe name abugida is derived from the first four characters of an order of the Ge'ez script used in some contexts. It was borrowed from Ethiopian languages as a linguistic term by Peter T. Daniels.\n\nFeatural writing systems\nA featural script represents finer detail than an alphabet. Here symbols do not represent whole phonemes, but rather the elements (features) that make up the phonemes, such as voicing or its place of articulation. Theoretically, each feature could be written with a separate letter; and abjads or abugidas, or indeed syllabaries, could be featural, but the only prominent system of this sort is Korean hangul. In hangul, the featural symbols are combined into alphabetic letters, and these letters are in turn joined into syllabic blocks, so that the system combines three levels of phonological representation.\n\nAmbiguous systems\nMost writing systems are not purely one type. The English writing system, for example, includes numerals and other logograms such as #, $, and &, and the phonetic letters are a poor match to sound. As mentioned above, all logographic systems have phonetic components as well, whether that's along the lines of a syllabary, such as Chinese (\"logo-syllabic\"), or an abjad, as in Egyptian (\"logo-consonantal\"). \n\nSome scripts, however, are truly ambiguous. The semi-syllabaries of ancient Spain were syllabic for plosives such as p, t, k, but alphabetic for other consonants. In some versions, vowels were written redundantly after syllabic letters, conforming to an alphabetic orthography. Old Persian cuneiform was similar. Of 23 consonants (including null), seven were fully syllabic, thirteen were purely alphabetic, and for the other three, there was one letter for \/Cu\/ and another for both \/Ca\/ and \/Ci\/. However, all vowels were written overtly regardless; as in the Brahmic abugidas, the \/Ca\/ letter was used for a bare consonant.\n\nThe zhuyin phonetic glossing script for Chinese divides syllables in two or three, but into onset, medial, and rime rather than consonant and vowel. Pahawh Hmong is similar, but can be considered to divide syllables into either onset-rime or consonant-vowel (all consonant clusters and diphthongs are written with single letters); as the latter, it is equivalent to an abugida but with the roles of consonant and vowel reversed. Other scripts are intermediate between the categories of alphabet, abjad, and abugida, so there may be disagreement on how they should be classified.\n\nGraphic classification of writing systems\nPerhaps the primary graphic distinction made in classifications is that of linearity. Linear writing systems are those in which the characters are composed of lines, such as the Latin alphabet and Chinese characters. Chinese characters are considered linear whether they're written with a ball-point pen or a calligraphic brush, or cast in bronze. Similarly, Egyptian hieroglyphs and Maya glyphs were often painted in linear outline form, but in formal situations they were carved in bas-relief. Non-linear systems, on the other hand, such as braille, are not composed of lines, no matter which instrument is used to write them. The earliest examples of writing are linear: the Sumerian script of c. 3300 BCE was linear, though its cuneiform descendants were not.\n\nCuneiform was probably the earliest non-linear writing. Its glyphs were formed by pressing the end of a reed stylus into moist clay, not by tracing lines in the clay with the stylus as had been done previously. The result was a radical transformation of the appearance of the script. \n\nBraille is a non-linear adaptation of the Latin alphabet that completely abandoned the Latin forms. The letters are composed of raised bumps on the writing substrate, which can be leather (Louis Braille's original material), stiff paper, plastic, or metal.  \n\nThere are also transient non-linear adaptations of the Latin alphabet, including Morse code, the manual alphabets of various sign languages, and semaphore, in which flags or bars are positioned at prescribed angles. However, if \"writing\" is defined as a potentially permanent means of recording information, then these systems do not qualify as writing at all, since the symbols disappear as soon as they are used.\n\nIf the Edo script is indeed a complete writing system, it may be the only natural example of a script in which the color of the graphemes is contrastive.\n\nDirectionality\n\nScripts are also graphically characterized by the direction in which they are written. Egyptian hieroglyphs were written in either horizontal direction, with the animal and human glyphs turned to face the beginning of the line. The early alphabet could be written in multiple directions, horizontally (left-to-right or right-to-left) or vertically (up or down). It was commonly written boustrophedonically: starting in one (horizontal) direction, then turning at the end of the line and reversing direction.  \n\nThe Greek alphabet and its successors settled on a left-to-right pattern, from the top to the bottom of the page. In Timed Text (TT) Authoring Format, this pattern is abbreviated LRTB.  Other scripts, such as Arabic and Hebrew, came to be written right-to-left.  Scripts that incorporate Chinese characters have traditionally been written vertically (top-to-bottom), from the right to the left of the page, but nowadays are frequently written left-to-right, top-to-bottom, due to Western influence, a growing need to accommodate terms in the Roman alphabet, and technical limitations in popular electronic document formats.  The Uighur alphabet and its descendants are unique in being the only scripts written top-to-bottom, left-to-right; this direction originated from an ancestral Semitic direction by rotating the page 90\u00b0 counter-clockwise to conform to the appearance of vertical Chinese writing. Several scripts used in the Philippines and \u0d89\u0db1\u0dca\u0daf\u0dd4\u0db1\u0dd3\u0dc3\u0dd2\u0dba\u0dcf\u0dc0, such as Hanun\u00f3'o, are traditionally written with lines moving away from the writer, from bottom to top, but are read horizontally left to right.\n\nWriting systems on computers\nDifferent ISO\/IEC standards are defined to deal with each individual writing systems to implement them in computers (or in electronic form). Today most of those standards are re-defined in a better collective standard, the ISO 10646, also known as Unicode. In Unicode, each character, in every language's writing system, is (simplifying slightly) given a unique identification number, known as its code point. The computer's software uses the code point to look up the appropriate character in the font file, so the characters can be displayed on the page or screen. \n\nA keyboard is the device most commonly used for writing via computer. Each key is associated with a standard code which the keyboard sends to the computer when it is pressed. By using a combination of alphabetic keys with modifier keys such as Ctrl, Alt, Shift and AltGr, various character codes are generated and sent to the CPU. The operating system intercepts and converts those signals to the appropriate characters based on the keyboard layout and input method, and then delivers those converted codes and characters to the running application software, which in turn looks up the appropriate glyph in the currently used font file, and requests the operating system to draw these on the screen. \n\nIn computers and telecommunication systems, graphemes and other grapheme-like units that are required for text processing are represented by \"characters\" that typically manifest in encoded form. For technical aspects of computer support for various writing systems, see Universal Character Set, CJK (Chinese, Japanese, Korean) and Bi-directional text, as well as :Category:Character encoding.\n\nSee also\nArtificial script\nAsemic writing\nCalligraphy\nFont\nFormal language\nGenealogy of scripts derived from Proto-Sinaitic\nHistory of writing\nHistory of writing numbers\nISO 15924 \u2014 a list of \"codes for the representation of names of scripts\"\nList of inventors of writing systems\nList of writing systems\nLower case\nMajuscule\nN\u00fc Shu\nOfficial script\nOrthography\nPasigraphy\nPenmanship\nShorthand\nSpelling\nTransliteration\nUniversal Character Set\nWritten language\n\nReferences\n\n Coulmas, Florian. 1996. The Blackwell encyclopedia of writing systems. Oxford: Blackwell.\n Daniels, Peter T., and William Bright, eds. 1996. The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.\n DeFrancis, John. 1990. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy.  Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1068-6\n Hannas, William. C. 1997. Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1892-X (paperback); ISBN 0-8248-1842-3 (hardcover)\n Rogers, Henry. 2005. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23463-2 (hardcover); ISBN 0-631-23464-0 (paperback)\n Sampson, Geoffrey. 1985. Writing Systems. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1756-7 (paper), ISBN 0-8047-1254-9 (cloth).\n Smalley, W. A. (ed.) 1964. Orthography studies: articles on new writing systems. London: United Bible Society.\n\nExternal links\n Arch Chinese (Traditional & Simplified) Chinese character writing animations and native speaker pronunciations\n decodeunicode Unicode Wiki with all 98,884 Unicode 5.0 characters as gifs in three sizes\n African writing systems\n Omniglot\n  \n Ancient Scripts Introduction to different writing systems\n Michael Everson's Alphabets of Europe\n The Unicode Consortium\n\n\u0dbd\u0dda\u0d9b\u0db1 \u0d9a\u0dbd\u0dcf\u0dc0\n writing system\nTypography","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":5,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":4,"unknown":4}},"id":12136,"url":"https:\/\/si.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%BB%20%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B8","title":"\u0d85\u0d9a\u0dca\u0dc2\u0dbb \u0d9a\u0dca\u200d\u0dbb\u0db8","language":"si"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Villa Clara is one of the provinces of Cuba. Its main cities are Santa Clara (the capital), Sagua La Grande, Placetas, Camajuan\u00ed, Remedios and Caibari\u00e9n.\n\nThe coast of Villa Clara is dotted with numerous cays, and there are many coral reefs and sandy beaches, too.\n\nAround Santa Clara, the land rises into the Alturas de Santa Clara. The highest point in the province is in the Alturas, at 464\u00a0m above sea level. Villa Clara also has numerous lakes, which are used for both water sports and fishing. The largest Cuban river to drain into the Atlantic, R\u00edo Sagua la Grande, is also in Villa Clara province.\n\nSugar, the commodity that the Cuban economy relies upon, is grown in the plains in the north of the province, and several large mills provide employment to many people.\n\nThe provinces of Cienfuegos, Sancti Sp\u00edritus, and Villa Clara were once all part of the now defunct province of Las Villas.Santa Clara was the capital of Las Villas.\n\nFamous People of Villa Clara \n Joe Carollo - former mayor of Miami, USA\n Richard Egues - Musician (Orquesta Aragon)\n Francisco Gatorno - actor\n Rub\u00e9n Gonz\u00e1lez - pianist\n Livan Hernandez - baseball player\n Orlando Hernandez - baseball player\n Wilfredo Lam - painter\n Benny \"Kid\" Paret - boxer\n Jos\u00e9 Bernal - artist\n Amelia Pelaez - painter\n Zaida del Rio - painter\n Aida ida Morales - painter\n\nMunicipalities \n Caibari\u00e9n\n Camajuan\u00ed\n Cifuentes\n Corralillo\n Encrucijada\n Manicaragua\n Placetas\n Quemado de G\u00fcines\n Ranchuelo\n Remedios\n Sagua La Grande\n Santa Clara\n Santo Domingo\n\nProvinces of Cuba","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":51043,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Villa%20Clara%20Province","title":"Villa Clara Province","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Giant tortoises have evolved on a number of tropical islands. They can weigh as much as 3 or 400\u00a0kg (660880\u00a0lbs) and can grow to be 1.3 to 1.9\u00a0m (45.9\u00a0ft) long (accounts vary). They live, or lived (some species are recently extinct), in the Seychelles, the Mascarenes and the Galapagos. Today, the world's largest population lives on Aldabra Atoll in Seychelles, where there are about 150,000 individuals.  Although looking similar, the tortoises represent separate branches of evolution.  The Seychelles and Mascarenes tortoises came originally from nearby Madagascar, while the Galapagos tortoises came from nearby Ecuador. Their similarity is an example of convergent evolution.\n\nThese tortoises are capable of living over 100 years in the wild. This makes them the longest-living vertebrates. The longest living survivor is 182 years old (probably).\n\nThe Madagascar  tortoise \"Tu'i Malila\" was 188 at death in Tonga in 1965. \"Harriet\" was reported by the Australia Zoo to be 176 years old when she died in 2006. Also, on 23 March 2006, an Aldabra giant tortoise named \"Adwaita\" died at Alipore Zoological Gardens in Kolkata. He was brought to the zoo in the 1870s from the estate of Lord Robert Clive. He was around 255 years old when he died.\n\nAround the time of its discovery, they were caught and killed for food in such large quantities that they became virtually extinct by 1900. Giant tortoises are now under strict conservation laws and are categorised as threatened species.\n\nDuring the 16th and 17th centuries, the Gal\u00e1pagos were frequented by buccaneers preying on Spanish treasure ships. Filling a ship's hold with tortoises was an easy way to stock up on food, a tradition that was continued by whalers in the centuries that followed. \"whaling skippers were almost lyrical in their praise of tortoise meat, terming it far more delicious than chicken, pork or beef\". They said the meat of the giant tortoise was \"succulent meat and the oil from their bodies as pure as butter, but best of all, the giants could hibernate in a ship's damp for a year or more\".\n\nAt least five species of the genus Cylindraspis have gone extinct in historic times. They lived in the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Rodrigues and R\u00e9union) in the Indian Ocean.\n\nGalapagos tortoise \nThe Gal\u00e1pagos tortoise or Gal\u00e1pagos giant tortoise (Chelonoidis nigra) is the biggest living species of tortoise and the 10th-heaviest living reptile.\n\nThe tortoise lives in seven of the Gal\u00e1pagos Islands. The island is a volcanic archipelago about 1,000\u00a0km (620\u00a0mi) west of the Ecuadorian mainland. Spanish explorers, who discovered the islands in the 16th century, named them after the Spanish gal\u00e1pago, meaning tortoise.\n\nTheir shell size and shape are different between populations. On islands with humid highlands, the tortoises are larger, with domed shells and short necks. On islands with dry lowlands, the tortoises are smaller, with \"saddleback\" shells and long necks. Charles Darwin's observations of these differences on the second voyage of the Beagle in 1835, helped him to develop his theory of evolution.\n\nThe population of the Gal\u00e1pagos tortoise is getting smaller. There were over 250,000 individuals in the 16th century. In the 1970s, that number got smaller to around 3,000. The decline is believed to be caused by over-exploitation, habitat loss and introduced species to the islands such as rats, goats and pigs. Ten subspecies of the original fifteen survive in the wild. An eleventh subspecies (C. n. abingdoni) had only a single known living individual. It was kept in captivity. \"Lonesome George\" died in June 2012.\n\nThere have been many conservation efforts. Because of this, thousands of captive-bred juveniles were released onto their home islands. As a result, the population grew to 19,000 at the start of the 21st century. However, the species is still classified as \"vulnerable\" by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).\n\nAldabra giant tortoise \n\nThe main population of the Aldabra giant tortoise lives on the islands of the Aldabra Atoll in the Seychelles. The atoll has been protected from human influence and is home to some 100,000 giant tortoises, the world's largest population of the animal. Another isolated population of the species lives on the island of Changuu, near Zanzibar and other captive populations are in conservation parks in Mauritius and Rodrigues. The tortoises exploit many different kinds of habitat, including grasslands, low scrub, mangrove swamps, and coastal dunes.\n\nThe species is called Aldabrachelys gigantea or Dipsochelys dussumieri. The names refer to the same tortoise.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n ARKive \u2013 images and movies of the Gal\u00e1pagos giant tortoise (Geochelone spp.) \n American Museum of Natural History, Gal\u00e1pagos Giant Tortoise webpage\n 'Extinct' Galapagos tortoise may still exist\n\nMegafauna\nTurtles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":54,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-25":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":5,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2}},"id":359325,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Giant%20tortoise","title":"Giant tortoise","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Modern history is the history of the world beginning after the Middle Ages. Generally the term \"modern history\" refers to the history of the world since the advent of the Age of Reason and the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.\n\n The Early Modern Times lasted from the end of the 15th century to the Industrial Revolution at the end of the 18th century, circa 1450\/92 to 1750\/92.\n Modern Times are the period from Enlightenment and the 18th century until today.\n Modernity, based on Modernism, explores the changes of society due to the industrialization.\n Postmodernity and Postindustrialism are theories to apply the art movement term of postmodernism (below) to social and cultural history, or to refer to the rise of the service sector during the late 20th century when industry was no longer predominant; the prefix \"post-\" implies a reaction to modernity and in that sense does not cover all contemporary history.\n\nThe modern period has been a time of many advances in science, politics, warfare, technology, and globalization. During this time, the European powers began expanding their political, economic, and cultural influences to the rest of the world.\n\nLate 15th to early 18th century\n\nThis period is also called the early modern period. This time was a time where the Europeans found the New world and began colonizing it. It also saw trade with China and other Eastern Asian cultures.\n\nDiscovery of America (1492): Age of Discovery.\nGutenberg's moveable type printing press (1450s): information age and newspapers.\n\nWithin the early modern period, some events shaped the world immensely:\nMartin Luther challenges the Church on 31 October 1517 with the 95 Theses: Reformation.\nFall of the Spanish Armada 8 August 1588 enabled the Rise of the British Empire\nThirty Years' War 1618-1648 in Central Europe decimated the population by up to 20%.\nThe treaties of the Peace of Westphalia are signed in 1648, which ended several wars in Europe and established the beginning of sovereign states.\nTreaty of Utrecht marked the change from Spanish to British naval supremacy.\nLouis XIV, \"roi soleil\".\n\nIndustrial Revolution\n\nThis period saw advances in industrial technology. Industries were beginning to make clothes, armaments, and other useful tools people need. This industrial revolution began the modern world as we know it.\n\nInventions of the Steam engine (1764) and Spinning Jenny (1769), one of the peak events influencing Romanticism.\nRejection of monarchy and absolutism: Declaration of Independence by the British Colonies in America, then USA, 1776, influencing the French Revolution of 1789.\n\nNapoleonic era\n\nThe Napoleonic era is a period in the History of France and Europe. It is also known as the fourth stage of the French Revolution, the first being the National Assembly, the second being the Legislative Assembly, and the third being the Directory. The Napoleonic era begins roughly with Napoleon's coup d'\u00e9tat, overthrowing the Directory. It ends at the Hundred Days and his defeat by the alliance of several nations at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.\n\n19th century\n\nThe 19th Century is a time in history from 1815  to 1914\n\nDuring this century, the Spanish, Portuguese, and Ottoman  Holy Roman and Mughal empires start to die\n\nFollowing the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire became the world's leading power, controlling one quarter of the World's population and one third of the land area. It helped trade, and battled piracy. This time also sees the first lightbulb, Cars, railways, airplanes, printing press and other inventions\n\n20th century\n\nThe 20th century was a time in which advancements in technology and medicine changed peoples way of life. Some advancements were in space exploration, nuclear technology, genetics, and the beginning of the information age.\n\nThis was also a time of the two world wars (World War I, World War II), the outbreak of Spanish Influenza, the Cold War, and the decolonisation of many parts of the world.\n\nRelated pages\nFin de si\u00e8cle\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\nChina and Europe\n\nPeriods and ages in history","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4,"unknown":9,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2}},"id":183483,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modern%20history","title":"Modern history","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Bundesverfassungsgericht is the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany. It does not hear ordinary criminal cases. Instead it deals with matters that affect the Constitution of Germany.\n\nThe Court is in Karlsruhe. This was to show it was separate from the federal government, first based in Bonn, and other federal bodies such as the German intelligence (BND) based in Munich.\n\nCompetence \nFederal law helps to describe what the court can do, and how it works. Article 20.3 of the Grundgesetz says that each the three branches of the government \u2013 the parliament, the ministers and the courts \u2013 can only do what the constitution allows. The court can decide that acts of all three branches are not allowed by the constitution and prevent them from happening.\n\nThere are different reasons the court may find something unconstitutional:\n Formal violations (breaking the rules)\n Doing something not allowed by the constitution\n Not properly doing something allowed \"violating procedures\"\n Material conflicts (ignoring one part of the constitution)\n Doing something which is allowed, but ignoring a different part of the constitution, such as ignoring the civil rights guaranteed in the Grundgesetz. For example, the federal government must protect the security of Germany and its citizens. To do this it gave the air force the power to shoot down hijacked aircraft. The Bundesverfassungsgericht stopped the law because the right to life was more important.\n\nDecisions of the court on material conflicts are applied through a federal law by the Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG).\n\nThe court only hear certain cases:\n Constitutional Complaint ()\n Anyone can complain to the court that their constitutional rights were violated. They have been some of the most important decisions the court has made. Some important laws have been overturned, especially about taxes.\n Abstract Regulation Control\n Some other government bodies, for example the Bundesl\u00e4nder, can ask the court to declare any federal law unconstitutional. The laws legalizing abortion were twice declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court.\n Concrete Regulation Control\n Any ordinary court considering a case can stop the case and ask the Federal Constitutional Court if the law is constitutional. If it is then the ordinary court can carry on hearing the case.\n Federal Dispute\n Federal bodies, including members of the Bundestag, may bring disputes over powers and procedures before the court.\n State-Federal Dispute\n The L\u00e4nder can ask the court to decide if they or the federal government have the right to do something, or if something is being done in the right way.\n Investigation Committee Control\n The Bundestag's Committees of investigation, individual members of the Bundestag, or the federal government can ask the court to decide on the committee's powers and procedures.\n Federal Election Scrutiny\n Any government body or involved voter can ask the court to investigate if a federal election was properly run.\n Impeachment Procedure\n If the Bundestag, the Bundesrat or the federal government think that the President or a judge or member of one of the Federal Supreme Courts has broken the constitution or a federal law, the Bundesverfassungsgericht decides if they should be removed from office.\n Prohibit a political party \n Only the Constitutional Court has the power to ban a political party. This has only happened twice, both times in the 1950s: the Sozialistische Reichspartei (SRP), was a neo-nazi party. It was banned in 1952. The Communist Party of Germany (KPD) was banned in 1956. In 2003 the third case to ban a party failed. The court found out that many of the officials of the extreme right-wing National Democratic Party (NPD) were actually controlled by the German secret services. The court decided not to carry on hearing the case.\n\nOrganization \nThe court has 16 judges. They are divided into two groups, called senates, of eight judges. The chairman of one senate is also the President of the Court (\"Chief Justice\"). The chairman of the other senate is the vice president. Most cases are heard by a \"chamber\" which is three members of one senate. All three judges of the chamber must agree on a decision. A chamber has to use precedent (past rulings). If a chamber thinks a precedent should be changed they have to let the case be decided by the Senate as a whole. Similarly, if a Senate thinks a precedent set by the other Senate should be changed precedent of the must ask the \"Plenum\" (a meeting of all 16 judges).\n\nDecisions by a Senate need an absolute majority of 5 votes (in some cases a two-thirds majority is required, that is, 6 out of 8 votes). The BVerfGG decides which type of cases a senate hears.\n\nElection of judges \nFour judges of each senate are elected by the Bundestag. The others are elected by the Bundesrat. Choosing a judge needs a two-thirds majority.\n\nThe judges have a 12-year term, but they must retire when reaching the age of 68. A judge must be at least 40 years old and must be a well-trained jurist. Three out of eight members of each Senate must have been a judge of a Federal Supreme Court. Of the other five members of each Senate, most judges have been a professor of law at a university, a public servant or a lawyer.\n\nAt the end of their term, most judges retire from public life. One notable exception was Roman Herzog, who was elected Federal President in 1994, shortly before the end of his term as President of the Court.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de, the Court's website\n Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG) in German\n Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG) in English\n\nKarlsruhe","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":75618,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bundesverfassungsgericht","title":"Bundesverfassungsgericht","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Symphony No. 8 in E-flat major by Gustav Mahler (1860\u20131911) is one of the largest choral works in classical music.  It needs a huge orchestra to play it and a huge choir to sing.  Because so many performers are needed it is often called  \"Symphony of a Thousand\", but that is not a name that Mahler gave to it.\n\nMahler worked very hard at it, composing it in quite a short time at Maiernigg in southern Austria in the summer of 1906.  It was the last of Mahler's works that was to be given its first performance in his lifetime.  The symphony was given its first performance in Munich on 12 September 1910.\n\nSymphonies are usually pieces of music played just by an orchestra, but Beethoven started a tradition of having singing in symphonies: his Ninth Symphony is the famous one with the Ode to Joy in the last movement.  Mahler took up this idea of combining singing with symphony.  His Symphonies Nos 2, 3, and 4 all have singing in them.  The next three are just for orchestra, but in No. 8 he uses singing again.\n\nSymphony No. 8 is very unusual because he does not have the usual three or four movements with traditional forms such as sonata form.  The whole symphony is in two parts.  Part I is based on the Latin text of a ninth-century Christian hymn for Pentecost, Veni creator spiritus (\"Come, Creator Spirit\").  Part II is in German.  The words come from the closing scene of Goethe's Faust. \n\nThe two parts have a common idea: the idea of being saved through the power of love. Musically Mahler does this by sharing tunes throughout the symphony.  The symphony expresses the confidence of the eternal human spirit.\n\nFor many years after Mahler's death it was not often performed.  It is, of course, a very expensive symphony to perform because of the vast numbers of musicians needed.  It also needs to be performed in a very large concert hall.  Today it is played more often. The 100th anniversary of its first performance was celebrated in July 2010 in the opening concert of the BBC Proms is the Royal Albert Hall, London.\n\nOpinions about the symphony have been divided.  Some people did not think the optimism expressed in the music was really convincing.  Other people have said it is one of the greatest musical expressions of humanity.\n\nMahler 8\nSymphony No. 08 (Mahler)\nFaust","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2022-40":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":6}},"id":254498,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symphony%20No.%208%20%28Mahler%29","title":"Symphony No. 8 (Mahler)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Giovanni da Palestrina (born Palestrina, (c.1525 \u2013 February 2, 1594 in Rome) was a very important Italian composer of church music of his time.  He lived in the period called the Renaissance.  Most of his music was choral (written for choirs).  It is very polyphonic.  This means that the different voices (sopranos, altos, tenors or basses) are often singing different words and different parts of the tune at the same time.  Many composers since have studied the way that Palestrina wrote, because this is an excellent way to learn to write contrapuntal music.\n\nPalestrina took his name from the town where he was born.  We are not sure of the exact date of his birth.  Any records of his birth were destroyed when the town burned in 1577.  He was probably a choirboy in Palestrina.  When he was grown up he got a job as organist and choir director at the Roman basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore.  He was not earning much money, but he married a lady who came from a very rich family, so he was comfortably off.  Pope Julius III heard about how good this young composer was.  He asked him to come and meet him.  He was given the job of master of the Capella Juliana, the choir that sang at the services in St Peter's, Rome.  This was the top job in Italy and he was only 26.   Of course, Palestrina composed a mass in the pope's honour.\n\nPalestrina composed 93 masses (these are musical settings of the words of the communion service).  He also wrote motets and madrigals.  Palestrina and Lassus were the two greatest composers of the late Renaissance.\n\n16th-century Italian composers\n1525 births\n1594 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":163,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5}},"id":28995,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Giovanni%20da%20Palestrina","title":"Giovanni da Palestrina","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The thyroid is one of the largest endocrine glands in the body. This gland is found in the throat. The thyroid controls how quickly the body burns energy, makes proteins, and how sensitive the body should be to other hormones.\n\nThe principal hormones it makes are thyroxine (T4) an triiodothyronine (T3), which is more active. These hormones regulate the growth of many systems in the body. T3 and T4 are synthesised from iodine and tyrosine. The thyroid also makes calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium homeostasis.\n\nDiseases\n\nHyper- and hypofunction (affects about 2% of the population)\n Hypothyroidism (underactivity) - Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland does not make enough thyroid hormone.\n\n Hashimoto's thyroiditis \/ thyroiditis\n Ord's thyroiditis\n Postoperative hypothyroidism\n Postpartum thyroiditis\n Silent thyroiditis\n Acute thyroiditis\n Iatrogenic hypothyroidism\n Hyperthyroidism (overactivity)\n Thyroid storm\n Graves-Basedow disease\n Toxic thyroid nodule\n Toxic nodular struma (Plummer's disease)\n Hashitoxicosis\n Iatrogenic hyperthyroidism\n De Quervain thyroiditis (inflammation starting as hyperthyroidism, can end as hypothyroidism)\n\nAnatomical problems\n Goitre\n Endemic goitre\n Diffuse goitre\n Multinodular goitre\n Lingual thyroid\n Thyroglossal duct cyst\n\nTumors\n Thyroid adenoma\n Thyroid cancer\n Papillary\n Follicular\n Medullary\n Anaplastic\n Lymphomas and metastasis from elsewhere (rare)\n\nDeficiencies\nCretinism\n\nAdditional images\n\nRelated pages\n Thymus\n\nOther websites\n American Thyroid Association (Thyroid Information and professional organization)\n ''New Management Guidelines for Patients with Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer from the American Thyroid Association Taskforce.\n Thyroid Disease Manager (free online textbook)\n Thyroid Disease (Nuclear Medicine Information)\n The Thyroid Foundation of America (Education about Thyroid Disease)\n\nGlands\nEndocrine system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":76025,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thyroid","title":"Thyroid","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The University of Illinois at Urbana\u2014Champaign (UIUC) is a university in the state of Illinois, United States. It is the oldest and largest campus in the University of Illinois system.\n\nThe university has 18 Colleges that offer more than 150 programs of study. It is a selective state schools in the United States. Many of its popular undergraduate and graduate programs are ranked high in the US.\n\nHistory \nThe university was established in 1867. It opened for classes on March 2, 1868 with only two faculty members and a small group of students. In 1982, the name of the university was changed from the University of Illinois to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.\n\nColleges and schools \nThe university has the following colleges and schools:\n College of Agriculture, Consumer, and Environmental Sciences \n College of Applied Health Sciences \n Institute of Aviation \n College of Business \n College of Education \n College of Engineering \n College of Fine and Applied Arts \n Graduate College \n Institute of Labor and Industrial Relations \n College of Law \n College of Liberal Arts and Sciences \n Graduate School of Library and Information Science \n College of Media \n College of Medicine at Urbana-Champaign \n School of Social Work \n College of Veterinary Medicine\n\nNotable alumni and faculty \nNotable people associated with the university have been successful in fields such as science, business, and politics. The university has produced many Nobel Prize winners. \n\nJohn Bardeen, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 and 1972, worked on the faculty of the university from 1951 to 1991.\nRoger Ebert, who became the first movie critic to win a Pulitzer Prize.\n\nOther websites \n Official Website\n\nAssociation of American Universities\nIllinois\nUrbana-Champaign\n1867 establishments in Illinois","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":6,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2}},"id":112260,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University%20of%20Illinois%20Urbana-Champaign","title":"University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Radiocarbon dating, also known as the C14 dating method, is a way of telling how old an object is. It is a type of radiometric dating. \n\nThe method uses the radioactive isotope carbon-14. Most organic matter contains carbon. Carbon has different isotopes, which are usually not radioactive. 14C is the radioactive one, its half-life  (time it takes to reduce its radioactivity by half)  is about 5,730 years. This makes it possible to tell the age of substances that contain carbon. The method works to about 60,000 years old. Dates obtained are usually written as before present ('present' is 1950). \n\nPlants take up atmospheric carbon dioxide by photosynthesis, and are eaten by animals, so every living thing is constantly exchanging carbon-14 with its environment as long as it lives. Once it dies, however, this exchange stops.\n\nIn 1958 Hessel de Vries showed that the concentration of carbon-14 in the atmosphere varies with time and locality. The relatively short-lived 14C is constantly renewed by cosmic ray bombardment on atmospheric nitrogen. Since the bombardment is slightly variable, and for other reasons, the 14C taken into organic matter is also slightly variable. That leads to errors in the chronology. However, under about 20,000 years the results can be compared with dendrochronology, based on tree rings. For the most accurate work, variations are compensated by means of calibration curves. \n\nThe method was developed by Willard Libby and his colleagues at the University of Chicago in 1949. In 1960, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work. He first demonstrated the accuracy of radiocarbon dating by accurately estimating the age of wood from an ancient Egyptian royal barge of which the age was known from historical documents.\n\nOther websites \nRadiocarbon - The main international journal of record for research articles and date lists relevant to 14C \nC14dating.com - General information on Radiocarbon dating\nNOSAMS: National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution  \nDiscussion of calibration \nSeveral calibration programs can be found at www.radiocarbon.org \nCalPal Online (Cologne Radiocarbon Calibration & Paleoclimate Research Package)\nOxCal program (Oxford Calibration) \nFairbanks' Radiocarbon Calibration program (for prior to 12400\u00a0BP) \nFurther basic information on radiocarbon dating (PDF)\n\nReferences\n\nArchaeology\nCarbon\nRadiometric dating","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"unknown":14,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":98043,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radiocarbon%20dating","title":"Radiocarbon dating","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege and often financial aid given by a person or an organization. It can also refer to the business given by a regular customer, and the guardianship of saints.\n\nIn some countries the term is often used to describe the corrupt use of state money and goods to benefit groups, families, ethnicities or races in exchange for votes. These patronage systems are different depending on the area in which they are practiced.\n\nThe term comes from the Latin patronatus.\n\nSources and other websites\nJohannes Baptist S\u00e4gm\u00fcller. Patron and Patronage, The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XI, 1911, Robert Appleton Company. This is the reference for the Canon law section.\n The role of patrons in the Renaissance \n\nPolitics\nArt","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":67888,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patronage","title":"Patronage","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy, officially the Collectivity of Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy (French: Collectivit\u00e9 de Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy), is a new overseas collectivity of France. It was created on 22 February 2007. It consists of the island of Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy and neighboring small islands.\n\nThe island of Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy, also known as Saint Barts, Saint Barths, or Saint Barth, is in the Caribbean among the Leeward Islands. Its land area is 21.0\u00a0km\u00b2 (8.1 sq. miles). Administratively, the whole island of Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy was a French commune (commune de Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy). It was part of Guadeloupe, which is an overseas r\u00e9gion and overseas d\u00e9partement of France. For this reason, it is part of the European Union. In 2003, the people voted in favour of becoming independent from Guadeloupe. They wanted to form a separate overseas collectivity (COM) of France. On February 7, 2007  the  French Parliament passed a bill granting COM status to both Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy and neighbouring Saint-Martin. The new status took effect on 22 February 2007, when the law was published in the Official Journal.\n\nSaint-Barth\u00e9lemy has long been considered a playground of the rich and famous and is known for its beautiful pristine beaches, gourmet dining in chic bistros and high-end designer shopping.\n\nGeography \n\nSaint-Barth\u00e9lemy is about 150 miles east of Puerto Rico. It is near the islands of Saint Martin, Saba and Anguilla.\n\nGustavia, which is the main town of the island, was named after King Gustav III of Sweden, and remains as a reflection of the Swedish period.\n\nThe oldest settlement still remaining is the village of Lorient (or L'Orient), although scattered in every cemetery on the island are Swedish grave markers.  Lorient's sister village on the French mainland is the city of Lorient on the northern coast of Brittany.\n\nBeaches \nOf the 20 beaches on the small island, several are seen as especially inviting. On the southern side of the island, Saline and Governor beaches are pristine beaches with no development on them. On the western edge of the island is Colombier beach. This beach is only reachable by boat or a hike. St. Jean, Flammands and Grand-Cul-de-Sac beaches are also popular and attractive beaches which have hotels and other establishments on them. Shell Beach is popular for families with kids as it has little surf, and lots of tide pools.\n\nSt. Barths has a tidal difference of only 3 - 5\u00a0inches.  The beaches vary according to ocean currents\u2014the weather travels onto the island following the sun from the East.  One of the main surfing beaches (Toiny) is known for its riptide, while Grand Fond is one of the island's only non-swimming beaches.  Although tourism does not allude to it, there are a small variety of warm water sharks in the Caribbean.  So, swimming at dusk and dawn or in murky waters is not recommended.  Otherwise, scuba and snorkeling are a great way to see the nurse sharks, lobsters, conch and green sea turtles that abound in the waters surrounding St. Barths.\n\nThe beach of Grand Cul-de-Sac is the easiest beach in the Caribbean to learn to sail, windsurf or kitesurf on, as it has a reef which closes off the entire bay.  The current that passes outside the reef here also carries the migrating whales and dolphins.\n\nHistory \nSaint-Barth\u00e9lemy was first claimed by France in 1648. It was sold to Sweden in 1784. Sweden sold it back to France in 1878. The Swedish period left its mark in the names of many of the streets and the town (in honor of King Gustav III). It also left its national arms, the three crowns along with the grey heron, in the island's coat of arms.\n\nDemographics \nAt the 1999 census, Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy had 6,852 people. There were 326 people per square kilometer. Unlike most Caribbean islands, most of the people are Caucasians (white).\n\nMany of the people who live there all the time are French citizens who work at the various establishments on the island. French is the primary language spoken, but many locals also speak English, particularly at the hotels and restaurants.\n\nTransportation \nSaint-Barth\u00e9lemy has a small airport (IATA identifier SBH) is served by small regional commercial aircraft and charters. Most visiting aircraft carry fewer than twenty passengers, such as the Twin Otter, a common sight around Saint Barths and throughout the northern West Indies. The short airstrip is at the base of a steep hill ending directly on the beach.  The arrival descent is extremely steep over the hilltop traffic circle and departing planes fly right over the heads of sunbathers (although small signs advise sunbathers not to lie directly at the end of the runway). The nearest commercial jet airport is on the neighboring island of Saint Martin.\n\nThere are also charters to St. Barths from San Juan, Puerto Rico available through Tradewind Aviation.  The current mayor's airline, called St. Barths Commuter, offers non-prohibitive cost one-way\/roundtrip travel between both of St. Maarten's airports and St. Barths.  It is also an excellent service for charters.  A favorite island business for an extra fee is via St. Barths Services, as they offer full-service attention.\n\nFerries to and from Saint Martin are the only other real option (although the passage from St. Maarten to St. Barths is often rough), unless one is arriving by private charter boats\/yachts.\n\nTourism \n\nSaint-Barth\u00e9lemy has about 25 hotels, most of then with 15 rooms or fewer, and the largest, the Guanahani has just 70 rooms. Hotels are classified in the traditional French manner 3 Star, 4 Star and 4 Star Luxe.\n\nVilla vacations are extremely popular and there are hundreds of villas terraced into the hillsides throughout the island as well has many beachfront locations. Villas here by definition can range from one-bedroom bunglalows to large luxurious homes. Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy Properties  and Wimco  are the two main villa rental agencies on the island.\n\nSinger Jimmy Buffett is a frequent visitor on the island, and owns a house there. He also owned a hotel, the Author de Rocher, before it burned down.\n\nSports \nSaint-Barth\u00e9lemy has its own bobsled team. To date the team has not achieved competitive success. The island also competes in carotchie.\n\nRelated pages\n Guadeloupe, French island in the Caribbean\n Martinique, French island in the Caribbean\n Saint Martin, French island in the Caribbean\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n The Insiders' Guide to St. Barth\u00e9lemy \n Saint Barths Online\n Official Flag \n Radio St Barth \n Map of Saint-Barth\u00e9lemy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":170,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5,"2013-20":1}},"id":52576,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saint%20Barth%C3%A9lemy","title":"Saint Barth\u00e9lemy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Southern United States (sometimes Dixie, also referred to as the Southern States, the American South, the Southland, Dixieland, or simply the South) is a geographic and cultural region of the United States of America. It is between the Atlantic Ocean and the Western United States, with the Midwestern and Northeastern United States to its north and the Gulf of Mexico and Mexico to its south.\n\nHistorically, the South was defined as all states south of the 18th century Mason\u2013Dixon line, the Ohio River, and 36\u00b030\u2032 parallel. Within the South are different subregions, such as the Southeast, South Central, Upper South and Deep South. Due to an influx of Northern transplants since the mid-to-late 20th century, Maryland, Delaware, Northern Virginia, and Washington, D.C. have become more culturally, economically, and politically aligned in certain aspects with the Northeastern United States, and are often identified as part of the Mid-Atlantic region or Northeast by many residents, businesses, public institutions, and private organizations. However, the United States Census Bureau continues to define them as in the South with regard to Census regions. Due to cultural variations across the region, some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries. The South does not precisely correspond to the entire geographic south of the United States, but primarily includes the south-central and southeastern states. For example, California, which is geographically in the southwestern part of the country, is not considered part of the South. However, the geographically southeastern state of Georgia is.\n\nThe South, being home to some of the most racially diverse areas in the United States, is known for having developed its own distinct culture, with different customs, fashion, architecture, musical styles, and cuisines, which have distinguished it in many ways from other areas of the United States. From 1860 to 1861, eleven Southern states plus an additional two Southern states that were claimed and partially controlled seceded from the Union, forming the Confederate States of America. Following the American Civil War, these states were subsequently added back to the Union. Sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, historical, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States, however this has declined since around the late 20th century with many Southern areas becoming a melting pot of cultures and people. Ethnic groups in the South were the most diverse among American regions, and include strong European (especially English, Scots-Irish, Scottish, Irish, French, and Spanish), African, and Native American components.\n\nAspects of the historical and cultural development of the South were influenced by the institution of slave labor, especially in the Deep South and coastal plain areas, from the early 1600s to mid-1800s. This includes the presence of a large proportion of African Americans within the population, support for the doctrine of states' rights, and legacy of racism magnified by the Civil War and Reconstruction era (1865\u20131877). Following effects included thousands of lynchings (mostly from 1880 to 1930), a segregated system of separate schools and public facilities established from Jim Crow laws that remained until the 1960s, and the widespread use of poll taxes and other methods to deny black and poor people the ability to vote or hold office until the 1960s. Scholars have characterized pockets of the Southern United States as being authoritarian enclaves from Reconstruction until the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Since the 1970s, with improved racial relations, a growing economic base and job opportunities in the region, the South has seen increases of African Americans moving back from other U.S. regions in a New Great Migration.\n\nWhen looked at broadly, studies have shown that Southerners tend to be more conservative than most non-Southerners, with liberalism being mostly predominant in places with a Black majority or urban areas in the South. Although historically a Democratic stronghold, most states in the region have in recent decades come to favor Republicans, although both the Republican and Democratic Party are competitive in certain Southern swing states. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance, especially evangelical churches such as the Southern Baptist Convention. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture as its main economic base, and was predominantly rural until after World War II. Since the 1940s, the region has become more economically diversified and metropolitan, helping attract both national and international migrants. In the 21st century, it is the fastest-growing region in the United States, with Houston being the region's largest city.\n\nGeography\n\nThe South is a diverse meteorological region with numerous climatic zones, including temperate, sub-tropical, tropical and arid though the South generally has a reputation as hot and humid, with long summers and short, mild winters. Most of the South except for the areas of higher elevations and areas near the western, southern and some northern fringes fall in the humid subtropical climate zone. Crops grow readily in the South due to its climate consistently providing growing seasons of at least six months before the first frost. Some common environments include bayous and swamplands, the southern pine forests, the warm temperate montane forest of the Appalachians, the savannas of the southern Great Plains, and the subtropical jungle and maritime forests along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Unique flora include various species of magnolia, rhododendron, cane, palm, and oak, among others. Fauna of the region is also diverse, encompassing a plethora of amphibian species, reptiles such as the green anole, the venomous cottonmouth snake, and the American alligator, mammals like the American black bear, the swamp rabbit and the nine-banded armadillo, and birds such as the roseate spoonbill and the extinct but symbolic carolina parakeet.\n\nThe question of how to define the boundaries and subregions in the South has been the focus of research and debate for centuries. As defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty seven percent of all U.S. residents, lived in the South, the nation's most populous region. The Census Bureau defined three smaller divisions:\n The South Atlantic States: Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia and West Virginia.\n The East South Central States: Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi and Tennessee.\n The West South Central States:  Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas.\n\nThe Council of State Governments, an organization for communication and coordination between states, includes in its South regional office the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia and West Virginia.\n\nOther terms related to the South include:\n The Old South: Can mean either southern states that were among the Thirteen Colonies (Virginia, Delaware, Maryland, Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina) or all southern slave states before 1860 (which also includes Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas).\n The New South: All southern states following the American Civil War, post Reconstruction era.\n Southeastern United States: Usually includes the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida.\n Southern Appalachia: Mainly refers to areas situated in the southern Appalachian Mountains, namely Eastern Kentucky, East Tennessee, Western North Carolina, Western Maryland, West Virginia, Southwest Virginia, North Georgia and Northwestern South Carolina.\n Upper South: Usually includes Kentucky, Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina and on rare occasions Missouri, Maryland and Delaware. When combined with the southern Appalachian Mountains, it is sometimes referred to as \"Greater Appalachia\" following Ulster Protestant migrations to the United States in the 18th and 19th centuries.\n Deep South: Various definitions, usually includes Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi and South Carolina.\n Border States: Includes Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia. These were southern slave states on or near the border of the Confederacy that did not secede or only partially seceded from the U.S. in the 1860s. Large numbers of residents who joined both the Union and Confederate armed forces. Kentucky and Missouri had Confederate state governments with the Confederate government of Missouri and the Confederate government of Kentucky. The Confederacy controlled more than half of Kentucky and the southern portion of Missouri early in the war but were in-exile after 1862 and were represented in the Confederate Congress and by stars on the Confederate battle flag. West Virginia formed in 1863, after the western region of Virginia broke away to protest the Old Dominion's joining of the Confederacy, but residents of the new state were about evenly divided on supporting the Union or Confederacy.\n Dixie: Nickname applied to Southern U.S. region, various definitions include certain areas more than others, but most commonly associated with the eleven former Confederate States.\n Solid South: Electoral voting bloc largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, largely resulting from disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era in the late 19th century. Disfranchisement effectively denied most of the black and sometimes poor white population from voting or holding public office during this time period.\n Gulf Coast: Includes Gulf coasts of Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas and Alabama.\n Tidewater: Low-lying Atlantic coastal plain regions of Maryland, Delaware, Virginia and North Carolina.\n Mid-South: Various definitions, includes states within the Census Bureau of the East and West South Central United States. In another informal definition, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi are included, with adjoining areas of other states.\n\nHistorically, the South was defined as all states south of the 18th century Mason\u2013Dixon line, the Ohio River, and 36\u00b030\u2032 parallel. Newer definitions of the South today are harder to define, due to cultural and sub-regional differences throughout the region, however definitions usually refer to states that are in the southeastern and south central geographic region of the United States.\n\nAlthough not included in the Census definition, two U.S. territories located southeast of Florida (Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands) are sometimes included as part of the Southern United States. The Federal Aviation Administration includes Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands as part of the South, as does the Agricultural Research Service and the U.S. National Park Service.\n\nHistory\n\nNative American culture\nThe first well-dated evidence of human occupation in the south United States occurs around 9500 BC with the appearance of the earliest documented Americans, who are now referred to as Paleo-Indians. Paleoindians were hunter-gatherers that roamed in bands and frequently hunted megafauna. Several cultural stages, such as Archaic (\u20131000 BC) and the Woodland ( \u2013 AD 1000), preceded what the Europeans found at the end of the 15th century the Mississippian culture.\n\nThe Mississippian culture was a complex, mound-building Native American culture that flourished in what is now the Southeastern United States from approximately 800 AD to 1500 AD. Natives had elaborate and lengthy trading routes connecting their main residential and ceremonial centers extending through the river valleys and from the East Coast to the Great Lakes. Some noted explorers who encountered and described the Mississippian culture, by then in decline, included P\u00e1nfilo de Narv\u00e1ez (1528), Hernando de Soto (1540), and Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville (1699).\n\nNative American descendants of the mound-builders include Alabama, Apalachee, Caddo, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Guale, Hitchiti, Houma, and Seminole peoples, all of whom still reside in the South.\n\nOther peoples whose ancestral links to the Mississippian culture are less clear but were clearly in the region before the European incursion include the Catawba and the Powhatan.\n\nEuropean colonization\nThe arrival of European settlers caused a massive population decline in Native Americans, due to Europeans unknowingly spreading diseases that the natives had no immunities towards, numerous violent conflicts, and forcibly relocating them. \n\nThe predominant culture of the original Southern states was English. In the 17th century, most voluntary immigrants were of English origin, and settled chiefly along the eastern coast but had pushed as far inland as the Appalachian Mountains by the 18th century. The majority of early English settlers were indentured servants, who gained freedom after working off their passage. The wealthier men who paid their way received land grants known as headrights, to encourage settlement.\n\nThe Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, Texas, and Louisiana. The Spanish settled Florida in the 16th century, reaching a peak in the late 17th century, but the population was small because the Spaniards were relatively uninterested in agriculture, and Florida had no mineral resources.\n\nIn the British colonies, immigration began in 1607 and continued until the outbreak of the Revolution in 1775. Settlers cleared land, built houses and outbuildings, and on their own farms. The Southern rich owned large plantations that dominated export agriculture and used slaves. Many were involved in the labor-intensive cultivation of tobacco, the first cash crop of Virginia. Tobacco exhausted the soil quickly, requiring that farmers regularly clear new fields. They used old fields as pasture, and for crops such as corn wheat, or allowed them to grow into woodlots.\n\nIn the mid-to-late-18th century, large groups of Ulster Scots (later called the Scotch-Irish) and people from the Anglo-Scottish border region immigrated and settled in the back country of Appalachia and the Piedmont. They were the largest group of non-English immigrants from the British Isles before the American Revolution. In the 1980 Census, 34% of Southerners reported that they were of English ancestry; English was the largest reported European ancestry in every Southern state by a large margin.\n\nThe early colonists engaged in warfare, trade, and cultural exchanges. Those living in the backcountry were more likely to encounter Creek Indians, Cherokee, and Choctaws and other regional native groups.\n\nThe oldest university in the South, the College of William & Mary, was founded in 1693 in Virginia; it pioneered in the teaching of political economy and educated future U.S. Presidents Jefferson, Monroe and Tyler, all from Virginia. Indeed, the entire region dominated politics in the First Party System era: for example, four of the first five presidents Washington, Jefferson, Madison and Monroe were from Virginia. The two oldest public universities are also in the South: the University of North Carolina (1789) and the University of Georgia (1785).\n\nAmerican Revolution\n\nDuring the American Revolutionary War, the Southern colonies helped embrace the Patriot cause. Virginia would provide leaders such as commander-in-chief George Washington, and the author of the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson.\n\nIn 1780 and 1781, the British largely halted reconquest of the northern states, and concentrated on the south, where they were told there was a large Loyalist population ready to leap to arms once the royal forces arrived. The British took control of Savannah and Charleston, capturing a large American army in the process, and set up a network of bases inland. Although there were Loyalists within the Southern colonies, they were concentrated in larger coastal cities, and were not great enough in number to overcome the revolutionaries. The British forces at the Battle of Monck's Corner and the Battle of Lenud's Ferry consisted entirely of Loyalists with the exception of the commanding officer (Banastre Tarleton). Both white and black Loyalists fought for the British at the Battle of Kemp's Landing in Virginia. Led by Nathanael Greene and other generals, the Americans engaged in Fabian tactics designed to wear down the British invasion force, and to neutralize its strong points one by one. There were numerous battles large and small, with each side claiming some victories.\n\nBy 1781, however, British General Cornwallis moved north to Virginia, where an approaching army forced him to fortify and await rescue by the British Navy. The British Navy did arrive, but so did a stronger French fleet, and Cornwallis was trapped. American and French armies, led by George Washington, forced Cornwallis to surrender his entire army in Yorktown, Virginia in October 1781, effectively winning the North American part of the war.\n\nThe Revolution provided a shock to slavery in the South and other regions of the new country. Thousands of slaves took advantage of wartime disruption to find their own freedom, catalyzed by the British Governor Dunmore of Virginia's promise of freedom for service. Many others were removed by Loyalist owners and became slaves elsewhere in the British Empire. Between 1770 and 1790, there was a sharp decline in the percentage of blacks \u2013 from 61% to 44% in South Carolina and from 45% to 36% in Georgia. In addition, some slaveholders were inspired to free their slaves after the Revolution. They were moved by the principles of the Revolution, along with Quaker and Methodist preachers who worked to encourage slaveholders to free their slaves. Planters such as George Washington often freed slaves by their wills. In the Upper South, more than 10% of all blacks were free by 1810, a significant expansion from pre-war proportions of less than 1% free.\n\nAntebellum years\n\nCotton became dominant in the lower South after 1800. After the invention of the cotton gin, short staple cotton could be grown more widely. This led to an explosion of cotton cultivation, especially in the frontier uplands of Georgia, Alabama and other parts of the Deep South, as well as riverfront areas of the Mississippi Delta. Migrants poured into those areas in the early decades of the 19th century, when county population figures rose and fell as swells of people kept moving west. The expansion of cotton cultivation required more slave labor, and the institution became even more deeply an integral part of the South's economy.\n\nWith the opening up of frontier lands after the government forced most Native Americans to move west of the Mississippi, there was a major migration of both whites and blacks to those territories. From the 1820s through the 1850s, more than one million enslaved Africans were transported to the Deep South in forced migration, two-thirds of them by slave traders and the others by masters who moved there. Planters in the Upper South sold slaves excess to their needs as they shifted from tobacco to mixed agriculture. Many enslaved families were broken up, as planters preferred mostly strong males for field work.\n\nTwo major political issues that festered in the first half of the 19th century caused political alignment along sectional lines, strengthened the identities of North and South as distinct regions with certain strongly opposed interests, and fed the arguments over states' rights that culminated in secession and the Civil War. One of these issues concerned the protective tariffs enacted to assist the growth of the manufacturing sector, primarily in the North. In 1832, in resistance to federal legislation increasing tariffs, South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification, a procedure in which a state would, in effect, repeal a Federal law. Soon a naval flotilla was sent to Charleston harbor, and the threat of landing ground troops was used to compel the collection of tariffs. A compromise was reached by which the tariffs would be gradually reduced, but the underlying argument over states' rights continued to escalate in the following decades.\n\nThe second issue concerned slavery, primarily the question of whether slavery would be permitted in newly admitted states. The issue was initially finessed by political compromises designed to balance the number of \"free\" and \"slave\" states. The issue resurfaced in more virulent form, however, around the time of the Mexican\u2013American War, which raised the stakes by adding new territories primarily on the Southern side of the imaginary geographic divide. Congress opposed allowing slavery in these territories.\n\nBefore the Civil War, the number of immigrants arriving at Southern ports began to increase, although the North continued to receive the most immigrants. Huguenots were among the first settlers in Charleston, along with the largest number of Orthodox Jews outside of New York City. Numerous Irish immigrants settled in New Orleans, establishing a distinct ethnic enclave now known as the Irish Channel. Germans also went to New Orleans and its environs, resulting in a large area north of the city (along the Mississippi) becoming known as the German Coast. Still greater numbers immigrated to Texas (especially after 1848), where many bought land and were farmers. Many more German immigrants arrived in Texas after the Civil War, where they created the brewing industry in Houston and elsewhere, became grocers in numerous cities, and also established wide areas of farming.\n\nBy 1840, New Orleans was the wealthiest city in the country and the third largest in population. The success of the city was based on the growth of international trade associated with products being shipped to and from the interior of the country down the Mississippi River. New Orleans also had the largest slave market in the country, as traders brought slaves by ship and overland to sell to planters across the Deep South. The city was a cosmopolitan port with a variety of jobs that attracted more immigrants than other areas of the South. Because of lack of investment, however, construction of railroads to span the region lagged behind the North. People relied most heavily on river traffic for getting their crops to market and for transportation.\n\nCivil War\n\nBy 1856, the South had lost control of Congress, and was no longer able to silence calls for an end to slavery which came mostly from the more populated, free states of the North. The Republican Party, founded in 1854, pledged to stop the spread of slavery beyond those states where it already existed. After Abraham Lincoln was elected the first Republican president in 1860, seven cotton states declared their secession and formed the Confederate States of America before Lincoln was inaugurated. The United States government, both outgoing and incoming, refused to recognize the Confederacy, and when the new Confederate President Jefferson Davis ordered his troops to open fire on Fort Sumter in April 1861, war broke out. Only the state of Kentucky attempted to remain neutral, and it could only do so briefly. When Lincoln called for troops to suppress what he referred to as \"combinations too powerful to be suppressed by the ordinary\" judicial or martial means, four more states decided to secede and join the Confederacy (which then moved its capital to Richmond, Virginia). Although the Confederacy had large supplies of captured munitions and many volunteers, it was slower than the Union in dealing with the border states. While the Upland South border states of Kentucky, Missouri, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware, as well as the District of Columbia, continued to permit slavery during the Civil War, they remained with the Union though Kentucky and Missouri both had rival Confederate governments that formed that were admitted and recognized by the Confederacy. Though early in the war, the Confederacy controlled more than half of Kentucky and the southern portion of Missouri. By March 1862, the Union largely controlled all the border state areas, had shut down all commercial traffic from all Confederate ports, had prevented European recognition of the Confederate government, and was poised to seize New Orleans. The rugged mountainous East Tennessee region attempted to rejoin the Union as a new state, having opposed secession and slavery compared to most of Tennessee.\n\nIn the four years of war 1861\u201365 the South was the primary battleground, with all but two of the major battles taking place on Southern soil. Union forces led numerous campaigns into the western Confederacy, controlling the border states in 1861, the Tennessee River, the Cumberland River and New Orleans in 1862, and the Mississippi River in 1863. In the East, however, the Confederate Army under Robert E. Lee beat off attack after attack in its defense of their capital at Richmond. But when Lee tried to move north, he was repulsed (and nearly captured) at Sharpsburg (1862) and Gettysburg (1863).\n\nThe Confederacy had the resources for a short war, but was unable to finance or supply a longer war. It reversed the traditional low-tariff policy of the South by imposing a new 15% tax on all imports from the Union. The Union blockade stopped most commerce from entering the South, and smugglers avoided the tax, so the Confederate tariff produced too little revenue to finance the war. Inflated currency was the solution, but that created distrust of the Richmond government. Because of low investment in railroads, the Southern transportation system depended primarily on river and coastal traffic by boat; both were shut down by the Union Navy. The small railroad system virtually collapsed, so that by 1864 internal travel was so difficult that the Confederate economy was crippled.\n\nThe Confederate cause was hopeless by the time Atlanta fell and William T. Sherman marched through Georgia in late 1864, but the rebels fought on until Lee's army surrendered in April 1865. Once the Confederate forces surrendered, the region moved into the Reconstruction Era (1865\u20131877), in a partially successful attempt to rebuild the destroyed region and grant civil rights to freed slaves.\n\nSoutherners who were against the Confederate cause during the Civil War were known as Southern Unionists. They were also known as Union Loyalists or Lincoln's Loyalists. Within the eleven Confederate states, states such as Tennessee (especially East Tennessee), Virginia (which included West Virginia at the time), and North Carolina were home to the largest populations of Unionists. Many areas of Southern Appalachia harbored pro-Union sentiment as well. As many as 100,000 men living in states under Confederate control would serve in the Union Army or pro-Union guerrilla groups. Although Southern Unionists came from all classes, most differed socially, culturally, and economically from the regions dominant pre-war planter class.\n\nThe South suffered more than the North overall, as the Union strategy of attrition warfare meant that Lee could not replace his casualties, and the total war waged by Sherman, Sheridan and other Union armies devastated the infrastructure and caused widespread poverty and distress. The Confederacy suffered military losses of 95,000 soldiers killed in action and 165,000 who died of disease, for a total of 260,000, out of a total white Southern population at the time of around 5.5\u00a0million. Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6% in the North and about 18% in the South. Northern military deaths were greater than Southern military deaths in absolute numbers, but were two-thirds smaller in terms of proportion of the population affected.\n\nReconstruction and Jim Crow era\n\nAfter the Civil War, the South was devastated in terms of infrastructure and economy. Because of states' reluctance to grant voting rights to freedmen, Congress instituted Reconstruction governments. It established military districts and governors to rule over the South until new governments could be established. Many white Southerners who had actively supported the Confederacy were temporarily disenfranchised. Rebuilding was difficult as people grappled with the effects of a new labor economy of a free market in the midst of a widespread agricultural depression. In addition, the limited infrastructure the South had was mostly destroyed by the war. At the same time, the North was rapidly industrializing. To avoid the social effects of the war, most of the Southern states initially passed black codes. During Reconstruction, these were mostly legally nullified by federal law and anti-Confederate legislatures, which existed for a short time during Reconstruction.\n\nThere were thousands of people on the move, as African Americans tried to reunite families separated by slave sales, and sometimes migrated for better opportunities in towns or other states. Other freed people moved from plantation areas to cities or towns for a chance to get different jobs. At the same time, whites returned from refuges to reclaim plantations or town dwellings. In some areas, many whites returned to the land to farm for a while. Some freedpeople left the South altogether for states such as Ohio and Indiana, and later, Kansas. Thousands of others joined the migration to new opportunities in the Mississippi and Arkansas Delta bottomlands, and Texas.\n\nWith passage of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States (which outlawed slavery), the 14th Amendment (which granted full U.S. citizenship to African Americans) and the 15th amendment (which extended the right to vote to African American males), African Americans in the South were made free citizens and were given the right to vote. Under Federal protection, white and black Republicans formed constitutional conventions and state governments. Among their accomplishments were creating the first public education systems in Southern states, and providing for welfare through orphanages, hospitals and similar institutions.\n\nNortherners came south to participate in politics and business. Some were representatives of the Freedmen's Bureau and other agencies of Reconstruction; some were humanitarians with the intent to help black people. Some were adventurers who hoped to benefit themselves by questionable methods. They were all condemned with the pejorative term of carpetbagger. Some Southerners would also take advantage of the disrupted environment and made money off various schemes, including bonds and financing for railroads. White southerners who supported Reconstruction policies and efforts became known as scalawags.\n\nSecret vigilante organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan an organization sworn to perpetuate white supremacy had arisen quickly after the war's end in the 1860s, and used lynching, physical attacks, house burnings and other forms of intimidation to keep African Americans from exercising their political rights. Although the first Klan was disrupted by prosecution by the Federal government in the early 1870s, other groups persisted. By the mid-to-late-1870s, some upper class Southerners created increasing resistance to the altered social structure. Paramilitary organizations such as the White League in Louisiana (1874), the Red Shirts in Mississippi (1875) and rifle clubs, all \"White Line\" organizations, used organized violence against Republicans, both black and white, to remove Republicans from political office, repress and bar black voting, and restore the Democratic Party to power. In 1876 white Democrats regained power in most of the state legislatures. They began to pass laws designed to strip African Americans and Poor Whites from the voter registration rolls. The success of late-19th century interracial coalitions in several states inspired a reaction among some white Democrats, who worked harder to prevent both groups from voting.\n\nDespite discrimination, many blacks became property owners in areas that were still developing. For instance, 90% of the Mississippi's bottomlands were still frontier and undeveloped after the war. By the end of the century, two-thirds of the farmers in Mississippi's Delta bottomlands were black. They had cleared the land themselves and often made money in early years by selling off timber. Tens of thousands of migrants went to the Delta, both to work as laborers to clear timber for lumber companies, and many to develop their own farms. Nonetheless, the long agricultural depression, along with disenfranchisement and lack of access to credit, led to many blacks in the Delta losing their property by 1910 and becoming sharecroppers or landless workers over the following decade. More than two generations of free African Americans lost their stake in property.\n\nNearly all Southerners, black and white, suffered economically as a result of the Civil War. Within a few years cotton production and harvest was back to pre-war levels, but low prices through much of the 19th century hampered recovery. They encouraged immigration by Chinese and Italian laborers into the Mississippi Delta. While the first Chinese entered as indentured laborers from Cuba, the majority came in the early 20th century. Neither group stayed long at rural farm labor. The Chinese became merchants and established stores in small towns throughout the Delta, establishing a place between white and black.\n\nMigrations continued in the late 19th and early 20th centuries among both blacks and whites. In the last two decades of the 19th century about 141,000 blacks left the South, and more after 1900, totaling a loss of 537,000. After that the movement increased in what became known as the Great Migration from 1910 to 1940, and the Second Great Migration through 1970. Even more whites left the South, some going to California for opportunities and others heading to Northern industrial cities after 1900. Between 1880 and 1910, the loss of whites totaled 1,243,000. Five million more left between 1940 and 1970.\n\nFrom 1890 to 1908, ten of the eleven former Confederate states, along with Oklahoma upon statehood, passed disenfranchising constitutions or amendments that introduced voter registration barriers such as poll taxes, residency requirements and literacy tests that were hard for minorities to meet. Most African Americans, most Mexican Americans, and tens of thousands of poor whites were disenfranchised, losing the vote for decades. In some states, grandfather clauses temporarily exempted white illiterates from literacy tests. The numbers of voters dropped drastically throughout the former Confederacy as a result. This can be seen via the feature \"Turnout in Presidential and Midterm Elections\" at the University of Texas' Politics: Barriers to Voting. Alabama, which had established universal white suffrage in 1819 when it became a state, also substantially reduced voting by poor whites. Democrat-controlled legislatures passed Jim Crow laws to segregate public facilities and services, including transportation.\n\nWhile African Americans, poor whites and civil rights groups started litigation against such provisions in the early 20th century, for decades Supreme Court decisions overturning such provisions were rapidly followed by new state laws with new devices to restrict voting. Most blacks in the former Confederacy and Oklahoma could not vote until 1965, after passage of the Voting Rights Act and Federal enforcement to ensure people could register. Despite increases in the eligible voting population with the inclusion of women, blacks, and those eighteen and over throughout this period, turnout in ex-Confederate states remained below the national average throughout the 20th century. Not until the late 1960s did all American citizens regain protected civil rights by passage of legislation following the leadership of the American Civil Rights Movement.\n\nHistorian William Chafe has explored the defensive techniques developed inside the African American community to avoid the worst features of Jim Crow as expressed in the legal system, unbalanced economic power, and intimidation and psychological pressure. Chafe says \"protective socialization by blacks themselves\" was created inside the community to accommodate white-imposed sanctions while subtly encouraging challenges to those sanctions. Known as \"walking the tightrope,\" such efforts at bringing about change were only slightly effective before the 1920s, but did build the foundation that younger African Americans deployed in their aggressive, large-scale activism during the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s.\n\nNative American removal\n\nNative Americans were removed from their home states in the South and were sent to Oklahoma.\n\n1880s through 1930s\n\nAt the end of the 19th century, white Democrats in the South had created state constitutions that were hostile to industry and business development, with anti-industrial laws extensive from the time new constitutions were adopted in the 1890s. Banks were few and small; there was little access to credit. Traditional agriculture persisted across the region. Especially in Alabama and Florida, rural minorities held control in many state legislatures long after population had shifted to industrializing cities, and legislators resisted business and modernizing interests: Alabama refused to redistrict between 1901 and 1972, long after major population and economic shifts to cities. For decades Birmingham generated the majority of revenue for the state, for instance, but received little back in services or infrastructure.\n\nIn the late 19th century, Texas rapidly expanded its railroad network, creating a network of cities connected on a radial plan and linked to the port of Galveston. It was the first statein which urban and economic development proceeded independently of rivers, the primary transportation network of the past. A reflection of increasing industry were strikes and labor unrest: \"in 1885 Texas ranked ninth among forty states in number of workers involved in strikes (4,000); for the six-year period it ranked fifteenth. Seventy-five of the one hundred strikes, chiefly interstate strikes of telegraphers and railway workers, occurred in the year 1886.\"\n\nBy 1890, Dallas became the largest city in Texas, and by 1900 it had a population of more than 42,000, which more than doubled to over 92,000 a decade later. Dallas was the harnessmaking capital of the world and a center of other manufacturing. As an example of its ambitions, in 1907 Dallas built the Praetorian Building, fifteen storeys tall and the first skyscraper west of the Mississippi, soon to be followed by other skyscrapers. Texas was transformed by a railroad network linking five important cities, among them Houston with its nearby port at Galveston, Dallas, Fort Worth, San Antonio, and El Paso. Each exceeded fifty thousand in population by 1920, with the major cities having three times that population.\n\nBusiness interests were ignored by the Southern Democrat ruling class. Nonetheless, major new industries started developing in cities such as Atlanta, GA; Birmingham, AL; and Dallas, Fort Worth and Houston, Texas. Growth began occurring at a geometric rate. Birmingham became a major steel producer and mining town, with major population growth in the early decades of the 20th century.\n\nThe first major oil well in the South was drilled at Spindletop near Beaumont, Texas, on the morning of January 10, 1901. Other oil fields were later discovered nearby in Arkansas, Oklahoma, and under the Gulf of Mexico. The resulting \"Oil Boom\" permanently transformed the economy of the West South Central states and produced the richest economic expansion after the Civil War.\n\nIn the early 20th century, invasion of the boll weevil devastated cotton crops in the South, producing an additional catalyst to African Americans' decisions to leave the South. From 1910 to 1970, more than 6.5\u00a0million African Americans left the South in the Great Migration to Northern and Western cities, defecting from persistent lynching, violence, segregation, poor education, and inability to vote. Black migration transformed many Northern and Western cities, creating new cultures and music. Many African Americans, like other groups, became industrial workers; others started their own businesses within the communities. Southern whites also migrated to industrial cities like Chicago, Detroit, Oakland, and Los Angeles, where they took jobs in the booming new auto and defense industry.\n\nLater, the Southern economy was dealt additional blows by the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl. After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the economy suffered significant reversals and millions were left unemployed. Beginning in 1934 and lasting until 1939, an ecological disaster of severe wind and drought caused an exodus from Texas and Arkansas, the Oklahoma Panhandle region, and the surrounding plains, in which over 500,000 Americans were homeless, hungry and jobless. Thousands would leave the region to seek economic opportunities along the West Coast.\n\nPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt noted the South as the \"number one priority\" in terms of need of assistance during the Great Depression. His administration created programs such as the Tennessee Valley Authority in 1933 to provide rural electrification and stimulate development. Locked into low-productivity agriculture, the region's growth was slowed by limited industrial development, low levels of entrepreneurship, and the lack of capital investment.\n\n1940s through late 20th century\n\nWorld War II marked a time of dramatic change within the South from an economic standpoint, as new industries and military bases were developed by the federal government, providing much needed capital and infrastructure in many regions. People from all parts of the US came to the South for military training and work in the region's many bases and new industries. During and after the war millions of hard-scrabble farmers, both white and black, left agriculture for other occupations and urban jobs.\n\nThe United States began mobilizing for war in a major way in the spring of 1940. The warm weather of the South proved ideal for building 60% of the Army's new training camps and nearly half the new airfields. In all, 40% of spending on new military installations went to the South. For example, in 1940 the small town of 1500 people in Starke, Florida, became the base of Camp Blanding. By March 1941, 20,000 men were constructing a permanent camp for 60,000 soldiers. Money flowed freely for the war effort, as over $4\u00a0billion went into military facilities in the South, and another $5\u00a0billion into defense plants. Major shipyards were built in Virginia, and Charleston, SC, and along the Gulf Coast.\n\nHuge warplane plants were opened in Dallas-Fort Worth and Georgia. The most secret and expensive operation was at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where unlimited amounts of locally generated electricity were used to prepare uranium for the atom bomb. The number of production workers doubled during the war. Most training centers, factories and shipyards were closed in 1945, but not all, and the families that left hardscrabble farms remained to find jobs in the growing urban South. The region had finally reached the take off stage into industrial and commercial growth, although its income and wage levels lagged well behind the national average. Nevertheless, as George B. Tindall notes, the transformation was, \"The demonstration of industrial potential, new habits of mind, and a recognition that industrialization demanded community services.\"\n\nPer capita income jumped 140% from 1940 to 1945, compared to 100% elsewhere in the United States. Southern income rose from 59% to 65%. Dewey Grantham says the war, \"brought an abrupt departure from the South's economic backwardness, poverty, and distinctive rural life, as the region moved perceptively closer to the mainstream of national economic and social life.\" Since 1970, the proportion of the African American population living in the South stabilized and began slightly increasing.  \n\nFarming shifted from cotton and tobacco, to include cattle, rice, soybeans, corn, and other foods. Industrial growth increased in the 1960s and greatly accelerated into the 1980s and 1990s. Several large urban areas in Texas, Georgia, and Florida grew to over four million people. Rapid expansion in industries such as autos, telecommunications, textiles, technology, banking, and aviation gave some states in the South an industrial strength to rival large states elsewhere in the country. By the 2000 census, the South (along with the West) was leading the nation in population growth. With this growth, however, has come long commute times and air pollution problems in cities such as Dallas, Houston, Atlanta, Austin, Charlotte, and others that rely on sprawling development and highway networks.\n\n21st century\n\nIn the 21st century, and especially after the 2010 midterm elections, the Republican Party has largely dominated the South, both at the state and federal levels. As of 2023, Republicans control both houses of the state legislatures of 10 out of the eleven to thirteen former Confederate States (as well as the Virginia House of Delegates). However, there are still some Democratic statewide officeholders in the South, such as Louisiana governor John Bel Edwards, Kentucky governor Andy Beshear, North Carolina governor Roy Cooper, Virginia's U.S. Senators Mark Warner and Tim Kaine, Georgia's U.S. Senators Raphael Warnock and Jon Ossoff, and West Virginia's U.S. Senator Joe Manchin.\n\nIn 2019, Fortune 500 companies headquartered in Southern states included: Texas with 50, Virginia with 21, Florida with 18, Georgia with 17, North Carolina with 11, and Tennessee with 10. In 2022, Texas led the nation with the most Fortune 500 company headquarters with 53. This economic expansion has enabled parts of the South to report some of the lowest unemployment rates in the United States.\n\nEven with certain southern states and areas doing well economically, many southern states and areas still have high poverty rates when compared to the U.S. nationally. In 2021, nine out of the ten states with the highest poverty rates were in the South. Also, in 2023 all five states with the lowest GDP per capita were in the South: Mississippi, West Virginia, Arkansas, Alabama, and South Carolina.\n\nModern economy\nIn the late 20th century, the South changed dramatically. It saw a boom in its service economy, manufacturing base, high technology industries, and the financial sector. Texas in particular witnessed dramatic growth and population change with the dominance of the energy industry and tourism industries, such as the Alamo Mission in San Antonio. Tourism in Florida and along the Gulf Coast also grew steadily throughout the last decades of the 20th century.\n\nNumerous new automobile production plants have opened in the region, or are soon to open, such as Mercedes-Benz in Tuscaloosa, Alabama; Hyundai in Montgomery, Alabama; the BMW production plant in Spartanburg, South Carolina; Toyota plants in Georgetown, Kentucky, Blue Springs, Mississippi and San Antonio; the GM manufacturing plant in Spring Hill, Tennessee; a Honda factory in Lincoln, Alabama; the Nissan North American headquarters in Franklin, Tennessee and factories in Smyrna, Tennessee and Canton, Mississippi; a Kia factory in West Point, Georgia; and the Volkswagen Chattanooga Assembly Plant in Tennessee.\n\nThe two largest research parks in the country are located in the South: Research Triangle Park in North Carolina (the world's largest) and the Cummings Research Park in Huntsville, Alabama (the world's fourth largest).\n\nIn medicine, the Texas Medical Center in Houston has achieved international recognition in education, research, and patient care, especially in the fields of heart disease, cancer, and rehabilitation. In 1994 the Texas Medical Center was the largest medical center in the world including fourteen hospitals, two medical schools, four colleges of nursing, and six university systems. The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center is consistently ranked the No. 1 cancer research and treatment center in the United States.\n\nMany major banking corporations have headquarters in the region. Bank of America and Truist Financial are in Charlotte. Wachovia was headquartered there before its purchase by Wells Fargo. Regions Financial Corporation is in Birmingham, as is AmSouth Bancorporation, and previously BBVA Compass before its acquisition by PNC Financial Services. Atlanta is the district headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta.\n\nMany corporations are headquartered in Atlanta and its surrounding area, such as The Coca-Cola Company, Delta Air Lines, and The Home Depot, and also many cable television networks, such as the Turner Broadcasting System (CNN, TBS, TNT, Turner South, Cartoon Network) and The Weather Channel.\n\nEducation\nSouthern public schools in the past have ranked in the lower half of some national surveys. When allowance for race is considered, a 2007 US Government list of test scores often shows white fourth and eighth graders performing better than average for reading and math; while black fourth and eighth graders also performed better than average. This comparison does not hold across the board. Mississippi often scores lower than national averages, no matter how statistics are compared. Newer data from 2009 suggests that secondary school education in the South is on par nationally, with 72% of high schoolers graduating compared to 73% nationwide.\n\nThe Southern United States is home to some of the nation's largest and most prominent public and private institutions of higher education. Notable public colleges and universities in the South include:\n\n University of Virginia\n University of Texas at Austin\n University of Houston\n University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill\n Florida State University\n University of North Carolina at Charlotte\n Georgia State University\n Georgia Tech\n University of Florida\n University of Georgia\n Texas A&M University\n Florida A&M University\n North Carolina A&T State University\n University of Tennessee\n College of William & Mary\n North Carolina State University\n University of Maryland, College Park\n University of Mississippi\n Auburn University\n University of South Carolina\n Virginia Tech\n Louisiana State University\n University of Alabama\n University of Alabama at Birmingham\n University of Arkansas\n University of Oklahoma\n University of Kentucky\n University of Louisville\n Virginia Military Institute\n\nNotable private colleges and universities in the South include:\n Duke University\n Rice University\n Vanderbilt University\n Johns Hopkins University\n Georgetown University\n Emory University\n University of Miami\n University of Richmond\n Liberty University\n Tulane University\n Wake Forest University\n Southern Methodist University\n Washington and Lee University\n Davidson College\n Berry College\n Spelman College\n Morehouse College\n Howard University\n Baylor University\n\nCulture\n\nSeveral Southern states (Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia) were among the British colonies that sent delegates to sign the Declaration of Independence and then fought against the government (Great Britain), along with the Middle and New England colonies, during the Revolutionary War. The basis for much of Southern culture derives from these states being among the original Thirteen Colonies, and from much of the population of the colonial South having ancestral links to colonists who emigrated west. Southern manners and customs reflect the relationship with England that was held by the early population.\n\nOverall, the South has had lower housing values, lower household incomes, and lower cost of living than the rest of the United States. These factors, combined with the fact that Southerners have continued to maintain strong loyalty to family ties, has led some sociologists to label white Southerners an ethnic or quasi-ethnic group, though this interpretation has been subject to criticism on the grounds that proponents of the view do not satisfactorily indicate how Southerners meet the criteria of ethnicity.\n\nThe predominant culture of the South has its origins with the settlement of the region by large groups of people from parts of southern England such as Sussex, Kent, the West Country, and East Anglia who moved to the Tidewater and the eastern parts of the Deep South in the 17th and early 18th centuries, Northern English, Scots lowlanders and Ulster-Scots (later called the Scotch-Irish) who settled in Appalachia and the Upland South in the mid to late 18th century, and the many African slaves who were part of the Southern economy. African American descendants of the slaves brought into the South compose the United States' second-largest racial minority, accounting for 12.1% of the total population according to the 2000 census. Despite Jim Crow era outflow to the North, the majority of the black population remains concentrated in Southern states, and has heavily contributed to the cultural blend of religion, food, art, and music (see spiritual, blues, jazz, R&B, soul music, country music, zydeco, bluegrass and rock and roll) that characterize Southern culture today.\n\nIn previous censuses, the largest ancestry group identified by Southerners was English or mostly English, with 19,618,370 self-reporting \"English\" as an ancestry on the 1980 census, followed by 12,709,872 listing \"Irish\" and 11,054,127 \"Afro-American\". Almost a third of all Americans who claim English ancestry can be found in the American South, and over a quarter of all Southerners claim English descent as well.\n\nReligion\nThe South has had a majority of its population adhering to evangelical Protestantism ever since the Second Great Awakening, although the upper classes often stayed Anglican\/Episcopalian or Presbyterian. The First Great Awakening and the Second Great Awakening from about 1742 to about 1850 generated large numbers of Methodists and Baptists, which remain the two main Christian confessions in the South. By 1900, the Southern Baptist Convention had become the largest Protestant denomination in the whole United States with its membership concentrated in rural areas of the South. Baptists are the most common religious group, followed by Methodists, Pentecostals and other denominations. Roman Catholics historically were concentrated in Maryland, Louisiana, and Hispanic areas such as South Texas and South Florida and along the Gulf Coast. The great majority of black Southerners are either Baptist or Methodist. Statistics show that Southern states have the highest religious attendance figures of any region in the United States, constituting the so-called Bible Belt. Pentecostalism has been strong across the South since the late 19th century.\n\nNational and international influences\nApart from its climate, the living experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and Westerners, mainly since the late 20th century, has reshaped the culture of major metropolitan areas and coastal areas. Observers conclude that collective identity and Southern distinctiveness are declining, particularly when defined against \"an earlier South that was somehow more authentic, real, more unified and distinct\".\n\nWhile Hispanics have long been a major factor in Texas, millions more have arrived in other Southern states during the 1990s and early 2000s bringing values not rooted in local traditions. Historian Raymond Mohl emphasizes the role of NAFTA in lowering trade barriers and facilitating large-scale population movements. He adds other factors such as ongoing economic crisis in Mexico, new more liberal immigration policies in the United States, labor recruitment and smuggling, that have produced a major flow of Mexican and Hispanic migration to the southeast. That region's low-wage, low-skill economy readily hired cheap, reliable, nonunion labor, without asking applicants too many questions about legal status. Richard J. Gonzales argues that the rise of La Raza (Mexican American community) in terms of numbers and influence in politics, education, and language and cultural rights will grow rapidly in Texas by 2030 when demographers predict Hispanics will outnumber Anglos in Texas. However thus far their political participation and the Latino vote have been low, so the potential political impact is much higher than the actual one thus far.\n\nScholars have suggested that in the Deep South collective identity and Southern distinctiveness are thus declining, particularly when defined against \"an earlier South that was somehow more authentic, real, more unified and distinct\". On the other hand, Southerners have moved west in large numbers, especially to California and to the Midwest. Thus, journalist Michael Hirsh proposed that aspects of Southern culture have spread throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed \"Southernization\".\n\nEthnicity\n\nThe South has the largest African American population by region. The South has remained a black and white region. The Hispanic population has seen rapid growth in the region.\n\nSports\n\nAmerican football\n\nAmerican football is heavily considered the most popular team sport in most areas of the Southern United States.\n\nThe region is home to numerous decorated and historic college football programs, particularly in the Southeastern Conference (known as the \"SEC\"), Atlantic Coast Conference (known as the \"ACC\"), and the Big 12 Conference. The SEC, consisting almost entirely of teams based in Southern states, is widely considered to be the strongest league in contemporary college football and includes the Alabama Crimson Tide, the program with the most national championships in the sport's modern history. The sport is also highly competitive and has a spectator following at the high school level, particularly in rural areas, where high school football games often serve as prominent community gatherings.\n\nThe first established professional American football team based in the South were the Washington Redskins, now called the Washington Commanders. They still retain a large following in most of Virginia, and parts of Maryland. Later on, the National Football League (NFL) and American Football League (AFL) began to expand many teams in the Southern US during the 1960s, with franchises like the Atlanta Falcons, New Orleans Saints, Houston Oilers, Miami Dolphins, and the Dallas Cowboys. In later decades, NFL expansion into Southern states continued, with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers during the 1970s, along with the Carolina Panthers, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Baltimore Ravens during the 1990s. The Houston Oilers were eventually replaced by the Houston Texans, after the Oilers relocated to Nashville to become the Tennessee Titans.\n\nBaseball\n\nBaseball has been played in the Southern United States dating back to the mid-19th century. It was traditionally more popular than American football until the 1980s, and still accounts for the largest annual attendance amongst sports played in the South. The first mention of a baseball team in Houston was on April 11, 1861. During the late 19th century and early 20th century games were common, especially once the professional leagues such as the Texas League, the Dixie League, and the Southern League were organized.\n\nThe short-lived Louisville Colonels were a part of the early National League and American Association, but ceased to exist in 1899. The first Southern Major League Baseball team after the Colonels appeared in 1962, when the Houston Colt .45s (known today as the Houston Astros) were enfranchised. Later, the Atlanta Braves came in 1966, followed by the Texas Rangers in 1972, and finally the Miami Marlins and Tampa Bay Rays in the 1990s.\n\nCollege baseball appears to be more well attended in the South than elsewhere, as teams like Florida State, Arkansas, LSU, Virginia, Mississippi State, Ole Miss, South Carolina, Florida and Texas are commonly at the top of the NCAA's attendance. The South generally produces very successful collegiate baseball teams with Virginia, Vanderbilt, LSU, South Carolina, Florida and Coastal Carolina winning recent College World Series Titles.\n\nThe following is a list of each MLB team in the Southern U.S. and the total fan attendance for 2019:\n\nAuto racing\n\nThe Southern states are commonly associated with stock car racing and its most prominent competition level NASCAR, which is headquartered in Charlotte and Daytona Beach. The sport was developed in the South during the early 20th century, with stock car racing's historic mecca being Daytona Beach, where cars initially raced on the wide, flat beachfront, before the construction of Daytona International Speedway. Though the sport has attained a following throughout the United States, a majority of NASCAR races continue to take place at Southern tracks.\n\nBasketball\nBasketball is very popular throughout the Southern United States as both a recreational and spectator sport, particularly in the states of Kentucky and North Carolina. Both states are home to several prominent college basketball programs, including the Kentucky Wildcats, Louisville Cardinals, Duke Blue Devils and North Carolina Tar Heels.  Other southern teams, like the Florida Gators and Virginia Cavaliers have won national championships.\n\nNBA teams based in the South include the San Antonio Spurs, Houston Rockets, Oklahoma City Thunder, Dallas Mavericks, Washington Wizards, Charlotte Hornets, Atlanta Hawks, Orlando Magic, Memphis Grizzlies, New Orleans Pelicans, and Miami Heat. The Spurs and Heat in particular have become prominent within the NBA, with eight championships won by the two between 1999 and 2013.\n\nGolf\nGolf is a popular recreational sport in most areas of the South, with the region's warm climate allowing it to host many professional tournaments and numerous destination golf resorts, particularly in the state of Florida. The region is home to The Masters which is played at Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta, Georgia, and has become one of the professional game's most important tournaments. One of the four major championships in Hilton Head Island, in South Carolina, is also home to a prominent American golf tournament and has several high-quality courses.\n\nSoccer\nIn recent decades association football, known in the South as in the rest of the United States as \"soccer\", has become a popular sport at youth and collegiate levels throughout the region. The game has been historically widespread at the college level in the Atlantic coast states of Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas; which contain many of the nation's most successful college soccer programs.  In particular, Virginia has won 7 NCAA National Championships, the third most of any school.\n\nThe establishment of Major League Soccer has led to professional soccer clubs in the Southern cities including FC Dallas, Houston Dynamo, D.C. United, Orlando City, Inter Miami CF, Nashville SC, Atlanta United, Austin FC and Charlotte FC. The current United States second division soccer league, the USL Championship, was initially geographically based in the coastal Southeast around clubs in Charleston, Richmond, Charlotte, Wilmington, Raleigh, Virginia Beach, and Atlanta.\n\nMajor sports teams in the South\nThe Southern region is home to numerous professional sports franchises in the \"Big Four\" leagues (NFL, NBA, NHL, and MLB), with many championships collectively among them.\n Dallas-Fort Worth: Cowboys (NFL), Rangers (MLB), Mavericks (NBA), Stars (NHL)\n Washington, D.C.: Washington Commanders (NFL), Nationals (MLB), Wizards (NBA), Capitals (NHL)\n Miami-Fort Lauderdale: Dolphins (NFL), Marlins (MLB), Heat (NBA), Panthers (NHL)\n Houston: Texans (NFL), Astros (MLB), Rockets (NBA)\n Atlanta: Falcons (NFL), Braves (MLB), Hawks (NBA)\n Tampa Bay: Buccaneers (NFL), Rays (MLB), Lightning (NHL)\n Baltimore: Ravens (NFL), Orioles (MLB)\n Charlotte: Panthers (NFL), Hornets (NBA)\n Nashville: Titans (NFL), Predators (NHL)\n New Orleans: Saints (NFL), Pelicans (NBA)\n Orlando: Magic (NBA)\n San Antonio: Spurs (NBA)\n Jacksonville: Jaguars (NFL)\n Oklahoma City: Thunder (NBA)\n Memphis: Grizzlies (NBA)\n Raleigh: Hurricanes (NHL)\n\nHealth\n\nNine Southern states have obesity rates exceeding 30% of the population, the highest in the country. Those states include: Mississippi, Louisiana, West Virginia, Alabama, Oklahoma, Arkansas, South Carolina, Kentucky and Texas. Rates for hypertension and diabetes for these states are also the highest in the nation. A study reported that six Southern states have the worst incidence of sleep disturbances in the nation, attributing the disturbances to high rates of obesity and smoking. \n\nThe South has a higher percentage of obese people and diabetics when compared to national regional averages. The region also has the largest number of people dying from stroke complications and the highest rates of cognitive decline. Life expectancy is lower and death rates are higher, when compared to national averages of other regions in the United States. This disparity reflects substantial divergence between the South and other regions since the middle of the 20th century.\n\nThe East South Central Census Division of the United States (made up of Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama) had the highest rate of inpatient hospital stays in 2012. The other divisions, West South Central (Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas and Louisiana) and South Atlantic (West Virginia, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) ranked seventh and fifth. The South had a significantly higher rate of hospital discharges in 2005 than other regions of the United States, but the rate had declined to be closer to the overall national rate by 2011.\n\nFor cancer causes, the South, particularly an axis from West Virginia through Texas, leads the nation in adult obesity, adult smoking, low exercise, low fruit consumption, low vegetable consumption, all known cancer risk factors, which matches a similar high risk axis in \"All Cancers Combined, Death Rates by State, 2011\" from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.\n\nThe South is home to some of the nation's largest academic health systems, including the Johns Hopkins Hospital, Duke University Health, University of Florida Health, UNC Medical Center, University of Miami Health, UT Health Science Center at Houston, Emory Healthcare and University of South Florida Health among others.\n\nPolitics\n\nIn the first decades after Reconstruction (1880s\u20131890s), white Democrats regained power in the state legislatures, and began to make voter registration more complicated, to reduce black voting. With a combination of intimidation, fraud and violence by paramilitary groups, they suppressed black voting and turned Republicans out of office. From 1890 to 1908, ten of eleven states ratified new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised most black voters and many poor white voters. This disenfranchisement persisted for six decades into the 20th century, depriving blacks and poor whites of all political representation. Because they could not vote, they could not sit on juries. They had no one to represent their interests, resulting in state legislatures consistently underfunding programs and services, such as schools, for blacks and poor whites. Scholars have characterized pockets of the Southern United States as being \"authoritarian enclaves\" from Reconstruction to the Civil Rights Act.\n\nWith the collapse of the Republican Party in nearly all parts of the South, the region became known as the \"Solid South\", and the Democratic Party after 1900 moved to a system of primaries to select their candidates. Victory in a primary was tantamount to election. From the late 1870s to the 1960s, only rarely was a state or national Southern politician a Republican, outside from Southern Republican strongholds within the Appalachian mountain districts. Southern Republicans during this time period would continue to control parts of the Appalachian Mountain areas and compete for power in the former Border States. Apart from a few states (such as the Byrd Machine in Virginia, the Crump Machine in Memphis), and a few other local organizations, the Democratic Party itself was very lightly organized. It managed primaries but party officials had little other role. To be successful a politician built his own network of friends, neighbors and allies. Reelection was the norm, and the result from 1910 to the late 20th century was that Southern Democrats in Congress had accumulated seniority, and automatically took the chairmanships of all committees. By the 1940s the Supreme Court began to find disenfranchisement measures like the \"grandfather clause\" and the white primary unconstitutional. Southern legislatures quickly passed other measures to keep blacks disenfranchised, even after suffrage was extended more widely to poor whites. Because white Democrats controlled all the Southern seats in the U.S. Congress, they had outsize power and could sidetrack or filibuster efforts to pass legislation they did not agree with.\n\nIncreasing support for civil rights legislation by the national Democratic Party beginning in 1948 caused segregationist Southern Democrats to nominate Strom Thurmond on a third-party \"Dixiecrat\" ticket in 1948. These Dixiecrats returned to the party by 1950, but Southern Democrats held off Republican inroads in the suburbs by arguing that only they could defend the region from the onslaught of northern liberals and the civil rights movement. In response to the Brown v. Board of Education ruling of 1954, 101 Southern congressmen (19 senators, 82 House members of which 99 were Southern Democrats and 2 were Republicans) in 1956 denounced the Brown decisions as a \"clear abuse of judicial power [that] climaxes a trend in the federal judiciary undertaking to legislate in derogation of the authority of Congress and to encroach upon the reserved rights of the states and the people.\" The manifesto lauded, \"...those states which have declared the intention to resist enforced integration by any lawful means\". It was signed by all Southern senators except Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson, and Tennessee senators Albert Gore Sr. and Estes Kefauver. Virginia closed schools in Warren County, Prince Edward County, Charlottesville, and Norfolk rather than integrate, but no other state followed suit. Democratic governors Orval Faubus of Arkansas, Ross Barnett of Mississippi, John Connally of Texas, Lester Maddox of Georgia, and, especially, George Wallace of Alabama resisted integration and appealed to a rural and blue-collar electorate.\n\nThe northern Democrats' support of civil rights issues culminated when Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson signed into law the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which ended legal segregation and provided federal enforcement of voting rights for blacks. In the presidential election of 1964, Barry Goldwater's only electoral victories outside his home state of Arizona were in the states of the Deep South where few blacks could vote before the 1965 Voting Rights Act. Pockets of resistance to integration in public places broke out in violence during the 1960s by the shadowy Ku Klux Klan, which caused a backlash among moderates. Major resistance to school busing extended into the 1970s.\n\nNational Republicans such as Richard Nixon began to develop their Southern strategy to attract conservative white Southerners, especially the middle class and suburban voters, in addition to migrants from the North and traditional GOP pockets in Appalachia. The transition to a Republican stronghold in the South took decades. First, the states started voting Republican in presidential elections, except for native southerners Jimmy Carter in 1976 and Bill Clinton in 1992 and 1996. Then the states began electing Republican senators and finally governors. Georgia was the last state to do so, with Sonny Perdue taking the governorship in 2002. In addition to its middle class and business base, Republicans cultivated the religious right and attracted strong majorities from the evangelical or Fundamentalist vote, mostly Southern Baptists, which had not been a distinct political force prior to 1980.\n\nDecline of Southern liberalism during the 20th century\nSouthern liberals were an essential part of the New Deal coalition \u2013 without them Roosevelt lacked majorities in Congress. Typical leaders were Lyndon B. Johnson in Texas, Jim Folsom and John Sparkman in Alabama, Claude Pepper in Florida, Earl Long and Hale Boggs in Louisiana, and Estes Kefauver in Tennessee. They promoted subsidies for small farmers, and supported the nascent labor union movement. An essential condition for this north\u2013south coalition was for northern liberals to ignore the problem of racism throughout the South and elsewhere in the country. After 1945, however, northern liberals led especially by young Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota increasingly made civil rights a central issue. They convinced Truman to join them in 1948. The conservative Southern Democrats the Dixiecrats took control of the state parties in half the region and ran Strom Thurmond for president against Truman. Thurmond carried only the Deep South, but that threat was enough to guarantee the national Democratic Party in 1952 and 1956 would not make civil rights a major issue. In 1956, 101 of the 128 southern congressmen and senators signed the Southern Manifesto denouncing forced desegregation. The labor movement in the South was divided, and lost its political influence. Southern liberals were in a quandary \u2013 most of them kept quiet or moderated their liberalism, others switched sides, and the rest continued on the liberal path. One by one, the last group was defeated; historian Numan V. Bartley states, \"Indeed, the very word 'liberal' gradually disappeared from the southern political lexicon, except as a term of opprobrium.\"\n\nPresidents from the South\n\nThe South produced nine of the country's first twelve Presidents, including the Virginia Dynasty. After Zachary Taylor won the presidential election of 1848, no Southern politician was elected president until Woodrow Wilson in 1912. Andrew Johnson (of Tennessee) who was vice president in 1865, became president after the death of Abraham Lincoln. \n\nOut of the last eleven U.S. presidents, six have Southern region ties: Lyndon B. Johnson (of Texas; 1963\u201369), Jimmy Carter (of Georgia; 1977\u201381), George H. W. Bush (of Texas; 1989\u201393), Bill Clinton (of Arkansas; 1993\u20132001), George W. Bush (of Texas; 2001\u20132009), and Joe Biden (of Delaware; 2021\u2013present). Johnson was a native of Texas, while Carter is from Georgia, and Clinton from Arkansas. While George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush began their political careers in Texas, they were both born in New England and have their ancestral roots in that region. Similarly, while Joe Biden was born in Pennsylvania, he grew up largely in Delaware (classified as a Southern state by the U.S. Census Bureau) and spent his entire political career there.\n\nOther politicians and political movements\nThe South has produced various nationally known politicians and political movements. In 1948, a group of Democratic congressmen, led by Governor Strom Thurmond of South Carolina, split from the Democrats in reaction to an anti-segregation speech given by Minneapolis mayor and future senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota. They founded the States Rights Democratic or Dixiecrat Party. During that year's presidential election, the party ran Thurmond as its candidate and he carried four Deep South states.\n\nIn the 1968 Presidential election, Alabama Governor George C. Wallace ran for president on the American Independent Party ticket. Wallace ran a \"law and order\" campaign similar to that of Republican candidate, Richard Nixon. Nixon's Southern Strategy of gaining electoral votes downplayed race issues and focused on culturally conservative values, such as family issues, patriotism, and cultural issues that appealed to Southern Baptists.\n\nIn the 1994 mid-term elections, another Southern politician, Newt Gingrich, led the Republican Revolution, ushering in twelve years of GOP control of the House. Gingrich became Speaker of the United States House of Representatives in 1995 and served until his resignation in 1999. Tom DeLay was the most powerful Republican leader in Congress until he was indicted under criminal charges in 2005 and was forced to step aside by Republican rules. Apart from Bob Dole from Kansas (1985\u201396), the recent Republican Senate Leaders have been Southerners: Howard Baker (1981\u20131985) of Tennessee, Trent Lott (1996\u20132003) of Mississippi, Bill Frist (2003\u20132006) of Tennessee, and Mitch McConnell (2007\u2013present) of Kentucky.\n\nThe Republican candidates for president have won the South in elections since 1972, except for 1976. The region is not, however, entirely monolithic, and every successful Democratic candidate since 1976 has claimed at least three Southern states. Barack Obama won Florida, Maryland, Delaware, North Carolina, and Virginia in 2008 but did not repeat his victory in North Carolina during his 2012 reelection campaign. Joe Biden also performed well for a modern Democrat in the South, winning Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and Georgia, in the 2020 United States presidential election.\n\nRace relations\n\nNative Americans\nNative Americans had lived in what is the American South for nearly 12,000 years. They were defeated by settlers in a series of wars ending in the War of 1812 and the Seminole Wars, and most were removed west to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma and Kansas), but large numbers of Native Americans managed to stay behind by blending into the surrounding society. This was especially true of the wives of European American merchants and miners.\n\nCivil rights movement\n\nThe South witnessed two major events in the lives of 20th century African Americans: the Great Migration and the American Civil Rights Movement. The Great Migration began during World War I, hitting its high point during World War II. During this migration, Black people left the South to find work in Northern factories and other sectors of the economy.\n\nThe migration also empowered the growing Civil Rights Movement. While the movement existed in all parts of the United States, its focus was against disenfranchisement and the Jim Crow laws in the South. Most of the major events in the movement occurred in the South, including the Montgomery bus boycott, the Mississippi Freedom Summer, the March on Selma, Alabama, and the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. In addition, some of the most important writings to come out of the movement were written in the South, such as King's \"Letter from Birmingham Jail\". Most of the civil rights landmarks can be found around the South. The Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument in Birmingham includes the Birmingham Civil Rights Institute which details Birmingham's role as the center of the Civil Rights Movement. The 16th Street Baptist Church served as a rallying point for coordinating and carrying out the Birmingham campaign as well as the adjacent Kelly Ingram Park that served as ground zero for the infamous children's protest that eventually led to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 has been rededicated as a place of \"Revolution and Reconciliation\" and is now the setting of moving sculptures related to the battle for Civil Rights in the city, both are center pieces of the Birmingham Civil Rights District. The Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park in Atlanta includes a museum that chronicles the American Civil Rights Movement as well as Martin Luther King Jr.'s boyhood home on Auburn Avenue. Additionally, Ebenezer Baptist Church is located in the Sweet Auburn district as is the King Center, location of Martin Luther and Coretta Scott King's gravesites.\n\nRacial integration\nDuring the 1950s and 1960s, the racial integration of all-white collegiate sports teams was high on the regional agenda. Involved in it were issues of racial equality, racism, and the alumni's demand for the top players who it needed to win high-profile games. The Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) would take the lead. First they started to schedule integrated teams from the North. The wake-up call came in 1966, when Don Haskins's Texas Western College team with five black starters, upset the all-white University of Kentucky team to win the NCAA national basketball championship. That happened at a time when there were no black varsity basketball teams in either the Southeastern Conference or the Southwest Conference. Finally ACC schools, typically under pressure from boosters and civil rights groups, integrated their sports teams. With an alumni base that dominated local and state politics, society and business, the ACC flagship schools were successful in their endeavor as historian Pamela Grundy argues, they had learned how to win:\n The widespread admiration that athletic ability inspired would help transform athletic fields from grounds of symbolic play to forces for social change, places where a wide range of citizens could publicly and at times effectively challenge the assumptions that cast them as unworthy of full participation in U.S. society. While athletic successes would not rid society of prejudice or stereotype black athletes would continue to confront racial slurs...[minority star players demonstrated] the discipline, intelligence, and poise to contend for position or influence in every arena of national life.\n\nCongress ends segregation (1964) and guarantees voting rights (1965)\n\nThe decisive action ending segregation came when Congress in bipartisan fashion overcame Southern filibusters to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. A complex interaction of factors came together unexpectedly in the period 1954\u20131965 to make the momentous changes possible. The Supreme Court had taken the first initiative in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) making segregation of public schools unconstitutional. Enforcement was rapid in the North and border states, but was deliberately stopped in the South by the movement called Massive Resistance, sponsored by rural segregationists who largely controlled the state legislatures. Southern liberals, who counseled moderation, were shouted down by both sides and have limited impact. Much more significant was the Civil Rights Movement, especially the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) headed by Martin Luther King Jr. It largely displaced the old, much more moderate NAACP in taking leadership roles. King organized massive demonstrations, that seized massive media attention in an era when network television news was an innovative and universally watched phenomenon. SCLC, student activists and smaller local organizations staged demonstrations across the South. National attention focused on Birmingham, Alabama, where protesters deliberately provoked Bull Connor and his police forces by using young teenagers as demonstrators \u2013 and Connor arrested 900 on one day alone. The next day Connor unleashed billy clubs, police dogs, and high-pressure water hoses to disperse and punish the young demonstrators with a brutality that horrified the nation. It was very bad for business, and for the image of a modernizing progressive urban South. President John F. Kennedy, who had been calling for moderation, threatened to use federal troops to restore order in Birmingham. The result in Birmingham was compromise by which the new mayor opened the library, golf courses, and other city facilities to both races, against the backdrop of church bombings and assassinations.\n\nConfrontations continued to escalate. In summer 1963, there were 800 demonstrations in 200 southern cities and towns, with over 100,000 participants, and 15,000 arrests. In Alabama in June 1963, Governor George Wallace escalated the crisis by defying court orders to admit the first two black students to the University of Alabama. Kennedy responded by sending Congress a comprehensive civil rights bill, and ordered Attorney General Robert Kennedy to file federal lawsuits against segregated schools, and to deny funds for discriminatory programs. Doctor King launched a massive march on Washington in August 1963, bringing out 200,000 demonstrators in front of the Lincoln Memorial, the largest political assembly in the nation's history. The Kennedy administration now gave full-fledged support to the civil rights movement, but powerful southern congressmen blocked any legislation. After Kennedy was assassinated President Lyndon Johnson called for immediate passage of Kennedy civil rights legislation as a memorial to the martyred president. Johnson formed a coalition with Northern Republicans that led to passage in the House, and with the help of Republican Senate leader Everett Dirksen with passage in the Senate early in 1964. For the first time in history, the southern filibuster was broken and the Senate finally passed its version on June 19 by vote of 73 to 27. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the most powerful affirmation of equal rights ever made by Congress. It guaranteed access to public accommodations such as restaurants and places of amusement, authorized the Justice Department to bring suits to desegregate facilities in schools, gave new powers to the Civil Rights Commission; and allowed federal funds to be cut off in cases of discrimination. Furthermore, racial, religious and gender discrimination was outlawed for businesses with 25 or more employees, as well as apartment houses. The South resisted until the last moment, but as soon as the new law was signed by President Johnson on July 2, 1964, it was widely accepted across the nation. There was only a scattering of diehard opposition, typified by restaurant owner Lester Maddox in Georgia, who became governor, but the great majority of restaurants and hotels in Georgia followed the new law as the business community realized that peaceful integration was the only way forward.\n\nSince the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965, black people have gone on to hold many offices within the Southern states. Black people have been elected or appointed as mayors or police chiefs in the cities of Atlanta, Baltimore, Birmingham, Charlotte, Columbia, Dover, Houston, Jackson, Jacksonville, Memphis, Montgomery, Nashville, New Orleans, Raleigh, Richmond, and Washington. They have also gone on to serve in both the U.S. Congress and state legislatures of Southern states.\n\nNew Great Migration\n\nThe Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s ended Jim Crow laws across the South and other areas of the United States. In recent decades, a second migration appears to be underway, this time with African Americans from the North moving to the South in record numbers. While race relations are still a contentious issue in the South and most of the U.S., the region surpasses the rest of the country in many areas of integration and racial equality. According to 2003 report by researchers at the University of Wisconsin\u2013Milwaukee, Virginia Beach, Charlotte, Nashville-Davidson, and Jacksonville were the five most integrated of the nation's fifty largest cities, with Memphis at number six. Southern states tend to have a low disparity in incarceration rates between blacks and whites relative to the rest of the country.\n\nSymbolism\nMany southerners use the Confederate battle flag to identify themselves with the South, states' rights and Southern tradition.\nSuch groups as the League of the South have a high regard for the secession movement of 1860, citing a desire to protect and defend Southern heritage. Numerous political battles have erupted over flying the Confederate flag over state capitols, and the naming of public buildings or highways after Confederate leaders, the prominence of certain statues and monuments, and the everyday display of Confederate insignia.\n\nOther symbols of the South include the Bonnie Blue Flag, magnolia trees, and the song \"Dixie\".\n\nPopulation centers\nThe South was predominately rural up until the 1940s. Since the mid-20th century, the population has increasingly grown in urban and metropolitan areas. The following tables show the twenty largest cities, counties, metropolitan and combined statistical areas in the South. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States.\n\nMajor cities\n\nMajor counties\n\nMajor metropolitan areas\n\n* Asterisk indicates part of the metropolitan area is outside the states classified as Southern by the U.S. Census Bureau.\n\nMajor combined statistical areas\n\nSouthern states\nListed below are states that are defined by the Census Bureau as the Southern United States. Washington, D.C. is located in the Southern United States region as defined by the Census Bureau, but serves as the capital city of the United States, and is not a state.\n\nSee also\n\n Albion's Seed\n Antebellum architecture\n Black Belt in the American South\n Black Southerners\n White Southerners\n Cuisine of the Southern United States\n Culture of honor (Southern United States)\n List of plantations in the United States\n Lost Cause of the Confederacy\n Rice Belt\n Southern American English\n Southern art\n Southern hip hop\n Southern hospitality\n Southernization\n Southern literature\n Southern rock\n Southern strategy\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n \n Ayers, Edward L. What Caused the Civil War? Reflections on the South and Southern History (2005)\n \n \n \n Cash, Wilbur J. The Mind of the South (1941),\n Cooper, Christopher A. and H. Gibbs Knotts, eds. The New Politics of North Carolina (U. of North Carolina Press, 2008) \n Davis, Donald, and Mark R. Stoll. Southern United States: An Environmental History (2006)\n Edwards, Laura F. \"Southern History as U.S. History\", Journal of Southern History, 75 (Aug. 2009), 533\u201364.\n Flynt, J. Wayne Dixie's Forgotten People: The South's Poor Whites (1979). deals with 20th century.\n Frederickson, Kari. (2013). Cold War Dixie: Militarization and Modernization in the American South. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.\n \n Grantham, Dewey W. The South in modern America (2001) survey covers 1877\u20132000.\n Grantham, Dewey W. The life and death of the Solid South: A political history (1992).\n Jensen, Jeffrey; Pardelli, Giuliana; Timmons, Jeffrey F. 2023. Representation and Taxation in the American South, 1820\u20131910. Cambridge University Press.\n Johnson, Charles S. Statistical atlas of southern counties: listing and analysis of socio-economic indices of 1104 southern counties (1941). excerpt\n \n Key, V.O. Southern Politics in State and Nation (1951) classic political analysis, state by state. online free to borrow\n Kirby, Jack Temple. Rural Worlds Lost: The American South, 1920\u20131960 (LSU Press, 1986) major scholarly survey with detailed bibliography; online free to borrow.\n \n \n McWhiney, Grady. In Cracker Culture: Celtic Ways in the Old South (1988)\n Mark, Rebecca, and Rob Vaughan. The South: The Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Regional Cultures (2004)\n \n Odem, Mary E. and Elaine Lacy, eds. Latino Immigrants and the Transformation of the U.S. South (U of Georgia Press, 2009).\n \n \n \n Rivers, Larry E., and Canter Brown, eds. The Varieties of Women's Experiences: Portraits of Southern Women in the Post-Civil War Century (UP of Florida, 2010).\n Thornton III, J. Mills. Archipelagoes of My South: Episodes in the Shaping of a Region, 1830\u20131965 (2016) online\n Tindall, George B. The emergence of the new South, 1913\u20131945 (1967) online free to borrow\n \n \n \n \n \n Woodward, C. Vann. Origins of the New South, 1877\u20131913: A History of the South (1951)\n\nExternal links\n\n \n DocSouth: Documenting the American South \u2013 multimedia collections from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill\n Center for the Study of Southern Culture \u2013 the research center at the University of Mississippi, with a graduate program and undergraduate major in southern studies\n \n \n\n \nCensus regions of the United States\nCultural regions of the United States","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":190,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2023-50":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":7,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":6,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":8,"2019-30":5,"2019-26":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":4,"2018-26":4,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":179553,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Southern%20United%20States","title":"Southern United States","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Royal Highness is a style of address traditionally used to address or refer to members of the royal families. This address is usually for princes, other than monarchs, and their female consorts. This style ranks below that of Imperial Highness. Historically the term was first used by Gaston, Duke of Orl\u00e9ans, younger son of King Henry IV of France. He encountered this style in Brussels and used it himself. His children later used the style, considering it their right as grandchildren of France. In contradiction to other European kingdoms, the kingdom of Denmark reserves the superior style of Royal Highness only to the children of the monarch and the children of the crown prince; other grandchildren of a Danish monarch enjoy the style of Highness, e.g. Princess Elisabeth of Denmark.\n\nExamples of modern usage\n\nHis Royal Highness The Prince of Wales. Present day heir to the British throne. \nHer Royal Highness Princess Elisabeth of Belgium, Duchess of Brabant First in line to the present day Belgian throne. \nHer Royal Highness The Princess of Asturias. The first in line to the modern day Spanish throne. \nHis Royal Highness The Crown Prince of Greece, Prince of Denmark, Duke of Sparta. The eldest son and heir of the pretender to the modern day Greek throne. Due to Greece being a Republic the title of HRH is not officially recognised but is used out of courtesy.\n\nRelated pages\nRoyal family\nTitles of European royal heirs\nPrince\n\nReferences\n\nStyles (manners of address)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":4,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2}},"id":437187,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Royal%20Highness","title":"Royal Highness","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A box office is a place where tickets are sold to the public. These tickets let people into a theater to see an event. In the movie industry, the term is most often used to mean the amount of money a movie makes by the selling of tickets. The term can also mean things which affect the amount a movie earns.\n\nUsage\nBox office business can be measured in terms of how many people see a movie. It can also be measured by how much money is earned by selling tickets. The estimate of these amounts and analysis of them is very important to the movie industry. It is often something that is important to fans as well. \n\nSome people think that the movie industry is concerned too much with this. They say profit is more important to movie studios than making movies as a form of art. Understanding how different types of movies earn money affects the how other movies are made and paid for. If a certain type of movie often has a large box office, studios are more likely to make that type of movie. Some types of movies earn more when they are released at certain times of the year. Studios use this information to plan when to release certain movies. For example:\nRomantic-comedies tend to have a higher box office when released at Valentine's Day.\nFamily movies do better near the Christmas and Thanksgiving holidays.\nHorror movies do best near Halloween.\n\nThere are many websites that show box-office number. Two of these are ShowBIZ Data and Box Office Mojo. \n\nUsually, the movie's distributor gets more than half of the money earned. The rest is kept by the movie theater. The percentage is different from movie to movie. The distributor often gets a higher percentage in early weeks. As time passes, the percentage become lower and the theater keeps a larger part of the ticket sales. With some movies, the distributor may take all of the ticket sales for the first week. The theater earns its money by selling food and drinks. After several weeks nearly all of the ticket sales is kept by the theater. Because of this, only the first few weeks are very important to the movie studios.\n\nRelated movie industry terminology\nThe following is movie industry specific terminology. It is defined by Box Office Mojo.\nFor movies released in North America, box office figures are usually divided into two categories. The first is domestic. This is the amount a movie earns in the United States and Canada. The second is foreign which includes all other countries. The Weekly box office is the amount a movie makes from Friday through Thursday. The \"movie week\" starts on Friday because most movies are released on that day.  A large part of this is the weekend box office. It is defined as the amount earned on Friday, Saturday and Sunday. The first weekend after a movie is released is the opening weekend. The amount made by a movie on its opening weekend is what is often reported. \n\nTheaters is the number of theaters in which the movie is being shown. Because a theater may show a movie on more than one screens, the total number of screens is also used. If a movie is released in over 600 theaters, it is said to be wide release. If the number is less than 600, it is a limited release. A limited release may be as small as one theater or 1-2 theaters in New York City and Los Angeles, California. A movie may start with a limited release and later get a wide release.  Little Miss Sunshine is an example of this.\n\nReferences\n\nMovie terminology\nBusiness\nEntertainment","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":336306,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Box%20office","title":"Box office","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"E-mail, atawa email, disundakeun jadi sur\u00e9l\u00e9k, mangrupa landihan pikeun \"surat \u00e9l\u00e9ktronik\" (as opposed to conventional mail, in this context also called snail mail) nu dimaksudkeun kana nyusun\/nulis, ngirim, jeung narima pesen\/surat ngaliwatan sistem komunikasi \u00e9l\u00e9ktronik. Sistem sur\u00e9l\u00e9k ayeuna lolobana mak\u00e9 Internet, malah sur\u00e9l\u00e9k nu mangrupa pungsi Intern\u00e9t nu paling ilahar\/popular.\n\nAsal-usul sur\u00e9l\u00e9k \n\nB\u00e9da jeung asumsi umum, sur\u00e9l\u00e9k sabenerna geus aya m\u00e9m\u00e9h Intern\u00e9t; malah, ayana sistem sur\u00e9l\u00e9k mangrupa alat nu penting pisan dina nyiptakeun Intern\u00e9t.\n\nE-mail started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate; although the exact history is murky, among the first systems to have such a facility were SDC's Q32 and MIT's CTSS.\n\nE-mail was quickly extended to become network e-mail, allowing users to pass messages between different computers. The \u00e9arly history of network e-mail is also murky; the AUTODIN system may have been the first allowing electronic text messages to be transferred between users on different computers, in 1966, but it is possible the SAGE system had something similar some time before.\n\nThe ARPANET computer network made a major contribution to the evolution of e-mail. There is one report  which indicates experimental inter-system e-mail transfers on it shortly after its cr\u00e9ation, in 1969. Ray Tomlinson initiated the use of the @ sign to separate the names of the user and their machine in 1972. The common report that he \"invented\" e-mail is an exaggeration, although his \u00e9arly e-mail programs SNDMSG and READMAIL were very important. The ARPANet significantly incr\u00e9ased the popularity of e-mail, and it became the \"killer app\" of the ARPANET.\n\nGrowing popularity \n\nAs the utility and advantages of e-mail on the ARPANET became more widely known, the popularity of e-mail incr\u00e9ased, l\u00e9ading to demand from p\u00e9ople who were not allowed access to the ARPANET. A number of protocols were developed to deliver e-mail among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as UUCP and IBM's VNET e-mail system.\n\nSince not all computers or networks were directly inter-networked, e-mail addresses had to include the \"route\" of the message, that is, a path between the computer of the sender and the computer of the receivers. E-mail could be passed this way between a number of networks, including the ARPANET, BITNET and NSFNET, as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP.\n\nThe route was specified using so-call \"bang path\" addresses, specifying hops to get from some assumed-r\u00e9achable location to the addressee, so called because \u00e9ach hop is signified by a \"bang sign\", i.e. \"!\". Thus, for example, the path ...!bigsite!foovax!barbox!me directs p\u00e9ople to route their mail to machine bigsite (presumably a well-known location accessible to everybody) and from there through the machine foovax to the account of user me on barbox.\n\nBefore auto-routing mailers became commonplace, p\u00e9ople often published compound bang addresses using the { } convention (see glob) to give paths from several big machines, in the hopes that one's correspondent might be able to get mail to one of them reliably (example: ...!{seismo, ut-sally, ihnp4}!rice!beta!gamma!me). Bang paths of 8 to 10 hops were not uncommon in 1981. Late-night dial-up UUCP links would cause week-long transmission times. Bang paths were often selected by both transmission time and reliability, as messages would often get lost. See the network and sitename.\n\nSur\u00e9l\u00e9k Intern\u00e9t Modern \nAlmost all e-mail is delivered directly to an Internet-connected host accepting mail for the recipient, using Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. Very few mod\u00e9rn servers will perform routing for messages sent by third parties due to the potential for abuse by p\u00e9ople sending unsolicited bulk e-mail. Those that do allow it are called open relays.\n\nA mod\u00e9rn Internet e-mail address is a string of the form firstname.lastname@example.com. It should be r\u00e9ad as \"jsmith at domain dot example\". The part before the @ sign is the local part of the address, often the username of the recipient, and the part after the @ sign is a domain name which can be looked up in the Domain Name System to find the mail exchange servers accepting e-mail for that address.\n\nThe format of Internet e-mail messages is defined in RFC 2822. Prior to the introduction of RFC 2822 the format was described by RFC 822.\n\nInternet e-mail messages consist of two major components:\n H\u00e9aders - Message summary, sender, receiver, and other information about the e-mail\n Body - The message itself, usually containing a signature block at the end\n\nThe h\u00e9aders usually have at l\u00e9ast four fields:\n\n From - The e-mail address of the sender of the message\n To - The e-mail address of the receiver of the message\n Subject - A brief summary of the contents of the message\n Date - The local time and date when the message was originally sent\n\nNote however that the \"To\" field does not necessarily have the e-mail address of the recipient. The information supplied in the h\u00e9aders on the recipients computer is similar to that found on top of a conventional letter. The actual information such as who the message was addressed to is removed by the mail server after it assigns it to the correct user's mailbox. \nAlso note that the from field does not have to be the r\u00e9al sender of the e-mail. It is very \u00e9asy to fake the from line and let an e-mail seem to be from any mail address. It is possible to digitally sign an e-mail. This is a lot harder to fake.\n\nOther common h\u00e9ader fields include:\n\n Cc - Carbon copy (because typewriters used carbon film to copy what was written on them)\n Bcc - Blind carbon copy (the recipient of this copy will know who was in the To: field, but the recipients cannot see who is on the Bcc: list)\n Received - Tracking information generated by mail servers that have previously handled a message\n Content-Type - Information about how the message has to be displayed, usually a MIME type\n\nMessages and mailboxes \n\nMessages are exchanged between hosts using the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol with software like Sendmail. Users download their messages from servers usually with either the POP or IMAP protocols, yet in a large corporate environment users are likely to use some proprietary protocol such as Lotus Notes or Microsoft Exchange Server's.\n\nMails can be stored either on the client or on the server side. Standard formats for mailboxes include Maildir and mbox. Several prominent e-mail clients use their own, proprietary format, and require conversion software to transfer e-mail between them.\n\nE-mail content encoding \n\nE-mail is only defined to carry 7-bit ASCII messages. Although many e-mail transports are in fact \"8-bit clean\", this cannot be guaranteed. For this r\u00e9ason, e-mail has been extended by the MIME standard to allow the encoding of binary attachments including images, sounds and HTML attachments.\n\nSpamming and e-mail worms \n\nThe usefulness of e-mail is being thr\u00e9atened by two phenomena, spamming and e-mail worms.\n\nSpamming is unsolicited commercial e-mail. Because of the very low cost of sending e-mail, spammers can send hundreds of millions of e-mail messages \u00e9ach day over an inexpensive Internet connection. Hundreds of active spammers sending this volume of mail results in many computer users receiving tens or even hundreds of junk e-mails \u00e9ach day.\n\nE-mail worms use e-mail as a way of replicating themselves into vulnerable computers. Although the first e-mail worm (the Morris worm) affected \u00e9arly UNIX computers, this problem is today almost entirely confined to the Microsoft Windows operating system.\n\nThe combination of spam and worm programs results in users receiving a constant drizzle of junk e-mail, which reduces the usefulness of E-mail as a practical tool.\n\nA number of technology-based initiatives mitigate the impact of spam. Congress has also passed a law, the Can Spam Act of 2003, to regulate such e-mail.\n\nFurther reading \n Katie Hafner, Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet (Simon and Schuster, 1996) also covers the \u00e9arly history of e-mail\n\nSee also \n E-mail art\n E-mail social issues: \n netiquette\n Internet humor\n Internet slang\n spam\n stopping e-mail abuse\n virus.\n Clients and servers:\n e-mail client\n mail transfer agent\n webmail \/ HTMLmail\n branded e-mail\n Mailing list: \n electronic mailing list\n mailing list archive\n e-mail address\n Internet mail standards\n Free e-mail services\/webmail:\n Hotmail\n Yahoo! Mail\n Gmail\n\nFurther Reading \n\nAbdullah, M. H. (1998). \"Electronic discourse: Evolving conventions in online academic environments\". Bloomington, IN: ERIC Cl\u00e9aringhouse on r\u00e9ading, English, and Communication. [ED 422 593]\n\nAbras, C. (2002) The principle of relevance and metamessages in online discourse: Electronic exchanges in a graduate course. Language, \"Literacy and Culture Review\" 1(2), 39-53.\n\nBiesenbach-Lucas, S. & Wiesenforth, D. (2001). E-mail and word processing in the ESL classroom: How the medium affects the message. \"Language Learning and Technology\", 5 (1), 135-165. [EJ 621 506]\n\nDanet, B. (2001). Cyberplay: Communicating online. Oxford: Berg Publishing.\n\nExternal links \n The History of Electronic Mail is a personal memoir by the implementer of one of the first e-mail systems\n Michael A. Padlipsky, And They Argued All Night... is an alternative personal recollection of the origins of network e-mail\n The First E-Mail Message  is an article about the history of network e-mail; contains some errors\n E-Mail Counseling: Skills for Maximum Impact \n The Impact of Electronic Communication on Writing \n History of Email \n\nThis article, or an earlier version, contains content derived from FOLDOC, used by permission.\n\n\u1b9e\u1ba5\u1b9b\u1ba6\u1b9c\u1ba6\u1b8a\u1baa","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":816,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sur%C3%A9l%C3%A9k","title":"Sur\u00e9l\u00e9k","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Kal\u00e9nder Yahudi nya\u00e9ta kal\u00e9nder nu dipak\u00e9 dina ageman Yahudi.\n\nKalender ieu nangtukeun tanggal po\u00e9 per\u00e9 Yahudi, nangtukeun tanggal umum keur maca bag\u00e9an Taurot, Yahrzeit (tanggal mieling pupusna baraya), jeung Psalms po\u00e9an husus.  \n\nTwo major forms of the calendar have been used: an observational form used before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, and based on witnesses observing the phase of the moon, and a rule-based form first fully described by Maimonides in 1178 CE, which was adopted over a transition period between 70 and 1178.\n\nThe \"modern\" form is a fixed arithmetic lunisolar calendar.  Because of the roughly 11 day difference between twelve lunar months and one solar year, the calendar rep\u00e9ats in a 19-y\u00e9ar cycle of 235 lunar months, with an extra lunar month added once every two or three y\u00e9ars, for a total of 7 times per 19 y\u00e9ars.  As the Hebrew calendar was developed in the region \u00e9ast of the Mediterranean Sea, references to s\u00e9asons reflect the times and climate of the Northern Hemisphere.\n\nJews have been using a lunisolar calendar since Biblical times. The first commandment the Jewish P\u00e9ople received as a nation was the commandment to determine the New Moon. The beginning of Exodus Chapter 12 says \"This month (Nissan) is for you the first of months.\". The months were originally referred to in the Bible by number rather than name. Only four pre-exilic month names app\u00e9ar in the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible): Aviv (first; literally \"Spring\", but originally probably m\u00e9ant the ripening of barley), Ziv (second; literally \"Light\"), Ethanim (seventh; literally \"Strong\" in plural, perhaps referring to strong rains), and Bul (eighth), and all are Canaanite names.\n\nRujukan \n The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three, Treatise Eight: Sanctification of the New Moon. Translated by Solomon Gandz. Yale Judaica Series Volume XI, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1956.\n Bonnie Blackburn and L\u00e9ofranc Holford-Strevens. The Oxford Companion to the Year: An Exploration of Calendar Customs and Time-reckoning. Oxford University Press; USA, 2000. pp 723\u2013730.\n\nLoka ramat lianna \n Ancient Jewish Text calculates Lunar Month \n Perpetual  Hebrew \/ Civil Calendar\n Jewish Calendar Details various Jewish points-of-view about the history of the Jewish calendar\/Hebrew calendar. Includes several charts.\n Hebrew Calendar Science and Myth gives complete rules of the Hebrew calendar and a lot more.\n The Jewish Controversy about Calendar Postponements\n Jewish Calendar with Zmanim - Halachic times and date converter chabad.org\n Jewish calendar  scientific explanation at the NASA web site\n Jewish Encyclopedia: Calendar\n Calendar Hebrew for Christians website\n Karaite Holidays Karaite website\n Hebrew Calendar  Dates and Holydays (Diaspora or Israel)\n The Lengths of the Seasons (numerical integration analysis)\n The Hebrew Calendar (astronomical analyses)\n The Molad of the Hebrew Calendar (astronomical analysis)\n The Rectified Hebrew Calendar (calendar reform proposal, includes full arithmetic algorithms for both the Traditional and the Rectified calendars)\n\nKonverter tanggal \n Jewish Calendar for Outlook - A solution for incorporating Jewish dates and holidays into Microsoft Office Outlook.\n Molad  - Free Jewish Calendar with Zmanim and holidays for Mobiles.\n Kaluach - Hebrew\/civil calendars\n Hebcal Hebrew Date Converter\n Jewish\/Gregorian\/Julian Perpetual Calendar Converter - Also contains a full y\u00e9ar view for the Hebrew Calendar.\n Sample VB.Net and Javascript code to convert the Hebrew Date to the Gregorian Date\n Use this powerful tool to convert any regular calendar date to its corresponding Jewish-calendar date, or vice versa.\n Gregorian-Mayan-Julian-Islamic-Persian-Hebrew Calendar Converter\n The Kalendis Calendar Calculator (freeware)\n any Gregorian to Hebrew with weekly Parshat HaShavua noted. Prints nice monthly plates  (freeware)\n\nKal\u00e9nder\nYahudi","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-26":2,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":7,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2}},"id":29982,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kal%C3%A9nder%20Yahudi","title":"Kal\u00e9nder Yahudi","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A fractal is any pattern, that when seen as an image, produces a picture, which when zoomed into will still make the same picture. It can be cut into parts which look like a smaller version of the picture that was started with. The word fractal was made by Beno\u00eet Mandelbrot in 1975 from the Latin word fractus, which means \"broken\" or \"fractured\". A simple example is a tree that branches into smaller branches, and those branches into smaller branches and so on. Fractals have many practical applications.\n\nExamples \nThere are many types of fractals, made in a large variety of ways. One example is the Sierpinski triangle, where there are an infinite number of small triangles inside the large one. Another example is the Mandelbrot set, named for Beno\u00eet Mandelbrot. The Sierpinksi triangle is constructed using patterns, but the Mandelbrot set is based on an equation.\n\nThere are also many natural examples of fractals in nature including trees, snowflakes, some vegetables and coastlines.\n\nThe Koch Curve \n\nThe Koch Curve is a simple example of a fractal. First, start with part of a straight line - called a straight line segment. Cut the line into 3 same-sized pieces. Get rid of the middle of those pieces, and put in the top part of a triangle with sides which are the same length as the bit to cut out. We now have 4 line segments which are touching at the ends. We can now do what we just did to the first segment to each of the 4 bits. We can now do the same thing again and again to all the bits we end up with. We now do this forever and look at what we end up with.\n\nThe length of the Koch Curve is infinity, and the area of the Koch Curve is zero. This is quite strange. A line segment (with dimension 1) could have a length of 1, but it has an area of 0. A square of length 1 and width 1 (with dimension 2) will have area 1 and length of infinity.\n\nSimilarity dimension \nSo, the Koch Curve seems to be bigger than something of dimension 1, and smaller than something of dimension 2. The idea of the similarity dimension is to give a dimension which gives a better idea of length or area for fractals. So, for a Koch Curve, we want a dimension between 1 and 2.\n\nThe Koch Curve can be cut into four pieces, each of which are  of the size of the original. We call the number of pieces that a fractal can be cut into , and we call the size difference . We put those into the equation:\n\nWhere  is the logarithm of a number. This number is the Hausdorff Dimension of the fractal. In the Koch Curve, this is  as we wanted.\n\nThe Koch Curve is one of the simplest fractal shapes, and so its dimension is easy to work out. Its similarity dimension and Hausdorff dimension are both the same. This is not true for more complex fractals.\n\nKoch snowflake \n\nThe Koch snowflake (or Koch star) is the same as the Koch curve, except it starts with an equilateral triangle instead of a line segment.\n\nUses \nFractals have many applications e.g. in biology (lung, kidneys, heart rate variability, etc...), in earthquakes, in finance where it is related to the so called heavy tail distributions and in physics. This indicates that fractals should be studied to understand why fractals are so frequent in nature.\n\nSome fractals exist only for artistic reasons, but others are very useful. Fractals are very efficient shapes for radio antennas and are used in computer chips to efficiently connect all the components. Also, coastlines can be thought of as fractals.\n\nRelated pages \nIteration\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n \n\nFractals","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":317,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-43":5,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":4,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":4,"2018-22":4,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":4,"2018-09":4,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":7,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":5,"2017-30":4,"2017-26":5,"2017-22":5,"2017-17":6,"2017-09":8,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":8,"2016-40":6,"2016-36":6,"2016-30":8,"2016-26":4,"2016-22":4,"2016-18":4,"2016-07":8,"2015-48":8,"2015-40":8,"2015-35":8,"2015-32":6,"2015-27":8,"2015-22":8,"2015-14":8,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":10,"2014-42":10,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":14,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":5,"2013-48":2,"2021-49":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1}},"id":224952,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fractal","title":"Fractal","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Autumn is the season after summer and before winter. In the United States and Canada, this season is also called fall. In the Northern Hemisphere, it is often said to begin with the autumnal equinox in September and end with the winter solstice in December. In the Southern Hemisphere, it runs from the autumnal equinox in March to the winter solstice in June.\n\nIn many places in the temperate zone, autumn is a time for harvesting most crops. Deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves every year) lose their leaves, usually after turning yellow, red, or brown. In many countries, autumn is the time a new school year starts. The period of school between the start of September and the end of December is often referred to as the \"Fall Semester\", \"Fall Quarter\", or \"Fall Term\".\n\nWhen it is autumn in the Northern Hemisphere, it is spring in the Southern Hemisphere. When it is autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, it is spring in the Northern Hemisphere. On the Equator, autumn is very much like spring, with little difference in temperature or in weather. Autumn is a time when most animals are looking for food so they can store up for winter, because they soon will be going into hibernation. The weather gets colder and more windy.  In Autumn the hours of daylight and the hours of night are the same. In autumn the weather changes all the time. The weather turns cooler and often windy and rainy.\n\nEnvironment\nMeteorology\nSeasons","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":18860,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autumn","title":"Autumn","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Children's literature refers to books written for children and young people. Many famous authors wrote for children including Hans Christian Andersen, Beatrix Potter, Dr. Seuss, A.A. Milne, J. M. Barrie, Edith Nesbit, Enid Blyton, Lewis Carroll, Astrid Lindgren, JRR Tolkien and C. S. Lewis. The Newbery Medal is an award given to writers for children.\n\nClassification\nChildren's literature can be divided into several categories, but it is most easily categorised by genre or the intended age of the reader. An example of a classification based on age is young-adult fiction, which is written for children between the ages of 12 and 18.\n\nA literary genre is the style of the book. It also refers to the technique, tone, content, or length.\n Picture books, including books that teach the alphabet or counting for example. They either have very few words or none at all.\n Traditional literature, including folktales, which convey the legends, customs, superstitions, and beliefs of people in previous civilizations. This genre can be further broken into subgenres: myths, fables, legends, and fairy tales\n Fiction, including fantasy, realistic fiction, and historical fiction\n Non-fiction\n Biography and autobiography\n Poetry\n\nMany children's books are meant to teach children the consequences of engaging in \"bad\" behaviour, such as running away, stealing and lying. Tom Sawyer and Toby Tyler are two notable examples of the genre.\n\n \nFiction\n\nBritsh Awards\n\nThere are a few children's literature awards in Britain. These include, Waterstones Award and the Caldecott Award.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":391479,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Children%27s%20literature","title":"Children's literature","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A hot dog (or hotdog) is an American fast food. It was first created in America. In the United States, hot dogs are very popular in areas with large numbers of European immigrants, such as Chicago, Brooklyn and Detroit. The word \"hot dog\" refers to the belief that many people thought hot dogs had actual dog meat. In a few places, hot dogs are also called red-hots.\n\nA hot dog is made of the remains of the pig after other parts are cut off and sold as bacon, sausage patties, and ham. However many people across the world eat hot dogs and enjoy them very much. Hot dogs can be boiled, grilled, or fried. The word frankfurter comes from Frankfurt, Germany. This sausage is usually served in a bun or another type of bread. The most common type of hot dogs are made from beef, sometimes mixed with pork.  Chicken and vegetarian hot dogs are popular as well. Hot dogs and other sausage products were first developed as a way to sell these parts that people would not normally eat. Nearly 20% of the weight of a hot dog is usually non-meat ingredients including water, sugar, and spices.  Some legal categories of hot dogs, such as \"frankfurters\" can contain up to 3.5% of non-meat fillers as well, such as corn meal.\n\nTo add to the taste, various toppings and sauces are often added. The most common sauces in the United States are ketchup, mustard and pickle relish.  Onions, chopped pickles, peppers, hot sauce and cheese are also sometimes added to the food.  Onions cooked in tomato sauce and Sauerkraut are popular toppings, as is chili.\n\nIn the United States, there are many different types of hot dogs, with different combinations of chili, cheese, onions, mustard, and other products.  One of the most popular types of hot dogs is a chili dog.  There are many different types of chili dogs.  One of the most well-known is a Coney Island dog, a dog topped with a blend of chili, cheese, mustard and onions that is originally from Michigan.\n  Other types of chili dogs include Michigan dogs, which are from upstate New York, and Texas dogs, which are from Pennsylvania.   Both Michigan and Texas dogs are spicy; the Texas dog has spicy sauce and the Michigan dog has a spicy weiner.  Chili dogs are also popular in the Southwestern United States. Another type of hot dog is a Chicago dog, which is a Vienna beef weiner topped with mustard, onion, neon green pickle relish, peppers, tomatoes and a pickle.\n\nA type of hot dog called a \"kosher hot dog\" is very common in parts of the United States and overseas.  It is similar to most hot dogs except that it is always made of Kosher beef, has more spice added to it. Kosher hotdogs contain less of the less desirable sounding ingredients (such as rectum) as these parts are not considered to be Kosher beef. Halal hot dogs are also made.\n\nThough hot dogs are most popular in the United States, they are served in many places around the world.  People in Japan eat a lot of hot dogs, and the world's largest hot dog ever was made there.  In some countries, \"hot dog\" is the name of a completely different sausage dish; for example, in New Zealand it is used to mean corn dog, and hot dogs are called \"American hot dogs\" instead.\n\nReferences\n\nSausage\nGerman food\nAmerican food","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":147,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":21820,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hot%20dog","title":"Hot dog","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act (OCILLA) is United States federal law that creates a conditional 'safe harbor' for online service providers (OSP), a group which includes Internet service providers (ISP) and other Internet intermediaries, by shielding them for their own acts of direct copyright infringement (when they make unauthorized copies) as well as shielding them from potential secondary liability for the infringing acts of others. OCILLA was passed as a part of the 1998 Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) and is sometimes referred to as the \"Safe Harbor\" provision or as \"DMCA 512\" because it added Section 512 to Title 17 of the United States Code. By exempting Internet intermediaries from copyright infringement liability provided they follow certain rules, OCILLA attempts to strike a balance between the competing interests of copyright owners and digital users.\n\nOverview\n\nThe 1998 DMCA was the U.S. implementation of the 1996 WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) directive to \"maintain a balance between the rights of authors and the larger public interest, particularly education, research and access to information\" when updating copyright norms for the digital age. In the context of Internet intermediaries, OCILLA attempts to strike this balance by immunizing OSP's for copyright liability stemming from their own acts of direct copyright infringement (as primary infringers of copyright), as well as from the acts of their users (as secondary infringers of copyright), provided that OSP's comply with two general requirements protecting the rights of authors.\n\nFirst, the OSP must \"adopt and reasonably implement a policy\" of addressing and terminating accounts of users who are found to be \"repeat infringers.\" Second, the OSP must accommodate and not interfere with \"standard technical measures.\" \"Standard technical measures\" are defined as measures that copyright owners use to identify or protect copyrighted works, that have been developed pursuant to a broad consensus of copyright owners and service providers in an open, fair and voluntary multi-industry process, are available to anyone on reasonable nondiscriminatory terms, and do not impose substantial costs or burdens on service providers.\n\nOSPs may qualify for one or more of the Section 512 safe harbors under \u00a7 512(a)-(d), for immunity from copyright liability stemming from: transmitting, caching, storing, or linking to infringing material. An OSP who complies with the requirements for a given safe harbor is not liable for money damages, but may still be ordered by a court to perform specific actions such as disabling access to infringing material.\n\nIn addition to the two general requirements listed above, all four safe harbors impose additional requirements for immunity. The safe harbor for storage of infringing material under \u00a7 512(c) is the most commonly encountered because it immunizes OSPs such as YouTube that might inadvertently host infringing material uploaded by users.\n\nTaken as a whole, OCILLA's passage represented a victory for telecom and Internet related industry groups over powerful copyright interests who had wanted service providers to be held strictly liable for the acts of their users. However, copyright owners also obtained concessions. In addition to the general and specific preconditions on the created immunity, OCILLA requires OSP's seeking an immunity to designate an agent to whom notices of copyright infringement can be sent, and to disclose information about those users who are allegedly infringers.\n\nSafe harbor provision for online storage - \u00a7 512(c)\n\nSection 512(c) applies to OSPs that store infringing material. In addition to the two general requirements that OSPs comply with standard technical measures and remove repeat infringers, \u00a7 512(c) also requires that the OSP: 1) not receive a financial benefit directly attributable to the infringing activity, 2) not be aware of the presence of infringing material or know any facts or circumstances that would make infringing material apparent, and 3) upon receiving notice from copyright owners or their agents, act expeditiously to remove or disable access to the purported infringing material.\n\nDirect financial benefit\n\nAn OSP must \"not receive a financial benefit directly attributable to the infringing activity\" to qualify for \u00a7 512(c) protection. However, it is not always easy to determine what qualifies as a direct financial benefit under the statute.\n\nOne example of an OSP that did receive a direct financial benefit from infringing activity was Napster. In A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., the court held that copyrighted material on Napster's system created a \"draw\" for customers which resulted in a direct financial benefit because Napster's future revenue was directly dependent on increases in user-base. Conversely, in Ellison v. Robertson, the court held that AOL did not receive a direct financial benefit when a user stored infringing material on its server because the copyrighted work did not \"draw\" new customers.  AOL neither \"attracted [nor] retained\u2026[nor] lost\u2026subscriptions\" as a result of the infringing material.\n\nKnowledge of infringing material\n\nTo qualify for the \u00a7 512(c) safe harbor, the OSP must not have actual knowledge that it is hosting infringing material or be aware of facts or circumstances from which infringing activity is apparent. It is clear from the statute and legislative history that an OSP has no duty to monitor its service or affirmatively seek infringing material on its system. However, the statute describes two ways in which an OSP can be put on notice of infringing material on its system: 1) notice from the copyright owner, known as notice and take down, and 2) the existence of \"red flags.\"\n\nThis is advantageous for OSPs because OCILLA's clear process allows them to avoid making decisions about whether or not material is actually infringing. Such decisions can be complex both because it is difficult to determine whether the copyright has expired on a material without access to complete information such as publication date, and because even copyrighted material can be used in some cases under the doctrine of fair use, the applicability of which is difficult to evaluate.\n\nInstead of making a complex legal determination, OCILLA allows OSPs to avoid liability provided they comply with the terms of the statute, regardless of the validity of any claim of infringement.\n\nNotice from copyright owner\n\nThe first way an OSP can be put on notice is through the copyright holder's written notification of claimed infringement to the OSP's designated agent. This must include the following:\n\n(i) A physical or electronic signature of a person authorized to act on behalf of the owner of an exclusive right that is allegedly infringed.\n\n(ii) Identification of the copyrighted work claimed to have been infringed, or, if multiple copyrighted works at a single online site are covered by a single notification, a representative list of such works at that site.\n\n(iii) Identification of the material that is claimed to be infringing or to be the subject of infringing activity and that is to be removed or access to which is to be disabled, and information reasonably sufficient to permit the service provider to locate the material.\n\n(iv) Information reasonably sufficient to permit the service provider to contact the complaining party, such as an address, telephone number, and, if available, an electronic mail address at which the complaining party may be contacted.\n\n(v) A statement that the complaining party has a good faith belief that use of the material in the manner complained of is not authorized by the copyright owner, its agent, or the law.\n\n(vi) A statement that the information in the notification is accurate, and under penalty of perjury, that the complaining party is authorized to act on behalf of the owner of an exclusive right that is allegedly infringed.\n\nSee 512(a) and (h) below if the information is not stored on the system of the OSP but is instead on a system connected to the Internet through it, like a home or business computer connected to the Internet. Legal liability may result if access to material is disabled or identity disclosed in this case.\n\nIf a notice which substantially complies with these requirements is received the OSP must expeditiously remove or disable access to the allegedly infringing material. So long as the notice substantially complies with clauses (ii), (iii), and (iv) the OSP must seek clarification of any unclear aspects.\n\nIn Perfect 10, Inc. v. CCBill LLC, the Ninth Circuit held that the properly constructed notice must exist in one communication. A copyright owner cannot \"cobble together adequate notice from separately defective notices\" because that would unduly burden the OSP.\n\nWhile not required for safe harbor protection, the OSP can implement a counter notification process to avoid legal liability to its own customer as a result of taking down the material: After the notice has been complied with the OSP must take reasonable steps to promptly notify the alleged infringer of the action. Note that the OSP is not prohibited from doing so in advance, only required to do so afterward. If there is a counter notification from the alleged infringer, the OSP must respond appropriately to it. Restoring the removed allegedly infringing material in compliance with this process does not cause liability of the OSP for copyright infringement of the material.\n\nThere is a common practice of providing a link to legal notices at the bottom of the main web page of a site. It may be prudent, though it is not required by the provisions of section 512 of the copyright law, to include the designated agent information on the page the legal link goes to, in addition to any other places where it is available. As long as the site gives reasonable notice that there is a method of compliance, that should be sufficient. Once again, the courts have not ruled on the technicalities of posting of these notices.\n\nRed flags\n\nThe second way that an OSP can be put on notice that its system contains infringing material, for purposes of section 512(d), is referred to the \"red flag\" test. The \"red flag\" test stems from the language in the statute that requires that an OSP not be \"aware of facts or circumstances from which infringing activity is apparent.\"\n\nThe \"red flag\" test contains both a subjective and an objective element. Subjectively, the OSP must have knowledge that the material resides on its system.  Objectively, the \"infringing activity would have been apparent to a reasonable person operating under the same or similar circumstances.\"\n\nTake down and put back provisions\n\nTakedown example \nHere's an example of how the takedown procedures would work:\n\n Alice puts a video with a copy of Bob's song on her YouTube.\n Bob, searching the Internet, finds Alice's copy.\n Charlie, Bob's lawyer, sends a letter to YouTube's designated agent (registered with the Copyright Office) including:\n Contact information\n The name of the song that was copied\n The URL of the copied song\n A statement that he has a good faith belief that use of the material in the manner complained of is not authorized by the copyright owner, its agent, or the law.\n A statement that the information in the notification is accurate\n A statement that, under penalty of perjury, Charlie is authorized to act for the copyright holder\n A written signature\n YouTube takes the video down.\n YouTube tells Alice that they have taken the video down and that her channel has a copyright strike.\n Alice now has the option of sending a counter-notice to YouTube, if she feels the video was taken down unfairly. The notice includes\n Contact information\n Identification of the removed video\n A statement under penalty of perjury that Alice has a good faith belief the material was mistakenly taken down\n A statement consenting to the jurisdiction of Alice's local US Federal District Court, or, if outside the US, to a US Federal District Court in any jurisdiction in which YouTube is found.\n her signature\n If Alice does file a valid counter-notice, YouTube notifies Bob, then waits 10-14 business days for a lawsuit to be filed by Bob.\n If Bob does not file a lawsuit, then YouTube may put the material back up.\n\nInterpretation\n\nPreemption of state law\nEven if a copyright holder does not intend to cause anything other than the removal of allegedly infringing material, compliance with the DMCA's procedures nonetheless may result in disruption of a contractual relationship: by sending a letter, the copyright holder can effectuate the disruption of ISP service to clients. If adherence to the DMCA's provisions simultaneously subjects the copyright holder to state tort law liability, state and federal law may conflict. Depending on the facts of the case, federal law may preempt state law i.e. there will be no liability for state law claims resulting from compliance with federal law.\n\nEffect of delay in response\nThe other issue to keep in mind is that the delay in responding may not amount to a significant amount of damages and someone who has had their material removed by the \u00a7 512 procedure late may be more than satisfied with the result; it is much less expensive than filing a copyright infringement suit in federal court that might revolve around a minor technicality of the law. Indeed, one of the purposes of this section was to remove a large number of potential infringement suits from the courts when the facts revolving around infringement were basically undisputed and the damages could be minimized within a short period without the intervention of a US federal district court judge. A copyright holder may be more than happy to know that the material has been taken down for the minor fee of having a lawyer draft a compliant \"take down\" notice rather than the costs of drafting, filing, serving and prosecuting a federal copyright infringement action.\n\nOther defenses for OSPs\nAnother law, the federal Communications Decency Act (CDA) still protects the ISP from liability for content provided by third parties (see below). Even if a removal is found not to be \"expeditious\" within the meaning of the law and the so-called \"safe harbor\" under the DMCA is lost, in certain circumstances, the OSP may still be protected. Through these two laws there are ways to balance the ISP's intent to assist with the protection of third-party copyright and the desire to preserve good customer relations. There is also a question of the infringement that is placed by a third party being an issue of negligence or another tort on the part of the OSP. If the OSP takes steps considered reasonable or is found not to have a duty of care to police potential infringers on the site, then the infringement may be considered \"innocent\" from the point of view of the ISP and the infringer may still be held to be the liable party which posts the infringing work or works.\n\nCommon misunderstandings\nIt is sometimes stated that the ISP needs to give the alleged infringer ten days' notice before acting. This is incorrect. The ISP must act expeditiously. The ten-day period refers to the counter notification procedure described in Section 512(g) after the infringing material has been removed, offering them an opportunity to counter the allegations presented to the ISP not during the stage of the so-called \"take down\" procedure.\n\nIt is sometimes suggested that content must be taken down before notifying the person who provided it. That is also not required, so long as the removal is expeditious. A large connectivity provider with many ISP customers would not be acting reasonably by disconnecting a whole ISP if it received a takedown notice for a web site hosted by that ISP on behalf of one of its customers. The law appears to allow the necessary flexibility to deal reasonably with relaying takedown requests to handle such situations.\n\nOther safe harbor provisions\n\n\u00a7 512(a) Transitory Network Communications Safe Harbor\n\nSection 512(a) protects service providers who are passive conduits from liability for copyright infringement, even if infringing traffic passes through their networks. In other words, provided the infringing material is being transmitted at the request of a third party to a designated recipient, is handled by an automated process without human intervention, is not modified in any way, and is only temporarily stored on the system, the service provider is not liable for the transmission.\n\nThe key difference in scope between this section, transitory network communications under 512(a), and caches, websites and search engine indexes under 512(b), 512(c) and 512(d) respectively, relates to the location of the infringing material. The other subsections create a conditional safe harbor for infringing material that resides on a system controlled by the OSP. For material that was temporarily stored in the course of network communications, this subsection's safe harbor additionally applies even for networks not under the OSP's control.\n\n\u00a7 512(b) System Caching Safe Harbor\n\nSection 512(b) protects OSPs who engage in caching (i.e., creating copies of material for faster access) if the caching is conducted in standard ways, and does not interfere with reasonable copy protection systems. This Section applies to the proxy and caching servers used by ISPs and many other providers.\n\nIf the cached material is made available to end users, the system provider must follow the Section 512(c) takedown and put back provisions. Note that this provision only applies to cached material originated by a third party, not by the provider itself. Also, the content of the material must not be modified as a result of the caching process.\n\n\u00a7 512(d) Information Location Tools Safe Harbor\n\nSection 512(d) eliminates copyright liability for an OSP who links users, through a tool such as a web search engine, to an online location that contains infringing material, provided that the OSP does not know the material is infringing.\n\nThere are several other conditions for this immunity to apply. Once the OSP becomes aware that the material is infringing, it must promptly disable access to it. Also, the OSP must follow Section 512(c)'s takedown and put-back provisions. Finally, where the OSP can control the infringing activity, the OSP must not derive any financial benefit through providing the link.\n\nOther provisions\n\n\u00a7 512(e) Limitation on Liability of Nonprofit Educational Institutions\n\nSection 512(e) protects nonprofit educational institutions from liability for the actions of faculty and graduate student employees who place infringing material online. For the immunity to apply the materials must not be course materials for a course taught by the faculty or graduate student employee, and the institution must not have received more than two infringement notifications about the same individual, during the preceding 3 years. Also, the institution must distribute informational materials about US copyright laws to all the users of its network.\n\nUniversities across the country have been forced to adapt to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) regulations. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), who are the major representatives of the music and movie industries, are the main organizations who have been enforcing the copyright laws the strongest. This started in 2003 as they began to track down the heaviest peer-to-peer users and seek lawsuit against them. Most Universities today have set in rules to follow the strict guidelines of the DMCA. Offenders are issued subpoenas and disciplinary actions are taken to identify and disable the issue. Fortunately for the colleges, the liability of Internet service providers is limited under section 512 of the Copyright Act.\n\n\u00a7 512(f) Misrepresentations\n\nSection 512(f) deters false claims of infringement by imposing liability on anyone who makes such claims, for the damages suffered by other parties as a result of the OSP's reliance on the false claim, and for associated legal fees.\n\nThis provision has been used in cases such as Online Policy Group v. Diebold, Inc., where an electronic voting technology firm was sanctioned for knowingly issuing meritless notices of infringement to ISPs, and more recently Lenz v. Universal, 801 F.3d 1126 (2015).\n\n\u00a7 512(h) Identify infringers \n\nSection 512(h) contains provisions that allow a copyright owner to force an OSP to reveal identifying information about the user who allegedly infringed the owner's copyright, through the use of a subpoena issued by a federal court at the owner's request.\n\nPart (h)(2)(A) requires that the owner's request include \"a copy of a notification described in subsection (c)(3)(A)\" (a takedown notice, see above). Note that 512(c)(3)(A)(iii) states that the notice must identify the allegedly infringing material that is to be removed and must provide reasonably sufficient information for the service provider to locate the material residing on its system. The owner must also swear that any information obtained through the subpoena will only be used for the purpose of protecting its rights under Section 512.\n\nIf the OSP is served with such a subpoena after or at the same time as a valid takedown notice, under Part (h)(2)(A) it must expeditiously provide the information required by the subpoena.\n\nIn 2003, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) appeared to be seeking subpoenas and serving takedown notices which did not comply with these requirements, notably using the subpoena provisions for 512(a) situations, which do not provide for them.\n\nOn 20 December 2003, the DSL ISP Verizon prevailed on appeal in its case seeking to prevent the use of this section for transitory network communications, the decision reversing a court order to supply customer details. The appeal decision accepted the argument that the key distinction was the location of the files, with this section applying only when the material is stored on equipment controlled by the OSP. However, in response, RIAA member labels turned to a different method to acquire their desired information. They began suing multiple \"Doe\" defendants at a time and issuing third-party discovery subpoenas to ISPs for the customer details.\n\nOn 6 October 2003 Charter Communications became the first cable Internet provider to challenge the RIAA use of this provision, when it filed for a motion to quash the subpoenas to obtain the identities of 150 of its customers. Although Charter Communications initially lost this motion and was forced to turn over the identities of the requested customers, a later appeal ruled that the motion to quash should have been upheld.\n\n\u00a7 512(i) Conditions for Eligibility\n\nSection 512(i) outlines the general requirements for a grant of immunity. Online service providers must reasonably implement a policy \"that provides for the termination in appropriate circumstances\" of \"repeat infringers\", must inform their users of this policy, and must accommodate standard copy protection systems.\n\nThis passage has historically been open to interpretation, as it does not specify any minimum standards that a repeat infringer policy must adhere to, and only specifies that users must be informed of its existence. In 2018, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that a repeat infringer policy did not necessarily need to be documented and publicized (as long as users are informed of its presence), and that a website owner's efforts to moderate and manually ban repeat infringers on a case-by-case basis was sufficiently reasonable.\n\n\u00a7 512(j) Injunctions\n\nSection 512(j) describes the forms of injunctive (i.e., court order) relief available to copyright holders. Even though OSPs have immunity from monetary damages under Section 512, they may be compelled by copyright holders, in appropriate situations, to stop providing access to infringing material or to terminate the account of a particular infringer.\n\n\u00a7 512(k) Definitions\n\nSection 512(k) defines \"service provider\" and \"monetary relief.\"\n\n\u00a7 512(l) Other Defenses Available\n\nSection 512(l) notes that a service provider's ineligibility for a safe harbor from monetary damages under this section does not affect the validity of any other legal defenses that may be applicable (notably the CDA, although it isn't specifically identified).\n\n\u00a7 512(m) Protection of Privacy\n\nSection 512(m) notes that OSPs retain the protections of parts (a) through (d) even if they don't monitor their service looking for infringing activity, as long as they comply Section 512(i)'s general requirements relating to the institution of account termination policies for infringers and accommodation of copy protection systems. Furthermore, OSP's are not required to remove or disable access to material if doing so would break another law.\n\n\u00a7 512(n) Independent Construction of Safe Harbors\n\nSection 512(n) states that the limitations on liability in parts (a), (b), (c) and (d) apply independently. Hence, the fact that an OSP qualifies for a limitation on liability under one subsection has no impact on whether the OSP qualifies for a limitation under a different subsection. This is because subsections (a), (b), (c), and (d) describe separate and distinct functions.\n\nCriticism \n\nBy 2008, experience with the safe harbor provisions showed them to be reasonably effective. Copyright holders have the incentive to monitor Internet sites for offending material, and to send ISPs notifications where appropriate, of material that should be taken down. ISPs have incentive to cooperate with copyright holders and terminate the accounts of repeat infringers on pain of forfeiting the safe harbor created by OCILLA. At the same time, copyright holders are deterred from improperly sending out notices by provisions that make them liable for resulting damages, and also by bad publicity.\n\nThat is not to say that OCILLA functions perfectly in practice. There are three main areas of criticism that pertain to the OCILLA provision of the DMCA: improper removal of content, ineffective counter-notice procedure, and the rise of Web2.0 and new technologies that call into question the equity and effectiveness of the safe harbor provision. In 2020 the United States Copyright Office published a study examining the impact of Section 512 of the DMCA. The study found that the safe harbor provision is unbalanced and not in line with what the original lawmakers intended with the passing of the DMCA in 1998.\n\nImproper removal of content\n\nThere is evidence that ISPs tend to quickly take down allegedly infringing content on request by copyright holders, in situations where the content is actually non-infringing and should be preserved, sometimes known as aggressive copyright claims. This may be because ISPs have much more to lose by forfeiting their safe harbor than by angering a user whose content is improperly removed.\n\nNotices can be flawed in several ways. Many fail to follow the requirements of the statute.  Others ask for material to be taken down for reasons such as trademark infringement and defamation that are unrelated to copyright infringement. While the courts appear willing to punish copyright holders who file wrongful claims, some experts say it's troubling how easy it is for the DMCA to be invoked for false claims.\n\nIneffective counter-notice procedure\n\nThere is evidence of problems with the counter-notice procedure, arising from its complexity and also because ISPs are not required to inform users of its existence. Filing a counter-notice can be a lengthy, expensive process that doesn't guarantee the content will not be flagged again as infringing content.\n\nThis may result from the inherent imbalance in prerequisites for the original complaint and the counter-notice. To get content removed, a copyright holder need only claim a good-faith belief that neither he nor the law has authorized the use. Copyright holders are not subject to penalties for perjury. In contrast, to get access to content re-enabled, the uploader of the allegedly infringed content must claim a good-faith belief under penalty of perjury that the material was mistakenly taken down. This allows for copyright holders to send out take-down notices without incurring much liability; to get the content back up, the recipients need to expend considerably more resources. Section 512(f) makes the sender of an invalid claim liable for the damages resulting from the content's improper removal, including legal fees, but that remedy is not always practical.\n\nFurthermore, ISPs tend to remove allegedly offending material immediately, while there is a 10- to 14-day delay before the ISP re-enables access in response to a counter-notice.  For example, if a website advertised an upcoming labor protest outside BlameCo, BlameCo could send a DMCA notice to the site's ISP alleging copyright infringement of their name or logo a week before the protest. The site would then be disabled; even if the site's owners immediately filed a counter-notice, access would not be re-enabled until after the protest, too late to be useful.\n\nISP's may also disregard counter-notices. Section 512(g) of the DMCA shields an ISP from liability to its customer for a DMCA takedown, if the ISP restores removed content following a counter-notice. In practice, however, an ISP may disregard the counter-notice, and instead rely on its own terms of service to shield itself from liability to its customer. For example, since April 2013, YouTube refuses to restore some counter-noticed content, citing an agreement YouTube made with third-party music content owners.\n\nAdditionally, there is no public record of takedown requests and counter-notices. This prevents the public from seeing how the process is used. (Chilling Effects has tried to make up for this shortcoming, but, so far, few OSPs besides Google submit their takedown notices.)\n\nWeb 2.0 and new technologies\n\nThere have been recent claims that the DMCA-embedded concepts of direct financial benefit, interference with standard technical measures, and the legislative red flag test for identifying infringing material are significantly challenged by the explosion of user-generated content unleashed by Web 2.0 technologies.\n\nWeb 2.0 has enhanced the ease of access to copyrighted works by introducing new and alternative electronic platforms in which information can be shared publicly. Recognizing the challenge that Web 2.0 presents, many OSPs have implemented programs that automatically scan every upload for potential infringing activity. At the same time, there is evidence that such programs are not enough. Web 2.0's platforms are significantly altered by the amount of content generated by millions users, which creates extreme difficulty for the OSPs to monitor their own platforms for infringing content.\n\nRelated laws\n\nThe European Union's Electronic Commerce directive, Article 14, contains limited liability provisions for online hosts which provide the legal basis for notice and takedown in the EU. France's Digital Economy Law (\"Loi relative \u00e0 l'\u00e9conomie num\u00e9rique\") is an example of an implementation of this directive, as is Finland's \"Laki tietoyhteiskunnan palvelujen tarjoamisesta.\"\n\nIn Korea, the analogous law is Section 102 (Limitation of OSP Liabilities) and Section 103 (Takedown) of Copyright Law of Korea.\n\nIn Taiwan, Republic of China, the analogous law is Chapter VI-1 of the Copyright Act.\n\nSee also \n\nRelated US laws\n The \"No Electronic Theft\" (NET) Act\n Copyright Term Extension Act (1998)\n DMCA (1998)\n In re Aimster Copyright Litigation\n Amaretto Ranch Breedables, LLC v. Ozimals, Inc.\n\nOther\nYouTube copyright issues\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nGeneral\n , Text of OCILLA\nU.S. Copyright Office Summary of the DMCA\nChilling Effect's FAQs, about DMCA Safe Harbor Provisions\nU.S. Copyright Office List, of Designated Agents for Infringement Notification\n\nUsing OCILLA\nDMCA Guide, with sample copyright infringement notices and counter-notices\nUsing DMCA to Protect Your Content, Lunar Legal (June 2008)\nHow to File a DMCA Copyright Infringement Notice, Marketingdock.com\n Responding to Notices of Alleged Infringement, University of Texas\n\nCase law\nDiehl v. Crook, Electronic Frontier Foundation's successful 2006 suit against an illegal takedown notice\nSony Corp. of Am. v. Universal City Studios Inc., 464 U.S. 417 (1984).\nReligious Tech. Ctr. v. Netcom On-Line Commc'n Servs., Inc., 907 F. Supp. 1361 (N.D. Cal. 1995).\nCostar Group, Inc. v. Loopnet, Inc., 373 F.3d 544 (4th Cir. 2004).\nOnline Policy Group et al. v. Diebold, Inc., 337 F.Supp.2d 1195 (N.D. Cal. 2004).\nA&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., 239 F.3d 1004 (9th Cir. 2001).\n Perfect 10, Inc. v. CCBill, LLC, 488 F.3d 1102 (9th Cir. 2007).\n\nUnited States federal computing legislation\nUnited States federal copyright legislation\nActs of the 105th United States Congress\nDigital Millennium Copyright Act","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":45,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":4,"2020-10":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":4,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2016-50":6,"2016-44":6,"2016-40":7,"2016-36":10}},"id":18935271,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online%20Copyright%20Infringement%20Liability%20Limitation%20Act","title":"Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A vampire is a ghost in legends and stories. The first vampire stories were told in Eastern Europe, but much of how modern people see vampires was created by Bram Stoker in the famous novel, Dracula. Few people believe that vampires are real, but they are still very popular in movies, television, and books.\n\nVampires were once people but have a supernatural curse. Some vampires must drink blood to survive. They do this by biting people or animals on the neck with their two long fangs. People who are killed by having their blood drunk by vampires may also become vampires. Others can live off the life energy of people. In many stories, vampires can change into other animals, usually bats, though also wolves, cats or rats.\n\nDepending on the story, vampires may have some or all of these characteristics:\n They cannot go out in sunlight, so they sleep during the day.\n They can only be killed in certain ways:\n being beheaded\n having a stake driven through their heart\nor being sprayed or washed with vervain\n being set on fire\n They can be weakened by crosses or other religious symbols, garlic, holy water, and silver.\n They cannot cross the ocean unless they are in a coffin surrounded by soil from their homeland.\nIf vampires click their fingers they can disappear in the blink of an eye.\n If a bag of rice, grain, seeds or other similar substance is spilled on the ground, a vampire will have to count every grain.\n They have no reflection in glass, mirrors, or other things.\n Vampires have photographic memory.\n Vampires are cold blooded, if once they touch the wound will go.\n\nVampires in fiction \n\nDracula is the most famous vampire in fiction, and many movies have been made about him, often with Christopher Lee as Dracula himself. Bela Lugosi is another actor known for the role. Nosferatu is also a famous vampire movie.\n\nThere is a popular series of books by Anne Rice about vampires. Stephen King also wrote about vampires in the 1970s in Salem's Lot. The television show Buffy the Vampire Slayer featured a young girl who fought vampires, but also befriended good ones. The series Twilight by Stephenie Meyer is also about vampires. The movie The Lost Boys was about a band of vampires in California. Among many other stories about vampires are The Southern Vampire Mysteries, which led to the television show True Blood.\n\nProtection \nIn stories, garlic is often used for keeping vampires away, but it does not actually affect them. Vervain is used to hurt vampires, and in Europe, Though this is not traditional, mirrors have been used to make vampires stay away (in some cultures, vampires do not have a reflection and sometimes do not have a shadow, perhaps as a way of showing that they do not have souls). Not all vampires in stories have this quality (the Greek vrykolakas\/tympanios had both reflections and shadows), was used by Bram Stoker in Dracula. In addition to this, in Bram Stoker's Dracula, it is mentioned that  wolf's-bane (or  Aconitum) can be used to repel dracula. The reason for this in the novel it is explained dracula is the Wolfman, and can transform into one just as easily as a bat.\n\nOther \nSome neurologists believe that rabies might lie at the base of the myth.\n Rabid people have trouble walking.\n They are sexually very active and can be aggressive. They may bite, while they are in this frenzy.\n Very often they have cramps, or seizures. They often bite their tongue during such cramps. This may lead to them bleeding from their mouth.\n Rabies can be spread by biting\n Many diseases of the brain make people sensitive to light.\n Many diseases of the brain make people have difficulty swallowing. This is the fear of water.\nThe problem with this is that rabid people, especially in advanced stages of the disease, will live for about ten days, at best. This does not account for them getting out of ditches and graves over weeks or months.\n\nAnother explanation was given by other people. The disease might be porphyria, rather than rabies. Porphyria is a genetic condition that leads to differences when the body makes blood. Some parts of the blood can not be made in sufficient quantities. Writers for the Toronto Garlic Festival say people with porphyria do not like to eat foods that have sulfur in them, and garlic has sulfur in it. \n\nPsychological disorders can contribute to vampiric behavior. As well as the fact that drinking blood has always been believed to give you the strength of the one you drink from. That belief stems all the way back to ancient civilizations.\n\nThere are people in the real world who like to dress and behave like a vampire. Some of them may also drink blood.\n\nFinally, there is the vampire bat.\n\nReferences \n\nLegendary creatures","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5}},"id":9505,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vampire","title":"Vampire","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An album is a collection of sound recordings. It is usually made by a musician, and is sold in stores. Albums were originally a collection of gramophone records, each having one or two songs. Today an album is usually in the form of a compact disc, although many artists also release their albums on vinyl records.\n\nLP or Album in digital format in the 21st century it is increasingly normal to release music.\n\nTypes of albums \nThere are two main types of albums, studio albums and live albums. Studio albums are recorded at a recording studio. Live albums are normally recorded while the musicians are performing for an audience. Live albums are usually recorded at concerts. \n\nOther types of albums include:\n Compilation album: Compilation albums are usually made of songs that first came from many different albums. These songs can all be from the same musicians (often called \"Greatest Hits\" albums) or they can each be from different musicians.\n Debut album: the first album from a musician or musical group.\n Solo album - A solo album is an album by a single musician. This often happens when a singer or musician who is a part of a band creates an album without the rest of the band. It may also happen when the person leaves the band and starts performing alone. For example, most of Beyonc\u00e9's albums after she stopped performing with Destiny's Child are solo albums.  \n Tribute album: Tribute albums or \"cover albums\" are albums where a second group or musician plays songs which were first played by another, often more famous, group or musician.  The second group is usually called a \"Tribute band\" when most or all of the music they play is from another band.  For example, a Slipknot tribute band would mostly play songs that were written and played by the band Slipknot.\nLive album: Live albums are made from songs that are performed live, such as during tour.\n\nTracks \nAlbums are normally separated into Tracks. Each track is a part of the album which has one song in it. The term is often used to mean a specific song on the album by number. For example, the \"fourth track\" or \"track four\" from an album is the fourth song on the album when it is played from the beginning.\n\nRelated pages\n Extended play\n Single (music)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":40,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":4,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":4,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":5,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":5,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":5,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":6,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":7,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":5,"2019-26":2}},"id":18202,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Album","title":"Album","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dina matematik, fungsi distribusi kumulatip (disingkat cdf) ngajelaskeun probability distribution ti sakab\u00e9h nilai-real variabel acak, X. Keur satiap r\u00e9al number x, cdf dirumuskeun ku\n\nnu mana sisi beulah katuhu ngagambarkeun probabilitas nu mana variabel acak X dicokot tina nilai nu kurang tina atawa sarua jeung x. Probabilitas X aya dina interval (a,\u00a0b] nya\u00e9ta F(b)\u00a0\u2212\u00a0F(a) lamun a\u00a0<\u00a0b.  Geus ilahar ngagunakeun huruf F ged\u00e9 keur fungsi sebaran kumulatif, nu jelas b\u00e9da jeung huruf f leutik nu dipak\u00e9 keur fungsi d\u00e9nsitas probabilitas jeung probability mass function.\n\nFungsi sebaran kumulatif X bisa dihartikeun dina watesan fungsi d\u00e9nsitas probabilitas f saperti kieu:\n\nNote that in the definition above, the \"less or equal\" sign, '\u2264' is a convention, but it is\nan important and universally used one. The proper use of tables of the Binomial and Poisson \ndistributions depend upon this convention. Mor\u00e9over, important formulas like Levy's inversion formula for the characteristic function also rely on the \"less or equal\" formulation.\n\nProperties \n\nEvery cumulative distribution function F is (not necessarily strictly) monotone increasing and right-continuous. Furthermore, we have\n\nEvery function with these four properties is a cdf. The properties imply that all CDFs are c\u00e0dl\u00e0g functions.\n\nIf X is a discrete random variable, then it attains values x1, x2, ... with probability pi = P(xi), and the cdf of X will be discontinuous at the points xi and constant in between:\n\nIf the CDF F of X is continuous, then X is a continuous random variable; if furthermore F is absolutely continuous, then there exists a Lebesgue-integrable function f(x) such that\n\nfor all r\u00e9al numbers a and b.  (The first of the two equalities displayed above would not be correct in general if we had not said that the distribution is continuous.  Continuity of the distribution implies that P(X = a) = P(X = b) = 0, so the difference between \"<\" and \"\u2264\" c\u00e9ases to be important in this context.)  The function f is equal to the derivative of F almost everywhere, and it is called the probability density function of the distribution of X.\n\nPoint probability\nThe \"point probability\" that X is exactly b can be found as\n\nKolmogorov-Smirnov and Kuiper's tests\nThe Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is based on cumulative distribution functions and can be used to test to see whether two empirical distributions are different or whether an empirical distribution is different from an id\u00e9al distribution. The closely related Kuiper's test (pronounced ) is useful if the domain of the distribution is cyclic as in day of the week. For instance we might use Kuiper's test to see if the number of tornadoes varies during the y\u00e9ar or if sales of a product vary by day of the week or day of the month.\n\nComplementary cumulative distribution function\nSometimes, it is useful to study the opposite question and ask how often the random variable is above a particular level. This is called the complementary cumulative distribution function (ccdf), defined as\n\n.\n\nIn survival analysis,  is called the survival function and denoted .\n\nContohna \nAs an example, suppose X is uniformly distributed on the unit interval [0,\u00a01].\nThen the CDF of X is given by\n\nTake another example, suppose X takes only the discrete values 0 and 1, with equal probability.\nThen the CDF of X is given by\n\nInverse\nIf the cdf F is strictly incr\u00e9asing and continuous then  is the unique r\u00e9al number  such that .\n\nUnfortunately, the distribution does not, in general, have an inverse.  One may define, for ,\n.\n\nExample 1: The median is .\n\nExample 2: Put .  Then we call  the 95th percentile.\n\nThe inverse of the cdf is called the quantile function.\n\nTempo oge\n Descriptive statistics\n Probability distribution\n Empirical distribution function\n Cumulative frequency distributions\n Q-Q plot\n Ogive\n Quantile function\n\nRujukan\n\nTumbu kaluar \nAn introduction to probability distributions \n\nProbability theory\nStatistika","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":1175,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fungsi%20sebaran%20kumulatif","title":"Fungsi sebaran kumulatif","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\"Yankee Doodle\" \u00e9 uma m\u00fasica americana com origem na Guerra dos Sete Anos. \u00c9 por vezes cantada patrioticamente nos Estados Unidos da Am\u00e9rica nos dias de hoje. \u00c9 a m\u00fasica oficial do estado de Connecticut.\n\nVers\u00e3o original \nYankee Doodle went to town\nA-riding on a pony,\nStuck a feather in his cap\nAnd called it macaroni'.\n\nChorus:\nYankee Doodle keep it up,\nYankee Doodle dandy,\nMind the music and the step,\nAnd with the girls be handy.\n\nFath'r and I went down to camp,\nAlong with Captain Gooding,\nAnd there we saw the men and boys\nAs thick as hasty puddin'.\n\nChorus\n\nAnd there we saw a thousand men\nAs rich as Squire David,\nAnd what they wasted every day,\nI wish it could be saved.\n\nChorus\n\nThe 'lasses they eat it every day,\nWould keep a house a winter;\nThey have so much, that I'll be bound,\nThey eat it when they've mind ter.\n\nChorus\n\nAnd there I see a swamping gun\nLarge as a log of maple,\nUpon a deuced little cart,\nA load for father's cattle.\n\nChorus\n\nAnd every time they shoot it off,\nIt takes a horn of powder,\nand makes a noise like father's gun,\nOnly a nation louder.\n\nChorus\n\nI went as nigh to one myself\nAs 'Siah's inderpinning;\nAnd father went as nigh again,\nI thought the deuce was in him.\n\nChorus\n\nCousin Simon grew so bold,\nI thought he would have cocked it;\nIt scared me so I shrinked it off\nAnd hung by father's pocket.\n\nChorus\n\nAnd Cap'n Davis had a gun,\nHe kind of clapt his hand on't\nAnd stuck a crooked stabbing iron\nUpon the little end on't\n\nChorus\n\nAnd there I see a pumpkin shell\nAs big as mother's bason,\nAnd every time they touched it off\nThey scampered like the nation.\n\nChorus\n\nI see a little barrel too,\nThe heads were made of leather;\nThey knocked on it with little clubs\nAnd called the folks together.\n\nChorus\n\nAnd there was Cap'n Washington,\nAnd gentle folks about him;\nThey say he's grown so 'tarnal proud\nHe will not ride without em'.\n\nChorus\n\nHe got him on his meeting clothes,\nUpon a slapping stallion;\nHe sat the world along in rows,\nIn hundreds and in millions.\n\nChorus\n\nThe flaming ribbons in his hat,\nThey looked so tearing fine, ah,\nI wanted dreadfully to get\nTo give to my Jemima.\n\nChorus\n\nI see another snarl of men\nA digging graves they told me,\nSo 'tarnal long, so 'tarnal deep,\nThey 'tended they should hold me.\n\nChorus\n\nIt scared me so, I hooked it off,\nNor stopped, as I remember,\nNor turned about till I got home,\nLocked up in mother's chamber.\n\nChorus\n\nGen. George P. Morris\n\nCan\u00e7\u00f5es patri\u00f3ticas dos Estados Unidos\nMarchas militares\nCultura de Connecticut","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3}},"id":2446906,"url":"https:\/\/pt.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yankee%20Doodle","title":"Yankee Doodle","language":"pt"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Tennis is a sport played with a felt-covered rubber ball, a tennis racket, and a court. Since 1998, every September 23 has been called \"Tennis Day\".  Tennis's official name is \"lawn tennis\". \n\nFirst, early in the 11th century, players in France played a sport like this with their hands. It was called \"Jeu de Paume\".  In the 15th century the players played with rackets. Now it is called \"tennis\". It became popular in England and France. King Henry III of France was a big fan of the game. This kind of sport is still played but is known as real tennis (\"real\" here meaning \"royal\"). The sport of \"lawn tennis\" played on grass courts was invented in mid 19th-century England and later spread into many other countries.  The name of the sport is usually shortened to \"tennis\".\n\nTennis matches\nThere are many different kinds of courts, like grass, clay or hard court. The goal of tennis is to hit the ball over the net into the other player's court. When the other player cannot return the ball, a point is won.  The game is played with two or four people.  When it is played with two people, it is called \"singles\", and when it is played with four people, it is called \"doubles\". The court has \"alleys\" on each side, which are \"fair\" territory when playing doubles.\n\nA tennis game has a number of sets. Each set has a number of games, and each game has points. The points are counted love (0, after the French l'oeuf), fifteen (15), thirty (30), and forty (40). If both players get to forty, the score is deuce from which 2 more points are needed to win the game. When one player reaches six games, it is one set. If it is a three-set match, the player who wins two sets first is the winner. If the game count reaches 5\u20135, the set must be won with two more games than the other player, like 7\u20135 or 8\u20136.  If the game count gets to 6\u20136, a \"tiebreaker\" is played. In a tiebreak, players have to get at least seven points while getting two more points than the other player to win the set. In tiebreak points are called \"one,\" \"two,\" etc.\n\nSoft tennis\nThere is also soft tennis. Soft tennis is different from regulation tennis. For example, the racket, ball and rules are much different. Soft tennis is popular in Japan. Thousands of people play soft tennis. Tennis is quite a popular sport which lots of people enjoy watching.\n\nShots\nThere are many different \"shots\" and \"strokes\", ways to hit the ball, in tennis. A stroke is the way the body is moved to hit the ball. A shot is how the ball is hit. These include:\nStrokes\n The backhand is a type of stroke hit by swinging the racquet away from the body. The stroke begins with the arm holding the racquet held across the body. It is then moved in front of the body to hit the ball. For a right-handed player, a backhand begins on the left side of his body, continues across his body as the ball is hit, and ends on the right side of his body.  It can be either a one-handed or a two-handed stroke.\n The forehand is the opposite of the backhand. It starts with the arm outside of the body and moves across the body. For a right handed player, the arm starts on the right side of the body and moves across the body to the left side. The forehand is hit with one hand (most commonly the hand the player uses to write).\n\nShots\nA serve (sometimes called a service) is a shot to start a point. The serve is usually started by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it across the net. The serve may be done underhand or overhead. The overhead serve the most common form. The serve is done from behind the baseline (the line at the back of the court).  The serve must land on the inside of the service line and center service line on the other side of the net to call it good.  The serve that is set has to be in the box diagonal to where the server serves.\n A volley is a shot that is hit before the ball bounces on the ground. Usually, a player hits a volley while standing near the net. It is sometimes done farther back, in the middle of the court or even near the back.\nA drop shot is tapping . A good drop shot travels just far enough that the opponent cannot run fast enough to get to it.\nA lob is a shot that can use backhand or forehand swings.  For a lob the person has to swing through, but make the tennis ball go up.  When the ball goes up the goal is for the ball to land in between the baseline (the line at the back of the court) and the service line.\n\nFour Grand Slams\nTennis is now a sport that is played at the Olympics. They also have big tournaments like the U.S. Open, Australian Open, French Open and Wimbledon. These four are known as Grand Slam events.\n\nAustralian Open (January)\nFrench Open ( May-June)\nWimbledon (June - July)\nUS Open (August-September)\n\nWinning all four Grand Slams in the same year is called a Calendar Slam.\nThey are the most important tennis tournaments of each season (year). This is because of the world ranking points, tradition, prize-money, and public attention.\n\nNotes\n\nOther websites \n\n ATP The official site for men's professional tennis\n WTA The official site for women's professional tennis\n Tennis Ball Hopper","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":232,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":5,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-30":4,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":4,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":5,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":5,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":9,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5,"2023-50":1}},"id":20314,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tennis","title":"Tennis","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A taxon (plural taxa) is a taxonomic group or taxonomic unit. It is a group of organisms which a taxonomist decides belong together.\n\nTaxa can be big or small. A fairly small taxon is the giraffes, and a very big one is the beetles.\n\nA taxonomist can assign a scientific name and rank to a taxon; this places it at a particular level in a hierarchy. It is not strictly necessary to assign either a name or a rank to a taxon, but doing so makes it much easier to refer to the taxon. However, many taxa have to wait for years before getting a name.\n\nRanks\nThere is no limit to the number of ranks that may exist, but the most important ranks are, in hierarchical order:\nDomain\nKingdom\nPhylum or Division \nClass\nOrder\nFamily\nGenus\nSpecies\nSubspecies\n\nNote: \"Phylum\" applies formally to any biologial domain but traditionally it was always used of animals whereas \"Division\" was traditionally often used of plants, fungi etc.\n\nA simple phrase to remember the order is\n\"Dignified Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Silk\" (there are many other such phrases).\n\nTaxonomy\n\nA distinction is made between taxonomy and systematics. Systematics deals with how groups relate to each other. Taxonomy deals with making groups (taxa), deciding what belongs together. Taxonomy is also known as classification.\n\nA special part of taxonomy is nomenclature. This consists of rules on what names to use. So a taxonomist first decides what does and does not belong in a group, and then uses nomenclature to decide what name this group should have. If a group is made larger or bigger it may get a different name. On the other hand, the same name may refer to a bigger taxon (according to one particular taxonomist) or a smaller taxon (according to some other taxonomist). This means that scientific names are not guaranteed to be stable. Most names are stable, but for some taxa there is no agreement on its name, because taxonomists do not agree what does belong together and what does not belong together.\n\nA taxonomist can decide for himself what scientific reasons he adopts for making a group (a taxon). If he is not convincing in his choice, other taxonomists will not agree with him, and they will then make other arrangements. These days biological classification is mostly supposed be done according to evolutionary (phylogenetic) relationships, so far as these are known.\n\nTaxonomy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":67213,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taxon","title":"Taxon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"English Gothic is the name of the architectural style that was very popular in England from about 1180 until about 1520. As with the gothic architecture of other parts of Europe, English Gothic is defined by its pointed arches, vaulted rooves, buttresses, large windows, and spires.\n\nFeatures of the Gothic style \n\n Pointed arches\n Very high towers, spires and rooves\n Clustered columns: tall columns that looked like a group of thin columns bundled together\n Ribbed vaults: arched ceilings made of stone. In the Gothic style they were held up by stone ribs.\n A skeleton of stonework with big glass windows in between.\n Tracery: carved stone lace in the windows and on the walls\n Stained glass: richly coloured glass in the windows, often with pictures telling stories\n Buttresses: narrow stone walls jutting out from the building to help hold it up\n Flying buttresses: buttresses that help to hold the vault up. They are made with an arch that jumps over a lower part of the building to reach the outside wall.\n Statues: of saints, prophets and kings around the doors\n Many sculptures, sometimes of animals and legendary creatures. Gargoyles spout water from the roof.\n\nStages \n\nThe various styles are seen at their best in the cathedrals, abbey churches and college buildings. It is a distinctive characteristic of the cathedrals of England that all but one of them show great stylistic diversity and have building dates that range over 400 years. The exception, Salisbury Cathedral, was built in 38 years.\n\n Early English (roughly 1170-1240)\n Decorated (roughly 1250\u22121350)\nGeometric (1250\u201390)\nCurvilinear (1290\u20131350)\n Perpendicular (roughly 1350\u22121520)\n\nEarly English \nExamples: Salisbury Cathedral, Whitby Abbey, the nave and transept of Wells Cathedral (1225\u20141240).\n\nCharacteristics \nThe clearest sign of the Early English period was the pointed arch known as the lancet. Pointed arches were used for nave arcade, the doorways and lancet windows. The windows are narrow by comparison to their height and are without tracery. Lancet arches  are a sign of the style.\n\nThe Lancet openings of windows and arcades are often grouped in twos or threes. This is seen throughout Salisbury Cathedral where there are groups of two lancet windows lining the nave and groups of three lining the clerestory. At York Minster there are, in the north transept, a cluster of five lancet windows known as the Five Sisters, each fifty feet high and still have their ancient glass.\n\nRomanesque (Norman architecture) builders generally used round arches. Compared with the rounded Romanesque style, the pointed arch of the Early English Gothic looks more elegant and, more importantly, is better at distributing the weight of the stonework above it. This makes it possible to span higher and wider gaps using narrower columns.\n\nInstead of being massive, solid pillars, the columns were often composed of clusters of slender, detached shafts surrounding a central pillar.\n\nBy using the pointed arch, walls could become less massive and window openings could be larger and grouped more closely together. This gave a more open, airy and graceful building. The high walls and vaulted stone roofs were often supported by flying buttresses: half arches which transmit the outward thrust of the superstructure to supports or buttresses, usually on the outside of the building.\n\nAt its purest the style was simple and austere, emphasizing the height of the building, as if aspiring heavenward.\n\nDecorated gothic \nExamples:  the east ends of Lincoln Cathedral and Carlisle Cathedral, and the west fronts of York Minster and Lichfield Cathedral. Much of Exeter Cathedral is built in this style.\n\nCharacteristics \nDecorated architecture has window tracery. Elaborate windows are subdivided by closely-spaced parallel mullions (vertical bars of stone). The mullions then branch out and cross, intersecting to fill the top part of the window with a mesh of elaborate patterns called tracery. The style was geometrical (more straight lines) at first and flowing (curves) in the later period. This evolution of decorated tracery is often used to subdivide the period into an earlier \"geometric\" and later \"curvilinear\" period.\n\nPerpendicular gothic \n\nSome of the earliest examples of the \"perpendicular period\", from 1360, are found at Gloucester Cathedral. The masons of the cathedral seem to be far in advance of those in other towns; the fan-vaulting in the cloisters is particularly fine. Also noteworthy are the Quire and tower of York Minster (1389\u20131407); the nave and western transepts of Canterbury Cathedral (1378\u20131411). Bath Abbey, Eton College Chapel and King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446\u20131515) are also examples.\n\nCharacteristics \nIt is called perpendicular because of its emphasis on vertical lines. This is particularly obvious in the design of windows, which became very large, sometimes of immense size, with slimmer stone mullions than in earlier periods. This allowed more scope for stained glass craftsmen. Buttresses and wall surfaces are likewise divided up into vertical panels. Another major development of this period was fan vaulting.\n\nSome of the finest features of this period are the magnificent timber rooves. Hammerbeam rooves, like those of Westminster Hall (1395), and Christ Church Hall, Oxford, appeared for the first time. In areas of southern England elaborate decoration in flint was used, especially in the wool churches of East Anglia.\n\nReferences \n\nGothic architecture","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":109673,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/English%20Gothic%20architecture","title":"English Gothic architecture","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A hot air balloon is a type of aircraft. It is lifted by heating the air inside the balloon, usually with fire. \n\nHot air weighs less than the same volume of cold air (it is less dense), which means that hot air will rise up or float when there is cold air around it, just like a bubble of air in a pot of water. The greater the difference between the hot and the cold, the greater the difference in density, and the stronger the balloon will pull up. This means that balloons can carry more weight on a cold day, or if the air inside the balloon is very hot. At higher temperature, the air molecules move faster. This causes the molecules to spread out and therefore hot air is less dense than cooler air.\n\nHistory\n\nThe hot air balloon is the oldest form of flying technology that can successfully carry people. The earliest use of hot air to make objects fly was made in Ancient China. Paper lanterns were sent into the air for signalling.\n\nThe first hot air balloon to carry a person was made by the Montgolfier brothers. On 19 September 1783, they demonstrated their invention for King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette at the French court in Paris. The passengers were a sheep, a duck and a rooster. They flew for 480 metres.  The first flight carrying a person was on 15 October 1783. It carried Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier. The balloon was attached to the ground by a rope. The first free flight, without being attached to the ground, was a few weeks later, on 21 November 1783. It carried Marquis Fran\u00e7ois d'Arlandes and Pilatre de Rozier.\n\nHow it works\nThe air is made up of molecules. When the air is cold, these molecules are closer together. When the air is hot, they move away from each other. So, in the same space, there are fewer molecules in hot air. Hot air is therefore lighter than cold air. This makes it rise and carry up the balloon when the air inside it is heated. The air is heated in the balloon with a burner, which uses bursts of fire to keep the air hot. The fire is fuelled by propane.\n\nThe heated air is kept inside the balloon by its fabric. This is called the \"envelope\". It is usually made of nylon.\n\nThe passengers and the pilot stand in the basket, which is attached to the balloon by ropes. The basket is usually made of wicker. Baskets can come in many sizes. It can have enough places for up to 36 people. It depends the size of the balloon to carry that much weight.\n\nFestivals \n\nA hot air balloon festival is a type of air show. It is where ballooners display and fly their balloons together. During these events, they fly in the morning and in the evening if the conditions allow it. People can enjoy a balloon flight if they pay. There are many activities. Sometimes, the balloons are lit up against the night sky.\n\nAt these festivals, people can see different shapes of balloons. Usually, they are kind of round but they may have forms.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n Hot air ballooning \n Hot air balloonat Library Think Quest \n\nAircraft","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":144,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4,"unknown":8,"2024-10":1}},"id":169180,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hot%20air%20balloon","title":"Hot air balloon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"ISO 639-2:1998, Codes for the representation of names of languages \u2014 Part 2: Alpha-3 code, is the second part of the ISO 639 standard, which lists codes for the representation of the names of languages. The three-letter codes given for each language in this part of the standard are referred to as \"Alpha-3\" codes. There are 487 entries in the list of ISO 639-2 codes.\n\nThe US Library of Congress is the registration authority for ISO 639-2 (referred to as ISO 639-2\/RA). As registration authority, the LOC receives and reviews proposed changes; they also have representation on the ISO 639-RA Joint Advisory Committee responsible for maintaining the ISO 639 code tables.\n\nHistory and relationship to other ISO 639 standards\nWork was begun on the ISO 639-2 standard in 1989, because the ISO 639-1 standard, which uses only two-letter codes for languages, is not able to accommodate a sufficient number of languages. The ISO 639-2 standard was first released in 1998.\n\nIn practice, ISO 639-2 has largely been superseded by ISO 639-3 (2007), which includes codes for all the individual languages in ISO 639-2 plus many more. It also includes the special and reserved codes, and is designed not to conflict with ISO 639-2. ISO 639-3, however, does not include any of the collective languages in ISO 639-2; most of these are included in ISO 639-5.\n\nB and T codes\nWhile most languages are given one code by the standard, twenty of the languages described have two three-letter codes, a \"bibliographic\" code (ISO 639-2\/B), which is derived from the English name for the language and was a necessary legacy feature, and a \"terminological\" code (ISO 639-2\/T), which is derived from the native name for the language and resembles the language's two-letter code in ISO 639-1. There were originally 22 B codes;  and  are now deprecated.\n\nIn general the T codes are favored; ISO 639-3 uses ISO 639-2\/T.\n\nScopes and types\nThe codes in ISO 639-2 have a variety of \"scopes of denotation\", or types of meaning and use, some of which are described in more detail below.\n Individual languages\n Macrolanguages (see ISO 639 macrolanguage)\n Collections of languages\n Dialects\n Reserved for local use\n Special situations\n\nFor a definition of macrolanguages and collective languages, see ISO 639-3\/RA: Scope of denotation for language identifiers.\n\nIndividual languages are further classified as to type:\n Living languages\n Extinct languages\n Ancient languages\n Historic languages\n Constructed languages\n\nCollections of languages\nSome ISO 639-2 codes that are commonly used for languages do not precisely represent a particular language or some related languages (as the above macrolanguages). They are regarded as collective language codes and are excluded from ISO 639-3.\n\nThe collective language codes in ISO 639-2 are listed below.  Some language groups are noted to be remainder groups, that is excluding languages with their own codes, while other are not.  Remainder groups are afa, alg, art, ath, bat, ber, bnt, cai, cau, cel, crp, cus, dra, fiu, gem, inc, ine, ira, khi, kro, map, mis, mkh, mun, nai, nic, paa, roa, sai, sem, sio, sit, sla, ssa, tai and tut, while inclusive groups are apa, arn, arw, aus, bad, bai, bih, cad, car, chb, cmc, cpe, cpf, cpp, dua, hmn, iro, mno, mul, myn, nub, oto, phi, sgn, wak, wen, ypk and znd.\n\nThe following code is identified as a collective code in ISO 639-2 but is (at present) missing from ISO 639-5:\n  Himachali\n\nCodes registered for 639-2 that are listed as collective codes in ISO 639-5 (and collective codes by name in ISO 639-2):\n\nReserved for local use\nThe interval from  to  is \"reserved for local use\" and is not used in ISO 639-2 nor in ISO 639-3. These codes are typically used privately for languages not (yet) in either standard. Microsoft Windows uses the  language code for pseudo-locales generated automatically from English strings, designed for testing software localization.\n\nSpecial situations\nThere are four generic codes for special situations:\n is listed as \"uncoded languages\" (originally an abbreviation for \"miscellaneous\")\n (for \"multiple languages\") is applied when several languages are used and it is not practical to specify all the appropriate language codes\n (for \"undetermined\") is used in situations in which a language or languages must be indicated but the language cannot be identified.\n is listed in the code list as \"no linguistic content\", e.g. animal sounds (code added on 11 January 2006)\nThese four codes are also used in ISO 639-3.\n\nSee also\nList of ISO 639-2 codes\nLanguage code\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \nISO 639-2\/RA Change Notice at the Library of Congress\nISO 639-2:1998: Codes for the representation of names of languages\u2014Part 2: Alpha-3 code at the International Organization for Standardization\n\nISO 639\n1989 introductions\nLanguage identifiers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":181,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":5,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":5,"2021-25":6,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":6,"2021-10":6,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":4,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":6,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":6,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":4,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":4,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1}},"id":371390,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO%20639-2","title":"ISO 639-2","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Telepon nya\u00e9ta alat telekomunikasi anu digunakeun pikeun ngirimkeun jeung narima sora; paling ilahar sora manusa. Telepon kiwari mangrupa kalengkepan rumah tangga nu paling ilahar di dunya. Lolobana, sinyal sora tina telepon diliwatkeun kana jaringan telepon umum.\n\nPrinsip dasar \n\nTelepon ngirimkeun dua rupa informasi: sinyal jeung sora siliganti dina waktu nu b\u00e9da dina sapasang kawat. Terminal telepon og\u00e9 dilengkepan ku papan nomer pikeun ngasupkeun nomer telepon (lambang alamat tujuan) waktu r\u00e9k nelepon ka pamak\u00e9 telepon lianna.\n\nWaktu panelepon ngangkat gagang telepon, hal ieu mgusikkeun switch dina jero terminal anu ngakibatkeun telepon asup kana kaayaan aktif atawa off hook di mana hiji r\u00e9sistor nyambungsingket kadua kawat anu sapasang kasebut, anu ngabalukarkeun arus listrik DC ngamalir nuju ka sentral telepon. Saenggeus s\u00e9ntral narima arus DC, saterusna s\u00e9ntral ngirimkeun sinyal nada call setup sangkan panelepon muter nomer tujuan.\n\nTerminal telepon og\u00e9 dilengkepan ku alat isarat (signaling) nu ngandung hiji kohkol (b\u00e9l) pikeun ngingetkeun pamak\u00e9 ngeunaan kadatangan ajakan nelepon ti pamak\u00e9 lianna.\n\nWaktu panelepon neken tombol-tombol nomer, hal ieu ngabalukarkeun panghasil (generator) nada dina jero papan nomer ngahasilekun nada DTMF anu ngalambangkeun alamat pamak\u00e9 telepon lianna. S\u00e9ntral nyambungkeun sapasang kawat milik panelepon kana sapasang kawat milik pamak\u00e9 telepon anu dituju sarta m\u00e9r\u00e9 b\u00e9ja pamak\u00e9 kasebut ku cara ngirimkeun sinyal nada kirining (dering) anu ngakibatkeun b\u00e9l dina terminal tujuan disada.\n\nMangsa telepon henteu aktif (on hook), bel, panghasil sora, alat isarat panghasil sinar atawa alat isarat lianna, disambungkeun kana kawat ngaliwatan hiji kapasitor. Telepon anu henteu aktif henteu nyambungsingket kawat, antukna s\u00e9ntral telepon nyaho y\u00e9n telepon kasebut dina kaayaan on hook; ngan b\u00e9l anu disambungkeun sacara listrik. Mangsa urang nelepon hiji nomer, s\u00e9ntral telepon ngabangkitkeun sinyal pulsa tegangan tinggi, anu ngabalukarkeun alat isarat disada atawa m\u00e9r\u00e9 nyaho pihak anu ditelepon. Mangsa pihak anu ditelepon ngangkat gagang telepon, switchhook megantkeun sambungan kana alat isarat, terus nyambung kana alat pangirim \/ panarima sora, sarta hiji r\u00e9sistor ngahubungsinket kawat, negeskeun y\u00e9n telepon geus dijawab jeung dina kaayaan aktif. Lamun kadua pasang kawat off hook, pangiriman jeung panarimaan isarat eureun. Kadua beulah pihak nyambung sarta bisa ngobrol ngagunakeun alat pangirim \/ panarima sora anu aya dina telepon.\n\nAlat pangirim \/ panarima sora telepon ayana dina gagang telepon nu aya dina terminal, sarta ngandung hiji transmitter (anu mindeng disebut mikropon) jeung hiji panarima atawa receiver. Transmitter, anu dib\u00e9r\u00e9 \u00e9nergi tina kawat, ngahasilkeun arus listrik anu robah-robah gumantung gelombang tekenan akustik anu dihasilkeun ku sora. Parobahan arus listrik anu dihasilkeun dirambatkeun sapanjang kawat telepon ka terminal tujuan, di mana arus listrik dimaksud dieupankeun kana gulungan kawat dina receiver, anu mangrupa loudspeaker miniatur. Arus listrik anu robah-robah dina gulungan kawat ngabalukarkeun inyana maju-mundur, ngahasilkeun gelombang tekenan akustik tina transmitter.\n\nWhen a party \"hangs up\" (puts the handset on the cradle), DC current c\u00e9ases to flow in that line, thus signaling to the exchange switch to disconnect the telephone call.\n\nHistory \n\nCredit for inventing the electric telephone remains in dispute. Antonio Meucci, Johann Philipp Reis, Alexander Graham Bell, and Elisha Gray, among others, have all been credited with the invention.\n\nThe \u00e9arly history of the telephone is a confusing morass of claim and counterclaim, which was not clarified by the huge mass of lawsuits which hoped to resolve the patent claims of individuals. The Bell and Edison patents, however, were forensically victorious and commercially decisive.\n\nEarly development \nThe following is a brief summary of the development of the telephone:\n\n 28 December 1871\u2014Antonio Meucci files a patent caveat (n.3335) in the U.S. Patent Office titled \"Sound Telegraph\", describing communication of voice between two p\u00e9ople by wire.\n 1874\u2014Meucci, after having renewed the cav\u00e9at for two y\u00e9ars, fails to find the money to renew it. The cav\u00e9at lapses.\n 6 April 1875\u2014Bell's U.S. Patent 161,739 \"Transmitters and Receivers for Electric Telegraphs\" is granted. This uses multiple vibrating steel reeds in make-br\u00e9ak circuits.\n 11 February 1876\u2014Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with a telephone but does not build one.\n 14 February 1876\u2014Elisha Gray files a patent caveat for transmitting the human voice through a telegraphic circuit.\n 14 February 1876\u2014Alexander Bell applies for the patent \"Improvements in Telegraphy\", for electromagnetic telephones using undulating currents.\n 19 February 1876\u2014Gray is notified by the U.S. Patent Office of an interference between his cav\u00e9at and Bell's patent application. Gray decides to abandon his cav\u00e9at.\n 7 March 1876\u2014Bell's U.S. patent 174,465 \"Improvement in Telegraphy\" is granted, covering \"the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically \u2026 by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound.\"\n 10 March 1876\u2014The first successful telephone transmission of cl\u00e9ar speech when Bell spoke into his device, \"Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you.\" and Watson h\u00e9ard \u00e9ach word distinctly.\n 30 January 1877\u2014Bell's U.S. patent 186,787 is granted for an electromagnetic telephone using permanent magnets, iron diaphragms, and a call bell.\n 27 April 1877\u2014Edison files for a patent on a carbon (graphite) transmitter. The patent 474,230 was granted 3 May 1892, after a 15 y\u00e9ar delay because of litigation. Edison was granted patent 222,390 for a carbon granules transmitter in 1879.\n\nEarly commercial instruments \n\u00e9arly telephones were technically diverse. Some used a liquid transmitter, some had a metal diaphragm that induced current in an electromagnet wound around a permanent magnet, and some were \"dynamic\" - their diaphragm vibrated a coil of wire in the field of a permanent magnet or the coil vibrated the diaphragm. This dynamic kind survived in small numbers through the 20th century in military and maritime applications where its ability to cr\u00e9ate its own electrical power was crucial. Most, however, used the Edison\/Berliner carbon transmitter, which was much louder than the other kinds, even though it required an induction coil, actually acting as an impedance matching transformer to mak\u00e9 it compatible to the impedance of the line. The Edison patents kept the Bell monopoly viable into the 20th century, by which time the network was more important than the instrument.\n\n\u00e9arly telephones were locally powered, using a dynamic transmitter or else powering the transmitter with a local battery. One of the jobs of outside plant personnel was to visit \u00e9ach telephone periodically to inspect the battery. During the 20th century, \"common battery\" operation came to dominate, powered by \"talk battery\" from the telephone exchange over the same wires that carried the voice signals. Late in the century, wireless handsets brought a revival of local battery power.\n\n\u00e9arly telephones had one wire for both transmitting and receiving of audio, with ground return as used in telegraphs. The \u00e9arliest dynamic telephones also had only one opening for sound, and the user alternately listened and spoke (rather, shouted) into the same hole. Sometimes the instruments were operated in pairs at \u00e9ach end, making conversation more convenient but were more expensive.\n\nAt first, the benefits of an exchange were not exploited. Telephones inst\u00e9ad were l\u00e9ased in pairs to the subscriber, who had to arrange telegraph contractors to construct a line between them, for example between his home and his shop. Users who wanted the ability to sp\u00e9ak to several different locations would need to obtain and set up three or four pairs of telephones. Western Union, alr\u00e9ady using telegraph exchanges, quickly extended the principle to its telephones in New York City and San Francisco, and Bell was not slow in appreciating the potential.\n\nSignalling began in an appropriately primitive manner. The user alerted the other end, or the exchange operator, by whistling into the transmitter. Exchange operation soon resulted in telephones being equipped with a bell, first operated over a second wire and later with the same wire using a condenser. Telephones connected to the \u00e9arliest Strowger automatic exchanges had seven wires, one for the knife switch, one for \u00e9ach telegraph key, one for the bell, one for the push button and two for sp\u00e9aking.\n\nRural and other telephones that were not on a common battery exchange had a \"magneto\" or hand cranked generator to produce a high voltage alternating signal to ring the bells of other telephones on the line and to alert the operator.\n\nIn the 1890s a new smaller style of telephone was introduced, packaged in three parts. The transmitter stood on a stand, known as a \"candlestick\" for its shape. When not in use, the receiver hung on a hook with a switch in it, known as a \"switchhook.\" Previous telephones required the user to operate a separate switch to connect either the voice or the bell. With the new kind, the user was less likely to l\u00e9ave the phone \"off the hook\". In phones connected to magneto exchanges, the bell, induction coil, battery and magneto were in a separate \"bell box.\" In phones connected to common battery exchanges, the bell box was installed under a desk, or other out of the way place, since it did not need a battery or magneto.\n\nCradle designs were also used at this time, having a handle with the receiver and transmitter attached, separate from the cradle base that housed the magneto crank and other parts. They were larger than the \"candlestick\" and more popular.\n\nDisadvantages of single wire operation such as crosstalk and hum from n\u00e9arby AC power wires had alr\u00e9ady led to the use of twisted pairs and, for long distance telephones, four-wire circuits. Users at the beginning of the 20th century did not place long distance calls from their own telephones but made an appointment to use a special sound proofed long distance telephone booth furnished with the latest technology.\n\nWhat turned out to be the most popular and longest lasting physical style of telephone was introduced in the \u00e9arly 20th century, including Bell's Model 102. A carbon granule transmitter and electromagnetic receiver were united in a single molded plastic handle, which when not in use sat in a cradle in the base unit. The circuit diagram  of the mod\u00e9l 102 shows the direct connection of the receiver to the line, while the transmitter was induction coupled, with energy supplied by a local battery. The coupling transformer, battery, and ringer were in a separate enclosure. The dial switch in the base interrupted the line current by rep\u00e9atedly but very briefly disconnecting the line 1-10 times for \u00e9ach digit, and the hook switch (in the center of the circuit diagram) permanently disconnected the line and the transmitter battery while the handset was on the cradle.\n\nAfter the 1930s, the base also enclosed the bell and induction coil, obviating the old separate bell box. Power was supplied to \u00e9ach subscriber line by central office batteries inst\u00e9ad of a local battery, which required periodic service. For the next half century, the network behind the telephone became progressively larger and much more efficient, but after the dial was added the instrument itself changed little until touch tone replaced the dial in the 1960s.\n\nDigital telephony \n\nThe Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) has gradually evolved towards digital telephony which has improved the capacity and quality of the network. End-to-end analog telephone networks were first modified in the \u00e9arly 1960s by upgrading transmission networks with T1 carrier systems. Later technologies such as SONET and fiber optic transmission methods further advanced digital transmission. Although analog carrier systems existed, digital transmission made it possible to significantly incr\u00e9ase the number of channels multiplexed on a single transmission medium. While today the end instrument remains analog, the analog signals r\u00e9aching the aggregation point (Serving Area Interface (SAI) or the central office (CO) ) are typically converted to digital signals. Digital loop carriers (DLC) are often used, placing the digital network ever closer to the customer premises, relegating the analog local loop to legacy status.\n\nIP telephony \n\nInternet Protocol (IP) telephony (also known as Internet telephony) is a service based on Voice over IP (VoIP), a disruptive technology that is rapidly gaining ground against traditional telephone network technologies. In Japan and South Korea up to 10% of subscribers, as of January 2005, have switched to this digital telephone service. A January 2005 Newsweek article suggested that Internet telephony may be \"the next big thing.\" \n\nAs of 2006 many VoIP companies offer service to consumers and businesses.\n\nIP telephony uses a broadband Internet connection to transmit conversations as data packets. In addition to replacing POTS(plain old telephone service), IP telephony is also competing with mobile phone networks by offering free or lower cost connections via WiFi hotspots. VoIP is also used on private wireless networks which may or may not have a connection to the outside telephone network.\n\nUsage \nBy the end of 2006, there were a total of n\u00e9arly 4 billion mobile and fixed line subscribers and over 1 billion Internet users worldwide. This included 1.27 billion fixed line subscribers and 2.68 billion mobile subscribers.\n\nTelephone operating companies \nKontol Gede Dasar Tholol Anjing Bangsat Stupid PBB Idiot Donald Trumpangan\n\nPatents \n US 174,465  -- Telegraphy (Bell's first telephone patent) -- Alexander Graham Bell\n US 186,787  -- Electric Telegraphy (permanent magnet receiver) -- Alexander Graham Bell\n US 474,230  -- Speaking Telegraph (graphite transmitter) -- Thomas Edison\n US 203,016  -- Speaking Telephone (carbon button transmitter) -- Thomas Edison\n US 222,390  -- Carbon Telephone (carbon granules transmitter) -- Thomas Edison\n\n US 485,311 -- Telephone (solid back carbon transmitter) -- Anthony C. White (Bell engineer) This design was used until 1925 and installed phones were used until the 1940s.\n US 3,449,750  -- Duplex Radio Communication and Signalling Appartus\u2014G. H. Sweigert\n US 3,663,762  -- Cellular Mobile Communication System\u2014Amos Edward Joel (Bell Labs)\n US 3,906,166  -- Radio Telephone System (DynaTAC cell phone) -- Martin Cooper et al. (Motorola)\n\nNyertakeun telepon \nTelepon s\u00e9lul\u00e9r dina waktos \u00e9ta henteu b\u00e9nten sabab kasabaran ageung. Hiji ragrag gagal dina aspal, beton, atanapi ubin cukup pikeun ngaruksak awak paranti anu mahal. Aya kabutuhan sababaraha asesoris pikeun asup ka pasar, anu ngamungkinkeun pikeun ngajagaan alatna nalika dianggo sapopo\u00e9.\n\nSee also \n\n Elisha Gray and Alexander Bell telephone controversy\n Answering machine\n Bell labs\n Bell System\n Carterfone\n Dial tone\n Emergency phone\n Telephone newspaper\n Area code\n Telecommunications\n Telephone switchboard\n Telephony\n Fax\n Mobile phone\n History of mobile phones\n Federal telephone excise tax\n\nReferences \n\n Coe, Lewis (1995), The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History, McFarland, North Carolina, 1995. ISBN 0-7864-0138-9\n Evenson, A. Edward (2000), The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray - Alexander Bell Controversy, McFarland, North Carolina, 2000. ISBN 0-7864-0883-9\n Baker, Burton H. (2000), The Gray Matter: The Forgotten Story of the Telephone, Telepress, St. Joseph, MI, 2000. ISBN 0-615-11329-X\n Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003), The Worldwide History of Telecommunications, IEEE Press and J. Wiley & Sons, 2003. ISBN 0-471-20505-2\n Josephson, Matthew (1992), Edison: A Biography, Wiley, 1992. ISBN 0-471-54806-5\n Bruce, Robert V. (1990), Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest of Solitude, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1990.\n\nFurther reading \n Robert Sobel, The Entrepreneurs: Explorations Within the American Business Tradition (Weybright & Talley 1974), ISBN 0-679-40064-8.\n Kenneth P. Todd, A Capsule History of the Bell System\n\nTumbu luar \n\n 1911 Britannica \"Telephone\" article\n \n Vintage Telephones \n Mobile Phones - Specifications in a number of languages\n\nTelepon\nAlat kantor\nAlat telekomunikasi\nTimuan urang Skotlandia\nTelekomunikasi","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":24477,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telepon","title":"Telepon","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A dam is a large wall or barrier that blocks or stops the flow of water, forming a reservoir or a lake. Most dams have a section called a spillway or weir over which, or through which, water flows, either sometimes or always.\nDams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water. The tallest dam in the world is the 300 meter high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.\n\nHistory \nSome of the first dams were built in Mesopotamia up to 7,000 years ago. Modern dams are built with arched walls of steel rod-reinforced concrete. The arched wall is a very strong shape which helps the wall to withstand the huge weight of the water.\n\nReasons for building dams \nThere are a number of reasons that people build dams. Some countries build dams to control the flow of water in the downstream river systems, and prevent flooding. Other countries build dams to generate electricity using hydroelectric turbine generators. Other countries use dams to store water for use in irrigation (for farming) or drinking by people.\n\nNotes\n\nCivil engineering\n \nFlood control","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":171,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":5,"2019-35":3,"2019-22":4,"2019-09":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2022-49":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-26":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":28944,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dam","title":"Dam","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Irish Republican Army or IRA originated from the Irish Republican Brotherhood, and fought against the British Army to get freedom for Ireland in the Irish War of Independence.  After some time when the IRA had fought the island of Ireland was split up and the Republic of Ireland became independent, the IRA split up and some parts of it were involved in the fighting in Northern Ireland called \"The Troubles\". The original IRA are now named as n\u00e1 \u00d3glaigh na h\u00c9ireann. While the other IRA have used guerilla tacticts to achieve a united Ireland free from British rule.\n\nThe original IRA\nThe Irish Republican Army (Irish: \u00d3glaigh na h\u00c9ireann) was formed from the joining of a part of the Irish Brotherhood with the union's Irish Citizens Army militia after the Easter Rising of 1916.\n\nAfter the unilateral declaration of independence by the Irish Parliament in 1919, the IRA continued the war against British occupation in what was called the Irish War of Independence. This ended in 1921 with the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which divided the island into the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The signing of the treaty led to a split in the IRA between those who were against the treaty and those who were for it. This led to a very bitter civil war, which saw former friends and even family members on different sides. The IRA lost the civil war but the group did not go away and they continued to fight Great Britain.\n\nThe Troubles\nIn the 1930s, the leftist group achieved some success in overcoming the division between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland . The refusal of IRA-Leadership, to cooperate with this course, led to a further division. Frank Ryan led a part of the Congress-group after Spain, where they are in the Spanish Civil War against General Francisco Franco.\n\nThe brutal police action against the Northern Ireland civil rights movement and the raids by loyalist paramilitaries in 1967 brought the IRA back on the map. At that time and until the end of the 80s were Northern Irish Catholics were in a legal vacuum, and were de facto vulnerable to the whims of the official from Britain supported nordir-Protestant police forces and paramilitary groups. Open violence to murders, torture, open prosecution, defamation and exclusion of qualified training and public offices were years of normalcy for the Northern Irish Catholics. The IRA obtained the support of large parts of the Catholic population, and almost had the status of a \"protecting power\". Some Irish-Americans also supported the violence. \n\nIn the 60s, there were differences between the military and the Provisionals oriented rather Marxist-theory oriented Officials. This resulted 1969 to re-divide into Provisional Irish Republican Army PIRA and the \"official\" group OIRA, which is strong in the civil rights movement-oriented. The \"official\" wing of the IRA never formally dissolved, but is de facto since about 1980 is no longer relevant.\nIn the 80 years changed the leadership of the Provisional IRA, instead of the veterans from the south over younger activists from Northern Ireland to key positions. At the top of the Sinn F\u00e9in joined Gerry Adams, the party clearly to the left. In 1993 he initiated jointly with the Social Democrats John Hume to the peace process, in August 1994, the IRA a unilateral ceasefire, a prerequisite for the Good Friday Agreement created. Despite the ceasefire, the IRA remained active even though not fighting.\n\nOnly two small splinter groups held up at the last state of war: The Real IRA and the Continuity IRA. When a car bomb attack the splinter group, which is called \"Real IRA\", in August 1998, in Northern Ireland Omagh were a total of 29 people killed.\nOn 28 In July 2005, the end of the IRA's armed warfare. \"All IRA-Soldiers have been instructed to lay down their arms,\" reads a statement from the IRA days, and continued: \"We believe that there is now an alternative way, (\u2026) the British rule in our country to an end.\"On 26 September 2005, the complete disarmament of the IRA by the head of thedisarmament commission, Canadian General John de Chastelain, announced. Two pastors, one Catholic, one Protestant were present at the destruction of weapons, no photographs or video was allowed to be taken as proof.\nOn 29 In October 2005 Gerry Adams said that the IRA campaign had \"clearly come to an end\".\n\nReferences\n\nIrish War of Independence\n \nRebel militia groups","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":41324,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Irish%20Republican%20Army","title":"Irish Republican Army","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Pieter Cramer (21 May 1721 (baptized) \u2013 28 September 1776) was a wealthy Dutch merchant in linen and Spanish wool, remembered as an entomologist. Cramer was the director of the Zealand Society, a scientific society located in Flushing, and a member of Concordia et Libertate, based in Amsterdam. This literary and patriotic society, where Cramer gave lectures on minerals, commissioned and\/or financed the publishing of his book De uitlandsche Kapellen, on foreign (exotic) butterflies, occurring in three parts of the world Asia, Africa and America.\n\nCramer assembled an extensive natural history collection that included seashells, petrifications, fossils and insects of all orders. Many were colourful butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), collected in countries where the Dutch had colonial or trading links, such as Surinam, Ceylon, Sierra Leone and the Dutch East Indies.\n\nCramer decided to get a permanent record of his collection and so engaged the painter Gerrit Wartenaar to draw his specimens. He also arranged for Wartenaar to draw butterflies and moths belonging to other keen Lepidoptera collectors in the Netherlands. One of them was stadtholder-prince William V of Orange. Hans Willem Baron Rengers and Joan Raye, the son of the former governor in Surinam, were among the others.  Such was the quality of the illustrations that Caspar Stoll encouraged him to publish the set of drawings.\n\nCramer, a bachelor, was born in Amsterdam, and lived on Oudezijds Voorburgwal at no. 131, close to the Oude Kerk. In 1760 he had bought the house, then known as \"the Three Kings\". On 5 September 1774 he made his will with a stipulation that the drawings should be available to the publisher.  So all the drawings went to his nephew Anthony van Rensselaer, under the condition that these drawings be printed by the bookseller Johannes Baalde.  As a result, De Uitlandsche Kapellen was published 1775\u20131782. It consisted of 33 parts, each one issued at intervals of three months to the subscribers, in four volumes. All of the drawings were accompanied by descriptions of the insects.\n\nCramer died \"of high fevers\" in 1776 after eight issues (Vol. I) had been published, leaving responsibility for finishing the project to Van Rensselaar and Stoll. Stoll is supposed to be the author of the text from page 29 of the fourth volume onwards.\n\nDe Uitlandsche Kapellen is a key work in the history of entomology. Beautifully illustrated with fine life-size  hand-coloured engravings of Lepidoptera from Asia, Africa and America, it was the first book on exotic Lepidoptera to use the then new system developed by Carl Linnaeus (1707\u20131778) for naming and classifying animals. Over 1658 butterfly species were described and illustrated on 396 (or 400) plates, Cramer and Stoll naming and illustrating many new species for the first time.\n \nCramer's collections were broken up after his death and sold, auctioned and donated to institutions and individuals. The Dutch Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum came to own a substantial number of his specimens and bought part of Cramer's collection from Joan Raye, heer van Breukelerwaert.\n\nWorks\nDe uitlandsche Kapellen voorkomende in de drie Waereld-Deelen Asia, Africa en America \u2013 Papillons exotiques des trois parties du monde l'Asie, l'Afrique et l'Amerique (1775\u20131782).\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nNHM\nEOL Encyclopedia of Life Taxa described by Cramer.Images.Type Cramer into the search box\n Digital version of De uitlandische kapellen\n\n1721 births\n1776 deaths\nScientists from Amsterdam\nDutch lepidopterists","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":9,"dup_details":{"2024-30":10,"2024-26":17,"2024-22":20,"2024-18":18,"2024-10":11,"2023-50":20,"2023-40":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2}},"id":2149233,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pieter%20Cramer","title":"Pieter Cramer","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A polymer is a molecule, made from joining many small molecules called monomers. The word \"polymer\" can be broken down into \"poly\" (meaning \"many\" in Greek) and \"mer\" (meaning \"unit\"). This shows how the chemical composition of a polymer consists of many smaller units (monomers) bonded together into a larger molecule. A chemical reaction bonding monomers together to make a polymer is called polymerization.\n\nSome polymers are natural and made by organisms. Proteins have polypeptide molecules, which are natural polymers made from various amino acid monomer units. Nucleic acids are huge natural polymers made up of millions of nucleotide units. Cellulose and starch (two types of carbohydrate) are also natural polymers made up of glucopyranose monomer bonded together in different ways. Rubber is a mixture of polymers. Plastics are man-made polymers. Many fibers are made of polymers.\n\nIf the \"units\" called monomers in a polymer are all the same, then the polymer is called a \"homopolymer\". Homopolymers are named by adding the prefix poly- before the monomer name from which the polymer is made. For example, a polymer made by bonding styrene monomer molecules together is called polystyrene.\n\nIf the monomers are not all the same, the polymer is called a \"copolymer\" or a \"heteropolymer\".\n\nMany polymer molecules are like chains where the monomer units are the links. Polymer molecules can be straight-chain, have branching from the main chain, or cross-linking between chains. As an example of cross-linking, sulfhydryl (-S-H) groups in two cysteine amino acid units in polypeptide chains can bond together to make a disulfide bridge (-S-S-) joining the chains together.\n\nIn the same way how large hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil can be broken down in smaller molecules e.g. ethylene by applying heat (a process called cracking), the monomer ethylene can then be turned into the polymer polyethylene by applying pressure and adding catalysts. Polyethelene is the basis of many plastic objects.\n\nRelated pages \n Macromolecule\n Synthetic fabric\n\n \nPolymer chemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":129,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2}},"id":3821,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymer","title":"Polymer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Schooling and shoaling is a kind of collective animal behaviour by fish.\n\nAny group of fish that stays together for social reasons is said to be shoaling, and if the shoal is swimming in the same direction together, it is schooling.p365 About one quarter of fish shoal all their lives, and about one half of fish shoal for part of their lives.\n\nFish get many benefits from shoaling. These include defence against predators: if fish swim in schools, it is less likely any one of them will be eaten. Also, it may help a fish find food, and a mate. The school may even swim faster than a lone fish. Fish generally prefer larger shoals, shoalmates of their own species, shoalmates similar in size and appearance to themselves, healthy fish, and kin (when recognized).\n\nAny shoal member which stands out in appearance may be targeted by predators. This is called the oddity effect. This may explain why fish prefer to shoal with individuals which look like themselves.\n\nSchooling \n\nSome fish spend most of their time schooling. Tuna, herring and anchovy, spend all of their time shoaling or schooling, and become agitated if separated from the group. Others, such as Atlantic cod, school only some of the time. Cod and tuna are, in nature, large fish which can look after themselves. Still, they do shoal.\n\nShoaling fish can shift into a disciplined and coordinated school, then shift back to an amorphous shoal within seconds. Such shifts are triggered by changes of activity from feeding, resting, travelling or avoiding predators.\n\nWhen schooling fish stop to feed, they break ranks and become shoals. Shoals are more vulnerable to predator attack. The shape a shoal or school takes depends on the type of fish and what the fish are doing. Schools that are travelling can form long thin lines, or squares or ovals or amoeboid shapes. Fast moving schools usually form a wedge shape, while shoals that are feeding tend to become circular.\n\nSmall fish are preyed on by larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals (Cetacea). Small fish form schools, and may swim with their mouths open to filter feed on plankton. These schools can become huge, moving along coastlines and migrating across open oceans. The shoals are concentrated fuel resources for the great marine predators.\n\nThese immense gatherings fuel the ocean food web. Most forage fish are pelagic fish, which means they form their schools in open water, and not on or near the bottom (demersal fish). The predators are keenly focused on the shoals, acutely aware of their numbers and whereabouts, and make migrations themselves, often in schools of their own, that can span thousands of miles to connect with, or stay connected with them.\n\nHerring are among the more spectacular schooling fish. They aggregate together in huge numbers. The largest schools are often formed during migrations by merging with smaller schools. \"Chains\" of mullet schools one hundred kilometres long have been seen migrating in the Caspian Sea. Radakov estimated herring schools in the North Atlantic can occupy up to 4.8 cubic kilometres with fish densities between 0.5 and 1.0 fish\/cubic metre. That is about three billion fish in one school. These schools move along coastlines and cross the open oceans. Herring schools have very precise arrangements which allow the school to maintain relatively constant cruising speeds. Herrings have excellent hearing, and their schools react very fast to a predator. The herrings keep a certain distance from a moving scuba diver or cruising predator like a killer whale, forming a space which looks like a doughnut from a spotter plane.\n\nMany species of large predatory fish also school, including many highly migratory fish, such as tuna and some ocean going sharks. Cetaceans such as dolphins, porpoises and whales, operate in organised social groups called pods.\n\nSchooling behaviour is generally described as a trade-off between the anti-predator benefits and the costs of increased competition for food.\n\nSchooling is a classic example of 'emergence', where there are properties that are possessed by the school but not by the individual fish. Emergent properties give an evolutionary advantage to members of the school which non-members do not receive.\n\nPredator avoidance\n\nFish are in danger of being eaten if they are separated from the school. Several anti-predator functions of fish schools have been proposed.\n Confusion effect \u2013 One potential method by which fish schools may thwart predators is the 'predator confusion effect' proposed and demonstrated by Milinksi and Heller (1978). It becomes difficult for predators to pick out individual prey from groups: the moving targets create an overload of the predator's brain. \"Shoaling fish are the same size and silvery, so it is difficult for a visually oriented predator to pick an individual out of a mass of twisting, flashing fish and then have enough time to grab its prey before it disappears into the shoal\".\n Many eyes effect \u2013 A second potential anti-predator effect of animal aggregations is the 'many eyes' hypothesis. This theory states that as the size of the group increases, the task of scanning the environment for predators can be spread out over many individuals. Not only does this effect provide the group with good warning, it may allow more time for individual feeding.\n Dilution effect \u2013 A third hypothesis for an anti-predatory effect of fish schools is the 'encounter dilution' effect. The dilution effect is an elaboration of safety in numbers, and interacts with the confusion effect. A given predator attack will eat a smaller proportion of a large shoal than a small shoal. Hamilton proposed that animals aggregate because of a \"selfish\" avoidance of a predator and was thus a form of cover-seeking. Another formulation of the theory was given by Turner and Pitcher and was viewed as a combination of detection and attack probabilities.\n\nSchooling forage fish are subject to constant attacks by predators. An example is the attacks that take place during the African sardine run. The African sardine run is a spectacular migration by millions of silvery sardines along the southern coastline of Africa. In terms of biomass, the sardine run could rival East Africa's great wildebeest migration.\n\nSardines have a short life-cycle, living only two or three years. Adult sardines, about two years old, mass on the Agulhas Bank where they spawn during spring and summer, releasing tens of thousands of eggs into the water. The adult sardines then make their way in hundreds of shoals towards the sub-tropical waters of the Indian Ocean. A larger shoal might be 7\u00a0kilometres (4\u00a0mi) long, 1.5\u00a0kilometres (1\u00a0mi) wide and 30\u00a0meters (100\u00a0ft) deep. Huge numbers of sharks, dolphins, tuna, sailfish, Cape fur seals and even killer whales congregate and follow the shoals, creating a feeding frenzy along the coastline.\n\nWhen threatened, sardines instinctively group together and create massive bait balls. Bait balls can be up to 20\u00a0meters (70\u00a0ft) in diameter. They are short lived, seldom lasting longer than 20\u00a0minutes.\n\nThe fish eggs, left behind at the Agulhas Banks, drift north west with the current into waters off the west coast, where the larvae develop into juvenile fish. When they are old enough, they aggregate into dense shoals and migrate southwards, returning to the Agulhas banks in order to restart the cycle.\n\nReferences \n\nFish\nEthology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"unknown":7,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":303018,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shoaling%20and%20schooling","title":"Shoaling and schooling","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Tuff (from Italian tufo) is a type of rock produced by the eruption of volcanoes.\n\nIt consists of consolidated  volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption. Rock with more than 50% tuff is called tuffaceous. The chemical and mineral composition of tuff varies according to what was in the molten magma.\n\nVolcanic ash \nIn a volcanic eruption, Magma is blown apart by volcanic gases and steam.  The products are volcanic gases, lava, steam, and tephra (fragments).  The solid material produced and thrown into the air is called tephra, regardless of composition or fragment size.  If the pieces of ejecta are small, the material is called volcanic ash, defined as such particles less than 2\u00a0mm in diameter, sand-sized or smaller.  These particles are small, slaggy pieces of magma and rock that have been tossed into the air by outbursts of steam and other gases.\n\nStructure\n\nBreccias \n\nAmong the loose beds of ash that cover the slopes of many volcanoes, three classes of materials are represented. \n True ashes of the kind described above.\n Lumps of the old lavas and tuffs forming the walls of the crater, which have been torn away by the violent outbursts of steam.\n Pieces of sedimentary rocks from the deeper parts of the volcano that were dislodged by the rising lava and are often baked and recrystallized by the heat. \n\nIn some great volcanic explosions nothing but materials of the second kind were emitted, as at Mount Bandai in Japan in 1888. There have also been many eruptions in which the quantity of broken sedimentary rocks that mingled with the ash is very great. \n\nThese materials, in contrast to true ashes, tend to occur in angular fragments. When they form a large part of the mass the rock is more properly a 'volcanic breccia' than a tuff. A breccia is a rock with sharp-edged fragments in it.\n\nAgglomerate \nThe ashes vary in size from large blocks twenty feet or more in diameter to the minutest impalpable dust. The large masses are called 'volcanic bombs'; they have mostly a rounded, elliptical or pear-shaped form owing to rotation in the air before they solidified. Many of them have ribbed or nodular surfaces, and sometimes they have a crust intersected by many cracks like the surface of a loaf of bread. Any ash in which they are very abundant is called an agglomerate.\n\nConsolidation\nA tuff of recent origin is generally loose, but the older tuffs have usually been cemented together by pressure and the action of infiltrating water. This makes rocks which, while not very hard, are strong enough to be used for building purposes (e.g. in the neighborhood of Rome).\n\nUnder water \nMany volcanoes stand near the sea, and the ashes cast out by them are mingled with the sediments that are gathering at the bottom of the waters. In this way ashy muds or sands or even in some cases ashy limestones are formed. As a matter of fact most of the tuffs found in the older rock formations contain mixtures of clay, sand, and sometimes fossil shells, which prove that they were beds spread out under water.\n\nRepeated eruptions \nDuring some volcanic eruptions a layer of ashes several feet in thickness is deposited over a considerable district, but such beds thin out rapidly as the distance from the crater increases, and ash deposits covering many square miles are usually very thin. \n\nThe showers of ashes often follow one another after longer or shorter intervals, and hence thick masses of tuff, whether of subaerial or of marine origin, have mostly a stratified character. In the fine beds it is often developed in great perfection.\n\nWelded tuff \n\nWelded tuff is a pyroclastic flow of lava which was hot enough to weld together. During welding, the glass shards and pumice fragments adhere together (necking at point contacts), deform, and compact together. \n\nA hot lava flow welded by heat can be highly voluminous, such as the Lava Creek Tuff erupted from Yellowstone Caldera in Wyoming 640,000 years ago. Lava Creek Tuff was at least 1000 times as large as the deposits of the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. It had a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 8\u2014greater than any eruption known in the last 10,000 years.\n\nBasaltic tuffs \n\nBasaltic tuffs are occur widely. They are found in Skye, Mull, Antrim and other places, where there are tertiary volcanic rocks; in Scotland, Derbyshire and Ireland among the carboniferous strata; and among the still older rocks of the Lake District, southern uplands of Scotland and Wales. \n\nBasaltic tuffs are black, dark green or red in colour. They vary greatly in coarseness. Often submarine, they may contain shale, sandstone, grit and other sedimentary material, and are occasionally fossiliferous. Recent basaltic tuffs are found in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Jan Mayen, Sicily, Sandwich Islands, Samoa, etc.\n\nNotes \n\nIgneous rocks","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":139,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":273305,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tuff","title":"Tuff","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ancient history is all the events we know about between the invention of writing and the start of the Middle Ages. \n\nWriting is one of the greatest inventions of the human species. It was invented after the Neolithic revolution in which people settled in small towns and started agriculture. Writing dates from about 3,300 BC, which is over 5000 years ago, in the Middle East. The first people to use writing were the Sumerians and the Ancient Egyptians.\n\nBefore writing, the only things we have are the tools and monuments made by earlier people. This is studied by archaeology rather than history. The period of ancient history ends with the early Middle Ages.\n\nStudy of ancient history \nFinding facts about ancient history is difficult because people wrote less in those times: only scribes could write. Most of what they did write has been lost. There were very few copies made because there was no printing. What people wrote they wrote by hand. More people could read and write in Ancient Rome than in other places but much of what they wrote is now lost.\n\nArchaeology \nArchaeology is looking at things that were made or used in the past to learn about that time. Things like clay pots, solid tools, and metal weapons often exist at the same time. Things like paper, wood, and cloth can be easily broken, burnt or damaged.\n\nSome ancient things found using archaeology are:\n The Egyptian pyramids - Big tombs made by the Ancient Egyptians for their king and queens.\n The city of Pompeii - A city from Ancient Rome. When a volcano (a mountain that makes fire and hot rocks) killed the people living there, the city was buried and the things inside it were covered with rock and ash. This meant that they did not change for a long time.\n The Terracotta Army - the tomb of the First Qin Emperor in Ancient China.\n\nPrimary sources \nPrimary sources are written by people who lived in ancient times. They tell us most of what we know about ancient history. But people in ancient history may have believed different things from each other. They may also be wrong.\n\nSome famous people who wrote ancient history are:\nHerodotus, Josephus, Livy, Polybius, Suetonius, Tacitus, Thucydides and Sima Qian.\n\nChronology\n\nPrehistory \n The human race evolved in Africa. Our species, Homo sapiens evolved about 200 to 250,000 years ago.\n ~90,000 years ago \u2013 people go to the Middle East.\n ~60,000 years ago \u2013 people from Africa go to Asia.\n ~40,000 years ago \u2013 people go to Australia.\n ~40,000 years ago \u2013 people go to Europe.\n ~14th to 10th millennium BC \u2013 people go to America.\n ~10th millennium BC \u2013 people start farming.\n 4th millennium BC \u2013 cuneiform writing in the cities of Uruk and Susa; and hieroglyphs (picture writing) in Egypt.\n 1000 years BC \u2013 earliest writing about history.\n 450 BC - Herodotus writes what may be the first book based on non-fictional events. It is still available today.\n\nOlder Ancient history \n c. 3300 BC \u2013 Bronze Age start in the Near East and South Asia Bronze Age goes to the rest of Europe and The Middle East\n c. 3100 BC \u2013 Sagol Kangjei, the proto-polo was invented in Ancient Manipur (Antique Kangleipak). \n c. 3000 BC \u2013 Egyptians make papyrus (paper made of Reeds)\n c. 2800 BC \u2013 Kot Diji time of the Indus Valley Civilization starts\n c. 2700 BC \u2013 Elam grows.\n 2580 BC \u2013 Egyptians make the Great Pyramid of Giza\n 2000 BC \u2013 People use horses\n 1700 BC \u2013 Indus Valley Civilization ends but the Cemetery H culture keeps going; The start of Poverty Point Civilization in North America\n 1600 BC \u2013 The start of Shang Dynasty in China, Chinese make writing.\n 1600 BC \u2013 Hittite people start ruling The Middle East.\n 1500 BC \u2013 People make the Rigveda.\n 1445 BC \u2013 Monarchy started in Ancient Manipur (Antique Kangleipak). \n 1398 BC \u2013 The Wakoklon was written down. \n 1200 BC - The Bronze Age collapse.\n 1200 BC \u2013 The Hebrews come to Israel and start living there.\n c. 1200 BC \u2013 The Trojan War\n c. 1100 BC \u2013 King Saul makes the 12 tribes of Israel into Israel\n c. 1180 BC \u2013 End of the Hittite Empire\n 1122 BC \u2013 The Zhou people stop the last king of Shang Dynasty from being king; Zhou Dynasty starts in China\n 1004 BC \u2013 King David captures Jebus.  He calls it Jerusalem and makes it the capital of Israel.\n\n1000 BC to 100 BC \n 928 BC - Israel breaks and becomes The Kingdom of Judah and the Kingdom of Israel\n 800 BC - City states in Ancient Greece\n 776 BC - People write about the Olympic Games. They were started before this time but people did not write about them.\n c. 753 BC - Rome starts\n 751 BC - LeChe grows\n 745 BC - Tiglath-Pileser III becomes the new king of Assyria. He will become powerful and make Assyria into an empire\n 728 BC - the Median Empire grows\n 722 BC - Zhou Dynasty becomes weaker; the time of the Hundred Schools of Thought begins.\n 653 BC - The first Persian state grows.\n 600 BC - Sixteen Maha Janapadas (\"Great Realms\" or \"Great Kingdoms\") start. \n c. 600 BC - Pandyan kingdom in South India\n c. 563 BC - Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), is born as a prince of the Shakya tribe. The Shakya tribe ruled parts of Magadha.\n 549 BC - Mahavira is born\n 546 BC - Cyrus the Great makes The Persian Empire.\n 546 BC - Cyrus the Great defeats the Lydian kingdom\n 544 BC - Bimbisara makes Magadha powerful.\n 539 BC - the Babylonian Empire ends and Cyrus the Great frees the Jews. \n 525 BC - Cambyses II of Persia takes Egypt\n c. 512 BC - Darius I (Darius the Great) of Persia takes Easter Thrace, Macedonia, and Libya. The Persian Empire is the most powerful.\n 509 BC - The last King of Rome stops being king, The Roman Republic starts.\n 500 BC - Pingala uses zero and binary numbers.\n 490 BC - Greek city-states defeat the Persian attack at Battle of Marathon\n 424 BC - Nanda dynasty becomes powerful.\n 404 BC - End of Peloponnesian War.\n 403 BC - Warring States Period starts in China.\n 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela\n 326 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Indian king Porus (Purushottama) in the Battle of the Hydaspes River.\n 321 BC - Chandragupta Maurya defeats the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha\n 323 BC - Alexander the Great dies.\n 273 BC - Ashoka the Great becomes the emperor of the Mauryan Empire\n 250 BC - Parthia (Ashk\u00e2ni\u00e2n) becomes powerful.\n 232 BC - Emperor Ashoka the Great dies; the Mauryan Empire becomes weak.\n 230 BC - Satavahanas are in South India\n 221 BC - Qin Shi Huang is in China, end of Warring States Period; start of Emperors in China (this will end in 1912 AD)\n 202 BC - Han Dynasty starts in China,Qin Shi Huang dies; the Silk Road is made\n 202 BC - Scipio Africanus defeats Hannibal at Battle of Zama\n c. 200 BC - Chera dynasty in South India\n 185 BC - Sunga Empire starts\n 149 BC-146 BC - Third and last Punic War; Rome defeats Cathage.\n 146 BC - Rome takes Greece.\n 110 BC - First time the Chinese rule Vietnam: the Nanyue Kingdom.\n c 100 BC - Chola Dynasty grows.\n\n100 BC to end of Roman Empire, 476 AD \n 49 BC - Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great make the Roman Civil War\n 44 BC - Marcus Brutus and others kill Julius Ceaser; The Roman Republic ends; The Roman Empire starts.\n 6 BC - Jesus of Nazareth is born\n c. 1 BC - The Numit Kappa was written down. \n 9 - Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.\n 14 - Emperor Augustus (Octavian) dies, Tiberius becomes emperor.\n 33 - Emperor Nongda Lairen Pakhangba of Ningthouja dynasty ascended the throne of the Kangla.\n 117 - Trajan is The emperor of Rome. The Roman Empire is the most powerful.\n 200s - The Hindu Srivijaya Empire starts in the Malay Archipelago.\n 220 - The Han Dynasty ends in China.\n 226 - the Parthian Empire ends and the Sassanian Empire becomes powerful\n 238 - Shapur I of Persia defeats of Gordian III (238\u2013244), Philip the Arab (244\u2013249), and Valerian (253\u2013260).\n 285 - Emperor Diocletian breaks the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western Empires\n 313 - Edict of Milan says that the Roman Empire would not make people worship a god.\n 335 - Samudragupta becomes the emperor of the Gupta empire\n 378 - Battle of Adrianople, the Germanic tribes defeat Roman army.\n 395 - Roman Emperor Theodosius I makes people be Christian\n 410 - Alaric defeats Rome. No one has deafeated Rome after 390 BC\n c. 455 - Skandagupta stops Indo-Hephthalite people attacking India.\n 476 - Romulus Augustus deposed as emperor of Rome,\n\nSome groups of people in ancient history\n\nEurope \n Ancient Greece\n Ancient Rome\n Celts\n Etruscans\n Germanic tribes\n Illyrians\n Scythians\n\nMiddle East \n Ancient Persia\n Achaemenid Empire\n Parthian Empire\n Sassanid Empire\n Seleucid Empire\n Akkad\n Assyria\n Babylonia\n Elam\n Hebrews\n Hittites\n Kassites\n Medes \n Mitanni\n Palestine\n Phoenicians\n Sumer\n Urartu\n\nSaharan and Sub-Saharan Africa \nAncient Egypt\n Kingdom of Aksum\n Carthage\n Kush\n\nSouth and East Asia \n Ancient China\n Ancient India\n Ancient Japan\n Ancient Korea\n Ancient Manipur\n Ancient Moirang\n Huns\n Indus Valley civilization\n Khuman kingdom\n Mongols\n Ancient Turks\n Siam\n\nAmerica \n Adena culture\n Aztecs\n Inca\n Mayans\n Mississippian culture\n Native American\n Olmecs\n Poverty Point culture\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1}},"id":26891,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancient%20history","title":"Ancient history","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Translation is the second part of protein biosynthesis (the making of proteins). It is part of the process of gene expression.\n\nBefore translation comes: \ntranscription, which produces a chain of introns and exons.\nRNA splicing by spliceosomes which remove introns, and\nformulation of the messenger RNA from exons.\n\nIn eukaryotes, translation happens on the ribosomes in the cytoplasm and in the endoplasmic reticulum. In bacteria, translation happens in the cell cytoplasm: they have no nucleus.\n\nRibosomes are made of a small part and a large part which surround the mRNA (messenger RNA). In translation, mRNA has the base sequence to make a specific polypeptide. This sequence is originally specified by the DNA, and copied by the mRNA. The polypeptide can be a whole protein. Or, it can be just a part, waiting to be combined with other polypeptides so it can make a whole protein. The polypeptide also has to be folded before it works as a protein.\n\nAmino acids are carried by specific tRNAs with anticodons to connect with mRNA's matching codons. Each tRNA has its own anticodon and carries an amino acid. An anticodon is always together with the same amino acid.\n\nWhen the tRNA matches with the mRNA, the amino acid that is connected to the tRNA is unconnected from the tRNA and gets connected to the amino acid brought by the previous tRNA.\n\nSo, a ribosome works a lot like a stock ticker and ticker tape. Many ribosomes, together with mRNA, will attach themselves to the outer membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Any proteins that those ribosomes make go into the inside of the endoplasmic reticulum, where it will probably go into a vesicle later. The vesicles will then bring the proteins to other organelles or even the outside of the cell.\n\nFour stages \n\nTranslation happens in four stages: activation (make ready), initiation (start), elongation (make longer) and termination (stop). These terms describe the growth of the amino acid chain (polypeptide). \nAmino acids are brought to ribosomes and assembled into proteins. In the activation stage, the correct amino acid is covalently bonded to the correct transfer RNA (tRNA). When the tRNA is connected to an amino acid, it is \"charged\". \nInitiation is when the small part of the ribosome connects to 5' end of the mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF). \nElongation is when the amino acids brought by the \"charged\" tRNAs are connected to each other to form a polypeptide.\n\nSome antibiotics work by keeping translation from happening. Prokaryotic ribosomes are different from eukaryotic ribosomes. So antibiotics can kill bacteria without hurting the eukaryotic host. For example, antibiotics taken by a human might kill the bacteria that is making the human sick but wouldn't hurt the human.\n\nReferences \n Champe, Pamela C. Harvey, Richard A. and Ferrier, Denise R. 2005. Lippincott's illustrated reviews: Biochemistry 3rd ed, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. .\n  Nelson, David L. Cox, Michael M. and Lehninger, Albert L. 2005. Lehninger principles of biochemistry 4th ed, Freeman. .\n\nMolecular biology\nCell biology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":5,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":5,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":6,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":73043,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Translation%20%28genetics%29","title":"Translation (genetics)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Shunryu Suzuki (\u9234\u6728 \u4fca\u9686 Suzuki Shunry\u016b, dharma name Sh\u014dgaku Shunry\u016b \u7965\u5cb3\u4fca\u9686, often called Suzuki Roshi; May 18, 1904 \u2013 December 4, 1971) was a S\u014dt\u014d Zen monk and teacher who helped popularize Zen Buddhism in the United States, and is renowned for founding the first Zen Buddhist monastery outside Asia (Tassajara Zen Mountain Center). Suzuki founded San Francisco Zen Center which, along with its affiliate temples, comprises one of the most influential Zen organizations in the United States. A book of his teachings, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind, is one of the most popular books on Zen and Buddhism in the West.\n\nBiography\n\nChildhood\nShunryu Suzuki was born May 18, 1904, in Kanagawa Prefecture southwest of Tokyo, Japan. His father, Butsumon Sogaku Suzuki, was the abbot of the village Soto Zen temple. His mother, Yone, was the daughter of a priest and had been divorced from her first husband for being too independent. Shunryu grew up with an older half-brother from his mother's first marriage and two younger sisters. As an adult he was about  tall.\n\nHis father's temple, Sh\u014dgan-ji, was located near Hiratsuka, a city on Sagami Bay about fifty miles southwest of Tokyo. The temple income was small and the family had to be very thrifty.\n\nSuzuki became aware of his family's financial plight when he began school. Suzuki was kind and sensitive, but prone to quick outbursts of anger. He was ridiculed by the other boys because of his shaved head and because he was the son of a priest. He preferred to spend his time in the classroom rather than on the schoolyard and was always at the top of his class. The teacher told him he would become a great man if he left Kanagawa Prefecture and studied hard.\n\nApprenticeship\n\nIn 1916, 12-year-old Suzuki decided to train with a disciple of his father, Gyokujun So-on Suzuki. So-on was Sogaku's adopted son and abbot of Sogaku's former temple Zoun-in. His parents initially thought he was too young to live far from home but eventually allowed it.\n\nZoun-in is in a small village called Mori, Shizuoka in Japan. Suzuki arrived during a 100-day practice period at the temple and was the youngest student there. Zoun-in was a larger temple than Sh\u014dgan-ji.\n\nAt 4:00 each morning he arose for zazen. Next he would chant sutras and begin cleaning the temple with the others. They would work throughout the day and then, in the evenings, they all would resume zazen. Suzuki idolized his teacher, who was a strong disciplinarian. So-on often was rough on Suzuki but gave him some latitude for being so young.\n\nWhen Suzuki turned 13, on May 18, 1917, So-on ordained him as a novice monk (unsui). He was given the Buddhist name Shogaku Shunryu, yet So-on nicknamed him Crooked Cucumber for his forgetful and unpredictable nature.\n\nShunryu began again attending upper-elementary school in Mori, but So-on did not supply proper clothes for him. He was the subject of ridicule. In spite of his misfortune he didn't complain. Instead he doubled his efforts back at the temple.\n\nWhen Shunryu had first come to Zoun-in, eight other boys were studying there. By 1918, he was the only one who stayed. This made his life a bit tougher with So-on, who had more time to scrutinize him. During this period Suzuki wanted to leave Zoun-in but equally didn't want to give up.\n\nIn 1918 So-on was made head of a second temple, on the rim of Yaizu, called Rinso-in. Shunryu followed him there and helped whip the place back in order. Soon, families began sending their sons there and the temple began to come to life. Suzuki had failed an admissions test at the nearby school, so So-on began teaching the boys how to read and write Chinese.\n\nSo-on soon sent his students to train with a Rinzai master for a while. Here Shunryu studied a very different kind of Zen, one that promoted the attainment of satori through the concentration on koans through zazen. Suzuki had problems sitting with his koan. Meanwhile, all the other boys passed theirs, and he felt isolated. Just before the ceremony marking their departure Suzuki went to the Rinzai teacher and blurted out his answer. The master passed Suzuki; later Shunryu believed he had done it simply to be kind.\n\nIn 1919, at age 15, Suzuki was brought back home by his parents, who suspected mistreatment by So-on. Shunryu helped out with the temple while there and entered middle school. Yet, when summer vacation came, he was back at Rinso-in and Zoun-in with So-on to train and help out. He didn't want to stop training.\n\nIn school Suzuki took English and did quite well. A local doctor, Dr. Yoshikawa, hired him to tutor his two sons in English. Yoshikawa treated Suzuki well, giving him a wage and occasional advice.\n\nHigher education\n\nIn 1924 Shunryu enrolled in a Soto preparatory school in Tokyo not far from Shogan-ji, where he lived on the school grounds in the dorm. From 1925 to 1926 Suzuki did Zen training with Dojun Kato in Shizuoka at Kenko-in. He continued his schooling during this period. Here Shunryu became head monk for a 100-day retreat, after which he was no longer merely considered a novice. He had completed his training as a head monk.\n\nIn 1925 Shunryu graduated from preparatory school and entered Komazawa University, the Soto Zen university in Tokyo. During this period he continued his connections with So-on in Zoun-in, going back and forth whenever possible.\n\nSome of his teachers here were discussing how Soto Zen might reach a bigger audience with students and, while Shunryu couldn't comprehend how Western cultures could ever understand Zen, he was intrigued.\n\nOn August 26, 1926, So-on gave Dharma transmission to Suzuki. He was 22. Shunryu's father also retired as abbot at Shogan-ji this same year, and moved the family onto the grounds of Zoun-in where he served as inkyo (retired abbot).\n\nLater that year Suzuki spent a short time in the hospital with tuberculosis, but soon recovered. In 1927 an important chapter in Suzuki's life was turned. He went to visit a teacher of English he had at Komazawa named Miss Nona Ransom, a woman who had taught English to such people as the last emperor of China, Pu-yi, and more so his wife, the last empress of China, Jigoro Kano (the Founder of Judo), the children of Chinese president Li Yuanhong, and some members of the Japanese royal family. She hired him that day to be a translator and to help with errands. Through this period he realized she was very ignorant of Japanese culture and the religion of Buddhism. She respected it very little and saw it as idol worship. But one day, when there were no chores to be done, the two had a conversation on Buddhism that changed her mind. She even let Suzuki teach her zazen meditation. This experience is significant in that Suzuki realized that Western ignorance of Buddhism could be transformed.\n\nOn January 22, 1929, So-on retired as abbot of Zoun-in and installed Shunryu as its 28th abbot. Sogaku would run the temple for Shunryu. In January 1930 a ten'e ceremony was held at Zoun-in for Shunryu. This ceremony acknowledged So-on's Dharma transmission to Shunryu, and served as a formal way for the Soto heads to grant Shunryu permission to teach as a priest. On April 10, 1930, at age 25, Suzuki graduated from Komazawa Daigakurin with a major in Zen and Buddhist philosophy, and a minor in English.\n\nSuzuki mentioned to So-on during this period that he might be interested in going to America to teach Zen Buddhism. So-on was adamantly opposed to the idea. Suzuki realized that his teacher felt very close to him and that he would take such a departure as an insult. He did not mention it to him again.\n\nEihei-ji and S\u014dji-ji\n\nUpon graduation from Komazawa, So-on wanted Shunryu to continue his training at the well known Soto Zen temple Eihei-ji in Fukui Prefecture. In September 1930 Suzuki entered the training temple and underwent the Zen initiation known as tangaryo. His mother and father stayed on at Zoun-in to care for his temple in his absence.\n\nEihei-ji is one of the largest Zen training facilities in Japan, and the abbot at this time was Gempo Kitano-roshi. Prior to coming to Japan, Kitano was head of Soto Zen in Korea. He also was one of the founders of Zenshuji, a Soto Zen temple located in Los Angeles, California. Suzuki's father and Kitano had a tense history between them. Sogaku had trained with Kitano in his early Zen training and felt that he was such a high priest due to familial status and connections. Shunryu did not see this in Kitano, however. He saw a humble man who gave clear instruction, and Shunryu realized that his father was very wrong in his assessment.\n\nOften monks were assigned duties at the monastery to serve certain masters. Shunryu was assigned to Ian Kishizawa-roshi, a well known teacher at the time who had previously studied under two great Japanese teachers: S\u014dtan Oka and Bokusan Nishiari. He was a renowned scholar on D\u014dgen's Sh\u014db\u014dgenz\u014d, and was also an acquaintance of his father from childhood.\n\nKishizawa was strict but not abusive, treating Suzuki well. Suzuki learned much from him, and Kishizawa saw a lot of potential in him. Through him Suzuki came to appreciate the importance of bowing in Zen practice through example. In December Suzuki sat his first true sesshin for 7 days, an ordeal that was challenging initially but proved rewarding toward the end. This concluded his first practice period at Eihei-ji.\n\nIn September 1931, after one more practice period and sesshin at Eihei-ji, So-on arranged for Suzuki to train in Yokohama at S\u014dji-ji. S\u014dji-ji was the other main Soto temple of Japan, and again Suzuki underwent the harsh tangaryo initiation. Sojiji was founded by the great Zen master Keizan and had a more relaxed atmosphere than Eihei-ji. At S\u014dji-ji Suzuki travelled back to Zoun-in frequently to attend to his temple.\n\nIn 1932 So-on came to S\u014dji-ji to visit with Shunryu and, after hearing of Suzuki's contentment at the temple, advised him to leave it. In April of that year Suzuki left S\u014dji-ji with some regret and moved back into Zoun-in, living with his family there. In May he visited with Ian Kishizawa from Eiheiji and, with So-on's blessing, asked to continue studies under him. He went to Gyokuden-in for his instruction, where Kishizawa trained him hard in zazen and conducted personal interviews with him.\n\nSometime during this period Suzuki married a woman who contracted tuberculosis. The date and name of the woman is unknown, but the marriage was soon annulled. She went back to live with her family while he focused on his duties at Zoun-in.\n\nSuzuki reportedly was involved with some anti-war activities during World War II, but according to David Chadwick, the record is confusing and, at most, his actions were low-key. However, considering the wholesale enthusiastic support for the war expressed by the entire religious establishment in Japan at the time, this fact is significant in showing something of the character of the man.\n\nSan Francisco Zen Center\n\nOn May 23, 1959, Shunryu Suzuki arrived in San Francisco to attend to Soko-ji, at that time the sole Soto Zen temple in San Francisco. He was 55. Suzuki took over for the interim priest, Wako Kazumitsu Kato. Suzuki was taken aback by the Americanized and watered-down Buddhism practiced at the temple, mostly by older immigrant Japanese. He found American culture interesting and not too difficult to adjust to, even commenting once that \"if I knew it would be like this, I would have come here sooner!\" He was surprised to see that Sokoji was previously a Jewish synagogue (at 1881 Bush Street, now a historic landmark). His sleeping quarters were located upstairs, a windowless room with an adjoining office.\n\nAt the time of Suzuki's arrival, Zen had become a hot topic amongst some groups in the United States, especially beatniks. Particularly influential were several books on Zen and Buddhism by Alan Watts. Word began to spread about Suzuki among the beatniks through places like the San Francisco Art Institute and the American Academy of Asian Studies, where Alan Watts was once director. Kato had done some presentations at the academy and asked Suzuki to come join a class he was giving there on Buddhism. This sparked Suzuki's long-held desire to teach Zen to Westerners.\n\nThe class was filled with people wanting to learn more about Buddhism, and the presence of a Zen master was inspiring for them. Suzuki had the class do zazen for 20 minutes, sitting on the floor without a zafu and staring forward at the white wall. In closing, Suzuki invited everyone to stop in at Sokoji for morning zazen. Little by little, more people showed up each week to sit zazen for 40 minutes with Suzuki on mornings. The students were improvising, using cushions borrowed from wherever they could find them.\n\nThe group that sat with Suzuki eventually formed the San Francisco Zen Center with Suzuki. The Zen Center flourished so that in 1966, at the behest and guidance of Suzuki, Zentatsu Richard Baker helped seal the purchase of Tassajara Hot Springs in Los Padres National Forest, which they called Tassajara Zen Mountain Center. In the fall of 1969, they bought a building at 300 Page Street near San Francisco's Lower Haight neighborhood and turned it into a Zen temple. Suzuki left his post at Sokoji to become the first abbot of one of the first Buddhist training monasteries outside Asia. Suzuki's departure from Sokoji was thought to be inspired by his dissatisfaction with the superficial Buddhist practice of the Japanese immigrant community and his preference for the American students who were more seriously interested in Zen meditation, but it was more at the insistence of the Sokoji board, which asked him to choose one or the other (he had tried to keep both roles). Although Suzuki thought there was much to learn from the study of Zen in Japan, he said that it had grown moss on its branches, and he saw his American students as a means to reform Zen and return it to its pure zazen- (meditation) and practice-centered roots.\n\nSuzuki died on December 4, 1971, presumably from cancer.\n\nPublications\nA collection of his teishos (Zen talks) was published in 1970 in the book Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind during Suzuki's lifetime. His lectures on the Sandokai are collected in Branching Streams Flow in the Darkness, edited by Mel Weitsman and Michael Wenger and published in 1999. Edward Espe Brown edited Not Always So: Practicing the True Spirit of Zen which was published in 2002.\n\nA biography of Suzuki, titled Crooked Cucumber, was written by David Chadwick in 1999.\n\nLineage\n\nQuotations\n \"In the beginner's mind there are many possibilities, in the expert's mind there are few.\"\n\nBooks\n Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind. Ed. Trudy Dixon. Weatherhill, 1970. \n Branching Streams Flow in the Darkness: Zen Talks on the Sandokai 1st ed. Eds. Mel Weitsman and Michael Wenger. University of California Press, 1999. \n Not Always So: Practicing the True Spirit of Zen. Ed. Edward Espe Brown. HarperCollins, 2002. \n Zen is Right Here. Shambhala, 2007. \n Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind. Shambhala, 2011. \n \"To Shine One Corner of the World: moments with Shunryu Suzuki \/ the students of Shunryu Suzuki\". Ed. David Chadwick. Broadway Books, 2001.  (Out of print - same as Zen is Right Here)\nZen Is Right Now: More Teaching Stories and Anecdotes of Shunryu Suzuki. Ed. David Chadwick. Shambhala, 2021. \nCrooked Cucumber: the Life and Zen Teaching of Shunryu Suzuki. by David Chadwick. Harmony, 2000. ISBN 978-0767901055\n\nSee also\n\n Timeline of Zen Buddhism in the United States\n Shoshin\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n shunryusuzuki.com - the most complete archive transcript, audio, video, photo\n David Chadwick's cuke.com, the oral written history of the Suzuki era, those who were there, and more\n - ZMBM.net - a site for the book, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind\n - Facebook Cuke Archives - daily lecture excerpts, Zen related posts from cuke.com What's New\n - Youtube Cuke Video - all the film to video whole and in parts\n San Francisco Zen Center\n Shunryu Suzuki lineage - Sweeping Zen\n \n \n\n1904 births\n1971 deaths\nPeople from Kanagawa Prefecture\nJapanese emigrants to the United States\nBuddhism in the United States\nZen Buddhism writers\nZen Buddhist monks\nSan Francisco Zen Center\nSoto Zen Buddhists\nKomazawa University alumni\nJapanese Buddhist clergy\nJapanese Zen Buddhists\nAmerican Zen Buddhists\nAmerican Buddhist monks\nJapanese Buddhist missionaries\nJapanese writers\nJapanese non-fiction writers\nEnglish-language writers from Japan\nReligious leaders from the San Francisco Bay Area\n20th-century Buddhist monks","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":63,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":3}},"id":194913,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shunry%C5%AB%20Suzuki","title":"Shunry\u016b Suzuki","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dorset is a county in south England which is by the sea. The biggest towns in it are Bournemouth and Poole. There are other smaller towns, some by the sea, like Weymouth, Swanage, West Bay, the Isle of Portland, Dorchester, Wareham, Lyme Regis, Blandford and Wool.\n\nLocation\nDorset is next to Devon, Somerset, Wiltshire and Hampshire.\nThere is a lot of countryside in Dorset, so there are quite a few farmers. Other people work in offices, shops or the holiday business. There are not many factories or industry in Dorset.\nPeople come on holiday to Dorset because the countryside and sea is peaceful and pretty, and there are not many big towns and no cities at all. Bournemouth, Poole, Weymouth, Swanage and Lyme Regis are quite famous seaside towns, where most holidaymakers go when they come to Dorset.\n\nDorset coast\nThe Dorset coast is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Jurassic Coast. This includes famous fossil sites where Mary Anning collected, and famous landforms such as Chesil Beach.\n\nGallery\n\n \nCeremonial counties of England","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":29606,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dorset","title":"Dorset","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Puritans were a group of English-speaking Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries. Puritans thought that the English Reformation had not gone far enough. They also did not agree with some of the things the Church of England did.\n\nKing Henry VIII separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1534 and established the Protestant Church of England.  This Church remained until 1553. Queen Mary returned the Church to Roman Catholicism until 1558 when Elizabeth I of England became Queen.  Since she was a Protestant many people were happy, but thought that the Church had not changed enough and was still too much like Catholicism.\n\nA Puritan was any person who tried to become purer through worship and doctrine. The Puritans' way of life and set of beliefs were called Puritanism.  The most important parts of Puritanism were piety (obeying religious rules), dressing simply, and living a modest life.\n\nThe Puritans believed some of the same things as Calvinists and Scottish Presbyterians. All of these groups were devoted to the Bible and to being morally pure.\n\nOne of the Puritans' most important beliefs was that every person needed to understand the Bible in his own way. (This belief is shared among most Protestants.) Puritans tried to live by the Bible's teachings in every way. They tried to be morally pure in even the smallest ways. They also tried to be spiritually pure in every way. They thought that man existed for the glory of God. They believed that man's most important job in life was to do God's will (what God wanted). By doing God's will, man would be rewarded with happiness in the future.\n\nBecause they did not agree with the way the Church of England did things, the Puritans made reforms, or changes, in their own churches and societies. Some of the Reformed churches in Europe made similar changes. The Puritans made preaching very important. They used as little ritual and decoration as possible. Very often, sermons talked about Hell. One famous sermon is \"Sinners in the hands of an angry god\", by Jonathan Edwards, an important Puritan preacher. The sermon talks about God being angry with people for sinful behavior, and throwing them into the fires of Hell as a punishment.\n\nMany Puritan groups emigrated to New England so that they could start their own societies there and practice Puritanism the way they wanted. Puritan beliefs and writings became very important in New England. One important work was Puritan John Bunyan's \"The Pilgrim's Progress\".\n\nSeparatists\nThose who left the Church of England altogether were known as Separatists. Many of the Plymouth Colony Pilgrims who established the first successful colony in New England were separatists.\n Some of these churches were later called Congregationalists.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n John Bunyan: The Pilgrim's Progress\n  A Puritan's Mind , some writings of the Puritans and their admirers\n Puritan sermons \n Extensive Large collection of Puritan resources","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":166,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":94252,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Puritanism","title":"Puritanism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Franz Peter Schubert (31 January 1797, Vienna  19 November 1828, Vienna) was an Austrian composer. Although he died at the age of 31, he composed over one thousand pieces of music. There were other great composers who lived and worked in Vienna: Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, but Schubert is the only one who was born in Vienna. He was the last great composer of the Classical music period, and one of the first of the Romantic period.\n\nEarly years \n\nSchubert's father was a schoolteacher. Twelve children were born into the family, but only four of them lived to become adults. Schubert's father tried to persuade his sons to help at the school when they grew up. As a boy, the young Franz learned the violin, piano, organ, singing and harmony. He soon became very good at them all. His teachers were all amazed at how quickly he learned. He was also very good at other subjects in school.\n\nIn the holidays he played string quartets with his two brothers and his father. He wrote his first string quartets for them to play. By the age of 16 he had composed a lot of music, including his first symphony. His mother died. His father soon remarried. His stepmother was very kind to him and often lent him money. He had one strange thumb on his right hand.\n\nRising fame \n\nAt the age of 17, Schubert was teaching at his father's school. He had been rejected by the army because he was too short (shorter than five feet) and his sight was very poor. He still took composition lessons from Antonio Salieri. He often went to the opera where he heard some of the finest music of the time. He liked reading. One of his favourite books was Goethe's Faust. He wrote a song called \"Gretchen am Spinnrade\" which is about the young girl in the book sitting at a spinning wheel dreaming of her lover. The piano has a gentle accompaniment which sounds like the throbbing of the spinning wheel. The music stops for a moment when the girl imagines her lover is kissing her, then the piano gradually starts again. It is a very famous song. Another song which soon made him famous in all Europe was \"Erlk\u00f6nig\". When it was first published another composer whose name was also Franz Schubert, thought that somebody had published a song in his name because the music publishers sent it to him for a correction. He sent a very angry letter back saying he had not composed that rubbish.\n\nAdulthood \n\nIt was difficult to find enough time to compose because he was a teacher. A man called Schober persuaded Schubert to give up teaching so that he could spend all his time composing. Soon he had become well known in all the drawing-rooms in Vienna where he met famous people, many of them musicians. These meetings were called \"Schubertiads\" because they played and sang his music. He wrote so many wonderful pieces that it seems strange that the music publishers did not want to publish them. They were only interested in publishing works written by performers, but were not very interested in people like Schubert who just composed. For a time he became music teacher for the two princesses of Count Johann Esterh\u00e1zy, but then he returned to Vienna to live with the Schober family. During the last few years of his life Schubert was ill. He had to leave the Schober's house and find his own rooms. He was often desperately poor and composed in bed to keep warm.\n\nAlthough Beethoven and Schubert lived in the same town they only met once, although they knew one another's music. Schubert visited Beethoven on 19 March 1827. Beethoven was dying. Schubert was one of the torch-bearers at his funeral. A year and a half later Schubert, too, had died. He asked to be buried near Beethoven. Their graves were just three places apart.\n\nHis music \n\nSchubert's pieces are among the greatest ever written. They are all settings of German poems. German art songs are called Lieder (pronounced \"leader\"), and Schubert made his Lieder very special by making the piano accompaniments describe the action of the songs in many different ways. If you try to sing them in a translation it is difficult to make it sound good. It is best to hear them in German and to have a translation so that you understand what is being sung. Some of the last songs he wrote make up a cycle called \"Die Winterreise\" (\"The Winter Journey\"). The poems are about a man who is unhappy because his lover does not want him. He goes out into the cold winter woods and all nature seems to reflect the way he feels inside. The songs are usually sung by a male singer (tenor, baritone or bass).\n\nSchubert wrote a great deal of chamber music. Among his most famous pieces are several string quartets, a string quintet (for 2 violins, viola and 2 cellos) and the \"Trout\" quintet (for piano, violin, viola, cello and double bass). There are sonatas and sonatinas for violin and piano, and a sonata for an instrument called the \"arpeggione\" which was used for about ten years after it was invented and then it was forgotten. The sonata is normally played on a cello or a viola nowadays. There is lots of piano music including sonatas, impromptus and also piano duet music. Schubert wrote eight famous impromptus.\n\nSchubert wrote nine symphonies. The last one is known as the \"Great\" symphony in C major. The eighth is called the \"Unfinished\". There are only two movements instead of the usual four. A lot of people still argue about why he left it unfinished. Some people even think that he completed it and that the last two movements are either lost, or are now known as movements from a piano duet. We shall probably never know for certain.\n\nMost of his life he was supported by his friends who gave him manuscript paper when he could not afford it. Many of his greatest works only became widely known in the 1860s, long after his death. The house in Vienna where Schubert was born is now a museum which people can visit. There visitors can also see the Benignus Seidner piano that Schubert was using for composing. Other instruments that composer was playing on were a piano by Anton Walter & Sohn (now in the Kunsthistorisches museum in Vienna) and a piano from Viennese piano builder Conrad Graf.\n\nReferences\n\nAustrian composers\nClassical era composers\nWriters from Vienna\nRomantic composers\n1797 births\n1828 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":140,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":3,"2018-22":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":30072,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Franz%20Schubert","title":"Franz Schubert","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Hirup mangrupa kons\u00e9p multiharti tanpa dadaran nu basajan, sabab mindeng dilarapkeun kana rupa-rupa hal. WordNet m\u00e9r\u00e9 opat welas harti pikeun kecap \"life\", sedengkeun Kamus W\u00e9b Longman m\u00e9r\u00e9 35 harti.\n\nArtikel ieu ngadadarkeun harti utama dina \u00e9lmu hirup; tumbu ka harti s\u00e9j\u00e9n bisa ditempo di bagian artikel nu patali di handap.\n\nNgahartikeun kons\u00e9p hirup \n\nHirup mibanda sababaraha harti dina jihat biologi \u2014\n\n \"hirup\" nu nujul ka pros\u00e9s nu keur lumangsung nu nu patali jeung mahluk hirup;\n \"hirup\" nu nujul ka mangsa antara wedal jeung pa\u00e9hna hiji organisme;\n \"hirup\" nu nujul ka kaayaan\/wujud nalika geus dilahirkeun sam\u00e9m\u00e9h pa\u00e9h.\n\nS\u00e9sa bagian ieu museur ka harti nu ahir \u2014 naon nu jadi dasar pikeun nyebutkeun y\u00e9n hiji \u00e9ntitas t\u00e9h hirup (mahluk hirup)?\n\nIt would be relatively straightforward to offer a practical set of guidelines if one's only concern were life on Earth as we know it (see biosphere), but as soon as one considers questions about life's origins on \u00e9arth, or the possibility of extraterrestrial life, or the concept of artificial life, it becomes cl\u00e9ar that the question is fundamentally difficult and comparable in many respects to the problem of defining intelligence.\n\nHarti konv\u00e9nsional \n\nDina biologi, hiji \u00e9ntitas dianggap hirup mun n\u00e9mbongkeun sakab\u00e9h peta di handap ieu:\n Kamekaran\n M\u00e9tabolisme, 'barang hakan', ngarobah, sarta neundeun \u00e9n\u00e9rgi\/massa; tumuwuh ku jalan nyerep jeung nata massa; miceun\n Ojah, boh dirina atawa di jero ragana\n Baranahan, boga kabisa nyiptakeun \u00e9ntitas nu sarupa jeung dirina\n N\u00e9mbal rangsangan - kabisa ngukur pasipatan lingkungan sabundeureunana, sarta ojah atawa meta nalika nyanghareupan hiji kaayaan.\n\nOther definitions \nOther definitions include:\n Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana's definition of life (also widely used by Lynn Margulis) as an autopoietic (self-producing), water based, lipid-protein bound, carbon metabolic, nucleic acid replicated, protein r\u00e9adout system\n \"a system of inferior negative feedbacks subordinated to a superior positive feedback\" (J. theor Biol. 2001 )\n Tom Kinch's definition of life as a highly organized auto-cannibalizing system naturally emerging from conditions common on planetary bodies, and consisting of a population of replicators capable of mutation, around \u00e9ach set of which a hom\u00e9ostatic metabolizing organism, which actively helps reproduce and\/or protect the replicator(s), has evolved\n Stuart Kauffman's definition of life as an autonomous agent or autonomous agents capable of reproducing itself or themselves, and of completing at l\u00e9ast one thermodynamic work cycle\n\nDescent with modification: a \"useful\" characteristic \n\nA useful characteristic upon which to base a definition of life is that of descent with modification: the ability of a life form to produce offspring that are like its parent or parents, but with the possibility of some variation due to chance. Descent with modification is sufficient by itself to allow evolution, assuming that the variations in the offspring allow for differential survival. The study of this form of heritability is called genetics. In all known life forms (assuming prions are not counted as such), the genetic material is primarily DNA or the related molecule, RNA. Another exception might be the software code of certain forms of viruses and programs cr\u00e9ated through genetic programming, but whether computer programs can be alive even by this definition is still a matter of some contention.\n\nExceptions to the common definition \n\nNote that many individual organisms are incapable of reproduction and yet are still generally considered to be \"alive\"; see mules and ants for examples. However, these exceptions can be accounted for by applying the definition of life on the level of entire species or of individual genes. (For example, see kin selection for information about one way by which non-reproducing individuals can still enhance the spr\u00e9ad of their genes and the survival of their species.)\n\nViruses reproduce, flames grow, some software programs mutate and evolve, future software programs will probably evince (even high-order) behavior, machines move, and proto-life, consisting of metabolizing cells without reproduction apparatus, can have existed. Still, some would not call these entities alive. Generally, all five characteristics are required for a population to be considered alive.\n\nAsal-usul hirup \nArtikel utama: Asal-usul hirup\n\neuweuh mod\u00e9l \"baku\" pikeun asal-usul hirup, tapi nu kiwari ditampa sacara umum diwangun dumasar papanggihan di handap ieu:\n\n Kaayaan nu ngarojong prabiotik ngahasilkeun kaciptana molekul leutik dasar kahirupan. Ieu dipetakeun dina percobaan Urey-Miller.\n Fosfolipid sacara spontan ngawangun lapis ganda lipid, struktur dasar m\u00e9mbran s\u00e9l.\n Procedures for producing random RNA molecules can produce \"ribozymes\", which are able to produce more of themselves under very specific conditions.\n\nThere are many different hypotheses regarding the path that might have been taken from simple organic molecules to protocells and metabolism. Many of the possibilities have tended to fall into either \"genes-first\" or \"metabolism-first\", a recent trend is the emergence of hybrid mod\u00e9ls that combine aspects of both.\n\nThe possibility of extraterrestrial life \n\nAs of 2004, Earth is the only planet in the universe known by humans to support life. The question of whether life exists elsewhere in the universe remains open, but analyses such as the Drake equation have been used to estimate the probability of such life existing. There have been a number of false alarms of life elsewhere in the universe, but none of these apparent discoveries have so far survived scientific scrutiny.\n\nCurrently, the closest that scientists have come to finding extraterrestrial life is fossil evidence of possible bacterial life on Mars (via the ALH84001 met\u00e9orite). S\u00e9arches for extraterrestrial life are presently focusing on planets and moons believed to possess liquid water, presently or in the past. Recent evidence from the NASA rovers Spirit and Opportunity supports the th\u00e9ory that Mars once had surface water. See Life on Mars for further discussion.\n\nJupiter's moons are also considered good candidates for extraterrestrial life, especially Europa, which seems to possess oc\u00e9ans of liquid water.\n\nArtikel patali \n Hirup sanggeus maot\n Biologi daur hirup\n Harepan hirup\n Asuransi jiwa\n Materialisme \n Asal-usul Hirup\n Kahirupan pribadi\n R\u00e9inkarnasi\n Tangkal kahirupan\n\nRujukan \n Stuart Kauffman. The Adjacent Possible: a talk with Stuart Kauffman. Disalin 30 Nov. 2003 ti culture\/kauffman03\/kauffman index.html\n Term life insurance\n\nHirup-hurip\nManusa\nAlam","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":977,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hirup","title":"Hirup","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Software versioning is a way to name different versions of computer software. A computer software has different states in its life-cycle process from Development through deployment into Production and Sustainment. Each state in the process is given a unique version and version number. Versions are most often a sequence of one to four numbers (for example, 12.2.3) to represent Major.Minor.Maintenance actions, but can also use names, dates, or other sequencing mechanisms.  In some practices, the numbers are used with variations like the 3rd digit being replaced by a letter (for example, 4.1a).  The changes are all revisions in that something is being changed and the version number tells people how complex the change is to the software.\n\nMany times, after a program has been made, things called patches can be downloaded from the program's website. The patches usually make small updates or fixes to the main program, such as fixing bugs or updating information or program functions. When a patch is used, the program is advanced to the next version, advancing the version number by the appropriate level.\n\nVersioning","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":45763,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software%20versioning","title":"Software versioning","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that treat patients. This article is about medical practice.\n\nTatamba mangrupa cabang tina elmu kasehatan nu musatkeun perhatian kana \"penyembuhan\" jeung perawatan health sarta wellness. Broadly, it is the practical science of preventing and curing diseases. However, medicine often refers more specifically to matters d\u00e9alt with by physicians and surgeons.\n\nMedicine is both an ar\u00e9a of knowledge (a science), and the application of that knowledge (the medical profession). The various specialized branches of the science of medicine correspond to equally specialized medical professions d\u00e9aling with particular organs or dis\u00e9ases. The science of medicine is the body of knowledge about body systems and dis\u00e9ases, while the profession of medicine refers to the social structure of the group of p\u00e9ople formally trained to apply that knowledge to tr\u00e9at dis\u00e9ase.\n\nThere are traditional and schools of h\u00e9aling which are usually not considered to be part of (Western) medicine in a strict sense (see health science for an overview). The most highly developed systems of medicine outside of the Western or Hippocratic tradition are the Ayurvedic school (of India) and traditional Chinese medicine.  The remainder of this article focuses on mod\u00e9rn (Western) medicine.\n\nHistory of medicine \nSee the main articles History of medicine and Timeline of medicine and medical technology\n\nMedicine as it is practiced now is rooted in various traditions, but developed mainly in the late 18th and \u00e9arly 19th century in Germany (Rudolf Virchow) and France (Jean-Martin Charcot and others). The new, \"scientific\" medicine replaced more traditional views based on the \"Four humours\". The development of clinical medicine shifted to the United Kingdom and the USA during the \u00e9arly 1900s (Sir William Osler, Harvey Cushing).\n\nEvidence-based medicine is the recent movement to link the practice and the science of medicine more closely through the use of the scientific method and mod\u00e9rn information science.\n\nGenomics is alr\u00e9ady having a large influence on medical practice, as most monogenic genetic disorders have now been linked to causative genes, and molecular biological techniques are influencing medical decision-making.\n\nMedical sciences and health professions \nThe delivery of mod\u00e9rn h\u00e9alth care depends, not just on medical practitioners, but on an expanding group of highly trained professionals coming together as an interdisciplinary team. A full list is given on the health profession page. Some examples include: nurses, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, physiotherapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, dieteticians and bioengineers.\n\nThe scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry and psychology, while separate disciplines from medicine, are sometimes also considered medical fields.  Physician assistants, nurse practitioners and midwives tr\u00e9at patients and prescribe medication in many legal jurisdictions. Veterinary medicine applies similar techniques to the care of animals.\n\nMedical doctors have many specializations and subspecializations which are listed below.\n\nBasic, supplementary, and related sciences \n Anatomy is the study of the physical structure of organisms. In contrast to macroscopic or gross anatomy, cytology and histology are concerned with microscopic structures.\n Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms, especially the structure and function of their chemical components.\n Bioethics is a field of study which concerns the relationship between biology, science, medicine and ethics, philosophy and th\u00e9ology.\n Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical res\u00e9arch. It is also fundamental to epidemiology and evidence-based medicine.\n Cytology is the microscopic study of individual cells.\n Embryology is the study of the \u00e9arly development of organisms.\n Epidemiology is the study of the demographics of dis\u00e9ase processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of epidemics.\n Genetics is the study of genes, and their role in biological inheritance.\n Histology is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light microscopy, electron microscopy and histochemistry.\n Immunology is the study of the immune system, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in human, for example. \n Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including protozoa, bacteria, fungi, and viruses.\n Neuroscience is a comprehensive term for those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the nervous system. A main focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain.\n Pathology is the study of dis\u00e9ase - the causes, course, progression and resolution ther\u00e9of.\n Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their actions.\n Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechanisms.\n Toxicology is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and poisons.\n\nDiagnostic and imaging specialties \n Clinical laboratory sciences are the clinical diagnostic services which apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients. In the United States these services are supervised by a Pathologist. The personnel that work in these departments are technically trained staff, \u00e9ach of whom usually hold a medical technology degree, who actually perform the tests, assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services.\n Transfusion medicine is concerned with the transfusion of blood and blood component, including the maintenance of a \"blood bank\".\n Cellular pathology is concerned with diagnosis using samples from patients taken as tissues and cells using histology and cytology.\n Clinical chemistry is concerned with diagnosis by making biochemical analysis of blood, body fluids and tissues.\n Hematology is concerned with diagnosis by looking at changes in the cellular composition of the blood and bone marrow as well as the coagulation system in the blood.\n Clinical microbiology is concerned with the in vitro diagnosis of dis\u00e9ases caused by bacteria, viruses,  fungi,  and parasites. \n Clinical immunology is concerned with disorders of the immune system and related body defenses. It also d\u00e9als with diagnosis of allergy.\n Radiology is concerned with imaging of the human body, e.g. by x-ray, x-ray computed tomography, ultrasonography, and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography.\n Interventional radiology is concerned with using imaging of the human body, usually from CT, ultrasound, or fluoroscopy, to do biopsies, place certain tubes, and perform intravascular procedures.\n Nuclear Medicine uses radioactive substances for in vivo and in vitro diagnosis using either imaging of the location of radioactive substances placed into a patient, or using in vitro diagnostic tests utilizing radioactive substances.\n\nDisciplines of clinical medicine \n Anesthesiology (AE), Anaesthesia (BE), is the clinical discipline concerned with providing anesthesia. Pain medicine is often practiced by specialised anesthesiologists.\n Dermatology is concerned with the skin and its dis\u00e9ases.\n Emergency medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and tr\u00e9atment of acute or life-thr\u00e9atening  conditions, including trauma, surgical, medical, pediatric, and psychiatric emergencies.\n General practice or family medicine or primary care is, in many countries, the first port-of-call for patients with non-emergency medical problems. Family doctors are usually able to tr\u00e9at over 90% of all complaints without referring to specialists.\n Intensive care medicine is concerned with the therapy of patients with serious and life-thr\u00e9atening dis\u00e9ase or injury. Intensive care medicine employs invasive diagnostic techniques and (temporary) replacement of organ functions by technical m\u00e9ans.\n Internal medicine is concerned with dis\u00e9ases of inner organs and systemic dies\u00e9ases of adults, i.e. such that affect the body as a whole. There are several subdisciplines of internal medicine:\n Cardiology is concerned with the h\u00e9art and cardiovascular system and their dis\u00e9ases.\n Clinical pharmacology is concerned with how systems of therapeutics interact with patients.\n Gastroenterology is concerned with the organs of digestion. \n Endocrinology is concerned with the endocrine system, i.e. endocrine glands and hormones.\n Hematology (or haematology) is concerned with the blood and its dis\u00e9ases.\n Infectious diseases is concerned with the study, diagnosis and tr\u00e9atment of dis\u00e9ases caused by biological agents.\n Nephrology is concerned with dis\u00e9ases of the kidneys.\n Oncology is devoted to the study, diagnosis and tr\u00e9atment of cancer and other malignant dis\u00e9ases.\n Pulmonology (or chest medicine, respiratory medicine or lung medicine) is concerned with dis\u00e9ases of the lungs and the respiratory system.\n Rheumatology is devoted to the diagnosis and tr\u00e9atment of inflammatory dis\u00e9ases of the joints and other organ systems.\n Neurology  is concerned with the diagnosis and tr\u00e9atment of nervous system dis\u00e9ases.\n Obstetrics and gynecology are concerned respectively with childbirth and the female reproductive and associated organs. Reproductive medicine and fertility medicine is generally practiced by gynecological specialists.\n Palliative care is a relatively mod\u00e9rn branch of clinical medicine that d\u00e9als with pain and symptom relief and emotional support in patients with terminal dis\u00e9ase (cancer, heart failure).\n Pediatrics (or paediatrics) is devoted to the care of children, and adolescents. Like internal medicine, there are many pediatric supspecialities for specific age ranges, organ systems, dis\u00e9ase classes and sites of care delivery.  Most subspecialities of adult medicine have a pediatric equivalent such as pediatric cardiology, pediatric endocrinology, pediatric gastroenterology, pediatric hematology, and pediatric oncology.\n Physical medicine and rehabilitation (or physiatry) is concerned with functional improvement after injury, illness, or congenital abnormality.\n Preventive medicine\n Community health care or public health\n Occupational medicine\n Psychiatry is a branch of medicine that studies and tr\u00e9ats mental disorders. Related non-medical fields are psychotherapy and clinical psychology.\n Radiation therapy is concerned with the therapeutic use of ionizing radiation and high energy elementary particle b\u00e9ams in patient tr\u00e9atment.\n Surgical specialties - there are many medical disciplines that employ operative tr\u00e9atment. Some of these are highly specialized and are often not considered subdisciplines of surgery, although their naming might suggest so.\n General surgery is the specialty of surgery of the skin, locomotor system, and abdominal organs. In the past, it was deemed the pre-requisite training prior to progression to other sub-specialty training, but lately has evolved into its own sub-specialty.\n Cardiovascular surgery is the surgical specialty that is concerned with the heart and major blood vessels of the chest.\n Neurosurgery is concerned with the operative tr\u00e9atment of dis\u00e9ases of the nervous system.\n Oromaxillofacial surgery (technically a subspeciality of dentistry)\n Ophthalmology d\u00e9als with the dis\u00e9ases of the eye and their tr\u00e9atment.\n Orthopedic surgery, surgery of the locomotor system, is generally practiced together with trauma surgery and\/or traumatology.\n Otolaryngology (or otorhinolaryngology or ENT\/\u00e9ar-nose-throat) is concerned with tr\u00e9atment of \u00e9ar, nose and throat disorders.\n Pediatric surgery\n Plastic surgery includes aesthetic surgery (operations that are done for other than medical purposes) as well as reconstructive surgery (operations to restore function and\/or app\u00e9arance after traumatic or operative mutilation).\n Surgical Oncology is concerned with ablative and palliative surgical approaches to cancer tr\u00e9atment\n Urology focuses on the urinary tracts of males and females, and on the male reproductive system. It is often practiced together with andrology (\"men's health\").\n Vascular surgery is surgery of the blood vessels, usually outside of the chest.\n\nInterdisciplinary medical fields \nInterdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine are:\n Aerospace medicine d\u00e9als with medical problems related to flying and space travel.\n Diving medicine (or \"hyperbaric medicine\") is the prevention and tr\u00e9atment of diving-related problems.\n Forensic medicine d\u00e9als with medical questions in legal context, such as determination of the time and cause of d\u00e9ath.\n Medical informatics and medical computer science are relatively recent fields that d\u00e9al with the application of computers and information technology to medicine.\n Nosology is the classification of dis\u00e9ases for various purposes.\n\nSettings where medical care is delivered \nSee also clinic, hospital, and hospice\n\nMedicine is a diverse field and the provision of medical care is therefore provided in a variety of locations.  In addition to inpatient hospital settings, medical services are often provided in locations such as clinics, emergency departments, endoscopy departments, outpatients department, operating th\u00e9aters, and birth suites.  mod\u00e9rn medical care also depends on information - still delivered in many h\u00e9alth care settings on paper records, but incr\u00e9asingly nowadays by electronic m\u00e9ans.\n\nTeaching of medicine \nSee also the main articles Medical doctor (BE) and Physician (AE)\n\nMedical training is involves several y\u00e9ars of university study followed by several more y\u00e9ars of residential practice at a hospital.  Entry to a medical degree in some countries (such as the United States) requires the completion of another degree first, while in other countries (such as the United Kingdom) medical training can be commenced as an undergraduate degree immediately after secondary education. Once graduated from medical school most physicians begin their residency training, where skills in a speciality of medicine are l\u00e9arned, supervised by more experienced doctors.  The first y\u00e9ar of residency is known as the \"intern\" y\u00e9ar.  The duration of residency training depends on the speciality.\n\nIn the USA, physician training generally follows the following timeline (with age of completion):\n Finish high school at 18\n College\/university, 4 y\u00e9ars, graduate at 22\n Medical school, 4 y\u00e9ars, graduate at 26 with M.D. degree\n Residency (internship usually synonymous with first y\u00e9ar of residency), 3 y\u00e9ars, finish at 29. Physicians are generally eligible for independent licensure to practice primary care specialties at this point. Many surgical residencies are longer than 3 y\u00e9ars.\n Fellowship, 3 y\u00e9ar, finish at 32. Fellowships are taken to become eligible for board certification in subspecialties.\n\nThe name of the medical degree gained at the end varies: some countries (e.g. the US) call it 'Doctor of Medicine' (abbreviated 'M.D.'), while others (e.g. Australia, Britain, Pakistan) call it \"Bachelor of Medicine\/Bachelor of Surgery\" (French: \"Chirurgie\"); this is technically a double degree, frequently abbreviated 'M.B.B.S' or 'M.B.B.Ch.', dependent on the medical school. In either case graduates of a medical degree may call themselves physician. In the US and some other contries there is a parallel system of medicine called \"osteopathy\" which awards the degree D.O. (doctor of ost\u00e9opathy).  In many countries, a doctorate of medicine does not require original res\u00e9arch as does, in distinction, a PhD.\n\nA medical graduate can then enter general practice and become a general practitioner (or primary care internist in the USA); training for these is generally shorter, while specialist training is typically longer.\n\nLegal restrictions \nIn most countries, it is prohibited to practice medicine without a proper degree in that field and doctors must be licensed by a medical board or some other equivalent organization. This is m\u00e9ant as a safeguard against charlatans. These laws are obstacles to those who would want to pretend to training and expertise they have not \u00e9arned, such as practitioners of alternative medicine or faith healing.\n\nCriticism \nCriticism against medicine has a long history. In the Middle Ages, it was not considered a profession suitable for Christians, as dis\u00e9ase was considered Godsent, and interfering with the process a form of blasphemy. Barber-surg\u00e9ons generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a specialism of medicine, rather than an accessory field.\n\nThrough the course of the twentieth century, doctors naturally focused incr\u00e9asingly on the technology that was enabling them to mak\u00e9 dramatic improvements in patients' h\u00e9alth. This resulted in criticism for the loss of compassion and mechanistic, detached tr\u00e9atment. This issue started to r\u00e9ach collective professional consciousness in the 1970s and the profession had begun to respond by the 1980 and 1990s.\n\nPerhaps the most devastating criticism came from Ivan Illich in his 1976 work Medical Nemesis. In his view, mod\u00e9rn medicine only medicalises dis\u00e9ase, causing loss of h\u00e9alth and wellness, while generally failing to restore h\u00e9alth by eliminating dis\u00e9ase. The human being thus becomes a lifelong patient. Other less radical philosophers have voiced similar views, but none were as virulent as Illich. (Another example can be found in Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology by Neil Postman, 1992, which criticises overreliance on technological m\u00e9ans in medicine.)\n\nCriticism against mod\u00e9rn medicine has led to some improvements in the curricula of medical schools, which now t\u00e9ach students systematically on medical ethics, holistic approaches to medicine, the biopsychosocial model and similar concepts.\n\nThe inability of mod\u00e9rn medicine to properly address many common complaints continues to prompt many p\u00e9ople to seek support from alternative medicine. Although a large number of alternative approaches to h\u00e9alth await scientific validation, many report improvement of symptoms after obtaining alternative therapies.\n\nSee also \n Big killers\n Complementary and alternative medicine\n Health profession\n Healthcare system\n Iatrogenesis\n List of diseases\n List of medical abbreviations\n List of medical schools in the U.S.\n Medical equipment\n Rare diseases\n Important publications in medicine\n\nExternal links \n The US National Library of Medicine\n Virtual Hospital - digital library of health information\n Online Medical Dictionary\n medecine education in Senegal\n\nKadokteran","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":1065,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tatamba","title":"Tatamba","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 \u2013 7 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, biologist and social activist. He is best known for proposing a theory of natural selection. This was published in 1858 together with Charles Darwin's idea.\n\nWallace did extensive natural history exploring. He went first to the Amazon River basin with Henry Walter Bates, and later to Malaya and Indonesia. He wrote books on both these adventures. While in Indonesia he drew the Wallace Line which divides Indonesia into two parts. On one side are animals of Australasia. On the other side are species mostly of Asian origin. He wrote a book on biogeography (the distribution of animals).\n\nThe great adventure \nAfter a few years of working as a railway surveyor with his brother, Wallace's life was changed by meeting Henry Walter Bates in Leicester in 1847.\n\nThe Amazon \nWallace and Bates discussed the idea of an expedition to the Amazon. The plan was funded by sending specimens back to London, where an agent would sell them for a commission. Also, the travellers planned to to \"gather facts towards solving the problem of the origin of species\", as Wallace put it in a letter to Bates. The two friends, who were both by now experienced amateur entomologists, met in London to prepare themselves. They looked at South American plants and animals in the main collections.\n\nBates and Wallace sailed from Liverpool in April 1848, arriving in Par\u00e1 (now Bel\u00e9m) at the end of May. For the first year they settled in a villa near the city, collecting birds and insects. After that they agreed to collect independently.\n\nWallace continued charting the Amazon for four years, collecting specimens and making notes on the peoples, the languages, the geography, flora, and fauna. On 12 July 1852, Wallace embarked for England on the brig Helen. After twenty-eight days at sea, balsam in the ship's cargo caught fire and the crew was forced to abandon ship. All of the specimens Wallace had on the ship, most of his collection, were lost. He could only save part of his diary and a few sketches. Wallace and the crew spent ten days in an open boat before being picked up by the brig Jordeson.\n\nThe East Indies \n\nFrom 1854 to 1862, age 31 to 39, Wallace travelled through the Dutch East Indies (now Malaysia and Indonesia), to collect specimens for sale and to study nature.  Wallace collected more than 125,000 specimens in the Dutch East Indies (more than 80,000 beetles alone).  More than a thousand of them were species new to science. \n\nHis observations of the clear zoological differences across a narrow strait in the archipelago led to his proposing the zoogeographical boundary now known as the Wallace Line. Bali and Lombok were two islands in the archipelago only 17 miles apart at the widest (28\u00a0km), roughly the same size and with the same climate, soil, elevation and aspect. Yet their flora and fauna were so different. \n\n\"In this archipelago there are two distinct faunas rigidly circumscribed, which differ as much as do those of Africa and South America... yet there is nothing on the map or on the face of the islands to mark their limits. The boundary line passes between islands closer together than others belonging to the same group. I believe the western part to be a separated portion of continental Asia, while the eastern is a fragmentary prolongation of a former west Pacific continent\".\n\nWhy was it, he wondered, that the animals and plants on the Bali side of the channel were of Asian types, while those on the Lombok side were Australasian in type? This had to mean that the western group had evolved from common western stock, while the eastern group had evolved from a common eastern stock. \n\nWhile he was exploring the archipelago, he thought about evolution, and had his famous insight on natural selection. In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin's own theory, in the same year.\n\nAccounts of his studies and adventures there were eventually published in 1869 as The Malay Archipelago. It became one of the most popular natural history travel journals of the 19th century. It was praised by Charles Darwin and Charles Lyell and by others, such as the novelist Joseph Conrad, who called it his \"favorite bedside companion\".\n\nNatural selection \nUnlike Darwin, Wallace began his career as a travelling naturalist already believing in evolution. Both he and Bates had read Vestiges, a controversial work of popular science, published anonymously in 1844. This advocated an evolutionary origin for the Solar System, the Earth, and living things. He also read Malthus's Principle of population, which he says \"twenty years later gave me the long-sought clue to the effective agent in the evolution of organic species\". He meant by that the struggle for existence, which led Wallace to natural selection.\n\nWallace wrote his ideas on the small isle of Ternate, in what was then the Dutch East Indies. He was suffering from malaria. While the natives looked after him, his thoughts turned to Malthus's book. \n\"I thought of [Malthus's] clear exposition of the 'positive checks to increase' \u2013 disease, accidents, wars, famine \u2013 which keep down the population... It then occurred to me that the same causes, or their equivalents, are\ncontinually acting in the case of animals also... Why do some die and some live? And the answer came clearly, that on the whole the best fitted live... Then it suddenly flashed upon me, that this self-acting process would necessarily improve the race...\" \nThis was the origin of his letter to Darwin, which set out the idea of natural selection.\n\nHis views on human evolution \n\nIn 1864 Wallace published a paper, The origin of human races and the antiquity of Man deduced from the theory of natural selection, applying the theory to human beings. Huxley had already published his view that evolution applied to mankind as it did to other living things.\n\nWallace thought that natural selection could not account for mathematical, artistic, or musical genius, as well as metaphysical musings, wit and humour. He eventually said that something in \"the unseen universe of Spirit\" had interceded at least three times in history. The first was the creation of life from inorganic matter. The second was the introduction of consciousness in the higher animals. And the third was the generation of the higher mental faculties in mankind. He also believed that the purpose of the universe was the development of the human spirit. \n\nMany, including Huxley, Hooker, and Darwin himself, were highly critical of these ideas. As one historian of science has pointed out, Wallace's views in this area were at odds with two major tenets of Darwinism. These are: evolution does not have a goal, and it is not aimed at or centered around mankind. It is thought by most biographers that his thinking on the evolution of man was influenced by his adoption of spiritualism, which happened at the same time.\n\nSpiritualism \nWallace was not a believer in revealed religion of any kind, but he did believe in spiritualism. This has puzzled biographers, who struggle to think why such a man would believe in spirits. Early in his life, he experimented with hypnosis, which was then doubted and criticised. He used some of his students in Leicester as subjects, with considerable success. Apparently, this persuaded him not to reject ideas which were doubted. Even when Huxley told him that one of his favourite mediums was a proven fraud, he refused to believe it. He preferred the evidence of his own experience.\n\nWallace's public support of spiritualism, and his defence of spiritualist mediums against allegations of fraud, damaged his scientific reputation. It strained his relationships with friends such as Bates, Huxley and Darwin, who felt he was overly credulous. Others became openly hostile to Wallace over the issue. Wallace and other scientists who defended spiritualism were subject to much criticism from the press, with The Lancet, the leading English medical journal, being particularly harsh. The controversy affected the public's idea of Wallace for the rest of his career, though he was always respected in other ways.\n\nOther interests \nWallace had a wide range of interests, and wrote books about all of them. He wrote against vaccination, for phrenology, for spiritualism, for land nationalisation, against the Moon having canals, and for social change and the progress and improvement of mankind. He did not believe in religion, but he did believe in spiritualism. He was a radical in politics, economics and social reform. He was a kind and honourable person, but he could be a tough opponent if he thought something unfair was going on. Even the titles of some of his books were sensational, as for example:\n\n Bad Times: an essay on the depression of trade, tracing it to its sources in enormous foreign loans, excessive war expenditure, the increase of speculation and of millionaires, and their depopulation of the rural districts; with suggested remedies. With appendix on the nationalisation of house property. Macmillan, London. 1885.\n Land nationalisation: its necessity and its aims. Being a comparison of the system of landlord and tenant with that of occupying ownership in their influence on the wellbeing of the people. Swan Sonnenschein, London 1892.\n Vaccination a delusion: its penal enforcement a crime. This essay was written for the purpose of influencing Parliament, and securing the speedy abolition of the unjust, cruel, and pernicious Vaccination laws. For this purpose, it has been necessary to speak plainly of the ignorance and incompetence displayed by the Royal Commission, proofs of which I give from their Final Report and the evidence they have collected and printed. (Preface). Reprinted as a separate from chapter XVIII of The wonderful century. Swan Sonnenschein, London 1898.\n\nBooks \nWallace wrote about 22 books, depending on how one counts them.\nHis greatest works include:\n 1853 Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro\n 1858 On the tendency of varieties to depart indefinitely from the original type (this is the famous paper on natural selection)\n 1869 The Malay Archipelago.\n 1870 Contributions to the theory of natural selection.\n 1876 The geographical distribution of animals\n 1878 Tropical Nature, and other essays\n 1880 Island Life\n 1889 Darwinism\n\nReferences \n\n1823 births\n1913 deaths\nBritish naturalists\nBritish evolutionary biologists\nBritish explorers\nSpirituality\nOrder of Merit\nFellows of the Royal Society\nScience writers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"unknown":6}},"id":199756,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alfred%20Russel%20Wallace","title":"Alfred Russel Wallace","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Democracy in Ancient Athens was very different from modern democracy. Citizens had the right to help govern but most people were not citizens.\n\nTo be classed as a citizen in fifth-century Athens you had to be male, born from two Athenian parents, over eighteen years old, and completed your military service.  Women, slaves, metics and children under the age of 20 were not allowed to become citizens.\n\nCitizens could be involved in the running of Athens and could be chosen for important positions.  They were also allowed to own land.  Citizens were between 10% and 20% of the total population at various times in the 5th and 4th centuries.\n\nThe Ecclesia (Assembly of Men) \nAncient Athens had a direct democracy. This meant that each citizen had an equal say and opportunity in the governing of Athens. The citizens of Athens would meet on a hillside (the Pnyx) 30 to 40 times a year to discuss how to run the city better. Usually a few thousand actually came to the meeting.\n\nAll citizens could attend the meetings.  People would stand on a raised platform called the bema to speak.  Speakers wore a garland whilst speaking. Any citizen could speak.\n\nAll major decisions concerning the running of Athens were decided here \u2013 taxes, war, policy, etc. Any decisions were made by a show of hands.\n\nA black pig would be sacrificed to the gods at the start of the meeting to make sure the meeting went well.\n\nAll democratic countries now have an indirect democracy. This means  members of parliament are elected to make decisions concerning government. There are now too many people in  countries for them to meet on a hillside, and many people are too busy to be able to go many times each year.\n\nThe Boule (Council of 500) \nCleisthenes, a democratic reformer, divided Attica into ten tribes in 510\u00a0BC. The Boule was made up of 50 male Athenian citizens chosen at random from each of the ten tribes (all over 30 years old). This meant that 500 men were elected, but only 50 served at any one time.\n\nReferences\n\nAncient Athens\nDemocracy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":56,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3}},"id":89177,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Democracy%20in%20Athens","title":"Democracy in Athens","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Baking is a skill or way of cooking food in an oven. Sometimes, though, baking can also be done in hot ashes, or hot stones. It is used for making bread, cakes, pastries, pies, tarts, cookies, and much more. Such foods made by baking are called \"baked goods\". \n\nThe ingredients used in baking include flour, water, leavening agents (baker's yeast, baking soda, baking powder), shortening (fats, oils), eggs, milk, and sugars. These are all mixed together to create dough or batter, which is then put into a pan or a sheet and heated. Leavening agents produce gas that becomes trapped in the dough. This makes it rise. Shortening makes doughs more easily workable and the bread that comes out in the end more soft and tender. Egg whites are used to help make a light, airy texture.\n\nBaked goods are sold at a bakery. A person who makes baked goods as a job is called a baker. It is also used for making baked potatoes, baked apples, baked beans, some casseroles and pasta dishes such as lasagna, and various other foods, such as the pretzel.\n\nHistory \n\nIn ancient history, the first baking happened when humans took wild grass grains, and soaked them in water. Then they mixed everything together, and also mashed it. After that, this mixture was poured onto a flat, hot rock, and roasted on hot embers. This new way of making bread was much easier than the other ways of doing so. This was because bread could be made anytime if there was fire. \n\nAround 2500 BC Egyptians had bread, and may have learned how to make it from the Babylonians. Also, the Greeks around 400 B.C. tarts with patterns and honey was included in Greek food. Dispyrus, another type of baked good, was also made by the Greeks around that time. It was popular. Dispyrus was a donut-like bread made from flour and honey and shaped in a ring. Soaked in wine, it was eaten when hot. The first proof of stone ovens was in Italy, where they made pizza and pasta.\n\nBaking was very popular in the Roman Empire. In about 300 B.C., the pastry cook became a special job for Romans (called the pastillarium). Romans loved pastry, which was often cooked for large parties. Baking became so popular during the Roman Empire that someone who could think of a new kind of pastry was given an award. Around 1 AD there were more than 300 pastry chefs in Rome. \n\nEventually, because of Rome, the art of baking became known in Europe. It later spread to the eastern parts of Asia, too. Bakers sometimes bake goods at home and then sell them in the streets. In London, chefs sold their baked goods from handcarts. In Paris, the first caf\u00e9 of baked goods was made. Baking became a real art in the world. Cakes can be actually mixed in just a few minutes, with only a small bit of skill needed, and it can be lifted fresh from the oven in less than 30 minutes. A basic loaf of bread may take slightly longer time, but it does not demand a lot of time from the cook.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":233421,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Baking","title":"Baking","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Panties are a kind of underwear. Women's panties are also called knickers. Other names are underpants (\"undies\"), briefs and smalls.\n\nThere are many different shapes and sizes of panties. A common type are bikini panties, which are usually small like a bikini bottom. Bloomers are panties which are loose-fitting and bigger. Panties with a high waistline are usually thought to be worn by older or more conservative women. \n\nPanties may be made of silk, cotton, satin or man-made fabrics, and decorated with lace. Most full cut panties are made of cotton or other comfortable materials.\n\nNames \nKnickers in British English only refers to female panties; in American usage the term is also used for a type of male trousers more properly called \"breeches\".\n\nUnderwear\nBottoms (clothing)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"unknown":10}},"id":266061,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Panties","title":"Panties","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Authentication (from  authentikos, \"real, genuine\", from \u03b1\u1f50\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 authentes, \"author\") is the act of proving an assertion, such as the identity of a computer system user. In contrast with identification, the act of indicating a person or thing's identity, authentication is the process of verifying that identity. It might involve validating personal identity documents, verifying the authenticity of a website with a digital certificate, determining the age of an artifact by carbon dating, or ensuring that a product or document is not counterfeit.\n\nMethods\n\nAuthentication is relevant to multiple fields. In art, antiques, and anthropology, a common problem is verifying that a given artifact was produced by a certain person or in a certain place or period of history. In computer science, verifying a user's identity is often required to allow access to confidential data or systems.\n\nAuthentication can be considered to be of three types:\n\nThe first type of authentication is accepting proof of identity given by a credible person who has first-hand evidence that the identity is genuine. When authentication is required of art or physical objects, this proof could be a friend, family member, or colleague attesting to the item's provenance, perhaps by having witnessed the item in its creator's possession. With autographed sports memorabilia, this could involve someone attesting that they witnessed the object being signed. A vendor selling branded items implies authenticity, while they may not have evidence that every step in the supply chain was authenticated. Centralized authority-based trust relationships back most secure internet communication through known public certificate authorities; decentralized peer-based trust, also known as a web of trust, is used for personal services such as email or files and trust is established by known individuals signing each other's cryptographic key for instance.\n\nThe second type of authentication is comparing the attributes of the object itself to what is known about objects of that origin. For example, an art expert might look for similarities in the style of painting, check the location and form of a signature, or compare the object to an old photograph. An archaeologist, on the other hand, might use carbon dating to verify the age of an artifact, do a chemical and spectroscopic analysis of the materials used, or compare the style of construction or decoration to other artifacts of similar origin. The physics of sound and light, and comparison with a known physical environment, can be used to examine the authenticity of audio recordings, photographs, or videos. Documents can be verified as being created on ink or paper readily available at the time of the item's implied creation.\n\nAttribute comparison may be vulnerable to forgery. In general, it relies on the facts that creating a forgery indistinguishable from a genuine artifact requires expert knowledge, that mistakes are easily made, and that the amount of effort required to do so is considerably greater than the amount of profit that can be gained from the forgery.\n\nIn art and antiques, certificates are of great importance for authenticating an object of interest and value. Certificates can, however, also be forged, and the authentication of these poses a problem. For instance, the son of Han van Meegeren, the well-known art-forger, forged the work of his father and provided a certificate for its provenance as well.\n\nCriminal and civil penalties for fraud, forgery, and counterfeiting can reduce the incentive for falsification, depending on the risk of getting caught.\n\nCurrency and other financial instruments commonly use this second type of authentication method. Bills, coins, and cheques incorporate hard-to-duplicate physical features, such as fine printing or engraving, distinctive feel, watermarks, and holographic imagery, which are easy for trained receivers to verify.\n\nThe third type of authentication relies on documentation or other external affirmations. In criminal courts, the rules of evidence often require establishing the chain of custody of evidence presented. This can be accomplished through a written evidence log, or by testimony from the police detectives and forensics staff that handled it. Some antiques are accompanied by certificates attesting to their authenticity. Signed sports memorabilia is usually accompanied by a certificate of authenticity. These external records have their own problems of forgery and perjury and are also vulnerable to being separated from the artifact and lost.\n\nIn computer science, a user can be given access to secure systems based on user credentials that imply authenticity. A network administrator can give a user a password, or provide the user with a key card or other access devices to allow system access. In this case, authenticity is implied but not guaranteed.\n\nConsumer goods such as pharmaceuticals, perfume, and clothing can use all  forms of authentication to prevent counterfeit goods from taking advantage of a popular brand's reputation. As mentioned above, having an item for sale in a reputable store implicitly attests to it being genuine, the first type of authentication. The second type of authentication might involve comparing the quality and craftsmanship of an item, such as an expensive handbag, to genuine articles. The third type of authentication could be the presence of a trademark on the item, which is a legally protected marking, or any other identifying feature which aids consumers in the identification of genuine brand-name goods. With software, companies have taken great steps to protect from counterfeiters, including adding holograms, security rings, security threads and color shifting ink.\n\nAuthentication factors\nThe ways in which someone may be authenticated fall into three categories, based on what is known as the factors of authentication: something the user knows, something the user has, and something the user is. Each authentication factor covers a range of elements used to authenticate or verify a person's identity before being granted access, approving a transaction request, signing a document or other work product, granting authority to others, and establishing a chain of authority.\n\nSecurity research has determined that for a positive authentication, elements from at least two, and preferably all three, factors should be verified. The three factors (classes) and some of the elements of each factor are:\n\n Knowledge: Something the user knows (e.g., a password, partial password, passphrase, personal identification number (PIN), challenge\u2013response (the user must answer a question or pattern), security question).\n Ownership: Something the user has (e.g., wrist band, ID card, security token, implanted device, cell phone with a built-in hardware token, software token, or cell phone holding a software token).\n Inherence: Something the user is or does (e.g., fingerprint, retinal pattern, DNA sequence (there are assorted definitions of what is sufficient), signature, face, voice, unique bio-electric signals, or other biometric identifiers).\n\nSingle-factor authentication\nAs the weakest level of authentication, only a single component from one of the three categories of factors is used to authenticate an individual's identity. The use of only one factor does not offer much protection from misuse or malicious intrusion. This type of authentication is not recommended for financial or personally relevant transactions that warrant a higher level of security.\n\nMulti-factor authentication\n\nMulti-factor authentication involves two or more authentication factors (something you know, something you have, or something you are). Two-factor authentication is a special case of multi-factor authentication involving exactly two factors.\n\nFor example, using a bank card (something the user has) along with a PIN (something the user knows) provides two-factor authentication. Business networks may require users to provide a password (knowledge factor) and a pseudorandom number from a security token (ownership factor). Access to a very-high-security system might require a mantrap screening of height, weight, facial, and fingerprint checks (several inherence factor elements) plus a PIN and a day code (knowledge factor elements), but this is still a two-factor authentication.\n\nAuthentication types\n\nStrong authentication\nThe United States government's National Information Assurance Glossary defines strong authentication as a layered authentication approach relying on two or more authenticators to establish the identity of an originator or receiver of information.\n\nThe European Central Bank (ECB) has defined strong authentication as \"a procedure based on two or more of the three authentication factors\". The factors that are used must be mutually independent and at least one factor must be \"non-reusable and non-replicable\", except in the case of an inherence factor and must also be incapable of being stolen off the Internet. In the European, as well as in the US-American understanding, strong authentication is very similar to multi-factor authentication or 2FA, but exceeding those with more rigorous requirements.\n\nThe FIDO Alliance has been striving to establish technical specifications for strong authentication.\n\nContinuous authentication\nConventional computer systems authenticate users only at the initial log-in session, which can be the cause of a critical security flaw. To resolve this problem, systems need continuous user authentication methods that continuously monitor and authenticate users based on some biometric trait(s). A study used behavioural biometrics based on writing styles as a continuous authentication method.\n\nRecent research has shown the possibility of using smartphones sensors and accessories to extract some behavioral attributes such as touch dynamics, keystroke dynamics and gait recognition. These attributes are known as behavioral biometrics and could be used to verify or identify users implicitly and continuously on smartphones. The authentication systems that have been built based on these behavioral biometric traits are known as active or continuous authentication systems.\n\nDigital authentication\nThe term digital authentication, also known as electronic authentication or e-authentication, refers to a group of processes where the confidence for user identities is established and presented via electronic methods to an information system. The digital authentication process creates technical challenges because of the need to authenticate individuals or entities remotely over a network.\nThe American National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has created a generic model for digital authentication that describes the processes that are used to accomplish secure authentication:\n\n Enrollment \u2013 an individual applies to a credential service provider (CSP) to initiate the enrollment process. After successfully proving the applicant's identity, the CSP allows the applicant to become a subscriber.\n Authentication \u2013 After becoming a subscriber, the user receives an authenticator e.g., a token and credentials, such as a user name. He or she is then permitted to perform online transactions within an authenticated session with a relying party, where they must provide proof that he or she possesses one or more authenticators.\n Life-cycle maintenance \u2013 the CSP is charged with the task of maintaining the user's credential over the course of its lifetime, while the subscriber is responsible for maintaining his or her authenticator(s).\n\nThe authentication of information can pose special problems with electronic communication, such as vulnerability to man-in-the-middle attacks, whereby a third party taps into the communication stream, and poses as each of the two other communicating parties, in order to intercept information from each. Extra identity factors can be required to authenticate each party's identity.\n\nProduct authentication\n\nCounterfeit products are often offered to consumers as being authentic. Counterfeit consumer goods, such as electronics, music, apparel, and counterfeit medications, have been sold as being legitimate. Efforts to control the supply chain and educate consumers help ensure that authentic products are sold and used. Even security printing on packages, labels, and nameplates, however, is subject to counterfeiting.\n\nIn their anti-counterfeiting technology guide, the EUIPO Observatory on Infringements of Intellectual Property Rights categorizes the main anti-counterfeiting technologies on the market currently into five main categories: electronic, marking, chemical and physical, mechanical, and technologies for digital media.\n\nProducts or their packaging can include a variable QR Code. A QR Code alone is easy to verify but offers a weak level of authentication as it offers no protection against counterfeits unless scan data is analyzed at the system level to detect anomalies. To increase the security level, the QR Code can be combined with a digital watermark or copy detection pattern that are robust to copy attempts and can be authenticated with a smartphone.\n\nA secure key storage device can be used for authentication in consumer electronics, network authentication, license management, supply chain management, etc. Generally, the device to be authenticated needs some sort of wireless or wired digital connection to either a host system or a network. Nonetheless, the component being authenticated need not be electronic in nature as an authentication chip can be mechanically attached and read through a connector to the host e.g. an authenticated ink tank for use with a printer. For products and services that these secure coprocessors can be applied to, they can offer a solution that can be much more difficult to counterfeit than most other options while at the same time being more easily verified.\n\nPackaging\nPackaging and labeling can be engineered to help reduce the risks of counterfeit consumer goods or the theft and resale of products. Some package constructions are more difficult to copy and some have pilfer indicating seals. Counterfeit goods, unauthorized sales (diversion), material substitution and tampering can all be reduced with these anti-counterfeiting technologies. Packages may include authentication seals and use security printing to help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit; these too are subject to counterfeiting. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance tags that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Anti-counterfeiting technologies that can be used with packaging include:\n\n Taggant fingerprinting \u2013 uniquely coded microscopic materials that are verified from a database\n Encrypted micro-particles \u2013 unpredictably placed markings (numbers, layers and colors) not visible to the human eye\n Holograms \u2013 graphics printed on seals, patches, foils or labels and used at the point of sale for visual verification\n Micro-printing \u2013 second-line authentication often used on currencies\n Serialized barcodes\n UV printing \u2013 marks only visible under UV light\n Track and trace systems \u2013 use codes to link products to the database tracking system\n Water indicators \u2013 become visible when contacted with water\n DNA tracking \u2013 genes embedded onto labels that can be traced\n Color-shifting ink or film \u2013 visible marks that switch colors or texture when tilted\n Tamper evident seals and tapes \u2013 destructible or graphically verifiable at point of sale\n 2d barcodes \u2013 data codes that can be tracked\n RFID chips\n NFC chips\n\nInformation content\nLiterary forgery can involve imitating the style of a famous author. If an original manuscript, typewritten text, or recording is available, then the medium itself (or its packaging \u2013 anything from a box to e-mail headers) can help prove or disprove the authenticity of the document. However, text, audio, and video can be copied into new media, possibly leaving only the informational content itself to use in authentication. Various systems have been invented to allow authors to provide a means for readers to reliably authenticate that a given message originated from or was relayed by them. These involve authentication factors like:\n\n A difficult-to-reproduce physical artifact, such as a seal, signature, watermark, special stationery, or fingerprint.\n A shared secret, such as a passphrase, in the content of the message.\n An electronic signature; public-key infrastructure is often used to cryptographically guarantee that a message has been signed by the holder of a particular private key.\n\nThe opposite problem is the detection of plagiarism, where information from a different author is passed off as a person's own work. A common technique for proving plagiarism is the discovery of another copy of the same or very similar text, which has different attribution. In some cases, excessively high quality or a style mismatch may raise suspicion of plagiarism.\n\nLiteracy and literature authentication\nIn literacy, authentication is a readers' process of questioning the veracity of an aspect of literature and then verifying those questions via research. The fundamental question for authentication of literature is \u2013 Does one believe it? Related to that, an authentication project is therefore a reading and writing activity in which students document the relevant research process (). It builds students' critical literacy. The documentation materials for literature go beyond narrative texts and likely include informational texts, primary sources, and multimedia. The process typically involves both internet and hands-on library research. When authenticating historical fiction in particular, readers consider the extent that the major historical events, as well as the culture portrayed (e.g., the language, clothing, food, gender roles), are believable for the period.\n\nHistory and state-of-the-art\n\nHistorically, fingerprints have been used as the most authoritative method of authentication, but court cases in the US and elsewhere have raised fundamental doubts about fingerprint reliability. Outside of the legal system as well, fingerprints are easily spoofable, with British Telecom's top computer security official noting that \"few\" fingerprint readers have not already been tricked by one spoof or another. Hybrid or two-tiered authentication methods offer a compelling the solution, such as private keys encrypted by fingerprint inside of a USB device.\n\nIn a computer data context, cryptographic methods have been developed which are not spoofable if the originator's key has not been compromised. That the originator (or anyone other than an attacker) knows (or doesn't know) about a compromise is irrelevant. However, it is not known whether these cryptographically based authentication methods are provably secure, since unanticipated mathematical developments may make them vulnerable to attack in the future. If that were to occur, it may call into question much of the authentication in the past. In particular, a digitally signed contract may be questioned when a new attack on the cryptography underlying the signature is discovered.\n\nAuthorization\n\nThe process of authorization is distinct from that of authentication. Whereas authentication is the process of verifying that \"you are who you say you are\", authorization is the process of verifying that \"you are permitted to do what you are trying to do\". While authorization often happens immediately after authentication (e.g., when logging into a computer system), this does not mean authorization presupposes authentication: an anonymous agent could be authorized to a limited action set.\n\nAccess control\nOne familiar use of authentication and authorization is access control. A computer system that is supposed to be used only by those authorized must attempt to detect and exclude the unauthorized. Access to it is therefore usually controlled by insisting on an authentication procedure to establish with some degree of confidence the identity of the user, granting privileges established for that identity.\n\nSee also \n Authentication protocol\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \"New NIST Publications Describe Standards for Identity Credentials and Authentication Systems\"\n\n \nAccess control\nApplications of cryptography\nComputer access control\nNotary\nPackaging","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":204,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":8,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":5,"2018-34":5,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":7,"2018-17":4,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":4,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":6,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":3}},"id":47967,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication","title":"Authentication","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Anton\u00edn Leopold Dvo\u0159\u00e1k (8 September 1841  1 May 1904) was a Czech composer. Along with Smetana and Jan\u00e1\u010dek, Dvorak is one of three famous composers who wrote nationalist Czech music. He wrote chamber music including several string quartets, piano music, songs, operas, oratorios and nine symphonies. The last of his symphonies is known as the New World Symphony because he wrote it in the United States (the \"New World\"). The slow movement with its solo played on the cor anglais is especially famous.\n\nLife\n\nYouth \nDvo\u0159\u00e1k was born in a village near Prague, Czechoslovakia (Today Prague is the capital city of the Czech Republic) but in those days it was part of the Austrian Empire until 1867 after the Austro-Prussian War Of 1866 when it became Austria-Hungary . His father was a butcher and innkeeper. He also played the zither and composed a few simple dances.\n\nThe young Anton\u00edn started to have violin lessons from the village schoolmaster. Soon he was playing the violin in his father's inn, in local churches and in the village band. Just before his 12th birthday he left school and started to learn how to be a butcher. A year later he left home to go to school in Zlonice. He learned a lot about music there, and he also learned German. His teacher persuaded Dvo\u0159\u00e1k's parents that he should have a musical career, so they sent him to study music in Prague at the Organ School. He continued to learn German, and he became a good viola player and played in concerts and in the Estates Theatre when they needed a big orchestra for Wagner's operas Lohengrin and Tannh\u00e4user.\n\nEarly career \n\nWhen Dvo\u0159\u00e1k had finished his studies he got his first job playing in a band in restaurants and for balls. This was a time when there was suddenly a great interest in national culture in Bohemia. Plays and operas were allowed to be performed in the Czech language. The band he played with became part of the Bohemian Provisional Theater Orchestra, which from 1866 was conducted by Bed\u0159ich Smetana. Dvo\u0159\u00e1k was principal viola player in the orchestra. He earned extra money by teaching, and he started to compose.\n\nIn 1871 he left the orchestra so that he could spend more time composing. For several years he still had to teach in order to earn enough money to live. He wrote a cantata The heirs of the White Mountain which was a great success. In 1874 he wrote an opera King and Charcoal Burner, but the opera house did not want it. This made Dvo\u0159\u00e1k realize that he had to be more self-critical. He destroyed a lot of his compositions which he thought were not his best works. He decided he must not compose like Wagner, but that he needed to find his own style of composing.\n\nIn 1873 he married. He got a job as church organist. His Third Symphony was performed at a concert conducted by Smetana. Dvo\u0159\u00e1k rewrote his opera King and Charcoal Burner, using completely different music. It was performed in 1874. He composed a lot more music.\n\nYears of fame \n\nIn 1877 he had a letter from Hanslick to say that he had won a prize of 600 gulden and that the great composer Johannes Brahms was interested in his music. His music started to be published by Simrock, a well-known German music publisher, and his music was performed in many countries, even as far away as New York. His fame spread. Even his operas were performed abroad. Dimitrij was particularly successful. Brahms was a great friend and helped him a lot. Brahms and Hanslick tried to persuade him to move to Vienna because it was a great musical city, but Dvo\u0159\u00e1k wanted to stay in his own country.\n\nDvo\u0159\u00e1k's Slavonic Dances were published in 1878 and have always been very popular. The conductor Hans Richter conducted the Slavonic Rhapsody no 3 in Vienna. His Stabat Mater (1880) was performed abroad, and Dvo\u0159\u00e1k was invited to visit England in 1884. He became very popular in England and went there many times. The English choirs liked to sing his choral works. His Requiem Mass was given its first performance in Birmingham at the Triennial Music Festival. He was given an honorary degree from Cambridge University. Tchaikovsky invited him to Russia in 1890.\n\nAmerica (1892\u20131895) \nFrom 1892 to 1895, Dvo\u0159\u00e1k was the director of the National Conservatory of Music in New York City. He earned a lot of money: $15,000 a year. Dvo\u0159\u00e1k was interested in the music of black Americans. He met the student Harry T. Burleigh, one of the earliest African-American composers, who introduced him to traditional American Spirituals.\n\nIn the winter and spring of 1893, while in New York, Dvo\u0159\u00e1k wrote his most popular work, the Symphony No.9, \"From the New World\". He spent the summer of 1893 with his family in the Czech-speaking community of Spillville, Iowa, where some of his cousins lived. He also composed chamber music there, including a String Quartet in F which is known as the \"American\", and a Sonatina for Violin and Piano.\n \nIn 1895, Dvo\u0159\u00e1k wrote his Cello Concerto in B minor, which was to become one of his most popular works. However, he wanted to go back to his own country. He was also not being paid all his salary. He heard that he had been made an honorary member of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna. He decided to return to Bohemia and continue his job as professor of composition at the Prague Conservatory.\n\nLast years \nDuring his last years, Dvo\u0159\u00e1k spent most of his time writing operas. Rusalka is particularly popular, especially the famous aria for soprano To the Moon. The opera is about a fairy-tale and the story is based on Hans Anderson's story of the Little Mermaid. In 1896 he visited London for the last time to hear the first performance of his Cello Concerto. In 1897 his daughter married his pupil, the composer Josef Suk. \n\nHe died in 1904 after a short illness.\n\nHis music \n\nDvo\u0159\u00e1k wrote lots of kinds of music. Although he based his style on the classical forms such as those of Beethoven, they also show the influence of Czech folksong. He lived at a time when Nationalistic feelings were felt very strongly by the Czech people. Smetana wrote music which was very Czech in character. Dvo\u0159\u00e1k learned from Smetana's music, but never imitated his style. Only five of his nine symphonies were known in his lifetime. When the other four were discovered and published in the 1960s the symphonies were all renumbered. The last three symphonies, numbers 7, 8 and 9 (which used to be called numbers 2, 4 and 5) are the most often performed. The Ninth Symphony: From the New World is one of the most popular symphonies ever written. The two sets of Slavonic Dances are extremely well-known. They are often played as a piano duet. He wrote concertos for the violin, cello and piano. Dvo\u0159\u00e1k wrote many operas (the best known of which is Rusalka); chamber music (including a number of string quartets, and quintets); songs; choral music; and piano music.\n\nBooks about Dvo\u0159\u00e1k \nSlavonic rhapsody: The life of Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k, by Barthold Fles\n\nReferences\n\nCzech composers\nRomantic composers\n1841 births\n1904 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":163,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":29665,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anton%C3%ADn%20Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k","title":"Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An elevator or lift is a vertical transport vehicle that efficiently moves people or goods between floors of a building, ship or other structure. They are generally powered by electric motors that either drive traction cables and counterweight systems, or pump hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical piston.\nLanguages other than English may have loanwords based on either elevator (e.g., Japanese) or lift (e.g., Cantonese).\nBecause of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a legal requirement in new multi-story buildings, especially where wheelchair ramps would be impractical.\n\nDesign\n\nSome argue that lifts began as simple rope or chain hoists. A lift is essentially a platform that is either pulled or pushed up by a mechanical means. A modern-day lift consists of a cab (also called a \"cage\" or \"car\") mounted on a platform within an enclosed space called a shaft or sometimes a \"hoistway\". In the past, lift drive mechanisms were powered by steam and water hydraulic pistons. In a \"traction\" lift, cars are pulled up by means of rolling steel ropes over a deeply grooved pulley, commonly called a sheave in the industry. The weight of the car is balanced with a counterweight. Sometimes two lifts always move synchronously in opposite directions, and they are each other's counterweight\n\nThe friction between the ropes and the pulley furnishes the traction which gives this type of lift its name.\n\nHydraulic lifts use the principles of hydraulics (in the sense of hydraulic power) to pressurize an above ground or in-ground piston to raise and lower the car. Roped hydraulics use a combination of both ropes and hydraulic power to raise and lower cars. Recent innovations include permanent earth magnet motors, machine room-less rail mounted gearless machines, and microprocessor controls.\n\nThe technology used in new installations depends on a variety of factors. Hydraulic lifts are cheaper, but installing cylinders greater than a certain length becomes impractical for very high lift hoistways. For buildings of much over seven stories, traction lifts must be employed instead. Hydraulic lifts are usually slower than traction lifts.\n\nLifts are a candidate for mass customization.\nThere are economies to be made from mass production of the components, but each building comes with its own requirements like different number of floors, dimensions of the well and usage patterns.\n\nElevator doors \nElevator doors protect riders from being crushed in between the cab and the floor. The most common configuration is to have two panels that meet in the middle, and slide open laterally. In a cascading configuration (potentially allowing wider entryways within limited space), the doors run on independent tracks so that while open, they are tucked behind one another, and while closed, they form cascading layers on one side. This can configured so that two sets of such cascading doors operate like the center opening doors described above, allowing for a very wide elevator cab. In less expensive installations the elevator can also use one large \"slab\" door: a single panel door the width of the doorway that opens to the left or right laterally.\n\nMachine Room-Less (MRL) \nGeneral\n\nAll elevators, whether traction or hydraulic, require a machine room to store large electric motors (or hydraulic pumps) and a controller cabinet. This room is located above or below the hoistway (or only below, for hydraulic elevators) and may contain machinery for a single or a group of elevators. Modern day traction motors boasting gearless and permanent magnet drive can be more compact and efficient; electronic microprocessors have replaced the mechanical relays. As a result, traction elevators can be built without a dedicated room above the shaft, saving valuable space in building planning.\n\nThe new lift design presents a departure from the traditional, looped over-the-top traction rope routing of traction elevators. The ends of the cables are fixed to the supporting structure, and the length of the cable are connected to the car and counterweight by means of a force-multiplying, energy saving compound pulley system. Machine room-less elevators have become a welcome alternative to the older hydraulic elevator for low to medium rise buildings.\n\nKone, a Finnish elevator company, first developed the machine room-less elevator in 1996.\n\nBenefits from a Green Perspective\n creates more usable space\n uses less energy (70-80% less than hydraulic elevators)\n uses no oil\n all components are above ground\n---this takes away the environmental concern that was created by the hydraulic cylinder being stored underground\n\nOther Benefits\n much lower cost than other elevators\n ride quality is better due to gearless traction\n operates at faster speeds than hydraulics\n\nFacts\n Noise level is at 50-55 dBA (A-weighted decibels), which is much lower than other types of elevators\n Usually used for low-rise to mid-rise buildings\n The motor mechanism is placed in the hoistway itself\n The US was slow to accept the MRL Elevator because of codes\n---national and local building codes did not address elevators without machine rooms\n\nHistory\nThe first reference to an elevator is in the works of the Roman architect Vitruvius, who reported that Archimedes built his first elevator, probably in 236 B.C. In some literary sources of later historical periods, elevators were mentioned as cabs on a hemp rope and powered by hand or by animals. It is supposed that elevators of this type were installed in the Sinai monastery of Egypt. In the 17th century the prototypes of elevators were located in the palace buildings of England and France.\n\nIn 1852, Elisha Otis introduced the safety elevator, which prevented the fall of the cab if the cable broke. The design of the Otis safety elevator is somewhat similar to one type still used today. A governor device engages knurled roller(s), locking the elevator to its guides should the elevator move at an excessive speed. He demonstrated it at the New York exposition in the Crystal Palace in 1854.\n\nIn 1874, J.W. Meaker patented a method which permitted elevator doors to open and close safely.\n\nThe first electric elevator was constructed by the German engineer Werner von Siemens in 1880.\n\nIn 1882, when hydraulic power was a well established technology, a company later named the London Hydraulic Power Company was formed. It constructed a network of high pressure mains on both sides of the Thames which, ultimately, extended to 184 miles and powered some 8,000 machines, predominantly lifts (elevators) and cranes.\n\nIn 1929, Clarence Conrad Crispen, with Inclinator Company of America, created the first residential elevator. Crispen also invented the first inclined stairlift.http:\/\/inclinator.com\/about-inclinator.asp\n\nElevator safety\n\nPneumatic Vacuum Elevators\nPneumatic or \"Vacuum\" elevators operate without cables and can be installed more easily and quickly than their alternatives since their housing comprises prefabricated sections which are considerably narrower than conventional lift shafts. These sections are often transparent and afford the passenger a near 360\u00b0 view.\n\nCable-borne elevators\nStatistically speaking, elevators are extremely safe. Their safety record is unsurpassed by any other vehicle system. In 1998, it was estimated that approximately eight 100-millionths of one percent (1 in 12 million) of elevator rides resulted in an anomaly, and the vast majority of these were minor things such as the doors failing to open. For all practical purposes, there are no cases of elevators simply free-falling and killing the passengers inside; of the 20 to 30 elevator-related deaths each year, most of them are maintenance-related - for example, technicians leaning too far into the shaft or getting caught between moving parts, and most of the rest are attributed to easily avoidable accidents, such as people stepping blindly through doors that open into empty shafts or being strangled by scarves caught in the doors. In fact, prior to the September 11th terrorist attacks, the only known free-fall incident in a modern cable-borne elevator happened in 1945 when a B-25 bomber struck the Empire State Building in fog, severing the cables of an elevator cab, which fell from the 75th floor all the way to the bottom of the building, seriously injuring (though not killing) the sole occupant - the female elevator operator. While it is possible (though extraordinarily unlikely) for an elevator's cable to snap, all elevators in the modern era have been fitted with several safety devices which prevent the elevator from simply free-falling and crashing. An elevator cab is typically borne by six or eight hoist cables, each of which is capable on its own of supporting the full load of the elevator plus twenty-five per cent more weight. In addition, there is a device which detects whether the elevator is moving faster than its maximum designed speed; if this happens, the device causes bronze brake shoes to clamp down along the vertical rails in the shaft, stopping the elevator quickly, but not so abruptly as to cause injury. In addition, a hydraulic buffer is installed at the bottom of the shaft to cushion any impact somewhat.\n\nMost recently, there was an incident in a modern cable-borne elevator that took place in a children's hospital in Seattle, Washington on October 9, 2007. The elevator involved was a ThyssenKrupp ISIS machine room-less elevator; The ISIS used Kevlar fiberglass ropes instead of conventional braided-steel ropes all other traction elevators use. One of the ISIS elevators broke free from its cables, slipping between the 6th and 4th floors; the Kevlar ropes were the cause of this incident. After the incident, ThyssenKrupp discontinued production of the ISIS and, the following year, replaced it with the Synergy machine room-less elevator, which uses conventional braided-steel ropes, making it much safer.\n\nHydraulic elevators\nPast problems with early hydraulic elevators meant those built prior to a code change in 1972 were subject to possible catastrophic failure. The code had previously required only single-bottom hydraulic cylinders. In the event of a cylinder breach, an uncontrolled fall of the elevator might result. Because it is impossible to verify the system completely without a pressurized casing (as described below), it is necessary to remove the piston to inspect it. The cost of removing the piston is such that it makes no economic sense to re-install the old cylinder; therefore it is necessary to replace the cylinder and install a new piston. Another solution to protect against a cylinder blowout is to install a \"life jacket.\" This is a device which, in the event of an excessive downward speed, clamps onto the cylinder and stops the car. This device is also known as a Rupture Valve in some parts of the world.\n\nIn addition to the safety concerns for older hydraulic elevators, there is risk of leaking hydraulic oil into the aquifer and causing potential environmental contamination. This has led to the introduction of PVC liners (casings) around hydraulic cylinders which can be monitored for integrity.\n\nIn the past decade, recent innovations in inverted hydraulic jacks have eliminated the costly process of drilling the ground to install a borehole jack. This also eliminates the threat of corrosion to the system and increases safety.\n\nTypes of hoist mechanisms\nThere are at least four means of moving an elevator:\n\nTraction elevators\n Geared and gearless traction elevators\nGeared traction machines are driven by AC or DC electric motors. Geared machines use worm gears to control mechanical movement of elevator cars by \"rolling\" steel hoist ropes over a drive sheave which is attached to a gearbox driven by a high speed motor. These machines are generally the best option for basement or overhead traction use for speeds up to 500\u00a0ft\/min (2.5\u00a0m\/s).\n\nGearless traction machines are low speed (low RPM), high torque electric motors powered either by AC or DC. In this case, the drive sheave is directly attached to the end of the motor. Gearless traction elevators can reach speeds of up to 2,000\u00a0ft\/min (10\u00a0m\/s), or even higher. A brake is mounted between the motor and drive sheave (or gearbox) to hold the elevator stationary at a floor. This brake is usually an external drum type and is actuated by spring force and held open electrically; a power failure will cause the brake to engage and prevent the elevator from falling (see inherent safety and safety engineering).\n\nIn each case, cables are attached to a hitch plate on top of the cab or may be \"underslung\" below a cab, and then looped over the drive sheave to a counterweight attached to the opposite end of the cables which reduces the amount of power needed to move the cab. The counterweight is located in the hoist-way and rides a separate rail system; as the car goes up, the counterweight goes down, and vice versa. This action is powered by the traction machine which is directed by the controller, typically a relay logic or computerized device that directs starting, acceleration, deceleration and stopping of the elevator cab. The weight of the counterweight is typically equal to the weight of the elevator cab plus 40-50% of the capacity of the elevator. The grooves in the drive sheave are specially designed to prevent the cables from slipping. \"Traction\" is provided to the ropes by the grip of the grooves in the sheave, thereby the name. As the ropes age and the traction grooves wear, some traction is lost and the ropes must be replaced and the sheave repaired or replaced.\n\nElevators with more than 100' (30 m) of travel have a system called compensation. This is a separate set of cables or a chain attached to the bottom of the counterweight and the bottom of the elevator cab. This makes it easier to control the elevator, as it compensates for the differing weight of cable between the hoist and the cab. If the elevator cab is at the top of the hoist-way, there is a short length of hoist cable above the car and a long length of compensating cable below the car and vice versa for the counterweight. If the compensation system uses cables, there will be an additional sheave in the pit below the elevator, to guide the cables. If the compensation system uses chains, the chain is guided by a bar mounted between the counterweight rails.\n\nHydraulic elevators\n Conventional hydraulic elevators. They use an underground cylinder, are quite common for low level buildings with 2-7 floors, and have speeds of up to 200 feet\/minute (1 meter\/second).\n Holeless hydraulic elevators were developed in the 1970s, and use a pair of above ground cylinders, which makes it practical for environmentally or cost sensitive buildings with 2, 3, or 4 floors.\n Roped hydraulic elevators use both above ground cylinders and a rope system, which combines the versatility of inground hydraulic with the reliability of holeless hydraulic, even though they can serve up to 8-10 floors.\n\nClimbing elevator\nA climbing elevator is a self-ascending elevator with its own propulsion. The propulsion can be done by an electric or a combustion engine. Climbing elevators are used in guyed masts or towers, in order to make easy access to parts of these constructions, such as flight safety lamps for maintenance. An example would be the Moonlight Towers in Austin, Texas, where the elevator holds only one person and equipment for maintenance.\n\nEmergency power operation (EPR)\nMany elevator installations now feature emergency power systems which allow elevator use in blackout situations and prevent people from becoming trapped in elevators.\n\nTraction elevators\nWhen power is lost in a traction elevator system, all elevators will initially come to a halt. One by one, each car in the group will return to the lobby floor, open its doors and shut down. People in the remaining elevators may see an indicator light or hear a voice announcement informing them that the elevator will return to the lobby shortly. Once all cars have successfully returned, the system will then automatically select one or more cars to be used for normal operations and these cars will return to service. The car(s) selected to run under emergency power can be manually overridden by a key or strip switch in the lobby. In order to help prevent entrapment, when the system detects that it is running low on power, it will bring the running cars to the lobby or nearest floor, open the doors and shut down.\n\nHydraulic elevators\nIn hydraulic elevator systems, emergency power will lower the elevators to the lowest landing and open the doors to allow passengers to exit. The doors then close after an adjustable time period and the car remains unusable until reset, usually by cycling the elevator main power switch. Typically, due to the high current draw when starting the pump motor, hydraulic elevators are not run using standard emergency power systems. Buildings like hospitals and nursing homes usually size their emergency generators to accommodate this draw. However, the increasing use of current limiting motor starters, commonly known as \"Soft-Start\" contactors, avoid much of this problem and the current draw of the pump motor is less of a limiting concern.\n\nElevator convenience features\n\nElevators may feature talking devices as an accessibility aid for the blind. In addition to floor arrival notifications, the computer announces the direction of travel, and notifies the passengers before the doors are to close.\n\nIn addition to the call buttons, elevators usually have floor indicators (often illuminated by LED) and direction lanterns. The former are almost universal in cab interiors with more than two stops and may be found outside the elevators as well on one or more of the floors. Floor indicators can consist of a dial with a rotating needle, but the most common types are those with successively illuminated floor indications or LCDs. Likewise, a change of floors or an arrival at a floor is indicated by a sound, depending on the elevator.\n\nDirection lanterns are also found both inside and outside elevator cars, but they should always be visible from outside because their primary purpose is to help people decide whether or not to get on the elevator. If somebody waiting for the elevator wants to go up, but a car comes first that indicates that it is going down, then the person may decide not to get on the elevator. If the person waits, then one will still stop going up. Direction indicators are sometimes etched with arrows or shaped like arrows and\/or use the convention that one that lights up red means \"down\" and green means \"up\". Since the color convention is often undermined or overrided by systems that do not invoke it, it is usually used only in conjunction with other differentiating factors. An example of a place whose elevators use only the color convention to differentiate between directions is the Museum of Contemporary Art in Chicago, where a single circle can be made to light up green for \"up\" and red for \"down.\" Sometimes directions must be inferred by the position of the indicators relative to one another.\n\nIn addition to lanterns, most elevators have a chime to indicate if the elevator is going up or down either before or after the doors open, usually in conjunction with the lanterns lighting up. Universally, one chime is for up, two is for down, and none indicates an elevator that is 'free'.\n\nObservatory service elevators often convey other facts of interest, including elevator speed, stopwatch, and current position (altitude), as with the case for Taipei 101's service elevators.\n\nStandards\nThe mechanical and electrical design of elevators is dictated according to various standards (aka elevator codes), which may be international, national, state, regional or city based. Whereas once many standards were prescriptive, specifying exact criteria which must be complied with, there has recently been a shift towards more performance-based standards where the onus falls on the designer to ensure that the elevator meets or exceeds the standard..\n\nSome of the national elevator standards include:\n Australia \u2013 AS1735\n Canada \u2013 CAN\/CSA B44\n Europe \u2013 EN 81 series (EN 81-1, EN 81-2, EN 81-28, EN 81-70, EN 12015, EN 12016, EN 13015, etc.)\n USA \u2013 ASME A17\n\nBecause an elevator is part of a building, it must also comply with standards relating to earthquake resilience, fire standards, electrical wiring rules and so forth.\n\nThe American National Elevator Standards Group (ANESG) sets an elevator weight standard to be 2200\u00a0lbs.\n\nAdditional requirements relating to access by disabled persons, may be mandated by laws or regulations such as the Americans with Disabilities Act.\n\nReferences\n\n \nConstruction","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":44593,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elevator","title":"Elevator","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Guangxi is a provincial-level autonomous region of the People's Republic of China where mostly Zhuang people live.\n\nGuangxi's capital in Nanning. Other major cities are Baise, Beihai, Chongzuo, Fangchenggang, Guigang, Guilin, Hechi, Hezhou, Laibin, Liuzhou, Qinzhou, Wuzhou and Yulin.\n\nIt is near Vietnam and has many mountains. It is one of the border frontiers of Chinese civilization. Even in the 20th century it was considered an open, wild territory. The current name \"Guang\" itself means \"expanse\", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in 226 AD. It was given provincial level status during the Yuan Dynasty and in 1949 was reformed as one of China's five autonomous regions.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3}},"id":191537,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Guangxi","title":"Guangxi","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A disease or medical condition is an unhealthy state where something bad happens to the body or mind.  Diseases can cause pain, parts of the body to stop working the right way, or death. The word disease is sometimes used to include:\n parts of the body being hurt, \n not having the usual abilities, \n medical problems or syndromes, \n infections by microorganisms,\n feeling unhealthy, such as having pain or feeling hot (called 'symptoms'), \n unusual shapes of body parts.\n\nCauses \nA disease can be caused by many things.  Sometimes germs enter our body through food, water or air.  A person can be infected by infectious agents like bacteria, viruses or fungus. Disease can also be caused by eating bad or old foods. There are small germs in old foods that can cause diseases. Sometimes the germs produce chemicals or toxins which causes the disease. \n\nOne of the most common causes of disease is poor sanitation and lack of clean water.  Some deadly diseases like malaria in tropical parts of the world are spread by a mosquito.  Animals that spread disease are called vectors. There are many vectors, including snails, ticks, and fleas. \n\nSome people are born with 'genetic diseases'. These are diseases because of an error or mutation in a person's DNA. An example of a mutation is cancer. Living or working in an unhealthy environment can also be a cause for diseases. Diseases are more common in older people.\n\nTreatments \nSome diseases can be helped with medicine. Infections can often be cured by antibiotics, though resistance to antibiotics is a problem. Some disease may be helped by surgery. Not every disease can be helped with medicine or surgery, though. Some diseases must be treated during the whole life; they are chronic (long-lasting) diseases. An example of a chronic disease is diabetes mellitus. Diabetes can be treated (made better) but it can not yet be cured (made to totally go away). People who usually treat diseases are called doctors or physicians.\n\nPrevention \nSome diseases that are common or very bad are tested for even in people who do not show any symptoms. If these diseases are found early they can be treated before they cause problems. An example would be checking a woman for cervical cancer with a test called a pap smear. If cervical cancer is found early it can be cured. If it is found later it usually causes death. \n\nAnother example is immunization. The basic idea is to make the body ready for a disease. The body has its own defense against disease called the immune system. One special characteristic of the immune system is its ability to remember some diseases. If a person is sick and recovers, the immune system will produce a substance called antibodies which fight the disease if it comes back to the person. \n\nThe antibody is specific to a particular disease or antigen. An example of this is measles which is a virus. A person (usually a child) who had never been sick with measles is given a milder form of the virus, this causes the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus. If this person is exposed to the same virus in the future, the person's immune system will remember and will fight the virus.\n\nFor general prevention to be useful:\nThe disease must be found and stopped in early stage.\nThe disease should be common or be easy to recognize.\nThe test for the disease should be easy, work all the time, and not hurt people.\nThe society is well-trained and can recognize most common symptoms on some diseases. \nThe treatment for the disease should be safe and be easy for people to get.\n\nEpidemiology\n\nEpidemiology is the study of the cause of disease. Some diseases are more popular for people with common characteristics, like similar origins, sociological background, food or nationality. Without good epidemiological research some diseases can be hard to track and to name. Some diseases can be taken for something else. This is why epidemiology takes a huge part in understanding how to protect ourselves against viruses, toxins and bacteria.\n\nRelated pages\nHealth\nHealthy lifestyle\nViruses\n\nReferences\n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":370,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":5,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":4,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":7,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":8,"2021-49":5,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":7,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":8,"2021-21":6,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":9,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":8,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":7,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":7,"2020-24":5,"2020-16":6,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":12,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":10,"2019-43":9,"2019-39":9,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":7,"2019-26":7,"2019-22":5,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":7,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":6,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":5,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":5,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":5,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1}},"id":4874,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disease","title":"Disease","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 \u2013 10 January 1778), also known as Carolus Linnaeus, was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who created the binomial nomenclature. In this system, every kind of animal and plant is given a name consisting of two Latin words, for its genus and species. This became used by biologists all over the world, so he is known as the \"father of modern taxonomy\". He was a good linguist, and famous in his time. He was made a noble by the Swedish king.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life \nCarl was born in Sweden. He was going to be a priest like his father, but did not do well enough in school for that. Instead, Carl studied at a college for botany because he liked it. He studied in Lund and tried to improve the garden there. He later went to another college.\n\nTravels and research \nIn 1735, Linnaeus moved to the Netherlands for three years. There, he earned his degree in medicine. He also published his book on plant classification. His book was called Systema Natur\u00e6. His book explained how to classify living things by putting them into groups. Some of these groups are bigger than others.\n\nLater he moved to Stockholm and practiced as a doctor. In 1739, Linnaeus married Sara Morea in Stockholm. Throughout the 1740s he conducted many field trips to places in Sweden to name plants and animals. When not on travels, Linnaeus worked on his classification, so it would work for plants, animals, and minerals.\n\nThe Swedish king Adolf Fredrik made Linnaeus a noble in 1757, and Linnaeus took the last name von Linn\u00e9, later often signing just Carl Linn\u00e9.\n\nLast years \nAfter he was made a noble, he continued teaching and writing. His reputation had spread over the world, and he talked with many different people. Linnaeus was upset by weak health, and he had gout and tooth aches. A stroke in 1774 weakened him, and two years later he had another, losing the use of his right side. He died in January 1778 and was buried in Uppsala cathedral.\n\nMankind \n\nLinnaeus classified man as among the primates, which was claimed by anthropologists like Blumenbach and natural historians like Buffon. It attracted the criticism of the Swedish church. The Lutheran Archbishop of Uppsala accused him of \"impiety\".\n\nLinnaeus recognised four races in the human species. These were European whites, American reds (Native Americans), Asian browns, and African blacks. Blumenbach's classification was similar, with the addition of a Mongolian (= Chinese) or yellow race. Thus recognition of man's position as a primate and the existence of races was quite widespread before the theory of evolution was formulated.\n\nRelated pages \n List of biologists\n\nNotes and references\n\nSources \n S\u00f6rlin & Fagerstedt, Linn\u00e9 och hans l\u00e4rjungar, 2004.\n J.L.P.M.Krol, Linneaus' verblijf op de Hartekamp In: Het landgoed de Hartekamp in Heemstede. Heemstede, 1982.\n\n1707 births\n1778 deaths\nTaxonomy\nSwedish physicians\nNaturalists\nSwedish biologists\nBotanists\nDeaths from stroke","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":189,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":5,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":5,"2021-43":5,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":6,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":6,"2019-43":6,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":5,"2019-18":4,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":46183,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carl%20Linnaeus","title":"Carl Linnaeus","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Odyssey is a major Ancient Greek epic poem. It was written by Homer, as a sequel to the Iliad. In its origin it was an oral epic poem from Mycenaean Greece, about the 11th century BC. The hero of the poem is Odysseus, or Ulysses as he is called in Latin; the poem is mythological, not historical.\n\nThe poem is the story about Odysseus's ten-year-long voyage home to Ithaca after the Trojan War. The Trojan War is the subject of the Iliad. At the same time, his wife Penelope has to fight off a lot of men who want to marry her; and his son Telemachos searches for him.\n\nAlong the way, Odysseus and his men have to fight monsters and many other dangers. The main events (places he goes, creatures and people he meets) of Odysseus' journey are:\n the Kikones\n the Lotus Eaters\n the Cyclops Polyphemus\n Aeolus, King of the winds\n the Laistrygones\n the sorceress Circe\n the Underworld\n the Sirens\n the sea monsters Scylla and Charybdis\n Helios' cattle\n the nymph Calypso\n the Phaeacians\n\nStory  \nIt is the story of the return of Ulysses after the Trojan War (Iliad)\n\nThe Cyclops \n\nOn his journey home, Odysseus lands on the island of the Cyclops Polyphemus.  They go inside his cave at the sight of sheep, cheese and milk.  Polyphemus catches them and eats some of Odysseus' men.  Odysseus tricks and blinds him and they escape.  The Cyclops prays to his father Poseidon that Odysseus would not get home to Ithaca and if he was fated to make it home, Odysseus would lose all of his men, his ship and find trouble at home.  This prayer becomes the plot line of the Odyssey.\n\nThe Sirens \n\nOdysseus and his ship have to pass the Sirens' island. The Sirens were always singing very beautifully, so sailors would try to go to them, but their ships would get destroyed, and they would die.\nOdysseus tells his men to put wax in their ears, so they will not hear the song of the sirens. He also tells his men to bind him to the ship's mast, so he cannot go to the sirens when he hears their song. His men can then look at Odysseus and see when he cannot hear the sirens anymore, because he is calm again. Then they can take the wax out of their ears, and free Odysseus.\n\nCalypso \n\nAfter escaping from the sea, and the death of his men, Odysseus comes to the island Ogygia. On this island lives the nymph Calypso, and Odysseus stayed with her for seven years. But then the god Hermes came and told her that the gods said that she had to let Odysseus go. Calypso promised Odysseus immortality (that he would live forever) if he stayed, but he wanted to go back to his wife Penelope. So Odysseus built a raft and left her.\n\nThe Phaeacians \nAfter a storm, Odysseus comes to the island of the Phaeacians. There he is found by the king's daughter Nausica\u00e4. Nausica\u00e4 brings him to the palace of her father, King Alkinoos. During his time there, Odysseus tell the story of his journey. After this, Alkinoos gives Odysseus a ship and sends him home to Ithaca.\n\nReturn home \nDuring all this time, Penelope has been keeping the suitors at bay with a ruse (trick). She promises \"I will choose when I have finished weaving this cloth\", the cloth being a burial cloth for Odysseus' father. However, every night her servant unpicks the work of the previous day. The story is made more real by Penelope becoming restless. The goddess Athena causes Penelope to feel the need to display herself, and fan the flames of the suitors' desire.\n\nOdysseus finally returns to Ithaca, where he disguises himself as a beggar. He goes to his home and meets his son Telemachus. Together they kill the suitors, who are trying to marry Penelope in order to gain his kingdom. Later, the families of the suitors come to kill Odysseus for revenge. The goddess Athena helps Odysseus by making them stop and give up the fight.\n\nNotes \n The English word odyssey, meaning long journey, comes from this poem.\n The Roman name for Odysseus is Ulysses.\n James Joyce's 1922 book Ulysses is based on the book by Homer, but it is very different.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n Odyssey -Citizendium\n\nGreek mythology\nClassical Greek literature\nEpic poems\n8th-century BC books","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":9099,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Odyssey","title":"Odyssey","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Royal Opera House is a famous opera house  in London. Sometimes it is called  \"Covent Garden\" because it is in the area of London called Covent Garden.  The Royal Opera House is the home of the Royal Opera and the Royal Ballet.  There is an orchestra which plays there for all the operas and ballets.\n\nThe building that is now the Royal Opera House is the third building in that place.  The first theatre to be built there in 1732 was burnt down in 1808.  The second theatre opened in 1809 but was burnt down in 1856.  Today's building was built in 1858, although a lot of it was rebuilt between 1996 and 2000.  The auditorium (the main part where the audience sits) is nearly the same, but all the backstage rooms are new: the dressing rooms, rehearsal rooms, office space etc.  There is an extra small theatre called the Linbury Theatre which is used for smaller performances.  Together with the new restaurant areas it has helped to get more young people to come.\n\nThe Royal Opera House seats 2,268 people.  There are seats downstairs (the stalls), four tiers of boxes, a balcony and a gallery.\n\nThe conductor (\"Musical Director\") of the Royal Opera House Orchestra is Antonio Pappano who is a young British conductor.\n\nOther websites \n Royal Opera House\nOpera houses\nBuildings and structures in the City of Westminster","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":5,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":33343,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Royal%20Opera%20House","title":"Royal Opera House","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In electronic commerce, conversion marketing is marketing with the intention of increasing conversions\u2014that is, site visitors who are paying customers.\n\nMeasures \nConversion marketing attempts to solve low online conversions through optimized customer service, which requires a complex combination of personalized customer experience management, web analytics, and the use of customer feedback to contribute to process flow improvement and site design.\n\nBy focusing on improving site flow, online customer service channels, and the online experience conversion marketing is commonly viewed as a long-term investment rather than a quick fix . Increased site traffic over the past 10 years has done little to increase overall conversion rates, so conversion marketing focuses not on driving additional traffic but on converting existing traffic. It requires proactive engagement with consumers using real time analytics to determine if visitors are confused and show signs of abandoning the site; then developing the tools and messages to inform consumers about available products, and ultimately persuading them to convert online. Ideally, the customer would maintain a relationship post-sale through support or re-engagement campaigns. Conversion marketing affects all phases of the customer life-cycle, and several conversion marketing solutions are utilized to help ease the transition from one phase to the next.\n\nConversion rate\n\nThe conversion rate is the proportion of visitors to a website who take action to go beyond a casual content view or website visit, as a result of subtle or direct requests from marketers, advertisers, and content creators.\n\nSuccessful conversions are defined differently by individual marketers, advertisers, and content creators. For online retailers, for example, a successful conversion may be defined as the sale of a product to a consumer whose interest in the item was initially sparked by clicking a banner advertisement. For content creators, a successful conversion may refer to a membership registration, newsletter subscription, software download, or other activity.\n\nMeasurement\nFor websites that seek to generate offline responses, for example telephone calls or foot traffic to a store, measuring conversion rates can be difficult because a phone call or personal visit is not automatically traced to its source, such as the Yellow Pages, website, or referral. Possible solutions include asking each caller or shopper how they heard about the business and using a toll-free number on the website that forwards to the existing line.\n\nFor websites where the response occurs on the site itself, a site's analytics package can be used to track user behaviour.\n\nCommon conversion marketing services \nRecommendations Behavioral analysis that identifies products and content relevant to the customer's perceived intent.\nTargeted offers Targeting attempts to fit the right promotion with the right customer based upon behavioral and demographic information.\nRatings and reviews Using user-generated ratings and reviews to increase conversion rates, capture feedback, and engender visitor's trust.\nEmail personalization E-mail with embedded recommendations and chat that are tailored personally to the recipient.\nChat As consumers tend to abandon sites after only three clicks, attempts to use proactive chat, reactive chat, exit chat, and click-to-call to convert consumers quickly.\nClick-to-call Supports cross-channel conversion without losing the context of the conversation when visitors move from the website to the phone.\nCall to action (marketing) Statement designed to get an immediate response from the person reading or hearing it. Broadly used in business as part of a digital strategy to get your users to respond through one single action.\nCobrowsing Tool for support agent infrastructure (chat or call) to assist customers in transacting online. \nVoice of the customer Feedback about products, services, and online experiences that is captured through carefully analyzed structured and unstructured data.\nAutomated guides predetermined steps that allow a customer to better understand product features, and options to assist with the selection process.\nRetargeting Identification of visitors interested in particular products or services based on previous site browsing or search to offer relevant content through targeted ad placement.\n\nMethods of increasing conversion rate\n\nThe process of improving the conversion rate is called conversion rate optimization. However, different sites may consider a \"conversion\" to be a result other than a sale. Say a customer were to abandon an online shopping cart. The company could market a special offer, like free shipping, to convert the visitor into a paying customer. A company may also try to recover the customer through an online engagement method, such as proactive chat, to attempt to assist the customer through the purchase process.\n\nAmong many possible actions to increase the conversion rate, the most relevant may be:\n Employ Attention, Interest, Desire, Action (AIDA) principles to design the user experience through the conversion funnel\n Enhance the user's credibility and trust in the site, the product, and the business by displaying third-party trust logos and by quality site design \n Improve site navigation structure so that users can browse and shop with minimal effort\n Improve and focus the website content, including text, photographs, illustrations, and video, towards target conversion \n Review, and edit or remove obsolete or distracting data\n Increase usability to reduce barriers to conversion\n Create a self-serving customer service format by letting the user reach informative answers quickly with a learning database.\n Offer active help (e.g. live chat, co-browsing)\n Generate user reviews of the product or service\n Gather a baseline user experience by recording user actions and compiling key objections \n Enable clear tracking of standardized metrics using website analytics software for a predetermined conversion goal (e.g. \"increase volume of newsletter subscriptions\" or \"decrease shopping cart abandonment percentage rate\")\n Take repeated action to monitor and improve the site, based on quantitative and qualitative metrics\n Add a clear offer to the web page such as a price discount or special add-on offer like an eBook\n\nSee also\n Customer intelligence\n Win\u2013loss analytics\n\nReferences\n\n Berkeley-Study on Conversion rate in Spam \n\nDigital marketing","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-24":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":6,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":6,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":35536988,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conversion%20marketing","title":"Conversion marketing","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Jade is a kind of stone. We use the name \"jade\" for two different sorts of mineral. The first sort is nephrite. This is a form of actinolite (asbestos is a sort of actinolite, too). The second sort is the mineral jadeite, and it is a pyroxene. The first sort (nephrite) is harder than the second sort (jadeite). The first sort (jadeite) has more colors that the second sort (nephrite).\n\nNephrite is Ca2(Mg, Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2. \nJadeite is NaAlSi2O6. \n\nThe two sorts of jade look nearly the same. People only found that they were two different sorts in 1863. The nephrite form of jade is very hard. In the past, Chinese people and the Maori used it to make knives and weapons. Later, when people could use metals, they liked jade because it looked nice and they thought it had special powers. Today people also use jade for jewelry.\n\nJade was found about 7000 years ago. The Chinese later made jewelry out of it. Only the rich could have jade because it was so rare and expensive. It was said that jade had healing powers and it was regarded as very lucky.\n\nGemstones","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":6623,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jade","title":"Jade","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The  Tate is the United Kingdom's national museum of British and Modern Art. It is a group of four art galleries in England: \nTate Britain (opened in 1897 and renamed in 2000)\nTate Liverpool (1988), \nTate St Ives (1993) \nTate Modern (2000). \nThere is a website, Tate Online (1998). It is  administered as a quango (a non-departmental public body).Tate is used as the name for the corporation which was started as The Board of Trustees of the Tate Gallery.\n\nThe gallery was started in 1897, as the National Gallery of British Art. When its role was changed to include Modern Art it was renamed the Tate Gallery after Henry Tate. The Tate Gallery was first started in a building at Millbank, London on the Embankment. In 2000, the Tate Gallery split its collection into four museums: \nTate Britain (in the original building) displays the collection of British art from 1500 to the present day; \nTate Modern, also in London, houses the Tate's collection of British and International Modern and Contemporary art from 1900 to the present day. \nTate Liverpool, in Liverpool has the same purpose as Tate Modern but on a smaller scale, and \nTate St Ives displays modern and contemporary art by artists who have a connection with the local area. All four museums share the Tate Collection. \n\nOne of the Tate's most publicised art events is the awarding of the annual Turner Prize, which takes place at Tate Britain.\n\nTate Online \nTate Online is the Tate's web site. Since its launch in 1998, the site has had information on all four Tate galleries (Tate Britain, Tate St Ives, Tate Liverpool and Tate Modern) in the same website. Tate Online helps visitors with get ready to visit the galleries, but is also a gallery as well. Other resources include information on all works in Tate's Collection of British and Modern International art, e-learning for all visitors, over 400 hours of webcasts, all articles from the magazine Tate Etc, and a series of Internet art works. BT has sponsored Tate Online since 2001.\n\nHow it is run \nThe Tate gets money every year from the Department for Culture, Media & Sport. It is run by a board of trustees. Under the Charities Act 1993. the Tate is a tax-exempt charity. An entry fee is charged for all special collections, and there is a membership system to attract regular visitors.\n\nRelated pages\n Turner Prize\n\nOther websites \n\n Tate Online \u2014 65,000 works from the Tate Collection online, information on Tate's exhibitions and events programmes, and online learning resources.\n TATE ETC. Magazine \n Turner Worldwide  - an ongoing online cataloguing of JMW Turner's work around the world.\n Turner Collection Online  The online catalogue of Tate's collection of nearly 300 oil paintings and 30,000 works on paper by JMW Turner.\n Tate Gallery Records  Tate's own historical records.\n Tate Podcasts  Audio and video podcasts from Tate.\n Tate in Space\n Turner Museum \n\nArt museums in the United Kingdom\nMuseums in England","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2024-10":1}},"id":184672,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tate","title":"Tate","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"2012 (twenty twelve) (MMXII) was  .\n\nThe year 2012 was the International Year of Cooperatives and the Alan Turing Year.\n\n2012 was the Chinese Year of Water Dragon based on the 12-year Chinese Zodiac cycle.\n\nEvents\n\nJanuary \n\n January 1 \u2013 Start of Denmark's Presidency of the European Union\n January 5 \u2013 Portia Simpson-Miller becomes Prime Minister of Jamaica for a second time.\n January 6 \u2013 New Mexico celebrates the 100th anniversary of its statehood.\n January 10 \u2013 The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes before midnight, after the nuclear disaster at Fukushima in Japan in 2011, and the nuclear threat level.\n January 13\u201322 \u2013 The first Winter Youth Olympics are held in Innsbruck, Austria.\n January 14 \u2013 The cruise ship Costa Concordia runs aground off the Tuscan coast, at the island of Giglio, and partially sinks. Out of more than 4000 people on board, at least 30 people are killed.\n January 18 \u2013 The English language Wikipedia blacks out for 24 hours in protest against the internet laws SOPA and PIPA proposed by the United States Congress.\n January 20 \u2013 185 people are killed in a series of coordinated bombings in Kano, Nigeria, carried out by the Islamist extremist group Boko Haram.\n January 23 \u2013 The EU adopts an embargo against Iran over its uranium enrichment.\n January 30 \u2013 Following this date, cold weather in Europe causes several deaths, due to the low temperatures.\n January 31 \u2013 433 Eros, the second-largest Near Earth Object on record (size 13\u00d713\u00d733\u00a0km) passes Earth. NASA studied Eros with the NEAR Shoemaker probe launched on February 17, 1996.\n\nFebruary \n\n February 1 \u2013 Violence erupts at the end of a football match in Port Said, Egypt, killing 74 people.\n February 2 \u2013 The ferry MV Rabaul Queen sinks off the north coast of Papua New Guinea, with at least 230 people being rescued, and several missing.\n February 6 \u2013 Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II marking the 60th anniversary of her accession to the Thrones of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia & New Zealand (as well as the 60th anniversary of her becoming Head of the Commonwealth).\n February 7 - President of the Maldives Mohamed Nasheed announces his resignation. Mohammed Waheed Hassan takes over from him.\n February 11 - American singer and actress Whitney Houston is found dead at her hotel in Los Angeles.\n February 12 - The Zambia national football team wins the African Cup of Nations, defeating the Ivory Coast.\n February 15 - A fire at a prison in Honduras kills at least 357 people.\n February 17 - President of Germany Christian Wulff announces his resignation following a home-loan scandal. He is the shortest-serving President in the history of the Federal Republic of Germany. Horst Seehofer becomes interim-President.\n February 19 - Iran suspends oil exports to France and the United Kingdom, after sanctions were imposed by the EU and the United States.\n February 21 - EU finance ministers reach an agreement on a 130 billion-Euro bailout for Greece.\n February 25 - Abd Rabbuh Mansur Al-Hadi succeeds Ali Abdullah Saleh as President of Yemen.\n\nMarch \n\n March 2 - A tornado outbreak in Alabama, Kentucky, Ohio and Indiana kills 39 people.\n March 4 - Several munitions dump explosions in Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo, kill over 250 people.\n March 4 - Vladimir Putin declares victory in the Russian Presidential Election, returning him to the Presidency.\n March 13 - It is announced that, after 244 years, the Encyclopedia Britannica is to stop its print edition to focus on its online version.\n March 13 - A coach crash in Switzerland kills 28 people, including 22 children, who were returning to Belgium.\n March 18 - Joachim Gauck is chosen to succeed Christian Wulff as President of Germany. He becomes President immediately.\n March 19 - Four people are killed in a shooting attack at a Jewish school in Toulouse, France. The gunman, Mohammed Merah, is killed three days later after a siege.\n March 22 - Ahmed Toumani Toure, President of Mali, is ousted in a coup after armed soldiers attack government offices.\n March 25 - Macky Sall is elected President of Senegal, succeeding Abdoulaye Wade.\n\nApril \n April 1 - Aung San Suu Kyi wins a seat in the Burmese parliament.\n April 2 - President of Hungary Pal Schmitt resigns following a plagiarism scandal.\n April 5 - President of Malawi Bingu wa Mutharika dies. Joyce Banda succeeds him.\n April 6 - The National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad declares an independent state, Azawad, in northern Mali, which is not recognised internationally.\n April 11 - Two strong earthquakes strike off the Indian Ocean coast of Sumatra, causing widespread panic and tsunami alerts all around the Indian Ocean.\n April 12 - A coup takes place in Guinea-Bissau as mutinous soldiers arrest interim President Raimundo Pereira and Presidential candidate Carlos Gomes Junior, as they take control of the capital, Bissau.\n April 13 - Kwangmyongsong-3, a North Korean earth observation satellite, explodes shortly after launch.\n April 16 - The trial of Anders Behring Breivik, perpetrator of the 2011 Norway attacks, begins in Oslo.\n April 22 - Francois Hollande defeats Nicolas Sarkozy in the first round of the French Presidential election. They both go through to the second round, as National Front leader Marine Le Pen comes third.\n April 26 - Former President of Liberia Charles Taylor is found guilty of war crimes, committed during the Sierra Leone Civil War.\n\nMay \n\n May 2 \u2013 Edvard Munch's The Scream sells for 120 million US dollars, a record price for a work of art at auction.\n May 6 \u2013 Second round of the French Presidential Election: Francois Hollande is elected President of France, defeating Nicolas Sarkozy.\n May 6 \u2013 The Parliamentary election in Greece ends in an inconclusive result. A re-run is scheduled for June 17.\n May 7 \u2013 Vladimir Putin becomes President of Russia for a second time, swapping places with Dmitry Medvedev, who becomes Prime Minister.\n May 12 \u2013 The 2012 World Expo begins in Yeosu, South Korea. It is due to last until August 12.\n May 15 \u2013 Francois Hollande becomes President of France.\n May 18-20 \u2013 The G8 Summit is held at Camp David, near Washington, DC after a last minute switch of location. Chicago was originally the host city of the G8 summit prior to the NATO Summit.\n May 20 \u2013 Taur Matan Ruak becomes President of East Timor.\n May 20-21 - The first NATO Summit in the United States outside of Washington, D.C. is held in Chicago, Illinois.\n May 20 \u2013 A magnitude 6 earthquake strikes northern Italy, killing at least 7 people and destroying many historic buildings.\n May 20 \u2013 Annular solar eclipse: Path of annularity runs through the Pacific Ocean from East Asia to the Western and Midwestern United States.\n May 22 - The Tokyo Skytree in Tokyo, Japan, opens to the public. It is the tallest self-supporting tower in the world, at a height of 634 metres.\n May 26 \u2013 Final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 in Baku, Azerbaijan, which is won for Sweden by Loreen.\n May 29 - Mitt Romney secures the Republican Party nomination for President of the United States.\n\nJune \n\n June 2 - Former President of Egypt Hosni Mubarak is sentenced to prison for ordering the killing of demonstrators during the 2011 Egyptian protests.\n June 2-5 - Celebrations take place across the UK and Commonwealth to mark Queen Elizabeth II's 60 years on the throne.\n June 3 - A Dana Air Flight crashes into a building in Lagos, Nigeria, killing all 153 people on board and 40 on the ground.\n June 4 - Partial lunar eclipse\n June 6 \u2013 The second and last solar transit of Venus of the century. The next pair is predicted to occur in 2117 and 2125.\n June 8-July 1 \u2013 The UEFA Euro 2012 is played in Poland and Ukraine. It is won by the Spain national football team.\n June 9 - Devastating wildfires begin in Colorado.\n June 17 - Parliamentary election in Greece: The second such election in Greece in the space of six weeks.\n June 17 - The deciding round of Egypt's Presidential election is held.\n June 18-June 23 \u2013 Turing Centenary Conference at the University of Cambridge, in honor of the mathematician, computer scientist, and cryptographer Alan Turing, the last day of the conference being the hundredth anniversary of his birth.\n June 20 - Antonis Samaras is sworn in as Prime Minister of Greece.\n June 22 - President of Paraguay Fernando Lugo is removed from office by impeachment and is succeeded by Federico Franco.\n June 22 - A Turkish Air Force McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II fighter airplane is shot down by the Syrian Armed Forces, killing both pilots on board, further damaging already difficult relations between the two countries.\n June 24 - Shenzhou 9, a Chinese spacecraft carrying three Chinese astronauts, including the first female one, docks manually with orbiting module Tiangong 1, becoming the third country to successfully perform the mission.\n June 24 - Mohamed Morsi of the Muslim Brotherhood is announced as the winner of Egypt's Presidential election.\n June 28 - The United States Supreme Court declares that Barack Obama's healthcare reform plan is constitutional.\n June 30 - Mohamed Morsi is sworn in as President of Egypt.\n June 30 - Iceland's Presidential election is held, won by incumbent President Olafur Ragnar Grimsson.\n June 30 - An extra leap second is added at the end of the month.\n\nJuly \n\n July 1 - Start of Cyprus' Presidency of the European Union\n July 1 - Presidential election in Mexico - won by Enrique Pena Nieto.\n July 4 - Scientists at CERN announce that they have discovered a particle whose properties are consistent with those of the Higgs boson, after experiments were carried out at the Large Hadron Collider.\n July 7 - Flooding affects parts of the Krasnodar Krai region in southern Russia, killing 72 people.\n July 13 - FIFA is embroiled in its second corruption scandal in just over a year, as Sepp Blatter claims that there may have been irregularities when Germany won the right to host the 2006 FIFA World Cup.\n July 18\u201321 \u2013 The 2012 World Rowing Championships are held at Plovdiv, Bulgaria.\n July 20 - A gunman opens fire at a cinema in Aurora, Colorado. The shooting kills 12 people and 59 are reported injured.\n July 24 - John Atta Mills, President of Ghana, dies while still in office. John Dramani Mahama takes over the running of the country until the election in December.\n July 25 - Pranab Mukherjee becomes President of India, succeeding Pratibha Patil, whose five-year term expired.\n July 27 \u2013 Opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics begins in London at 7:30 pm UTC, 8:30pm BST.\n July 29 - In Romania, a referendum is held on whether President Traian Basescu should be removed from office. He remains in his position after a low voter turnout.\n July 30\/31 - Large parts of northern and eastern India are affected by wide-scale power failures, leaving over 600 million people without electricity.\n\nAugust \n\n early August - Typhoon Haikui causes flooding in the Philippines.\n August 6 - Curiosity, the Mars Science Laboratory mission's rover, successfully lands on the planet Mars.\n August 11 - Two earthquakes over magnitude 6, followed by several aftershocks, strike the area around Tabriz in northwestern Iran, killing over 300 people.\n August 11 - US presidential candidate Mitt Romney chooses Wisconsin Congressman Paul Ryan as his running mate.\n August 11 - The Jamaican men's 4 by 100 metre team wins the gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics, meaning that Usain Bolt successfully defends all three of the titles he won in Beijing in 2008.\n August 12 \u2013 The closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London takes place. Host nation Great Britain finishes with the third-highest gold medal count, 29, winning 65 medals overall.\n August 16 - Police open fire on striking miners at the Marikana mine in South Africa, killing 34.\n August 22 - It is ruled that the attempt to unseat Romania's President Traian Basescu in a referendum was not legal.\n August 24 - Cyclist Lance Armstrong announces that he will no longer fight against doping allegations, as the World Anti-Doping Agency strips him of his seven consecutive (in-a-row) Tour de France titles.\n August 24 - A court in Oslo declares Anders Behring Breivik sane and rules that he should serve a 21-year prison sentence for the 2011 Norway attacks.\n August 29 - Start of the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London.\n August 31 - Researchers announce the successful implantation of an early prototype bionic eye with 24 electrodes.\n August 31 - Armenia breaks off diplomatic ties with Hungary, after the extradition of Azerbaijani Ramil Safarov to his homeland, followed by his pardoning. He had been convicted of killing an Armenian soldier in Hungary in 2004.\n\nSeptember\n September 7 - Two earthquakes in southern China kill at least 80 people.\n September 7 - Canada breaks off diplomatic relations with Iran, over its stance on Syria, its nuclear programme and its human rights record.\n September 9 \u2013 End of the 2012 Summer Paralympics.\n September 11 - Both embassies in Cairo, Egypt and in Benghazi, Libya were attacked by Muslims who were believed to be protesting over a movie Innocence of Muslims, this attack killed U.S. Ambassador of Libya Christopher Stevens, Sean Smith, and 2 more people were killed and about two injured. It was later revealed that this may have been a coordinated terrorist attack.\n September 27 - Flooding affects parts of southern Spain.\n September 28 - A plane crashes shortly after take-off from Kathmandu, Nepal, and bursts into flames, killing all 19 people on board, who were heading to Mount Everest Base Camp.\n September 30 - Europe wins the Ryder Cup golf tournament over the United States, coming back from far behind to win.\n\nOctober \n\n October 1 - A ferry accident in Hong Kong kills 38 people.\n October 3 - A bomb attack believed to be linked to the Syrian conflict is carried out on the other side of the border with Turkey.\n October 9 - Pakistani schoolgirl and education activist Malala Yousafzai is shot and wounded during an assassination attempt by the Taliban while returning home on a school bus.\n October 12 - The European Union wins the Nobel Peace Prize.\n October 14 - Austrian skydiver Felix Baumgartner becomes the first person to break the sound barrier (travel faster than the speed of sound) without mechanical help, during a record space dive out of the Red Bull helium-filled balloon from 24 miles (39 kilometres) over Roswell, New Mexico, United States.\n October 15 - British Prime Minister David Cameron and Scottish First Minister Alex Salmond sign an agreement in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the terms and conditions of a referendum on Scottish independence, due to be held in 2014.\n October 19 - A bomb attack in Beirut, Lebanon, kills 11 people, including the Lebanese army chief, in an attack believed to be linked to the conflict in neighbouring Syria.\n October 24 - Ireland ceases analog television broadcasts.\n October 24-30 - Hurricane Sandy kills over 200 people in Jamaica, Haiti, Cuba, the Bahamas, Eastern United States and parts of Canada and, in terms of diameter, it is the biggest North Atlantic Hurricane ever measured. Considerable storm surge damage causes major disruption on the eastern seaboard of the United States.\n October 26 - Silvio Berlusconi is found guilty of tax fraud.\n October 30 - Hurricane Sandy dissolves.\n\nNovember \n\n November 3 - The New York City Marathon is cancelled for the first time in 42 years, due to Hurricane Sandy.\n November 4 - Bishop Tawadros is elected the next Pope of the Coptic Church in Egypt, succeeding Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria, who died in March.\n November 6 \u2013 United States presidential election, 2012: After winning the electoral and popular vote, President Barack Obama wins re-election against Mitt Romney.\n November 6 - A referendum is held in Puerto Rico on its future status. A majority support a change, with a majority of them voting for Puerto Rico becoming the 51st US State.\n November 6 - In referendums, a majority of voters in the US States of Maine, Maryland and Washington support introducing same-sex marriage.\n November 6 - In other referendums, the states of Washington and Colorado have majorities voting for the legalisation of marijuana for recreational use, while Oregon rejects the proposal.\n November 10 - Four days after the United States presidential election, 2012, Barack Obama secures the state of Florida, completing the 332-206 electoral college win. \n November 13 \u2013 Total solar eclipse (It was visible in northern Australia and the South Pacific).\n November 14 - Israel launches Operation Pillar of Defense on Palestinians in the Gaza Strip, killing Hamas military chief Ahmed Jabari. Hostilities over the following week kill 133 Palestinians and 5 Israelis.\n November 15 - The Communist Party of China unveils Xi Jinping as its next General Secretary, who is expected to lead the People's Republic of China until 2022.\n November 21 - After a week of violence in Israel and the Gaza Strip, the United States and Egypt announce a ceasefire, ending the week-long war.\n November 25 - A fire in a clothing factory in Dhaka, Bangladesh, kills over 100 people.\n November 25 - Regional elections are held in Catalonia, dominated by the issue of possible future independence from Spain.\n November 25 - Sebastian Vettel wins the Formula One World Championship for the third year in a row, becoming the youngest driver to win three Formula One championships.\n November 25 to December 2 - Typhoon Bopha, known in the Philippines as \"Pablo\", kills at least 1,020 people, with 844 missing, causing considerable damage on the island of Mindanao.\n November 28 \u2013 Penumbral lunar eclipse.\n November 29 - At the UN General Assembly, a majority of member states votes to give Palestine non-member observer state status.\n\nDecember \n December 1 - Enrique Pena Nieto becomes President of Mexico.\n December 3 \u2013 Jupiter in opposition.\n December 8 - In Qatar, at the UN Climate Conference, it is agreed that the Kyoto Protocol is extended until 2020.\n December 12 - North Korea announces that it has carried out a successful rocket launch.\n December 14 - Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting: A shooting occurs at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Connecticut, as 26 people, including 20 children, are shot dead by 20-year-old Adam Lanza, who then turns the gun on himself.\n December 15 - Egypt holds a referendum on its constitution.\n December 16 - Parliamentary election in Japan: The Liberal Democratic Party of Japan, under Shinzo Abe, wins the election.\n December 17 \u2013 Members of the Electoral College meet in each U.S. state.\n December 19 - Park Geunhye is elected President of South Korea over Moon Jae-in. She becomes the country's first female leader in February 2013.\n December 21 \u2013 11:11 UTC. Winter Solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, Summer Solstice in the Southern Hemisphere.\n December 21 \u2013 The Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, notably used by the pre-Columbian Maya civilization among others, completes a \"great cycle\" of thirteen baktuns. Some people believed that the end of this cycle would be the end of the world.\n December 21 - Barack Obama nominates John Kerry to become United States Secretary of State, a position in which he would succeed Hillary Clinton.\n December 26 - Shinzo Abe becomes Prime Minister of Japan for the second time.\n December 28 - At the age of 115 years, 253 days, Jiroemon Kimura of Japan becomes the oldest man ever, overtaking Christian Mortensen who had died in 1998. The oldest-ever person is Jeanne Calment, who lived for 122 years, 164 days.\n December 31 - Politicians in the United States do last-minute talks in an attempt at avoiding the so-called \"Fiscal Cliff\", a series of tax rises that would come into force in the new year.\n\nDeaths\n\nNobel Prizes \n Physiology or Medicine: John Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka\n Physics: Serge Haroche and David J. Wineland\n Chemistry: Robert Lefkowitz and Brian Kobilka\n Literature: Mo Yan\n Peace: European Union\n Economics: Alvin E. Roth and Lloyd Shapley\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":12277,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2012","title":"2012","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Blackbody radiation is radiation produced by heated objects, particularly from a blackbody. A blackbody is an object that absorbs all radiation (visible light, infrared light, ultraviolet light, etc.) that falls on it. This also means that it will also radiate at all frequencies that heat energy produces in it. \n\nEverything glows, depending on its temperature. Hotter things glow more in shorter wavelengths. Cooler things don't glow so much, especially in short wavelengths. Partly the radiation wavelength depends on what the material is, and partly it doesn't. The part that only depends on temperature, and not on composition, is called blackbody radiation.\n\nQuantum wave \nThis part of the story of radiation was first explained by James Clerk Maxwell via wave theory but the predicted and actual intensity vs. frequency curves did not go together right. At higher frequencies classical physics predicted that more and more energy would be radiated from the body until the energy became infinite. This broke the first law of thermodynamics which is a fundamental part of all physics. This was called the ultraviolet catastrophe. \n\nWhen it was realised that  classical physics did not work for blackbody radiation, the German physicist  Max Planck explained their relationship by saying that there are individual things (he did not try to guess what kind of things) that vibrate, each at its frequency. Each wave of each frequency has its special energy level. A single x-ray is very high photon energy and can go right through the human body. \n\nA single wave or photon of infrared light is very low energy, cannot go through the human body, and can only warm it. Planck's good thinking was to realize that to get a single wave at the x-ray frequency, it was necessary to have a big enough package of energy (or \"quantum\") to make such a strong wave. So if a blackbody took in a single wave at the x-ray frequency, then it could give off an x-ray at some later time. But if the blackbody only took in infra-red light it would not matter how much of it was absorbed. \n\nIt could only give off infrared light and could not give off even ordinary red light, much less any higher energy light such as ultraviolet light or x-ray radiation. Planck said that the total energy given off by a blackbody at any particular frequency is equal to the number of the \"vibrating things\" (see above), n, that was vibrating at a given frequency, f times a special constant, h, that turns frequency units into energy units. The equation is:\nE = n h f \nThe constant he made, h, is called the Planck constant.\n\nThe idea that a unit of light at a given frequency always has the same energy, the idea that there is a quantum of energy for each unit of light at a given frequency, became the doorway into quantum mechanics, so the idea of a blackbody is something that is basic to modern physics. It shows up in discussions of a wide variety of physics topics having to do with energies and frequencies.\n\nRelated pages\nStefan-Boltzmann law\n\nAstrophysics\nThermodynamics\nElectromagnetic radiation\nHeat transfer\nInfrared","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":4,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2}},"id":202005,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blackbody%20radiation","title":"Blackbody radiation","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A fire temple, Agiary, Atashkadeh (), Atashgah () or Dar-e Mehr () is the place of worship for the followers of Zoroastrianism, the ancient religion of Iran (Persia). In the Zoroastrian religion, fire (see atar), together with clean water (see aban), are agents of ritual purity. Clean, white \"ash for the purification ceremonies [is] regarded as the basis of ritual life\", which \"are essentially the rites proper to the tending of a domestic fire, for the temple [fire] is that of the hearth fire raised to a new solemnity\". For, one \"who sacrifices unto fire with fuel in his hand ..., is given happiness\".\n\n, there were 167 fire temples in the world, of which 45 were in Mumbai, 105 in the rest of India, and 17 in other countries. Of these only 9 (1 in Iran and 8 in India) are the main temples known as atash behrams and the remaining are the smaller temples known as agiarys.\n\nHistory and development\n\nConcept\n\nFirst evident in the 9th century BCE, the Zoroastrian rituals of fire are contemporary with that of Zoroastrianism itself. It appears at approximately the same time as the shrine cult and is roughly contemporaneous with the introduction of Atar as a divinity. There is no allusion to a temple of fire in the Avesta proper, nor is there any Old Persian language word for one.\n\nThat the rituals of fire was a doctrinal modification and absent from early Zoroastrianism is also evident in the later Atash Nyash. In the oldest passages of that liturgy, it is the hearth fire that speaks to \"all those for whom it cooks the evening and morning meal\", which Boyce observes is not consistent with sanctified fire. The temple is an even later development: from Herodotus it is known that in the mid-5th century BCE the Zoroastrians worshipped to the open sky, ascending mounds to light their fires. Strabo confirms this, noting that in the 6th century, the sanctuary at Zela in Cappadocia was an artificial mound, walled in, but open to the sky, although there is no evidence whatsoever that the Zela-sanctuary was Zoroastrian. Although the \"burning of fire\" was a key element in Zoroastrian worship, the burning of \"eternal\" fire, as well as the presence of \"light\" in worship, was also a key element in many other religions.\n\nBy the Parthian era (250 BCE\u2013226 CE), there were two places of worship in Zoroastrianism: one, called bagin or ayazan, was a sanctuary dedicated to a specific divinity; it was constructed in honor of the patron saint (or angel) of an individual or family and included an icon or effigy of the honored. The second, the atroshan, were the \"places of burning fire\" which became more and more prevalent as the iconoclastic movement gained support. Following the rise of the Sassanid dynasty, the shrines to the Yazatas continued to exist, but with the statues \u2013 by law \u2013 either abandoned or replaced by fire altars.\n\nAlso, as Schippman observed, there is no evidence even during the Sassanid era (226\u2013650 CE) that the fires were categorized according to their sanctity. \"It seems probable that there were virtually only two, namely the Atash-i Vahram [literally: \"victorious fire\", later misunderstood to be the Fire of Bahram], and the lesser Atash-i Adaran, or 'Fire of Fires', a parish fire, as it were, serving a village or town quarter\". Apparently, it was only in the Atash-i Vahram that fire was kept continuously burning, with the Adaran fires being annually relit. While the fires themselves had special names, the structures did not, and it has been suggested that \"the prosaic nature of the middle Persian names (kadag, man, and xanag are all words for an ordinary house) perhaps reflect a desire on the part of those who fostered the temple-cult ... to keep it as close as possible in character to the age-old cult of the hearth-fire, and to discourage elaboration\".\n\nThe Battle of al-Q\u0101disiyyah (636 CE) and the Battle of Nihav\u0101nd (642 CE) were instrumental to the collapse of the Sassanid Empire and state-sponsored Zoroastrianism; destruction or conversion (mosques) of some fire temples in Greater Iran followed. The faith was practiced largely by the aristocracy but large numbers of fire temples did not exist. Some fire temples continued with their original purpose although many Zoroastrians fled. Legend says that some took fire with them and it most probably served as a reminder of their faith in an increasingly persecuted community since fire originating from a temple was not a tenet of the religious practice.\n\nArchaeological traces\n\nThe oldest remains of what has been identified as a fire temple are those on Mount Khajeh, near Lake Hamun in Sistan. Only traces of the foundation and ground-plan survive and have been tentatively dated to the 3rd or 4th century BCE. The temple was rebuilt during the Parthian era (250 BCE-226 CE), and enlarged during Sassanid times (226\u2013650 CE).\n\nThe characteristic feature of the Sassanid fire temple was its domed sanctuary where the fire-altar stood. This sanctuary always had a square ground plan with a pillar in each corner that then supported the dome (the gombad). Archaeological remains and literary evidence from Zend commentaries on the Avesta suggest that the sanctuary was surrounded by a passageway on all four sides. \"On a number of sites the gombad, made usually of rubble masonry with courses of stone, is all that survives, and so such ruins are popularly called in Fars \u010dah\u0101r-t\u0101q or 'four arches'.\"\n\nRuins of temples of the Sassanid era have been found in various parts of the former empire, mostly in the southwest (Fars, Kerman and Elam), but the biggest and most impressive are those of Adur Gushnasp in Media Minor (see also The Great Fires, below). Many more ruins are popularly identified as the remains of Zoroastrian fire temples even when their purpose is of evidently secular nature, or are the remains of a temple of the shrine cults, or as is the case of a fort-like fire temple and monastery at Surkhany, Azerbaijan, that unambiguously belongs to another religion. The remains of a fire-altar, most likely constructed during the proselytizing campaign of Yazdegerd II (r. 438\u2013457) against the Christian Armenians, have been found directly beneath the main altar of the Echmiadzin Cathedral, the Mother See of the Armenian Apostolic Church.\n\nLegendary Great Fires\nApart from relatively minor fire temples, three were said to derive directly from Ahura Mazda, thus making them the most important in Zoroastrian tradition. These were the \"Great Fires\" or \"Royal Fires\" of Adur Burzen-Mihr, Adur Farnbag, and Adur Gushnasp. The legends of the Great Fires are probably of antiquity (see also Denkard citation, below), for by the 3rd century CE, miracles were said to happen at the sites, and the fires were popularly associated with other legends such as those of the folktale heroes Fereydun, Jamshid and Rustam.\n\nThe Bundahishn, an encyclopaediaic collection of Zoroastrian cosmogony and cosmology written in Book Pahlavi, which was finished in the 11th or 12th century CE, states that the Great Fires had existed since creation and had been brought forth on the back of the ox Srishok to propagate the faith, dispel doubt, and protect all humankind. Other texts observe that the Great Fires were also vehicles of propaganda and symbols of imperial sovereignty.\n\nThe priests of these respective \"Royal Fires\" are said to have competed with each other to draw pilgrims by promoting the legends and miracles that were purported to have occurred at their respective sites. Each of the three is also said to have mirrored social and feudal divisions: \"The fire which is Farnbag has made its place among the priests; ... the fire which is G\u016bshnasp has made its place among the warriors; ... the fire which is B\u016brz\u012bn-Mitr\u014d has made its place among agriculturists\" (Denkard, 6.293). These divisions are archaeologically and sociologically revealing, because they make clear that, since from at least the 1st century BCE onwards, society was divided into four, not three, feudal estates.\n\nThe Farnbag fire (translated as 'the fire Glory-Given' by Darmesteter) was considered the most venerated of the three because it was seen as the earthly representative of the Atar Spenishta, 'Holiest Fire' of Yasna 17.11, and it is described in a Zend commentary on that verse as \"the one burning in Paradise in the presence of Ohrmazd.\"\n\nAlthough \"in the eyes of [contemporary] Iranian Zoroastrian priests, the three fires were not 'really existing' temple fires and rather belonged to the mythological realm\", several attempts have been made to identify the locations of the Great Fires. In the early 20th century, A. V. Jackson identified the remains at Takht-i-Suleiman, midway between Urumieh and Hamadan, as the temple of Adur Gushnasp. The location of the Mithra fire, i.e. that of Burzen-Mihr, Jackson \"identified with reasonable certainty\" as being near the village of Mihr half-way between Miandasht and Sabzevar on the Khorasan road to Nishapur. The Indian (lesser) Bundahishn records the Farnbag fire having been \"on the glory-having mountain which is in Khwarezm\" but later moved \"upon the shining mountain in the district of Kavul just as it there even now remains\" (IBd 17.6). That the temple once stood in Khwarezm is also supported by the Greater (Iranian) Bundahishn and by the texts of Zadsparam (11.9). However, according to the Greater Bundahishn, it was moved \"upon the shining mountain of Kavarvand in the Kar district\" (the rest of the passage is identical to the Indian edition). Darmesteter identified this \"celebrated for its sacred fire which has been transported there from Khvarazm as reported by Masudi\" . If this identification is correct, the temple of the Farnbag fire then lay 10 miles southwest of Juwun, midway between Jahrom and Lar. ()\n\nIranshah Atash Behram\n\nAccording to Parsi legend, when (over a thousand years ago) one group of refugees from (greater) Khorasan landed in Western Gujarat, they had the ash of such a fire with them. This ash, it is said, served as the bed for the fire today at Udvada.\n\nThis fire temple was not always at Udvada. According to the Qissa-i Sanjan, 'Story of Sanjan', the only existing account of the early years of Zoroastrian refugees in India and composed at least six centuries after their arrival, the immigrants established a Atash-Warharan, 'victorious fire' (see Warharan for etymology) at Sanjan. Under threat of war (probably in 1465), the fire was moved to the Bahrot Caves 20\u00a0km south of Sanjan, where it stayed for 12 years. From there, it was moved to Bansdah, where it stayed for another 14 years before being moved yet again to Navsari, where it would remain until the 18th century. It was then moved to Udvada where it burns today.\n\nAlthough there are numerous eternally burning Zoroastrian fires today, with the exception of the 'Fire of Warharan', none of them are more than 250 years old. The legend that the Indian Zoroastrians invented the afrinagan (the metal urn in which a sacred fire today resides) when they moved the fire from Sanjan to the Bahrot Caves is unsustainable. Greek historians of the Parthian period reported the use of a metal vase-like urn to transport fire. Sassanid coins of the 3rd-4th century CE likewise reveal a fire in a vase-like container identical in design to the present-day afrinagans. The Indian Zoroastrians do however export these and other utensils to their co-religionists the world over.\n\nToday\n\nNomenclature\nOne of the more common technical terms \u2013 in use \u2013 for a Zoroastrian fire temple is dar be-mehr, romanized as darb-e mehr or dialectally slurred as dar-e mehr. The etymology of this term, meaning 'Mithra's Gate' or 'Mithra's Court' is problematic. It has been proposed that the term is a throwback to the age of the shrine cults, the name being retained because all major Zoroastrian rituals were solemnized between sunrise and noon, the time of day especially under Mithra's protection. Etymological theories see a derivation from mithryana (so Meillet) or *mithradana (Gershevitch) or mithraion (Wilcken). It is moreover not clear whether the term referred to a consecrated inner sanctum or to the ritual precinct.\n\nAmong present-day Iranian Zoroastrians, the term darb-e mehr includes the entire ritual precinct. It is significantly more common than the older atashkada, a Classical Persian language term that together with its middle Persian predecessors (\ud802\udf6a\ud802\udf72\ud802\udf6a \ud802\udf60\ud802\udf72\ud802\udf67\ud802\udf71 \u0101tax\u0161-kadag, -man and -xanag) literally means 'house of fire'. The older terms have the advantage that they are readily understood even by non-Zoroastrian Iranians. In the early 20th century, the Bombay Fasilis (see Zoroastrian calendar) revived the term as the name of their first fire temple, and later in that century the Zoroastrians of Tehran revived it for the name of their principal fire temple.\n\nThe term darb-e mehr is also common in India, albeit with a slightly different meaning. Until the 17th century the fire (now) at Udvada was the only continuously burning one on the Indian subcontinent. Each of the other settlements had a small building in which rituals were performed, and the fire of which the priests would relight whenever necessary from the embers carried from their own hearth fires. The Parsis called such an unconsecrated building either dar-be mehr or agiary. The latter is the Gujarati language word for 'house of fire' and thus a literal translation of atashkada. In recent years, the term dar-be mehr has come to refer to a secondary sacred fire (the dadgah) for daily ritual use that is present at the more prestigious fire temples. Overseas, in particular in North America, Zoroastrians use the term dar-be mehr for both temples that have an eternally burning fire as well as for sites where the fire is only kindled occasionally. This is largely due to the financial support of such places by one Arbab Rustam Guiv, who preferred the dialectal Iranian form.\n\nClassification\nFunctionally, the fire temples are built to serve the fire within them, and the fire temples are classified (and named) according to the grade of fire housed within them. There are three grades of fires, the Atash Dadgah, Atash Adaran, and Atash Behram.\n\nAtash Dadgah\nThe Atash Dadgah is the lowest grade of sacred fire, and can be consecrated within the course of a few hours by two priests, who alternatingly recite the 72 verses of the Yasna liturgy. Consecration may occasionally include the recitation of the Vendidad, but this is optional. A lay person may tend the fire when no services are in progress. The term is not necessarily a consecrated fire, and the term is also applied to the hearth fire, or to the oil lamp found in many Zoroastrian homes.\n\nAtash Adaran\nThe next highest grade of fire is the Atash Adaran, the \"Fire of fires\". It requires a gathering of hearth fire from representatives of the four professional groups (that reflect feudal estates): from a hearth fire of the asronih (the priesthood), the (r)atheshtarih (soldiers and civil servants), the vastaryoshih (farmers and herdsmen) and the hutokshih (artisans and laborers). Eight priests are required to consecrate an Adaran fire and the procedure takes between two and three weeks.\n\nAtash Behram\n\nThe highest grade of fire is the Atash Behram, \"Fire of victory\", and its establishment and consecration is the most elaborate of the three. It involves the gathering of 16 different \"kinds of fire\", that is, fires gathered from 16 different sources, including lightning, fire from a cremation pyre, fire from trades where a furnace is operated, and fires from the hearths as is also the case for the Atash Adaran. Each of the 16 fires is then subject to a purification ritual before it joins the others. Thirty-two priests are required for the consecration ceremony, which can take up to a year to complete.\n\nA temple that maintains an Adaran or Behram fire also maintains at least one Dadgah fire. In contrast to the Adaran and Behram fires, the Dadgah fire is the one at which priests then celebrate the rituals of the faith, and which the public addresses to invoke blessings for a specific individual, a family or an event. Veneration of the greater fires is addressed only to the fire itself \u2013 that is, following the consecration of such a fire, only the Atash Nyashes, the litany to the fire in Younger Avestan, is ever recited before it.\n\nA list of the nine Atash Behrams:\n\nIranshah Atash Behram in Udvada, India. Established 1742.\n Desai Atash Behram in Navsari, India. Established 1765.\n Dadiseth Atash Behram in Mumbai, India. Established 1783.\n Vakil Atash Behram in Surat, India. Established 1823.\n Modi Atash Behram in Surat, India. Established 1823.\n Wadia Atash Behram in Mumbai, India. Established 1830.\n Banaji Atash Behram in Mumbai, India. Established 1845.\n Anjuman Atash Behram in Mumbai, India. Established 1897.\nYezd Atash Behram in Yazd, Iran. Established 1934.\n\nPhysical attributes\n\nThe outer fa\u00e7ade of a Zoroastrian fire temple is almost always intentionally nondescript and free of embellishment. This may reflect ancient tradition (supported by the prosaic nature of the technical terms for a fire temple) that the principal purpose of a fire temple is to house a sacred fire, and not to glorify what is otherwise simply a building.\n\nThe basic structure of present-day fire temples is always the same. There are no indigenous sources older than the 19th century that describe an Iranian fire temple (the 9th century theologian Manushchir observed that they had a standard floor plan, but what this might have been is unknown), and it is possible that the temples there today have features that are originally of Indian origin. On entry one comes into a large space or hall where congregation (also non-religious) or special ceremonies may take place. Off to the side of this (or sometimes a floor level up or down) the devotee enters an anteroom smaller than the hall he\/she has just passed through. Connected to this anteroom, or enclosed within it, but not visible from the hall, is the innermost sanctum (in Zoroastrian terminology, the atashgah, literally 'place of the fire' in which the actual fire-altar stands).\n\nA temple at which a Yasna service (the principal Zoroastrian act of worship that accompanies the recitation of the Yasna liturgy) may be celebrated will always have, attached to it or on the grounds, at least a well or a stream or other source of 'natural' water. This is a critical requirement for the Ab-Zohr, the culminating rite of the Yasna service.\n\nOnly priests attached to a fire temple may enter the innermost sanctum itself, which is closed on at least one side and has a double domed roof. The double dome has vents to allow the smoke to escape, but the vents of the outer dome are offset from those of the inner, so preventing debris or rain from entering the inner sanctum. The sanctum is separated from the anteroom by dividers (or walls with very large openings) and is slightly raised with respect to the space around it. The wall(s) of the inner sanctum are almost always tiled or of marble, but are otherwise undecorated. There are no lights \u2013 other than that of the fire itself \u2013 in the inner sanctum. In Indian-Zoroastrian (not evident in the modern buildings in Iran) tradition the temples are often designed such that direct sunlight does not enter the sanctuary.\n\nIn one corner hangs a bell, which is rung five times a day at the boi \u2013 literally, '[good] scent' \u2013 ceremony, which marks the beginning of each gah, or 'watch'. Tools for maintaining the fire \u2013 which is always fed by wood \u2013 are simply hung on the wall, or as is sometimes the case, stored in a small room (or rooms) often reachable only through the sanctum.\n\nIn India and in Indian-Zoroastrian communities overseas, non-Zoroastrians are strictly prohibited from entering any space from which one could see the fire(s). While this is not a doctrinal requirement (that is, it is not an injunction specified in the Avesta or in the so-called Pahlavi texts), it has nonetheless developed as a tradition. It is, however, mentioned in a 16th-century Rivayat epistle (R. 65). In addition, entry into any part of the facility is sometimes reserved for Zoroastrians only. This then precludes the use of temple hall for public (also secular) functions. Zoroastrians insist, though, that these restrictions are not meant to offend non-Zoroastrians, and point to similar practices in other religions. There was a custom in India that Zoroastrian women were not allowed to enter the Fire Temple and the Tower of Silence if they married a non-Zoroastrian person. This custom has been challenged before the Supreme Court of India.\n\nWorship\n\nWhen the adherent enters the sanctum he or she will offer bone-dry sandalwood (or other sweet-smelling wood) to the fire. This is in accordance with doctrinal statutes expressed in Vendidad 18.26-27, which in addition to enumerating which fuels are appropriate, also reiterates the injunctions of Yasna 3.1 and Yashts 14.55 that describe which fuels are not (in particular, any not of wood).\n\nIn present-day Zoroastrian tradition, the offering is never made directly, but placed in the care of the celebrant priest who, wearing a cloth mask over the nostrils and mouth to prevent pollution from the breath, will then \u2013 using a pair of silver tongs \u2013 place the offering in the fire. The priest will use a special ladle to proffer the holy ash to the layperson, who in turn daubs it on his or her forehead and eyelids, and may take some home for use after a Kushti ceremony.\n\nA Zoroastrian priest does not preach or hold sermons, but rather just tends to the fire.  Fire Temple attendance is particularly high during seasonal celebrations (Gahambars), and especially for the New Year (Noruz).\n\nThe priesthood is trigradal.  The chief priest of each temple has the title of dastur.  Consecration to this rank relieves him of the necessity of purification after the various incidents of life that a lesser priest must expiate.  Ordinary priests have the title of mobad, and are able to conduct the congregational worship and such occasional functions as marriages.  A mobad must be the son, grandson, or great-grandson of a mobad.  The lowest rank is that of herbad, or ervad; these assist at the principal ceremonies.\n\nGallery\n\nSee also\n\n Azargoshnasp fire temple\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\n\nZoroastrian Places of Worship\nPhotos of the remains of a fire temple\n\n \nTemples\nZoroastrianism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":156,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":7,"2014-35":7,"2014-23":9,"2014-15":5,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1}},"id":1801361,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fire%20temple","title":"Fire temple","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Liga Bangsa-bangsa merupakan sebuah perbadanan antarabangsa yang ditubuhkan selepas Persidangan Keamanan Paris 1919. Matlamat-matlamatnya termasuk gencatan senjata; mengelak peperangan melalui keselamatan kolektif; menyelesaikan perselisihan antara negara-negara melalui perundingan dan diplomasi; dan meningkatkan taraf hidup di seluruh dunia. Falsafah diplomasi Liga merupakan sebuah perubahan besar dalam cara berfikir mengenai diplomasi. Falsafah yang lama, yang diasaskan pada Kongres Vienna (1815), melihat Eropah sebagai suatu peta perikatan antara negara-negara yang selalu berubah. Hal ini mencipta suatu keseimbangan kuasa yang dipelihara oleh tentera yang kuat dan persetujuan rahsia. Menurut falsafah yang baru, Liga Bangsa-bangsa merupakan sebuah kerajaan untuk kerajaan, yang memainkan peranan menyelesaikan perselisihan antara negara-negara individu dalam suatu forum yang terbuka dan berasaskan undang-undang. Sokongan untuk Liga paling kuat daripada Presiden Demokrat Woodrow Wilson, dari Amerika Syarikat (AS), walaupun AS tidak menyertai Liga selama-lamanya.\n\nLiga Bangsa-bangsa tidak mempunyai tentera sendiri, oleh itu, Liga Bangsa-bangsa perlu bergantung kepada negara berkuasa (yang kerap enggan) menguatkuasakan keputusannya. Selepas beberapa kejayaan dan banyak kegagalan, Liga gagal menghalang Kuasa Axis daripada tindakan agresif yang dilakukan oleh mereka pada zaman 1930-an. Perang Dunia Kedua membuktikan kegagalan Liga untuk mencegah perang dunia. Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu menggantikan Liga selepas Perang Dunia Kedua, dan mewarisi beberapa agensi dan perbadanan yang telah ditubuhkan oleh Liga.\n\nBahasa-bahasa \nBahasa-bahasa rasmi Liga Bangsa adalah Perancis, Inggeris dan Sepanyol (bermula pada tahun 1920). Pada awal tahun 1920-an, terdapat cadangan untuk Liga Bangsa menerima Esperanto sebagai bahasa kerjanya. Sepuluh delegasi menerima cadangan ini dengan hanya satu tentangan dari delegasi Perancis, Gabriel Hanotaux. Hanotaux tidak suka bagaimana bahasa Perancis hilang kedudukannya sebagai bahasa antarabangsa dan melihat Esperanto sebagai satu ancaman. Dua tahun kemudian, Liga Bangsa mencadangkan negara-negara ahlinya untuk memasukkan Esperanto di dalam kurikulum pendidikan mereka.\n\nStruktur \nLiga ini mempunyai tiga organ utama: secretariat (pimpinan seorang Setiausaha Agung yang bertapak di Geneva), Majlis dan Dewan Perhimpunan, termasuk juga banyak agensi dan suruhanjaya. Sebarang tindakan yang perlu diambil harus mendapat undian keseluruhan oleh Majlis serta undian majoriti oleh Dewan Perhimpunan.\n\nSekretariat \nThe staff of the League's secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the civil service for the League.\n\nOver the life of the League from 1920\u20131946, the three Secretaries General were:\n Sir James Eric Drummond, 16th Earl of Perth (U.K.) (1920-1933)\n Joseph Avenol (Perancis) (1933-1940)\n Se\u00e1n Lester (Ireland) (1940-1946)\nThe General Secretary wrote annual reports on the work of the League.\n\nThe first president was Paul Hymans, a well-known Belgian politician.\n\nMajlis \nMajlis Liga mempunyai kuasa menguruskan sebarang hal yang berkaitan dengan keamanan dunia. Majlis ini mulanya diduduki empat ahli tetap (United Kingdom, Perancis, Itali, Jepun) dan empat ahli bukan tetap yang dilantik Dewan Perhimpunan setiap tiga tahun. Ahli-ahli bukan tetap liga yang pertama ialah Belgium, Brazil, Yunani and Sepanyol. Amerika Syarikat dahulunya dirancang untuk menjadi ahli tetap Liga Bangsa ke-5, namun Senat negara tersebut yang dikuasai Parti Republikan selepas berlangsungnya pilihan raya Senat 1918 itu mengundi menentang ratifikasi Perjanjian Versailles pada 19 Mac 1920 , maka kerusi kelima dalam Liga tersebut diambil alih oleh China.  Bilangan negara anggota bukan tetap dalam Majlis semakin bertambah dengan beransurnya menjadi enam negara pada 22 September 1922 dan kemudiannya 9 buah kerusi pada 8 September 1926. Jerman menyertai Liga sebagai ahli kekal Majlis yang ke-6 pada September 8 1926. Kerusi Jepun dan Jerman diambil alih oleh negara ahli bukan tetap yang baru selepas negara-negara tersebut menarik balik keahlian mereka dalam Majlis Liga.\n\nThe Council met in ordinary sessions four times a year, and in extraordinary sessions when required. In total, 107 public sessions were held between 1920 and 1939.\n\nPerhimpunan \n\nEach member was represented and had one vote in the League Assembly. Individual member states did not always have representatives in Geneva. The Assembly held its sessions once a year in September.\n\nEamon de Valera was the President of the Council of the League of Nations at its 68th and Special Sessions in September and October 1932, and President of the Assembly of the League of Nations in 1938. C.J. Hambro was President in 1939 and 1946.\n\nPerbadanan lain \nLiga ini mengawasi Mahkamah Tetap Keadilan Antarabangsa serta agensi dan suruhanjaya lain yang dicipta untuk menangani isu antarabangsa yang penting; termasuklah Suruhanjaya Perlucutan Senjata, Pertubuhan Kesihatan, Pertubuhan Buruh Antarabangsa, Suruhanjaya Mandat, Badan Pusat Candu Tetap, Suruhanjaya Pelarian dan Suruhanjaya Perhambaan. Sebahagian daripada agensi dan suruhamjaya dalam liga ini masih berjaya mengikut mandat mereka meskipun pentadbiran pusat mendapat nasib yang sebaliknya.\n\n Disarmament Commission  The Commission obtained initial agreement by France, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom to limit the size of their navies. However, the UK refused to sign a 1923 disarmament treaty, and the Kellogg-Briand Pact, facilitated by the commission in 1928, failed in its objective of outlawing war. Ultimately, the Commission failed to halt the military buildup during the 1930s by Italy, Germany and Japan.\n Health Organization  This body focused on ending leprosy and malaria, the latter by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes. The Health Organization also succeeded in preventing an epidemic of typhus from spreading throughout Europe due to its early intervention in the Soviet Union.\n Mandates Commission  The Commission supervised League of Nations Mandates, and also organised plebiscites in disputed territories so that residents could decide which country they would join, most notably the plebiscite in Saarland in 1935.\n International Labour Organization  This body was led by Albert Thomas. It successfully banned the addition of lead to paint, and convinced several countries to adopt an eight-hour work day and forty-eight-hour working week. It also worked to end child labour, increase the rights of women in the workplace, and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen.\n Permanent Central Opium Board  The Board was established to supervise the statistical control system introduced by the second International Opium Convention that mediated the production, manufacture, trade and retail of opium and its by-products. The Board also established a system of import certificates and export authorizations for the legal international trade in narcotics.\n Commission for Refugees  Led by Fridtjof Nansen, the Commission oversaw the repatriation and, when necessary the resettlement, of 400,000 refugees and ex-prisoners of war, most of whom were stranded in Russia at the end of World War I. It established camps in Turkey in 1922 to deal with a refugee crisis in that country and to help prevent disease and hunger. It also established the Nansen passport as a means of identification for stateless peoples.\n Slavery Commission  The Commission sought to eradicate slavery from the world, and fought forced prostitution and drug trafficking, particularly in opium. It succeeded in gaining the emancipation of 200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone and organized raids against slave traders in its efforts to stop the practice of forced labour in Africa. It also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers in Tanganyika from 55% to 4%. In other parts of the world, the Commission kept records on slavery, prostitution and drug trafficking in an attempt to monitor those issues.\n\nSeveral of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the Second World War. In addition to the International Labour Organisation, the Permanent Court of International Justice became a UN institution as the International Court of Justice, and the Health Organization was restructured as the World Health Organization.\n\nKegagalan spesifik \nThe general weaknesses of the League are illustrated by its specific failures.\n\nCieszyn \n\nCieszyn (German Teschen, Czech T\u011b\u0161\u00edn) is a region between Poland and today's Czech Republic, important for its coal mines. Czechoslovakian troops moved to Cieszyn in 1919 to take over control of the region while Poland was defending itself from invasion of Bolshevik Russia. The League intervened, deciding that Poland should take control of most of the town, but that Czechoslovakia should take one of the town's suburbs, which contained the most valuable coal mines and the only railroad connecting Czech lands and Slovakia. The city was divided into Polish Cieszyn and Czech \u010cesk\u00fd T\u011b\u0161\u00edn. Poland refused to accept this decision; although there was no further violence, the diplomatic dispute continued for another 20 years.\n\nVilna \n\nAfter World War I, Poland and Lithuania both regained the independence that they had lost during the partitions of Poland in 1795. Though both countries shared centuries of common history in the Polish-Lithuanian Union and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, rising Lithuanian nationalism prevented the recreation of the former federated state. The city of Vilna (Lithuanian Vilnius, Polish Wilno) was made the capital of Lithuania, despite being mainly Polish in ethnicity.\n\nDuring the Polish-Soviet War in 1920, a Polish army took control of the city. Despite the Poles' claim to the city, the League chose to ask Poland to withdraw: the Poles did not. The city and its surroundings were proclaimed a separate state of Central Lithuania and on 20 February 1922 the local parliament passed the Unification Act and the city was incorporated into Poland as the capital of the Wilno Voivodship. Theoretically, British and French troops could have been asked to enforce the League's decision; however, France did not wish to antagonise Poland, which was seen as a possible ally in a future war against Germany, while the United Kingdom was not prepared to act alone. Both the United Kingdom and France also wished to have Poland as a 'buffer zone' between Europe and the possible threat from Communist Russia. Eventually, the League accepted Wilno as a Polish town on March 15 1923. Thus the Poles were able to keep it until Soviet invasion in 1939. \n\nLithuanian authorities declined to accept the Polish authority over Wilno and treated it as a constitutional capital. It wasn't until the 1938 ultimatum, when Lithuania resolved diplomatic relations with Poland and thus de facto accepted the borders of its neighbour.\n\nRuhr \n\nUnder the Treaty of Versailles, Germany had to pay reparations. They could pay in money or in goods at a set value; however, in 1922 Germany was not able to make its payment. The next year, France and Belgium chose to act upon this, and invaded the industrial heartland of Germany, the Ruhr, despite this being in direct contravention of the League's rules. With France being a major League member, and the United Kingdom hesitant to oppose its close ally, nothing was done in the League despite the clear breach of League rules. This set a significant precedent \u2013 the League rarely acted against major powers, and occasionally broke its own rules.\n\nCorfu \nOne major boundary settlement that remained to be made after World War I was that between Greece and Albania. The Conference of Ambassadors, a de facto body of the League, was asked to settle the issue. The Council appointed Italian general Enrico Tellini to oversee this. While examining the Greek side of the border, Tellini and his staff were murdered. Italian leader Benito Mussolini was incensed, and demanded the Greeks pay reparations and execute the murderers. The Greeks, however, did not actually know who the murderers were.\n\nOn 31 August 1923, Italian forces occupied the island of Corfu, part of Greece, with fifteen people being killed. Initially, the League condemned Mussolini's invasion, but also recommended Greece pay compensation, to be held by the League until Tellini's killers were found. Mussolini, though he initially agreed to the League's terms, set about trying to change them. By working on the Conference of Ambassadors, he managed to make the League change its decision. Greece was forced to apologise and compensation was to be paid directly and immediately. Mussolini was able to leave Corfu in triumph. By bowing to the pressure of a large country, the League again set a dangerous and damaging example. This was one of the league's major failures.\n\nKrisis Manchuria \n\nThe Manchuria Crisis was one of the League's major setbacks and acted as the catalyst for Japan's withdrawal from the organisation. In the Mukden Incident, the Japanese held control of the South Manchurian Railway in the Chinese region of Manchuria. They claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway, which was a major trade route between the two countries, on 18 September 1931. (In fact, the sabotage had been committed by Japanese Army personnel bent on establishing a pretext for conquest.) In retaliation, the Japanese army, acting contrary to the civilian government's orders, occupied the entire province of Manchuria, which they named Manchukuo. In 1932, Japanese air and sea forces bombarded the Chinese city of Shanghai and a short war broke out.\n\nThe Chinese government asked the League for help, but the long voyage around the world for League officials to investigate the matter themselves delayed matters. When they arrived, the officials were confronted with Chinese assertions that the Japanese had invaded unlawfully, while the Japanese claimed they were acting to keep peace in the area. Despite Japan's high standing in the League, the Lytton Report declared Japan to be in the wrong and demanded Manchuria be returned to the Chinese. However, before the report was voted upon by the Assembly, Japan announced intentions to invade more of China. When the report passed 42-1 in the Assembly (only Japan voted against), Japan left the League. Economic sanctions were powerless, since Japan's major trading partner was the U.S., which was not a member of the League and declined to cooperate with it out of fear of war. The United Kingdom, concerned about the security of its large commercial interests in China as well as its Asian colonies, was reluctant to anger Japan over a region that was not central to its own interests. Once again, the League bowed to the more powerful, and showed its weakness.\n\nPerang Chaco \n\nThe League failed to prevent the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay in 1932 over the arid Chaco Boreal region of South America. Although the region was sparsely populated, it gave control of the Paraguay River which would have given one of the two landlocked countries access to the Atlantic Ocean, and there was also speculation, later proved incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum. Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all-out war in 1932, when the Bolivian army, following the orders of President Daniel Salamanca Urey, attacked a Paraguayan garrison at Vanguardia. Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations, but the League did not take action when the Pan-American conference offered to mediate instead.\n\nThe war was a disaster for both sides, causing 100,000 casualties and bringing both countries to the brink of economic disaster. By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935, Paraguay had seized control over most of the region. This was recognized in a 1938 truce by which Paraguay was awarded three-quarters of the Chaco Boreal.\n\nPerang Saudara Sepanyol \n\nPada 17 Julai 1936, konflik bersenjata meletus di antara Republikan (kerajaan sayap kiri Sepanyol) dan Nasionalis (pemberontak sayap kanan, kebanyakkannya pegawai Tentera Darat Sepanyol). Alvarez del Vayo, Menteri Luar Sepanyol, merayu kepada Liga Bangsa pada bulan September 1936 mendapatkan persenjataan bagi mempertahankan integriti wilayah dan kemerdekaan politik Itali. Bagaimanapun, Liga Bangsa tidak dapat campur tangan dalam Perang Saudara Sepanyol mahupun menghalang penglibatan luar dalam konflik ini. Hitler dan Mussolini terus menerus membantu pemberontak Nasionalis yang diketuai oleh Jeneral Franco, manakala Kesatuan Soviet pula membantu pengikut setia Sepanyol. Liga Bangsa telah mencuba untuk menghalang penglibatan sukarela antarabangsa.\n\nPencerobohan Abyssinia Itali \n\nAntara kejadian yang paling terkenal berlaku pada bulan Oktober 1935, apabila Benito Mussolini mengarahkan Jeneral Pietro Badoglio dan 400,000 tentera untuk menceroboh Abyssinia (Habsyah). Tentera Darat Itali yang moden dengan mudahnya mengalahkan pasukan Abyssinia yang miskin dan memiliki persenjataan lemah, dan menawan Addis Ababa pada bulan Mei 1936, memaksa Maharaja Haile Selassie untuk melarikan diri. Itali telah menggunakan senjata kimia (gas mustard) dalam menentang Abyssinia.\n\nLiga Bangsa telah mengutuk serangan Itali dan mengenakan sekatan ekonomi pada bulan November 1935, bagaimanapun sekatan ini tidak berkesan. Perdana Menteri Britain, Stanley Baldwin menyatakan, perkara ini terjadi kerana tiada seorangpun yang memiliki pasukan tentera untuk bertahan daripada serangan Itali. Pada 9 Oktober 1935, Amerika Syarikat (bukan ahli Liga Bangsa) enggan bekerjasama dengan tindakan Liga Bangsa. It had embargoed exports of arms and war material to either combatant (in accordance with its new Neutrality Act) on 5 October and later (29 February 1936) endeavored (with uncertain success) to limit exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels. The League sanctions were lifted on 4 July 1936, but by that point they were a dead letter in any event.\n\nAs was the case with Manchuria, the vigor of the major powers in responding to the crisis in Abyssinia was tempered by their perception that the fate of this poor and far-off country, inhabited by non-Europeans, was not a central interest of theirs.\n\nAxis re-armament \nThe League was powerless and mostly silent in the face of major events leading to World War II such as Hitler's re-militarisation of the Rhineland, occupation of the Sudetenland and annexation of Austria. As with Japan, both Germany in 1933 \u2013 using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext \u2013 and Italy in 1937 simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgment. The League commissioner in Danzig was unable to deal with German claims on the city, a significant contributing factor in the outbreak of World War II in 1939. The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded Finland.\n\nTrivia \n Pemimpin komunis Sweden, Fredrik Str\u00f6m merujuk Liga Bangsa sebagai Imperialis Antarabangsa.\n\nLihat juga \n Negara anggota Liga Bangsa\n Henry Cabot Lodge, Senator Republikan A.S. yang mengetuai penentangan ke atas penyertaan A.S. dke dalam Liga Bangsa\n Palais des Nations, dibina sebagai ibu pejabat Liga Bangsa\n\nRujukan \n Walters, F.P. (1952). \"A History of the  League of Nations\".\n Walsh, Ben (1997). Modern World History. John Murray (Publishers) Ltd.. ISBN 0-7195-7231-2.\n The Essential Facts About the League of Nations, published in Geneva, with ten editions between 1933 and 1940\n George Gill (1996) The League of Nations from 1929 to 1946: From 1929 to 1946 (Partners for Peace Series). Avery Publishing Group. ISBN 0-89529-637-3\n League of Nations chronology , Retrieved 21 January 2006.\n Marbeau, M. (2001). \"La Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 des Nations\". Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-051635-1\n Pfeil, A (1976). \"Der V\u00f6lkerbund\".\n\nPautan luar \n\n Covenant of the League of Nations \n League of Nations Photo archive\n League of Nations Article from Factmonster\/Information Please\n Proposed flags for the League\n League of Nations  article at Spartacus\n Background of the League of Nations\n Map of League of Nations members\n League of Nations timeline\n Table of Assemblies Dates of each annual assembly, links to list of members of each country's delegation\n Woodrow Wilson's Appeal for Support of the League of Nations 1919 speech\n Wilson's Final Address in Support of the League of Nations Speech made 25 September 1919\n Senator Henry Cabot Lodge speaks out against the League of Nations  August 1919 speech\n leagueofnations (History Learning Site)\n  History (1919-1946)  from the United Nations Office at Geneva\n\n \nPertubuhan antarabangsa","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":26882,"url":"https:\/\/ms.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liga%20Bangsa","title":"Liga Bangsa","language":"ms"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Popularity is the state of being well-liked or well-known. People, things, and ideas can be popular. Popularity figures are an important part of many people's personal value systems, and forms a critical part of success in fields such as management, politics, and the entertainment industry, among others.\n\nMany different varieties of popularity exist, and many ways in which to gain it. General popularity usually involves respect in two ways: a popular person is respected by groups of people and will take that respect. This reinforces the idea that the person deserves the popularity. Likewise, amicability (friendliness) is an important part of popularity, as a person who does not like others is unlikely to be liked by others. This inverse nature of interpersonal popularity is often overlooked by people (particularly the young) who are attempting to become popular: being loud may be successful in gaining attention, but is unlikely to provide mutual respect.\n\nSociety","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":220515,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Popularity","title":"Popularity","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Jaime Alfonso Escalante Guti\u00e9rrez  (December 31, 1930 \u2013 March 30, 2010) was a Bolivian-American educator known for teaching students calculus from 1974 to 1991 at Garfield High School in East Los Angeles. Escalante was the subject of the 1988 film Stand and Deliver, in which he is portrayed by Edward James Olmos.\n\nIn 1993, the asteroid   5095 Escalante was named after him.\n\nEarly life\nEscalante was born in 1930 in La Paz, Bolivia. Both of his parents were teachers. Escalante was proud of his Aymara heritage.\n\nEarly career\nEscalante taught mathematics and physics for 12 years in Bolivia before he immigrated to the United States. He worked various jobs while teaching himself English and earning another college degree before eventually returning to the classroom as an educator.\n\nIn 1974, he began to teach at Garfield High School. Escalante was initially so disheartened by the lack of preparation of his students that he called his former employer and asked for his old job back. Escalante eventually changed his mind about returning to work when he found 12 students willing to take an algebra class.\n\nShortly after Escalante came to Garfield High School, its accreditation became threatened. Instead of gearing classes to poorly performing students, Escalante offered AP Calculus. He had already earned the criticism of an administrator, who disapproved of his requiring the students to answer a homework question before being allowed into the classroom: \"He said to 'Just get them inside.' I said, 'There is no teaching, no learning going on here. We are just baby-sitting.'\"\n\nDetermined to change the status quo, Escalante persuaded a few students that they could control their futures with the right education. He promised them that they could get jobs in engineering, electronics, and computers if they would learn math: \"I'll teach you math and that's your language. With that, you're going to make it. You're going to college and sit in the first row, not the back because you're going to know more than anybody.\"\n\nThe school administration opposed Escalante frequently during his first few years. He was threatened with dismissal by an assistant principal because he was coming in too early, leaving too late, and failing to get administrative permission to raise funds to pay for his students' Advanced Placement tests. The opposition changed with the arrival of a new principal, Henry Gradillas. Aside from allowing Escalante to stay, Gradillas overhauled the academic curriculum at Garfield, reducing the number of basic math classes and requiring those taking basic math to take algebra as well. He denied extracurricular activities to students who failed to maintain a C average and to new students who failed basic skills tests. One of Escalante's students remarked, \"If he wants to teach us that bad, we can learn.\"\n\nEscalante continued to teach at Garfield and instructed his first calculus class in 1978. He recruited fellow teacher Ben Jim\u00e9nez and taught calculus to five students, two of whom passed the AP calculus test. The following year, the class size increased to nine students, seven of whom passed the AP calculus test. By 1981, the class had increased to 15 students, 14 of whom passed. Escalante placed a high priority on pressuring his students to pass their math classes, particularly calculus. He rejected the common practice of ranking students from first to last but frequently told his students to press themselves as hard as possible in their assignments.\n\nNational attention\nIn 1982, Escalante first gained media attention when 18 of his students passed the Advanced Placement Calculus exam. The Educational Testing Service found the scores to be suspicious because they all made exactly the same math error on the sixth problem, and they also used the same unusual variable names. Fourteen of those who passed were asked to take the exam again. Twelve of them agreed to retake the test, and all did well enough to have their scores reinstated.\n\nIn 1983, the number of students enrolling and passing the calculus test more than doubled. That year, 33 students took the exam, and 30 passed. That year, he also started to teach calculus at East Los Angeles College. By 1987, 83 students passed the AB version of the exam, and another 12 passed the BC version. That was the peak for the calculus program. The same year, Gradillas went on sabbatical to finish his doctorate with hopes that he could be reinstated as principal at Garfield or a similar school with a similar program upon his return.\n\nIn 1988, a book, Escalante: The Best Teacher in America by Jay Mathews, and a film, Stand and Deliver, were released based on the events of 1982. Teachers and other interested observers asked to sit in on his classes. He shared with them: \"The key to my success with youngsters is a very simple and time-honored tradition: hard work for teacher and student alike.\" Escalante received visits from political leaders and celebrities, including President Ronald Reagan and actor Arnold Schwarzenegger. In 1990, Escalante worked with the Foundation for Advancements in Science and Education to produce the video series Futures, which won a Peabody Award.\n\nEscalante has described the film \"Stand and Deliver\" as \"90% truth, 10% drama.\" He stated that several points were left out of the film: \n It took him several years to achieve the kind of success shown in the film.\n No student who did not know multiplication tables or fractions was ever taught calculus in a single year.\n Escalante suffered inflammation of the gallbladder, not a heart attack.\n\nOver the next few years, Escalante's calculus program continued to grow.\n\nDeparture from Garfield\nIn his final years at Garfield, Escalante received threats and hate mail. By 1990, he had lost the math department chairmanship. Escalante's math enrichment program had grown to more than 400 students. His class sizes had increased to over 50 students in some cases. That was far beyond the 35 student limit set by the teachers' union, which increased its criticism of Escalante's work. In 1991, the number of Garfield students taking advanced placement examinations in math and other subjects jumped to 570. The same year, citing faculty politics and petty jealousies, Escalante and Jim\u00e9nez left Garfield. Escalante found new employment at Hiram W. Johnson High School in Sacramento, California. At the height of Escalante's success, Garfield graduates were entering the University of Southern California in such great numbers that they outnumbered all the other high schools in the working-class East Los Angeles region combined. Even students who failed the AP exam often went on to study at California State University, Los Angeles.\n\nAngelo Villavicencio, one of Escalante's handpicked instructors, took over the program after Escalante's departure, teaching the remaining 107 AP students in two classes over the following year. Sixty-seven of Villavicencio's students went on to take the AP exam and forty-seven passed. The math program's decline at Garfield became apparent following the departure of Escalante, Villavicencio, and other teachers associated with its inception and development. In just a few years, the number of AP calculus students at Garfield who passed their exams dropped by more than 80%. In 1996, Villavicencio contacted Garfield's new principal, Tony Garcia, and offered to come back to help revive the dying calculus program. His offer was rejected.\n\nLater life\n\nIn the mid-1990s, Escalante became a strong supporter of English-only education efforts. In 1997, he joined Ron Unz's English for the Children initiative, which eventually ended most bilingual education in California schools.\n\nIn 2001, after many years of preparing teenagers for the AP calculus exam, Escalante returned to his native Bolivia. He lived in his wife's hometown, Cochabamba, and taught at . He returned to the United States frequently to visit his children.\n\nIn early 2010 Escalante made a final trip to the United States to pursue treatment for bladder cancer. As he faced financial difficulties from the cost of his cancer treatment, cast members from Stand and Deliver, including Edward James Olmos, and some of Escalante's former pupils, raised funds to help pay for his medical bills.\n\nDeath and legacy\nEscalante died on March 30, 2010, at his son's home, while undergoing treatment for bladder cancer. He was 79.\n\nOn April 1, 2010, a memorial service honoring Escalante was held at the Garfield High School. Students observed a moment of silence on the front steps of the campus. A wake was also held on April 17, 2010, in a classroom at Garfield.\n\nEscalante is buried at Rose Hills Memorial Park in Whittier Lakeside Gardens. In 2016, the United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp in his likeness.\n\nAwards and honors \n 1988 \u2013 Presidential Medal for Excellence in Education, awarded by President Ronald Reagan\n 1988 \u2013 Hispanic Heritage Awards Honoree\n 1990 \u2013 Honorary Doctor of Humanities \u2013 California State University, Los Angeles\n 1990 \u2013 Honorary Doctor of Laws \u2013 Concordia University, Montreal\n 1990 \u2013 Honorary Doctor of Laws \u2013 University of Northern Colorado\n 1990 \u2013 Award for Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards.\n 1991 \u2013 Honorary Doctor of Science \u2013 University of Massachusetts Boston\n 1998 \u2013 Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters \u2013 Wittenberg University\n 1998 \u2013 Free Spirit Award, from the Freedom Forum\n 1998 \u2013 Andr\u00e9s Bello prize, from the Organization of American States\n 1999 \u2013 Inductee National Teachers Hall of Fame\n 2002 \u2013 Member, President's Advisory Commission on Educational Excellence for Hispanic Americans\n 2005 \u2013 The Highest Office Award \u2013 Center for Youth Citizenship\n 2005 \u2013 Best teacher in North America \u2013 Freedom Forum\n 2014 \u2013 Foundational Award Winner, posthumously given to Fabiola Escalante (together with Henry Gradillas and Angelo Villavicencio)  \u2013 Escalante\u2013Gradillas Best in Education Prize\n 2016 \u2013 The United States Postal Service issued a 1st Class Forever \"Jaime Escalante\" stamp to honor \"the East Los Angeles teacher whose inspirational methods led supposedly 'unteachable' high school students to master calculus.\"\n\nSee also\nJohn Saxon (educator) - teacher that pioneered Saxon math to help students with difficulty learning algebra\nList of teachers portrayed in films\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Hall of Fame profile\n \n Jamie Escalante and the Lancaster Amish An MP3 of a talk by John Taylor Gatto\n Jaime Escalante documented his techniques in \n\n1930 births\n2010 deaths\nSchoolteachers from California\nBolivian people of Aymara descent\nBolivian educators\nBolivian emigrants to the United States\nCalifornia State University, Los Angeles alumni\nDeaths from cancer in California\nDeaths from bladder cancer\nHispanic and Latino American teachers\nPasadena City College alumni\nPeople from La Paz\nPeople from Los Angeles\nPeople from Sacramento, California\nBurials at Rose Hills Memorial Park","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2023-40":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":3,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":184804,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jaime%20Escalante","title":"Jaime Escalante","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus of a eukaryote cell. The term is also used of the complete set of chromosomes in a species, or an individual organism. It describes the number of chromosomes, and what they look like under a light microscope. Attention is paid to their length, the position of the centromeres, any differences between the sex chromosomes, and any other physical characteristics. The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of cytogenetics (cytology and genetics).\n\n \n\nThe basic number of chromosomes in the somatic (body) cells of an individual or a species is called the somatic number and is designated 2n. Thus, in humans 2n = 46. In the sex cells the chromosome number is n (humans: n = 23).\n\nSo, in normal diploid organisms, chromosomes are present in two copies. There may, or may not, be sex chromosomes. Polyploid cells have multiple copies of chromosomes and haploid cells have single copies. The study of whole sets of chromosomes is sometimes known as karyology. \n\nThe chromosomes are depicted (by rearranging a microphotograph) in a standard format known as a karyogram or idiogram: in pairs, ordered by size and position of centromere for chromosomes of the same size. This may be used for many purposes; such as, to show genetic disease, what sex the animal is and its diploid number. In humans, cytologists have used karyotypes to help identify genetic abnormalities a baby might have before it is born.\n\nKaryotypes may be studied to gather information about past evolutionary events, such as polyploidy.\n\nSex determination\n\nReferences \n\nChromosomes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"unknown":7}},"id":118975,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karyotype","title":"Karyotype","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A boycott is a protest where the protesters do not buy a product or give money to a company. Instead of buying a certain product, they might also buy another, very similar product from a different company.\n\nThe word was made during the Irish Land War'. It comes from the name of Captain Charles Boycott. Boycott was in charge of looking after the land of a landlord in County Mayo, Ireland. In 1880, the tenants (those who rented) wanted their rent lowered. Boycott refused, and threw them out of the land they had rented. The Irish Land League then proposed that instead of becoming violent, everyone in the community should stop doing business with Captain Boycott. The captain was soon isolated. No one helped him with the harvest, no one worked in his stables or his house. Local businessmen no longer traded with him, the postman no longer delivered his post. \n\nTo get his harvest done, he had to hire 50 people from other counties, the counties Cavan and Monaghan. They were escorted to and from their work by 1000 policemen. Of course, this cost far more than what the harvest was worth.\n\nOther websites\n\nboycott resources \nList of boycotts at EthicalConsumer.org\n\nEconomics\nProtests","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":8020,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boycott","title":"Boycott","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Charlemagne (, French: Charlemagnes, , , ) (c. 2 April 748 \u2013 28 January 814) was the king of the Franks and the first Holy Roman Emperor. He was crowned as the Emperor on Christmas Day, 800. He was the older son of King Pippin III of the Carolingian dynasty. When Pippin died, Charlemagne and his brother Carloman ruled together. When Carloman died in 771 Charlemagne became the only ruler of the Franks.\n\nLife \nThe Franks\u2014one of the Germanic peoples who had moved their homes over the River Rhine into the Roman Empire as it was falling apart\u2014were, by the year 700, the rulers of Gaul, and a lot of Germania east of the Rhine. They also protected the Papacy and the Roman Catholic faith. When their king Pepin the Short died, his sons, Charlemagne and Carloman were chosen to share the kingdom. They divided it into two parts: one half for Charlemagne, and the other for Carloman. Carloman died on December 4, 771, leaving Charlemagne as the leader of the whole Frankish kingdom.\n\nHe was king of the Franks from 768, and king of the Lombards from 774. He was crowned Imperator Augustus (Emperor) in Rome on Christmas Day by Pope Leo III in 800, starting the Holy Roman Empire, that they hoped would be a kind of second Western Roman Empire (while the Byzantines in Constantinople were still keeping up the Eastern Roman empire). With many wars, Charlemagne spread his empire across much of Western Europe.\n\nCharlemagne fought in many wars over the course of his reign. He is known for using his sword, Joyeuse, in each of the thirty years of war and the 18 battles he fought in. He also finally managed to conquer Saxony, something the Roman Emperor Augustus could not do 800 years earlier. He was able to convert the Saxons to Catholic Christianity. He also had many schools built so his people could learn. However, he also killed thousands of those who failed to convert.\n\nDeath\nCharlemagne's politics and plans failed, which led to low self-esteem. His last years were spent in bed in deep depression. He died in 814, leaving his kingdom to his only son, Louis the Pious. The descendants of Charlemagne are called Carolingians. His family line died out in Germany in 911 and in France in 987.\n\nBattles and campaigns \nSaxon Wars.  The Saxon Wars, also called the Saxon War or Saxon Uprising were the campaigns and insurrections of the thirty-three years from 772, when Charlemagne first entered Saxony with the intent to conquer,\n\nReferences \n\n740s births\n814 deaths\nHoly Roman Emperors\nFrankish rulers\nCarolingian dynasty\n9th century in Europe","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":15452,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charlemagne","title":"Charlemagne","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A lingua franca (originally Italian for \"Frankish language\" - see etymology below) is a language that is used between persons who do not have the same mother tongue.\n\nThe terms working language, bridge language and vehicular language are used in the same sense.\n\nEtymology \nAround the Renaissance era a mixed language of Italian (80%) and many words from Turkish, French, Spanish, Greek and Arabic was used in the eastern region around the Mediterranean Sea It was in use as the language of commerce and diplomacy and was called lingua franca. At that time, in the port cities of the Ottoman empire there lived very many Italian speakers. Franca was the Italian word for Frankish. Its usage in the term lingua franca came from its meaning in Arabic. That word came into use before the Crusades, when Europeans used to be called \"Franks\" or Faranji in Arabic. The term lingua franca is first recorded in English in 1678.\n\nExamples \nThere are many languages in all continents that are used as lingua franca.\n\nIn Africa: Afrikaans, Berber, Fanagalo, Fula, Hausa, Krio, Manding, Sango, Swahili,  Wolof\n\nIn Asia: Akkadian, Arabic, Aramaic, Azeri, Bengali, Chinese, Hebrew, Hindi-Urdu, Malay-Indonesian, Nepali, Persian, Sanskrit\n\nIn Europe: English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Latin, Polish,\nPortuguese, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Spanish, Yiddish\n\nIn Pre-Columbian America: Chinook Jargon, Nahuatl, Quechua, Tupi\n \nPidgins and creoles: Guinea-Bissau Creole, Tok Pisin\n\nAll continents :  Esperanto as an auxiliary lingua franca\n\nFor some of them some explanations may be given.\n\nEnglish \nEnglish is the current lingua franca of international business, science, technology and aviation.  It has replaced French as the lingua franca of diplomacy since World War II. The rise of English in diplomacy began in 1919, after World War I, when the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as in French. The use of English profited from the important international role of English-speaking nations (the United States and the Commonwealth of Nations) after World War II, particularly in the establishment and organization of the United Nations. English is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (the other five are French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and Spanish).\n\nWhen the United Kingdom became a colonial power, English was the lingua franca of the colonies of the British Empire. In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created nations which had many indigenous languages decided to continue using English as the lingua franca to avoid the political difficulties that had developed if one had decided to use only one of the indigenous languages.\n\nFrench \nFrench was the language of diplomacy in Europe from the 13th century, and as a result is still a working language of international institutions and is seen on documents ranging from passports to airmail letters. For many years, until the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Denmark joined in 1973, French and German were the only official working languages of the European Economic Community. French was also the lingua franca of European literature in the 18th century.\n\nGerman \nGerman was a lingua franca in large portions of Europe for centuries, mainly the Holy Roman Empire.\n\nAs it was one of the official languages of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, German remained an important second language in much of Central and Eastern Europe long after World War I. Today, it is still the most common second language in some of the countries in the region (e.g. in Slovenia (45% of the pop.), Croatia (34%), the Czech Republic (31%) and Slovakia (28%)). In others, it is also known by significant numbers of the population (in Poland by 18%, in Hungary by 16%).\n\nGreek and Latin \nDuring the time of the Roman Empire, the lingua francas were Greek and Latin. During the Middle Ages, the lingua franca was Greek in the parts of Europe, Middle East and Northern Africa where the Byzantine Empire had much influence, and Latin was used in the rest of Europe.  Latin was used as the common language of the Roman Catholic Church.  During the Second Vatican Council, Catholic liturgy changed to local languages, although Latin remains the official language of the Vatican. Latin was used as the language of scholars in Europe until the early 19th century in most subjects.\n\nFurther reading \nHeine, Bernd (1970). Status and Use of African Lingua Francas. \nKahane, Henry Romanos (1958). The Lingua Franca in the Levant.\nR. A. Hall, Jr. (1966). Pidgin and Creole Languages, Cornell University Press. .\nMELATTI, Julio Cezar (1983). \u00cdndios do Brasil. S\u00e3o Paulo:Hucitec Press, 48th edition\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n English - the universal language on the Internet? \nLingua franca del Mediterraneo o Sabir of professor Francesco Bruni (in Italian) .\nSample texts  from Juan del Encina, Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Carlo Goldoni's L'Impresario da Smyrna, Diego de Haedo and other sources.\nAn introduction to the original Mediterranean Lingua Franca .\n\nLanguages","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":3,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":257006,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lingua%20franca","title":"Lingua franca","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A bomber is a type of airplane that is used to attack ground targets, mainly by dropping bombs. The first bombers were made at the start of World War I.\n\nBombers often fly low to the ground to confuse enemy radar. Most cannot fly very fast. Because of this, bombers are not outfitted to fight other airplanes. To make up for this, bombers in the past had many machine guns for defense.\n\nWorld War II \nDive bombers were numerous in World War II. They attacked surface targets including tanks and ships.\nStrategic bombing became important. Bombers had large crews, sometimes as many as 12 people. Usually a bomber had a pilot, a bombadier, a co-pilot\/navigator, and many machine gunners all around to shoot at enemy fighter aircraft defending the target. Friendly fighters often came along to help fight the defenders.\n\nModern day \nBombers now have one or two people in them. The other positions have been replaced by computers. Bombers have very few guns on them partly because they are much faster. In bombing missions now, the pilot drops a bomb and leaves as quickly as possible. During the Cold War, a few bombers were made that could travel supersonic, so a nuclear bomb could be dropped without killing the people in the airplane. They were never used that way, however.\n\nOther websites \n WW2-era Bombers\n Bomber aircraft -Citizendium","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":6664,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bomber","title":"Bomber","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Eastermona\u00f0 is se feor\u00f0a mona\u00fe \u00fe\u00e6s geares in \u00fe\u00e6re Gregoriscan ger\u012bmb\u0113c and f\u0113o\u01bfera \u0101n mid \u00fe\u01e3re leng\u00fee 30 dagas.\n\nApril begins (astrologically) with the sun in the sign of Aries and ends in the sign of Taurus. Astronomically speaking, the sun begins in the constellation of Pisces and ends in the constellation of Aries.\n\nSe nama is ofgangen from \u00fe\u01e3m L\u01e3denan aprilis, \u01e3gh\u01bf\u00e6\u00f0er ge of \u00fe\u01e3m L\u01e3denan \u01bforde aperire, \u00fee m\u01e3n\u00fe \"t\u014d openienne\", ge\u01bf\u0113ne referring to growing plants in lencten, ge of \u00fe\u01e3m Etrusciscum naman Apru for Aphrodite.\n\n\u0112asterm\u014dna\u00fe \u01bf\u00e6s on frym\u00felicum se \u014d\u00f0er m\u014dna\u00fe \u00fe\u01e3re R\u014dm\u0101niscan ger\u012bmb\u0113c and h\u00e6fde 29 dagas. Iulies C\u0101seres ger\u012bmb\u014dce \u0101n\u012b\u01bfung in 45 BCE resulted in April having 30 days and becoming the fourth m\u014dna\u00fe, for \u00fe\u01e3m \u00fee \u00fe\u00e6t g\u0113ar n\u016b ongann in \u01e2fter G\u0113ole.\n\nIn \u00fe\u01e3re ealdan Iapaniscan ger\u012bmb\u0113c, is se m\u014dna\u00fe Uzuki (\u536f\u6708).\n\n\u0112asterm\u014dna\u00fe in poetry \nPoets identify \u0112asterm\u014dna\u00fe mid \u00fe\u01e3m ende \u01bfintera, ac they don't necessarily agree on what that means:\n We start with the proverb\n'April showers bring May flowers'\n In the Canterbury Tales, Chaucer found only cause for celebration:\n\nWhan \u00feat April wi\u00fe his showres soote (that is, sweet)\nThe droughte of March ha\u00fe perced to the roote,\nAnd ba\u00feed every veine in swich licour,\nOf which vertu engendred is the flowr; (ll. 1-4)\nModernized for The Norton Anthology of English Literature\n T. S. Eliot, on the other hand, opened The Waste Land with an ironic glance at Chaucer:\n\nApril is the cruellest month, breeding\nLilacs out of the dead land, mixing\nMemory and desire, stirring\nDull roots with spring rain.\n\n Spring - Edna St. Vincent Millay\n\nTo what purpose, April, do you return again?\nBeauty is not enough.\nYou can no longer quiet me with the redness\nOf little leaves opening stickily.\nI know what I know.\nThe sun is hot on my neck as I observe\nThe spikes of the crocus.\nThe smell of the earth is good.\nIt is apparent that there is no death.\nBut what does that signify?\nNot only under ground are the brains of men\nEaten by maggots.\nLife in itself\nIs nothing,\nAn empty cup, a flight of uncarpeted stairs.\nIt is not enough that yearly, down this hill,\nApril\nComes like an idiot, babbling and strewing flowers.\n\nBelimpas in \u0112asterm\u014dna\u00fe \n \u0112asterm\u014dn\u00fees Sottes D\u00e6g gelimp\u00fe on 1um \u0112asterm\u014dn\u00fee.\n Easter gelimp\u00fe on Sunnand\u00e6ge bet\u01bf\u0113onan 22um Hr\u0113\u00fem\u014dn\u00fee and 25um \u0112asterm\u014dn\u00fee ymbh\u00e6bbendl\u012b\u010be in \u01f7esternum Cr\u012bstend\u014dme, and bet\u01bf\u0113onan 4um \u0112asterm\u014dn\u00fee and 8um \u00derimilcem\u014dn\u00fee ymbh\u00e6bbendl\u012bce in Eastern Orthodox Ciri\u010bum.\n \u0112asterm\u014dna\u00fe is National Autism Awareness Month in \u00fe\u01e3m Ge\u0101nl\u01e3htra R\u012bcum American\n In \u00fe\u01e3re \u012ariscan ger\u012bmb\u0113c h\u0101tte se m\u014dna\u00fe Aibre\u0101n and is se \u00feridda and s\u012b\u00f0emesta m\u014dna\u00fe Lenctenes.\n\nTrivia \n \u0112asterm\u014dna\u00fe ongin\u00fe on \u00fe\u01e3m ilcan d\u00e6ge \u00fe\u01e3re \u01bfuce s\u01bf\u0101 M\u01e3dm\u014dna\u00fe in eallum g\u0113arum and \u0113ac se \u00e6fterra G\u0113ola in bisesum.\n\n \u0112asterm\u014dn\u00fees bl\u014dstm is \u00fe\u00e6t d\u00e6ges \u0113age.\n \u0112asterm\u014dn\u00fees gebyrdst\u0101n is the diamond.\n\nSeoh \u0113ac \n St\u01e3rlice gemynddagas\n\n4\nTrametas t\u014d \u0101reccenne on Englisc","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-26":3,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":175,"url":"https:\/\/ang.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C4%92asterm%C5%8Dna%C3%B0","title":"\u0112asterm\u014dna\u00f0","language":"ang"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Romantic music is music written in the 19th century.  This was the period called the \"Romantic period\" by musicians.  In literature and some other arts the \"Romantic period\" is often said to begin and finish earlier: around mid 18th to mid 19th century. \n\nIn the Classical period artists liked to see clear forms.  18th century architecture nearly always shows a lot of symmetry.  The gardens of the palace at Versailles are a good example of this with their very tidy patterns of straight paths, circular ponds and neatly clipped hedges.\n\nIn music the Classical composers such as Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert liked to compose music which had a clear plan like sonata form.\n\nIn the Romantic period artists thought that feeling and passions were more important than formal plans.  This can be seen in the gardens designed by Capability Brown, e.g. in at Blenheim Palace, Oxford.  The gardens are made to blend into nature.\n\nIn music the Romantic composers may still use plans like sonata form, but feelings and passions are important.  They often write what is called programme music which means: music that describes something or tells a story.  Beethoven's Sixth Symphony is called the \"Pastoral\" which means that it is about the countryside.  Although Beethoven is usually called a composer of the Classical period he is also an early Romantic.  Later composers such as Felix Mendelssohn wrote pieces like Hebrides Overture which describes the sea coming into Fingal's Cave in the Inner Hebrides Islands in Scotland.  Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) wrote a lot of music which tells a story.  His Symphonie Fantastique is about an artist madly in love.  Berlioz's whole way of life was wild and romantic.  He fell in love with an actress he saw on stage playing the part of Juliet in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet and he actually married her!  Other composers who wrote a lot of programme music include Franz Liszt (1811-1886) and Richard Strauss (1864-1949).  Strauss always wrote in a late-Romantic style even although he lived well into the 20th century.\n\nThe Romantic period was also the period of Nationalism.  \"Nationalism\" means being proud of one's country.  In the 19th century  a lot of European countries as we know them were being formed.  In music a lot of composers were writing music which was typical of their country.  They often did this by using folk music.  Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k (1841-1904) and Bed\u0159ich Smetana (1824-1884) wrote music which sounds very Czech. Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1840-1893)  wrote music with Russian folk songs in them. Gustav Mahler (1860-1911) used German folk songs in his symphonies, and Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958) collected English folk songs and put them in his music.  One of those pieces was a Fantasy on the famous tune Greensleeves.\n\nPeriods in music history","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":29082,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Romantic%20music","title":"Romantic music","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Herpes zoster (also known as shingles or zona) is a disease in humans.  The same virus that causes chickenpox also causes shingles. The symptoms are pain and a rash with blisters. The shingles vaccine reduces the risk of shingles. Antivirus medicine can reduce the seriousness and duration of shingles if started within 3 days of the rash.\n\nGeneral information \nShingles is a viral disease produced by the varicella zoster virus (VZV), the same virus that causes chicken pox. Its symptoms include pain and a blistering rash that occurs along the nerves that contain dormant virus. You can not catch shingles. However, you can catch chicken pox through direct contact with someone who has shingles, by touching the area of the rash. Most people who get shingles are old.  It sometimes infects younger people, or people with a weakened immune system.  Stress may trigger shingles.  The disease starts with tingling, itchiness, or pain on an infected person's skin.  After a few days, the disease causes a blistering rash.  This rash may be on the trunk or face.  The rash  grows into small blisters filled with fluid.  These blisters dry out and crust over for several days.  The rash causes anything from mild itching to extreme pain.  The rash stays in one region of the body.\n\nThe shingles virus is contagious from person to person only by direct contact.  For this reason, persons with shingles are advised to limit contact with those who are not immune to chicken pox, those with increased risk are young children and pregnant women.  Contracting chickenpox when one is pregnant can be dangerous to the unborn child.\n\nIf people have had chickenpox, they cannot get chickenpox from someone else again.  However, it is thought that contact with a shingles patient may trigger a person's own dormant chickenpox virus to become shingles.\n\nTreatment \nDoctors recommend antiviral drugs, steroids, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and topical agents to treat shingles.  The antiviral drugs acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famcyclovir can reduce the severity of shingles.\n\nPrognosis \nShingles can be very painful and itchy.  It is not very dangerous to healthy people, and it usually ends without major problems. The rash and pain last 3 to 5 weeks. Sometimes, serious problems like temporary, partial facial paralysis, ear damage, or\nencephalitis may occur. Persons with shingles on the upper half of the face need immediate medical attention: the virus may cause serious damage to the eyes. Most people who have shingles have only one attack of the disease in their lifetime. However, people with AIDS, cancer or weak immune systems may have multiple attacks.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n NIH Facts About Shingles\n NINDS Shingles Information Page \n\nDiseases caused by viruses","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2023-14":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-10":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":4561,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herpes%20zoster","title":"Herpes zoster","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An enclave is a territory (or a small territory as part of a larger one) that is entirely surrounded by the territory of one other state or entity. Enclaves may also exist within territorial waters. Enclave is sometimes used improperly to denote a territory that is only partly surrounded by another state. Vatican City and San Marino, both enclaved by Italy, and Lesotho, enclaved by South Africa, are completely enclaved sovereign states.\n\nAn exclave is a portion of a state or district geographically separated from the main part by surrounding alien territory (of one or more states, districts, etc.). Many exclaves are also enclaves, but not all: an exclave can be surrounded by the territory of more than one state. The Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan is an example of an exclave that is not an enclave, as it borders Armenia, Turkey and Iran.\n\nSemi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border (a coastline contiguous with international waters), would otherwise be enclaves or exclaves. Enclaves and semi-enclaves can exist as independent states (Monaco, The Gambia and Brunei are semi-enclaves), while exclaves and semi-exclaves proper always constitute just a part of a sovereign state (like the Kaliningrad Oblast).\n\nA pene-exclave is a part of the territory of one country that can be conveniently approached\u2014in particular, by wheeled traffic\u2014only through the territory of another country. Pene-exclaves are also called functional exclaves or practical exclaves. Many pene-exclaves partially border their own territorial waters (i.e., they are not surrounded by other nations' territorial waters), such as Point Roberts, Washington, and Minnesota's Northwest Angle. A pene-exclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal, a valley part of Vorarlberg, Austria, that is accessible only from Germany to the north.\n\nOrigin and usage\nThe word enclave is French and first appeared in the mid-15th century as a derivative of the verb  (1283), from the colloquial Latin  (to close with a key). Originally, it was a term of property law that denoted the situation of a land or parcel of land surrounded by land owned by a different owner, and that could not be reached for its exploitation in a practical and sufficient manner without crossing the surrounding land. In law, this created a servitude of passage for the benefit of the owner of the surrounded land. The first diplomatic document to contain the word enclave was the Treaty of Madrid, signed in 1526.\n\nLater, the term enclave began to be used also to refer to parcels of countries, counties, fiefs, communes, towns, parishes, etc. that were surrounded by alien territory. This French word eventually entered English and other languages to denote the same concept, although local terms have continued to be used. In India, the word \"pocket\" is often used as a synonym for enclave (such as \"the pockets of Puducherry district\"). In British administrative history, subnational enclaves were usually called detachments or detached parts, and national enclaves as detached districts or detached dominions. In English ecclesiastic history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars (see also royal peculiar).\n\nThe word exclave is a logically extended back-formation of enclave.\n\nCharacteristics\n\nEnclaves exist for a variety of historical, political and geographical reasons. For example, in the feudal system in Europe, the ownership of feudal domains was often transferred or partitioned, either through purchase and sale or through inheritance, and often such domains were or came to be surrounded by other domains. In particular, this state of affairs persisted into the 19th century in the Holy Roman Empire, and these domains (principalities, etc.) exhibited many of the characteristics of sovereign states. Prior to 1866 Prussia alone consisted of more than 270 discontiguous pieces of territory.\n\nResiding in an enclave within another country has often involved difficulties in such areas as passage rights, importing goods, currency, provision of utilities and health services, and host nation cooperation. Thus, over time, enclaves have tended to be eliminated. For example, two-thirds of the then-existing national-level enclaves were extinguished on 1 August 2015, when the governments of India and Bangladesh implemented a Land Boundary Agreement that exchanged 162 first-order enclaves (111 Indian and 51 Bangladeshi). This exchange thus effectively de-enclaved another two dozen second-order enclaves and one third-order enclave, eliminating 197 of the India\u2013Bangladesh enclaves in all. The residents in these enclaves had complained of being effectively stateless. Only Bangladesh's Dahagram\u2013Angarpota enclave remained.\n\nNetherlands and Belgium decided to keep the enclave and exclave system in Baarle. As both Netherlands and Belgium are members of the European Union and Schengen Area, people, goods and services flow freely with little or no restrictions.\n\nEnclave versus exclave\nFor illustration, in the figure (above), A1 is a semi-enclave (attached to C and also bounded by water that only touches C's territorial water). Although A2 is an exclave of A, it cannot be classed as an enclave because it shares borders with B and C. The territory A3 is both an exclave of A and an enclave from the viewpoint of B. The singular territory D, although an enclave, is not an exclave.\n\nTrue enclaves\n\nAn enclave is a part of the territory of a state that is enclosed within the territory of another state. To distinguish the parts of a state entirely enclosed in a single other state, they are called true enclaves. A true enclave cannot be reached without passing through the territory of a single other state that surrounds it. In 2007, Evgeny Vinokurov called this the restrictive definition of \"enclave\" given by international law, which thus \"comprises only so-called 'true enclaves'\". Two examples are B\u00fcsingen am Hochrhein, a true enclave of Germany, and Campione d'Italia, a true enclave of Italy, both of which are surrounded by Switzerland.\n\nThe definition of a territory comprises both land territory and territorial waters. In the case of enclaves in territorial waters, they are called maritime (those surrounded by territorial sea) or lacustrine (if in a lake) enclaves. Most of the true national-level enclaves now existing are in Asia and Europe. While subnational enclaves are numerous the world over, there are only a few national-level true enclaves in Africa, Australia and the Americas (each such enclave being surrounded by the territorial waters of another country).\n\nA historical example is West Berlin before the reunification of Germany. Since 1945, all of Berlin was ruled de jure by the four Allied powers. However, the East German government and the Soviet Union treated East Berlin as an integral part of East Germany, so West Berlin was a de facto enclave within East Germany. Also, 12 small West Berlin enclaves, such as Steinst\u00fccken, were separated from the city, some by only a few meters.\n\nEnclaved countries\n\nThree nations qualify as completely surrounded by another country's land and\/or internal waters:  \n The Republic of San Marino, enclaved within Italy\n Vatican City, enclaved within the city of Rome, Italy\n The Kingdom of Lesotho, enclaved within South Africa\n\nHistorically, four Bantustans (or \"Black homelands\") of South Africa were granted nominal independence, unrecognized internationally, by the Apartheid government from 1976 until their reabsorption in 1994. Others remained under government rule from 1948 to 1994. Being heavily partitioned, various parts of these Bantustans were true enclaves.\n\nThe United States' constitutional principle of tribal sovereignty treats federally recognized Indian reservations as quasi-independent enclaves.\n\nTrue exclaves\n\nTrue exclave is an extension of the concept of true enclave. In order to access a true exclave from the mainland, a traveller must go through the territory of at least one other state. Examples include:\n Nakhchivan, which borders Turkey, Armenia and Iran, is an exclave of Azerbaijan.\n Gaza Strip, which borders Egypt, Israel and the Mediterranean Sea, is an exclave of the State of Palestine.\n Baarle-Hertog includes a collection of Belgian exclaves in the Netherlands.\n In the United Arab Emirates, four emirates have five true exclaves: Dubai (Hatta), Ajm\u0101n (Masfout and Manama), Ras al-Khaimah (the more southerly of the emirate's two non-contiguous sections), and Sharjah (Nahwa, also both a true national-level enclave and a counter-enclave).\n Ll\u00edvia is an enclave and exclave of Spain surrounded by France.\n Campione d'Italia is an enclave and exclave of Italy surrounded by Switzerland.\n B\u00fcsingen am Hochrhein is an enclave and exclave of Germany surrounded by Switzerland. The shortest distance from B\u00fcsingen's borders to the main portion of German territory is only about 700 metres (about 2,300\u00a0ft).\n Likoma and Chizumulu Islands in Lake Malawi are lacustrine enclaves and exclaves of Malawi, surrounded by Mozambique territorial waters.\n\n Manila South Cemetery - the area is being use as part of the Philippines capital city of Manila despite of being surrounded by the jurisdiction of Makati.\n\nRelated constructs and terms\n\nSemi-enclaves and semi-exclaves\n\nSemi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border, would otherwise be enclaves or exclaves. Semi-enclaves can exist as independent states that border only one other state, such as Monaco, the Gambia and Brunei. Vinokurov (2007) declares, \"Technically, Portugal, Denmark, and Canada also border only one foreign state, but they are not enclosed in the geographical, political, or economic sense. They have vast access to international waters. At the same time, there are states that, although in possession of sea access, are still enclosed by the territories of a foreign state.\" Therefore, a quantitative principle applies: the land boundary must be longer than the coastline. Thus a state is classified as a sovereign semi-enclave if it borders on just one state, and its land boundary is longer than its sea coastline.\n\n(Since Vinokurov's writing in 2007, Canada and Denmark have each gained a second bordering state\u2014each other\u2014with the 2022 division of Hans Island.)\n\nVinokurov affirms that \"no similar quantitative criterion is needed to define the scope of non-sovereign semi-enclaves\/exclaves.\" Examples include:\n\n Alaska, one of the states in the United States, is the largest semi-enclave in the world, separated from the US by Canada.  \n Oecusse, a district on the northwestern side of the island of Timor, is a semi-enclave of East Timor separated from the rest of the country by Indonesia.\n Ceuta and Melilla are Spanish semi-enclaves on the Mediterranean coast of Morocco.\n Temburong District is a Bruneian semi-enclave surrounded by Malaysia. The Temburong Bridge connects Temburong to the Brunei mainland.\n Kokkina, a village in the de facto state of Northern Cyprus, is a semi-enclave situated on the Mediterranean coast. It is separated from the rest of the country by the Republic of Cyprus.\n Kaliningrad Oblast is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast), a semi-exclave situated on the Baltic coast and bordering Lithuania and Poland. Sea access from the Russian mainland is possible from Saint Petersburg via the Gulf of Finland without passing through other states' territory.\n Cabinda (also spelled Kabinda, formerly Portuguese Congo) is a semi-exclave and a province of Angola on the Atlantic coast of southwestern Africa, separated by the only sea-access port of the Democratic Republic of the Congo; also bordered by the Republic of the Congo.\n French Guiana (a French Overseas Department), in South America, is a semi-exclave that is bounded by Suriname, Brazil, and the Atlantic Ocean.\n The southern part of Dubrovnik-Neretva County in Croatia is separated from the rest of the country by Neum in Bosnia and Herzegovina and is also bordered by Montenegro. The Republic of Ragusa once gave the town of Neum to the Ottoman Empire because it did not want to have a land border with Venice; this small municipality was inherited by Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Pelje\u0161ac Bridge links the semi-exclave to the rest of country.\n\nSubnational enclaves and exclaves\n\nSometimes, administrative divisions of a country, for historical or practical reasons, caused some areas to belong to one division while being attached to another. Examples include:\n\n In India:\n Dadra, enclaved within the state of Gujarat, is part of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu in India.\n Puducherry district, of the Union Territory of Puducherry, is made of 12 non-contiguous parts, many of them are true enclaves entirely surrounded by the state of Tamil Nadu. Before Puducherry, along with the other territories of French India, was absorbed into India in 1954, they were enclaved within the Union of India, and before that the British Raj. Mahe district of Puducherry is made of three non-contiguous parts, two of which are true enclaves within the state of Kerala. Yanam district of Puducherry is an enclave surrounded entirely by the state of Andhra Pradesh.\n From 1947 to 1971, Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan as its East Pakistan exclave, separated from West Pakistan by 1,760 kilometers (1,100 miles) of India. It eventually gained independence in 1971, during the Bangladesh Liberation War.\n In the United Kingdom:\n Before 1974, and especially before 1844, there were many exclaves of counties in England and Wales.\n The counties of Scotland before reorganisation in 1889 included dozens of exclaves. This was especially notable in the case of Cromartyshire, which was split into at least nine parts spread across Ross-shire.\n In France:\n The French department of Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es-Atlantiques, in the southwest of France, surrounds two enclaves of the neighbouring department of Hautes-Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es.\n The French department of Vaucluse has a rather large exclave to its north that is an enclave within the Dr\u00f4me department \u2013 the canton of Valr\u00e9as (historically known as Enclave des Papes).\n San Colombano al Lambro is an exclave of the province of Milan at the junction between the Pavia and Lodi provinces. The exclave arose when the province of Lodi was carved out of the province of Milan, but a referendum in San Colombano indicated the locals' wish to stay in Milan. As a result, the commune is the only wine-producing area in the mostly urbanized province of Milan.\n\n In the United States:\nA portion of Ellis Island is an exclave of New York City within the boundaries of Jersey City, and therefore of New York State within the boundaries of New Jersey.\n The Kentucky Bend exists because of a meander of the Mississippi River.\n West Hollywood and Beverly Hills, California, adjoin one another, but are entirely surrounded by the city of Los Angeles. San Fernando, California, is entirely surrounded by the city of Los Angeles.\n Jeddito, Arizona, lies within a  exclave of the Navajo Nation. This exclave is surrounded by territory of the Hopi Reservation, which is itself surrounded by the Navajo Nation.\n\n\"Practical\" enclaves, exclaves and inaccessible districts\n\nThe term pene-exclave was defined in Robinson (1959) as \"parts of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently \u2013 in particular by wheeled traffic \u2013 only through the territory of another country.\" Thus, a pene-exclave, although having land borders, is not completely surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters. Catudal (1974) and Vinokurov (2007) further elaborate upon examples, including Point Roberts. \"Although physical connections by water with Point Roberts are entirely within the sovereignty of the United States, land access is only possible through Canada.\"\n\nPene-enclaves are also called functional enclaves or practical enclaves. They can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but, nevertheless, a discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts. Along rivers that change course, pene-enclaves can be observed as complexes comprising many small pene-enclaves. A pene-enclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory, although geographically attached, inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal, a valley part of Vorarlberg, Austria, that is only accessible from Germany to the north, being separated from the rest of Austria by high mountains traversed by no roads. Another example is the Spanish village of Os de Civ\u00eds, accessible from Andorra.\n\nHence, such areas are enclaves or exclaves for practical purposes, without meeting the strict definition. Many pene-exclaves partially border the sea or another body of water, which comprises their own territorial waters (i.e., they are not surrounded by other nations' territorial waters). They border their own territorial waters in addition to a land border with another country, and hence they are not true exclaves. Still, one cannot travel to them on land without going through another country. Attribution of a pene-enclave status to a territory can sometimes be disputed, depending on whether the territory is considered to be practically inaccessible from the mainland or not.\n\n Northern Ireland, an area of the United Kingdom, is bounded by the Republic of Ireland, the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.\n Equatorial Guinea's continental portion, R\u00edo Muni, is a semi-exclave surrounded by Gabon, Cameroon and the Atlantic Ocean.\n The Northwest Angle in the U.S. state of Minnesota is geographically separated from the rest of the state (and United States) by the Lake of the Woods and is accessible on land only through the Canadian province of Manitoba. Additionally, Elm Point, south of the town of Buffalo Point in Manitoba, is separated from the rest of Minnesota by Lake of the Woods.\n Point Roberts, Washington, United States, is an unincorporated community in Whatcom County\u2014located on the southernmost tip of the Tsawwassen Peninsula, south of Delta, British Columbia, Canada\u2014that can be reached by land from the rest of the United States only by traveling through Canada.\n The U.S. state of Vermont has two pene-enclaves with the Canadian province of Quebec. Province Point, a few kilometres to the northeast of the town of East Alburgh, Vermont, is the southernmost tip of a small promontory approximately  in size (). The promontory is cut through by the U.S.\/Canadian border; as such the area is a practical enclave of the United States contiguous with Canada. Similarly, the southern point of Province Island (), a small island mostly in Quebec, crosses into Vermont. It is situated in Lake Memphremagog, near Newport, Vermont.\n Walvis Bay, now part of Namibia, was a pene-exclave of the Cape Colony in German South-West Africa, created in 1878. It became part of the Cape Province of the Union of South Africa in 1910, but from 1922, it was administered as a de facto part of South-West Africa, a League of Nations Mandate. In 1977, it was separated from that territory and re-integrated into the Cape Province. South Africa did not relinquish sovereignty over Walvis Bay until 1994, nearly four years after Namibia's independence.\n Barit\u00fa National Park in Argentina can only be accessed by road through Bolivia, as it is separated from the nearest Argentinian roads by vast stretches of uninhabited rainforest.\n\nSubnational \"practical\" enclaves, exclaves, and inaccessible districts\n Although the Jervis Bay Territory, which occupies a coastal peninsula in Australia, is not part of the Australian Capital Territory, the laws of the ACT apply to it. This was to give the ACT coastal access, which it did not have as it was entirely surrounded by the state of New South Wales.\n The Romanian village of N\u0103moloasa (Gala\u021bi County) can be accessed only through Vrancea County (where there is a bridge over the Siret), because it is separated by the Siret from the rest of Gala\u021bi County.\n The southern part of the Province of Venice, Veneto, can be reached directly from the rest of the province only by boat. By land it can be reached only by traveling through the Province of Padua because territorial continuity with the main part of the province exists only through some unconnected islands and islets.\n It is not possible to drive from the northern half of County Leitrim in the Republic of Ireland to the southern half without leaving the county; Lough Allen and the River Shannon present a water barrier requiring one to drive through County Cavan to the east or County Roscommon to the west.\n The community of East Kemptville, Nova Scotia, Canada, is part of the Municipality of Argyle, but it can only be reached by road from the rest of the municipality by travelling through the Municipality of Yarmouth or the Municipality of Shelburne. The latter route also requires travelling through the Municipality of Barrington.\n The southeastern part of the Tai Po District (northern part of the Sai Kung Peninsula), Hong Kong, can be reached directly from the rest of the district only by boat. By land it can be reached only by traveling through the Sha Tin District because territorial continuity with the main part of the district is cut off by the Tolo Harbour. In the past, when there was no road network serving the region, the residents commonly travelled by boat to Tai Po Market for their daily lives, hence the districts were drawn this way, but now most of the ferries no longer exist, and residents travel by road to markets in Sha Tin District (Ma On Shan or Sha Tin) instead.\n Within the United States:\n Several portions of land, including parts of Finns Point and Artificial Island, on the New Jersey side of the Delaware River are Delaware territory. Within the Twelve-Mile Circle, Delaware's border extends to the low-water mark across the river. Outside of the Circle, the Delaware \u2013 New Jersey border follows the middle of the river and Delaware Bay.\n The Eastern Shore of Virginia on the southern portion of the Delmarva Peninsula shares a border with Maryland but is only connected to the rest of Virginia by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel, which is part of U.S. Route 13. \n The city of Carter Lake, Iowa is separated from the rest of the state of Iowa by the Missouri River, which changed course during a flood in 1877, cutting the city off from the rest of the state. It is now only accessible through Omaha, Nebraska.\n The village of Kaskaskia, Illinois, the state's first capital, is separated from the rest of Illinois by the Mississippi River due to a flood in 1881, which shifted the river to flow east of the town, rather than west. This resulted in the only access to the town being from Missouri.\n The Upper Peninsula of Michigan is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, so until the Mackinac Bridge was completed in 1957, the only land routes between them were through the states of Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana, or through the Canadian province of Ontario.\n The Marble Hill neighborhood of Manhattan was separated from the rest of the borough by the construction of the Harlem Ship Canal in 1895 and then connected to the North American mainland and the Bronx when the Harlem River was filled in on its north side in 1914.\n Although O'Hare International Airport is located in Chicago, it can only be reached directly from the rest of the city by passing through the suburban edge city of Rosemont.\n\nEnclaves within enclaves\n\nIt is possible for an enclave of one country to be completely surrounded by a part of another country that is itself an enclave of the first country. These enclaves are sometimes called counter-enclaves. Two such complexes containing them exist currently:\n\nThe Dutch municipality of Baarle-Nassau has seven exclaves in two exclaves of the Belgian municipality of Baarle-Hertog.\n Nahwa of the United Arab Emirates is surrounded by Madha, an exclave of Oman within the U.A.E.\n\nThe former complex of enclaves at Cooch Behar district included 24 second-order enclaves and one small third-order enclave called Dahala Khagrabari #51: a piece of India within a part of Bangladesh, within a part of India, within Bangladesh. The Indo-Bangladesh enclaves were exchanged on 31 July 2015 by the ratified Land Boundary Agreement, and Dahala Khagrabari was ceded to Bangladesh.\n\nThe border arrangements concerning the Vennbahn meant that, from 1922 to 1949, a Belgian counter-enclave existed within a German enclave.\n\nEthnic enclaves\nAn ethnic enclave is a community of an ethnic group inside an area in which another ethnic group predominates. Ghettos, Little Italys, barrios and Chinatowns are examples. These areas may have a separate language, culture and economic system.\n Sz\u00e9kely Land is a Hungarian ethnic enclave within Romania, with its people calling themselves Sz\u00e9kely. Originally, the name Sz\u00e9kely Land denoted an autonomous region within Transylvania. It existed as a legal entity from medieval times until the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, when the Sz\u00e9kely and Saxon seats were dissolved and replaced by the county system. Along with Transylvania, it became a part of Romania in 1920, according with the Treaty of Trianon signed on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles, France. In 1938\u20131940, during World War II, post-Trianon Hungary temporarily expanded its territory and included some additional territories that were formerly part of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, under Third Reich auspices, the Second Vienna Award. It was later reduced to boundaries approximating those of 1920 by the peace treaties signed after World War II at Paris, in 1947. The area was called Magyar Autonomous Region between September 8, 1952, and February 16, 1968, a Hungarian autonomous region within Romania, and today there are territorial autonomy initiatives to reach a higher level of self-governance for this region within Romania.\n There are several Serb enclaves in Kosovo where the institutions of Kosovo are not fully operational due to disputes.\n\nExtraterritoriality\nDiplomatic missions, such as embassies and consulates, as well as military bases, are usually exempted from the jurisdiction of the host country, i.e., the laws of the host nation in which an embassy is located do not typically apply to the land of the embassy or base itself. This exemption from the jurisdiction of the host country is defined as extraterritoriality. Areas and buildings enjoying some forms of extraterritoriality are not true enclaves since, in all cases, the host country retains full sovereignty. In addition to embassies, some other areas enjoy a limited form of extraterritoriality.\n\nExamples of this include:\n Pavillon de Breteuil in France, used by the General Conference on Weights and Measures.\n United Nations headquarters in the United States, used by the United Nations.\n United Nations Office at Geneva in Switzerland, used by the United Nations.\n INTERPOL headquarters in Lyon, France, used by INTERPOL.\n NATO (political) headquarters near Evere in Haren, a part of the City of Brussels, Belgium.\n Headquarters of Allied Command Operations (NATO) at the area designated as Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), north of Mons, Belgium.\n Palazzo Malta and the Villa del Priorato di Malta, the headquarters of Sovereign Military Order of Malta in Rome. In addition to extraterritoriality, Italy recognizes the exercise by SMOM of all the prerogatives of sovereignty in its headquarters. Therefore, Italian sovereignty and SMOM sovereignty uniquely coexist without overlapping.\n Extraterritorial properties of the Holy See in Rome and surroundings.\n By treaty of 2 November 1929, Czechoslovakia obtained the lease for 99 years of two plots of land (in the Moldauhafen and in the Saalehafen), both within the perimeter of the free port of Hamburg. Another plot, in the Peutehafen, was purchased by the Czechoslovak government in 1929; this plot lies just outside the free-port perimeter.\n Saalehafen \u2013 approximately 2 ha of land on Hallesches Ufer, on the southeastern bank of the Saalehafen.\n Moldauhafen \u2013 approximately 0.5 ha of land on Dresdener Ufer, on the southeastern bank of the Moldauhafen.\n Peutehafen \u2013 the narrow peninsula between the Peutekanal and the Peutehafen dock, comprising 8.054 ha of land and 0.5 ha of water surface.\n In Szczecin, Poland, a similar provision existed following the Treaty of Versailles for Czechoslovakia to have access to the harbor, which until the end of World War II was located in Germany. From 1945, when Szczecin became part of Poland, Czechoslovakia possessed no extraterritorial rights there. It appears that the German concession ceased at the end of the war and that no successor paid attention to the pre-war rights that Czechoslovakia had under the Versailles Treaty. Neither the Polish nor the occupying Russians appear to have assumed any of Germany's pre-war liabilities. Czechoslovakia gave up the rights to its territory in Szczecin under an agreement signed on 13 January 1956.\n Saimaa Canal: the longitudinal half of the canal in Russia is leased by Finland until 2063. Russian law is in principle valid, but in practice, Finland maintains the area.\n Under a treaty between the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, a Scottish Court was established at Camp Zeist near Utrecht for the trial of those accused in the Lockerbie bombing. The premises were under the authority of the court and immune from external interference for the duration of the trial and subsequent appeal, which lasted from 1999 to 2002. Dutch law continued to apply there in principle but the court was allowed to enact superseding regulations, and court officials enjoyed diplomatic immunity. Contrary to a popular misconception, the area did not become territory of the United Kingdom and the Netherlands retained sovereignty over it as the host country, similar to the status of diplomatic missions.\n\nLand owned by a foreign country\n\nOne or more parcels\/holdings of land in most countries is owned by other countries. Most instances are exempt from taxes. In the special case of embassies\/consulates these enjoy special privileges driven by international consensus particularly the mutual wish to ensure free diplomatic missions, such as being exempt from major hindrances and host-country arrests in ordinary times on the premises. Most non-embassy lands in such ownership are also not enclaves as they fall legally short of extraterritoriality, they are subject to alike court jurisdiction as before their grant\/sale in most matters. Nonetheless, for a person's offence against the property itself, equally valid jurisdiction in criminal matters is more likely than elsewhere, assuming the perpetrator is found in the prosecuting authority's homeland. Devoid of permanent residents, formally defined new sovereignty is not warranted or asserted in the examples below. Nonetheless, minor laws, especially on flag flying, are sometimes relaxed to accommodate the needs of the accommodated nation's monument.\n\nEmbassies enjoy many different legal statuses approaching quasi-sovereignty, depending on the agreements reached and in practice upheld from time-to-time by host nations. Subject to hosts adhering to basic due process of international law, including giving warnings, the enforced reduction of scope of a foreign embassy has always been a possibility, even to the point of expelling the foreign embassy entirely, usually on a breakdown of relations, in reaction to extreme actions such as espionage, or as another form of sanction. The same seems to be possible in profit-driven moving or drilling under any of the sites below, providing safeguards as the structure or a new replacement site. The same possible curtailments and alterations never apply to proper exclaves.\n\nExamples of such land other than for diplomatic missions are:\n Napoleon's original grave in Longwood, Saint Helena, owned by France.\n Victor Hugo's house in Saint Peter Port (Saint-Pierre-Port), Guernsey, owned by the city of Paris.\n The Brest memorial in Brest, France, is owned by the U.S. It commemorates World War I.\n The Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in Normandy, France, which contains the graves of 9,386 American military dead, most of whom died during the landings and ensuing operations of World War II, owned by the United States.\n Pointe du Hoc, the 13-hectare site of a memorial and museum dedicated to the World War II Normandy landing at Omaha Beach, France, transferred to the U.S. on 11 January 1979.\n The  to Russia's final Generalissimo Alexander Suvorov near G\u00f6schenen in central Switzerland, was erected 99 years after his death by the Russian Empire.\n The Vimy Memorial in France, which commemorates the Battle of Vimy Ridge. The French government permanently granted the about  to Canada as a war memorial in 1922 in recognition of Canada's military contributions in World War I in general and at Vimy Ridge in particular.\n Two cemeteries on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, United States: one on Ocracoke Island and one on Hatteras Island in the town of Buxton, are owned by the United Kingdom hosting the British seamen washed ashore after World War II U-boat attacks of 10 April (one from the San Delfino) and 11 May 1942 (five from HMT Bedfordshire). Four graves are at Ocracoke and two at Buxton; three of the bodies were never identified; one of them could be that of a Canadian seaman. The plot of land at Ocracoke \"has been forever ceded to England\" and is maintained by the U.S. Coast Guard. The plot was leased to the Commonwealth War Graves Commission for as long as the land remained a cemetery. The graves on Hatteras Island are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service.\n The Captain Cook Monument at Kealakekua Bay and about  of land around it in Hawaii, United States, the place where James Cook was killed in 1779, is owned by the United Kingdom. An historian on the occasion of the monument's 50th anniversary recorded in 1928 that the white stone \"obelisk monument [was] erected to the memory of Captain Cook, about 1876, and on land deeded outright to the British Government by Princess Likelike, sister of King Kalakaua, about the same year, so that that square is absolute British Territory.\" Hawaii was a sovereign nation at the time. According to MacFarlane, \"The land under the monument was deeded to the United Kingdom in 1877 and is considered as sovereign non-embassy land owned by the British Embassy in Washington DC. ... the Hawaiian State Parks agency maintained that as sovereign British territory it was the responsibility of the UK to maintain the site.\"\n Tiwinza in Peru: In the 1998 peace agreement following the 1995 Cenepa War, Peru ceded to Ecuador the property, but not the sovereignty, of one square kilometre within Tiwinza (where 14 Ecuadorian soldiers were buried). Ecuador had established a frontier military outpost in Tiwinza, an area that was specified in the agreement as belonging to Peru.\n\n The land under the John F. Kennedy memorial at Runnymede, United Kingdom, was transferred from the Crown Estates to the United States by the John F. Kennedy Memorial Act 1964 (an Act of the U.K. Parliament); however, it is in the care of the U.K.-based Kennedy Memorial Trust.\n The Tomb of Suleyman Shah (of Suleyman Shah, the grandfather of Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman Empire) in Aleppo Governorate, Syria, is the property of Turkey. Article 9 of the Treaty of Ankara signed between France and Turkey in 1921, provides that the tomb \"shall remain, with its appurtenances, the property of Turkey, who may appoint guardians for it and may hoist the Turkish flag there\".\n Property and land owned by Sultan of Johor in Singapore, due to historical tie between the two. Notably the Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim Mosque in Singapore is administered by Majlis Agama Islam Johor instead of Islamic Religious Council of Singapore\n\nUnusual cross-border transport channels\n\nNational railway passing through another state's territory\nChanges in borders can make a railway that was previously located solely within a country traverse the new borders. Since diverting a railway is expensive, this arrangement may last a long time. This may mean that doors on passenger trains are locked and guarded to prevent illicit entry and exit while the train is temporarily in another country. Borders can also be in the \"wrong\" place, forcing railways into difficult terrain. In large parts of Europe, where the Schengen Area has eliminated border controls when travelling between its 27 member countries, this problem no longer exists, and railways can criss-cross borders with no need for border controls or locked trains.\n\nExamples include:\n\nAfrica\n\n Due to inability to agree in 1963 on a shorter route through easy terrain, the iron ore railway in Mauritania originally had to use a longer route through a tunnel (built through 2\u00a0km of solid granite) near Choum to avoid the territory of Spanish Sahara. The tunnel is no longer in use and trains now use the shorter route through 5\u00a0km of Western Saharan territory controlled by the Polisario Front.\n In 2013, in Mozambique, the shortest railway route from coal mines at Tete to a port at Nacala passes through Malawi. A route through solely Mozambican territory is circuitous.\n In 1928, Belgian Congo and Portuguese Angola exchanged some land to facilitate the new route of the railway to Congo-Kinshasa.\n\nAmericas\n Bolivia is landlocked and has no access to the sea, but a rail route runs through Chile from La Paz to the port of Arica on the Pacific Ocean. The rail route was built by Chile under the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1904 between Chile and Bolivia, with the Bolivian section transferred to Bolivia after 15 years. Bolivia enjoyed duty-free use of the railway and the ports connected.\n The Canadian National Railway's Sprague Subdivision crosses the Canada\u2013U.S. border twice along its length.\u00a0 The subdivision is part of CN's main line between Chicago and Western Canada, and sees significant rail traffic. Originating in Rainy River, Ontario, the line crosses the town's namesake river and enters the U.S. at Baudette, Minnesota. It continues for 44 miles (70\u00a0km) through the State of Minnesota, before re-entering Canada and terminating 100\u00a0mi (160\u00a0km) further west in CN's Symington Yard near Winnipeg, Manitoba. Signage and signalling adhere to Canadian Rail Operating Rules throughout the subdivision, including the U.S. section, eliminating the need for crew changes at the border crossings. Arrangements with Canadian and US border officials allow for 'roll-through' border clearances and inspections.\n The Canadian Pacific Railway's Newport Subdivision crosses the Canada-U.S. border three times along its length. Originating at Brookport, northwest of Cowansville, Quebec, it crosses the border 26 miles (42\u00a0km) to the southeast and passes through Richford, Vermont, re-entering Quebec 1.1 miles (1.8\u00a0km) later.\u00a0 After a further 10.7 miles (17\u00a0km) east, it re-enters the U.S. before terminating in Newport, Vermont and connecting with the Washington County Railroad.\n The International Railway of Maine was a railroad constructed by the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) between Lac-M\u00e9gantic, Quebec, and Mattawamkeag, Maine, closing a key gap in the railway's transcontinental main line to the port of Saint John, New Brunswick. The railway was, however, at all times under American jurisdiction within the borders of the United States.\n The Woodland Rail Company owns an 11.8\u00a0mi (18.9\u00a0km) -long rail line that crosses the Canada-U.S. border twice along its length.\u00a0 Originating at an interchange with the New Brunswick Southern Railway's Milltown Spur in Calais, Maine, the line follows the former Maine Central Railroad's Calais Branch and Woodland Spur. \u00a0From Saint Croix Junction, the line continues southwest, crossing the Saint Croix River at Baring, Maine, and entering Canada at Upper Mills, New Brunswick.\u00a0 The line continues for 5 miles (8\u00a0km) through New Brunswick before re-entering the U.S. after crossing the Saint Croix River again at Sprague Falls.\u00a0 The line terminates at the end of an industrial spur serving a pulp mill in Baileyville, Maine. \n In order to avoid such a trans-border arrangement, the United States made the Gadsden Purchase of land from Mexico, on which it was planned to build a southern route for the transcontinental railroad. Owing to the topography of the area, acquisition of the land was the only feasible way to construct such a railroad through the southern New Mexico Territory.\n The former San Diego and Arizona Railway, completed in 1919, ran between the California cities of San Diego and El Centro with  of track in Mexico between Tijuana and Tecate. The Mexican segment is now operated as the short line Baja California Railroad.\n\nEurope\n\nCurrent \n Salzburg to Innsbruck (Austria) passes through Rosenheim, Germany. A railway line within Austria exists as well, but trains take about 1.5 hours longer than across German territory.\n Trains on the Birsig Valley Line from Basel to Rodersdorf, Switzerland, which passes through Leymen, France. It is operated by Baselland Transport and serviced by line no. 10, which continues into the Basel tram network.\n The Hochrheinbahn (High Rhine Railway) from Basel via Waldshut to Schaffhausen is part of the Deutsche Bahn network, and is mostly in Germany, but the two ends are in Switzerland and it is only connected with the rest of the German railway network via Switzerland. At both Basel and Schaffhausen the railway has extraterritorial status: one can travel by train to and from the rest of Germany without going through Swiss customs, despite travelling over territory of the Swiss Customs Area. See Basel Badischer Bahnhof.\n Trains from Neugersdorf, Saxony to Zittau pass Czech territory at Varnsdorf, while Czech trains from Varnsdorf to Chrastava pass through German territory at Zittau, and then a small part of Polish territory near the village of Poraj\u00f3w.\n Trains from G\u00f6rlitz to Zittau, Germany, pass the border river Neisse several times (see Oder\u2013Neisse line); the railway station for Ostritz, Germany, lies in Krzewina, Poland.\n Belgrade\u2013Bar railway crosses into Bosnia and Herzegovina for , between stations Zlatibor and Priboj (both in Serbia). There is one station, \u0160trpci, but there are no border-crossing facilities, and trains do not call at the station.\n The Knin \u2013 Biha\u0107 railway between Croatia and Bosnia is split by the Croatian\u2013Bosnian border several times. Similarly, the Savski Marof \u2013 Imeno railway was split by the Slovenian\u2013Croatian border several times.\n Lu\u010denec \u2013 Ve\u013ek\u00fd Krt\u00ed\u0161 line in Slovakia passes through Hungary from Ipolytarn\u00f3c to N\u00f3gr\u00e1dszak\u00e1l.\n The local trains on the Burgenlandbahn in Austria cross the area of Hungary at Sopron. During the era of the Iron Curtain, the trains had their doors locked as they traversed Hungarian territory.\n The line from Ventimiglia to Limone Piemonte, Italy, via Breil-sur-Roya, France.\n The railway between France and Italy briefly leaves France to enter Monaco before entering France once more. The railway has a 5300-metre tunnel that goes through Monaco and further, and has an underground station in Monaco.\n For the Belgian Vennbahn (now a cycleway) narrow strips of Belgian territory were created running through Germany, creating five German exclaves.\n The former Soviet republics have numerous examples:\n Semikhody \u2013 Chernihiv-Ovruch railway of Ukraine passes through Belarus territory.\n Belarus\/Lithuania: Aduti\u0161kis railway station straddles the Lithuania\/Belarus border. Trains pass through Lithuanian territory while traveling to and from Belarus, and platforms are in both Belarus and Lithuania. The station is now mainly used for freight.\n Druzhba \u2013 Vorozhba line of Ukraine passes through Russian territory.\n In 2009, Russia and Kazakhstan agreed to transfer ownership of a cross-border section of line.\nTrains running between Schaffhausen and Rafz pass through the German towns of Jestetten and Lottstetten.\n\nHistorical \n During the Cold War, underground lines in West Berlin ran under parts of East Berlin. Ghost stations () were stations on Berlin's U-Bahn and S-Bahn metro networks that were closed during this period of Berlin's division.\n In Finland, Porkkala was leased to the Soviet Union as a Soviet naval base between 1944 and 1956. Porkkala is located on the Rantarata, the main railway line between Helsinki and Turku. Initially, only Soviet traffic was permitted through, forcing Finnish State Railways to reroute the trains through a circuitous route via Toijala. However, in 1947, the Soviets agreed to let Finnish trains through. At the border, Finnish trains were shunted to a Soviet locomotive, windows were shuttered, guards were posted to the doors, and the Soviet locomotive would pull the train through the base area, to be shunted back to a Finnish locomotive at the opposite border.\n\nProposals \n The shortest and straightest route for a proposed east\u2013west high-speed railway in Austria through Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck would pass under some mountains belonging to Germany.\n In 2012, a railway route was proposed from Angola proper to the enclave of Cabinda crossing not only the Congo River but also about 40\u00a0km of territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.\n\nHighway of one state passing through another state's territory\nThis arrangement is less common as highways are more easily re-aligned. Some examples are:\n\nAfrica\n Congo Pedicle road: built to provide access for Zambia's Luapula Province to the Copperbelt through  of territory of the DR Congo, requiring a change from driving on the left to driving on the right.\n In Guinea, where 20\u00a0km long tunnel(s) through a hillspur at Naigaya (elevation ), Sicourou, Bokariadi and Feraya might be avoided by crossing the border into Sierra Leone at Yana (elevation ).\n Senegal is practically and inconveniently divided almost in two by the sovereign territory of The Gambia. Until the completion of the Senegambia bridge in 2019, the easiest way to travel from northern Senegal to the southern Casamance region was through Gambia via the Trans-Gambia Highway, with a connecting ferry being the only way to cross the Gambia River. The fare for the ferry crossing is a source of contention between the two countries.\n\nAmericas\n East Richford Slide Road in the U.S. state of Vermont crosses into the Canadian province of Qu\u00e9bec for a distance of approximately 100 metres (300 feet) before returning to the United States. A cemetery lies directly on the border vista.\n\nAsia\n The road from Dubai to the tourist spot of Hatta, an exclave of the emirate of Dubai, passes through a small stretch of Omani territory.\n The highway between Bishkek and Issyk Kul, both in Kyrgyzstan, skirts the border with Kazakhstan, with the highway and the border crossing each other for short distances at various points.\n\nEurope\n Various roads cross the Republic of Ireland\u2013United Kingdom border, back and forth between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The N54 in County Monaghan (RoI) twice becomes the A3 in County Fermanagh (NI), before continuing as the N54. Similarly, the N53 in Monaghan passes through County Armagh (NI) as the A37, before resuming as the N53 at a point where County Armagh, County Monaghan and County Louth (RoI) all meet. , no national or border signs are present: the only indication is the change in margin markings and signs to indicate a change in speed limits between mph and km\/h. It remains to be seen whether Brexit will change this friendly arrangement, which has persisted since the Good Friday Agreement of 1998.\n Between 1963 and 2002 the N274 road from Roermond to Heerlen, part of Dutch territory, passed through the German Selfkant, which had been annexed by the Netherlands after the Second World War but returned to Germany in 1963.\n Close to Narvik, a road from Norway twice enters and leaves Swedish territory, following the southern shore of the Kj\u00e5rdavatnet lake. It does not connect with any other Swedish road in either location before it enters Norwegian land once more. It is private and built for hydropower plants but usable for public.\n Norwegian road 92 continues in Finland as road 92 before it continues as road 92 again in Norway. Norwegian road 7012 continues as road Z821 in Sweden before continuing as road 7012 in Norway again. Road Z821 (near G\u00e4ddede) had right-hand driving also before 1967 when the rest of Sweden had left-hand driving. These roads are mostly number construction and do not have special privileges.\n Road 402 between Podsabotin and Solkan in Slovenia, built when Slovenia was a state of Yugoslavia, passes through Italy for . This section of the road does not intersect any other roads and is confined by high concrete walls topped by fences. As Slovenia and Italy are now both signatories to the Schengen Agreement, the barriers are little more than historical curiosities, although there is modern signage indicating that photography is forbidden along the Italian part of the road and that stopping is prohibited.\n The Saatse Boot Road in Estonia, between the villages of Lutep\u00e4\u00e4 and Sesniki, passes through Russian territory. The stretch of road passing through Russia is flanked by barbed wire fences and guard towers. Stopping and\/or getting out of one's vehicle on the stretch of road is forbidden; the rule is enforced by Russian border guards.\n The D8 coastal highway of Croatia passes through a small section of Bosnia and Herzegovina territory, at the town of Neum, as it heads south from Split, Croatia, to Dubrovnik.\nGeneva Airport in Switzerland has a French Sector, which, while legally and geographically in Switzerland, is a de facto French domestic terminal used solely for flights to and from destinations in metropolitan France, and staffed by French officials. Thus, prior to Switzerland's accession to the Schengen Area (which entered into force for air travel in March 2009), the French Sector saved the need for border controls for flights between France and Geneva Airport. The French Sector is only accessible by a road connecting it directly to France, which passes through Swiss territory but has no junctions or other physical access to Switzerland. This road leads to a turn-off on the French side of the Ferney-Voltaire border crossing, thus bypassing Swiss passport controls when they were operational before 2009. While Switzerland's membership of the Schengen Area now renders the convenience of avoiding passport controls obsolete, there is still a small advantage gained in using the French Sector: Switzerland is not in the EU Customs Union, so customs (but not passport) checks are still carried out at Switzerland's border posts. The French Sector, with its road that leads directly to France without access to Switzerland, bypasses this requirement.\nEuroAirport on French territory near Basel\/Mulhouse is similar. It has a Swiss section with a customs-free road to Switzerland.\nBasel (Badischer) and Geneva railway stations also have similar foreign areas.\n\nSubnational highway passing through other internal territory\n\nAmericas \n United States:\n Interstate 684, connecting various points in New York State, passes through Connecticut near Kensico Reservoir and Westchester County Airport but is maintained entirely by New York State. Motor vehicles cannot enter from nor exit to Connecticut roads, even though a portion of the highway is owned by Connecticut.\n A portion of New York State Route 17\/Interstate 86 passes through South Waverly, Pennsylvania but is maintained entirely by New York State. This includes the roadway and traffic lights at the interchange with US Route 220 and a short portion of Pennsylvania Route 199. Nevertheless, Pennsylvania police enforce traffic laws on this short stretch, where there is one overpass built and owned by Pennsylvania.\n A  portion of New Hampshire Route 153 runs along the border with and briefly passes through Parsonsfield, Maine, as it sweeps around the eastern shore of Province Lake.\n Minnesota State Highway 23 passes through about  of Wisconsin just west of Duluth, Minnesota. Maintained by the Minnesota Department of Transportation, it intersects only a few dead-end local roads while in Wisconsin. No state line signs are present.\n Hopkins Road north of Newark, Delaware, briefly enters Pennsylvania where the Twelve-Mile Circle meets the Mason\u2013Dixon Line. The road is maintained by Delaware, and it appears that at one time Arc Corner Road in Pennsylvania may have intersected here. Further east, Beaver Dam Road enters Chadds Ford Township, Pennsylvania, at the intersection of Beaver Valley Road and re-enters Delaware about 0.5 miles later. It is unclear who is supposed to maintain the section in Pennsylvania.\n Wyoming Highway 70 enters Moffat County, Colorado, for approximately . The route through Colorado is maintained by the Wyoming Department of Transportation.\n Arizona State Route 101 enters the sovereign Salt River Pima\u2013Maricopa Indian Community for approximately  as it skirts the eastern edge of Scottsdale, Arizona, whose neighborhoods were built out to the reservation boundary prior to construction. Use of the land for the freeway on Tribal land is under a lease agreement. The route is maintained by the Arizona Department of Transportation.\n\nAsia \n India\n The highway connecting Guwahati (Assam state) to Silchar (a city in Barak valley of Assam) passes through Meghalaya state.\n One has to travel through part of West Bengal while travelling from Jamshedpur (Tatanagar), Jharkhand to a few other cities of Jharkhand like Ranchi or Dhanbad.\n Kota, a city in Rajasthan surrounded by territory of Madhya Pradesh, is connected to other parts of Rajasthan by roads passing through Madhya Pradesh.\n Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh) is connected to few other cities of Madhya Pradesh by highways passing through Uttar Pradesh, covering the city of Jhansi.\n Turkey:\n The main road for travel to Bart\u0131n via Zonguldak actually crosses Bart\u0131n first, traverses Zonguldak a short distance, then returns to Bart\u0131n.\n\nBorder transport infrastructure\n\nAfrica\n\n The Kazungula Bridge connects Zambia and Botswana in Southern Africa. The shared border between the two countries is approximately 150 m long, in the middle of the Zambezi River, and thus very nearly forms a quadripoint between Zambia, Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe. Because the border between Zambia and Botswana is so short and because of the orientation of the river banks, the span of the bridge curves to avoid crossing the adjacent territory of Namibia or Zimbabwe.\n\nAmericas\n In 2009, the Canada Border Services Agency relocated its border inspection post from Cornwall Island, Ontario, a border region with the United States, to Cornwall, Ontario, across from the island and thus further inland, after protests erupted over the CBSA's firearm policy on Mohawk Nation's sovereign land. To avoid severe penalty, people entering from the United States who are destined for the island are required to proceed across the island to report to the new CBSA post in Cornwall before making a U-turn to return to the island. Residents of the island visiting Cornwall or beyond must also report to the CBSA. Those returning to the island from Cornwall are the only group not required to go through any border inspection.\n\nAsia\n The Hong Kong\u2013Shenzhen Western Corridor on the Hong Kong\u2013mainland China border: the immigration control points for Hong Kong (Shenzhen Bay Control Point) and mainland China (Shenzhen Bay Port) are co-located in the same building on the Shenzhen side of the bridge in an effective pene-exclave. The Hong Kong portion of the service building and the adjoining bridge are leased to Hong Kong, and are under Hong Kong's jurisdiction for an initial period until 30 June 2047.\n The Mainland Port Area in Kowloon High Speed Railway Station in downtown Hong Kong is under the jurisdiction of the Mainland Chinese authorities and courts. The 30\u00a0km long tunnel to the border is under Hong Kong jurisdiction, however, the train compartments of any train in operation (that is carrying passengers to or from the Mainland) are subject to Mainland Laws and jurisdiction. This arrangement was created to allow for immigration clearance to occur in Hong Kong for all trains travelling to and from the Mainland of China. This has stirred much controversy and multiple protests in Hong Kong.\n As a legacy of British Malaya, the Malaysian rail network had its southern terminus at Tanjong Pagar railway station in central Singapore. The land on which the station and the rail tracks stood was leased to Keretapi Tanah Melayu, the Malaysian state railway operator. Consequently, Malaysia had partial sovereignty over the railway land. Passengers had to clear Malaysian customs and immigration checks at Tanjong Pagar before boarding the train to Malaysia, even after Singapore shifted its border control facility to the actual border in 1998 and objected to the continued presence of Malaysian officials at the station. After a 20-year long dispute, the station was closed in 2011 and the railway land reverted to Singapore. A remnant of the rail corridor is still in use; KTM trains now terminate at Woodlands Train Checkpoint in northern Singapore near the border, which houses Malaysian and Singaporean border controls for rail passengers.\n\nEurope\n Several bridges cross the rivers Oder and Neisse between Germany and Poland. To avoid needing to coordinate their efforts on a single bridge, the two riparian states assign each bridge to one or the other; thus Poland is responsible for all maintenance on some of the bridges, including the German side, and vice versa.\n The Hallein Salt Mine crosses from Austria into Germany. Under an 1829 treaty Austria can dig under the then-Kingdom of Bavaria. In return some salt has to be given to Bavaria, and up to 99 of its citizens can be hired to work in the Austrian mine.\n The twin town of TornioHaparanda or HaparandaTornio lies at the mouth of river Tornio, Tornio on the Finnish side and Haparanda on the Swedish side. The two towns have a common public transportation, as well as cultural services, fire brigade, sports facilities, etc.\n The Basel Badischer Bahnhof is a railway station in the Swiss city of Basel. Although situated on Swiss soil, because of the 1852 treaty between the Swiss Confederation and the state of Baden (one of the predecessors of today's Germany), the largest part of the station (the platforms and the parts of the passenger tunnel that lead to the German\/Swiss checkpoint) is treated administratively as an inner-German railway station operated by the Deutsche Bahn. The shops in the station hall, however, are Swiss, and the Swiss franc is used as the official currency there (although the euro is universally accepted). The Swiss post office, car rental office, restaurant and a cluster of shops are each separately located wholly within a surrounding station area that is administered by the German railway. The customs controls are located in a tunnel between the platforms and the station hall; international trains that continue to Basel SBB usually had on-board border controls, until they were abolished in 2008 when Switzerland joined the Schengen Area.\n The tram network in the French city of Strasbourg was extended into the neighbouring German city of Kehl in 2017.\n The railway stations of Audun-le-Tiche and Volmerange-les-Mines are both located in France but are owned, operated and maintained by the Luxembourg National Railway Company, as are the short stretches of railway between the stations and the Luxembourg border. Thus, holders of a Luxembourg railway pass can travel to these stations without requiring a French ticket. The stations are both end stations on different lines and are not physically connected to any French railway. There are no border issues, as both France and Luxembourg are in the Schengen Area. Likewise, a short stretch of narrow-gauge railway line connects Hendaye in south-western France to the rest of the San Sebasti\u00e1n Metro network over the border in Spain.\n The bus network of Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia, extends to the nearby Austrian village Wolfsthal where the train S7 (Schnellbahn) from Vienna has its terminal station. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, the abandoned rail road track from Wolfsthal to Bratislava could not be reinstalled because the land had been sold for housing projects.\n\nSee also\n Flagpole annexation\n Landlocked country\n Panhandle\n Inner suburb\n\nLists \n List of countries that border only one other country\n List of enclaves and exclaves\n List of ethnic enclaves in North American cities\n List of former foreign enclaves in China\n\nCitations\n\nGeneral and cited references\n\nExternal links\n\n Rolf Palmberg's Enclaves of the world\n Jan S. Krogh's Geosite\n \"Tangled Territories\" 2005 review article on exclaves and enclaves in Europe published in Hidden Europe magazine\n Barry Smith's Baarle Site\n Evgeny Vinokurov's Theory of Enclaves \u2013 a comprehensive economic and political treatment of enclaves and exclaves\n\nEnclaves and exclaves\nBorder-related lists\nPolitical geography","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":186,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":6,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":4,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":9,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":5,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":5,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":7,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":5,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":6,"2017-04":6,"2016-50":6,"2016-44":7,"2016-40":6,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":6}},"id":4848945,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enclave%20and%20exclave","title":"Enclave and exclave","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\"The Star-Spangled Banner\" Naalagaaffeqatigiit inuiattut erinarsuutigaa. Francis Scott Key  taalliarineqarpoq.1931-imi atulersinneqarpoq.\n\nTuluttut taallai  \n\nI\n\n Oh, say, can you see, by the dawn's early light\n What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming?\n Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the perilous fight,\n O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming.\n And the rockets` red glare, the bombs bursting in air,\n Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there!\n Oh, say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave\n O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?\n\nII\n\n On the shore dimly seen, through the mists of the deep,\n Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes,\n What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep,\n As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?\n Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam,\n In fully glory reflected, now shines on the stream:\n 'Tis the star-spangled banner: oh, long may it wave\n O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.\n\nIII\n\n And where is that band who so vauntingly swore\n That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion\n A home and a country should leave us no more?\n Their blood has vanished out their foul footstep's pollution.\n No refuge could save the hireling and slave\n From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:\n And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave\n O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!\n\nIV\n\n Oh, thus be it ever when freemen shall stand.\n Between their loved home and the war's desolation!\n Blest with victory and peace, may the heaven-rescued land\n Praise the Power that has made and preserved us a nation.\n Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just.\n And this be our motto: \"In God is our trust\".\n And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave\n O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!\n\nNipelersorneq","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":666,"dup_dump_count":12,"dup_details":{"2024-18":29,"unknown":11,"2024-30":10,"2024-26":17,"2024-22":21,"2024-10":27,"2017-13":118,"2015-18":70,"2015-11":70,"2015-06":68,"2014-10":73,"2013-48":76,"2013-20":76}},"id":7403,"url":"https:\/\/kl.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The%20Star-Spangled%20Banner","title":"The Star-Spangled Banner","language":"kl"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The absolute threshold of hearing (ATH), also known as the absolute hearing threshold or auditory threshold, is the minimum sound level of a pure tone that an average human ear with normal hearing can hear with no other sound present. The absolute threshold relates to the sound that can just be heard by the organism. The absolute threshold is not a discrete point and is therefore classed as the point at which a sound elicits a response a specified percentage of the time.\n\nThe threshold of hearing is generally reported in reference to the RMS sound pressure of 20 micropascals, i.e. 0\u00a0dB SPL, corresponding to a sound intensity of 0.98\u00a0pW\/m2 at 1 atmosphere and 25\u00a0\u00b0C. It is approximately the quietest sound a young human with undamaged hearing can detect at 1,000\u00a0Hz. The threshold of hearing is frequency-dependent and it has been shown that the ear's sensitivity is best at frequencies between 2\u00a0kHz and 5\u00a0kHz, where the threshold reaches as low as \u22129\u00a0dB SPL.\n\nPsychophysical methods for measuring thresholds \n\nMeasurement of the absolute hearing threshold provides some basic information about our auditory system. The tools used to collect such information are called psychophysical methods. Through these, the perception of a physical stimulus (sound) and our psychological response to the sound is measured.\n\nSeveral psychophysical methods can measure absolute threshold. These vary, but certain aspects are identical. Firstly, the test defines the stimulus and specifies the manner in which the subject should respond. The test presents the sound to the listener and manipulates the stimulus level in a predetermined pattern. The absolute threshold is defined statistically, often as an average of all obtained hearing thresholds.\n\nSome procedures use a series of trials, with each trial using the 'single-interval \"yes\"\/\"no\" paradigm'. This means that sound may be present or absent in the single interval, and the listener has to say whether he thought the stimulus was there. When the interval does not contain a stimulus, it is called a \"catch trial\".\n\nClassical methods \nClassical methods date back to the 19th century and were first described by Gustav Theodor Fechner in his work Elements of Psychophysics. Three methods are traditionally used for testing a subject's perception of a stimulus: the method of limits, the method of constant stimuli, and the method of adjustment.\n\n Method of limits In the method of limits, the tester controls the level of the stimuli. Single-interval yes\/no paradigm' is used, but there are no catch trials.\n\n The trial uses several series of descending and ascending runs.\n\n The trial starts with the descending run, where a stimulus is presented at a level well above the expected threshold. When the subject responds correctly to the stimulus, the level of intensity of the sound is decreased by a specific amount and presented again. The same pattern is repeated until the subject stops responding to the stimuli, at which point the descending run is finished.\n\n In the ascending run, which comes after, the stimulus is first presented well below the threshold and then gradually increased in two decibel (dB) steps until the subject responds. As there are no clear margins to 'hearing' and 'not hearing', the threshold for each run is determined as the midpoint between the last audible and first inaudible level.\n\n The subject's absolute hearing threshold is calculated as the mean of all obtained thresholds in both ascending and descending runs.\n\n There are several issues related to the method of limits. First is anticipation, which is caused by the subject's awareness that the turn-points determine a change in response. Anticipation produces better ascending thresholds and worse descending thresholds.\n\n Habituation creates completely opposite effect, and occurs when the subject becomes accustomed to responding either \"yes\" in the descending runs and\/or \"no\" in the ascending runs. For this reason, thresholds are raised in ascending runs and improved in descending runs.\n\n Another problem may be related to step size. Too large a step compromises accuracy of the measurement as the actual threshold may be just between two stimulus levels.\n\n Finally, since the tone is always present, \"yes\" is always the correct answer.\n\n Method of constant stimuli In the method of constant stimuli, the tester sets the level of stimuli and presents them at completely random order. \n\n Thus, there are no ascending or descending trials.\n\n The subject responds \"yes\"\/\"no\" after each presentation.\n\n The stimuli are presented many times at each level and the threshold is defined as the stimulus level at which the subject scored 50% correct. \"Catch\" trials may be included in this method.\n\n Method of constant stimuli has several advantages over the method of limits. Firstly, the random order of stimuli means that the correct answer cannot be predicted by the listener. Secondarily, as the tone may be absent (catch trial), \"yes\" is not always the correct answer. Finally, catch trials help to detect the amount of a listener's guessing.\n The main disadvantage lies in the large number of trials needed to obtain the data, and therefore time required to complete the test.\n\n Method of adjustment Method of adjustment shares some features with the method of limits, but differs in others. There are descending and ascending runs and the listener knows that the stimulus is always present. \n\n However, unlike in the method of limits, here the stimulus is controlled by the listener. The subject reduces the level of the tone until it cannot be detected anymore, or increases until it can be heard again.\n\n The stimulus level is varied continuously via a dial and the stimulus level is measured by the tester at the end. The threshold is the mean of the just audible and just inaudible levels.\n\n Also this method can produce several biases. To avoid giving cues about the actual stimulus level, the dial must be unlabeled. Apart from the already mentioned anticipation and habituation, stimulus persistence (preservation) could influence the result from the method of adjustment.\n\n In the descending runs, the subject may continue to reduce the level of the sound as if the sound was still audible, even though the stimulus is already well below the actual hearing threshold.\n\n In contrast, in the ascending runs, the subject may have persistence of the absence of the stimulus until the hearing threshold is passed by certain amount.\n\nModified classical methods\n\nForced-choice methods \nTwo intervals are presented to a listener, one with a tone and one without a tone. The listener must decide which interval had the tone in it. The number of intervals can be increased, but this may cause problems for the listener who has to remember which interval contained the tone.\n\nAdaptive methods \nUnlike the classical methods, where the pattern for changing the stimuli is preset, in adaptive methods the subject's response to the previous stimuli determines the level at which a subsequent stimulus is presented.\n\nStaircase (up-down) methods \n \n\nThe simple 1-down-1-up method consists of a series of descending and ascending trial runs and turning points (reversals). The stimulus level is increased if the subject does not respond and decreased when a response occurs. Similar to the method of limits, the stimuli are adjusted in predetermined steps. After obtaining from six to eight reversals, the first one is discarded and the threshold is defined as the average of the midpoints of the remaining runs. Experiments have shown that this method provides only 50% accuracy. To produce more accurate results, this simple method can be further modified by increasing the size of steps in the descending runs, e.g. 2-down-1-up method, 3-down-1-up methods.\n\nBekesy's tracking method\n\nBekesy's method contains some aspects of classical methods and staircase methods. The level of the stimulus is automatically varied at a fixed rate. The subject is asked to press a button when the stimulus is detectable. Once the button is pressed, the level is automatically decreased by the motor-driven attenuator and increased when the button is not pushed. The threshold is thus tracked by the listeners, and calculated as the mean of the midpoints of the runs as recorded by the automat.\n\nHysteresis effect \nHysteresis can be defined roughly as 'the lagging of an effect behind its cause'.\nWhen measuring hearing thresholds it is always easier for the subject to follow a tone that is audible and decreasing in amplitude than to detect a tone that was previously inaudible.\n\nThis is because 'top-down' influences mean that the subject expects to hear the sound and is, therefore, more motivated with higher levels of concentration.\n\nThe 'bottom-up' theory explains that unwanted external (from the environment) and internal (e.g., heartbeat) noise results in the subject only responding to the sound if the signal-to-noise ratio is above a certain point.\n\nIn practice this means that when measuring threshold with sounds decreasing in amplitude, the point at which the sound becomes inaudible is always lower than the point at which it returns to audibility. This phenomenon is known as the 'hysteresis effect'.\n\nPsychometric function of absolute hearing threshold \n\nPsychometric function 'represents the probability of a certain listener's response as a function of the magnitude of the particular sound characteristic being studied'.\n\nTo give an example, this could be the probability curve of the subject detecting a sound being presented as a function of the sound level. When the stimulus is presented to the listener one would expect that the sound would either be audible or inaudible, resulting in a 'doorstep' function. In reality a grey area exists where the listener is uncertain as to whether they have actually heard the sound or not, so their responses are inconsistent, resulting in a psychometric function.\n\nThe psychometric function is a sigmoid function characterised by being 's' shaped in its graphical representation.\n\nMinimal audible field vs minimal audible pressure \n\nTwo methods can be used to measure the minimal audible stimulus and therefore the absolute threshold of hearing.\nMinimal audible field involves the subject sitting in a sound field and stimulus being presented via a loudspeaker. The sound level is then measured at the position of the subjects head with the subject not in the sound field.\nMinimal audible pressure involves presenting stimuli via headphones or earphones and measuring sound pressure in the subject's ear canal using a very small probe microphone.\nThe two different methods produce different thresholds and minimal audible field thresholds are often 6 to 10\u00a0dB better than minimal audible pressure thresholds. It is thought that this difference is due to:\n monaural vs binaural hearing. With minimal audible field both ears are able to detect the stimuli but with minimal audible pressure only one ear is able to detect the stimuli. Binaural hearing is more sensitive than monaural hearing\/\n physiological noises heard when ear is occluded by an earphone during minimal audible pressure measurements. When the ear is covered the subject hears body noises, such as heart beat, and these may have a masking effect.\nMinimal audible field and minimal audible pressure are important when considering calibration issues and they also illustrate that the human hearing is most sensitive in the 2\u20135\u00a0kHz range.\n\nTemporal summation \n\nTemporal summation is the relationship between stimulus duration and intensity when the presentation time is less than 1 second. Auditory sensitivity changes when the duration of a sound becomes less than 1 second. The threshold intensity decreases by about 10\u00a0dB when the duration of a tone burst is increased from 20 to 200 ms.\n\nFor example, suppose that the quietest sound a subject can hear is 16\u00a0dB SPL if the sound is presented at a duration of 200 ms. If the same sound is then presented for a duration of only 20 ms, the quietest sound that can now be heard by the subject goes up to 26\u00a0dB SPL. In other words, if a signal is shortened by a factor of 10 then the level of that signal must be increased by as much as 10\u00a0dB to be heard by the subject.\n\nThe ear operates as an energy detector that samples the amount of energy present within a certain time frame. A certain amount of energy is needed within a time frame to reach the threshold. This can be done by using a higher intensity for less time or by using a lower intensity for more time. Sensitivity to sound improves as the signal duration increases up to about 200 to 300 ms, after that the threshold remains constant.\n\nThe timpani of the ear operates more as a sound pressure sensor. Also a microphone works the same way and is not sensitive to sound intensity.\n\nSee also \n\n dB(A)\n Equal-loudness contour\n Hearing range\n Loudness\n Phon\n Psychoacoustics\n Psychophysics\n Signal detection theory\n Sone\n\nReferences \n\n \n Fechner, G., 1860. Elements of psychophysics. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Citation from the book available on: http:\/\/psychclassics.yorku.ca\/Fechner\/.\n Katz J. (Ed). United States of America: Lippencott, Williams & Wilkins\n Levitt H., 1971. \"Transformed up-down methods in psychoacoustics\". J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 49, 467\u2013477. Available to download from: http:\/\/scitation.aip.org\/getabs\/servlet\/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JASMAN00004900002B000467000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes. (Accessed 1 March 2007).\n www.thefreedictionary.com. Accessed 28 February 2007\n\nExternal links \n A comparison of threshold estimation methods in children 6\u201311 years of age\n A Concise Vocabulary of Audiology and allied topics \n Fundamental aspects of hearing\n Equal loudness contours and audiometry \u2013 Test your own hearing\n Online Hearing Threshold Test \u2013 An alternate audiometric test, with calibrated levels and results expressed in dBHL\n Fundamentals of psychoacoustics\n Minimising boredom by maximising likelihood-an efficient estimation of masked thresholds\n On Minimum Audible Sound Fields\n Psychometric Functions for Children's Detection of Tones in Noise\n Psychophysical methods\n Reference levels for objective audiometry\n Response bias in psychophysics\n Sensitivity of Human Ear\n The psychoacoustics of multichannel audio\n Three Models of Temporal Summation Evaluated Using Normal-Hearing and Hearing-Impaired Subjects\n Threshold\n Threshold of Hearing \u2013 equation and graph\n\nAcoustics\nHearing\n\npl:Granice s\u0142yszalno\u015bci#Dolna granica s\u0142yszalno\u015bci","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":52,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2017-13":4,"2023-50":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":1}},"id":297595,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Absolute%20threshold%20of%20hearing","title":"Absolute threshold of hearing","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"20th-century classical music is classical music written during the last century. During earlier periods of music history composers from different countries wrote in styles which were often quite similar. For example, composers in the Classical music period (about 1740-1820) had fairly similar ideas about what forms to use (e.g. sonata form), what instruments should be used in orchestras or how to write good tunes.\n\nClassical music from the 20th century is extremely varied. There are lots of different \"schools\" (meaning: ways of thinking) as lots of composers had their own ideas about how to compose in ways that were different from what had been done before. A lot of these genres (types of music) had names ending in \"ism\": there was serialism, Expressionism, Neoclassicism, Impressionism as well as jazz, world music (music from non-European cultures) and folksong and, later on electronic music and then Minimalism and even post-modernism.\n\nThe names of periods in history were usually given to them many years afterwards. For example, the term Middle Ages was not used until long after the Middle Ages had finished. It is difficult to know what to call the period we live in now. In music people often talk about \"Modern Music\" meaning any music written after 1900. We also talk about \"Contemporary Music\" meaning more or less the same thing (\"contemporary\" means \"things that are happening in our time\", i.e. \"living composers\"). Now that the 21st century has started some musicians are starting to talk about \"20th century music\" (1900-2000) and a period called \"Contemporary Music\" (1975-today).\n\nThis article will discuss classical music written from 1900 to the year 1999.\n\nReaction to Romanticism\n\nMany European composers at the beginning of the 20th century felt that the system of tonality (music in major and minor keys) had been used for so long that it was time to do create a new approach and try something different. Arnold Schoenberg and Igor Stravinsky were two of the most important composers at that time, and they had very different ideas about how to compose music.\n\nSchoenberg's music became very atonal (not in any key). Eventually he developed what he called twelve tone music. This was atonal music which was organized by putting the notes of a musical idea in a particular order which could be changed in many ways during the piece. This way of organizing music is called \"serialism\" (a \"series\" is a \"row of things\"). Many composers were influenced by Schoenberg, especially Alban Berg and Anton von Webern.\n\nStravinsky came from Russia. He was inspired by Russian culture. He wrote some music for a ballet called Rite of Spring. This music was very new. It had very irregular rhythms which the dancers found very difficult to dance to at first. It also used polytonality (being in more than one key at once). Later on Stravinsky was inspired by music from the 18th century. He used it, but made changes to it, adding dissonant notes and strange chords. This is called neoclassicism (\"neo\" means \"new\"). Stravinsky's music seemed to many people to be the opposite of serialism, but in his last years Stravinsky started to use serialism as well.\n\nImpressionism\n\nIn France a movement called Impressionism was popular with painters. Composers were very interested in these paintings. Claude Debussy wrote music which is often called \"Impressionistic\". The ideas of clear tonality (being clear about which key the music is in) are often deliberately blurred. He uses interesting chords just for the sound that they make. He used the whole tone scale and pentatonic scale and was inspired by Javanese music. Maurice Ravel's music is sometimes similar, although he developed his own style.  Later French composers include Olivier Messiaen who used a system of new scales which he called Modes of limited transposition.  He was also interested in music from around the world, and he also used bird song in his music.\n\nLate Romanticism\n\nWhile all this was happening there were some composers who continued to write in a style which was basically Romantic.  Edward Elgar 's music is often described as \"Edwardian\" (from the period of King Edward VII). Other British composers of the time were also inspired by English folkmusic, i.e. Ralph Vaughan Williams, George Butterworth, Roger Quilter and Gerald Finzi. Frederick Delius wrote Romantic music which was also quite Impressionistic. The Russian Sergei Rachmaninoff and the German Richard Strauss continued to write in a Romantic style until their deaths in the 1940s. The Finnish composer Jean Sibelius and the Dane Carl Nielsen wrote great symphonies which were still in a tonal style, and in Italy Puccini was writing operas in a Romantic style, often called \"verismo\" (\"like real life\").\n\nSymphonic tradition\n\nIn Russia, which became the Soviet Union after the 1917 Revolution, composers were not allowed to be experimental. It was difficult for them because they had to please the politicians who told them that their music should reflect \"Socialist realism\" (meaning the workers' struggle against capitalism). The great tradition of writing symphonies continued with Sergei Prokofiev (who spent some time in exile) and Shostakovich (who remained in the Soviet Union).\n\nThe Hungarian composer B\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k developed a modern style influenced by folk music from his country and other East European countries. His music is often quite neoclassical, for example the famous Concerto for Orchestra.\n\nAvant garde experiments\n\nIn the mid-20th century a group of composers known as the \"Darmstadt School\" (because they often met in Darmstadt) continued to write music which was based on serialism. This included Pierre Boulez and Karlheinz Stockhausen. Many of them, including both Boulez and Stockhausen, also experimented with electronic music. The term Avant Garde is often used to describe their music. It means that it expands the limits, or pushes ahead into new ground (literally the \"front guard\", a military analogy). Other American composers were experimental, e.g. Charles Ives and John Cage who is famous for using a \"prepared piano\" (a piano which makes strange sounds because strange objects are put inside it).\n\nJazz influence\n\nIn America jazz was a big influence on classical composers. George Gershwin's music is halfway between jazz and classical. Aaron Copland and Leonard Bernstein used jazz elements in their music. In Europe many composer used ideas from jazz, e.g. Maurice Ravel and Kurt Weill.\n\nMinimalism\n\nAround the 1960s some composers thought that a lot of music was getting too complicated. Music of the avant garde school such as Edgard Var\u00e8se, Elliott Carter, Milton Babbitt was becoming too difficult for people to understand. People found it too mathematical and intellectual. They wanted music with feeling and emotion. A group of composers developed a style called Minimalism which uses music based around a simple idea which repeats itself again and again but gradually changes. Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Terry Riley, John Cage and to some extent John Adams all used minimalist techniques. It was a reaction against music that had become too complicated.\n\nOther paths based on tradition\n\nWhile all these different schools of thought were coming and going there were still some composers who managed to keep to a more traditional path and find new ways to use tonality in their music. The greatest figure in British music was Benjamin Britten who was an eclectic composer (i.e. he took ideas from many different people). Two other great composers were Michael Tippett and William Walton, who each developed their own style. In America there were composers such as Samuel Barber, Roy Harris and Alan Hovhaness. In Germany Paul Hindemith was one of the most important composers. Like Kurt Weill, he often wrote music which had a political purpose, but Weill's music is more jazz-inspired.\n\nSome contemporary composers (alive today) write music which is deeply religious. These include John Tavener and Arvo P\u00e4rt. John Rutter and Bob Chilcott, who write music for choirs which sounds fresh and attractive to new audiences. Other composers have found various ways of creating their own style, e.g. the Scottish composers James MacMillan and Judith Weir and the Master of the Queen's Music: Sir Peter Maxwell Davies. In Russia Sofia Gubaidulina and Galina Ustvolskaya are important voices in the search for new music.\n\nClassical music\nClassical music\nPeriods in music history","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":59895,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/20th-century%20classical%20music","title":"20th-century classical music","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is a technology used to record the presence of an object using radio signals. It is used for inventory control or timing sporting events. RFID is not a replacement for barcoding, but a complement for distant reading of codes.\nThe technology is used for automatically identifying a person, a package or an item. To do this, it relies on RFID tags. These are small transponders (combined radio receiver and transmitter) that will transmit identity information over a short distance, when asked. The other piece to make use of RFID tags is an RFID tag reader.\n\nAn RFID tag is an object that can be applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification and tracking using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader. Most tags carry a plain text inscription and a barcode as complements for direct reading and for cases of any failure of radio frequency electronics.\n\nMost RFID tags contain at least two parts. One is an integrated circuit for storing and processing information, modulating and de-modulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal, and other specialized functions. The second is an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal.\n\nThere are generally two types of RFID tags: active RFID tags, which contain a battery, and passive RFID tags, which have no batteries\n\nUses\n\nRFID systems are used for the following:\n General transport (logistics), tracking a package, parcel; replacing barcodes\n Tracking vehicles for road toll\n Many countries have started using RFID chips in passports\n Making products harder to falsify; currently proposed for drugs\n Tags in clothing, e.g. in Jeans\n Sealing for containers (for the shipping industry). Not required yet.\n Identifying animals; used for tracking pets, but also for research, for example on turtles.\n Keys for vehicles. The vehicle key has an RFID tag inside; only the key with the right RFID tag can start the vehicle (this makes copying vehicle keys harder). Also used for locking\/unlocking vehicles from a far distance.\n Contact-less identity cards, for example to regulate entry into certain areas; also used for ticketing, or public transport\n Transponder timing of sporting events.\n Marking attendance of students \n\nComputer hardware\nData input","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":166730,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-frequency%20identification","title":"Radio-frequency identification","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The United States Marine Corps (also known as USMC) is one of the six branches of the military of the United States in the United States Department of Defense. It was created in 1775 as a special maritime service. Samuel Nicholas founded it. He was the first commissioned officer in the Corps. The birthplace of the Marines is in Philadelphia at the Tun Tavern.\n\nAlthough it is part of the U.S. Naval Service, it is a separate military branch with its own special ranking structure. It also has its own Naval Aviation.\n\nThe Marines have been involved in many conflicts, and had important roles in key battles such as Tripoli, Iwo Jima, Guadalcanal, and Inchon Bay. Every Marine receives infantry training to be ready for battle at all times. Marine Corps training is also known for being especially challenging; at 13 weeks long, Marine Recruit Training is the longest basic training of the six military branches. United States Marines place a large emphasis on morale. This is reflected in their motto, semper fidelis (meaning \"always faithful\"), often shortened to semper fi.\n\nOther websites \n\n United States Marine Corps -Citizendium\n\n \n1775 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2}},"id":31768,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United%20States%20Marine%20Corps","title":"United States Marine Corps","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A punching bag (or British English punchbag) is a sturdy bag designed to be repeatedly punched. A punching bag is usually cylindrical and filled with various materials of suitable hardness.\n\nHistory\n\nPunching bags have been used in martial arts and swordplay for the entire written history of military training. Similar apparatus in Asian martial arts include the Okinawan makiwara and the Chinese mook jong, which may have padded striking surfaces attached to them.\n\nIn martial arts and combat sports\u2014such as karate, taekwondo, and Muay Thai\u2014\"heavy\" bags, standing bags, and similar apparatuses have been adapted for practicing kicking and other striking maneuvers in addition to developing punching technique.\n\nConstruction\nPunching bags are often filled with grains, sand, rags, or other material, and are usually hung from the ceiling or affixed to a stand. Other bags have an internal bladder to allow them to be filled with air or water.  The design of a punching bag allows it to take repeated and constant physical abuse without breaking. The bag must also absorb the impact of blows without causing harm to the user.\n\nTypes\nThere are different types of punching bags, with different names based on their size, use and mounting method. Almost all punching bags are covered with either leather or synthetic materials such as vinyl which resist abrasion and mildew. Canvas can also be used as a bag material where there is lower use and humidity.\n\n \nSpeed bags (AKA, speedballs) are small, air-filled bags anchored at the top to a rebound platform parallel to the ground. Speed bags help a fighter learn to keep their hands up, improve hand-eye coordination, and learn to shift weight between feet when punching. They are also known as speedballs or speed ball bags. They are generally filled with air and fitted around a tight PU-based or leather material. They come in various sizes, ranging from the large  and , midsize ,  and , to the small ,  and . Generally the larger the bag, the slower it is and the more force is required to keep it going. Large bags are used more for building strength and endurance, while smaller bags allow the training athlete to focus on faster hand speed, timing and coordination. Beginners might view this bag more as a \"control bag\", not a speed bag, for they will not be able to punch both quickly and repetitively until they gain control over their swinging force and speed. \n\nA boxer normally hits the speed bag from the front with his or her fists, but it is also possible to use fists and elbows to hit the bag from all around it, including the front, back and sides. In this method the user may perform many diverse punching combinations that create improvised rhythmic accents.\n\nAlthough speed bags are normally hung vertically, recently the additional method of hanging a bag horizontally on a wall has regained popularity. This was very popular during the early twentieth century, specifically the 1920s\u20131940s era. The same punching skills may be used on the horizontal bag that are used when it hangs vertically. A coordination bag is a new type of speed bag that moves unpredictably rather than rhythmically. Additionally, due to the tedious mounting and anchoring necessary when installing a traditional speed bag platform, a portable speed bag platform that installs in a doorway has been created. Designed so that downward pressure stabilizes this portable speed bag platform, it can be installed and removed through a tension system that allows for use in any doorway.\n\nSwerve balls\/floor-to-ceiling balls\/double-end bags are almost the same as speed bags, with the only differences being that the bag' size, shape and material may be different, and that the cable system is attached to both the ceiling and a clip on the floor \u2014 when the boxer makes any strike on the ball, it reacts by swinging fast towards them, the object being to swerve, punch, dodge and improve co-ordination. The harder and faster these bags are hit, the more they rebound and react in different motions and angles, thus giving broader practice to the fighter. Double-floor to ceiling balls which allow for training body-head combinations also exist.\n\nMaize bags or slip bags are not punched with great force, but are used in boxing training to improve the athlete's head motion and ability to evade an opponent's punch, their name deriving from the fact that traditionally they are filled with maize.\n\nA heavy bag is a larger, cylindrical bag, usually suspended by chains or ropes and used for practicing powerful body punches, and can be used to toughen hands or any other limb used to hit the bag.  Heavy bags are for developing power; technique is best learned on the punch mitts or pads. Some variants of heavy bag are a Banana Bag used in Muay Thai, which is longer than a regular heavy bag and is used to train low kicks and knee strikes, and a slim line bag that is thinner than a heavy bag.\n\nFreestanding heavy bags are heavy bags mounted on a weighted pedestal rather than being hung from above. The base is typically filled with sand or water to give more stability to the bag and prevent it from moving around. While they serve the same purpose as hanging heavy bags, they can also be toppled over and used for ground-and-pound practice. Other variations on the standard heavy bag include horizontal suspension from both ends to practice uppercut punches, and non-cylindrical shapes. Freestanding reflex bags (freestanding speed bags) also exist.\n\nUppercut bags began to appear towards the beginning of the 21st century. With so many different variations of bags and training equipment for boxing taking off, the uppercut bag was and is still a common sight in clubs and gyms. \n\nDesigned for uppercut practice, jabbing, curl punching and quick bursts of high and low punching practice, it allows the fighter to punch at different lengths, different speeds and different forces compared to the standard average 4-foot straight PU (polyurethane) punching bags. Some types of uppercut bags: An angle bag a variant of uppercut bag used for training hooks and uppercuts; an uppercut horizontal punching tag, teardrop bag, body snatcher\/wrecking ball bag or bowling pin bag are used for training knees and uppercuts.\n\nA wall bag is a type of bag that is attached to a wall and can be used for training hooks and uppercuts.\n\nBody-shaped training aids such as the modern \"body opponent bag\" are made primarily of synthetic materials, and punching bags are sometimes mounted on a weighted pedestal rather than hanging from above. These bags try to simulate a live opponent while providing an opportunity to practice vital area strikes which are generally unsafe to perform on a sparring partner. These are not considered punching bags in the strict sense, but modern versions of apparatus such as the wooden man apparatus of Chinese Wing Chun, the medieval quintain, and target dummies used in modern bayonet training. Large inflatable balloons with weighted bases are another kind of punching bag, often painted with a picture and sold as a children's toy.\n\nSafety precautions\n\nHeavy bags are typically filled with dense material which have little \"give\" (e.g., packed sand, grains, etc.); in order to avoid injury, hand protection (boxing gloves, bag gloves, training gloves, hand wraps, etc.) is used during practice.\n\nPowerful strikes to the heavy bag are not recommended for inexperienced, or younger athletes (<18 female, <21 male), as risk of sprain, strain, or bone-plate damage may adversely affect bone structures. It is highly recommended to carefully focus strikes to reduce chance of injury (such as boxer's fracture).\n\nSee also\n\nStrength tester machine \u2013 some of these machines utilize a punching bag\n\nReferences\n\nArticles containing video clips\nBoxing\nExercise equipment\nMartial arts equipment","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":152,"dup_dump_count":5,"dup_details":{"2024-30":15,"2024-26":61,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":5,"2024-10":69}},"id":1054825,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Punching%20bag","title":"Punching bag","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Roman legion  was the basic military unit of the ancient Roman army in the period of the late Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. It was roughly equivalent to the modern word division. In the plural, the legions, it may mean the entire Roman army.\n\nA legion was about 5,000 men in several cohorts of heavy infantry (legionaries). It was usually accompanied by attached units of auxiliaries, who were not Roman citizens. They provided cavalry, ranged troops and skirmishers to complement the legion's heavy infantry.\n\nThe size of a typical legion varied during the history of ancient Rome. It had a complement of 4,200 legionaries in the republican period of Rome. In the imperial period, the full complement was 5,500 men split into 10 cohorts of 480 men each. The first cohort was at double strength with 800 men. The remaining 220 were 120 cavalry plus technical staff.\n\nRome did not have a standing army until the reforms of Gaius Marius about 107 BC. Legions instead were created, used, and disbanded again. In the time of the early Roman Empire, there were usually about 25\u201335 standing legions plus their auxiliaries, with more raised as needed.\n\nOrganization\n\nGreek phalanx \nThe development of the early legion may be seen as a Roman version of the Greek phalanx formation. Until the 4th century BC the massive Greek phalanx was the mode of battle. Roman soldiers would have thus looked much like Greek hoplites. Tactics were no different from those of the early Greeks and battles were joined on a plain. Spearmen would deploy themselves in tightly packed rows to form a shield wall with their spears pointing forwards.\n\nRepublic \n\nThere were now three lines of soldiers when in battle formation. Roman soldiers had to purchase their own equipment.\n\nIn the middle of the Republic, legions were composed of the following units:\n\n Equites (cavalry): The cavalry was originally the most prestigious unit, where wealthy young Roman men displayed their skill and prowess, laying the foundation for an eventual political career. In a total of circa 3000 men, (plus the velites that normally enlarged the number to about 4200), the legion had only around 300 horsemen, divided into 10 units (turmae) of 30 men. These men were commanded by decurions. In addition to heavy cavalry, there would be the light cavalry. In battle, they were used to disrupt and outflank enemy infantry formations and to fight off enemy cavalry. In the latter type of engagement they would often (though not always) dismount some or all of the horsemen to fight a stationary battle on foot, an unusual tactic for the time, but one that offered significant advantages in stability and agility in a time before stirrups.\n\n Velites (light infantry): The velites were mainly poorer citizens who could not afford to equip themselves properly. Their primary function was to act as skirmishers \u2013 javelin-throwers who would engage the enemy early in order either to harass them or to cover the movement of troops behind them.\n\n Heavy infantry: This was the principal unit of the legion. The heavy infantry was composed of citizen legionaries that could afford the equipment composed of an iron helmet, shield, armour and pilum, a heavy javelin whose range was about 30 meters. After 387 B.C. the preferred weapon was the gladius, a short sword. Their hobnailed sandals were also an effective weapon against a fallen enemy. The heavy infantry was subdivided, according to experience, into three separate lines of troops:\n The hastati (sing. hastatus) consisted of raw or inexperienced soldiers, considered to be less reliable than legionaries of several years' service.\n The principes (sing. princeps) were men in their prime (late twenties to early thirties).\n The triarii (sing. triarius) were the veteran soldiers, to be used in battle only in extreme situations; they rested one knee down when not engaged in combat. The triarii served primarily as reserves or barrier troops to backstop the hastati and principes. They had long hastae (spears) rather than the pilum and gladius. Thus armed, they fought in a phalanx formation. The sight of an advancing armored formation of triarii legionaries frequently discouraged exultant enemies in pursuit of retreating hastati and principes troops. To fall upon the triarii was a Roman idiom \u2013 meaning to use one's last resort.\n\nEach of these three lines was subdivided into maniples, each consisting of two centuries of 60 men commanded by the senior of the two centurions. Centuries were normally 60 soldiers each at this time in the hastati and principes (no longer 100 men). The mid Republican legion had a nominal strength of about 4500 men.\n\nLater on the legions were made up of 80 strong centuries. Each century had its standard and was made up of ten units of eight soldiers who shared a tent, millstone, a mule and cooking pot (depending on duration of tour).\n\nLate Republic \nThroughout Rome's Late Republic, the legions played an important political role. By the 1st century BC the threat of the legions under a demagogue was recognized. Roman Governors were not allowed to leave their provinces with their legions. When Julius Caesar broke this rule, leaving his province of Gaul and crossing the Rubicon into Italy, he precipitated a constitutional crisis. This crisis and the civil wars which followed brought an end to the Republic and led to the foundation of the Empire under Augustus in 27 BC.\n\nEarly Empire (30 BC-284 AD) \nWith each legion having 5,120 legionaries plus an equal number of auxiliary troops, the total force available to a legion commander during the Pax Romana probably ranged from\n11,000 downwards. The more prestigious legions were stationed on hostile borders or in restive provinces tending to have more auxiliaries. Some legions may have been reinforced with units making the force near 15,000\u201316,000 or about the size of a modern division.\n\nThe legion was commanded by a legate. Aged about thirty, he would usually be a senator on a three year appointment. Immediately subordinate to the legate would be six appointed military tribunes. Five would be staff officers and the remaining one would be a noble heading for the Senate \u2014 originally this tribune commanded the legion. There would also be a group of officers for the medical staff, the engineers, record-keepers, the praefectus castrorum (commander of the camp) and other specialists such as priests and musicians.\n\nLater \nDespite a number of reforms, the legionary system survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and was continued in the Eastern Roman Empire until around 7th century. The Eastern Roman\/Byzantine armies continued to be influenced by the earlier Roman legions, and were maintained with similar level of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization.\n\nCenturions \nCenturions were the glue which held a Roman legion together. They were the full-time professional officers of the Roman army. The basic centurion commanded (usually) 83 men rather than 100. They rose in rank by commanding ever more important centuries.\n\nThe very best centurions were promoted to become centurions in the First Cohort, called Primi Ordines, commanding one of its ten centuries and also taking on a staff role. The most senior centurion of the legion was the Primus Pilus who commanded the first century. Only eight officers in  a full legion outranked him. They were:\nFive tribunes\nThe Camp Prefect\nthe Senior Tribune (second-in-command)\nThe Legate (commander)\n\nRelated pages\n Roman Empire \n Roman Republic\n\nReferences \n History of the Art of War. Vol 1. Ancient Warfare, Hans Delbr\u00fcck\n Roman Warfare, Adrian Goldsworthy\n History of Warfare, John Keegan\n The Roman Army and Greece and Rome at War, Peter Connolly\n The Encyclopedia Of Military History: From 3500 B.C. To The Present. (2nd Revised Edition 1986), R. Ernest Dupuy, and Trevor N. Dupuy.\n War, Gwynne Dyer.\n The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare, Trevor N. Dupuy.\n Flavius Vegetius Renatus, De Re Militari (with English translation on-line)\n Julius Caesar, The Gallic War\n William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.\n The Punic Wars, Adrian Goldsworthy.\n Carnage and Culture, Victor Davis Hanson\n The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation, by Arther Ferrill, 1988\n The Complete Roman Army, by Adrian Goldsworthy\n The Military System Of The Romans, by Albert Harkness\n From the Rise of the Republic and the Might of the Empire to the Fall of the West, by Nigel Rodgers\n\nOther websites \n\n The Roman Military Museum with ancient military equipment\n The Roman Army Page , Gary Brueggeman (pop-up ads)\n UNRV's Roman Military\n Essays on life in the Late Roman Army , troop types  etc. by members of the Comitatus Reenactmen and Living history group.\n The Roman Army at Roman-Empire.net\n Lego V Living History Group in Tennessee\n\nReferences \n\nMilitary of ancient Rome\nArmies","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":64519,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roman%20legion","title":"Roman legion","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Alk\u00e9mi nujul kana prakt\u00e9k protoilmiah kuna nu ngagabungkeun unsur-unsur kimia, fisika, seni, semiotik, m\u00e9talurgi, tatamba, astrologi, tasaup, jeung agama. Udagan umum nu utama para alk\u00e9mis nya\u00e9ta pikeun manggihan cara pikeun ngarobah timah jadi emas. Alk\u00e9mi bisa dianggap mangrupa bibit buit \u00e9lmu mod\u00e9rn kimia nu ngagunakeun rumusan\/aturan m\u00e9tode ilmiah.\n\nAlk\u00e9mi asalna tina kecap basa Arab al-kimiya atawa al-khimiya (\u0627\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0621 atawa \u0627\u0644\u062e\u064a\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0621), nu jigana diwangun tina kecap al- jeung kecap basa Yunani chymeia  (\u03c7\u03c5\u03bc\u03b5\u03af\u03b1) nu hartina \"cast together\", \"pour together\", \"weld\", \"alloy\" jsb. (tina chymatos, \"that which is poured out, an ingot\").\n\nIhtisar \n\nPersepsi umum ka alk\u00e9mis dianggap \u00e9lmuwan palsu nu hayang ngarobah timah jadi emas, nu yakin y\u00e9n sagala zat dijieunna tina opat unsur bumi, hawa, seuneu, jeung cai and dabbled around the edges of mysticism and sihir. From today's perspective, these perceptions have some validity, but if we are to be objective we should judge them in the context of their times. They were attempting to explore and investigate nature before many of the most basic scientific tools and practices were available, relying inst\u00e9ad on rules of thumb, traditions, basic observations, and mysticism to fill in the gaps.\n\nSangkan bisa ngarti alk\u00e9mis, bisa dibantu ku ngabayangkeun kumaha kah\u00e9batan sihir dina ngarobah hiji barang jadi barang s\u00e9j\u00e9nna dina budaya nu teu miboga pangaweruh formal ngeunaan fisika jeung kimia. To the alchemist, there was no compelling r\u00e9ason to separate the chemical (material) dimension from the interpretive, symbolic or philosophical one.  In those times, and even today, a physics devoid of metaphysical insight would have been as partial and incomplete as a metaphysics devoid of physical manifestation. So the alchemical symbols and processes often had both an inner m\u00e9aning referring to the spiritual development of the practitioner as well as a material m\u00e9aning connected to physical transformation of matter. Links between alchemy and the then commonly accepted astrology were also common.  The transmutation of base metals into gold symbolized an end\u00e9avour toward perfection or the highest heights of actual existence, and the division of the world into four basic elements was as much a geometric principle as a geological one. The naive interpretations of some alchemists, or the fraudulent hopes fostered by others should not diminish the undertakings of the more sincere practitioners.\n\nFurther, the field of alchemy evolved gr\u00e9atly over time, beginning as a\nmetallurgical\/medicinal arm of religion, maturing into a rich field of study in its own right, devolving into mysticism and outright charlatanism, and in the end providing some of the fundamental empirical knowledge of the fields of chemistry and mod\u00e9rn medicine.\n\nNepi ka abad ka-18, alk\u00e9mi dianggap salaku \u00e9lmu sacara daria di \u00c9ropa; misalna, Isaac Newton neuleuman seni ieu dina waktu nu cukup lila. Alk\u00e9mis utama s\u00e9j\u00e9nna di \u00c9ropa ny\u00e9ta Roger Bacon, Saint Thomas Aquinas, jeung Thomas Browne. Alk\u00e9mi mimiti nyirorot pamorna dina abad ka-18 ku lahirna kimia mod\u00e9rn, nu nyadiakeun framework nu leuwih precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the universe based on rational materialism.\n\nThe old matter transmutation id\u00e9al of alchemy enjoyed a moment in the sun in the 20th Century when physicists were able to convert l\u00e9ad atoms into gold atoms via a nucl\u00e9ar r\u00e9action. However, the new gold atoms lasted for under five seconds before they broke apart.\n\nAlchemical symbolism has been occasionally used in the 20th Century by psychologists and philosophers. Carl Jung re-examined alchemical symbolism and th\u00e9ory and began to show the inner m\u00e9aning of alchemical work as a spiritual path. Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in post-modern contexts, such as the New Age movement. Even some physicists have played with alchemical id\u00e9as in books such as The Tao of Physics and The Dancing Wu Li Masters.\n\nThe history of alchemy, on the other hand, is a \"respectable\" and vigorous academic field. As the obscure \u2014 hermetic, of course \u2014 language of the alchemists is gradually being \"deciphered\", historians are becoming more  aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the Rosicrucian society and other mystic societies, witchcraft, and of course the evolution of science and philosophy.\n\nSajarah Alk\u00e9mi \n\nNgaran alk\u00e9mi sabenerna ngawengku sababaraha tradisi filosofis nu ngampar ti opat milenia lan tilu benua, jeung deuih kacenderungan basana nu ngarusiah lan simbolik ngahesekeun cukcrukan hubungan sarta silih pangaruhanana.\n\nUrang bisa ngab\u00e9dakeun sahenteuna aya dua leunjeuran, nu kat\u00e9mbong umumna mandiri, sahanteuna dina tahap awalna: alk\u00e9mi Cina, nu museur di Cina jeung wewengkon nu kapangaruhan ku budayana; sarta alk\u00e9mi Kulon, nu puseurna g\u00e9s\u00e9h liwat r\u00e9buan taun antara Mesir, Yunani, jeung Roma, dunya Islam, nu ahirna balik deui ka \u00c9ropah. Alk\u00e9mi Cina raket pisan patalina jeung Taoisme, sedengkeun alk\u00e9mi Kulon ngembangkeun sistim filosofis nu mandiri, kalayan hubungan anu kacida d\u00e9\u00e9tna jeung ageman-ageman nu umum di Kulon. It is still an open question whether these two strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced \u00e9ach other.\n\nAlk\u00e9mi Cina \nWher\u00e9as Western alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine.  The   Philosopher's Stone of Europ\u00e9an alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than it initially app\u00e9ars.\n\nBlack powder may have been the most important invention of Chinese alchemists. Described in 9th century texts and used in fireworks by the 10th Century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spr\u00e9ad to Japan, the Mongols, the Arab world and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe starting with the 14th century.\n\nChinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and to martial arts such as Tai Chi Chuan and Kung Fu (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the Hygienic or Philosophical branches of Taoism, not the Alchemical).\n\nAlk\u00e9mi Hindu \nLittle is known in the West about the character and history of Hindu alchemy. An eleventh century Iranian alchemist named al-Biruni reported that they \"have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them.  They call it Rasayana. It means the art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs, compounds, and medicines, most of which are taken from plants. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age.\"\n\nAlk\u00e9mi di Mesir kuna \nAlk\u00e9mis Kulon sacara umum nyukcruk sasakala senina ka Mesir Kuna. Metallurgy and mysticism were inexorably tied together in the ancient world, as the transformation of drab ore into shining metal must have seemed to be an act of magic governed by mysterious rules. It is claimed therefore that Alchemy in Ancient Egypt was the domain of the priestly class.\n\nKota Iskandariah di Mesir mangrupa puseur \u00e9lmu alk\u00e9mi, and retained its preminence even after the decline of ancient Egyptian culture, through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Hanjakalna, praktis teu hiji-hiji acan catetan alk\u00e9mi Mesir nu salamet. Catetan-catetan \u00e9ta teh, mun memang pernah aya, jigana musna nalika kaisar Diocletian marentah dimusnahkeunana (diduruk) buku-buku alk\u00e9mi sanggeus hasil numpes baruntakna Iskandariah (296), nu geus jadi puseur alk\u00e9mi Mesir. Alk\u00e9mi Mesir utamana dipikawanoh ngaliwatan tulisan filosof (Hellenis) Yunani kuna, nu saterusna kasalametkeun satutasna ditarjamahkeun di jaman Islam.\n\nLegend has it that the founder of Egyptian alchemy was the god Thoth, called Hermes-Thoth or Thrice-Gr\u00e9at Hermes (Hermes Trismegistus) by the Greek. According to legend, he wrote what were called the forty-two Books of Knowledge, covering all fields of knowledge \u2014 including alchemy. Hermes's symbol was the caduceus or serpent-staff, which became one of many of alchemy's principal symbols. The \"Emerald Tablet\" or Hermetica of Thrice-Gr\u00e9atest Hermes, which is known only through Greek and Arabic translations, is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its \u00e9arly practitioners.\n\nThe first point of the \"Emerald Tablet\" tells the purpose of hermetical science: \"in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing.\" (Burckhardt, p.\u00a0196-7). This is the macrocosm-microcosm belief central to the hermetic philosophy.  In other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected by the exterior world (the macrocosm), which includes the h\u00e9avens through astrology, and the \u00e9arth through the elements. (Burckhardt,p.\u00a034-42)\n\nAlk\u00e9mi di alam Yunani \nThe Greeks appropriated the hermetical beliefs of the Egyptians and melded with them the philosophies of Pythagoreanism, ionianism, and gnosticism. Pythagor\u00e9an philosophy is, essentially, the belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from the observations of sound, stars, and g\u00e9ometric shapes like triangles, or anything from which a ratio could be derived. Ionian thought was based on the belief that the universe could be explained through concentration on natural phenomena; this philosophy is believed to have originated with Thales and his pupil Anaximander, and later developed by Plato and Aristotle, whose works came to be an integral part of alchemy.  According to this belief, the universe can be described by a few unified natural laws that can be determined only through careful, thorough, and exacting philosophical explorations. The third component introduced to hermetical philosophy by the Greeks was gnosticism, a belief prevalent in the pre-Christian and \u00e9arly post-Christian Roman empire, that the world is imperfect because it was cr\u00e9ated in a flawed manner, and that l\u00e9arning about the nature of spiritual matter would l\u00e9ad to salvation.  They further believed that God did not \"create\" the universe in the classic sense, but that the universe was cr\u00e9ated \"from\" him, but was corrupted in the process (rather than becoming corrupted by the transgressions of Adam and Eve, i.e. original sin).  According to Gnostic belief, by worshipping the cosmos, nature, or the cr\u00e9atures of the world, one worships the True God.  Gnostics do not seek salvation from sin, but inst\u00e9ad seek to escape ignorance, believing that sin is m\u00e9r\u00e9 ly a consequence of ignorance. Platonic and n\u00e9o-Platonic th\u00e9ories about universals and the omnipotence of God were also absorbed.\n\nOne very important concept introduced at this time, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, \u00e9ach element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. (Lindsay, p.\u00a016)\n\nThe four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our mod\u00e9rn elements are. \"...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form.\"  (Hitchcock, p.\u00a066) Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.\n\nAlk\u00e9mi di Kamaharajaan Romawi \nUrang Romawi ngadopsi alk\u00e9mi jeung m\u00e9tafisik ti Yunani, sakumaha maran\u00e9hna ngadopsi lolobana pangaweruh jeung filosofi Yunani. Dina panungtungan kamaharajaan Romawi, filosofi alk\u00e9mis Yunani ngagabung jeung filosofi hermetik urang Mesir. (Lindsay)\n\nDina mangsa tumuwuhna pangaruh Kristen...\n\nHowever, the development of Christianity in the Empire brought a contrary line of thinking, stemming from Augustine (354-430 CE), an \u00e9arly Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before the fall of the Roman Empire. In essence, he felt that reason and faith could be used to understand God, but experimental philosophy was evil: \"There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily sense, a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh, and this empty curiosity is dignified by the names of learning and science.\" (Augustine, p.\u00a0245)\n\nAugustinian id\u00e9as were decidedly anti-experimental, yet when Aristotelian experimental techniques were made available to the West they were not shunned.  Still, Augustinian thought was well ingrained in medieval society and was used to show alchemy as being un-Godly. Ultimately, by the high middle ages, this line of thought cr\u00e9ated a permanent rift separating alchemy from the very religion that had fostered its birth.\n\nMuch of the Roman knowledge of Alchemy, like that of the Greeks and Egyptians, is now lost. In Alexandria, the centre of alchemical studies in the Roman Empire, the art was mainly oral and in the interests of secrecy little was committed to paper. (Whence the use of \"hermetic\" to m\u00e9an \"secretive\".) (Lindsay, p.\u00a0155) It is possible that some writing was done in Alexandria, and that it was subsequently lost or destroyed in fires and the turbulent periods that followed.\n\nAlk\u00e9mi Dunya Islam \nSAnggeus runtagna Kakaisaran Romawi, fokus kamajuan alk\u00e9mi pindah ka Tatar Arab. Alk\u00e9mi Islam leuwih loba dipikanyaho sabab dokum\u00e9ntasina leuwih had\u00e9: malahan mah, tulisan-tulisan nu leuwih heubeul nepi ka mangsa harita disalametkeun dina mangrupa tarjamah Islam (Arab). (Burckhardt p.\u00a046)\n\nThe Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had alr\u00e9ady been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated.  Islamic alchemists such as al-Razi (Latin Rasis or Rhazes) contributed key chemical discoveries of their own, such as the technique of distillation (the words alembic and alcohol are of Arabic origin), the muriatic, sulfuric, and nitric acids, soda and potash (alkali), and more. The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, could dissolve the noblest metal \u2014 gold \u2014 was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium.\n\nIslamic philosophers also made gr\u00e9at contributions to alchemical hermeticism.  \nThe most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir ibn-Hayyn (Arabic \u062c\u0627\u0628\u0631 \u0625\u0628\u0646 \u062d\u064a\u0627\u0646, Latin Geberus; usually rendered in English as Geber).  He analyzed \u00e9ach Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness. (Burkhardt, p.\u00a029)  Thus, fire was both hot and dry, \u00e9arth cold and dry, water cold and moist, and air hot and moist.  According to Geber, in \u00e9ach metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, l\u00e9ad was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist.  Thus, Jabir th\u00e9orized, by r\u00e9arranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. (Burckhardt, p.\u00a029) By this r\u00e9asoning, the s\u00e9arch for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy.\n\nIt is now commonly accepted that Chinese alchemy influenced Arabic alchemists (Edwards pp.\u00a033\u201359; Burckhardt, p.\u00a010-22), although the extent of that influence is still a matter of debate. Likewise, Hindu l\u00e9arning was assimilated into Islamic alchemy, but again the extent and effects of this are not well known.\n\nAlk\u00e9mi \u00c9ropah Jaman Pertengahan \nku sabab kuatna patali kana budaya Yunani jeung Romawi, alk\u00e9mi kalawan gampang bisa ditarima dina filosofi Kristen, ongkoh para alk\u00e9mis \u00c9ropah Pertengahan og\u00e9 sacara \u00e9kst\u00e9nsif nyerep pangaweruh alk\u00e9mi Islam. Gerbert of Aurillac, nu engk\u00e9na jadi Pope Silvester II, mangrupa di antarana nu munggaran mawa sains Islam ka \u00c9ropah ti Spanyol. Jalma-jalma s\u00e9j\u00e9nna kawas Adelard of Bath, nu hirup dina abad ka-12, mawa pangaweruh s\u00e9j\u00e9nna. Ngan, nepi ka abad ka-13 .... (wah... lieur euy!)\n\nBecause of its strong connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was \u00e9asily accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval Europ\u00e9an alchemists extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge.  Gerbert of Aurillac, who was later to become Pope Silvester II, (d. 1003) was among the first to bring Islamic science to Europe from Spain.  Later men such as Adelard of Bath, who lived in the 12th century, brought additional l\u00e9arning.  But until the thirteenth century the moves were mainly assimilative. (Hollister p.\u00a0124, 294)\n\nIn this period there app\u00e9ared some deviations from the Augustinian principles of \u00e9arlier Christian thinkers. Saint Anselm (1033-1109) was an Augustinian who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine and most th\u00e9ologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context.  His views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. Saint Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle r\u00e9ached the West.  His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's consciousness. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical contradictions. (Hollister, p.\u00a0287-8)\n\nRobert Grosseteste (1170-1253) was a pioneer of the scientific th\u00e9ory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists.  he took\nAbelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations, experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations. Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. (Hollister pp.\u00a0294\u20135)\n\nAlbertus Magnus (1193-1280) and Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy and Christianity.  Aquinas also did a gr\u00e9at d\u00e9al of work in developing the scientific method.  He even went as far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through logical reasoning: this ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that universals were found through divine illumination alone. Magnus and Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical th\u00e9ory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except that these two did little in the way of experimentation.  One major contribution of Aquinas was the belief that since reason could not run in opposition to God, r\u00e9ason must be compatible with theology. (Hollister p.\u00a0290-4, 355)\n\nThe first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon.  His work did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and Galileo's for astronomy and physics. Bacon (1214-1294) was an Oxford Franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to  alchemy. The Franciscan id\u00e9als of taking on the world rather than rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more important than r\u00e9asoning: \"Of the three ways in which men think that they acquire knowledge of things - authority, reasoning, and experience - only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect.\" (Bacon p.\u00a0367) \"Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from general principles would never have discovered.\" (Hollister p.\u00a0294-5)  Roger Bacon has also been attributed with originating the s\u00e9arch for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: \"That medicine which will remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many centuries.\" The id\u00e9a of immortality was replaced with the notion of long life; after all, man's time on \u00e9arth was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on \u00e9arth did not mesh with Christian th\u00e9ology.  (Edwards p.\u00a037-8)\n\nBacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, n\u00e9arly all were members of the clergy.  This was simply because few p\u00e9ople outside the parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived works.  Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method of exploring and developing th\u00e9ology. Alchemy was interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to l\u00e9arn about rationalism. (Edwards p.\u00a024-7)\n\nSo by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Most importantly, the alchemists were all true \nChristians.  They believed in the macrocosm-microcosm th\u00e9ories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (e.g., if one could l\u00e9arn\nthe secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul.) These men believed the philosophers' stone was a substance that was capable of purifying base metals (and thereby  transmuting them to gold) as well as purifying the soul.  They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above,\nand they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written id\u00e9as in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to misl\u00e9ad the uninitiated.  Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated.  Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam.  By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. (Burckhardt p.\u00a0149)\n\nIn the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change. William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the Thomist view of compatibility between faith and r\u00e9ason. His view, widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He could not be limited by human r\u00e9ason. Of course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human r\u00e9asoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.  (Hollister p.\u00a0335) Pope John XXII in the \u00e9arly 1300s issued an edict against alchemy, which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the Art. (Edwards, p.\u00a049) The climate changes, Black plague, and incr\u00e9ase in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general.\n\nAlchemy was kept alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was noteworthy only because he was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times.  Flamel lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the archetype for the next phase of alchemy.  He was not a religious scholar as were many of his \npredecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a gr\u00e9at d\u00e9al of time describing the processes and r\u00e9actions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosophers' stone. (Burckhardt pp.\u00a0170\u2013181)\n\nThrough the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists were much like Nicolas Flamel:  they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth (now believed to be separate things.)  This had only one possible consequence; the cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art and, while many \"true\", that is, inducted, alchemists existed, many new alchemists interpreted the purification of the soul to m\u00e9an the transmutation of l\u00e9ad into gold and pursued this track. These men came to be viewed as magicians and\nsorcerers by the common p\u00e9ople, and were often persecuted for their practices. (Edwards pp.\u00a050\u201375; Norton pp lxiii-lxvii)\n\nTycho Brahe, better known for his astronomical investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory\/res\u00e9arch institute.\n\nOne of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century was named Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. This alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually thought himself capable of summoning spirits.  His influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later y\u00e9ars. Again like Flamel, he did much to change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic. He did keep alive the philosophies of the \u00e9arlier alchemists, including experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic th\u00e9ory, which reinforced the id\u00e9a of alchemy as an occultist belief.  In spite of all this, Agrippa was still a Christian, though his views often came into conflict with the church. Edwardes p56-9; Wilson p.\u00a023-9)\n\nAlk\u00e9mi di Jaman Mod\u00e9rn jeung Renaissance \nAlk\u00e9mi \u00c9ropah tetep lumangsung dina cara kieu nepi ka mangsa medalna Renaissance.\n\nEurop\u00e9an alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the Renaissance.  The \u00e9ra also saw a flourishing of con artists who would would use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to \"demonstrate\" the transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret knowledge that \u2014 with a \"small\" initial investment \u2014 would surely l\u00e9ad to to that goal.\n\nThe most important name in this period is Philippus Aur\u00e9olus Paracelsus, (Th\u00e9ocrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493\u20131541) who cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had accumulated over the y\u00e9ars and promoting the use of observations and experiments to l\u00e9arn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, n\u00e9o-Platonic, and Pythagor\u00e9an philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much Aristotelian th\u00e9ory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically m\u00e9aningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic th\u00e9ories of Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and scorned those who did. (Williams p.\u00a0239-45)\n\nParacelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and wrote \"Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.\" (Edwardes, p.\u00a047) His hermetical views were that sickness and h\u00e9alth in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification  but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. (Debus & Multhauf, p.\u00a06-12)\n\nIn England, the topic of alchemy in that time frame is often associated  with Doctor John Dee (13 July 1527 - December, 1608), better known for his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and general \"scientific consultant\" to  Queen Elizabeth I.  Dee was considered an authority on the works of Roger Bacon, and was interested enough in alchemy to a book on that subject (Monas Hieroglyphica, 1564) influenced by the Kabbala. In the life and writings of John Dee it is possible to see a parallel development to that of Paracelsus, insofar as Dee was also redefining the alchemical and magical traditions by the application of more mod\u00e9rn methodology. Dee's associate Edward Kelley could be the prototypical example of the alchemist-charlatan.\n\nNyirorotna alk\u00e9mi Kulon \nThe demise of Western alchemy was brought about by the rise of mod\u00e9rn science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for \"ancient wisdom\". Although the seeds of these events were planted as \u00e9arly as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred y\u00e9ars, and in fact may have r\u00e9ached its apogee in the 18th century.\n\nRobert Boyle (1627-1691), better known for his studies of gases (cf. Boyles law) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the sun and moon, and the barom\u00e9ter r\u00e9ading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.  (Pilkington p.\u00a011) This approach eventually led to the founding of mod\u00e9rn chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton \u2014 which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations, and rev\u00e9aled the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philospher's stone.\n\nM\u00e9anwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of mod\u00e9rn medicine.  Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body, such as blood circulation (Harvey, 1616), and eventually traced many dis\u00e9ases to infections with germs (Koch and Pasteur, 19th century) or lack of natural nutrients and vitamins (Lind, Eijkman, Funk, et al.). Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry, the new science \u00e9asily displaced alchemy from its medical roles, interpretive and prescritive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the inefectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies.\n\nThus, as science st\u00e9adily continued to uncover and rationalize the clockwork of the universe, founded on its own materialistic metaphysics, Alchemy was left deprived of its chemical and medical connections \u2014 but still incurably burdened by them.  Reduced to an arcane philosophical system, poorly connected to the material world, it suffered the common fate of other esoteric disciplines such as Astrology and Kabalism: excluded from university curricula, shunned by its former patrons, ostracized by scientists, and commonly viewed as the epitome of charlatanism and superstition.\n\nThese develpoments could be interpreted as part of a broader r\u00e9action in Europ\u00e9an intellectualism against the Romantic movement of the preceding century. Be as it may, it is sobering to observe how a discipline that held so much intellectual and material prestige, for more than two thousand y\u00e9ars, could disapp\u00e9ar so \u00e9asily from the universe of Western thought.\n\nTempo og\u00e9: The four humours, Necromancy, Jungian Psychology, Historicism, Physics and Chemistry\n\nTumbu kaluar \n Naskah sumber prim\u00e9r alk\u00e9mi online","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":616,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alk%C3%A9mi","title":"Alk\u00e9mi","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) is a way to keep track of for the purpose of journal articles and books in the life sciences; it can also serve as a thesaurus that makes searching easier. Created and updated by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM), it is used by the MEDLINE\/PubMed article database and by NLM's catalog of book holdings.\n\nMeSH was introduced in 1963. The yearly printed version was discontinued in 2007 and MeSH is now available online only. It can be browsed and downloaded free of charge through PubMed. Originally in English, MeSH has been translated into numerous other languages and allows retrieval of documents from different languages.\n\nReferences\n\nMedical publications","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2021-17":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":387485,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical%20Subject%20Headings","title":"Medical Subject Headings","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Leukemia or leukaemia is a cancer of white blood cells and bone marrow. When a person has leukemia, the body creates too many white blood cells (leukocytes).\n\nThere are many kinds of leukemia. Leukemia is part of a bigger group of diseases, the blood cancers (hematological neoplasms).  Without treatment, leukemia may lead to death within weeks, months, or years. The life of the person depends upon the type of leukemia.\n\nIn 2000, about 256,000 children and adults around the world developed some form of leukemia, and 209,000 died from it.  About 90% of all leukemias are seen in adults.\n\nFour major types of leukemia \nLeukemia can be either acute or chronic.  Acute leukemia usually grows quickly.  Chronic leukemia grows slowly.\n\nLeukemia can also affect two different types of white blood cells. These are lymphoid cells and young granulocyte cells (which are called myelocytes).\n\nFor this reason, all of the different forms of leukemia are divided into four main types:\n Acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) is the most common type of leukemia. It is common in young children but can also be seen in old people.\n Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is usually seen in people over the age of 55. Children almost never have this.\n Acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) is seen more commonly in adults than in children.\n Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) happens mostly in adults.\n\nCauses and risk factors \nThe causes of most types of leukemia are not known. In general, all cancers have a breakdown in the normal way cell division is controlled. Most likely, the different kinds of leukemias have different causes. The known causes account for relatively few cases. Most of the causes are outside our control.\n\nResearchers believe that some things may influence whether a person develops leukemia:\n Exposure to Ionizing radiation\n Exposure to certain chemicals, for example benzene.\n Certain viruses\n Treatment with certain drugs that influence how cells develop; e.g. treatment of a tumor; Chemotherapy\n Certain genetic factors.\n\nViruses that are believed to cause leukemia include:\n Human immunodeficiency virus or HIV\n Human T-lymphotropic virus\n\nFanconi anemia is also a risk factor for developing acute myelogenous leukemia.\n\nTreatment\nMost cases of leukemia are treated with many drugs, which are usually combined into a chemotherapy program. In some cases, radiation therapies or bone marrow transplants are done.\n\nLeukemia inhibitory factor \nLeukemia inhibitory factor, or LIF, is an interleukin 6 class cytokin. It affects cell growth by inhibiting differentiation. When LIF levels drop, the cells differentiate.\n\nReferences\n\nCancer\nBlood disorders\nBlood cells","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":69957,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leukemia","title":"Leukemia","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"This is a list of cities, towns and villages in the ceremonial county of Worcestershire, England. \n\nFor places formerly in Worcestershire, and transferred to other counties between 1844 and 1974, see List of Worcestershire boundary changes.\n\nA\nAb Lench, Abberley, Abberton, Abbots Morton, Aggborough, Aldington, Alfred's Well, Alfrick, Alfrick Pound, Alvechurch, Ankerdine Hill, Apes Dale, Areley Kings, Arrowfield Top, Ashton-under-Hill, Astley, Astley Burf, Astley Cross, Aston Bank, Aston Fields, Aston Somerville, Astwood Bank, Atch Lench, Axborough\n\nB\nBadgers Hill, Badsey, Balsall Heath, Bank's Green, Bank Street, Barbourne, Barnards Green, Barnt Green, Barnettbrook, Bastonford, Batchley, Baughton, Bateman's Green, Baughton, Baylis Green, Baynhall, Bayton, Bayton Common, Beach Hay, Beckford, Belbroughton, Bell End, Bell Heath, Bellevue, Bengeworth, Bentley, Beoley, Berrington, Berrington Green, Berrow, Berrow Green, Berry Hill, Besford, Besford Bridge, Besford Court, Bevere, Bewdley, Bickley, Birch Acre, Birch Berrow, Birchen Coppice, Birlingham, Birts Street, Birtsmorton,  Bishampton, Bittell Reservoir, Blackminster, Blackmore End, Blackpole, Blackstone, Blackwell, Blakebrook, Blakedown, Blakeshall, Bliss Gate, Bluntington, Bockleton, Boreley, Bournes Green, Bournheath, Bouts, Bow Brook, Bowling Green, Bradley Green, Bransford, Branson's Cross, Bredicot, Bredon, Bredon's Hardwick, Bredons Norton, Bretford, Bretforton, Brickfields, Bricklehampton, Bridge End, Broad Alley, Broad Common, Broad Green, Brayswick, Broad Marston, Broadmore Green, Broadwas, Broadwater Down, Broadway, Brockamin, Brockencote, Bromsgrove, Brook End, Broom, Broome, Broombank, Broom Hill, Brotheridge Green, Broughton Green, Broughton Hackett, Brownheath Common, Bryan's Green, Buckbury, Buckridge, Bugle Gate, Burcot, Burlish Park, Bury End, Bushley, Bushley Green\n\nC\nCakebole, Callow End, Callow Hill, Callow Hill,  Camers Green, Carpenter's Hill, Castle Hill, Castlemorton, Catchems End, Catshill, Caunsall, Chadbury, Chaddesley Corbett, Chadwick, Chandler's Cross, Charford, Charlton, Chatley, Chawson, Cherry Orchard, Childs Wickham, Church End, Church Lench, Churchill (near Worcester) Churchill (near Kidderminster), Cladswell, Claines, Cleeve Prior, Clent, Clevelode, Clifton, Clifton-upon-Teme, Clows Top, Cobley Hill, Cofton Hackett, Coles Green, Collett's Green, Collins Green, Comhampton, Conderton, Cookhill, Cookley, Cooksey Green, Copcut, Cow Honeybourne, Cotheridge, Crabbs Cross, Cropthorne, Cross Bank, Crossway Green, Crowcroft, Crowle, Crowle Green, Crown East, Cruise Hill, Cutnail Green\n\nD\nDagtail End, Darbys Green, Dawshill, Dayshouse Bank, Deblin's Green, Defford, Diglis, Dines Green, Doddenham, Dodderhill, Dodford, Dordale, Dormston, Doverdale, Dowles, Dowles Brook, Drakelow, Drakes Broughton, Drakes Cross, Draycott, Drayton, Droitwich Spa, Druggers End, Dudley, Duckswich, Dunhampstead, Dunhampton, Dunley, Dunstall Common\n\nE\nEachway, Eardiston, Earls Common, Earls Croome, Eastham, Eckington, Edgiock, Egdon, Elcock's Brook, Eldersfield, Elmbridge, Elmley Castle, Elmley Lovett, Elms Green, Enfield, Evesham\n\nF\nFairfield, Far Forest, Feckenham, Fernhill Heath, Fingerpost, Finstall, Fladbury, Fladbury Cross, Flyford Flavell, Foley Park, Footrid, Forhill, Foster's Green, Four Pools, Foxlydiate, Franche, Frankley, Frankley Green, Frankley Hill, Frith Common, Frog Pool\n\nG\nGilbert's Coombe, Gilver's Lane, Good's Green, Goom's Hill, Goosehill Green, Gorst Hill, Grafton, Grafton Flyford, Great Comberton, Great Dodford, Great Malvern, Great Witley, Greenhill, Greenlands, Green Lane, Green Street, Greenway, Greystones, Grimley, Grimes Hill, Grimley, Guarlford, Guller's End\n\nH\nHabberley, Hackmans Gate, Hadley, Hadzor, Hagley, Hales Park, Hall Flat, Hallow, Hallow Heath, Ham Green, Hampton, Hampton Lovett, Hanbury, Hanley Castle, Hanley Child, Hanley Swan, Hanley William, Harbours Hill, Hardwick Green, Harpley, Hartle, Hartlebury, Hartlebury Common, Harvington, Hatfield, Hawbridge, Hawford, Headless Cross, Headley Heath, Heath Green, Heightington, Henbrook, Henwick, High Green, Highwood, Hill Croome, Hill End, Hill Furze, Hillhampton, Hillpool, Hill Side, Himbleton, Hindlip, Hinton Cross, Hinton-on-the-Green, Hoden, Holbeache, Holberrow Green, Holdfast, Holly Green, Hollybush, Hollywood, Holt, Holt End, Holt Fleet, Holt Heath, Holy Cross, Honeybourne, Hoobrook, Hook Bank, Hopwood, Horsham, Howsen, Huddington, Hunnington, Hunt End, Hurcott\n\nI\n Illey, Inkberrow, Inkford, Interfield, Ipsley\n\nK\nKemerton, Kempsey, Kendal End, Kenswick,  Kersoe, Kerswell Green, Kidderminster, King's End, King's Green, Kingsford, Kingswood Common, Kington, Knighton-on-Teme, Kinnersley, Knightwick, Knowle Fields,  Kyre, Kyre Green, Kyre Park, Kyrewood\n\nL\nLadywood, Lakeside, Laughern Hill, Leadon, Lea End, Leapgate, Leigh, Leigh Brook, Leigh Sinton, Lem Hill, Lenchwick, Libbery, Lickey, Licky End, Lickhill, Lincomb, Lindridge, Lineholt, Lineholt Common, Linkend, Linthurst, Little Beckford, Little Comberton, Little Eastbury, Little Inkberrow, Little London, Little Malvern, Little Witley, Littleworth, Lodge Park, Long Bank, Long Green, Longdon, Longdon Heath, Longdon Hill End, Longley Green, Longbridge, Longdon, Low Habberley, Lower Bentley, Lower Broadheath, Lower Clent, Lower Howsell, Lower Illey, Lower Moor, Lower Sapey, Lower Strensham, Lower Town, Lower Westmancote, Lower Wick, Lower Wolverton, Lulsley, Lydiate Ash, Lye, Lye Head\n\nM\nMadeley Heath, Madresfield, Majors Green, Malvern, Malvern Common, Malvern Link, Malvern Hills, Malvern Wells, Mamble, Marlbrook, Marsh End, Martin Hussingtree, Martley, Matchborough, Menithwood, Mere Green, Middle Littleton, Monkwood Green, Moons Moat, Moor End, Morton Spirt, Moseley, Mount Pleasant, Murcot, Mustow Green\n\nN\nNapleton, Nash End, Naunton, Naunton Beauchamp, Neight Hill, Netherton, New End, Newbridge Green,  Newland, Newland Common, Newnham, Newnham Bridge, Nineveh, Norchard, Noah's Green, Norchard, North Littleton, North Malvern, North Piddle, Northwick, Norton, Norton, Noutard's Green\n\nO\nOakall Green, Ockeridge, Oddingley, Offenham, Offenham Cross, Old Hills, Old Storridge Common, Oldfield, Oldswinford, Oldwood, Ombersley, Orleton, Overbury\n\nP\nPark End, Park Gate, Pebworth, Pedmore, Pendock, Pensax, Pensham, Peopleton, Perryfields, Pershore, Phepson, Pin's Green, Pink Green, Pinstones, Pinvin, Piper's End, Piper's Hill, Pirton, Pixham, Podmoor, Pole Elm, Poolbrook, Pound Bank, Pound Bank, Powick, Primsland\n\nQ\nQueenhill\n\nR\nRadford, Rainbow Hill, Ramsden, Rashwood, Redcross, Redditch, Rhydd, Rhydd Green, Ribbesford, Ripple, Riverside, Rochford, Rock, Romsley, Romsley Hill, Ronkswood, Ross Green, Rous Lench, Rowney Green, Rubery, Rumbow Cottages, Rushock, Rushwick, Ryall, Rye Cross, Rye Street\n\nS\nSale Green, Saleway, Salwarpe, Sandford, Sankyns Green, Sedgeberrow, Severn Stoke, Sharpway Gate, Shatterford, Shell, Shelsley Beauchamp,  Shelsley Walsh, Shenstone, Sheriff's Lench, Shernal Green, Sherrardspark, Shoulton, Shrawley, Sidemoor, Silver Street, Slideslow, Sinton, Sinton Green, Slades Green, Sledge Green, Smallwood, Smite Hill, Smith End Green, Sneachill, Snead Common, Sneads Green, South Littleton, Spennells, Spetchley, St. Godwalds, St. Johns, St. Michaels, St. Peter the Great, Southcrest, Southwood,  Stakenbridge, Stanbrook, Stanford Bridge, Stanford-on-Teme, Stanklyn, Staple Hill, Stitchin's Hill, Stock Green, Stock Wood, Stockton-on-Teme, Stoke Bliss, Stoke Heath, Stoke Pound, Stoke Prior, Stoke Wharf, Stone, Stonebow, Stonehall, Stonepits, Stoney Hill, Stoulton, Stourbridge, Stourport-on-Severn, Strensham, Structon's Heath, Suckley, Suckley Green, Suckley Knowl, Summerfield, Summerhill, Sytchampton\n\nT\nTanner's Green, Tanwood, Tardebigge, Tenbury Wells, The Bourne, The Burf, The Grove, The Gutter, The Hook, The Hyde, The Lakes, The Rampings, The Walshes, Throckmorton, Tibberton, Timberhonger, Titton, Tolladine, Torto, Trimpley, Trotshill, Trueman's Heath, Tunnel Hill, Tutnall,\n\nU\nUckinghall, Ullington, Uphampton, Upper Arley, Upper Bentley, Upper Broadheath, Upper Broadhead, Upper Catshill, Upper Gambolds, Upper Ham, Upper Haselor, Upper Howsell, Upper Moor, Upper Rotchford, Upper Strensham, Upper Welland, Upper Wick, Upper Wolverton, Upton Snodsbury, Upton St. Leonards, Upton-upon-Severn, Upton Warren\n\nW\nWadborough, Walcot, Walton Pool, Waresley, Warndon, Weatheroak Hill, Webheath, Welland, Welland Stone, West End, West Hagley, West Malvern, Westlands, Westmancote, Weston-sub-Edge, White End, White Ladies Aston, Whittington, Wichenford, Wick, Wick Episcopi, Wickhamford, Wilden, Wildmoor, Willow Green, Winnall, Winyates, Winyates Green, Withybed Green, Witnells End, Witton, Witton Hill, Wollaston, Wolverley, Wood Green, Wood Norton, Woodcote Green, Woodgate, Woodgates Green, Woodmancote, Woodrow, Woodrow, Woodsfield, Woolmere Green, Worcester, Worms Ash, Wribbenhall, Wychbold, Wyre Piddle, Wythall\n\nY\nYarhampton, Yarhampton Cross\n\nSee also\n List of settlements in Worcestershire by population\n :Category:Populated places in Worcestershire\n :Category:Worcestershire-related lists\n List of places in England\n\n \nPlaces\nWorcestershire\nWorcestershire","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":34,"dup_details":{"2023-50":8,"2023-40":12,"2023-23":4,"2022-49":16,"2022-33":13,"2022-21":1,"2021-21":14,"2021-17":7,"2021-10":12,"2021-04":3,"2020-34":5,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1}},"id":1804825,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List%20of%20places%20in%20Worcestershire","title":"List of places in Worcestershire","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Notre Dame de Reims is a cathedral in Reims. It was built in the 13th century. It is not as old as Notre-Dame de Paris or Notre-Dame de Chartres. The building process started in 1211. Most of the works were done in 1275. It was built before the Cathedrals of Strasbourg, Amiens and Beauvais, which are also called Notre Dame.\n\nThe cathedral is one of the best examples of Gothic architecture. It has been a World Heritage Site since 1991. In 2006, about 1.5 million people visited it.\n\nThe Kings of France were crowned in this cathedral. The last coronation ceremony was that of Charles X of France in 1825.\n\nReferences \n\nRoman Catholic cathedrals\nCathedrals in France\nReims\n13th-century buildings and structures\u200e","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":82681,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Notre-Dame%20de%20Reims","title":"Notre-Dame de Reims","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A comet is a ball of mostly ice that moves around in outer space. Comets are often described as \"dirty snowballs\". They are very different from asteroids.  The orbital inclinations of comets are usually high and not near the ecliptic where most solar system objects are found. Most of them are long-period comets and come from the Kuiper belt. That is very far away from the Sun, but some of them also come near enough to Earth for us to see at night.  \n\nThey have long \"tails\", because the Sun melts the ice. A comet's tail does not trail behind it, but points directly away from the Sun, because it is blown by the solar wind.\nThe hard centre of the comet is the nucleus. It is one of the blackest things (lowest albedo) in the solar system. When light shone on the nucleus of Halley's Comet, the comet reflected only 4% of the light back to us.\n\nPeriodic comets visit again and again. Non-periodic or single-apparition comets visit only once.\n\nComets sometimes break up, as Comet Biela did in the 19th century.  Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up, and the pieces hit Jupiter in 1994. Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. Astronomers think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object.\n\nFamous comets \n\nHalley's\nHale-Bopp\nShoemaker-Levy 9\nIkeya seki\n\nHistory of comets \nFor thousands of years, people feared comets. They did not know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. For example, the Bayeux Tapestry shows the return of Halley's Comet and the death of a king. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring famine. During the Renaissance, astronomers started to look at comets with less superstition and to base their science on observations. Tycho Brahe reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his measurements and calculations showed that comets must be six times farther than the earth is from the moon.\n\nEdmond Halley reasoned that some comets are periodic, that is, they appear again after a certain number of years, and again and again. This led to the first prediction of a comet's return, Halley's Comet, named after him.\n\nIsaac Newton also studied comets. He realised that comets make U-turns around the sun. He asked his friend Edmond Halley to publish this in his book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Before Newton said this, people believed that comets go in to the sun, then another comes out from behind the sun. \n\nIn later years, some astronomers thought comets were spit out by planets, especially Jupiter.\n\nAll this new information and research gave people confidence, but some still thought that comets were messengers from the gods. One 18th century vision said that comets were the places that hell was, where souls would ride, being burned up by the heat of the sun and frozen by the cold of space.\n\nIn modern times, space probes have visited comets to learn more about them.\n\nRelated pages\nList of comets\n\nOther websites \nAre Comets Made of Antimatter?","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":142,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":168,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comet","title":"Comet","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The lute is a kind of musical instrument with strings.\n\nThe first lutes were brought to Spain by the Moors. Others may have been brought to Europe from Arabic lands.  The lute is one of the ancestors of the classical guitar.\n\nA lute has an oval-shaped back, made of strips of wood. It has a flat front, with a neck attached to it. Early lutes had four strings or eight sets of two strings. Beneath these strings, there were strings tied to the neck, where the player pressed down to make the notes. These strings were called frets.\n\nThe front part of the body is made of a flat piece of wood, and known as the sound board. It has a beautifully carved hole in the center which is called the rose.\n\nThe lute was at first played by strumming or plucking with a pick. Later they were played with the fingers alone.\n\nDuring the Renaissance, bigger lutes were designed. Most lutes at this time had seven or eight sets of strings. New kinds of lutes were invented. One new kind of lute made in the Renaissance was the theorbo. Another kind was the archlute.\n\nIn European classical music the lute was changed into the harpsichord and the mandolin.\n\nToday there are kinds of lute still being played in Greece, Turkey, and in Arabic-speaking countries. The Renaissance lute is also played today, in western countries, as well as a German lute that is played the same way as a guitar.\n\nPlucked string instruments\nEarly musical instruments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":5}},"id":14231,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lute","title":"Lute","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Eugenics is a social and political philosophy. It tries to influence the way people choose to mate and raise children, with the aim of improving the human species. \n\nEugenics rests on some basic ideas. The first is that, in genetics, what is true of animals is also true of man. The characteristics of animals are passed on from one generation to the next in heredity, including mental characteristics. For example, the behaviour and mental characteristics of different breeds of dog differ, and all modern breeds are greatly changed from wolves. The breeding and genetics of farm animals show that if the parents of the next generation are chosen, then that affects what offspring are born. \n\nNegative eugenics aims to cut out traits that lead to suffering, by limiting people with the traits from reproducing. Positive eugenics aims to produce more healthy and intelligent humans, by persuading people with those traits to have more children.p85 In the past, many ways were proposed for doing this, and even today eugenics means different things to different people. The idea of eugenics is controversial, because in the past it was sometimes used to justify discrimination and injustice against people who were thought to be genetically unhealthy or inferior.\n\nFrancis Galton \n\nModern eugenics was first invented in 1865 by Sir Francis Galton, a British scientist who was the cousin of Charles Darwin. Galton believed that intelligence and talent were hereditary and were passed from parent to their children. Based on this, he thought that people could be bred to be smarter, just like animals were bred to be larger or smaller. Galton thought the best way to do this was to learn more about heredity, and also to tell people that they should only marry people who were smart and strong.  Galton chose the name \"Eugenics\" because it was very similar to the Greek for \"well born\". \n\nGalton developed the idea of eugenics throughout his life. He understood the two types of eugenics, positive and negative eugenics. One problem, which critics brought up, is the difficulty of agreeing on who is a healthy person, genetically speaking, and who is an inferior person. Obviously, opinions differ.\n\nEugenics in Britain and the United States \nThe rediscovery of the scientific work of Gregor Mendel in 1900 led to modern genetics, and an understanding of how heredity worked. Mendel himself experimented on peas, and found that many characteristics of the pea plants, such as their colour or their height, could be turned on and off through heredity like a switch. For example, his peas could be either yellow or green, one or the other. \n\nWhen applied to humans, people thought this meant that human characteristics, like being smart or not, could be influenced by heredity. \n\nAnother line of thought goes like this. During their evolution, humans were subject to natural selection like any other form of life. On average, healthy and intelligent people had a better chance of reproducing. In modern civilisation, however, it often seems that this process does not apply. Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin had discussed this very point, with concern.p70 In countries where statistics were collected, those statistics showed that in many cases the poor had more children than the rich. Also, statistics showed that the total population of some great nations was declining.p73 One startling piece of information was produced by research directed by Karl Pearson, the Galton Professor of Eugenics at University College London, and the founder of the Department of Applied Statistics. The finding was that half of each succeeding generation was produced by no more than a quarter of the previous generation, and that quarter was \"disproportionately located amongst the dregs of society\".p74 \n\nThe evolutionary biologist Julian Huxley was also a supporter of eugenics. He used this argument several times: \n\"No-one doubts the wisdom of managing the germ-plasm [heredity] of agricultural stocks, so why not apply the same concept to human stocks?\"\nThe American historian of science Garland Allen commented :\n\"The agricultural analogy appears over and over again as it did in the writings of many American eugenicists\". \n\nSimilarly, the American geneticist Charles Davenport was a lifelong promoter of eugenics, and wrote one of its first textbooks.Chapter 3 There is no doubt of the support given to eugenics by professional scientists of undoubted repute. \n\nIn the United States, eugenics became a very popular idea in the early 20th century. People thought it would cure society of all of its problems at the time, like crime and poverty, because they thought that all aspects of human behavior were probably hereditary. Very important scientists and politicians supported eugenics, and most thought it was a very progressive and scientific philosophy. \n\nBut some of those who led the eugenics movement used it to justify racism and prejudice. They used eugenics as an excuse to pass laws which to restrict immigration from countries that they did not like, saying that the people in them were genetically \"unfit\". They also passed laws which said that people of different races could not get married to one another. Most importantly, they passed laws which said that people who were thought to have mental illness or mental disability could be sterilised against their will. Under these laws over 60,000 people were sterilised in the United States between 1907 and the 1970s.\n\nToday we know that interpreting statistics of this type is a complex business, and that many of the studies published early in the 20th century have serious flaws. Nevertheless, what stopped the eugenics movement was not better science. It was the realization, after World War II, of the effects of Nazi policies on race in Germany and other countries occupied during the war. Such war crimes were not, of course, advocated by any eugenicist. All the same, there was a common theme. This theme was the growing interest in the rights of individuals as against the rights of the state.\n\nEugenics after WWII \n\nWith the end of the Second World War, forced sterilisation ended in Germany. It was continued in the United States until 1974. The main targets were at first those that were ill or that had some physical or mental disabilities. \n\nOnly in 1985 was a law of the Swiss canton of Vaud abolished. This law allowed for the forced sterilisation of  a certain group of people. It was replaced by a law on the national level, that tells under which circumstances people who are unable to consent, may be sterilised.\n\nEugenics today \nThough there are few people who openly advocate eugenics today, many people wonder what improvements in genetic technologies will mean in the future. \n\nGenetic counselling exists, where parents can get information about their heredity and even prevent the birth of a child if it has a risk of hereditary illness. Some people do not think the issue is so clear, though, and wonder if genetic screening, genetic counselling, and birth control, are all just another type of eugenics. Some people wonder if it is bad because it infringes human dignity. Some people oppose eugenics and genetic counselling for religious reasons. The idea of eugenics is controversial today for these reasons.\n\nMuch of this concern is misplaced. Genetic counselling is not going to change the genetic composition of the human population to any noticeable extent. More relevant is the developing power to identify, and then to change directly, elements of the human genome (genetic engineering). This does have the potential to change the genetic structure of individual children. Long-term it has the potential to make more widespread changes to human populations. At the moment genetic engineering is limited to identifying defects in the foetus (unborn children) and eliminating the defect where possible or adapting the medical treatment for the benefit of the child.\n\nRelated pages \nDesigner baby\nGenetic engineering\nGenetic screening\n\nReferences \n\nEugenics\nControversies","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":29255,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eugenics","title":"Eugenics","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (October 11, 1884 \u2212 November 7, 1962) was the longest-serving First Lady of the United States, holding the post from 1933 to 1945 during her husband President Franklin D. Roosevelt's four terms in office.\n\nShe was also a political leader in her own right. She supported the civil rights movement. After the death of her husband in 1945, she started her career, as an author, speaker and spokesperson for human rights. She became a new role model for First Lady. President Harry S. Truman called her the First Lady of the World, in honor of her many travels to help promote human rights.\n\nRoosevelt received 35 honorary degrees during her life.\n\nEarly life\n\nBackground\nHer birthplace is 56 West 37th Street, New York City, New York. Her parents were Elliott Roosevelt I and Anna Hall Roosevelt. Two brothers followed young Anna Roosevelt. The Roosevelt family was completed with the addition of Elliott Jr. (1889-1893) and Hall Roosevelt (1891-1941). She is a fifth-cousin, once removed of Franklin Roosevelt, who later became her husband.\n\nShe was a favorite niece of Theodore Roosevelt, one of the Presidents of the United States.\n\nHer family was a descendant of Claes Martenszen van Rosenvelt. He had come to New Amsterdam, Manhattan from the Netherlands in the 1640s. His grandsons, Johannes and Jacobus, began two branches of the Roosevelt family. Descendants of Johannes were Roosevelt family of the Oyster Bay, New York. Descendants of Jacobus were Roosevelt family of Hyde Park, New York. Eleanor was a descendant of the Johannes branch. Her future husband, Franklin was descended from the Jacobus branch.\n\nTheodore Roosevelt, one of the Presidents of the United States, was her uncle. He was like a father to Eleanor, the future First Lady. Anna Eleanor liked to use the name Eleanor, using her name as Anna Eleanor only in official papers and for signing bank checks. From her mother side, she was a descendent of William Livingston, a signer of the U.S. Constitution.\n\nChildhood\n\nHer parents died early. After this, her maternal grandmother, Marry Ludlow Hall (1843-1919) raised her. She spent her childhood in Tivoli, New York. Most of her mother's family members tended to look down at her, perhaps because of her plain looks and six-foot tall frame. Even her Hyde Park Roosevelts, including her future mother-in-law, Sara Delano Roosevelt, would remark to her about the Manhattan Roosevelts: \"we got all the looks and the money.\"\n\nIn recent times, allegations have surfaced that in her maternal grandmother's home, she felt insecure. Many male members used to consume a lot of drinks. Once when she was visiting her aunt Bamie Roosevelt (sister of Theodore Roosevelt), she broke down and in tears exclaimed, \"I have no real home.\"\n\nAunt Bamie was very helpful. She tried to find better educational opportunities for her. She arranged that Eleanor go to England for education, and Eleanor readily went.\n\nEducation\nEleanor received encouragement from Bamie Roosevelt, sister of Theodore Roosevelt, to get a good education. She went to London, and started her studies in a girls' boarding school at Allenswood, outside London. She studied there from 1899 to 1902. Mademoiselle Marie Souvestre was her headmistress. Later Eleanor would recall that Souvestre was one of the three main persons to influence her life.\n\nDuring summers, Eleanor visited Europe along with her headmistress, Souvestre. She also studied history, language and literature. She became interested in social justice, and her studies gave her knowledge and confidence to present her views on many issues. One of her great moments at her school at Allenswood was when she made the field hockey team. She was one of the favorite students of the school, and when she returned to the US, the school missed her.\n\nEleanor and FDR\nIn 1902 Eleanor and Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) met when he was a student at Harvard. They dated and got engaged in November 1903. However, FDR's mother was against their marriage. She even sent FDR on a long tour to delay the marriage, and change FDR's mind. However, on St. Patrick's Day (March 17, 1905) FDR and Eleanor married. President Theodore Roosevelt took the ceremonial role of giving the bride away. After the marriage, Eleanor's mother-in-law, continued to advise (and perhaps interfere) in the young couple's life.\n\nAfter her husband's death in 1945, Eleanor Roosevelt continued to live on the Hyde Park Estate in a stone cottage near the main house. The structure originated as a small furniture factory Val-Kill Industries, and was converted to a cottage used by Eleanor and her close friends. The cottage afforded Eleanor a level of privacy that she had wanted for many years, and she considered it her first true home. The cottage is now called the Eleanor Roosevelt Center and hosts many programs that continue her legacy.\n\nFirst Lady\nShe started her role as the First Lady from 1933 with the beginning of her husband's first term as the President of the United States. Eleanor was an active First Lady with her own ideology on many issues.\n\nShe supported the Civil Rights Movement and rights of the African-American. However, her husband needed the support of Democrats of southern states of the USA. Therefore, he was not vocal about the American Civil Rights Movement. Eleanor became his connection to the African-American population instead, helping Franklin Roosevelt to win a lot of votes.\n\nIn 1939, the African-American opera singer Marian Anderson was denied permission by the Daughters of the American Revolution to perform at Constitution Hall in Washington because of her race. Eleanor arranged for Anderson to perform on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, on Easter Sunday, to a live audience of 70,000. Millions of people also listened to the performance on the radio.\n\nWorld War II\nDuring the Second World War, Eleanor Roosevelt remained very active. Once she also co-chaired a committee on civil defense. She visited many places, both civilian and military, to boost war morale. She especially supported African Americans and women.\n\nDuring the Second War, her husband, as the President of the United States, signed an order named Executive Order 9066. This order confined in special camps about 110,000 American citizens of Japanese descent. Eleanor opposed her husband's decision to sign this order.\n\nFor some period, she was earning $1,000 a week for advertising for the Pan-American Coffee Bureau. Eight foreign governments used to support and fund the Bureau. The US State Department tried to cancel the deal, but could not do so.\n\nPostwar Politics\n\nAfter the Second World War, she along with Ren\u00e9 Cassin, John Peters Humphrey and others, drafted a declaration for the United Nations: UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. She also served as the first chairman of the U.N. Human Rights Commission. On 10th December 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the declaration. This made her very famous, and was a great achievement for her.\n\nFor about four decades, beginning from 1920s until her death in 1962, Eleanor continued her association with political matters. She opposed the Equal Rights Amendment. She thought that this amendment would prevent the US Congress from passing other rules for protection of women workers.\n\nRoosevelt was an accomplished archer, and one of the first modern women to participate in the sport of bow hunting. She even wrote using a male name \"Chuck Painton\" about her hunting experiences in a popular hunting magazine of that time, Ye Sylvan Archer. One of Roosevelt's prized hunting trophies had adorned her husband library. It is now a part of the Community Forum Collection of the Smithsonian Institution.\n\nThe Catholic issue\nIn July 1949, her unsure attitude toward American Catholics caused a public debate with Francis Cardinal Spellman, the Catholic Archbishop of New York. Eleanor had written against certain proposals like funding of certain (nonreligious) activities, such as bus transportation for students, of Catholic schools. Spellman pointed out that the Supreme Court had recently upheld such provisions. He also accused her of anti-Catholicism. Most Democrats rallied behind Eleanor Roosevelt and supported her. Spellman came to Eleanor's Hyde Park home to bridge their differences.\n\nIn any case, Eleanor was never as popular among Catholics as her husband. They were also not happy at Eleanor's support birth control movement. They had also resented her prewar (before the Second World War) sponsorship of the American Youth Congress, in which the Communists had been heavily represented, but Catholic youth groups were not represented.\n\nNew York and National politics\nIn 1954, Carmine DeSapio campaigned against Eleanor's son, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr., during the New York Attorney General elections. Franklin (Jr.) lost. Eleanor held DeSapio responsible for her son's defeat. She became disgusted with the political conduct of DeSapio through the rest of 1950s. She, joined with her old friends like Herbert Lehman and Thomas Finletter, succeeded in removing DeSapio from power in 1961.\n\nEleanor Roosevelt was a close friend of Adlai Stevenson. She supported his candidacies in the 1952 and 1956 presidential elections. She backed Stevenson once again in 1960 but John F. Kennedy received the presidential nomination.\n\nIn 1964, Eleanor Roosevelt helped in founding of the 2,800 acre Roosevelt Campobello International Park on Campobello Island, New Brunswick. This followed a gift of the Roosevelt summer estate to the Canadian and American governments.\n\nFamily matters\n\nMother-in-law\nSara Delano Roosevelt was her mother-in-law. Even before Eleanor married FDR, she did not have a good relationship with Sara Delano. Biographers and historians still continue to discuss the issue and the reasons for their difficult relationship. However, in early years of her marriage, Eleanor valued suggestions from her mother-in-law until she herself could develop confidence in domestic matters.\n\nPerhaps Sara wanted great success for her son, FDR, in all matters of life, including marriage. She had always given her affection to FDR to the extent of spoiling him. She even gave costly gifts to FDR and Eleanor's children. Sometimes, Eleanor had problems, which came with such costly gifts of her mother-in-law.\n\nOyster Bay Roosevelts\n\nEleanor always enjoyed the good graces of her uncle Theodore Roosevelt, the main figure of the Oyster Bay Roosevelts. However, she found herself at odds with her cousin Alice Roosevelt. Alice was a daughter of Theodore Roosevelt. Uncle Theodore felt Eleanor's conduct more responsible, socially acceptable and cooperative than his own daughter Alice. Alice was beautiful and highly photogenic, but a rebellious person. Sometimes Theodore Roosevelt would tell her, \"Why cannot you be more like 'cousin Eleanor'?\" These experiences laid a lifelong unhappy relationship between two high-profile cousins.\n\nWith the rise in the political career of FDR, relationships between Eleanor and Oyster Bay Roosevelts became worse. There were comments by \"cousin Alice,\" such as her description of FDR as \"two-thirds mush and one-third Eleanor\". However, at FDR's presidential inauguration in 1933, invitations went to Alice to attend along with her brothers Kermit Roosevelt and Archibald Roosevelt, with whom Eleanor was close.\n\nDeath\n\nIn 1961, all volumes of her autobiography were compiled into The Autobiography of Eleanor Roosevelt. However, it will be printed some 45 years later.\n\nEleanor Roosevelt survived her husband by nearly 20 years. From 1919, she had suffered from bone marrow tuberculosis. It had recurred from time to time.\n\nShe died on the evening of November 7, 1962 at her apartment in Manhattan, New York City from tuberculosis. At the time of her death, she was 78 years old. She lies buried next to her husband, Franklin D. Roosevelt in Hyde Park, New York. People liked her so much that a commemorative cartoon published at the time simply showed two angels looking down towards an opening in the clouds with the caption \"She's here\", since no introduction was needed and people could understand that \"she\" meant Eleanor Roosevelt.\n\nEleanor Roosevelt kept a lifelong strong loyalty with Theodore Roosevelt (\"Uncle Ted\"). Her belongings included her membership card for the Theodore Roosevelt Association.\n\nIn 1968 she received the United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights. After her death, there was an unsuccessful move to award her Nobel Peace Prize.\n\nRelated pages\n Franklin Delano Roosevelt\n Theodore Roosevelt\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Beasley, Maurine H., Holly C. Shulman, and Henry R. Beasley. The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia (2001)\n Eleanor Roosevelt, The Autobiography of Eleanor Roosevelt, Da Capo Press ed., 1992, paperback, 439 pages, , dacapopress.com\n\nOther websites\n\n Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site\n National First Ladies' Library\n The Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute\n Eleanor Roosevelt Biography from Biography.com\n Ervk \n\n1884 births\n1962 deaths\nAmerican activists\nAmerican autobiographers\nDeaths from tuberculosis\nFirst Ladies of the United States\nFranklin D. Roosevelt\nInfectious disease deaths in New York (state)\nPeople from New York City\nRoosevelt family","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":129,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":32594,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eleanor%20Roosevelt","title":"Eleanor Roosevelt","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Twin towns are towns or cities in different countries which are paired to encourage human contact and cultural links.\n\nIn Europe, the pairs of towns are called twin towns, but other languages  say friendship towns or partner towns; in North America and Australasia, the towns are called sister cities.  Brother cities was the name of twinned cities in the old Soviet bloc. \n\nTwin towns often (but not always) have similar populations, industries and other characteristics. Sometimes, even larger areas enter into \"twinning\" agreements, such as that between the provinces of Hainan in China and Jeju in South Korea.\n\nEurope \nThe earliest form of town twinning in Europe was between the German city of Paderborn and the French city of Le Mans in 836, although this was not officially established as a modern town twinning arrangement until 1967.\n\nCoventry, United Kingdom was the first ever city to \"twin\" with another city (Stalingrad, Soviet Union) and hence began the modern practice of twinning. \n\nAfter the Second World War twinning was a way to bring European people into a closer understanding of each other and to promote cross-border projects and peace. \n\nFor example, Coventry twinned with Dresden as an act of peace and reconciliation, both cities having been heavily bombed during the war. Each twin city country is represented in a specific ward of the city and in each ward has a peace garden dedicated to that twin city. \n\nAnother early example of town twinning dates back to 1947 when Bristol Corporation (later Bristol City Council) sent five 'leading citizens' on a goodwill mission to Hanover.\n \nTwinning is more popular in Europe than anywhere else, but the idea has now spread to other continents.\n\nSince 1989, the European Union has had a support scheme for town twinning.  In 2003 an annual budget of about 12 million euros was given to about 1,300 projects.\n\nNorth America \nThe first city in North America to establish a sister city relationship was Toledo, Ohio, United States, with Toledo, Spain in 1931. In 1944, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada  twinned with the Ukrainian city of Odessa, which at the time was part of the Soviet Union. This was to show support and to help the allied port city during World War II.\n\nImages\n\nOther websites \n\n Town-twinning information from the European Commission\n Sister Cities International (cities twinned with cities in the USA)\n Germany and the town twinning movement\n List of UK twin towns \n Toledo Sister Cities International\n Two Toledos Documentary\n Town twinning in Europe's municipalities, towns and regions \n\nDiplomacy\nSettlements","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":185,"dup_dump_count":91,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":4,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":5,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":7,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":5,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":71778,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Twin%20town","title":"Twin town","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A spirit is considered to be the part of a being that is not the body. Other words with the same meanings are soul and ghost. When a body is alive, it has a spirit in it. Death is when the spirit separates from the body. \n\nChristians believe that spirits exist in Heaven or Hell. (See 1 Timothy 3:16, 4:1) \n\nSpiritualists believe that spirits can talk with people, or change things in the world. Many religions forbid communicating with such spirits in any way, (see Leviticus 19:31) but a few include this as part of their practice.\n\nAnother use of spirit means the main purpose or meaning of a sentence or document. For example, the \"spirit of a law\" is the true meaning of the law which the creator wanted. This phrase is often used when the words and sentences of a law could mean more than one thing, but a judge must decide what meaning is correct.\n\nSpirituality","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":5,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":753,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spirit","title":"Spirit","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Disco is a style of music that was most popular from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s, featuring African-American and Latino musicians and audiences, and in private dance parties thrown in the underground gay community of New York. People usually dance to disco music at bars called disco clubs. The word \"disco\" is also used to refer to the style of dancing that people do to disco music, or to the style of clothes that people wear to go disco dancing. Disco music was an up-tempo form of music which included elements of soul, funk and Latin music. It had a strong beat meant for dancing, a steady four-on-the-floor rhythm, and a big bass line, and orchestral instrumentation often included string sections. Disco is dance music too.\n\nDisco was at its most popular in the United States and Europe in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Disco was brought into the mainstream by the hit movie Saturday Night Fever, which was released in 1977. This movie, which starred John Travolta, showed people doing disco dancing. Many radio stations played disco in the late 1970s. By the early 1980s, disco had started to fall out of popularity, and other genres, such as dance, Hi-NRG and post-disco grew in popularity. Nevertheless, disco still exerts an influence on modern day dance music, and still has occasional moments of popularity. Additionally, a different form of disco arose in Europe, known as Euro disco, which obtained some popularity.\n\nDisco music \nDisco music blends R&B with funk, soul and dance music. Disco music usually consists of a singer, electric guitars, synthesizer keyboards, electric bass guitar, and a drummer or electronic drum machine. Disco music is often very simple music, with a strong beat and a strong \"bass line\". Disco music often has many electronic effects.\n\nDisco dancing\nDisco dancing is often sexually suggestive. When people go disco dancing, they usually wear tight trousers, leather shoes or boots, and glittery clothes. Women going disco dancing often wore tight clothes that revealed body parts such as their thighs or the upper part of their chest. Men going disco dancing often opened up the buttons of their shirts to show the upper part of their chest.\n\nDisco clubs\nDisco music is played at disco clubs. In the late 1970s, there were famous disco clubs such as Studio 54 in New York City. Disco clubs have a large dance floor and a large pa system. A Disk Jockey (or \"DJ\") plays records of disco music through powerful amplifiers with a number of high wattage speakers. Disco music was usually played very loud, with lots of low bass frequencies. Disco clubs usually had coloured lights that flashed with the music called scanners, and mirror balls with hundreds of small mirrors, that reflect light onto the dancers and all corners of the room.\n\nDisco culture\nMost people who went disco dancing at disco clubs drank alcohol such as champagne and rum. Many people consumed illegal drugs such as cocaine or marijuana, so that they would become intoxicated. People who went disco dancing often had sex with people that they would meet at the disco club.\n\nNotable musicians \n(Source: All Music)\nBee Gees\nDonna Summer\nVillage People\nSylvester\nAmanda Lear\nAmii Stewart\nAndrea True Connection\nAnita Ward\n\nRelated pages \nFunk\nR&B\nSoul music\n\nReferences \n\nDisco","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":4,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":24920,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disco","title":"Disco","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Parallel ATA is a way to connect storage devices, such as Hard disks, solid-state drives, and CD-ROM drives inside personal computers. The standard is maintained by X3\/INCITS committee T13. \n\nIt used to be called Advanced Technology Attachment with Packet Interface (ATA\/ATAPI). ATA\/ATAPI is the result of a long history of development. It is an evolution of the AT Attachment Interface, which was itself evolved in several stages from Western Digital's original Integrated Drive Electronics interface. As a result, many near-synonyms for ATA\/ATAPI and its previous incarnations exist, including abbreviations such as IDE which are still in common informal use. With the market introduction of Serial ATA in 2003, the original ATA was retroactively renamed Parallel ATA (PATA).\n\nParallel ATA standards allow cable lengths up to only 18\u00a0inches (46\u00a0centimeters). Because of this length limit the technology normally appears as an internal computer storage interface. \nFor many years ATA provided the most common and the least expensive interface for this application. \nAs of 2007, it has largely been replaced by Serial ATA (SATA) in new systems. Older computers based on Parallel ATA are still widely-used in embedded and industrial applications.\n\nOther websites\nT13.org\n\nComputer hardware\nComputer buses","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":129367,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel%20ATA","title":"Parallel ATA","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u0e8a\u0eb8\u0e94\u0e88\u0eb3\u0e99\u0ea7\u0e99\u0ec1\u0ea1\u0ec8\u0e99\u0e9c\u0ebb\u0e99\u0e9a\u0ea7\u0e81\u0ea5\u0ea7\u0ea1\u0e82\u0ead\u0e87\u0ead\u0eb1\u0e99\u0e94\u0eb1\u0e9a\u0e88\u0eb3\u0e99\u0ea7\u0e99\u0ec3\u0e94\u0edc\u0eb6\u0ec8\u0e87. Finite sequences and series have defined first and last terms, whereas infinite sequences and series continue indefinitely.\n\nIn mathematics, given an infinite sequence of numbers {\u00a0an\u00a0}, a series is informally the result of adding all those terms together: a1\u00a0+\u00a0a2\u00a0+\u00a0a3\u00a0+\u00a0\u00b7\u00a0\u00b7\u00a0\u00b7. These can be written more compactly using the summation symbol \u2211. An example is the famous series from Zeno's dichotomy:\n\nThe terms of the series are often produced according to a certain rule, such as by a formula, or by an algorithm. As there are an infinite number of terms, this notion is often called an infinite series.  Unlike finite summations, infinite series need tools from mathematical analysis to be fully understood and manipulated. In addition to their ubiquity in mathematics, infinite series are also widely used in other quantitative disciplines such as physics and computer science.\n\nBasic properties\n\n\u0e84\u0ecd\u0eb2\u0e99\u0eb4\u0e8d\u0eb2\u0ea1 \n\nFor any sequence  of rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers, functions thereof, etc., the associated series is defined as the ordered formal sum\n.\nThe sequence of partial sums  associated to a sequence  is defined for each  as the sum of the sequence  from  to \n.\nBy definition the series  converges to a limit  if and only if the associated sequence of partial sums  converges to . This definition is usually written as\n.\n\nMore generally, if  is a function from an index set I to a set G, then the series associated to  is the formal sum of the elements  over the index elements  denoted by \n.\n\nWhen the index set is the natural numbers , the function  is a sequence denoted by . A series indexed on the natural numbers is an ordered formal sum and so we rewrite  as  in order to emphasize the ordering induced by the natural numbers. Thus, we obtain the common notation for a series indexed by the natural numbers\n.\n\nWhen the set  is a semigroup, the sequence of partial sums  associated to a sequence  is defined for each  as the sum of the sequence   from  to  \n. \n\nWhen the semigroup  is also a topological space, then the series  converges to an element  if and only if the associated sequence of partial sums  converges to . This definition is usually written as\n.\n\nConvergent series\nA series\u2009 \u2211an\u2009 is said to 'converge' or to 'be convergent' when the sequence SN of partial sums has a finite limit.  If the limit of SN is infinite or does not exist, the series is said to diverge. When the limit of partial sums exists, it is called the sum of the series\n\n \n\nAn easy way that an infinite series can converge is if all the an are zero for n sufficiently large.  Such a series can be identified with a finite sum, so it is only infinite in a trivial sense.\n\nWorking out the properties of the series that converge even if infinitely many terms are non-zero is the essence of the study of series. Consider the example\n\nIt is possible to \"visualize\" its convergence on the real number line: we can imagine a line of length 2, with successive segments marked off of lengths 1, \u00bd, \u00bc, etc. There is always room to mark the next segment, because the amount of line remaining is always the same as the last segment marked: when we have marked off \u00bd, we still have a piece of length \u00bd unmarked, so we can certainly mark the next\u00a0\u00bc.  This argument does not prove that the sum is equal to 2 (although it is), but it does prove that it is at most\u00a02.  In other words, the series has an upper bound. Proving that the series is equal to 2 requires only elementary algebra, however. If the series is denoted S, it can be seen that\n\nTherefore,\n\nMathematicians extend the idiom discussed earlier to other, equivalent notions of series.  For instance, when we talk about a recurring decimal, as in\n\nwe are talking, in fact, just about the series\n\nBut since these series always converge to real numbers (because of what is called the completeness property of the real numbers), to talk about the series in this way is the same as to talk about the numbers for which they stand.  In particular, it should offend no sensibilities if we make no distinction between 0.111\u2026 and 1\/9.  Less clear is the argument that , but it is not untenable when we consider that we can formalize the proof knowing only that limit laws preserve the arithmetic operations.  See 0.999... for more.\n\nExamples\n A geometric series is one where each successive term is produced by multiplying the previous term by a constant number.  Example:\n\nIn general, the geometric series\n\nconverges if and only if |z| < 1.\n\n The harmonic series is the series\n\nThe harmonic series is divergent.\n\n An alternating series  is a series where terms alternate signs.  Example:\n\nThe p-series\n\nconverges if r > 1 and diverges for r \u2264 1, which can be shown with the integral criterion described below in convergence tests. As a function of r, the sum of this series is Riemann's zeta function.\n\nA telescoping series\n\nconverges if the sequence bn converges to a limit L as n goes to infinity. The value of the series is then b1 \u2212 L.\n\nCalculus and partial summation as an operation on sequences \n\nObserve that partial summation takes as input a sequence, {\u00a0an\u00a0}, and gives as output another sequence, {\u00a0SN\u00a0} \u2013 partial summation is thus a unary operation on sequences. Further, this function is linear, and thus is a linear operator on the vector space of sequences, denoted \u03a3. The inverse operator is the finite difference operator, \u0394. These behave as discrete analogs of integration and differentiation, only for series (functions of a natural number) instead of functions of a real variable. For example, the sequence {1, 1, 1, ...} has series {1, 2, 3, 4, ...} as its partial summation, which is analogous to the fact that \n\nIn computer science it is known as prefix sum.\n\nProperties of series \nSeries are classified not only by whether they converge or diverge, but also by the properties of the terms an (absolute or conditional convergence); type of convergence of the series (pointwise, uniform); the class of the term an (whether it is a real number, arithmetic progression, trigonometric function);  etc.\n\nNon-negative terms\n\nWhen an is a non-negative real number for every n, the sequence SN of partial sums is non-decreasing. It follows that a series \u2211an with non-negative terms converges if and only if the sequence SN of partial sums is bounded.\n\nFor example, the series\n\nis convergent, because the inequality\n\nand a telescopic sum argument implies that the partial sums are bounded by 2.\n\nAbsolute convergence\n\nA series\n\nis said to converge absolutely if the series of absolute values\n\nconverges. It can be proved that this is sufficient to make not only the original series converge to a limit, but also for any reordering of it to converge to the same limit.\n\nConditional convergence\n\nA series of real or complex numbers is said to be conditionally convergent (or semi-convergent) if it is convergent but not absolutely convergent. A famous example is the alternating series\n\nwhich is convergent (and its sum is equal to\u00a0ln\u00a02), but the series formed by taking the absolute value of each term is the divergent harmonic series. The Riemann series theorem says that any conditionally convergent series can be reordered to make a divergent series, and moreover, if the an are real and S is any real number, that one can find a reordering so that the reordered series converges with sum equal to\u00a0S.\n\nAbel's test is an important tool for handling semi-convergent series. If a series has the form\n\nwhere the partial sums BN\u00a0=   are bounded, \u03bbn has bounded variation, and  exists:\n\nthen the series  is convergent.  This applies to the pointwise convergence of many trigonometric series, as in\n\nwith 0\u00a0< x\u00a0< 2\u03c0.  Abel's method consists in writing bn+1\u00a0= Bn+1\u00a0\u2212 Bn, and in performing a transformation similar to integration by parts (called summation by parts), that relates the given series  to the absolutely convergent series\n\nConvergence tests \n\n n-th term test: If lim<sub>n\u2192\u221e<\/sup> an\u00a0\u2260 0 then the series diverges.\nComparison test 1: If \u2211bn\u00a0 is an absolutely convergent series such that |an\u00a0|\u00a0\u2264 C\u00a0|bn\u00a0| for some number C\u2009 and for sufficiently large n\u00a0, then \u2211an\u2009 converges absolutely as well. If \u2211|bn\u00a0| diverges, and  |an\u00a0|\u00a0\u2265 |bn\u00a0| for all sufficiently large n\u00a0, then \u2211an\u2009 also fails to converge absolutely (though it could still be conditionally convergent, e.g. if the an\u00a0 alternate in sign).\nComparison test 2: If \u2211bn\u2009 is an absolutely convergent series such that |an+1\u00a0\/an\u00a0|\u00a0\u2264 |bn+1\u00a0\/bn\u00a0| for sufficiently large n\u00a0, then \u2211an\u2009 converges absolutely as well. If \u2211|bn\u00a0| diverges, and  |an+1\u00a0\/an\u00a0|\u00a0\u2265 |bn+1\u00a0\/bn\u00a0| for all sufficiently large n\u00a0, then \u2211an\u2009 also fails to converge absolutely (though it could still be conditionally convergent, e.g. if the an\u2009 alternate in sign).\nRatio test: If there exists a constant C\u00a0< 1 such that |an+1\/an|<C for all sufficiently large\u00a0n, then \u2211an converges absolutely. When the ratio is less than 1, but not less than a constant less than 1, convergence is possible but this test does not establish it.\nRoot test: If there exists a constant C\u00a0< 1 such that |an|1\/n\u00a0\u2264 C for all sufficiently large\u00a0n, then \u2211an converges absolutely.\nIntegral test: if \u0192(x) is a positive monotone decreasing function defined on the interval [1, \u221e) with \u0192(n)\u00a0= an for all\u00a0n, then \u2211an converges if and only if the integral\u2009 \u222b1\u221e\u00a0\u0192(x)\u00a0dx is finite.\nCauchy's condensation test: If an is non-negative and non-increasing, then the two series\u2009 \u2211an\u2009 and\u2009 \u22112ka(2k) are of the same nature: both convergent, or both divergent.\nAlternating series test: A series of the form \u2211(\u22121)n\u00a0an (with an\u00a0\u2265 0) is called alternating. Such a series converges if the sequence an is monotone decreasing and converges to\u00a00. The converse is in general not true.\nFor some specific types of series there are more specialized convergence tests, for instance for Fourier series there is the Dini test.\n\nSeries of functions\n\nA series of real- or complex-valued functions\n\nconverges pointwise on a set E, if the series converges for each x in E as an ordinary series of real or complex numbers.  Equivalently, the partial sums\n\nconverge to \u0192(x) as N\u00a0\u2192\u00a0\u221e for each x\u00a0\u2208\u00a0E.\n\nA stronger notion of convergence of a series of functions is called uniform convergence.  The series converges uniformly if it converges pointwise to the function \u0192(x), and the error in approximating the limit by the Nth partial sum,\n\ncan be made minimal independently of x by choosing a sufficiently large N.\n\nUniform convergence is desirable for a series because many properties of the terms of the series are then retained by the limit.  For example, if a series of continuous functions converges uniformly, then the limit function is also continuous.  Similarly, if the \u0192n are integrable on a closed and bounded interval I and converge uniformly, then the series is also integrable on I and can be integrated term-by-term. Tests for uniform convergence include the Weierstrass' M-test, Abel's uniform convergence test, Dini's test.\n\nMore sophisticated types of convergence of a series of functions can also be defined.  In measure theory, for instance, a series of functions converges almost everywhere if it converges pointwise except on a certain set of measure zero.  Other modes of convergence depend on a different metric space structure on the space of functions under consideration.  For instance, a series of functions converges in mean on a set E to a limit function \u0192 provided\n\nas N\u00a0\u2192\u00a0\u221e.\n\nPower series \n\nMany functions can be represented as Taylor series; these are infinite series involving powers of the independent variable and are also called power series. For example, the series\n\nconverges to  for all x.\n\nIn general, a power series is any series of the form\n\nUnless it converges only at x=c, such a series converges on a certain open disc of convergence centered at the point c in the complex plane, and may also converge at some of the points of the boundary of the disc.  The radius of this disc is known as the radius of convergence, and can in principle be determined from the asymptotics of the coefficients an.  The convergence is uniform on closed and bounded (that is, compact) subsets of the interior of the disc of convergence: to wit, it is uniformly convergent on compact sets.\n\nHistorically, mathematicians such as Leonhard Euler operated liberally with infinite series, even if they were not convergent.\nWhen calculus was put on a sound and correct foundation in the nineteenth century, rigorous proofs of the convergence of series were always required.\nHowever, the formal operation with non-convergent series has been retained in rings of formal power series which are studied in abstract algebra. Formal power series are also used in combinatorics to describe and study sequences that are otherwise difficult to handle; this is the method of generating functions.\n\nLaurent series\n\nLaurent series generalize power series by admitting terms into the series with negative as well as positive exponents.  A Laurent series is thus any series of the form\n\nIf such a series converges, then in general it does so in an annulus rather than a disc, and possibly some boundary points.  The series converges uniformly on compact subsets of the interior of the annulus of convergence.\n\nDirichlet series\n\nA Dirichlet series is one of the form\n\nwhere s is a complex number.  For example, if all an are equal to 1, then the Dirichlet series is the Riemann zeta function\n\nLike the zeta function, Dirichlet series in general play an important role in analytic number theory.  Generally a Dirichlet series converges if the real part of s is greater than a number called the abscissa of convergence.  In many cases, a Dirichlet series can be extended to an analytic function outside the domain of convergence by analytic continuation.  For example, the Dirichlet series for the zeta function converges absolutely when Re\u00a0s\u00a0> 1, but the zeta function can be extended to a holomorphic function defined on \u2009  with a simple pole at\u00a01.\n\nThis series can be directly generalized to general Dirichlet series.\n\nTrigonometric series\n\nA series of functions in which the terms are trigonometric functions is called a trigonometric series:\n\nThe most important example of a trigonometric series is the Fourier series of a function.\n\nHistory of the theory of infinite series\n\nDevelopment of infinite series\nGreek mathematician Archimedes produced the first known summation of an infinite series with a\nmethod that is still used in the area of calculus today. He used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of \u03c0.\n\nThe idea of an infinite series expansion of a function was conceived in India by Madhava of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the 14th century, who also developed precursors to the modern concepts of the power series, the Taylor series, the Maclaurin series, rational approximations of infinite series, and infinite continued fractions. He discovered a number of infinite series, including the Taylor series of the trigonometric functions of sine, cosine, tangent and arctangent, the Taylor series approximations of the sine and cosine functions, and the power series of the radius, diameter, circumference, angle \u03b8, \u03c0 and \u03c0\/4. His students and followers in the Kerala School further expanded his works with various other series expansions and approximations, until the 16th century.\n\nIn the 17th century, James Gregory worked in the new decimal system on infinite series and published several Maclaurin series. In 1715, a general method for constructing the Taylor series for all functions for which they exist was provided by Brook Taylor. Leonhard Euler in the 18th century, developed the theory of hypergeometric series and q-series.\n\nConvergence criteria\nThe study of the convergence criteria of a series began with Madhava in the 14th century, who developed tests of convergence of infinite series, which his followers further developed at the Kerala school.\n\nIn Europe, however, the investigation of the validity of infinite series is considered to begin with Gauss in the 19th century. Euler had already considered the hypergeometric series\n\non which Gauss published a memoir in 1812. It established simpler criteria of convergence, and the questions of remainders and the range of convergence.\n\nCauchy (1821) insisted on strict tests of convergence; he showed that if two series are convergent their product is not necessarily so, and with him begins the discovery of effective criteria. The terms convergence and divergence had been introduced long before by Gregory (1668). Leonhard Euler and Gauss had given various criteria, and Colin Maclaurin had anticipated some of Cauchy's discoveries. Cauchy advanced the theory of power series by his expansion of a complex function in such a form.\n\nAbel (1826) in his memoir on the binomial series\n\ncorrected certain of Cauchy's conclusions, and gave a completely\nscientific summation of the series for complex values of  and . He showed the necessity of considering the subject of continuity in questions of convergence.\n\nCauchy's methods led to special rather than general criteria, and\nthe same may be said of Raabe (1832), who made the first elaborate\ninvestigation of the subject, of De Morgan (from 1842), whose\nlogarithmic test DuBois-Reymond (1873) and Pringsheim (1889) have\nshown to fail within a certain region; of Bertrand (1842), Bonnet\n(1843), Malmsten (1846, 1847, the latter without integration);\nStokes (1847), Paucker (1852), Chebyshev (1852), and Arndt\n(1853).\n\nGeneral criteria began with Kummer (1835), and have been\nstudied by Eisenstein (1847), Weierstrass in his various\ncontributions to the theory of functions, Dini (1867),\nDuBois-Reymond (1873), and many others. Pringsheim's memoirs (1889) present the most complete general theory.\n\nUniform convergence\n\nThe theory of uniform convergence was treated by Cauchy (1821), his\nlimitations being pointed out by Abel, but the first to attack it\nsuccessfully were Seidel and Stokes (1847-48). Cauchy took up the\nproblem again (1853), acknowledging Abel's criticism, and reaching\nthe same conclusions which Stokes had already found. Thomae used the\ndoctrine (1866), but there was great delay in recognizing the\nimportance of distinguishing between uniform and non-uniform\nconvergence, in spite of the demands of the theory of functions.\n\nSemi-convergence\n\nA series is said to be semi-convergent (or conditionally convergent) if it is convergent but not absolutely convergent.\n\nSemi-convergent series were studied by Poisson (1823), who also gave a general form for the remainder of the Maclaurin formula. The most important solution of the problem is due, however, to Jacobi (1834),\nwho attacked the question of the remainder from a different standpoint and reached a different formula. This expression was also worked out, and another one given, by Malmsten (1847).  Schl\u00f6milch (Zeitschrift, Vol.I, p.\u00a0192, 1856) also improved Jacobi's remainder, and showed the relation between the remainder and Bernoulli's function\n\nGenocchi (1852) has further contributed to the theory.\n\nAmong the early writers was Wronski, whose \"loi supr\u00eame\" (1815) was hardly recognized until Cayley (1873) brought it into\nprominence.\n\nFourier series\n\nFourier series were being investigated\nas the result of physical considerations at the same time that\nGauss, Abel, and Cauchy were working out the theory of infinite\nseries. Series for the expansion of sines and cosines, of multiple\narcs in powers of the sine and cosine of the arc had been treated by\nJacob Bernoulli (1702) and his brother Johann Bernoulli (1701) and still\nearlier by Vieta. Euler and Lagrange simplified the subject,\nas did Poinsot, Schr\u00f6ter, Glaisher, and Kummer.\n\nFourier (1807) set for himself a different problem, to\nexpand a given function of x in terms of the sines or cosines of\nmultiples of x, a problem which he embodied in his Th\u00e9orie analytique de la chaleur (1822). Euler had already given the\nformulas for determining the coefficients in the series;\nFourier was the first to assert and attempt to prove the general\ntheorem. Poisson (1820-23) also attacked the problem from a\ndifferent standpoint. Fourier did not, however, settle the question\nof convergence of his series, a matter left for Cauchy (1826) to\nattempt and for Dirichlet (1829) to handle in a thoroughly\nscientific manner (see convergence of Fourier series). Dirichlet's treatment (Crelle, 1829), of trigonometric series was the subject of criticism and improvement by\nRiemann (1854), Heine, Lipschitz, Schl\u00e4fli, and\ndu Bois-Reymond. Among other prominent contributors to the theory of\ntrigonometric and Fourier series were Dini, Hermite, Halphen,\nKrause, Byerly and Appell.\n\nGeneralizations\n\nAsymptotic series\nAsymptotic series, otherwise asymptotic expansions, are infinite series whose partial sums become good approximations in the limit of some point of the domain.  In general they do not converge. But they are useful as sequences of approximations, each of which provides a value close to the desired answer for a finite number of terms. The difference is that an asymptotic series cannot be made to produce an answer as exact as desired, the way that convergent series can. In fact, after a certain number of terms, a typical asymptotic series reaches its best approximation; if more terms are included, most such series will produce worse answers.\n\nDivergent series\n\nUnder many circumstances, it is desirable to assign a limit to a series which fails to converge in the usual sense.  A summability method is such an assignment of a limit to a subset of the set of divergent series which properly extends the classical notion of convergence.  Summability methods include Ces\u00e0ro summation, (C,k) summation, Abel summation, and Borel summation, in increasing order of generality (and hence applicable to increasingly divergent series).\n\nA variety of general results concerning possible summability methods are known.  The Silverman\u2013Toeplitz theorem characterizes matrix summability methods, which are methods for summing a divergent series by applying an infinite matrix to the vector of coefficients.  The most general method for summing a divergent series is non-constructive, and concerns Banach limits.\n\nSeries in Banach spaces\nThe notion of series can be easily extended to the case of a Banach space.  If xn is a sequence of elements of a Banach space X, then the series \u03a3xn converges to x\u00a0\u2208\u00a0X if the sequence of partial sums of the series tends to x; to wit,\n\nas N\u00a0\u2192\u00a0\u221e.\n\nMore generally, convergence of series can be defined in any abelian Hausdorff topological group.  Specifically, in this case, \u03a3xn converges to x if the sequence of partial sums converges to x.\n\nSummations over arbitrary index sets \n\nDefinitions may be given for sums over an arbitrary index set I.  There are two main differences with the usual notion of series: first, there is no specific order given on the set I; second, this set I may be uncountable.\n\nFamilies of non-negative numbers \n\nWhen summing a family {ai}, i\u00a0\u2208 I, of non-negative numbers, one may define\n\nWhen the sum is finite, the set of i\u00a0\u2208 I such that ai\u00a0> 0 is countable.  Indeed for every n\u00a0\u2265 1, the set  is finite, because\n\nIf I\u2009 is countably infinite and enumerated as I\u00a0= {i0,  i1,...} then the above defined sum satisfies\n\nprovided the value \u221e is allowed for the sum of the series.\n\nAny sum over non-negative reals can be understood as the integral of a non-negative function with respect to the counting measure, which accounts for the many similarities between the two constructions.\n\nAbelian topological groups \n\nLet a\u00a0: I \u2192 X, where I\u2009 is any set and X\u2009 is an abelian Hausdorff topological group.  Let F\u2009 be the collection of all finite subsets of I.  Note that F\u2009 is a directed set ordered under inclusion with union as join.  Define the sum S\u2009 of the family a  as the limit\n\nif it exists and say that the family a is unconditionally summable.  Saying that  the sum S\u2009 is the limit of finite partial sums means that for every neighborhood V\u2009 of 0 in X, there is a finite subset A0 of I\u2009 such that\n\nBecause F\u2009 is not totally ordered, this is not a limit of a sequence of partial sums, but rather of a net.\n\nFor every W, neighborhood of 0 in X, there is a smaller neighborhood V\u2009 such that V\u00a0\u2212 V\u00a0\u2282 W. It follows that the finite partial sums of an unconditionally summable family  ai, i\u00a0\u2208 I, form a Cauchy net, that is: for every W, neighborhood of 0 in X, there is a finite subset A0 of I\u2009 such that\n\nWhen X\u2009 is complete, a family a is unconditionally summable in X\u2009 if and only if the finite sums satisfy the latter Cauchy net condition. When X\u2009 is complete and ai, i\u00a0\u2208 I, is unconditionally summable in X, then for every subset J\u00a0\u2282 I, the corresponding subfamily  aj, j\u00a0\u2208 J, is also unconditionally summable in X.\n\nWhen the sum of a family of non-negative numbers, in the extended sense defined before, is finite, then it coincides with the sum in the topological group X\u00a0=\u00a0R.\n\nIf a family a in X\u2009 is unconditionally summable, then for every W, neighborhood of 0 in X, there is a finite subset A0 of I\u2009 such that ai\u00a0\u2208 W\u2009 for every i not in A0.  If X\u2009 is  first-countable, it follows that the set of i\u00a0\u2208 I\u2009 such that ai\u00a0\u2260 0 is countable.  This need not be true in a general abelian topological group (see examples below).\n\nUnconditionally convergent series \n\nSuppose that I\u00a0= N.  If a family an, n\u00a0\u2208 N, is unconditionally summable in an abelian Hausdorff topological group X, then the series in the usual sense converges and has the same sum,\n\nBy nature, the definition of unconditional summability is insensitive to the order of the summation.  When \u2211an is unconditionally summable, then the series remains convergent after any permutation \u03c3 of the set N of indices, with the same sum,\n\nIt can be proved that the converse holds: is a series \u2211an converges after any permutation, then it is unconditionally convergent.  When X\u2009 is complete, then unconditional convergence is also equivalent to the fact that all subseries are convergent;  if  X\u2009 is a Banach space, this is equivalent to say that for every sequence of signs \u03b5n\u00a0= 1 or \u22121, the series\n\nconverges in X.  If X\u2009 is a Banach space, then one may define the notion of absolute convergence.  A series \u2211an of vectors in X\u2009 converges absolutely if\n\nIf a series of vectors in a Banach space converges absolutely then it converges unconditionally, but the converse only holds in finite dimensional Banach spaces (theorem of ).\n\nWell-ordered sums \n\nConditionally convergent series can be considered if I is a well-ordered set, for example an ordinal number \u03b10.  One may define by transfinite recursion:\n\nand for a limit ordinal \u03b1,\n\nif this limit exists.  If all limits exist up to \u03b10, then the series converges.\n\nExamples \n\nGiven a function f\u00a0: X\u2192Y, with Y an abelian topological group, define for every a\u00a0\u2208\u00a0X\n\na function whose support is a singleton {a}.  Then\n\nin the topology of pointwise convergence (that is, the sum is taken in the infinite product group YX\u00a0).\nIn the definition of partitions of unity, one constructs sums of functions over arbitrary index set I,\n\nWhile, formally, this requires a notion of sums of uncountable series, by construction there are, for every given x, only finitely many nonzero terms in the sum, so issues regarding convergence of such sums do not arise.  Actually, one usually assumes more: the family of functions is locally finite, i.e., for every x there is a neighborhood of x in which all but a finite number of functions vanish.  Any regularity property of the \u03c6i,\u2009 such as continuity, differentiability, that is preserved under finite sums will be preserved for the sum of any subcollection of this family of functions.\nOn the first uncountable ordinal \u03c91 viewed as a topological space in the order topology, the constant function f: [0,\u03c91) \u2192 [0,\u03c91] given by f(\u03b1) = 1 satisfies\n\n(in other words, \u03c91 copies of 1 is \u03c91) only if one takes a limit over all countable partial sums, rather than finite partial sums.  This space is not separable.\n\nSee also \n\nConvergent series\nConvergence tests\nSequence transformation\nInfinite product\nInfinite expression\nContinued fraction\nIterated binary operation\nList of mathematical series\nPrefix sum\nSeries expansion\n\nNotes\n\nReferences \n Bromwich, T.J. An Introduction to the Theory of Infinite Series MacMillan & Co. 1908, revised 1926, reprinted 1939, 1942, 1949, 1955, 1959, 1965.\n\nExternal links\n\n Graphical simulation of series convergence \n Many example problems on series, with solutions \n Infinite Series Tutorial\n\nCalculus","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":133,"dup_dump_count":44,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":6,"2016-36":6,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":8,"2014-35":7,"2014-23":10,"2014-15":5,"unknown":2}},"id":6133,"url":"https:\/\/lo.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B3%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%99","title":"\u0e8a\u0eb8\u0e94\u0e88\u0eb3\u0e99\u0ea7\u0e99","language":"lo"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Hesperides () are nymphs in Greek mythology. They look after a peaceful garden in the far west of the world. The garden is located near Cyrene (or Benghazi) in Libya or the Atlas Mountains further west. In the Ancient Greek view of the world, this is at the edge of Oceanus, the world-ocean. The nymphs are said to be the daughters of Hesperus.\n\nNymphs","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":63,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":6}},"id":423884,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hesperides","title":"Hesperides","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In Hinduism, a murti (also spelled murthi or murthy) usually means an image in which the Divine Spirit is expressed ('murta'). Hindus call the presence of God into the image so that they can communicate with him and receive his blessings.Hindus don't worship the murti or statue itself but the god who is present in their minds and souls. It can also be set up any where\n\nRole of murtis in worship\nMurtis sometimes are abstract, but almost always stone or metal images of God in a human-like form like Shiva or Ganesha, Rama or Krishna, Saraswati or Kali. Murtis are made according to strict prescriptions and then installed by highly trained priests through a ceremony. The priests can then call on God in the image daily.\n\nMurtis in Hindu  temples and shrines are a mystical form of communication with God and devas. This is similar to our ability to communicate with others through the telephone. One does not talk to the telephone; rather the telephone is a way to interact with another person. Without the telephone, one could not have a conversation across long distances; and without the sanctified image in the temple, one cannot easily talk with the Deity.\n\nGoing beyond murtis in Hinduism\nThe image or murti of worship is a focus for prayers, although Hindus can see God is in all things, in stone and water, fire, air and ether, in the enlightened person of a satguru and inside their own soul. Some temples do not have any murti in the sanctum but a symbolic diagram. Some Hindu branches reject the worship of images.\n\nIn Hinduism, one of the highest achievements is when one goes beyond the need of all form and symbol. This is the yogi's goal obtained through meditation.  Hinduism is also one of the religions that uses more symbols to represent God in preparation for getting beyond them.\n\nSacred images in other religions\nImage worship appears to be an intelligent, mystical practice shared by all of the world's great religions. All religions have their symbols of holiness: the Christian cross, or statues of Mother Mary and Saint Theresa, the holy Kaaba in Mecca, the Sikh Adi Granth enshrined in the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the Arc and Torah of the Jews, the image of a meditating Buddha, the totems of indigenous and Pagan faiths, and the artifacts of the holy men and women of all religions. Any Christian respects the Bible and considers it sacred. His book and the Hindu's murtis are similar in this way. \n\nCritics of image worship consider this practice \"idolatry\". People who practice idolatry believe that God is the material object itself. Instead, Hindus worship murtis to call on the presence of the spiritual God and then communicate with him.\n\nReferences\n\nHinduism\nReligious objects","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":61684,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Murti","title":"Murti","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In the mathematical field of dynamical systems, an attractor is a set of states toward which a system tends to evolve, for a wide variety of starting conditions of the system. System values that get close enough to the attractor values remain close even if slightly disturbed.\n\nIn finite-dimensional systems, the evolving variable may be represented algebraically as an n-dimensional vector. The attractor is a region in n-dimensional space. In physical systems, the n dimensions may be, for example, two or three positional coordinates for each of one or more physical entities; in economic systems, they may be separate variables such as the inflation rate and the unemployment rate.\n\nIf the evolving variable is two- or three-dimensional, the attractor of the dynamic process can be represented geometrically in two or three dimensions, (as for example in the three-dimensional case depicted to the right). An attractor can be a point, a finite set of points, a curve, a manifold, or even a complicated set with a fractal structure known as a strange attractor (see strange attractor below). If the variable is a scalar, the attractor is a subset of the real number line. Describing the attractors of chaotic dynamical systems has been one of the achievements of chaos theory.\n\nA trajectory of the dynamical system in the attractor does not have to satisfy any special constraints except for remaining on the attractor, forward in time.  The trajectory may be periodic or chaotic. If a set of points is periodic or chaotic, but the flow in the neighborhood is away from the set, the set is not an attractor, but instead is called a repeller (or repellor).\n\nMotivation of attractors \nA dynamical system is generally described by one or more differential or difference equations. The equations of a given dynamical system specify its behavior over any given short period of time.  To determine the system's behavior for a longer period, it is often necessary to integrate the equations, either through analytical means or through iteration, often with the aid of computers.\n\nDynamical systems in the physical world tend to arise from dissipative systems: if it were not for some driving force, the motion would cease.  (Dissipation may come from internal friction, thermodynamic losses, or loss of material, among many causes.) The dissipation and the driving force tend to balance, killing off initial transients and settle the system into its typical behavior. The subset of the phase space of the dynamical system corresponding to the typical behavior is the attractor, also known as the attracting section or attractee.\n\nInvariant sets and limit sets are similar to the attractor concept. An invariant set is a set that evolves to itself under the dynamics. Attractors may contain invariant sets. A limit set is a set of points such that there exists some initial state that ends up arbitrarily close to the limit set (i.e. to each point of the set) as time goes to infinity.  Attractors are limit sets, but not all limit sets are attractors: It is possible to have some points of a system converge to a limit set, but different points when perturbed slightly off the limit set may get knocked off and never return to the vicinity of the limit set.\n\nFor example, the damped pendulum has two invariant points: the point  of minimum height and the point  of maximum height.  The point  is also a limit set, as trajectories converge to it; the point  is not a limit set.  Because of the dissipation due to air resistance, the point  is also an attractor.  If there was no dissipation,  would not be an attractor. Aristotle believed that objects moved only as long as they were pushed, which is an early formulation of a dissipative attractor.\n\nSome attractors are known to be chaotic (see strange attractor), in which case the evolution of any two distinct points of the attractor result in exponentially diverging trajectories, which complicates prediction when even the smallest noise is present in the system.\n\nMathematical definition \nLet  represent time and let  be a function which specifies the dynamics of the system.  That is, if  is a point in an -dimensional phase space, representing the initial state of the system, then  and, for a positive value of ,  is the result of the evolution of this state after  units of time.  For example, if the system describes the evolution of a free particle in one dimension then the phase space is the plane  with coordinates , where  is the position of the particle,  is its velocity, , and the evolution is given by\n\n \n\nAn attractor is a subset  of the phase space characterized by the following three conditions:\n  is forward invariant under : if  is an element of  then so is , for all .\n There exists a neighborhood of , called the basin of attraction for  and denoted , which consists of all points  that \"enter\"  in the limit . More formally,  is the set of all points  in the phase space with the following property:\n For any open neighborhood  of , there is a positive constant  such that  for all real .\n There is no proper (non-empty) subset of  having the first two properties.\n\nSince the basin of attraction contains an open set containing , every point that is sufficiently close to  is attracted to .  The definition of an attractor uses a metric on the phase space, but the resulting notion usually depends only on the topology of the phase space. In the case of , the Euclidean norm is typically used.\n\nMany other definitions of attractor occur in the literature.  For example, some authors require that an attractor have positive measure (preventing a point from being an attractor), others relax the requirement that  be a neighborhood.\n\nTypes of attractors \nAttractors are portions or subsets of the phase space of a dynamical system.  Until the 1960s, attractors were thought of as being simple geometric subsets of the phase space, like points, lines, surfaces, and simple regions of three-dimensional space.  More complex attractors that cannot be categorized as simple geometric subsets, such as topologically wild sets, were known of at the time but were thought to be fragile anomalies.  Stephen Smale was able to show that his horseshoe map was robust and that its attractor had the structure of a Cantor set.\n\nTwo simple attractors are a fixed point and the limit cycle.  Attractors can take on many other geometric shapes (phase space subsets).  But when these sets (or the motions within them) cannot be easily described as simple combinations (e.g. intersection and union) of fundamental geometric objects (e.g. lines, surfaces, spheres, toroids, manifolds), then the attractor is called a strange attractor.\n\nFixed point \n\nA fixed point of a function or transformation is a point that is mapped to itself by the function or transformation. If we regard the evolution of a dynamical system as a series of transformations, then there may or may not be a point which remains fixed under each transformation.  The final state that a dynamical system evolves towards corresponds to an attracting fixed point of the evolution function for that system, such as the center bottom position of a damped pendulum, the level and flat water line of sloshing water in a glass, or the bottom center of a bowl containing a rolling marble. But the fixed point(s) of a dynamic system is not necessarily an attractor of the system. For example, if the bowl containing a rolling marble was inverted and the marble was balanced on top of the bowl, the center bottom (now top) of the bowl is a fixed state, but not an attractor.  This is equivalent to the difference between stable and unstable equilibria. In the case of a marble on top of an inverted bowl (a hill), that point at the top of the bowl (hill) is a fixed point (equilibrium), but not an attractor (unstable equilibrium).\n\nIn addition, physical dynamic systems with at least one fixed point invariably have multiple fixed points and attractors due to the reality of dynamics in the physical world, including the nonlinear dynamics of stiction, friction, surface roughness, deformation (both elastic and plasticity), and even quantum mechanics. In the case of a marble on top of an inverted bowl, even if the bowl seems perfectly hemispherical, and the marble's spherical shape, are both much more complex surfaces when examined under a microscope, and their shapes change or deform during contact. Any physical surface can be seen to have a rough terrain of multiple peaks, valleys, saddle points, ridges, ravines, and plains. There are many points in this surface terrain (and the dynamic system of a similarly rough marble rolling around on this microscopic terrain) that are considered stationary or fixed points, some of which are categorized as attractors.\n\nFinite number of points\n\nIn a discrete-time system, an attractor can take the form of a finite number of points that are visited in sequence. Each of these points is called a periodic point. This is illustrated by the logistic map, which depending on its specific parameter value can have an attractor consisting of 1 point, 2 points, 2n points, 3 points, 3\u00d72n points, 4 points, 5 points, or any given positive integer number of points.\n\nLimit cycle \n\nA limit cycle is a periodic orbit of a continuous dynamical system that is isolated. It concerns a cyclic attractor.  Examples include the swings of a pendulum clock, and the heartbeat while resting. The limit cycle of an ideal pendulum is not an example of a limit cycle attractor because its orbits are not isolated: in the phase space of the ideal pendulum, near any point of a periodic orbit there is another point that belongs to a different periodic orbit, so the former orbit is not attracting. For a physical pendulum under friction, the resting state will be a fixed-point attractor. The difference with the clock pendulum is that there, energy is injected by the escapement mechanism to maintain the cycle.\n\nLimit torus \nThere may be more than one frequency in the periodic trajectory of the system through the state of a limit cycle. For example, in physics, one frequency may dictate the rate at which a planet orbits a star while a second frequency describes the oscillations in the distance between the two bodies. If two of these frequencies form an irrational fraction (i.e. they are incommensurate), the trajectory is no longer closed, and the limit cycle becomes a limit torus. This kind of attractor is called an  -torus if there are  incommensurate frequencies. For example, here is a 2-torus:\n\nA time series corresponding to this attractor is a quasiperiodic series: A discretely sampled sum of  periodic functions (not necessarily sine waves) with incommensurate frequencies. Such a time series does not have a strict periodicity, but its power spectrum still consists only of sharp lines.\n\nStrange attractor \n\nAn attractor is called strange if it has a fractal structure. This is often the case when the dynamics on it are chaotic, but strange nonchaotic attractors also exist.  If a strange attractor is chaotic, exhibiting sensitive dependence on initial conditions, then any two arbitrarily close alternative initial points on the attractor, after any of various numbers of iterations, will lead to points that are arbitrarily far apart (subject to the confines of the attractor), and after any of various other numbers of iterations will lead to points that are arbitrarily close together. Thus a dynamic system with a chaotic attractor is locally unstable yet globally stable: once some sequences have entered the attractor, nearby points diverge from one another but never depart from the attractor.\n\nThe term strange attractor was coined by David Ruelle and Floris Takens to describe the attractor resulting from a series of bifurcations of a system describing fluid flow. Strange attractors are often differentiable in a few directions, but some are like a Cantor dust, and therefore not differentiable. Strange attractors may also be found in the presence of noise, where they may be shown to support invariant random probability measures of Sinai\u2013Ruelle\u2013Bowen type.\n\nExamples of strange attractors include the double-scroll attractor, H\u00e9non attractor, R\u00f6ssler attractor, and Lorenz attractor.\n\nAttractors characterize the evolution of a system\n\nThe parameters of a dynamic equation evolve as the equation is iterated, and the specific values may depend on the starting parameters.  An example is the well-studied logistic map,  , whose basins of attraction for various values of the parameter  are shown in the figure. If , all starting  values of  will rapidly lead to function values that go to negative infinity; starting  values of  will also go to negative infinity. But for  the  values rapidly converge to , i.e. at this value of , a single value of  is an attractor for the function's behaviour. For other values of , more than one value of  may be visited: if  is 3.2, starting values of  will lead to function values that alternate between  and . At some values of , the attractor is a single point (a \"fixed point\"), at other values of  two values of  are visited in turn (a period-doubling bifurcation), or, as a result of further doubling, any number  values of ; at yet other values of , any given number of values of  are visited in turn; finally, for some values of , an infinitude of points are visited. Thus one and the same dynamic equation can have various types of attractors, depending on its starting parameters.\n\nBasins of attraction\n\nAn attractor's basin of attraction is the region of the phase space, over which iterations are defined, such that any point (any initial condition) in that region will asymptotically be iterated into the attractor. For a stable linear system, every point in the phase space is in the basin of attraction. However, in nonlinear systems, some points may map directly or asymptotically to infinity, while other points may lie in a different basin of attraction and map asymptotically into a different attractor; other initial conditions may be in or map directly into a non-attracting point or cycle.\n\nLinear equation or system\n\nAn univariate linear homogeneous difference equation  diverges to infinity if  from all initial points except 0; there is no attractor and therefore no basin of attraction. But if  all points on the number line map asymptotically (or directly in the case of 0) to 0; 0 is the attractor, and the entire number line is the basin of attraction.\n\nLikewise, a linear matrix difference equation in a dynamic vector , of the homogeneous form  in terms of square matrix  will have all elements of the dynamic vector diverge to infinity if the largest eigenvalues of  is greater than 1 in absolute value; there is no attractor and no basin of attraction. But if the largest eigenvalue is less than 1 in magnitude, all initial vectors will asymptotically converge to the zero vector, which is the attractor; the entire -dimensional space of potential initial vectors is the basin of attraction.\n\nSimilar features apply to linear differential equations. The scalar equation  causes all initial values of  except zero to diverge to infinity if  but to converge to an attractor at the value 0 if , making the entire number line the basin of attraction for 0. And the matrix system  gives divergence from all initial points except the vector of zeroes if any eigenvalue of the matrix  is positive; but if all the eigenvalues are negative the vector of zeroes is an attractor whose basin of attraction is the entire phase space.\n\nNonlinear equation or system\n\nEquations or systems that are nonlinear can give rise to a richer variety of behavior than can linear systems. One example is Newton's method of iterating to a root of a nonlinear expression. If the expression has more than one real root, some starting points for the iterative algorithm will lead to one of the roots asymptotically, and other starting points will lead to another. The basins of attraction for the expression's roots are generally not simple\u2014it is not simply that the points nearest one root all map there, giving a basin of attraction consisting of nearby points. The basins of attraction can be infinite in number and arbitrarily small. For example, for the function , the following initial conditions are in successive basins of attraction:\n\n2.35287527 converges to 4;\n2.35284172 converges to \u22123;\n2.35283735 converges to 4;\n2.352836327 converges to \u22123;\n2.352836323 converges to 1.\n\nNewton's method can also be applied to complex functions to find their roots. Each root has a basin of attraction in the complex plane; these basins can be mapped as in the image shown. As can be seen, the combined basin of attraction for a particular root can have many disconnected regions. For many complex functions, the boundaries of the basins of attraction are fractals.\n\nPartial differential equations \nParabolic partial differential equations may have finite-dimensional attractors.  The diffusive part of the equation damps higher frequencies and in some cases leads to a global attractor. The Ginzburg\u2013Landau, the Kuramoto\u2013Sivashinsky, and the two-dimensional, forced Navier\u2013Stokes equations are all known to have global attractors of finite dimension.\n\nFor the three-dimensional, incompressible Navier\u2013Stokes equation with periodic boundary conditions, if it has a global attractor, then this attractor will be of finite dimensions.\n\nSee also \n\n Cycle detection\n Hyperbolic set\n Stable manifold\n Steady state\n Wada basin\n Hidden oscillation\n R\u00f6ssler attractor\n Stable distribution\n Convergent evolution\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Edward N. Lorenz (1996) The Essence of Chaos \n James Gleick (1988) Chaos: Making a New Science\n\nExternal links \n Basin of attraction on Scholarpedia\n A gallery of trigonometric strange attractors\n Double scroll attractor Chua's circuit simulation\n A gallery of polynomial strange attractors\n Chaoscope, a 3D Strange Attractor rendering freeware\n Research abstract and software laboratory \n Online strange attractors generator\n Interactive trigonometric attractors generator\n Economic attractor\n\nLimit sets","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":177,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":4,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":4,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":4,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":7,"2016-36":6,"2016-30":4,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":6,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":6,"2015-27":7,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":5,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":9}},"id":191094,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attractor","title":"Attractor","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The North Sea is a sea that is part of the Atlantic Ocean in northern Europe. The North Sea is between Norway and Denmark in the east, Scotland and England in the west, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and France in the south.\n\nBorders \nThe Skagerrak connects the North Sea to the Baltic Sea. In the south, the North Sea becomes the English Channel, a sea between England and France. This is called the Dover Straits and is very busy with ships.\n\nThe border between the North Sea and the Skagerrak is at an imagined line between Lindesnes in Norway, and Hanstholm in Denmark. In the North, the North sea is open towards the Atlantic. The border between the two is an imagined line from Northern Scotland, to Shetland, and then to \u00c5lesund in Norway. According to the Oslo-Paris Treaty of 1962 it is a bit more to the west and the north though. The treaty puts it at 5\u00b0 East longitude, and 62\u00b0 North latitude. That is at the parallel of the Geirangerfjord in Norway.\n\nOther facts \nOn average, the North Sea has a depth of only 94 meters. About 80 million people live near the North Sea, at most 150\u00a0km away from the coast. Together with the English Channel in the south, the southern North Sea is the busiest body of water in the world.\n\nRivers that drain into it \nWell-known rivers that drain into the North Sea include the Tay (at Dundee), the Forth (at Edinburgh), the Tyne (South Shields), the Wear (at Sunderland),  the Tees (near Middlesbrough),  the Elbe (at Cuxhaven), the Weser (at Bremerhaven), the Rhine and Meuse or Maas (at Rotterdam), the Scheldt (at Flushing or Vlissingen), the Thames, and the Humber (at Hull), and the river Nairn (at Nairn)\n\nThe Kiel Canal, one of the world's busiest artificial waterways, connects the North Sea with the Baltic.\n\nName \nIts name comes from its relationship to the land of the Frisians (see Frisia). They live directly to the south of the North Sea, and to the west of the East Sea (Oostzee, the Baltic Sea), the former South Sea (Zuiderzee, today's IJsselmeer) and the today reclaimed Middle Sea (Middelzee). But the spread of the name could also be from the view of the cities of the Hanseatic League. Some of its main cities, like L\u00fcbeck, Bremen or Hamburg had the same view.\n\nIn classical times this body of water was also called the Oceanum Germanicum or Mare Germanicum, meaning German Ocean or Sea. This name was commonly used in English and other languages along with the name North Sea, until the early eighteenth century. By the late nineteenth century, German Sea was a rare, scholarly usage even in Germany. In Danish the North Sea is also named Vesterhavet (besides Nords\u00f8en), meaning Western Ocean because it is west of Denmark.\n\nGeographic divisions \n\nMost of the North sea is on the European Continental shelf. On average, the depth is about 93 to 94 meters only. In the south it is very shallow, only 25 to 35 meters. In the north in the bathyal zone north of Shetland, this depth increases to between 100 and 200 metres. In the south, the depth is at most 50 metres. An exception to this is the Norwegian Trench. It is deepest there, with a depth of 725 metres. The most shallow part of it is a sand bank called Dogger Bank. In the southern part, there are many sand banks.\n\nLooking at the satellite picture it is easy to see the geographic divisions of the North Sea:\na generally shallow southern North Sea\nthe central North Sea\n the northern North Sea, with the Norwegian Trench, near the Skagerrak.\n\nThe southern north sea is composed of the Southern Bight, before the coast of Belgium and the Netherlands and the German Bight before the coastline of Germany. The Dogger Bank is the limit between the southern and central parts. The Waddenzee runs all the way from Den Helder in the Netherlands to Esbjerg in Denmark.\n\nThe Dogger Bank covers an area about half the size of the Netherlands. There, the North Sea has a depth of between 13 and 20 metres only. The area is very famous for fishing. With some storms there are even waves breaking there.\n\nThe Norwegian Trench has an average depth of around 250 to 300 metres; at the entrance to the Skagerrak, the depth increases up to 725 meters. Along the trench is the Norwegian Current, which brings most of the waters of the North Sea into the Atlantic Ocean. Also, most of the waters of the Baltic Sea flow northwards here.\n\nAbout 200\u00a0km east of the Scottish city of Dundee there are more trenches, known collectively as the Devil's hole. Generally, the water is about 90 meters deep there. The trenches very often are only a few kilometers in length. In these trenches, the depth increases to up to 230 meters.\n\nIn the Dover Strait the water is about 30 meters deep. At the end of the English Channel, this depth increases to about 100 meters.\n\nHistory \nIn the last ice age the North Sea was covered by large areas of ice called glaciers. About 20,000 years ago the ice melted and the North Sea was formed (made).\n\nNorth Sea oil \nIn the 1960s, geologists found large areas of oil and natural gas under the North Sea. Most of the oil fields are owned by the United Kingdom and Norway but some belong to Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany. Drilling began in the 1960s and led to a famous argument between the UK Government and Scottish Nationalists how the revenue (money) from the oil should be spent.\n\nAnimal life \n\nPeople have been fishing in the North Sea for thousands of years. However, so many fish are now caught there that new ones may not be able to grow fast enough to keep the fishery going.\n\nTerns, Atlantic puffins, razorbills, kittiwakes and other seabirds live on the North Sea coast. Many coastal areas are protected nature reserves.\n\nOther websites\n\nNorth Sea","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":6308,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/North%20Sea","title":"North Sea","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Andrew Carnegie (,  ; November 25, 1835August 11, 1919) was an American industrialist and philanthropist. Carnegie led the expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century and became one of the richest Americans in history. He became a leading philanthropist in the United States, Great Britain, and the British Empire. During the last 18 years of his life, he gave away around $350 million (roughly $\u00a0billion in ), almost 90 percent of his fortune, to charities, foundations and universities. His 1889 article proclaiming \"The Gospel of Wealth\" called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, expressed support for progressive taxation and an estate tax, and stimulated a wave of philanthropy.\n\nCarnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland and emigrated to Pittsburgh, United States with his parents in 1848 at the age of 12. Carnegie started work as a telegrapher, and by the 1860s had investments in railroads, railroad sleeping cars, bridges, and oil derricks. He accumulated further wealth as a bond salesman, raising money for American enterprise in Europe. He built Pittsburgh's Carnegie Steel Company, which he sold to J. P. Morgan in 1901 for $303,450,000 (equal to $ today); it formed the basis of the U.S. Steel Corporation. After selling Carnegie Steel, he surpassed John D. Rockefeller as the richest American of the time.\n\nCarnegie devoted the remainder of his life to large-scale philanthropy, with special emphasis on building local libraries, world peace, education, and scientific research. He funded the Carnegie Hall in New York City, the Peace Palace in The Hague, founded the Carnegie Corporation of New York, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, Carnegie Hero Fund, Carnegie Mellon University, and the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, among others.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life\n\nAndrew Carnegie was born to Margaret Morrison Carnegie and William Carnegie in Dunfermline, Scotland, in a typical weaver's cottage with only one main room, consisting of half the ground floor, which was shared with the neighboring weaver's family. The main room served as a living room, dining room and bedroom. He was named after his paternal grandfather. In 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street (opposite Reid's Park), following the demand for more heavy damask, from which his father benefited. He was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline, a gift to the town from the philanthropist Adam Rolland of Gask.\n\nCarnegie's maternal uncle, Scottish political leader George Lauder Sr., deeply influenced him as a boy by introducing him to Robert Burns' writings and historical Scottish heroes such as Robert the Bruce, William Wallace, and Rob Roy. Lauder's son, also named George Lauder, grew up with Carnegie and became his business partner. When Carnegie was 12, his father had fallen on tough times as a handloom weaver. Making matters worse, the country was in starvation. His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother and by selling potted meats at her \"sweetie shop\", leaving her as the primary breadwinner. Struggling to make ends meet, the Carnegies then decided to borrow money from George Lauder, Sr. and move to Allegheny, Pennsylvania, in the United States in 1848 for the prospect of a better life. Carnegie's migration to America would be his second journey outside Dunfermline\u2014the first being an outing to Edinburgh to see Queen Victoria.\n\nIn September 1848, Carnegie arrived with his family in Allegheny. Carnegie's father struggled to sell his product on his own. Eventually, the father and son both received job offers at the same Scottish-owned cotton mill, Anchor Cotton Mills. Carnegie's first job in 1848 was as a bobbin boy, changing spools of thread in a cotton mill 12 hours a day, 6 days a week in a Pittsburgh cotton factory. His starting wage was $1.20 per week ($ by  inflation).\n\nHis father quit his position at the cotton mill soon after, returning to his loom and removing him as breadwinner once again. But Carnegie attracted the attention of John Hay, a Scottish manufacturer of bobbins, who offered him a job for $2.00 per week ($ by  inflation). In his autobiography, Carnegie writes about the hardships he had to endure with this new job.\n\nTelegraph\n\nIn 1849, Carnegie became a telegraph messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week ($ by  inflation) following the recommendation of his uncle. He was a hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburgh's businesses and the faces of important men. He made many connections this way. He also paid close attention to his work and quickly learned to distinguish the different sounds the incoming telegraph signals produced. He developed the ability to translate signals by ear, without using the paper slip, and within a year was promoted to an operator. Carnegie's education and passion for reading were given a boost by Colonel James Anderson, who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night. Carnegie was a consistent borrower and a \"self-made man\" in both his economic development and his intellectual and cultural development. He was so grateful to Colonel Anderson for the use of his library that he \"resolved, if ever wealth came to me, [to see to it] that other poor boys might receive opportunities similar to those for which we were indebted to the nobleman\". His capacity, his willingness for hard work, his perseverance and his alertness soon brought him opportunities.\n\nRailroads\nStarting in 1853, when Carnegie was around 18 years old, Thomas A. Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad employed him as a secretary\/telegraph operator at a salary of $4.00 per week ($ by  inflation). Carnegie accepted the job with the railroad as he saw more prospects for career growth and experience there than with the telegraph company. At age 24, Scott asked Carnegie if he could handle being superintendent of the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad. On December 1, 1859, Carnegie officially became superintendent of the Western Division. Carnegie then hired his sixteen-year-old brother Tom to be his personal secretary and telegraph operator. Not only did Carnegie hire his brother, he also hired his cousin, Maria Hogan, who became the first female telegraph operator in the country. As superintendent Carnegie made a salary of $1500 a year ($ by  inflation). His employment by the Pennsylvania Railroad would be vital to his later success. The railroads were the first big businesses in America, and the Pennsylvania was one of the largest of them all. Carnegie learned much about management and cost control during these years, and from Scott in particular.\n\nScott also helped him with his first investments. Many of these were part of the corruption indulged in by Scott and the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, John Edgar Thomson, which consisted of inside trading in companies that the railroad did business with, or payoffs made by contracting parties \"as part of a quid pro quo\". In 1855, Scott made it possible for Carnegie to invest $500 in the Adams Express Company, which contracted with the Pennsylvania to carry its messengers. The money was secured by his mother's placing of a $600 mortgage on the family's $700 home, but the opportunity was available only because of Carnegie's close relationship with Scott. A few years later, he received a few shares in Theodore Tuttle Woodruff's sleeping car company as a reward for holding shares that Woodruff had given to Scott and Thomson, as a payoff. Reinvesting his returns in such inside investments in railroad-related industries (iron, bridges, and rails), Carnegie slowly accumulated capital, the basis for his later success. Throughout his later career, he made use of his close connections to Thomson and Scott, as he established businesses that supplied rails and bridges to the railroad, offering the two men stakes in his enterprises.\n\n1860\u20131865: The Civil War\n\nBefore the Civil War, Carnegie arranged a merger between Woodruff's company and that of George Pullman, the inventor of the sleeping car for first-class travel, which facilitated business travel at distances over . The investment proved a success and a source of profit for Woodruff and Carnegie. The young Carnegie continued to work for Pennsylvania's Tom Scott and introduced several improvements in the service.\n\nIn the spring of 1861, Carnegie was appointed by Scott, who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation, as Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government's telegraph lines in the East. Carnegie helped open the rail lines into Washington D.C. that the rebels had cut; he rode the locomotive pulling the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington D.C. Following the defeat of Union forces at Bull Run, he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces. Under his organization, the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory. Carnegie later joked that he was \"the first casualty of the war\" when he gained a scar on his cheek from freeing a trapped telegraph wire.\n\nThe defeat of the Confederacy required vast supplies of munitions and railroads (and telegraph lines) to deliver the goods. The war demonstrated how integral the industries were to American success.\n\nKeystone Bridge Company\n\nIn 1864, Carnegie was one of the early investors in the Columbia Oil Company in Venango County, Pennsylvania. In one year, the firm yielded over $1 million in cash dividends, and petroleum from oil wells on the property sold profitably. The demand for iron products, such as armor for gunboats, cannons, and shells, as well as a hundred other industrial products, made Pittsburgh a center of wartime production. Carnegie worked with others in establishing a steel rolling mill, and steel production and control of industry became the source of his fortune. Carnegie had some investments in the iron industry before the war.\n\nAfter the war, Carnegie left the railroads to devote his energies to the ironworks trade. Carnegie worked to develop several ironworks, eventually forming the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh. Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, he remained connected to its management, namely Thomas A. Scott and J. Edgar Thomson. He used his connection to the two men to acquire contracts for his Keystone Bridge Company and the rails produced by his ironworks. He also gave stock in his businesses to Scott and Thomson, and the Pennsylvania was his best customer. When he built his first steel plant, he made a point of naming it after Thomson. As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. He was invited to many important social functions, which Carnegie exploited to his advantage.\n\nCarnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark Eads Bridge project across the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology, which marked the opening of a new steel market.\n\nCarnegie believed in using his fortune for others and doing more than making money. He wrote:\n\nIndustrialist\n\n1875\u20131900: Steel empire\n\nCarnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States. One of his two great innovations was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel by adopting and adapting the Bessemer process, which allowed the high carbon content of pig iron to be burnt away in a controlled and rapid way during steel production. Steel prices dropped as a result, and Bessemer steel was rapidly adopted for rails; however, it was not suitable for buildings and bridges.\n\nThe second was in his vertical integration of all suppliers of raw materials. In 1883, Carnegie bought the rival Homestead Steel Works, which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a  railway, and a line of lake steamships. In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of pig iron, steel rails, and coke in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of pig iron per day.\n\nBy 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the UK, and Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie's empire grew to include the J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works in Braddock (named for John Edgar Thomson, Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), the Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Lucy Furnaces, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines. Carnegie combined his assets and those of his associates in 1892 with the launching of the Carnegie Steel Company.\n\nCarnegie's success was also due to his relationship with the railroad industries, which not only relied on steel for track, but were also making money from steel transport. The steel and railroad barons worked closely to negotiate prices instead of allowing free-market competition.\n\nBesides Carnegie's market manipulation, United States trade tariffs were also working in favor of the steel industry. Carnegie spent energy and resources lobbying Congress for a continuation of favorable tariffs from which he earned millions of dollars a year. Carnegie tried to keep this information concealed, but legal documents released in 1900, during proceedings with the ex-chairman of Carnegie Steel, Henry Clay Frick, revealed how favorable the tariffs had been.\n\n1901: U.S. Steel\nIn 1901, Carnegie was 65 years of age and considering retirement. He reformed his enterprises into conventional joint stock corporations as preparation for this. John Pierpont Morgan was a banker and America's most important financial deal maker. He had observed how efficiently Carnegie produced profits. He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs, lower prices to consumers, produce in greater quantities and raise wages to workers. To this end, he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers and integrate them into one company, thereby eliminating duplication and waste. He concluded negotiations on March 2, 1901, and formed the United States Steel Corporation. It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization of over $1 billion.\n\nThe buyout, secretly negotiated by Charles M. Schwab (no relation to Charles R. Schwab), was the largest such industrial takeover in United States history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the United States Steel Corporation, a trust organized by Morgan, and Carnegie retired from business. His steel enterprises were bought out for $303,450,000.\n\nCarnegie's share of this amounted to $225.64 million (in , $), which was paid to him in the form of 5%, 50-year gold bonds. The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on February 26, 1901. On March 2, the circular formally filed the organization and capitalization (at $1.4 billion\u20144% of the U.S. gross domestic product at the time) of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract. The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of Hoboken, New Jersey, in trust to Robert A. Franks, Carnegie's business secretary. There, a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly $230 million worth of bonds.\n\nScholar and activist\n\n1880\u20131900\nCarnegie continued his business career; some of his literary intentions were fulfilled. He befriended the English poet Matthew Arnold, the English philosopher Herbert Spencer, and the American humorist Mark Twain, as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the U.S. Presidents, statesmen, and notable writers.\n\nCarnegie constructed commodious swimming-baths for the people of his hometown in Dunfermline in 1879. In the following year, Carnegie gave \u00a38,000 for the establishment of a Dunfermline Carnegie Library in Scotland. In 1884, he gave $50,000 to Bellevue Hospital Medical College (now part of New York University Medical Center) to found a histological laboratory, now called the Carnegie Laboratory.\n\nIn 1881, Carnegie took his family, including his 70-year-old mother, on a trip to the United Kingdom. They toured Scotland by coach, and enjoyed several receptions en route. The highlight was a return to Dunfermline, where Carnegie's mother laid the foundation stone of a Carnegie Library which he funded. Carnegie's criticism of British society did not mean dislike; on the contrary, one of Carnegie's ambitions was to act as a catalyst for a close association between English-speaking peoples. To this end, in the early 1880s in partnership with Samuel Storey, he purchased numerous newspapers in Britain, all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of \"the British Republic\". Carnegie's charm, aided by his wealth, afforded him many British friends, including Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone.\n\nIn 1886, Carnegie's younger brother Thomas died at age 43. While owning steel works, Carnegie had purchased at low cost the most valuable of the iron ore fields around Lake Superior.\n\nFollowing his tour of the UK, he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled An American Four-in-hand in Britain. In 1886, Carnegie wrote his most radical work to date, entitled Triumphant Democracy. Liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments, the book argued his view that the American republican system of government was superior to the British monarchical system. It gave a highly favorable and idealized view of American progress and criticized the British royal family. The cover depicted an upended royal crown and a broken scepter. The book created considerable controversy in the UK. The book made many Americans appreciate their country's economic progress and sold over 40,000 copies, mostly in the U.S.\n\nAlthough actively involved in running his many businesses, Carnegie had become a regular contributor to numerous magazines, most notably The Nineteenth Century, under the editorship of James Knowles, and the influential North American Review, led by the editor Lloyd Bryce. In 1889, Carnegie published \"Wealth\" in the June issue of the North American Review. After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in Britain, where it appeared as \"The Gospel of Wealth\" in The Pall Mall Gazette. Carnegie argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist should comprise two parts. The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes. Philanthropy was key to making life worthwhile.\n\nCarnegie was a well-regarded writer. He published three books on travel.\n\nAnti-imperialism\nIn the aftermath of the Spanish\u2013American War, the United States seemed poised to annex Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines. Carnegie strongly opposed the idea of American colonies. He opposed the annexation of the Philippines almost to the point of supporting William Jennings Bryan against McKinley in 1900. In 1898, Carnegie tried to arrange independence for the Philippines. As the conclusion of the Spanish\u2013American War neared, the United States purchased the Philippines from Spain for $20 million. To counter what he perceived as American imperialism, Carnegie personally offered $20 million to the Philippines so that the Filipino people could purchase their independence from the United States. However, nothing came of the offer. In 1898 Carnegie joined the American Anti-Imperialist League, in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines. Its membership included former presidents of the United States Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison and literary figures such as Mark Twain.\n\n1901\u20131919: Philanthropist\n\nCarnegie spent his last years as a philanthropist. From 1901 forward, public attention was turned from the shrewd business acumen which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune, to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on philanthropic projects. He had written about his views on social subjects and the responsibilities of great wealth in Triumphant Democracy (1886) and Gospel of Wealth (1889). Carnegie devoted the rest of his life to providing capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement. He saved letters of appreciation from those he helped in a desk drawer labeled \"Gratitude and Sweet Words.\"\n\nHe provided $25,000 a year to the movement for spelling reform. His organization, the Simplified Spelling Board, created the Handbook of Simplified Spelling, which was written wholly in reformed spelling.\n\n3,000 public libraries\n\nAmong his many philanthropic efforts, the establishment of public libraries throughout the United States, Britain, Canada and other English-speaking countries was especially prominent. In this special driving interest of his, Carnegie was inspired by meetings with philanthropist Enoch Pratt (1808\u20131896). The Enoch Pratt Free Library (1886) of Baltimore, Maryland, impressed Carnegie deeply; he said, \"Pratt was my guide and inspiration.\"\n\nCarnegie turned over management of the library project by 1908 to his staff, led by James Bertram (1874\u20131934). The first Carnegie Library opened in 1883 in Dunfermline. His method was to provide funds to build and equip the library, but only on the condition that the local authority matched that by providing the land and a budget for operation and maintenance.\n\nTo secure local interest, in 1885, he gave $500,000 to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, for a public library; in 1886, he gave $250,000 to Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, for a music hall and library; and he gave $250,000 to Edinburgh for a free library. In total, Carnegie funded some 3,000 libraries, located in 47 U.S. states, and also in Canada, Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the West Indies, and Fiji. He also donated \u00a350,000 to help set up the University of Birmingham in 1899.\n\nAs Van Slyck (1991) showed, during the last years of the 19th century, there was the increasing adoption of the idea that free libraries should be available to the American public. But the design of such libraries was the subject of prolonged and heated debate. On one hand, the library profession called for designs that supported efficiency in administration and operation; on the other, wealthy philanthropists favored buildings that reinforced the paternalistic metaphor and enhanced civic pride. Between 1886 and 1917, Carnegie reformed both library philanthropy and library design, encouraging a closer correspondence between the two.\n\nInvesting in education, science, pensions, civil heroism, music, and world peace\n\nIn 1900, Carnegie gave $2 million to start the Carnegie Institute of Technology (CIT) at Pittsburgh and the same amount in 1902 to found the Carnegie Institution at Washington, D.C., for encourage research and discovery. He later contributed more to these and other schools. CIT is now known as Carnegie Mellon University after it merged with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research. Carnegie also served on the Boards of Cornell University and Stevens Institute of Technology.\n\nIn 1911, Carnegie became a sympathetic benefactor to George Ellery Hale, who was trying to build the  Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson, and donated an additional ten million dollars to the Carnegie Institution with the following suggestion to expedite the construction of the telescope: \"I hope the work at Mount Wilson will be vigorously pushed, because I am so anxious to hear the expected results from it. I should like to be satisfied before I depart, that we are going to repay to the old land some part of the debt we owe them by revealing more clearly than ever to them the new heavens.\" The telescope saw first light on November 2, 1917, with Carnegie still alive.\n\nIn 1901, in Scotland, he gave $10 million to establish the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland. It was created by a deed that he signed on June 7, 1901, and it was incorporated by royal charter on August 21, 1902. The establishing gift of $10 million was then an unprecedented sum: at the time, total government assistance to all four Scottish universities was about \u00a350,000 a year. The aim of the Trust was to improve and extend the opportunities for scientific research in the Scottish universities and to enable the deserving and qualified youth of Scotland to attend a university. He was subsequently elected Lord Rector of University of St. Andrews in December 1901, and formally installed as such in October 1902, serving until 1907. He also donated large sums of money to Dunfermline, the place of his birth. In addition to a library, Carnegie also bought the private estate which became Pittencrieff Park and opened it to all members of the public, establishing the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust to benefit the people of Dunfermline. A statue of Carnegie was later built between 1913 and 1914 in the park as a commemoration for his creation of the park.\n\nCarnegie was a major patron of music. He was a founding financial backer of Jeannette Thurber's National Conservatory of Music of America in 1885. He built the music performing venue Carnegie Hall in New York City; it opened in 1891 and remained in his family until 1925. His interest in music led him to fund the construction of 7,000 pipe organs in churches and temples, with no apparent preference for any religious denomination or sect.\n\nHe gave a further $10 million in 1913 to endow the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, a grant-making foundation. He transferred to the trust the charge of all his existing and future benefactions, other than university benefactions in the United Kingdom. He gave the trustees a wide discretion, and they inaugurated a policy of financing rural library schemes rather than erecting library buildings, and of assisting the musical education of the people rather than granting organs to churches.\n\nIn 1901, Carnegie also established large pension funds for his former employees at Homestead and, in 1905, for American college professors. The latter fund evolved into TIAA-CREF. One critical requirement was that church-related schools had to sever their religious connections to get his money.\n\nCarnegie was a large benefactor of the Tuskegee Institute for African-American education under Booker T. Washington. He helped Washington create the National Negro Business League.\n\nIn 1904, he founded the Carnegie Hero Fund for the United States and Canada (a few years later also established in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, and Germany) for the recognition of deeds of heroism. Carnegie contributed $1.5 million in 1903 for the erection of the Peace Palace at The Hague; and he donated $150,000 for a Pan-American Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau of American Republics.\n\nWhen it became obvious that Carnegie could not give away his entire fortune within his lifetime, he established the Carnegie Corporation of New York in 1911 \"to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding\" and continue his program of giving.\n\nCarnegie was honored for his philanthropy and support of the arts by initiation as an honorary member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia fraternity on October 14, 1917, at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston, Massachusetts. The fraternity's mission reflects Carnegie's values by developing young men to share their talents to create harmony in the world.\n\nBy the standards of 19th-century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money. \"Maybe with the giving away of his money,\" commented biographer Joseph Wall, \"he would justify what he had done to get that money.\"\n\nTo some, Carnegie represents the idea of the American dream. He was an immigrant from Scotland who came to America and became successful. He is not only known for his successes but his huge amounts of philanthropic works, not only for charities but also to promote democracy and independence to colonized countries.\n\nDeath\n\nCarnegie died on August 11, 1919, in Lenox, Massachusetts, at his Shadow Brook estate, of Bronchial Pneumonia. He had already given away $350,695,653 (approximately US$ in  dollars) of his wealth. After his death, his last $30 million was given to foundations, charities, and to pensioners. He was buried at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow, New York. The grave site is located on the Arcadia Hebron plot of land at the corner of Summit Avenue and Dingle Road. Carnegie is buried only a few yards away from union organizer Samuel Gompers, another important figure of industry in the Gilded Age.\n\nControversies\n\n1889: Johnstown Flood\n\nCarnegie was one of more than 50 members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, which has been blamed for the Johnstown Flood that killed 2,209 people in 1889.\n\nAt the suggestion of his friend Benjamin Ruff, Carnegie's partner Henry Clay Frick had formed the exclusive South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club high above Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The sixty-odd club members were the leading business tycoons of Western Pennsylvania and included among their number Frick's best friend, Andrew Mellon, his attorneys Philander Knox and James Hay Reed, as well as Frick's business partner, Carnegie. High above the city, near the small town of South Fork, the South Fork Dam was originally built between 1838 and 1853 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as part of a canal system to be used as a reservoir for a canal basin in Johnstown. With the coming-of-age of railroads superseding canal barge transport, the lake was abandoned by the Commonwealth, sold to the Pennsylvania Railroad, and sold again to private interests, and eventually came to be owned by the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club in 1881. Prior to the flood, speculators had purchased the abandoned reservoir, made less than well-engineered repairs to the old dam, raised the lake level, built cottages and a clubhouse, and created the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club. Less than  downstream from the dam sat the city of Johnstown.\n\nThe dam was  high and  long. Between 1881, when the club was opened, and 1889, the dam frequently sprang leaks and was patched, mostly with mud and straw. Additionally, a previous owner removed and sold for scrap the three cast iron discharge pipes that previously allowed a controlled release of water. There had been some speculation as to the dam's integrity, and concerns had been raised by the head of the Cambria Iron Works downstream in Johnstown. Such repair work, a reduction in height, and unusually high snowmelt and heavy spring rains combined to cause the dam to give way on May 31, 1889, resulting in twenty million tons of water sweeping down the valley as the Johnstown Flood. When word of the dam's failure was telegraphed to Pittsburgh, Frick and other members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club gathered to form the Pittsburgh Relief Committee for assistance to the flood victims as well as determining never to speak publicly about the club or the flood. This strategy was a success, and Knox and Reed were able to fend off all lawsuits that would have placed blame upon the club's members.\n\nAlthough Cambria Iron and Steel's facilities were heavily damaged by the flood, they returned to full production within a year. After the flood, Carnegie built Johnstown a new library to replace the one built by Cambria's chief legal counsel Cyrus Elder, which was destroyed in the flood. The Carnegie-donated library is now owned by the Johnstown Area Heritage Association, and houses the Flood Museum.\n\n1892: Homestead Strike\n\nThe Homestead Strike was a bloody labor confrontation lasting 143 days in 1892, one of the most serious in U.S. history. The conflict was centered on Carnegie Steel's main plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania, and grew out of a labor dispute between the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (AA) and the Carnegie Steel Company.\n\nCarnegie left on a trip to Scotland before the unrest peaked. In doing so, Carnegie left mediation of the dispute in the hands of his associate and partner Henry Clay Frick. Frick was well known in industrial circles for maintaining staunch anti-union sentiment. With the collective bargaining agreement between the union and company expiring at the end of June, Frick and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase; the AA represented about 800 of the 3,800 workers at the plant. Frick immediately countered with an average 22% wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit.\n\nThe union and company failed to come to an agreement, and management locked the union out. Workers considered the stoppage a \"lockout\" by management and not a \"strike\" by workers. As such, the workers would have been well within their rights to protest, and subsequent government action would have been a set of criminal procedures designed to crush what was seen as a pivotal demonstration of the growing labor rights movement, strongly opposed by management. Frick brought in thousands of strikebreakers to work the steel mills and Pinkerton agents to safeguard them.\n\nOn July 6, the arrival of a force of 300 Pinkerton agents from New York City and Chicago resulted in a fight in which 10 men \u2014 seven strikers and three Pinkertons \u2014 were killed and hundreds were injured. Pennsylvania Governor Robert Pattison ordered two brigades of the state militia to the strike site. Then allegedly in response to the fight between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, anarchist Alexander Berkman shot at Frick in an attempted assassination, wounding him. While not directly connected to the strike, Berkman was tied in for the assassination attempt. According to Berkman, \"...with the elimination of Frick, responsibility for Homestead conditions would rest with Carnegie.\" Afterwards, the company successfully resumed operations with non-union immigrant employees in place of the Homestead plant workers, and Carnegie returned to the United States. However, Carnegie's reputation was permanently damaged by the Homestead events.\n\nTheodore Roosevelt\nAccording to David Nasaw, after 1898, when the United States entered a war with Spain, Carnegie increasingly devoted his energy to supporting pacifism. He strongly opposed the war and the subsequent imperialistic American takeover of the Philippines. When Theodore Roosevelt became president in 1901, Carnegie and Roosevelt were in frequent contact. They exchanged letters, communicated through mutual friends such as Secretary of State John Hay, and met in person. Carnegie hoped that Roosevelt would turn the Philippines free, not realizing he was more of an imperialist and believer in warrior virtues than President McKinley had been. He saluted Roosevelt for forcing Germany and Britain to arbitrate their conflict with Venezuela in 1903, and especially for becoming the mediator who negotiated an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1907\u20131908. Roosevelt relied on Carnegie for financing his expedition to Africa in 1909. In return he asked the ex-president to mediate the growing conflict between the cousins who ruled Britain and Germany. Roosevelt started to do so but the scheme collapsed when king Edward VII suddenly died. Nasaw argues that Roosevelt systematically deceived and manipulated Carnegie, and held the elderly man in contempt. Nasaw quotes a private letter Roosevelt wrote to Whitelaw Reid in 1905: [I have] tried hard to like Carnegie, but it is pretty difficult. There is no type of man for whom I feel a more contemptuous abhorrence than for the one who makes a God of mere money-making and at the same time is always yelling out that kind of utterly stupid condemnation of war which in almost every case springs from a combination of defective physical courage, of unmanly shrinking from pain and effort, and of hopelessly twisted ideals. All the suffering from Spanish war comes far short of the suffering, preventable and non-preventable, among the operators of the Carnegie steel works, and among the small investors, during the time that Carnegie was making his fortune\u2026. It is as noxious folly to denounce war per se as it is to denounce business per se. Unrighteous war is a hideous evil; but I am not at all sure that it is worse evil than business unrighteousness.\n\nPersonal life\n\nFamily\n\nCarnegie did not want to marry during his mother's lifetime, instead choosing to take care of her in her illness towards the end of her life. After she died in 1886, the 51-year-old Carnegie married Louise Whitfield, who was 21 years his junior. In 1897, the couple had their only child, Margaret, who they named after Carnegie's mother.\n\nResidence\n \nCarnegie bought Skibo Castle in Scotland, and made his home partly there and partly in his New York mansion located at 2 East 91st Street at Fifth Avenue. The building was completed in late 1902, and he lived there until his death in 1919. His wife Louise continued to live there until her death in 1946. The building is now used as the Cooper-Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum, part of the Smithsonian Institution. The surrounding neighborhood on Manhattan's Upper East Side has come to be called Carnegie Hill. The mansion was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1966.\n\nPhilosophy\n\nPolitics\nCarnegie gave \"formal allegiance\" to the Republican Party, though he was said to be \"a violent opponent of some of the most sacred doctrines\" of the party.\n\nAndrew Carnegie Dictum\nIn his final days, Carnegie had pneumonia. Before his death on August 11, 1919, Carnegie had donated $350,695,654 for various causes. The \"Andrew Carnegie Dictum\" was:\nTo spend the first third of one's life getting all the education one can.\nTo spend the next third making all the money one can.\nTo spend the last third giving it all away for worthwhile causes.\nCarnegie was involved in philanthropic causes, but he kept himself away from religious circles. He wanted to be identified by the world as a \"positivist\". He was highly influenced in public life by John Bright.\n\nOn wealth\n\nAs early as 1868, at age 33, he drafted a memo to himself. He wrote: \"...The amassing of wealth is one of the worse species of idolatry. No idol more debasing than the worship of money.\" In order to avoid degrading himself, he wrote in the same memo he would retire at age 35 to pursue the practice of philanthropic giving, for \"... the man who dies thus rich dies disgraced.\" However, he did not begin his philanthropic work in all earnest until 1881, at age 46, with the gift of a library to his hometown of Dunfermline, Scotland.\n\nCarnegie wrote \"The Gospel of Wealth\", an article in which he stated his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society. In that article, Carnegie also expressed sympathy for the ideas of progressive taxation and an estate tax:\n\nThe following is taken from one of Carnegie's memos to himself:\n\nIntellectual influences\n\nCarnegie claimed to be a champion of evolutionary thought\u2014particularly the work of Herbert Spencer, even declaring Spencer his teacher. Although Carnegie claimed to be a disciple of Spencer, many of his actions went against the ideas he espoused.\n\nSpencerian evolution was for individual rights and against government interference. Furthermore, Spencerian evolution held that those unfit to sustain themselves must be allowed to perish. Spencer believed that just as there were many varieties of beetles, respectively modified to existence in a particular place in nature, so too had human society \"spontaneously fallen into division of labour\". Individuals who survived to this, the latest and highest stage of evolutionary progress would be \"those in whom the power of self-preservation is the greatest\u2014are the select of their generation.\" Moreover, Spencer perceived governmental authority as borrowed from the people to perform the transitory aims of establishing social cohesion, insurance of rights, and security. Spencerian 'survival of the fittest' firmly credits any provisions made to assist the weak, unskilled, poor and distressed to be an imprudent disservice to evolution. Spencer insisted people should resist for the benefit of collective humanity, as severe fate singles out the weak, debauched, and disabled.\n\nAndrew Carnegie's political and economic focus during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was the defense of laissez-faire economics. Carnegie emphatically resisted government intrusion in commerce, as well as government-sponsored charities. Carnegie believed the concentration of capital was essential for societal progress and should be encouraged. Carnegie was an ardent supporter of commercial \"survival of the fittest\" and sought to attain immunity from business challenges by dominating all phases of the steel manufacturing procedure. Carnegie's determination to lower costs included cutting labor expenses as well. In a notably Spencerian manner, Carnegie argued that unions impeded the natural reduction of prices by pushing up costs, which blocked evolutionary progress. Carnegie felt that unions represented the narrow interest of the few while his actions benefited the entire community.\n\nOn the surface, Andrew Carnegie appears to be a strict laissez-faire capitalist and follower of Herbert Spencer, often referring to himself as a disciple of Spencer. Conversely, Carnegie, a titan of industry, seems to embody all of the qualities of Spencerian survival of the fittest. The two men enjoyed a mutual respect for one another and maintained a correspondence until Spencer's death in 1903. There are, however, some major discrepancies between Spencer's capitalist evolutionary conceptions and Andrew Carnegie's capitalist practices.\n\nSpencer wrote that in production the advantages of the superior individual are comparatively minor, and thus acceptable, yet the benefit that dominance provides those who control a large segment of production might be hazardous to competition. Spencer feared that an absence of \"sympathetic self-restraint\" of those with too much power could lead to the ruin of their competitors. He did not think free-market competition necessitated competitive warfare. Furthermore, Spencer argued that individuals with superior resources who deliberately used investment schemes to put competitors out of business were committing acts of \"commercial murder\". Carnegie built his wealth in the steel industry by maintaining an extensively integrated operating system. Carnegie also bought out some regional competitors, and merged with others, usually maintaining the majority shares in the companies. Over the course of twenty years, Carnegie's steel properties grew to include the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, the Lucy Furnace Works, the Union Iron Mills, the Homestead Works, the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines among many other industry-related assets.\n\nHerbert Spencer absolutely was against government interference in business in the form of regulatory limitations, taxes, and tariffs as well. Spencer saw tariffs as a form of taxation that levied against the majority in service to \"the benefit of a small minority of manufacturers and artisans\".\n\nDespite Carnegie's personal dedication to Herbert Spencer as a friend, his adherence to Spencer's political and economic ideas is more contentious. In particular, it appears Carnegie either misunderstood or intentionally misrepresented some of Spencer's principal arguments. Spencer remarked upon his first visit to Carnegie's steel mills in Pittsburgh, which Carnegie saw as the manifestation of Spencer's philosophy, \"Six months' residence here would justify suicide.\"\n\nOn the subject of charity Andrew Carnegie's actions diverged in the most significant and complex manner from Herbert Spencer's philosophies. In his 1854 essay \"Manners and Fashion\", Spencer referred to public education as \"Old schemes\". He went on to declare that public schools and colleges fill the heads of students with inept, useless knowledge and exclude useful knowledge. Spencer stated that he trusted no organization of any kind, \"political, religious, literary, philanthropic\", and believed that as they expanded in influence so too did their regulations expand. In addition, Spencer thought that as all institutions grow they become evermore corrupted by the influence of power and money. The institution eventually loses its \"original spirit, and sinks into a lifeless mechanism\". Spencer insisted that all forms of philanthropy that uplift the poor and downtrodden were reckless and incompetent. Spencer thought any attempt to prevent \"the really salutary sufferings\" of the less fortunate \"bequeath to posterity a continually increasing curse\". Carnegie, a self-proclaimed devotee of Spencer, testified to Congress on February 5, 1915: \"My business is to do as much good in the world as I can; I have retired from all other business.\"\n\nCarnegie held that societal progress relied on individuals who maintained moral obligations to themselves and to society. Furthermore, he believed that charity supplied the means for those who wish to improve themselves to achieve their goals. Carnegie urged other wealthy people to contribute to society in the form of parks, works of art, libraries and other endeavors that improve the community and contribute to the \"lasting good\". Carnegie also held a strong opinion against inherited wealth. Carnegie believed that the sons of prosperous businesspersons were rarely as talented as their fathers. By leaving large sums of money to their children, wealthy business leaders were wasting resources that could be used to benefit society. Most notably, Carnegie believed that the future leaders of society would rise from the ranks of the poor. Carnegie strongly believed in this because he had risen from the bottom. He believed the poor possessed an advantage over the wealthy because they receive greater attention from their parents and are taught better work ethics.\n\nReligion and worldview\nCarnegie and his family belonged to the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, also known informally as the Northern Presbyterian Church. In his early life Carnegie was skeptical of Calvinism, and religion as a whole, but reconciled with it later in his life. In his autobiography, Carnegie describes his family as moderate Presbyterian believers, writing that \"there was not one orthodox Presbyterian\" in his family; various members of his family having somewhat distanced themselves from Calvinism, some of them leaning more towards Swedenborgianism. While a child, his family led vigorous theological and political disputes. His mother avoided the topic of religion. His father left the Presbyterian church after a sermon on infant damnation, while, according to Carnegie, still remaining very religious on his own.\n\nWitnessing sectarianism and strife in 19th century Scotland regarding religion and philosophy, Carnegie kept his distance from organized religion and theism. Carnegie instead preferred to see things through naturalistic and scientific terms stating, \"Not only had I got rid of the theology and the supernatural, but I had found the truth of evolution.\"\n\nLater in life, Carnegie's firm opposition to religion softened. For many years he was a member of Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church, pastored from 1905 to 1926 by Social Gospel exponent Henry Sloane Coffin, while his wife and daughter belonged to the Brick Presbyterian Church. He also prepared (but did not deliver) an address in which he professed a belief in \"an Infinite and Eternal Energy from which all things proceed\". Records exist of a short period of correspondence around 1912\u20131913 between Carnegie and 'Abdu'l-Bah\u00e1, the eldest son of Bah\u00e1'u'll\u00e1h, founder of the Bah\u00e1'\u00ed Faith. In these letters, one of which was published in The New York Times in full text, Carnegie is extolled as a \"lover of the world of humanity and one of the founders of Universal Peace\".\n\nWorld peace\n \nInfluenced by his \"favorite living hero in public life\" John Bright, Carnegie started his efforts in pursuit of world peace at a young age, and supported causes that opposed military intervention. His motto, \"All is well since all grows better\", served not only as a good rationalization of his successful business career, but also his view of international relations.\n\nDespite his efforts towards international peace, Carnegie faced many dilemmas on his quest. These dilemmas are often regarded as conflicts between his view on international relations and his other loyalties. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, for example, Carnegie allowed his steel works to fill large orders of armor plate for the building of an enlarged and modernized United States Navy, but he opposed American overseas expansion.\n\nDespite that, Carnegie served as a major donor for the newly established International Court of Arbitration's Peace Palace\u2014brainchild of Russian tsar Nicholas II.\n\nHis largest and in the long run most influential peace organization was the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, formed in 1910 with a $10 million endowment. In 1913, at the dedication of the Peace Palace in The Hague, Carnegie predicted that the end of the war was as certain to come, and come soon, as day follows night.\n\nIn 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Carnegie founded the Church Peace Union (CPU), a group of leaders in religion, academia, and politics. Through the CPU, Carnegie hoped to mobilize the world's churches, religious organizations, and other spiritual and moral resources to join in promoting moral leadership to put an end to war forever. For its inaugural international event, the CPU sponsored a conference to be held on August 1, 1914, on the shores of Lake Constance in southern Germany. As the delegates made their way to the conference by train, Germany was invading Belgium.\n\nDespite its inauspicious beginning, the CPU thrived. Today its focus is on ethics and it is known as the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, an independent, nonpartisan, nonprofit organization, whose mission is to be the voice for ethics in international affairs.\n\nThe outbreak of the First World War was clearly a shock to Carnegie and his optimistic view on world peace. Although his promotion of anti-imperialism and world peace had all failed, and the Carnegie Endowment had not fulfilled his expectations, his beliefs and ideas on international relations had helped build the foundation of the League of Nations after his death, which took world peace to another level.\n\nUnited States colonial expansion\nOn the matter of American colonial expansion, Carnegie had always thought it is an unwise gesture for the United States. He did not oppose the annexation of the Hawaiian islands or Puerto Rico, but he opposed the annexation of the Philippines. Carnegie believed that it involved a denial of the fundamental democratic principle, and he also urged William McKinley to withdraw American troops and allow the Filipinos to live with their independence. This act strongly impressed the other American anti-imperialists, who soon elected him vice-president of the Anti-Imperialist League.\n\nAfter he sold his steel company in 1901, Carnegie was able to get fully involved in the peace cause, both financially and personally. He gave away much of his fortunes to various peacekeeping agencies in order to keep them growing. When a friend, the British writer William T. Stead, asked him to create a new organization for the goal of a peace and arbitration society, his reply was:\n\nCarnegie believed that it is the effort and will of the people, that maintains the peace in international relations. Money is just a push for the act. If world peace depended solely on financial support, it would not seem a goal, but more like an act of pity.\n\nLike Stead, he believed that the United States and the British Empire would merge into one nation, telling him \"We are heading straight to the Re-United States\". Carnegie believed that the combined country's power would maintain world peace and disarmament. The creation of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1910 was regarded as a milestone on the road to the ultimate goal of abolition of war. Beyond a gift of $10 million for peace promotion, Carnegie also encouraged the \"scientific\" investigation of the various causes of war, and the adoption of judicial methods that should eventually eliminate them. He believed that the Endowment exists to promote information on the nations' rights and responsibilities under existing international law and to encourage other conferences to codify this law.\n\nLegacy and honors\n\nCarnegie received the honorary Doctor of Laws (DLL) from the University of Glasgow in June 1901, and received the Freedom of the City of Glasgow \"in recognition of his munificence\" later the same year. In July 1902 he received the Freedom of the city of St Andrews, \"in testimony of his great zeal for the welfare of his fellow-men on both sides of the Atlantic\", and in October 1902 the Freedom of the City of Perth \"in testimony of his high personal worth and beneficial influence, and in recognition of widespread benefactions bestowed on this and other lands, and especially in gratitude for the endowment granted by him for the promotion of University education in Scotland\" and the Freedom of the City of Dundee. Also in 1902, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. He received an honorary Doctor of Laws (LLD) from the University of Aberdeen in 1906. In 1910, he received the Freedom of the City of Belfast and was made as well Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government. Carnegie was awarded as Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands on August 25, 1913. Carnegie received July 1, 1914 an honorary doctorate from the University of Groningen the Netherlands.\n\nThe dinosaur Diplodocus carnegiei (Hatcher) was named for Carnegie after he sponsored the expedition that discovered its remains in the Morrison Formation (Jurassic) of Utah. Carnegie was so proud of \"Dippy\" that he had casts made of the bones and plaster replicas of the whole skeleton donated to several museums in Europe and South America. The original fossil skeleton is assembled and stands in the Hall of Dinosaurs at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.\nAfter the Spanish\u2013American War, Carnegie offered to donate $20 million to the Philippines so they could buy their independence.\nCarnegie, Pennsylvania, and Carnegie, Oklahoma, were named in his honor.\nThe Saguaro cactus's scientific name, Carnegiea gigantea, is named after him.\nThe Carnegie Medal for the best children's literature published in the UK was established in his name.\nThe Carnegie Faculty of Sport and Education, at Leeds Beckett University, UK, is named after him.\nThe concert halls in Dunfermline and New York are named after him.\nAt the height of his career, Carnegie was the second-richest person in the world, behind only John D. Rockefeller of Standard Oil.\nCarnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh was named after Carnegie, who founded the institution as the Carnegie Technical Schools.\nLauder College (named after his uncle George Lauder Sr.) in the Halbeath area of Dunfermline was renamed Carnegie College in 2007.\nA street in Belgrade (Serbia), next to the Belgrade University Library which is one of the Carnegie libraries, is named in his honor.\nAn American high school, Carnegie Vanguard High School in Houston, Texas, is named after him\nCarnegie was awarded the Freedom of the Burgh of Kilmarnock in Scotland in 1903, prior to laying the foundation stone of Loanhead Public School.\n\nBenefactions\n\nAccording to biographer Burton J. Hendrick:\nHis benefactions amounted to $350,000,000\u2014for he gave away not only his annual income of something more than $12,500,000, but most of the principal as well. Of this sum, $62,000,000 was allotted to the British Empire and $288,000,000 to the United States, for Carnegie, in the main, confined his benefactions to the English-speaking nations. His largest gifts were $125,000,000 to the Carnegie Corporation of New York (this same body also became his residuary legatee), $60,000,000 to public library buildings, $20,000,000 to colleges (usually the smaller ones), $6,000,000 to church organs, $29,000,000 to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, $22,000,000 to the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, $22,000,000 to the Carnegie Institution of Washington, $10,000,000 to Hero Funds, $10,000,000 to the Endowment for International Peace, $10,000,000 to the Scottish Universities Trust, $10,000,000 to the United Kingdom Trust, and $3,750,000 to the Dunfermline Trust.\n\nHendrick argues that:\n\nThese gifts fairly picture Carnegie's conception of the best ways to improve the status of the common man. They represent all his personal tastes\u2014his love of books, art, music, and nature\u2014and the reforms which he regarded as most essential to human progress\u2014scientific research, education both literary and technical, and, above all, the abolition of war. The expenditure the public most associates with Carnegie's name is that for public libraries. Carnegie himself frequently said that his favorite benefaction was the Hero Fund\u2014among other reasons, because \"it came up my ain back\"; but probably deep in his own mind his library gifts took precedence over all others in importance. There was only one genuine remedy, he believed, for the ills that beset the human race, and that was enlightenment. \"Let there be light\" was the motto that, in the early days, he insisted on placing in all his library buildings. As to the greatest endowment of all, the Carnegie Corporation, that was merely Andrew Carnegie in permanently organized form; it was established to carry on, after Carnegie's death, the work to which he had given personal attention in his own lifetime.\n\nResearch sources\nCarnegie's personal papers are at the Library of Congress Manuscript Division.\nThe Carnegie Collections of the Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library consist of the archives of the following organizations founded by Carnegie: The Carnegie Corporation of New York (CCNY); The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP); the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (CFAT);The Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs (CCEIA). These collections deal primarily with Carnegie philanthropy and have very little personal material related to Carnegie. Carnegie Mellon University and the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh jointly administer the Andrew Carnegie Collection of digitized archives on Carnegie's life.\n\nWorks\nCarnegie was a frequent contributor to periodicals on labor issues.\n\nBooks\n Our Coaching Trip, Brighton to Inverness (1882).\n An American Four-in-hand in Britain (1883).\n Round the World. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons (1884).\n An American Four-in-Hand in Britain. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons (1886).\n Triumphant Democracy, or, Fifty Years' March of the Republic. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons (1886).\n The Gospel of Wealth (1889).\nThe Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays. New York: The Century Co. (1901).\n The Empire of Business (1902).\n Audiobook via LibriVox.\n The Secret of Business is the Management of Men (1903).\n James Watt (Famous Scots Series). New York: Doubleday, Page and Co. (1905).\nProblems of Today: Wealth\u2013Labor\u2013Socialism. New York: Doubleday, Page and Co. (1907).\nAutobiography of Andrew Carnegie (posthumous). Boston: Houghton Mifflin (1920).\nAudiobook via Librivox.\n\nArticles\n\"Wealth.\" North American Review, vol. 148, no. 381 (Jun. 1889), pp.\u00a0653\u201364. Original version of The Gospel of Wealth.\n\"The Bugaboo of Trusts.\" North American Review, vol. 148, no. 377 (Feb. 1889).\n\nPamphlets\nThe Bugaboo of Trusts. Reprinted from North American Review, vol. 148, no. 377 (Feb. 1889).\n\nPublic speaking\nIndustrial Peace: Address at the Annual Dinner of the National Civic Federation, New York City, December 15, 1904. [n.c.]: National Civic Federation (1904).\nEdwin M. Stanton: An Address by Andrew Carnegie on Stanton Memorial Day at Kenyon College. New York: Doubleday, Page and Co. (1906).\n The Negro in America: An Address Delivered Before the Philosophical Institution of Edinburg, 16th October 1907. Inverness: R. Carruthers & Sons, Courier Office (1907).\nSpeech at the Annual Meeting of the Peace Society, at the Guildhall, London, EC, May 24th, 1910. London: The Peace Society (1910).\nA League of Peace: A Rectorial Address Delivered to the Students in the University of St. Andrews, 17th October 1905. New York: New York Peace Society (1911).\n\nCollected works\nWall, Joseph Frazier, ed. The Andrew Carnegie Reader (1992).\n\nSee also\n\nCarnegie (disambiguation)\nCommemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps\nHistory of public library advocacy\nList of Carnegie libraries in the United States\nList of peace activists\nList of richest Americans in history\nList of colleges and universities named after people\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\n Ernsberger, Jr., Richard \"A Fool for Peace\". American History, (Oct 2018), Vol. 53, Issue 4. interview with Nasaw.\nWall, Joseph Frazier (1989). Andrew Carnegie. . Along with Nasaw the most detailed scholarly biography.\n\nCollections\n\nFurther reading\nBostaph, Samuel (2015). Andrew Carnegie: An Economic Biography. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. . 125pp online review\n Ernsberger Jr., Richard. \"Robber Baron turned Robin Hood\" American History (Feb 2015) 49#6 pp.\u00a032\u201341, cover story.\n Farrah, Margaret Ann. \"Andrew Carnegie: A Psychohistorical Sketch\" (PhD dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1982. 8209384).\nGoldin, Milton (1997). \"Andrew Carnegie and the Robber Baron Myth.\" In: Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) St. James, NY: Brandywine Press .\n Harvey, Charles, et al. Andrew Carnegie and the foundations of contemporary entrepreneurial philanthropy. Business History (2011) 53#3 pp.\u00a0425\u2013450.\nHendrick, Burton Jesse (1933). The life of Andrew Carnegie (2 vol.) vol 2 online\nJosephson, Matthew (1938). The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861\u20131901. .\nKrass, Peter (2002). Carnegie. Wiley. . scholarly biography.\n\nLester, Robert M. (1941). Forty Years of Carnegie Giving: A Summary of the Benefactions of Andrew Carnegie and of the Work of the Philanthropic Trusts Which He Created. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.\nLivesay, Harold C. (1999). Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business, 2nd ed. . short biography by a scholar.\n\n McGormick, Blaine, and Burton W. Folsom Jr. \"Survey of Business Historians on America's Greatest Entrepreneurs.\" Business History Review (2003), 77#4, pp.\u00a0703\u2013716. Carnegie ranks #3 behind Ford and Rockefeller.\nPatterson, David S. (1970). \"Andrew Carnegie's Quest for World Peace.\" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 114#5 (1970): 371\u2013383. .\nRees, Jonathan. (1997). \"Homestead in Context: Andrew Carnegie and the Decline of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers.\" Pennsylvania History 64(4): 509\u2013533. .\n Skrabec Jr, Quentin R. Henry Clay Frick: The life of the perfect capitalist (McFarland, 2010). online\n Skrabec Jr, Quentin R. The Carnegie Boys: The Lieutenants of Andrew Carnegie that Changed America (McFarland, 2012) online.\nVanSlyck, Abigail A. (1991). \"'The Utmost Amount of Effective Accommodation': Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library.\" Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 50(4): 359\u2013383. .\n Zimmerman, Jonathan. \"Simplified Spelling and the Cult of Efficiency in the 'Progressiv' Era.\" Journal of the Gilded Age & Progressive Era (2010) 9#3 pp.\u00a0365\u2013394\n\nExternal links\n\nDocumentary: \"Andrew Carnegie: Rags to Riches, Power to Peace\"\nCarnegie Birthplace Museum website\n\nBooknotes interview with Peter Krass on Carnegie, November 24, 2002.\n\nMarguerite Martyn, \"Andrew Carnegie on Prosperity, Income Tax, and the Blessings of Poverty,\" May 1, 1914, City Desk Publishing\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n1835 births\n1919 deaths\n20th-century American businesspeople\nActivists from Massachusetts\nAmerican billionaires\nAmerican Civil War industrialists\nAmerican company founders\nAmerican industrialists\nAmerican librarianship and human rights\n20th-century American philanthropists\nAmerican railway entrepreneurs\nAmerican spiritualists\nAmerican steel industry businesspeople\nBessemer Gold Medal\nLauder Greenway Family\nBurials at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery\nBusinesspeople from Pittsburgh\nCarnegie Endowment for International Peace\nCarnegie Mellon University people\nDeaths from pneumonia in Massachusetts\nDeaths from bronchopneumonia\nEnglish-language spelling reform advocates\nGilded Age\nHall of Fame for Great Americans inductees\nMassachusetts Republicans\nNon-interventionism\nPeople associated with the University of Birmingham\nPeople from Dunfermline\nPeople from Lenox, Massachusetts\nProgressive Era in the United States\nRectors of the University of St Andrews\nScottish billionaires\nScottish emigrants to the United States\nScottish spiritualists\nU.S. Steel people\nUniversity and college founders\nPresidents of the Saint Andrew's Society of the State of New York\nCarnegie family\nRectors of the University of Aberdeen","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":329,"dup_dump_count":98,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":7,"2013-48":6,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":6,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":8,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":6,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":6,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":5,"2019-13":4,"2019-09":5,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":6,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":6,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":5,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":6,"2014-42":10,"2014-41":8,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":5}},"id":1938,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andrew%20Carnegie","title":"Andrew Carnegie","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A waste container (known more commonly in British English as a dustbin, rubbish-bin or simply a bin, and American English as a trash can) is a container, usually made of plastic or metal, used to store refuse.\n\nRubbish (trash) is usually kept in these until it is emptied by collecters, who will take it to a landfill or incinerator.\n\nSome bins are used specifically for recycling.\n\nContainers\nWaste","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"unknown":20,"2023-40":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1}},"id":25150,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waste%20container","title":"Waste container","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Rhyme means words that sound the same or similar in their endings. Poems and popular song lyrics often use rhyme. A simple poem can also be called a rhyme.\n\nMany examples of rhyme are in folk songs, children's songs, and of course in nursery rhymes. Rhymes at the ends of the lines in a song or poem are normal:\n\nRoses are red, violets are blue,\nSugar is sweet, and so are you.\n\nMary had a little lamb, its fleece was white as snow,\nAnd everywhere that Mary went, the lamb was sure to go.\n\nThe counting song\n\nOne, two, buckle my shoe,\nThree, four, shut the door,\nFive, six, pick up sticks,\nSeven, eight, lay them straight...\n\nuses \"internal rhymes,\" rhymes that fall within a single line instead of at the end of lines. In another children's poem,\n\nWith a knick-knack, paddy-whack, give the dog a bone,\nThis old man came rolling home...\n\nknack and whack give another example of internal rhyme. Also, the rhymes at the ends of the lines, bone and home, are not \"exact rhymes.\"  Exact rhymes are the same in everything but the first sound. Exact rhymes are the most common type of rhyme and can be formed easily with common sounds in English:\n\npay \/ day \/ way \/ say \/ may \/ bay \/ play \/ pray \/ stay ...\nme \/ we \/ be \/ see \/ tree \/ knee ...\n\nOther rhymes are not exact but only similar:\n\nGoosey goosey gander, whither will you wander,\nUpstairs, downstairs, in my lady's chamber...\n\nHere, the rhymes are not exact rhymes. Also, gander and wander are \"sight rhymes,\" words that look like rhymes when printed but do not sound quite alike. Sight rhymes are more common in poetry meant to be read, than in songs or verse meant to be sung or spoken aloud and heard by listeners.\n\nRhymes can be made up of more than one word, as in the short poem Rondeau by James Henry Leigh Hunt:\n\nJenny kissed me when we met,\nJumping from the chair she sat in;\nTime, you thief, who love to get\nSweets into your book, put that in:\nSay I'm weary, say I'm sad,\nSay that health and wealth have missed me,\nSay I'm growing old, but add,\nJenny kissed me.\n\nAlong with simple normal rhymes, met and get, sad and add, and one internal rhyme, health and wealth, Hunt creates sets of clever two-word rhymes.\n\nSome poets and writers use very unusual rhymes. Well-known examples are in the song lyrics to the 1939 MGM film version of L. Frank Baum's The Wizard of Oz. The lyrics, written by E. Y. \"Yip\" Harburg, use many odd rhymes, plus internal rhymes, complex rhyme patterns, and other tricks of language. W. S. Gilbert, the lyricist for the Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas, wrote the same way. The books of Dr. Seuss are also famous for their many strange rhymes.\n\nPoets who choose to avoid rhyme write in blank verse or free verse.\n\nRelated pages\nrhythm\nverse\n\nOther websites\nOrange Rhyming Words\nRhyming Dictionary \nFrench Rhyme Dictionary : Rimes.fr\n\nPoetry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":4,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":31626,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rhyme","title":"Rhyme","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A glove is a piece of clothing that covers a hand. There are many different kinds of gloves. Gloves are made of many different fabrics and materials, and gloves are used in many ways.\n\nGloves worn for protection \nPeople wear thick gloves, usually made of wool or fabric, to keep their hands warm in cold weather. They wear thin gloves (usually made of rubber or plastic) to keep their hands clean. People also wear thin gloves made of rubber or plastic to keep things they touch clean. Some workers wear gloves made of heavy rubber to protect their hands from chemicals. A mitten is a glove which has a separate place for the thumb, but the other four fingers are together. There are also mittens, which are very similar to gloves. Gloves and mittens are usually used to protect people from cold, and chemicals. People use latex gloves during Earth day to clean up.\n\nGloves worn for fashion \nThere are also gloves that are worn for fashion, because they look good. These type of gloves are made from leather, fur, or different fabrics.\n\nGloves worn in sport \nGloves are worn in sports, the most common reason being for extra grip for the competitors hands. Like in golf, baseball and goalkeepers in soccer.\n\nMittens \nThe word is used for certain kinds of usually knitted gloves. Some don't have separate finger pieces, and are made for children. Others have separate finger pieces without tips, so the wearer can use his fingers for delicate work, and keep his hands warm at the same time. some are fingerless gloves .","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":143,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2}},"id":25718,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glove","title":"Glove","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A picosecond is an standard unit of measuring time. It is equal to 10\u221212 of a second. It is one trillionth, or one millionth of one millionth of a second, or 0.000000000001 seconds.\n\nOne picosecond contains 1000 femtoseconds. There are 1000 picoseconds in one nanosecond.\n\nNotation\n 10-10 seconds is 100 picoseconds.\n 10-9 seconds is 1 nanosecond.\n\nExamples\n One picosecond is the half-life of a bottom quark.\n Ten picoseconds after the Big Bang, electromagnetism became its own force.\n It takes light about 3.3 picoseconds to travel one millimeter.\n It takes a common 3.0-gigahertz computer 3.3 \u00d7 100 picoseconds to add two integers together.\n\nUnits of time\nOrders of magnitude","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2}},"id":171277,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Picosecond","title":"Picosecond","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In naitural philosophy, Poust is whit chynges or tends tae chynge a state o rest or motion in an object. Poust causes objects tae accelerate, add tae the object's owerall pressur, or chynge direction. Poust is measured in Newtons (N).\n\nAccordin tae Newton's Seicont Law o Motion, the formula for findin poust is:\n\nwhaur  is the poust, \n is the mass o an object, \nan  is the acceleration o the object.\n\nIf ye set  tae the staundart gravity g, than anither formula can be fund:\n\nwhaur  is the wecht o an object, \n is the mass o an object, \nan  is the acceleration due tae gravity at sea level. It is aboot .\n\nPoust is a vector, sae it haes baith a magnitude an a direction.\n\nPhysics\ngd:Neart","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":7875,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Poust%20%28naitural%20philosophy%29","title":"Poust (naitural philosophy)","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, and distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This is called passive solar design or climatic design because, unlike active solar heating systems, it doesn't involve\nthe use of mechanical and electrical devices.\n\nThe key to designing a passive solar home is to best take advantage of the local climate. Elements to be considered include window placement and glazing type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, and shading.  Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, but existing buildings can be adapted or \"retrofitted\".\n\nReferences\n\nEnergy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":168072,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passive%20solar%20building%20design","title":"Passive solar building design","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The word alto can mean: someone who sings lower than a soprano.  Usually females with lower voices are called contraltos.  A male alto is a man who sings in a special way called falsetto.  In England male altos sing in church and cathedral choirs.  In some countries like Germany it is tradition to have boy altos in cathedral choirs.  These will probably be boys whose voices will soon be breaking and are starting to get lower.\n\nOne of the most famous contraltos was Kathleen Ferrier.  There are not so many female singers who call themselves contraltos these days.  It has become more fashionable to be a mezzo-soprano.  It is partly because it has become fashionable to use men for the alto parts in music by Bach and other Baroque composers, like it would have been performed in those days.\n\nOperatic roles which need a contralto include Lucretia in Britten's Rape of Lucretia and Erda in Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen.\n\nThe word alto'' can also mean: the second line down in 4 part choir music.  In old music the alto line was written in a special clef called the \"alto clef\", which is the same as the \"viola clef\" (a C clef in which the middle line is middle C).\n\nAltos in modern music    \nAdele\nSade Adu   \nFiona Apple\nSara Bareilles    \nAnita Baker    \nToni Braxton\nCher\nFairuz\nFergie \nJudy Garland   \nLisa Gerrard\nLucy Lawless   \nAnnie Lennox\nJoni Mitchell\nIly Matthew Maniano\nTina Turner\nLady Gaga       \nNorah Jones\nJudith Holofernes\n\nVocal ranges","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4}},"id":29495,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alto","title":"Alto","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Concerto Grosso is a piece of music from the 18th century in which there are a small group of instruments and a large group of instruments.  These two groups are contrasted with one another. Sometimes both play together, sometimes one plays by itself, or the two groups might imitate one another.  The small group is called \"concertino\" and the large group is called \"tutti\", \"ripieno\" or \"concerto grosso\" (the same name as the musical piece).  \"Concerto grosso\" is Italian for \"big concerto\".   The plural is \"concerti grossi\".  Notice that the second \"c\" in \"concerto\" is pronounced like an English \"ch\".\n\nA concerto grosso has several parts that differ in speed and character. There are usually three movements; the first is fast, the second is slow, and the last is fast. The first movement contrasts the tutti and the soloists, the second movement is quiet, while the last movement is lively.\n\nThe composer who made the concerto grosso very popular was the Italian Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713).  The instruments in the small group of soloists in his concerti grossi were usually two violins and one cello.  George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) also used that combination for his concerti grossi.  \n\nJohann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) wrote a set of six concertos known as the Brandenburg Concertos.  Each of the Brandenburg Concertos is for a different combination of instruments.  Most of them are concerti grossi.  The second one, for example, has a concertino group of four instruments: trumpet, violin, recorder and oboe.\n\nAfter the Baroque period, few composers wrote concerti grossi.  They were more interested in the solo concerto.  However, in the 20th century, some composers, including Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and Bela Bartok (1881-1945), wrote pieces of music that are like concerti grossi.\n\nRelated pages \nConcerto\n\nMusical forms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":30630,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concerto%20grosso","title":"Concerto grosso","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"2013 (twenty thirteen) (MMXIII) was . It was the first year since 1987 to have all four of its digits being different numbers.\n\nEvents\n\nJanuary \n\n January 1 \u2013 Marseille, France and Ko\u0161ice, Slovakia become European Capital of Culture.\n January 1 - The Republic of Ireland starts its six-month Presidency of the Council of the European Union.\n January 1 - A crush after a New Year celebration in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, kills over 60 people.\n Early January - Bushfires affect parts of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, as the most widespread fires there since 2009.\n January 10 - Bombings in Quetta and the northern Swat Valley, Pakistan, kill a total of 130.\n January 11 - President of France Francois Hollande sends troops to Mali, after a request from Mali for foreign aid during the Northern Mali conflict.\n January 16 - Islamist extremists take a group of international workers hostage in an attack on a gas facility in eastern Algeria. An Algerian attempt at rescuing the workers results in at least 39 deaths.\n January 19 - The European Union introduces the new EU-wide driving licence.\n January 19 - An attempted murder occurs against Bulgarian politician Ahmed Dogan, who survives, after security guards stop the gunman.\n January 20 \u2013 At noon, Barack Obama starts his second term as President of the United States.  The public swearing-in was on January 21, as the 20th was a Sunday.\n January 26 - 37 people are killed in rioting in Port Said, Egypt, after guilty verdicts for football fans involved in violence at the end of a league game almost a year earlier.\n January 27 - At least 232 people are killed in a fire at a night club in Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.\n January 28 - Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands announces that she will leave the throne on April 30, when Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange will become King. She is the third Dutch monarch in a row to leave the throne.\n January 29 - James Lee Dykes takes a five-year old hostage and kills one bus driver in Alabama.\n January 30 - President Barack Obama says he will try to pass an immigration reform that will stop deportation and will give citizenship to 11 million immigrants in the United States. The reform might go into law at the end of the year.\n\nFebruary \n\n February 1 - A suicide bomber in Turkey blows up the United States Embassy in Ankara. One guard is killed.\n February 1 - Hillary Clinton's term as United States Secretary of State ends and nominee John Kerry was sworn in.\n February 4 - Human remains found under a car park in Leicester, England, are announced to have been those of King Richard III of England.\n February 4 - The hostage crisis in Alabama ended after James Lee Dykes is shot dead. The five-year-old boy survived.\n February 7 - Winter Storm Nemo hits the northwestern part of the United States and parts of Canada. The snow reached about 30\u00a0inches and was the largest snow storm in some states. The storm ended on February 10.\n February 9 - A massive earthquake of 6.9 hits border cities between Colombia and Ecuador. No one is killed.\n February 10 - Final of the 2013 Africa Cup of Nations football competition in South Africa, which is won 1-0 by the Nigeria national football team over the Burkina Faso national football team. This is Nigeria's third African title, after 1980 and 1994.\n February 11 - Pope Benedict XVI announces that he would resign from being the Pope because of ill health and age. He leaves as pope on February 28. He is the first pope to resign since 1415.\n February 12 - North Korea announces that it has carried out an underground nuclear test, at a depth of around a kilometer, despite criticism from many countries around the world.\n February 15 - An meteor hits in Chelyabinsk, Russia. 1,200 people are injured due to shattered glass. The meteor was about 49\u00a0feet long.\n February 15 - Asteroid 2012 DA14, with an estimated diameter of 50 meters, flies to within 27,700 kilometers of Earth.\n February 16 - A bomb attack in Quetta, Pakistan, kills over 80 people.\n February 21 - Over 50 people are killed in a bombing in Damascus, Syria.\n February 24\/25 - Parliamentary election in Italy.\n February 25 - Park Geunhye officially becomes the first female President of South Korea.\n February 28 - Pope Benedict XVI officially resigns as Pope, as the first Pope to resign in almost 600 years.\n\nMarch \n March 4 - Presidential election in Kenya: Uhuru Kenyatta is declared the winner after a few days.\n March 8 - Milos Zeman becomes President of the Czech Republic.\n March 8 - Funeral of Hugo Ch\u00e1vez in Caracas.\n March 10\/11 - In a referendum in the Falkland Islands, almost all voters chooses to remain a UK territory, with only three people voting against.\n March 13 - Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio of Argentina is elected Pope. He is the first non-European Pope since 741, and the first Latin American Pope. He chooses to be known as Pope Francis.\n March 15 - Xi Jinping officially takes over as President of the People's Republic of China, with Li Keqiang as Premier, completing a transition of power in the Communist Party.\n March 19 - Inauguration of Pope Francis.\n March 19 - 50 people are killed in a series of bomb attacks in Baghdad, considered to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the start of the Iraq War.\n March 23 - Pope Francis meets Pope Benedict XVI at Castel Gandolfo in Italy. The last time two living popes met was almost 600 years ago.\n March 24 - In the Central African Republic, President Francois Bozize is overthrown after he flees to the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo on the onset of rebels capturing the nation's capital city, Bangui.\n March 25 - The European Union agree to \u20ac10\u00a0billion bailout for Cyprus. The bailout loan will be equally split between the European Financial Stabilisation Mechanism, the European Financial Stability Facility, and the International Monetary Fund. The deal precipitates a banking crisis in the island nation.\n March 27 - Canada becomes the first country to withdraw from the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.\n\nApril \n\n April 2 - The United Nations General Assembly adopts the Arms Trade Treaty to regulate the international trade of conventional weapons.\n April 3 - Floods kill over 50 people in La Plata and Buenos Aires, Argentina.\n April 9 - Inauguration of Uhuru Kenyatta as President of Kenya.\n April 9 - A shooting in a village south of Belgrade, Serbia, kills 13 people.\n April 13 - The art museum Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam re-opens after 10 years of restoration work.\n April 14 - Presidential election in Venezuela: Nicolas Maduro narrowly defeats Opposition candidate Henrique Capriles.\n April 15 - 2013 Boston Marathon bombings: About three hours after the winners crossed the line in the Boston Marathon, two loud explosions occur near Copley Square just before the photo bridge that marks the finish line. 3 people are killed and over 170 are injured. A few days later suspect Tamerlan Tsarnaev is killed in a shoot-out with police after killing an officer. His brother Dzhokhar Tsarnaev is later arrested.\n April 16 - A magnitude 7.8 earthquake occurs, centred in southeast Iran, near the border with Pakistan. Casualties and damage are reported on both sides of the border.\n April 17 - New Zealand legalizes same-sex marriage.\n April 17 - The funeral of Margaret Thatcher takes place in London, attended by both current and former political figures from around the world.\n April 17 - West Fertilizer Plant explosion: A fertilizer plant in West, Texas explodes, killing several people and injuring over 100.\n April 19 - Jiroemon Kimura becomes the first man in history verified to reach 116 years of age.\n April 20 - A magnitude 6.6 earthquake strike's China's Sichuan province, with hundreds of people killed.\n April 20 - Giorgio Napolitano is elected to a second term as President of Italy, the first time an Italian President will serve a second term in office.\n April 23 - The Parliament of France supports the legalizing of same-sex marriage in the country.\n April 24 - A clothing factory in Dhaka, Bangladesh, collapses, killing over 1,100 people in one of the worst-ever industrial accidents.\n April 26 - A fire at a psychiatric hospital near Moscow, Russia, kills 38 people.\n April 28 - Enrico Letta becomes Prime Minister of Italy. At the same time, two police officers are injured in a shooting outside his office in central Rome.\n April 29 - NBA player Jason Collins announces that he is openly gay, the first active sportsman in the US to do so.\n April 30 - Accession of Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, the first King of the Netherlands since 1890, after Beatrix of the Netherlands officially abdicated the throne after 33 years as Queen.\n\nMay \n\n May 6 \u2013 2013 Cleveland, Ohio, missing trio: Between nine and eleven years after going missing, Amanda Berry, Gina DeJesus and Michelle Knight are freed from being held captive in Cleveland, Ohio. 52-year-old Ariel Castro is arrested and charged.\n May 8 \u2013 In football, Alex Ferguson announces his intent to resign as manager of Manchester United after May 19. With over 26 years in charge, he is one of the game's longest-serving managers. David Moyes is selected to replace him.\n May 10 \u2013 Solar eclipse in the South Pacific, visible in Australia.\n May 11 \u2013 Nawaz Sharif is elected Prime Minister of Pakistan.\n May 15 \u2013 In a study published in Nature, Oregon Health & Science University researchers describe the first creation of human embryonic stem cells by cloning.\n May 18 \u2013 Eurovision Song Contest 2013 in Malmo, Sweden: Emmelie de Forest of Denmark wins with the song \"Only Teardrops\".\n May 20 \u2013 Bomb attacks across Iraq kill a total of 70 people.\n May 20 \u2013 The 2013 Moore tornado kills 24 people and injures 377 people in Moore, Oklahoma.\n May 21 \u2013 French far-right historian and writer Dominique Venner commits suicide by gunshot inside Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris.\n May 23 \u2013 Sigmundur David Gunnlaugsson becomes Prime Minister of Iceland, succeeding Johanna Sigurdardottir.\n May 29 \u2013 The first same-sex marriage in France takes place.\n May 31 \u2013 Start of several days of anti-government protests in Istanbul, Turkey.\n May 31 \u2013 A tornado in central Oklahoma kills 9 people and is the widest ever measured.\n The 2013 Stockholm riots erupt in Stockholm, Sweden.\n\nJune \n\n early June \u2013 After heavy rain in May, widespread flooding occurs in Central Europe, affecting parts of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Poland. 19 people in total are known to have died, most of them in the Czech Republic.\n June 5 - Nawaz Sharif becomes Prime Minister of Pakistan.\n June 8 - Former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela is re-hospitalized for a lung infection in Pretoria.\n June 9 - In an interview with The Guardian newspaper, Edward Snowden says that he leaked information about surveillance carried out by the National Security Agency.\n June 9 - US President Barack Obama meets for talks with Chinese leader Xi Jinping.\n June 9 - Rafael Nadal sets a record in singles tennis when he wins the French Open title for the 8th time. This is a record for any Grand Slam tournament.\n June 12 - The government of Greece takes the national broadcaster off air.\n June 14 - Hassan Rouhani is elected President of Iran.\n June 14 onwards - Major flooding occurs in the northern Indian states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Haryana, killing at least 1,000 people and leaving many people missing. Parts of Nepal and western Tibet also experience heavy rainfall.\n June 15 to June 30 - The 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup is held in Brazil, while there are major protests against corruption in the country.\n June 19 - A haze spreads across Southeast Asia, mainly affecting Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia, causing major fog and disruption. Illegal forest fires on Sumatra are blamed.\n June 23 - Edward Snowden leaves Hong Kong for Moscow.\n June 23 - Nelson Mandela's health is said to be in a \"critical\" state.\n June 25 - Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, hands power to his son, Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani.\n June 27 - Kevin Rudd becomes Prime Minister of Australia for a second time, after Julia Gillard loses a vote of confidence within the Australian Labor Party.\n\nJuly \n\n July 1 - Croatia becomes the 28th member country of the European Union.\n July 1 - Lithuania starts its six-month Presidency of the Council of the European Union.\n July 3 - During mass protests across the country, Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi is deposed in a coup d'\u00e9tat.\n July 3 - King Albert II of Belgium announces that he will leave the throne on July 21.\n July 6 - A 73-car unmanned freight train carrying crude oil crashes into the centre of the town of Lac-Megantic, southern Quebec, Canada, and explodes, killing at least 24 people.\n from July 6 - Floods affect parts of Sichuan and Yunnan provinces in south-central China, killing at least 58 people and leaving 175 missing.\n July 11 - The government of Luxembourg, led by Jean-Claude Juncker, is brought down by a scandal over its state security agency. New elections are set for October.\n July 12 - A train crash occurs at a station in Bretigny-sur-Orge, south of Paris, France, killing six people.\n July 15 - Scientists report the discovery of another moon around the planet Neptune. The moon is called S\/2004 N 1.\n July 16 - At a school in Bihar state, northern India, 23 children die after eating school meals poisoned with insecticide.\n July 18 - Detroit, Michigan, files for Chapter 9 bankruptcy.\n July 21 - Albert II of Belgium leaves the throne after almost 20 years as king. His son becomes King Philippe of Belgium, and is the 7th King of the Belgians.\n July 21 - Chris Froome wins the 100th Tour de France.\n July 22 - Two earthquakes in Gansu province, People's Republic of China, kill at least 89 people.\n July 22 - Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge gives birth to a baby boy, Prince George of Cambridge. He is third in line to become King of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth realms.\n July 24 - A train with 218 passengers on board crashes in Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, northwest Spain, killing at least 79 people and injuring at least 130. It was travelling from Madrid to Ferrol on the Galician coast.\n July 25 - Tunisian opposition politician Mohamed Brahmi is shot dead, causing widespread protests.\n July 26 - 2013 Cleveland, Ohio, missing trio: Ariel Castro pleads guilty to all charges, and is sentenced to life in prison on August 1.\n July 28 - A coach crash near Avellino, close to Naples, Italy, kills 39 people.\n July 29 - United States Secretary of State John Kerry hosts a peace conference between Palestine and Israel in Washington, D.C. to make peace between the two nations. It was the first peace conference between Palestine and Israel in over three years.\n July 31 - An election is held in Zimbabwe, with President Robert Mugabe claiming victory, though there are reports of irregularities.\n\nAugust \n\n August 1 - A court in Italy confirms the prison sentence against Silvio Berlusconi on charges of tax fraud.\n August 1 - Edward Snowden is given temporary asylum in Russia.\n August 3 - Hassan Rouhani becomes President of Iran.\n August 4 - American embassies in the Middle East and in parts of North Africa are closed due to a threat from Al-Qaeda. These embassies will be closed throughout the month of August.\n August 5 - The first laboratory-grown beef burger is eaten in London.\n August 10 - Dozens of people are killed in a series of bomb attacks in Baghdad.\n August 14 - Egypt declares a national state of emergency as hundreds of pro-Mohamed Morsi demonstrators are killed by security forces.\n August 14 - Carmelo Flores Laura of Bolivia might become the world's oldest living person in history if his documents prove that he is in fact 123 years old, after his baptism certificate is released. It is hard to prove as birth certificates did not exist in Bolivia until 1940.\n August 15 - A new species of mammal is found in northwestern South America. Scientists name the new species Olinguito.\n August 15 - Horacio Cartes becomes President of Paraguay.\n August 21 - A suspected chemical gas attack occurs in Syria.\n August 26 - UN weapons inspectors start taking samples at the scene of a suspected chemical gas attack on Syria.\n August 28 - The 50th anniversary of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s speech \"I Have A Dream\" is celebrated across the United States. A ceremony is held at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.. Barack Obama, Bill Clinton, and Jimmy Carter attend the celebration.\n August 29 - The majority of MPs in the British House of Commons votes against military action in Syria.\n\nSeptember \n\n September 1 - Former South African President Nelson Mandela is released after a three-month stay.\n September 3 - Ariel Castro, the man responsible for 2013 Cleveland, Ohio, missing trio commits suicide in his prison cell in Cleveland, Ohio.\n September 4 - The United States Congress approves for a forced military strike on Syria to remove President Bashar al-Assad from power.\n September 6 - NASA's unmanned LADEE space probe is launched to the Moon.\n September 7 - Parliamentary election in Australia: The coalition led by the Liberal Party of Australia, under Tony Abbott, defeats the Australian Labor Party under Kevin Rudd.\n September 7 - Tokyo is announced as the city which will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, beating competition from Istanbul and Madrid.\n September 8 - Mamnoon Hussain becomes President of Pakistan.\n September 9 - Parliamentary election in Norway: The Centre-Right Venstre Party wins the most seats in parliament.\n September 10 - Thomas Bach is elected to replace Jacques Rogge as the head of the International Olympic Committee.\n September 12 - Colorado is hit by major flooding.\n September 15 - Mexico is struck by Hurricane Ingrid on the east coast, and Hurricane Manuel on the west coast, causing massive flooding, and killing at least 67 people.\n September 16 - A lone gunman armed with a shotgun, Aaron Alexis, killed twelve people and injured fourteen others in a mass shooting at Washington Navy Yard in Washington, D.C. The attack occurred around 8:20\u00a0a.m. in Building 197. Alexis was subsequently killed by police.\n September 18 - Tony Abbott becomes the 28th Prime Minister of Australia.\n September 21 - At least 62 people are killed in a terrorist attack and siege on the Westgate Shopping Mall in Nairobi, Kenya. Al-Shabaab claims responsibility.\n September 22 - A bomb attack on a church in Peshawar kills at least 70 people.\n September 22 - Elections are held for the German Bundestag. Angela Merkel's CDU\/CSU coalition comes close to an overall majority, while the FDP is voted out of the Bundestag.\n September 24 - A magnitude 7.7 earthquake in southern Pakistan kills over 400 people.\n September 29 - An election to the Austrian parliament is held. The coalition led by Chancellor Werner Faymann narrowly wins.\n\nOctober \n\n October 1 - The United States Government temporarily shuts down over failure to agree on a budget.\n October 3 - A boat travelling from North Africa, carrying migrants from the East African countries of Eritrea and Somalia, catches fire off the coast of Italy's Mediterranean Sea island of Lampedusa, killing over 360 people.\n October 3 - The Gambia withdraws from the Commonwealth.\n October 8 - Francois Englert of Belgium and Peter Higgs of the United Kingdom win the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on finding the Higgs boson particle.\n October 10 - Delegates from some 140 countries and territories signed Minamata Treaty, a UNEP treaty designed to protect human health and the environment from emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds.\n October 11 - The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons wins the Nobel Peace Prize.\n October 11 - A boat travelling from North Africa, carrying migrants, gets into difficulty off Lampedusa, killing over 30 people, in the second such incident there in the space of a week.\n mid-October - Bush fires affect large parts of New South Wales, Australia.\n October 16 - Erna Solberg becomes Prime Minister of Norway, succeeding Jens Stoltenberg.\n October 16 - The United States Government reopens after the shutdown.\n October 20 - An election is held in Luxembourg.\n October 27 - Sebastian Vettel wins the Formula One world championship, becoming the youngest driver to achieve this four times in-a-row.\n October 28 - The St Jude Storm, also referred to as \"Christian\", \"Carmen\" and \"Simone\", hits the southern UK, northern France, the Low Countries, Germany, Denmark and southern Sweden, killing at least 15 people and disrupting transport services. Denmark records its highest-ever wind speed during the storm.\n October 29 - A new underground rail link is opened across the Bosphorus in Istanbul.\n\nNovember \n\n November 3 \u2013 Hybrid (total\/annular) solar eclipse.\n November 5 - Bill de Blasio wins the 2013 New York City mayoral election in a landslide. He becomes the first New York City Democratic mayor in over two decades. He is expected to succeed Michael Bloomberg as mayor on January 1, 2014.\n November 8 - Typhoon Haiyan strikes the Philippines with some of the strongest typhoon winds recorded, destroying many towns and cities, and killing thousands of people.\n November 10 - Spanish motorcycle racer Marc Marquez becomes the youngest Moto GP world champion, at age 20.\n November 12 - One World Trade Center is announced as having become the tallest building in the United States.\n November 12 - Three Studies with Lucian Freud, a series of paintings by Francis Bacon, becomes the most expensive work of art sold at auction, selling for 142.4 million US Dollars.\n November 16 - Sachin Tendulkar, one of the greatest cricketers of all time, retires from playing after his last test match.\n November 21 - A supermarket collapse in Riga, Latvia, kills over 50 people.\n November 22 - 50th anniversary of the Assassination of John F. Kennedy is honored across the United States and parts of Ireland.\n November 24 - Iran agrees to limit their nuclear development program in exchange for sanctions relief.\n November 28 - Three unpublished books by J. D. Salinger is leaked online to the public.\n November 29 - A helicopter crash into the Clutha pub in Glasgow, Scotland, kills 10 people.\n\nDecember \n\n Throughout December - Anti-government protests in Thailand and Ukraine.\n December 1 - A train crash in New York City's The Bronx area, on the banks of the Hudson River, kills 4 people and injures over 60.\n December 4 - Xavier Bettel becomes Prime Minister of Luxembourg, ending Jean-Claude Juncker's almost-19-year period in office.\n December 6 - The groups for the 2014 FIFA World Cup are drawn.\n December 7 - Ninth Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization delegates sign the Bali Package agreement aimed at loosening global trade barriers.\n December 10 - A public memorial service is held for Nelson Mandela in a football stadium in Johannesburg where he had made his last public appearance.\n December 14 - Chinese spacecraft Chang'e 3, carrying the Yutu rover, becomes the first spacecraft to \"soft\"-land on the Moon since 1976 and the third ever robotic rover to do so.\n December 15 - The funeral of Nelson Mandela takes place.\n December 15 - Michelle Bachelet is elected President of Chile. She previously held this position from 2006 to 2010.\n December 23 - Heavy winds and rain cause destruction across Northern Europe. Meanwhile, snowstorms cut electricity from millions of homes in the Northeastern US and southeastern Canada.\n December 29 - A bomb attack on a train station in Volgograd, southern Russia, kills at least 16 people. A similar attack on a bus in the same city kills at least 15 people a day later.\n December 29 - Formula One racing champion Michael Schumacher is severely injured in a skiing accident in the French Alps.\n December 31 \u2013 Australia's last analogue Television signal was turned off.\n\nNobel Prizes \n Chemistry \u2013 Martin Karplus, Michael Levitt, and Arieh Warshel\n Economics \u2013 Eugene Fama, Lars Peter Hansen and Robert J. Shiller\n Literature \u2013 Alice Munro\n Peace \u2013 Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons\n Physics \u2013 Fran\u00e7ois Englert and Peter Higgs\n Physiology or Medicine \u2013 James Rothman, Randy Schekman, and Thomas C. S\u00fcdhof\n\nMajor religious holidays \n January 6 - Epiphany or Twelfth Night, important in some countries' Christmas celebrations.\n January 7 \u2013 Christmas \u2013 Eastern Orthodox Churches\n February 1 \u2013 Imbolc, a Cross-quarter day (Celebrated on February 2 in some places).\n February 2 - Candlemas (Western Christianity)\n February 10 - Chinese New Year - Year of the Snake\n February 12 - Shrove Tuesday (Western Christianity)\n February 13 - Ash Wednesday (Western Christianity), start of Lent\n March 20 \u2013 March Equinox, also known as Ostara.\n March 24 - Palm Sunday (Western Christianity)\n March 28 - Maundy Thursday (Western Christianity)\n March 29 - Good Friday (Western Christianity)\n March 31 \u2013 Easter (Western Christianity)\n April 1 - Easter Monday (Western Christianity)\n May 1 \u2013 Beltane, a Cross-quarter day.\n May 5 \u2013 Easter (Eastern Christianity)\n May 9 - Feast of the Ascension (Western Christianity)\n May 19 - Pentecost (Western Christianity)\n May 30 - Corpus Christi (Western Christianity)\n June 21 \u2013 June solstice, also known as Midsummer or Litha, in the Northern Hemisphere.\n July 9 - Beginning of Ramadan, a month of fasting in the Islamic calendar.\n August 1 \u2013 Lammas, a Cross-quarter day.\n August 7 - Eid-al-Fitr, end of Ramadan\n August 15 - Assumption of Mary (Roman Catholicism)\n September 4 - Rosh Hashanah, new year festival in Judaism.\n September 14 - Yom Kippur (Judaism)\n September 16 - Onam (Hinduism), celebrated in Kerala.\n September 22 \u2013 September Equinox, also known as Mabon.\n November 1 \u2013 Samhain, a Cross-quarter day and Neopagan new year.\n November 1 - All Saints Day (Roman Catholicism)\n November 2 - All Souls Day (Roman Catholicism)\n November 3 - Divali (Hinduism)\n November 27 - Hanukkah (Judaism)\n December 1 - First Sunday of Advent (Western Christianity)\n December 21 \u2013 December solstice, also known as Yule in the Northern Hemisphere.\n December 24 - Christmas Eve (Western Christianity)\n December 25 \u2013 Christmas (Western Christianity)\n December 26 - Boxing Day\/Saint Stephen's Day\/Second Day of Christmas (Western Christianity)\n\nIn fiction and popular culture\n\nComic books \n X-Men: The X-Men try to overthrow the dystopian rule of the robot Sentinels in the Days of Future Past storyline (1980).\n  In the comic book Legion of Super-Heroes (Number 6, July 2005, DC Comics), Cosmic Boy avers that the Bar Code on the cover of comic books is \"destined to become outlawed in the Design Aesthetic Wars of 2013.\"\n\nComputer and video games \n Shattered Union (2005): The District of Columbia is destroyed this year by a low-yield nuclear weapon.\n Ghost Recon: Advanced Warfighter (2006)\n Gyakuten Saiban 3 (2007), Flashbacks to this year occur.\n\nMovies \n Escape From LA (1996)\n The Postman (1997)\n A Scanner Darkly (2006)\n\nTelevision \n In the BBC mockumentary Time Trumpet, British retail chain, Tesco launches an invasion of Denmark on January 21 of this year.\n The last few minutes of the Season 4 finale and Season 5 of Desperate Housewives is set in this year.\n BBC Drama Spooks: Code 9 is set in this year.\n The anime version of Death Note ends in this year, when the main character, Light Yagami, dies from a heart attack after being shot multiple times.\n\nMathematical interest \n The date will comprise four distinct digits, for the first time since 1987.\n The date will comprise of four consecutive digits, for the first time since 1980.\n\nBirths \n May 24 - Grayson Eddey, American child actor (On the Rocks)\n July 22 - Prince George of Cambridge, 3rd in-line to the British throne\n\nDeaths\n\nReferences \n\n2013","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":34906,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2013","title":"2013","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Social Engineering (also known as \"Social Manipulation\") is a type of confidence trick to influence people with the goal to illegally obtain sensitive data (i.e. passwords, credit card information). Social Engineers observe the personal environment of their victims and use fake identities to gain secret information or free services. In most cases Social Engineering is used to infiltrate third party computer systems to spy on sensitive data; in that case social engineering is also called Social Hacking.\n\nDevelopment\n\nThe beginning \nAn early way of Social Engineering first occurred in the 1980s and was named Phreaking. Phreakers called phone companies and claimed to be system administrators and asked for passwords which they used to connect illegally and free of charge to the Internet.\n\nNowadays \nA more modern form of Social Engineering is called Phishing (Phishing is derived from \"fishing\"), which is an attempt to get access to Internet user's data via faked WWW-addresses. The most common way of Phishing is Fraud Mailing also known as Scam Mailing, where the victim is being sent a fake E-Mail i.e. of a bank. In most Scam Mails the letter includes a link that is redirecting to a fake website which is logging the login id and the appropriate password of the victim. The hackers are often using DNS-Spoofing to fake the sender's E-Mail address.\n\nMain model\n\nHow it works \nThe main model of Social Engineering shows up with faked phone calls: the Social Engineer calls employees of a company and impersonates a technician who needs sensitive data to complete important technical operations. In advance the attacker has gathered information about work routines of the target company from public sources or former raid attempts, that gives him advantage in further Social Engineering trials.\nThe invader tries to confuse his victims and to seem trustful, using trade language and involving the victims in small talk. Further the assaulter pretends authority to frighten his victims. Under circumstances the employee actually requested technical support and is expecting such a phone call.\n\nProtection \nThe prevention of Social Engineering is difficult. By influencing the victim subconsciously, the invader abuses typical human behavior like helpfulness in emergency situations or to respond with help to the seemingly helpful attacker.\nGeneral mistrust would disturb the efficient and trustful team work of an organization. The most effective way to avoid Social Engineering is to assure the identity of the caller. This can already be done by asking for the caller's name and phone number and to politely ask for patience, even if the caller's issue seems to be very urgent. Even if one could verify the caller's identity, one should only hand out the absolutely necessary information.\n\nFamous social engineers \nSocial Engineering became generally known through Kevin David \"Condor\" Mitnick (movies: \"Takedown\" also known as \"Hackers 2\"), who became one of the most wanted persons of the United States of America because of successfully invading government systems such as the Pentagon and the NSA.\n\nFurther well known Social Engineers are the check scammer Frank Abagnale (movie: \"Catch Me If You Can\").\n\nReferences \n DATA PROTECTION ESSENTIALS  Knowledge about SE, Information about Kevin Mitnick\n\nPsychology\nSociology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":50493,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social%20engineering%20%28security%29","title":"Social engineering (security)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The English Interregnum was the period of parliamentary and military rule in the land occupied by modern-day England and Wales after the English Civil War. It began with the execution of Charles I in 1649 and ended when Charles II became king, after Oliver Cromwell died in 1660.\n\nThis era in English history can be divided into four periods.\n The first period of the Commonwealth of England from 1649 until 1653\n The Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell from 1653 to 1658\n The Protectorate under Richard Cromwell from 1658 to 1659\n The second period of the Commonwealth of England from 1659 until 1660\n\nLife during the Interregnum\nOliver Cromwell was a Puritan and during the Interregnum, he imposed a very strict form of Christianity upon the country.  Although a main cause of the English Civil War was oppression under Charles I, England during the Interregnum became oppressive in its own fashion. Cromwell granted religious freedom otherwise previously unknown in England, but other forms of expression were suddenly limited (for instance, theatre, which had thrived under the Stuart kings and Elizabeth I, was banned).  Cromwell also made certain that his own personal vision of Christianity was enforced upon the masses. Many of Cromwell's actions were called \"harsh, unwise, and tyrannical\" by some commentators.  \n\nHis son and successor, Richard Cromwell gave up his position as Lord Protector with little hesitation, resigning or \"abdicating\" after a demand by the Rump Parliament. This was the beginning of a short period of restoration of the Commonwealth of England.\n\nRelated pages\nRichard Cromwell\nOliver Cromwell\nCommonwealth of England\nThe Protectorate\n\n17th century in England","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":47454,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/English%20Interregnum","title":"English Interregnum","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The axilla (also known as the armpit, underarm, or oxter) is the area on the human body right under where the joint where the arm connects to the shoulder. The axilla is one of the four places where a medical thermometer can be used to measure human body temperature. The other places are the rectum, mouth, and ear canal.\n\nWhat is in the area of the axilla\nIn the area where the axllia is, the body parts that are found are the axillary vein, axillary artery, brachial plexus, lymph nodes, and fat.\n\nHair of the axilla\n\nDuring puberty, hair will grow in the underarms. Many women choose to shave or remove this hair because it gives a neater and cleaner look when wearing some types of clothes, however some women do not shave and choose to have a natural look for cultural or symbolic reasons.\n\nBody odor\nBody odor occurs in the axilla due to microorganisms.\n\nDue to this, many companies make deodorants to help remove the bad odor.\n\nWhat the axilla is known for\nMany people think of the axilla as being a ticklish spot.\n\nOther words for axilla\nIn the U.K., the axilla is called the oxter.\n\nUnderarm, another word for axilla, only is the outside of the axilla.\n\nArmpit, like underarm, refers to the axilla, but also means an object or place that is smelly or greasy.\n\nGallery\n\nReferences\n\nBody parts","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2}},"id":170819,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Axilla","title":"Axilla","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A play is a piece of writing (literature) which can be seen at a theatre or on television, or heard on the radio. Plays often show conversations between people. A play is usually watched, rather than being read.\n\nThe people who appear in a play are actors; in a theatre they stand on a stage so the people watching (the audience) can see them better. A director helps the actors to work better, or tells them how he wants the play to be.\n\nPlays can be very interesting because they can be understood in many different ways. When the writer - the playwright - makes the play, he can not say how the actors or director will use it. Sometimes the playwright is also the director or an actor: Moli\u00e8re, for example, was often an actor in his plays. But the director can change the play in different ways: the actors' costume, the music, how people say things, how they move or what they hold. Modern directors can direct plays by Shakespeare, and these old plays seem modern now, too.\n\nThere are many sorts of plays, but there are six important sorts:\n\nTragedy - the end is sad, because of bad luck, because the hero is not perfect, or because of the gods.\nComedy - the end is happy. Some things in this sort of play are funny; it makes us laugh.\nDomestic drama - the play is about normal life, family and friends.\nTragicomedy - this play is both a tragedy and a comedy.\nMelodrama - this sort of play often has a happy ending. In it there is a villain - a bad person - but the hero (and often a heroine) win. The emotions are very strong.\nSymbolic - this sort of play is about ideas. The people in the play are not so important.\nSymbolic can also be called expressionistic. Its all about how the writer or director presents ideas in a very different point of view.\n(Experimental) - this is a play in which the director and actors can try out new ideas.  Anything can be tried out.  It is an experiment.\n\nRelated pages \nDrama\nIntermission","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":134,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":4,"2019-09":4,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":6257,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Play%20%28theatre%29","title":"Play (theatre)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Myspace is a social networking website owned by News Corp. Digital Media where people can communicate using messages, video and photo uploads, blogs, social groups, and music. Myspace was founded in 2003 and used to be the 24th most popular website in the world. Myspace was popular with young people between 2005 and 2010. MySpace's head office is in New York City.\n\nControversy\nSome people think Myspace is a bad site, because it makes personal information very easy to find. Many parents do not like Myspace. They would like it to shut down. Myspace says that they are a safe place for all people, and has rules to keep people safe.\n\nNBC's Dateline has a \"To Catch a Predator\" series that talks about Myspace's safety problems. Although Myspace has many contradictions against them, they have not shut down.\n\nAbout\nMyspace Inc. is a web page where individuals can communicate, and exchange information with their network of friends. Users can set up a personal profile, which can be changed, and new graphics and pictures and additional material can be added. All members can upload pictures to share with their friends, and others have permission to comment on their pictures and uploaded materials.\n\nAlso the user can choose to play games on, and post blogs to share with their friends and family.\n\nMyspace has users all over the world which includes: \n\n Australia \n New Zealand \n France \n Germany \n Ireland \n Italy\n Japan \n Mexico\n Spain \n Canada \n The United Kingdom \n The United States\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n Myspace homepage\n\n2003 establishments in the United States\nCompanies based in New York City\nSocial networking","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2021-21":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":64873,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Myspace","title":"Myspace","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Heart disease is a general term that means that the heart is not working normally. Babies can be born with heart disease. This is called congenital heart disease. If people get heart disease later, it is called acquired heart disease. Most heart disease is acquired.\n\nTypes of heart disease\nThe three most common types of acquired heart disease are:\n Coronary Artery Disease (acronym CAD) \u2013 This is a problem with the blood vessels that deliver blood to the heart muscle. If these blood vessels get very small, or if they become blocked, blood cannot flow through them normally. Since less blood is supplied to the heart muscle, the muscle cannot work at normal capacity. The heart muscle can become sick and weak. Heart muscle can even die if blood flow stops. Blocked arteries in the heart are often caused by smoking, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, diabetes, and inherited traits from parents. All of these problems damage the lining of the heart's blood vessels and make them become narrowed or blocked completely.\n Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) \u2013 This is a condition that means that the heart is not pumping at normal levels. Two common causes are a weak or sick heart muscle and abnormal heart valves. The valves may not let enough blood through because they are too narrowed. Or the valve may \"leak\" and let blood flow backwards (the wrong direction) inside the heart. When the heart valves do not work normally, the heart muscle has to do extra work and it can become tired.\n Bad Heart Rhythms \u2013 This is a problem with electrical activity in the heart. This can make the heart beat too fast or too slow. Very bad heart rhythms may make the heart stop pumping blood. The heart needs a normal rhythm to pump the blood well. If the rhythm is too fast, the heart may not have time for blood to enter the chambers, so there is not enough blood moving through the heart with each beat. If the heart is too slow, there may not be enough contractions of the heart to supply the body with the blood that it needs.\n\nSymptoms\nA person can have heart disease and not feel sick. Some people with heart disease have symptoms. This is when there are changes or pain in the body to show a disease is there. Some symptoms of heart disease are:\n Pain in the chest\u2014the heart muscle is not getting enough flow to keep it going.\n Trouble breathing\u2014blood may back up into the lungs.\n Palpitations (a feeling that the heart is beating too fast, too hard, or not regularly).\n Swelling of feet or legs\u2014blood is backing up from the heart into the lower body.\n Feeling weak because the body and brain are not getting enough blood to supply them with oxygen.\n Cyanosis (skin turning a blue colour) means that too little oxygen is in the bloodstream to supply the cells in the body.\n\nDeaths\nHeart disease is the biggest killer of both men and women in the United States, England, Wales, and Canada. For example, heart disease causes 4 out of every 10 deaths in the United States. This is more than all kinds of cancer put together. Also, one person dies of heart disease about every minute in the United States alone.\n\nCongenital heart disease\nCongenital heart disease refers to a form of heart problem that starts before birth (congenital). Congenital heart disease includes a large number of conditions. The formation of the heart before birth is very complex and is sometimes abnormal. For example, if a part of the main artery that comes from the heart is narrowed, that is called coarctation of the aorta. There may be holes inside the heart which keep the blood from flowing normally inside the heart. Other congenital heart problems are caused by abnormal heart valves. In some cases, congenital heart problems are discovered at birth. Other times the problems may not be detected until the person is older.\n\nOther websites\n Mayo Clinic \n WebMD Heart Disease \n Freedom Years Heart Disease  \n American Heart Association \n Understanding Heart Disease: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":13434,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heart%20disease","title":"Heart disease","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"King Frederick William IV of Prussia () (15 October 1795 \u2013 2 January 1861) was the eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia. He reigned as King of Prussia from 1840 to 1861.\n\nLife \nFrederick William was educated by private tutors.  He served in the army during the War of Liberation against Napoleon I of France in 1814, but he was not interested in the army.  He loved both architecture and landscape gardening and was a patron of several great German artists, such as architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel and the composer Felix Mendelssohn.  He married Elisabeth Ludovika of Bavaria in 1823, but the couple had no children.\n\nFrederick William was a Romanticist, and had a nostalgia for the Middle Ages, therefore he was conservative already at an early age. He was against both liberalisation and unification of Germany and preferred to allow Austria to remain the first power in the German states.\n\nIn the beginning of his reign he did not continue the reactionary policies of his father, he reduced press censorship and promised a constitution, but he did not want a popular legislative assembly, but preferred to work with the aristocracy. He was Lutheran, but he released the imprisoned Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cologne, and he decided to help the construction of Cologne Cathedral.  In 1844, he attended the celebrations of the completion of the cathedral, so he was the first king of Prussia who entered a Roman Catholic building.  When he finally called a national assembly in 1847, it was not a representative body, but rather a United Diet which cold speak for all the provincial estates and had the right to grant taxes and loans but no right to meet at regular intervals.\n\nWhen revolution broke out in Prussia in March 1848, as part of the European Revolutions of 1848, the king initially decided to fight it with the army, but later decided to recall the troops and place himself at the head of the movement on 19 March.  He committed himself to German unification, formed a liberal government, accepted a national assembly, and ordered that a Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia should be drawn up. When his position was more secure again, however, he quickly led the army to reoccupy Berlin and dissolved the assembly in December.  But he was still in favour of unification for some time. So the Frankfurt Parliament offered him the crown of Germany on 3 April 1849. He did not accept it, but he tried to establish a union of German states excluding Austria. But rather soon after gave up this plan, when Austria did not accept it.\n\nWhen he had dismissed the national assembly, Frederick William decided to have a constitution with a parliament with two chambers, an aristocratic upper house and an elected lower house.  The lower house was elected by all taxpayers, but in a system that was based on the amount of taxes paid so that the rich had more influence than the poor.  The constitution also reserved for the king the power to appoint all ministers and reestablished the conservative district assemblies and provincial diets. And it guaranteed that the bureaucracy and the military remained firmly in the hands of the king.  This was a more liberal system than had existed in Prussia before 1848, but was still a conservative system of government in which the monarch, the aristocracy, and the military kept most of the power.  This constitution lasted until the end of the Prussian kingdom in 1918.\n\nAfter a stroke in 1857 the king was partially paralyzed and largely mentally weak, therefore his brother William became regent from 1858 until the king's death in 1861, then he became king himself as William I.\n\nAncestry\n\nWorks \nFrederick William IV of Prussia: Die K\u00f6nigin von Borneo. Ein Roman. Nicolai-Verlag, Berlin 1997,\n\nReferences \n\nFrederick William IV and the Prussian Monarchy 1840\u20131862, by David E. Barclay, (Oxford, 1995).\n\n1795 births\n1861 deaths\nPeople from Berlin\nHouse of Hohenzollern\nKnights of the Garter\nKings and Queens of Prussia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":294487,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frederick%20William%20IV%20of%20Prussia","title":"Frederick William IV of Prussia","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dr Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips is a Jamaican Canadian Islamic Scholar who converted to Islam in the early seventies after journeying politically and intellectually from Christianity to Communism. Shortly after his reversion to Islam, he embarked on a spiritual academic journey to the other side of the world seeking Islamic knowledge. This journey took him to Saudi Arabia where he completed a BA in Islamic studies in Madeenah, and an MA in Islamic Theology in Riyadh, then to the University of Wales, UK, where he completed a PhD in Islamic Theology in the early nineties.\n\nAfter graduation from Madeenah, Dr Bilal became a teacher of Islamic studies for 10 years in an Islamic High School, Manaret Riyadh, and a lecturer of Arabic and Islamic studies in the American University in Dubai, UAE, for another 10 years. During his 10 years in the UAE, he founded and taught at the Islamic Information Center in Dubai, and during his subsequent 7 years in Qatar he has been an Islamic consultant and lecturer for the Islamic Information wing of Sh. Eed Charity. Bilal Philips has written, translated and commented on over 50 published books on various Islamic topics. He has also edited and published the 56 book Eemaan Reading Series for children and presented Islamic programs for a number of years on Riyadh Channel 2TV, Sharjah TV for ten years, as well as Peace TV, Huda TV, Islam Channel, UK, and the Deen Show, Chicago, USA.\n\nIn 2002 Dr Philips founded and headed the Islamic studies department of Preston University, Ajman, UAE, and in 2007 he founded and headed the Islamic Studies Academy, Doha, Qatar, while simultaneously launching the International Open University (https:\/\/iou.edu.gm\/) which is currently offering free Islamic courses to over 100,000 registered students from over 207 different countries world wide, and for which he was included in the Jordanian publication, The 500 Most Influential Muslims (latest edition).\n\nBilal subsequently founded and headed, in 2008, the English medium Islamic studies department of Knowledge International University, who's Chancellor is Shaikh Dr. 'Abdur-Rahman ibn 'Abdil-Azeez Al Sudais and who's President of the board of trustees is Shaikh 'Abdul-Azeez ibn 'Abdullah Al Shaikh, Mufti of Saudi Arabia. More recently, in 2009, Dr Bilal Philips founded and headed the College of Da'wah and Islamic Culture (English Section), Omdurman Islamic University, Sudan, and established and directed Preston International College (www.prestonchennai.ac.in) in Chennai, India.\n\nIn March 2010, Dr Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips launched, for the first time in history, an accredited tuition-free BA in Islamic Studies degree course at the International Open University. (https:\/\/iou.edu.gm\/stream\/bais\/)\n\nReference\n\nOther websites \n\n \n Bilal Philips Official Website\n\nImams\nCanadian Muslims\nConverts to Islam\nIslamic University of Madinah alumni\nLiving people\n1946 births\nKing Saud University alumni","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":161,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":4,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":5,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":5,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":869898,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bilal%20Philips","title":"Bilal Philips","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Suatu tarian morris adalah sebentuk tarian rakyat Inggeris biasanya ditemani dengan muzik.  Ia berasas rentak berirama dan melaksanakan tokoh-tokoh koreograf oleh sekumpulan penari. Perkakas seperti kayu, pedang, sapu tangan dan loceng dapat juga digunakan oleh para penari. Dalam suatu bilangan kecil tarian untuk satu atau dua lelaki, langkah-langkah dipersembah berhampiran dangan di sepanjang sepasang paip tembakau tanah liat dibaring di sepanjang sesama sendiri di lantai.\n\nDakwaan bahawa rakaman Inggeris, bermula pada 1448, menyebut tarian morris terbuka pada pertikaian. Tiada sebutan tarian \"morris\" lebih awal dari lewat abad ke-15, walaupun rekod awal seperti Bishops' \"Visitation Articles\" menyebut tarian pedang, suatu pemuatan halaman istana, dan kedua-dua lelaki dan perempuan disebut menari, dan sedikit kemudian dalam Lord Mayors' Processions di London. Ia hanya kemudian bahawa ia bermula untuk menyebut sebagai suatu dipersembah di kariah. Sudah tentu tiada bukti yang ia adalah suatu upacara amal pra-Kristian, seperti ia sering didakwa.\n\nPada hari moden, ia adalah umum difikir sebagai aktiviti yang secara unik Inggeris, walaupun ada sekitar 150 tepi morris (atau pasukan) di Amerika Syarikat. Ekspatriat British membentuk suatu bahagian yang lebih besar tradisi morris di Australia, Kanada, New Zealand, dan Hong Kong. Ada kumpulan-kumpulan terpencil di negara-negara lain, contohnya mereka di Utrecht, Belanda, Arctic Morris Group of Helsinki and Stockholm, dan jua di Cyprus dan Alsace, France.\n\nAsal-usul istilah\n\nWhile there is still some dispute as to the origin of the term \"Morris\", the most widely accepted theory is that the term was moorish dance,  morisques in France, Moriskentanz in Germany, more\u0161ka in Croatia, and moresco, moresca or morisca in Italy and Spain, which eventually became morris dance. Dances with similar names and some similar features are mentioned in Renaissance documents in France, Italy, Germany, Croatia, and Spain; throughout, in fact, Catholic Europe. This is hardly surprising; by 1492 Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille succeeded in driving the Moors out of Spain and unifying the country. In celebration of this a pageant known as a Moresca was devised and performed. This can still be seen performed in places such as Ainsa, Aragon. Incorporated into this pageant was the local dance \u2014 the Paloteao. This too can still be seen performed in the villages of Aragon. The original \u00b4Moresca\u00b4 is a sword dance. The sticks in Morris dance are a residual of the swords in the 'Moresca'. The similarity to what became known as the English \"morris\" is undoubted. Early court records state that the \"moresque\" was performed at court in her  honour, including the dance \u2014 the \"moresque\" or \"morisce\" or \"morys\" dance.\n\n\"Morris\" is sometimes capitalized, though in this context it is not a proper noun.\n\nSejarah di England\n\nBefore the English Civil War, the working peasantry took part in morris dances, especially at Whitsun. In 1600 the Shakespearean actor William Kempe morris danced from London to Norwich, an event chronicled in his Nine Daies Wonder (1600). The Puritan government of Oliver Cromwell, however, suppressed Whitsun Ales and other such festivities. When the crown was restored by Charles II, the springtime festivals were restored. In particular, Whitsun Ales came to be celebrated on Whitsunday, as the date coincided with the birthday of Charles II. \n\nMorris dancing continued in popularity until the industrial revolution and its accompanying social changes. Four teams claim a continuous lineage of tradition within their village or town: Abingdon (their morris team was kept going by the Hemmings Family), Bampton, Headington Quarry, and Chipping Campden. Other villages have revived their own traditions, and hundreds of other teams across the globe have adopted (and adapted) these traditions, or have created their own styles from the basic building blocks of morris stepping and figures.\n\nSeveral English folklorists were responsible for recording and reviving the tradition in the early 20th century, often from a bare handful of surviving members of mid-19th-century village sides. Among these, the most notable are Cecil Sharp, Maud Karpeles, and Mary Neal. \n\nBoxing Day 1899 is widely regarded as the starting point for the morris revival. Cecil Sharp was visiting at a friend's house in Headington, near Oxford, when the Headington Quarry morris side arrived to perform. Sharp was intrigued by the music and collected several tunes from the side's musician, William Kimber; not until about a decade later, however, did he begin collecting the dances, spurred and at first assisted by Mary Neal, a founder of the Esp\u00e9rance Club (a dressmaking co-operative and club for young working women in London), and Herbert MacIlwaine, musical director of the Esp\u00e9rance Club. Neal was looking for dances for her girls to perform, and so the first revival performance was by young women in London.\n\nIn the first few decades of the 20th century, several men's sides were formed, and in 1934 the Morris Ring was founded by six revival sides. In the 1960s and especially the 1960s, there was an explosion of new dance teams, some of them women's or mixed sides. At the time, there was often heated debate over the propriety and even legitimacy of women dancing the morris, even though there is evidence as far back as the 16th century that there were female morris dancers. There are now male, female and mixed sides to be found.\n\nPartly because women's and mixed sides are not eligible for full membership of the Morris Ring, two other national (and international) bodies were formed, the Morris Federation and Open Morris. All three bodies provide communication, advice, insurance, instructionals (teaching sessions) and social and dancing opportunities to their members. The three bodies co-operate on some issues, while maintaining their distinct identities.\n\nLihat juga\n\n Ball de bastons\n C\u0103lu\u015fari\n Tarian Kebangsaan Inggeris\n Maculel\u00ea (dance)\n Pipe and Tabor \n Tarian senjata\nMorris: A Life with Bells On\n\nNota\n\nRujukan\n Forrest, John.The History of Morris Dancing, 1483-1750. Cambridge:James Clarke & Co Ltd, 1999.\n\nPautan luar\nMorrisbook Networking site for morris dancers\nBordering on the Insane: Confessions of a Shropshire Bedlam by John Kirkpatrick \nThe Complete Morris On and Other Plain Capers\nThe Morris Book A history of morris dancing by Cecil J. Sharp, from Project Gutenberg\nThe Moreska Dance in Island Korcula, Croatia\nThe Morrisdancing Page Links to morris sides and organizations\nMorris Dancing FAQs  Database of morris-related questions\nThe Origins of Morris By Chris Farr of Dartington Morris Men\nThe English Folk Dance and Song Society at Cecil Sharp House, London]\nFrom Ritual to Romance By Jesse L. Weston, at Project Gutenberg\nGoths and Pagans reinventing Morris Dancing (The Independent (UK), retrieved 11 May 2008)\nMorris dancing facing extinction (The Daily Telegraph (UK),\nMorris: A Life with Bells On IMDB article\nWelsh Morris\n\"Everybody Dance Now!\" an interview with London Morris Men\nMorrisDance.com\n\nBudaya rakyat Inggeris\nMitologi Inggeris\nMuzik Inggeris\nTarian","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":48,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-35":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":224914,"url":"https:\/\/ms.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tarian%20morris","title":"Tarian morris","language":"ms"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Amnesia is what doctors call a loss or disturbance of memory. It is a loss of memory, that is to say, a person cannot remember certain things. Amnesia can be caused when someone has brain damage, a disease or when something really stressful happens.\n\nThere are two \"main types\":\nAnterograde amnesia: Short term memory is not transferred to long-term memory any more. People with this type of amnesia cannot remember things for long periods of time.\nRetrograde amnesia: The person can no longer recall information that happened before a certain date. The date is usually the date of an accident or an operation. \n\nThe fact that adults usually cannot remember events that occurred in early childhood is called \"infantile amnesia\". It is attributed to the development of the brain or that of the child. It is not seen as a form of amnesia comparable to the other types.\n\nCauses\nThere are three main categories in which amnesia can happen to a person.\n\nHead trauma. This includes any kind of injury to the brain that might cause amnesia. \nTraumatic events. This happens when a person's mind is so stressed that it chooses to forget what happened rather than to deal with it.\nPhysical deficiencies. These are things that happen to your brain but it is different than head trauma because it mostly deals with complications that happen after surgery. \n\nSome other different types of amnesia include:\nCaused by an [Injury|trauma], for example a head injury; called post-traumatic amnesia.\nDissociative amnesia: Here the cause is psychological, and usually not related to physical damage in the brain. This includes\nRepressed memory (where it is not possible to remember a specific event) - The memory is usually still there, but the person blocks access to it; Stressful events such as being raped may lead to Dissociative amnesia\n Childhood amnesia - the inability of adults to remember certain parts of their childhood.\nDrug (usually [alcohol])-induced blackout - anterograde amnesia, affecting the immediate past\n\nAmnesia can be permanent, or it can be temporary. Damage to the [brain], or the use of certain [drug]s can cause amnesia. Some of these drugs are [sedative]s. Another well known cause for amnesia can be drinking too much [alcohol]. Those kinds of causes are called organic, because they can been directly seen. Other causes cannot directly be seen, they are called functional.  Rather they are [psychology|psychological] in their nature. People may want to shield off a traumatic event they witnessed, for example.\n\nAnother minor cause of amnesia is \"heartbreak\" in a relationship. It can lead to trauma, but it is not necessarily traumatic.\n\nTreatment\nSometimes certain types of amnesia fix themselves without being treated. There are also different types of therapy that work with the brain to help with amnesia. There is no medicine that can directly help with amnesia.\n\nMemory\nSymptoms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":44760,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amnesia","title":"Amnesia","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A number is a concept from mathematics, used to count or measure. Depending on the field of mathematics, where numbers are used, there are different definitions:\n People use symbols to represent numbers; they call them numerals. Common places where numerals are used are for labeling, as in telephone numbers, for ordering, as in serial numbers, or to put a unique identifier, as in an ISBN, a unique number that can identify a book.\n Cardinal numbers are used to measure how many items are in a set. For example, {A,B,C} has size \"3\".\n Ordinal numbers are used to specify a certain element in a set or sequence (first, second, third).\n\nNumbers are also used for other things like counting. Numbers are used when things are measured. Numbers are used to study how the world works. Mathematics is a way to use numbers to learn about the world and make things. The study of the rules of the natural world is called science. The work that uses numbers to make things is called engineering.\n\nNumbering methods\n\nNumbers for people \nThere are different ways of giving symbols to numbers. These methods are called number systems. The most common number system that people use is the base ten number system. The base ten number system is also called the decimal number system. The base ten number system is common because people have ten fingers and ten toes. There are 10 different symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) used in the base ten number system. These ten symbols are called digits.\n\nA symbol for a number is made up of these ten digits. The position of the digits shows how big the number is. For example, the number 23 in the decimal number system really means (2 times 10) plus 3. Similarly, 101 means 1 times a hundred (=100) plus 0 times 10 (=0) plus 1 times 1 (=1).\n\nNumbers for machines \nAnother number system is more common for machines. The machine number system is called the binary number system. The binary number system is also called the base two number system. There are two different symbols (0 and 1) used in the base two number system. These two symbols are called bits.\n\nA symbol for a binary number is made up of these two bit symbols. The position of the bit symbols shows how big the number is. For example, the number 10 in the binary number system really means 1 times 2 plus 0, and 101 means 1 times four (=4) plus 0 times two (=0) plus 1 times 1 (=1). The binary number 10 is the same as the decimal number 2. The binary number 101 is the same as the decimal number 5.\n\nNames of numbers \n\nEnglish has special names for some of the numbers in the decimal number system that are \"powers of ten\". All of these power of ten numbers in the decimal number system use just the symbol \"1\" and the symbol \"0\". For example, ten tens is the same as ten times ten, or one hundred. In symbols, this is \"10 \u00d7 10 = 100\". Also, ten hundreds is the same as ten times one hundred, or one thousand. In symbols, this is \"10 \u00d7 100 = 10 \u00d7 10 \u00d7 10 = 1000\". Some other powers of ten also have special names:\n\n 1 \u2013 one\n 10 \u2013 ten\n 100 \u2013 one hundred\n 1,000 \u2013 one thousand\n 1,000,000 \u2013 one million\n\nWhen dealing with larger numbers than this, there are two different ways of naming the numbers in English. Under the \"long scale\", a new name is given every time the number is a million times larger than the last named number. It is also called the \"British Standard\". This scale used to be common in Britain, but is not often used in English-speaking countries today. It is still used in some other European nations. \n\nAnother scale is the \"short scale\", under which a new name is given every time a number is a thousand times larger than the last named number. This scale is a lot more common in most English-speaking nations today.\n\n 1,000,000,000 \u2013 one billion (short scale), one milliard (long scale)\n 1,000,000,000,000 \u2013 one trillion (short scale), one billion (long scale)\n 1,000,000,000,000,000 \u2013 one quadrillion (short scale), one billiard (long scale)\n\nTypes of numbers\n\nNatural numbers \nNatural numbers are the numbers which we normally use for counting: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, etc. Some people say that 0 is a natural number, too. The set of all natural numbers is written as .\n\nAnother name for these numbers is positive numbers. These numbers are sometimes written as +1 to show that they are different from the negative numbers. But not all positive numbers are natural (for example,  is positive, but not natural).\n\nIf 0 is called a natural number, then the natural numbers are the same as the whole numbers. If 0 is not called a natural number, then the natural numbers are the same as the counting numbers. So if the words \"natural numbers\" are not used, then there will be less confusion about whether zero is included or not. But unfortunately, some say that zero is not a whole number, while others say that whole numbers can be negative. \"Positive integers\" and \"non-negative integers\" are another way to include zero or exclude zero, but only if people know those words.\n\nNegative numbers \nNegative numbers are numbers less than zero.\n\nOne way to think of negative numbers is to use a number line. We call one point on this line zero. Then we will label (write the name of) every position on the line by how far to the right of the zero point is. For example, the point one is one centimeter to the right, and the point two is two centimeters to the right.\n\nHowever, the point one centimeter to the left of the zero point cannot be point one, since there is already a point called one. We therefore call this point minus one (\u22121, as it is one centimeter away but in the opposite direction).\n\nA drawing of a number line is below.\n\nAll the normal operations of mathematics can be done with negative numbers:\n\n Adding a negative number to another is the same as taking away the positive number with the same numerals. For example, 5 + (\u22123) is the same as 5 \u2212 3, and equals 2.\n Taking away a negative number from another is the same as adding the positive number with the same numerals. For example, 5 \u2212 (\u22123) is the same as 5 + 3, and equals 8.\n Multiplying two negative numbers together produces a positive number. For example, \u22125 times \u22123 is 15.\n Multiplying a negative number by a positive number, or multiply a positive number by a negative number, produces a negative result. For example, 5 times \u22123 is \u221215.\n\nSince finding the square root of a negative number is impossible for real numbers (as negative times negative equals positive for real numbers), the square root of -1 is given a special name: i. This is also called the imaginary unit.\n\nIntegers \nIntegers are all the natural numbers, all their opposites, and the number zero. Decimal numbers and fractions are not integers.\n\nRational numbers \nRational numbers are numbers which can be written as fractions. This means that they can be written as a divided by b, where the numbers a and b are integers, and b is not zero.\n\nSome rational numbers, such as 1\/10, need a finite number of digits after the decimal point to write them in decimal form. The number one tenth is written in decimal form as 0.1. Numbers written with a finite decimal form are rational. Some rational numbers, such as 1\/11, need an infinite number of digits after the decimal point to write them in decimal form. There is a repeating pattern to the digits following the decimal point. The number one eleventh is written in decimal form as 0.0909090909 ... .\n\nA percentage could be called a rational number, because a percentage like 7% can be written as the fraction 7\/100. It can also be written as the decimal 0.07. Sometimes, a ratio is considered as a rational number.\n\nIrrational numbers \nIrrational numbers are numbers which cannot be written as a fraction, but do not have imaginary parts (explained later).\n\nIrrational numbers often occur in geometry. For example, if we have a square which has sides of 1 meter, the distance between opposite corners is the square root of two, which equals 1.414213 ... . This is an irrational number. Mathematicians have proved that the square root of every natural number is either an integer or an irrational number.\n\nOne well-known irrational number is pi. This is the circumference (distance around) of a circle divided by its diameter (distance across). This number is the same for every circle. The number pi is approximately 3.1415926535 ... .\n\nAn irrational number cannot be fully written down in decimal form. It would have an infinite number of digits after the decimal point, and unlike 0.333333 ..., these digits would not repeat forever.\n\nReal numbers \nReal numbers is a name for all the sets of numbers listed above:\n The rational numbers, including integers\n The irrational numbers\nThe real numbers form the real line. This is all the numbers that do not involve imaginary numbers.\n\nImaginary numbers \nImaginary numbers are formed by real numbers multiplied by the number i. This number is the square root of minus one (\u22121).\n\nThere is no number in the real numbers which when squared, makes the number \u22121. Therefore, mathematicians invented a number. They called this number i, or the imaginary unit.\n\nImaginary numbers operate under the same rules as real numbers:\n The sum of two imaginary numbers is found by pulling out (factoring out) the i. For example, 2i + 3i = (2 + 3)i = 5i.\n The difference of two imaginary numbers is found similarly.  For example, 5i \u2212 3i = (5 \u2212 3)i = 2i.\n When multiplying two imaginary numbers, remember that i \u00d7 i (i2) is \u22121.  For example, 5i \u00d7 3i = ( 5 \u00d7 3 ) \u00d7 ( i \u00d7 i ) = 15 \u00d7 (\u22121) = \u221215.\n\nImaginary numbers were called imaginary because when they were first found, many mathematicians did not think they existed. The person who discovered imaginary numbers was Gerolamo Cardano in the 1500s. The first to use the words imaginary number was Ren\u00e9 Descartes. The first people to use these numbers were Leonard Euler and Carl Friedrich Gauss. Both lived in the 18th century.\n\nComplex numbers \nComplex numbers are numbers which have two parts; a real part and an imaginary part. Every type of number written above is also a complex number.\n\nComplex numbers are a more general form of numbers. The complex numbers can be drawn on a number plane. This is composed of a real number line, and an imaginary number line.\n\n            3i|_\n              |\n              |\n            2i|_          . 2+2i\n              |\n              |\n             i|_\n              |\n              |\n  |_|_|_|_|_|_|_|_|\n \u22122    \u22121     0     1     2     3     4     5     6\n              |\n            \u2212i|_                .3\u2212i\n              |\n              |\n  .\u22122\u22122i   \u22122i|_\n              |\n              |\n           \u22123i|_\n              |\n\nAll of normal mathematics can be done with complex numbers:\n To add two complex numbers, add the real and imaginary parts separately. For example, (2 + 3i) + (3 + 2i)  = (2 + 3) + (3 + 2)i= 5 + 5i.\n To subtract one complex number from another, subtract the real and imaginary parts separately. For example, (7 + 5i) \u2212 (3 + 3i) = (7 \u2212 3) + (5 \u2212 3)i = 4 + 2i.\n\nTo multiply two complex numbers is more complicated. It is easiest to describe in general terms, with two complex numbers a + bi and c + di.\n\nFor example, (4 + 5i) \u00d7 (3 + 2i) = (4 \u00d7 3 \u2212 5 \u00d7 2) + (4 \u00d7 2 + 5 \u00d7 3)i = (12 \u2212 10) + (8 + 15)i = 2 + 23i.\n\nTranscendental numbers \nA real or complex number is called a transcendental number if it can not be obtained as a result of an algebraic equation with integer coefficients.\n\nProving that a certain number is transcendental can be extremely difficult. Each transcendental number is also an irrational number. The first people to see that there were transcendental numbers were Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Leonhard Euler. The first to actually prove there were transcendental numbers was Joseph Liouville. He did this in 1844.\n\nSome well-known transcendental numbers include:\n e\n \u03c0\n ea for algebraic a \u2260 0\n\nRelated pages \n\n Names of numbers in English\n\nNotes \n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":189,"dup_dump_count":91,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":5,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":5,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":528,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Number","title":"Number","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Digital Light Processing (DLP) is a set of chipsets based on optical micro-electro-mechanical technology that uses a digital micromirror device. It was originally developed in 1987 by Larry Hornbeck of Texas Instruments. While the DLP imaging device was invented by Texas Instruments, the first DLP-based projector was introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997. Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were both awarded Emmy Awards in 1998 for the DLP projector technology. DLP is used in a variety of display applications from traditional static displays to interactive displays and also non-traditional embedded applications including medical, security, and industrial uses.\n\nDLP technology is used in DLP front projectors (standalone projection units for classrooms and business primarily), DLP rear projection television sets, and digital signs. It is also used in about 85% of digital cinema projection, and in additive manufacturing as a light source in some printers to cure resins into solid 3D objects.\n\nSmaller \u2033pico\u2033 chipsets are used in mobile devices including cell phone accessories and projection display functions embedded directly into phones.\n\nDigital micromirror device \n\nIn DLP projectors, the image is created by microscopically small mirrors laid out in a matrix on a semiconductor chip, known as a digital micromirror device (DMD). These mirrors are so small that DMD pixel pitch may be 5.4\u00a0\u00b5m or less. Each mirror represents one or more pixels in the projected image. The number of mirrors corresponds to the resolution of the projected image (often half as many mirrors as the advertised resolution due to wobulation). 800\u00d7600, 1024\u00d7768, 1280\u00d7720, and 1920\u00d71080 (HDTV) matrices are some common DMD sizes. These mirrors can be repositioned rapidly to reflect light either through the lens or onto a heat sink (called a light dump in Barco terminology).\n\nRapidly toggling the mirror between these two orientations (essentially on and off) produces grayscales, controlled by the ratio of on-time to off-time.\n\nColor in DLP projection \nThere are two primary methods by which DLP projection systems create a color image: those used by single-chip DLP projectors, and those used by three-chip projectors.  A third method, sequential illumination by three colored light emitting diodes, is being developed, and is currently used in televisions manufactured by Samsung.\n\nSingle-chip projectors \n\nIn a projector with a single DLP chip, colors are produced either by placing a color wheel between a white lamp and the DLP chip or by using individual light sources to produce the primary colors, LEDs or lasers for example. The color wheel is divided into multiple sectors: the primary additive colors: red, green, and blue, and in many cases white (clear). Newer systems substitute the primary subtractive colors cyan, magenta, and yellow for white. The use of the subtractive colors is part of the newer color performance system called BrilliantColor which processes the additive colors along with the subtractive colors to create a broader spectrum of possible color combinations on the screen.\n\nThe DLP chip is synchronized with the rotating motion of the color wheel so that the green component is displayed on the DMD when the green section of the color wheel is in front of the lamp. The same is true for the red, blue and other sections. The colors are thus displayed sequentially at a sufficiently high rate that the observer sees a composite \"full color\" image. In early models, this was one rotation per frame. Now, most systems operate at up to 10\u00d7 the frame rate.\n\nThe black level of a single-chip DLP depends on how unused light is being disposed. If the unused light is scattered to reflect and dissipate on the rough interior walls of the DMD \/ lens chamber, this scattered light will be visible as a dim gray on the projection screen, when the image is fully dark. Deeper blacks and higher contrast ratios are possible by directing unused HID light away from the DMD \/ lens chamber into a separate area for dissipation, and shielding the light path from unwanted internal secondary reflections.\n\nThe color wheel \"rainbow effect\" \n1 chip DLP projectors utilizing a mechanical spinning color wheel may exhibit an anomaly known as the \"rainbow effect\". This is best described as brief flashes of perceived red, blue, and green \"shadows\" observed most often when the projected content features high contrast areas of moving bright or white objects on a mostly dark or black background. Common examples are the scrolling end credits of many movies, and also animations with moving objects surrounded by a thick black outline. Brief visible separation of the colors can also be apparent when the viewer's gaze is moved quickly across the projected image. Some people perceive these rainbow artifacts frequently, while others may never see them at all.\n\nThis effect is caused by the way the eye follows a moving object on the projection.  When an object on the screen moves, the eye follows the object with a constant motion, but the projector displays each alternating color of the frame at the same location for the duration of the whole frame.  So, while the eye is moving, it sees a frame of a specific color (red, for example).  Then, when the next color is displayed (green, for example), although it gets displayed at the same location overlapping the previous color, the eye has moved toward the object's next frame target.  Thus, the eye sees that specific frame color slightly shifted.  Then, the third color gets displayed (blue, for example), and the eye sees that frame's color slightly shifted again.  This effect is not perceived only for the moving object, but the whole picture. Multi-color LED-based and laser-based single-chip projectors are able to eliminate the spinning wheel and minimize the rainbow effect, since the pulse rates of LEDs and lasers are not limited by physical motion. Three-chip DLP projectors function without color wheels, and therefore do not manifest this rainbow artifact.\"\n\nThree-chip projectors \nA three-chip DLP projector uses a prism to split light from the lamp, and each primary color of light is then routed to its own DMD chip, then recombined and routed out through the lens. Three chip systems are found in higher-end home theater projectors, large venue projectors and DLP Cinema projection systems found in digital movie theaters.\n\nAccording to DLP.com, the three-chip projectors used in movie theaters can produce 35 trillion colors. The human eye is suggested to be able to detect around 16 million colors , which is theoretically possible with the single chip solution. However, this high color precision does not mean that three-chip DLP projectors are capable of displaying the entire gamut of colors we can distinguish (this is fundamentally impossible with any system composing colors by adding three constant base colors).  In contrast, it is the one-chip DLP projectors that have the advantage of allowing any number of primary colors in a sufficiently fast color filter wheel, and so the possibility of improved color gamuts is available.\n\nLight source \n\nDLP technology is independent of the light-source and as such can be used effectively with a variety of light sources.  Historically, the main light source used on DLP display systems has been a replaceable high-pressure xenon arc lamp unit (containing a quartz arc tube, reflector, electrical connections, and sometimes a quartz\/glass shield), whereas most pico category (ultra-small) DLP projectors use high-power LEDs or lasers as a source of illumination.\nSince 2021 a laser light source has become very common on many professional projectors, for example the Panasonic PT-RZ990.\n\nXenon arc lamps \nFor xenon arc lamps, a constant-current supply is used, which starts with a sufficiently high open-circuit voltage (between 5 and 20\u00a0kV, depending on lamp) to cause an arc to strike between the electrodes, and once the arc is established, the voltage across the lamp drops to a given value (typically 20 to 50 volts) while the current increases to a level required to maintain the arc at optimal brightness. As the lamp ages, its efficiency declines, due to electrode wear, resulting in a reduction in visible light and an increase in the amount of waste heat. The lamp's end of life is typically indicated by an LED on the unit or an onscreen text warning, necessitating replacement of the lamp unit.\n\nContinued operation of the lamp past its rated lifespan may result in a further decrease in efficiency, the lightcast may become uneven, and the lamp may eventually become hot enough to the point that the power wires can melt off the lamp terminals. Eventually, the required start-up voltage will also rise to the point where ignition can no longer occur. Secondary protections such as a temperature monitor may shut down the projector, but a thermally over-stressed quartz arc tube can also crack or explode. Practically all lamp housings contain heat-resistant barriers (in addition to those on the lamp unit itself) to prevent the red-hot quartz fragments from leaving the area.\n\nLED-based DLPs \nThe first commercially available LED-based DLP HDTV was the Samsung HL-S5679W in 2006, which also eliminated the use of a color wheel. Besides long lifetime eliminating the need for lamp replacement and elimination of the color wheel, other advantages of LED illumination include instant-on operation and improved color, with increased color saturation and improved color gamut to over 140% of the NTSC color gamut. Samsung expanded the LED model line-up in 2007 with products available in 50-, 56- and 61-inch screen sizes. In 2008, the third generation of Samsung LED DLP products were available in 61- (HL61A750) and 67-inch (HL67A750) screen sizes.\n\nOrdinary LED technology does not produce the intensity and high-lumen output characteristics required to replace arc lamps. The special patented LEDs used in all of the Samsung DLP TVs are PhlatLight LEDs, designed and manufactured by US-based Luminus Devices. A single RGB PhlatLight LED chipset illuminates these projection TVs. The PhlatLight LEDs are also used in a new class of ultra-compact DLP front projector commonly referred to as a \"pocket projector\" and have been introduced in new models from LG Electronics (HS101), Samsung electronics (SP-P400) and Casio (XJ-A series). Home Theater projectors will be the next category of DLP projectors that will use PhlatLight LED technology. At InfoComm, June 2008 Luminus and TI announced their collaboration on using their technology on home theater and business projectors and demonstrated a prototype PhlatLight LED-based DLP home theater front projector. They also announced products will be available in the marketplace later in 2008 from Optoma and other companies to be named later in the year.\n\nLuminus Devices PhlatLight LEDs have also been used by Christie Digital in their DLP-based MicroTiles display system. It is a modular system built from small (20\u00a0inch diagonal) rear projection cubes, which can be stacked and tiled together to form large display canvasses with very small seams. The scale and shape of the display can have any size, only constrained by practical limits.\n\nLaser-based DLPs \nThe first commercially available laser-based DLP HDTV was the Mitsubishi L65-A90 LaserVue in 2008, which also eliminated the use of a color wheel. Three separate color lasers illuminate the digital micromirror device (DMD) in these projection TVs, producing a richer, more vibrant color palette than other methods. See the laser video display article for more information.\n\nDigital cinema \n\nDLP Cinema systems have been deployed and tested commercially in theatres since 1999. In June 1999, Star Wars: Episode I \u2013 The Phantom Menace was the first movie to be entirely scanned and distributed to theaters. Four theaters installed digital projectors for the movie's release. The same was done for the animated film Tarzan that same year. Later that year, Toy Story 2 was the first movie to be entirely created, edited, and distributed digitally, with more theaters installing digital projectors for its release.  DLP Cinema was the first commercial digital cinema technology and is the leading digital cinema technology with approximately 85% market share worldwide as of December 2011. Digital cinema has some advantages over film because film can be subject to color fading, jumping, scratching and dirt accumulation.  Digital cinema allows the movie content to remain of consistent quality over time. Today, most movie content is also captured digitally. The first all-digital live action feature shot without film was the 2002 release, Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones.\n\nDLP Cinema does not manufacture the end projectors, but rather provides the projection technology and works closely with Barco, Christie Digital and NEC who make the end projection units.  DLP Cinema is available to theatre owners in multiple resolutions depending on the needs of the exhibitor.  These include, 2K \u2013 for most theatre screens, 4K  - for large theatre screens, and S2K, which was specifically designed for small theatres, particularly in emerging markets worldwide.\n\nOn February 2, 2000, Philippe Binant, technical manager of Digital Cinema Project at Gaumont in France, realized the first digital cinema projection in Europe with the DLP CINEMA technology developed by Texas Instruments. DLP is the current market-share leader in professional digital movie projection, largely because of its high contrast ratio and available resolution as compared to other digital front-projection technologies. As of December 2008, there are over 6,000 DLP-based Digital Cinema Systems installed worldwide.\n\nDLP projectors are also used in RealD Cinema and newer IMAX theatres for 3-D films.\n\nManufacturers and marketplace \n\nSince being introduced commercially in 1996, DLP technology has quickly gained market share in the front projection market and now holds greater than 50% of the worldwide share in front projection in addition to 85% market share in digital cinema worldwide. Additionally, in the pico category (small, mobile display) DLP technology holds approximately 70% market share.   Over 30 manufacturers use the DLP chipset to power their projection display systems.\n\nPros \n Smooth (at 1080p resolution), jitter-free images.\n Perfect geometry and excellent grayscale linearity achievable.\n Usually excellent ANSI contrast.\n The use of a replaceable light source means a potentially longer life than CRTs and plasma displays (this may also be a con as listed below).\n The light source is more-easily replaceable than the backlights used with LCDs, and on DLPs is often user-replaceable.\n The light from the projected image is not inherently polarized.\n New LED and laser DLP display systems more or less eliminate the need for lamp replacement.\n DLP offers affordable 3D projection display from a single unit and can be used with both active and passive 3D solutions.\n Lighter weight than LCD and plasma televisions.\n Unlike their LCD and plasma counterparts, DLP screens do not rely on fluids as their projection medium and are therefore not limited in size by their inherent mirror mechanisms, making them ideal for increasingly larger high-definition theater and venue screens.\n DLP projectors can process up to seven separate colors, giving them a wider color gamut.\n\nCons \n\n Some viewers are bothered by the \"rainbow effect\" present in colour-wheel models - particularly in older models (explained above). This can be observed easily by using a camera's digital viewfinder on projected content.\n Rear projection DLP TVs are not as thin as LCD or plasma flat-panel displays (although approximately comparable in weight), although some models as of 2008 are becoming wall-mountable (while still being  thick)\n Replacement of the lamp \/ light bulb in lamp-based units.  The life span of an arc lamp averages 2000\u20135000 hours and the replacement cost for these range from $99 \u2013 350, depending on the brand and model.   Newer generations' units use LEDs or lasers which effectively eliminate this issue, although replacement LED chips could potentially be required over the extended lifespan of the television set.\n Some viewers find the high pitch whine of the color wheel to be an annoyance. However, the drive system can be engineered to be silent and some projectors don't produce any audible color wheel noise.\n Dithering noise may be noticeable, especially in dark image areas. Newer (post \u22482004) chip generations have less noise than older ones.\n Error-diffusion artifacts caused by averaging a shade over different pixels, since one pixel cannot render the shade exactly\n Response time in video games may be affected by upscaling lag. While all HDTVs have some lag when upscaling lower resolution input to their native resolution, DLPs are commonly reported to have longer delays. Newer consoles that have HD output signals do not have this problem as long as they are connected with HD-capable cables.\n Reduced viewing angle as compared to direct-view technologies such as CRT, plasma, and LCD\n May use more electricity, and generate more heat, than competing technologies.\n\nDLP, LCD, and LCoS rear projection \nThe most similar competing system to DLP is known as LCoS (liquid crystal on silicon), which creates images using a stationary mirror mounted on the surface of a chip, and uses a liquid crystal matrix (similar to a liquid crystal display) to control how much light is reflected. DLP-based television systems are also arguably considered to be smaller in depth than traditional projection television.\n\nSee also \n\n 3LCD\n Comparison of display technology\n Handheld projector\n Inflatable movie screen\n Large-screen television technology\n Laser video display\n Liquid crystal on silicon\n Organic light-emitting diode (OLED)\n Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED)\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Binant, Philippe. Au coeur de la projection num\u00e9rique, Actions, 29, 12\u201313, Kodak, Paris, 2007.\n\nExternal links \n Boxlight Corp. DLP White Paper, Netsuite.com\n \n\nAmerican inventions\nDisplay technology\nHome video\nOptoelectronics\nProjectors\nTexas Instruments hardware","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":516115,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital%20Light%20Processing","title":"Digital Light Processing","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"William Bligh (9 September 1754\u20137 December 1817) was an English officer in the British Navy. He sailed with Captain James Cook on his third and final voyage in 1776. In 1787 Bligh was made captain of HMS Bounty and sailed to Tahiti to collect breadfruit trees. A Mutiny on the Bounty prevented finishing this task. In 1806 he was made Governor of New South Wales. After going back to England, Bligh was made a Rear-Admiral and later a Vice-Admiral in the Royal Navy.\n\nEarly Life\nBligh joined the navy at age 16 when he became an able seaman on HMS Hunter in 1770. In September 1771 he changed ships and served on HMS Crescent. At 21 (17 March 1776) he was made the master of Captain James Cook's ship, the Resolution, part of Cook's third and final voyage. Bligh got back to England in 1780. He left the Royal Navy and worked as a captain in the merchant navy from 1783 to 1787.\n\nThe Bounty\n\nIn 1787 Bligh became leader of a small expedition to be sent to Tahiti to get breadfruit trees. These would be planted in the West Indies as food for the slaves.  The Bounty left Tahiti loaded with breadfruit trees on 4 April 1789. Three weeks later, a seaman named Fletcher Christian led a mutiny (take over) of the ship. Christian wanted to go back to Tahiti. This event is called the Mutiny on the Bounty. Bligh and 18 seamen were put into a small boat, with little food or water, four swords, a sextant, a pocket watch, but no map. They were able to get to Batavia (now Jakarta), a distance of 6701 km, in 47 days. Bligh finally got back to England in March, 1790. He wrote a book about the mutiny called A Narrative of the Mutiny on board His Majesty's Ship \"Bounty\". \n\nIn August 1791 Bligh set out again to get breadfruit trees. He was also told to find out more about Torres Strait, between Australia and New Guinea. He took two ships, the Providence and the Assistant, getting back to England in August 1793.\n\nGovernor\nBligh spent the next 10 years in the Royal Navy. In March 1805 he was given the job of Governor of New South Wales. He left England in February 1806 and arrived in Sydney in August. One of his jobs was to control the supply of alcohol into the young colony. In Sydney at this time, alcohol was used as a form of money, which caused a lot of unrest among the settlers. The army officers and several other people in New South Wales had a monopoly on bringing alcohol into the country. They were very angry with Bligh because he tried to control their alcohol business.\n\nThe Rum Rebellion\n\nThe officers started legal actions against Bligh who then had one of the settlers John Macarthur arrested for sedition (trying to start a rebellion against the government). One of the soldiers, Major George Johnston, let Macarthur out of jail, and on 26 January 1808, he led the army to Government House and put Bligh under arrest. The army then took over the government. This became known as the Rum Rebellion. After one year Bligh was released on the condition that he went back to England. He agreed, but then sailed to Hobart to try and get help from Colonel David Collins who was the Lieutenant-Governor of Tasmania. Collins did not offer help and Bligh remained in Hobart for another year. \n\nThe British government sent out a new governor, Lachlan Macquarie. Bligh and Major Johnston went back to London, arriving on 25 October 1810. In the legal action all the charges against Bligh were found not to be true, and Johnston was found to be guilty. Johnson was sacked from the army, and in 1811 Bligh was made a Rear-Admiral, and later a Vice-Admiral. He retired to Kent. Bligh died on a visit to London on 7 December 1817.\n\nRelated pages\nMutiny on the Bounty\n\nReferences\n\n Australian Encyclopaedia, Vol 2, pgs. 32-33, Angus and Robertson, 1958\nDictionary of Biography On-line\n\nOther websites\n Notebook of William Bligh\n\n1754 births\n1817 deaths\nBritish admirals\nEnglish explorers\nGovernors of New South Wales\nMutiny on the Bounty\nPeople from Cornwall","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":110504,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William%20Bligh","title":"William Bligh","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A mayor is a person who is in charge of the administration of a city.  Some mayors are elected by the people who live in that city.  For other cities, a central government body may choose the mayor.  Some large cities have a Lord Mayor.\n\nIn federal countries like Germany the mayor can also be head of the government of a city state. The Mayor of Hamburg runs the government just like the Minister President of Bavaria runs the Bavarian government. In some big cities such as Tokyo the Mayor is a Governor.\n\nIn many countries, such as the United Kingdom and Australia, the mayor is not in charge of the daily functions of a city or town. That job is done by a Town Clerk or Chief Executive, who is appointed to a full-time paid job. The mayor works part-time, usually without payment, and represents the city at events and civic functions. \n\n \nGovernment occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":3,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1}},"id":31095,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mayor","title":"Mayor","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Ponzi scheme is a special kind of fraud. It is based on a fake investment that one schemer (or group of schemers) gets other people to give money to.\n\nIn Ponzi schemes, the schemer basically says, \"I found a great way to make money fast. The more you give me, the more I can invest in that cause, and the more I can earn for us all\". But a Ponzi scheme doesn't actually \"earn money\". Instead, all of the scheme's money comes from the investors.\n\nOnce a Ponzi scheme gets too many investors, the system will always crash. This is because the investors all expect more money than they invested, and they will get impatient.\n\nThese schemes always stop one of three ways:\n The schemer runs away with the money they got. This is what schemers try to do.\n The schemer runs out of money; They will be unable to promise money back right away. This is called liquidity, and makes investors panic and demand their money back, often all at once.\n Authorities (or sometimes whistleblowers on the inside) find out about the scheme and stop it.\n\nThe scheme was named after a man named Charles Ponzi. He used the scheme after moving from Italy to the United States in 1903. (Ponzi didn't invent the scheme, though. In 1857, Charles Dickens wrote a book called Little Dorrit about a scheme like this. The scheme is a simple idea, and probably very old.) However, Ponzi's scheme was so big that it became the most popular. His original scheme was based on using countries' money-exchange rates to make money, based on international postage stamps. But money soon stopped being invested in coupons, and went to early investors, and a lot to Ponzi himself. \n\nPonzi schemes can be run anywhere, even online, and are being run even now.\n\nMore examples \nPeople advertising Ponzi schemes often use impressive words, that are actually very vague. Examples are:\nHedge Futures Trading (taking a good risk)\nHigh-yield investment programs (gives you back a lot of money)\nOffshore Investment (makes money easily in other countries)\nSchemers often depend on investors not actually knowing about economics. The Madoff scandal of 2008 showed that even sophisticated people like bankers can fall for them. People are fooled by the schemer seeming to have financial skill or reputation. \n\nSometimes, the schemers claim that money can only be made if the investment is kept a secret (away from the authorities or public). For example, Bernard Madoff only allowed the accounting firm run by his brother-in-law to perform audits on his \"hedge fund\", claiming it had to be kept a secret to earn money. \n\nSince the investment is very vague, not many investors come very fast. But the scheme often gets speed like this:\n An early investor earns money and gets to keep it. It's actually money from a later investor, but the early investor doesn't know this.\n This investor is very happy, and tells other people about the \"investment\", wanting to help the \"investment\" make more money for all of them.\n New investors tell more investors, etc.\n\nSchemers often try to tempt the early investors to \"re-invest\" the money they've \"earned\". Schemers sometimes send investors \"invoices\", showing investors how much they've \"earned\" and how much they'll keep \"earning\" if they keep \"investing\".\n\nSchemers also try to make sure new investors can't take their money back, by making the rules tighter. In this case, the schemer will often have a few investors say they kept their money, making the investment still look productive enough to be good.\n\nWhat is not a Ponzi scheme \n A multilevel pyramid scheme is like a Ponzi scheme. Both rely on fake financial promises and investments, but there are differences:\nIn a multilevel scheme, the second \"level\" of investors find their own investors to make a third \"level\", each profiting directly from the next level. Ponzi schemes \"center\" around the original schemer.\nMultilevel schemes only brag about the money the investors from getting new investors. This makes multilevel schemes look good to poor people. Ponzi schemes brag about having special connections with hard-to-find sources. This makes Ponzi schemes look good to rich people\nMultilevel schemes \"crash\" faster. This is because multilevel schemes depend completely on finding new victims. Ponzi schemers can just tempt early investors to reinvest the money they've gotten.\n\n A bubble: A \"bubble\" is about re-selling. A bubble is when people buy up all of a product they can, to re-sell it all at a higher price, as many times as they can. The bubble \"pops\" when buyers stop buying the product, and re-sellers are stuck with product they paid too much for. (The product can be anything.) As long as buyers keep paying more, re-sellers can keep making money. Bubbles don't even need central schemers, because people can do this accidentally. (For example, land prices can \"bubble\" this way. Prices can increase from wanting to build close to big neighborhoods. Once there's no more new land, re-sellers are stuck with their land.) Bubbles are often said to be based on the \"greater fool\" theory (depending on people who are \"fooled\" into paying \"greater\" prices).  But really, according to the Austrian Business Cycle Theory, bubbles are caused by giving loans to buyers for a certain kind of transaction, and in this case would qualify as a Ponzi scheme. In this case, the loan-givers are the schemers, making money from the losing re-sellers.\n\n \"Robbing Peter to pay Paul\": This is when people with debt borrow money to pay their debt, and borrow more money to pay back that debt. This is not a Ponzi scheme, because the debt-havers were not promised high returns or anything. Also, the lenders don't always make money.\n\n Multi-level marketing: Multi-level marketing (MLM) is when companies sell investors things to re-sell directly to customers. Re-sellers can also make money by referring new re-sellers to the company. This may seem similar to a pyramid scheme, but it's not always the same thing. Honest and legal multi-level markets do exist, and a lot of them simply make money by buying in bulk..\n\nRelated pages\n White-collar crime\n\nReferences\n\nMore reading\n\nOther websites \n Ponzi scheme definition with distinctions, history, and other information\nFinancial crimes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1}},"id":189238,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ponzi%20scheme","title":"Ponzi scheme","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Nuevo Le\u00f3n is a state in the northeast of Mexico and south of Texas. It is known as the financial center of the country. It has a wide range of tourist attractions, such as museums, thematic parks, natural parks, grottos, as well as archaeological sites, gastronomy, and folklore. Its capital, Monterrey, the city of the mountains, is host venue of important international events, congresses, fairs, conventions and exhibitions.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":155,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":6}},"id":38087,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuevo%20Le%C3%B3n","title":"Nuevo Le\u00f3n","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Waterproofing is the process of making an object or structure waterproof or water-resistant so that it remains relatively unaffected by water or resisting the ingress of water under specified conditions. Such items may be used in wet environments or underwater to specified depths.\n\nWater-resistant and waterproof often refer to resistance to penetration of water in its liquid state and possibly under pressure, whereas damp proof refers to resistance to humidity or dampness. Permeation of water vapour through a material or structure is reported as a moisture vapor transmission rate (MVTR).\n\nThe hulls of boats and ships were once waterproofed by applying tar or pitch. Modern items may be waterproofed by applying water-repellent coatings or by sealing seams with gaskets or o-rings.\n\nWaterproofing is used in reference to building structures (such as basements, decks, or wet areas), watercraft, canvas, clothing (raincoats or waders), electronic devices and paper packaging (such as cartons for liquids).\n\nIn construction\n\nIn construction, a building or structure is waterproofed with the use of membranes and coatings to protect contents and structural integrity. The waterproofing of the building envelope in construction specifications is listed under 07 - Thermal and Moisture Protection within MasterFormat 2004, by the Construction Specifications Institute, and includes roofing and waterproofing materials.\n\nIn building construction, waterproofing is a fundamental aspect of creating a building envelope, which is a controlled environment. The roof covering materials, siding, foundations, and all of the various penetrations through these surfaces must be water-resistant and sometimes waterproof. Roofing materials are generally designed to be water-resistant and shed water from a sloping roof, but in some conditions, such as ice damming and on flat roofs, the roofing must be waterproof. Many types of waterproof membrane systems are available, including felt paper or tar paper with asphalt or tar to make a built-up roof, other bituminous waterproofing, ethylene propylene diene monomer EPDM rubber, hypalon, polyvinyl chloride, liquid roofing, and more.\n\nWalls are not subjected to standing water, and the water-resistant membranes used as housewraps are designed to be porous enough to let moisture escape. Walls also have vapor barriers or air barriers. Damp proofing is another aspect of waterproofing. Masonry walls are built with a damp-proof course to prevent rising damp, and the concrete in foundations needs to be damp-proofed or waterproofed with a liquid coating, basement waterproofing membrane (even under the concrete slab floor where polyethylene sheeting is commonly used), or an additive to the concrete.\n\nWithin the waterproofing industry, below-ground waterproofing is generally divided into two areas:\n Tanking: This is waterproofing used where the below-ground structure will be sitting in the water table continuously or periodically. This causes hydrostatic pressure on both the membrane and structure and requires full encapsulation of the basement structure in a tanking membrane, under slab and walls.\n Damp proofing: This is waterproofing used where the water table is lower than the structure and there is good free-draining fill. The membrane deals with the shedding of water and the ingress of water vapor only, with no hydrostatic pressure. Generally, this incorporates a damp proof membrane (DPM) to the walls with a polythene DPM under the slab. With higher grade DPM, some protection from short-term Hydrostatic pressure can be gained by transitioning the higher quality wall DPM to the slab polythene under the footing, rather than at the footing face.\n\nIn buildings using earth sheltering, too much humidity can be a potential problem, so waterproofing is critical. Water seepage can lead to mold growth, causing significant damage and air quality issues. Properly waterproofing foundation walls is required to prevent deterioration and seepage.\n\nAnother specialized area of waterproofing is rooftop decks and balconies. Waterproofing systems have become quite sophisticated and are a very specialized area. Failed waterproof decks, whether made of polymer or tile, are one of the leading causes of water damage to building structures and personal injury when they fail. Where major problems occur in the construction industry is when improper products are used for the wrong application. While the term waterproof is used for many products, each of them has a very specific area of application, and when manufacturer specifications and installation procedures are not followed, the consequences can be severe. Another factor is the impact of expansion and contraction on waterproofing systems for decks. Decks constantly move with changes in temperatures, putting stress on the waterproofing systems. One of the leading causes of waterproof deck system failures is the movement of underlying substrates (plywood) that cause too much stress on the membranes resulting in a failure of the system. While beyond the scope of this reference document, waterproofing of decks and balconies is a complex of many complimentary elements. These include the waterproofing membrane used, adequate slope-drainage, proper flashing details, and proper construction materials.\n\nThe penetrations through a building envelope must be built in a way such that water does not enter the building, such as using flashing and special fittings for pipes, vents, wires, etc. Some caulkings are durable, but many are unreliable for waterproofing.\n\nAlso, many types of geomembranes are available to control water, gases, or pollution.\n\nFrom the late 1990s to the 2010s, the construction industry has had technological advances in waterproofing materials, including integral waterproofing systems and more advanced membrane materials. Integral systems such as hycrete work within the matrix of a concrete structure, giving the concrete itself a waterproof quality. There are two main types of integral waterproofing systems: the hydrophilic and the hydrophobic systems. A hydrophilic system typically uses a crystallization technology that replaces the water in the concrete with insoluble crystals. Various brands available in the market claim similar properties, but not all can react with a wide range of cement hydration by-products and thus require caution. Hydrophobic systems use concrete sealers or even fatty acids to block pores within the concrete, preventing water passage.\n\nSometimes the same materials used to keep water out of buildings are used to keep water in, such as a pool or pond liners.\n\nNew membrane materials seek to overcome shortcomings in older methods like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Generally, new technology in waterproof membranes relies on polymer-based materials that are very adhesive to create a seamless barrier around the outside of a structure.\n\nWaterproofing should not be confused with roofing, since roofing cannot necessarily withstand hydrostatic head while waterproofing can.\n\nThe standards for waterproofing bathrooms in domestic construction have improved over the years, due in large part to the general tightening of building codes.\n\nIn clothing\n\nSome garments, and tents, are designed to give greater or lesser protection against rain. For urban use raincoats and jackets are used; for outdoor activities in rough weather there is a range of hiking apparel. Typical descriptions are \"showerproof\", \"water resistant\", and \"waterproof\". These terms are not precisely defined. A showerproof garment will usually be treated with a water-resisting coating, but is not rated to resist a specific hydrostatic head. This is suitable for protection against light rain, but after a short time water will penetrate. A water-resistant garment is similar, perhaps slightly more resistant to water but also not rated to resist a specific hydrostatic head. A garment described as waterproof will have a water-repellent coating, with the seams also taped to prevent water ingress there. Better waterproof garments have a membrane lining designed to keep water out but allow trapped moisture to escape (\"breathability\")\u2014a totally waterproof garment would retain body sweat and become clammy. Waterproof garments specify their hydrostatic rating, ranging from 1,500 for light rain, to 20,000 for heavy rain.\n\nWaterproof garments are intended for use in weather conditions which are often windy as well as wet and are usually also wind resistant.\n\nFootwear can also be made waterproof by using a variety of methods including but not limited to, the application of beeswax, waterproofing spray, or mink oil.\n\nIn other objects\nWaterproofing methods have been implemented in many types of objects, including paper packaging, cosmetics, and more recently, consumer electronics. Electronic devices used in military and severe commercial environments are routinely conformally coated in accordance with IPC-CC-830 to resist moisture and corrosion but encapsulation is needed to become truly waterproof. Even though it is possible to find waterproof wrapping or other types of protective cases for electronic devices, a new technology enabled the release of diverse waterproof smartphones and tablets in 2013. This method is based on a special nanotechnology coating a thousand times thinner than a human hair which protects electronic equipment from damage due to the penetration of water. Several manufacturers use the nano coating method on their smartphones, tablets, and digital cameras.\n\nA 2013 study found that nanotextured surfaces using cone forms produce highly water-repellent surfaces. These nanocone textures are superhydrophobic (extremely water-hating).\n\nApplications\nWaterproof packaging or other types of protective cases for electronic devices can be found. A new technology enabled the release of various waterproof smartphones and tablets in 2013.\nA study from 2013 found that nano-textured surfaces using cone shapes produce highly water-repellent surfaces. These \"nanocone\" textures are superhydrophobic.\n\nStandards\nASTM C1127 \u2013 Standard Guide for Use of High Solids Content, Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Waterproofing Membrane with an Integral Wearing Surface\nASTM D779 \u2013 Standard Test Method for Determining the Water Vapor Resistance of Sheet Materials in Contact with Liquid Water by the Dry Indicator Method\nASTM D2099 \u2013 Standard Test Method for Dynamic Water Resistance of Shoe Upper Leather by the Maeser Water Penetration Tester\nASTM D3393 \u2013 Standard Specification for Coated Fabrics Waterproofness\nD6135 \u2013 Standard Practice for Application of Self-Adhering Modified Bituminous Waterproofing\nASTM D7281 \u2013 Standard Test Method for Determining Water Migration Resistance Through Roof Membranes\nBritish Standards Institution BS.8102:2009 \u2013 \"Protection of Below Ground Structures against Water from the Ground\".\nIEC 60529 \u2013 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code)\nISO 2281 \u2013 Horology \u2014 Water-resistant watches\n\nSee also\n\nSaint-Gobain\nBituminous waterproofing\nBuilding insulation\nDurable water repellent (DWR) coatings\nIP Code (used on mobile phones)\nSika AG\nSoundproofing\nTruscon Laboratories\nWater Resistant mark\nWaterproof fabric\nWaterproof paper\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\nMoisture protection\nPhysical quantities\nWater\nGardening aids","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":51,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":4,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":5,"2018-39":5,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":2}},"id":2099543,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waterproofing","title":"Waterproofing","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dance music is music that is made to be danced to.  In a broader sense, an enormous amount of music sounds like dance music, even if it is not composed for dancing.  The history of dance music is similar to the history of dance as well as to the history of music.\n\nDance music was probably the first kind of music there was.  Thousands of years ago human beings must have discovered the joy of making noises by beating sticks in rhythm.  They probably danced as they did this.\n\nWe know that the Ancient Greeks danced to music, although we do not know much about what that music was like.\n\nIn the Dark Ages (before the Middle Ages) dancing was very popular.  The Christian Church thought that dancing was bad because it was always linked to the devil.  This is why the church people thought that musical instruments were bad, because instruments were used for dancing.\n\nThe earliest Western dance music that we know are some of the medieval dances such as caroles and the Estampie.   Composers started to write their music down on music staves.  Dance music had to have a regular beat so that the dancers could dance in time.  This is why barlines were invented.  The music was divided into bars with a particular number of beats in each bar.  This was different from church music which was based on plainchant which was very free in the way it was sung.\n\nIn the Baroque period many composers started to write pieces of music which were based on dance rhythms.  Composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach wrote suites which were collections of dance movements.  The most popular dances in a suite were: allemande, courante, sarabande, minuet and gigue.  Even when not writing dance movements, a lot of Baroque music is based on dance rhythms, for example: the grand opening chorus of Bach's St Matthew Passion is based on the rhythm of a sicilienne.\n\nIn the Classical music period composers wrote a lot of symphonies and string quartets.  They had four movements.  The third was normally a minuet, although it was not for dancing to.  Composers such as Mozart and Schubert also wrote a lot of music which was for dancing or easy listening.  This was the popular music of its time.\n\nIn the Romantic era the waltz became popular.  Many waltzes were written to be danced to, but other composers simply wrote music (especially piano music) called \"waltz\".  Chopin wrote piano pieces called after several kinds of dance: waltz, polonaise, mazurka etc.  Ballet had become very popular.  There was a lot of dance music in operas, especially in French operas.\n\nIn the 20th century \"dance music\" was often thought of as meaning:  music played by dance bands.  This kind of music developed into rock and roll in the 1960s.  Nowadays there is a wide variety of popular dance music, including  hip hop.  Spanish or  Latin American dances such as the samba, tango and cha cha cha are popular all over the world. Towards the end of the 20th century, a form of dance music known as electronic dance music (EDM) arose. This is electronic music which is made in a specific way as to be danced to, usually in the setting of a nightclub, discoth\u00e8que or a party. Genres of EDM include post-disco, techno, house and trance, amongst several others.   \n\n \n\nfi:Dance","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":58933,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dance%20music","title":"Dance music","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A hairstyle, hairdo, haircut or coiffure refers to the styling of hair, usually on the human head but sometimes on the face or body. The fashioning of hair can be considered an aspect of personal grooming, fashion, and cosmetics, although practical, cultural, and popular considerations also influence some hairstyles.\n\nThe oldest known depiction of hair styling is hair braiding which dates back about 30,000 years. Women's hair was often elaborately and carefully dressed in special ways, though it was also often kept covered outside the home, especially for married women.\n\nPrehistory and history\nPeople's hairstyles are largely determined by the fashions of the culture they live in. Hairstyles are markers and signifiers of social class, age, marital status, racial identification, political beliefs, and attitudes about gender.\n\nSome people may cover their hair totally or partially for cultural or religious reasons. Notable examples of head covering include women in Islam who wear the hijab, married women in Haredi Judaism who wear the sheitel or tichel, married Himba men who cover their hair except when in mourning, Tuareg men who wear a veil, and baptized men and women in Sikhism who wear the dastar.\n\nPaleolithic\nThe oldest known reproduction of hair braiding lies back about 30,000 years: the Venus of Willendorf, now known in academia as the Woman of Willendorf, of a female figurine from the Paleolithic, estimated to have been made between about 28,000 and 25,000 BCE.The Venus of Brassempouy counts about 25,000 years old and indisputably shows hairstyling.\n\nBronze Age\n\nIn the Bronze Age, razors were known and in use by some men, but not on a daily basis since the procedure was rather unpleasant and required resharpening of the tool which reduced its endurance.\n\nAncient history\nIn ancient civilizations, women's hair was often elaborately and carefully dressed in special ways. Women coloured their hair, curled it, and pinned it up (ponytail) in a variety of ways. They set their hair in waves and curls using wet clay, which they dried in the sun and then combed out, or else by using a jelly made of quince seeds soaked in water, or curling tongs and curling irons of various kinds.\n\nRoman Empire and Middle Ages\n\nBetween 27 BC and 102 AD, in Imperial Rome, women wore their hair in complicated styles: a mass of curls on top, or in rows of waves, drawn back into ringlets or braids. Eventually noblewomen's hairstyles grew so complex that they required daily attention from several slaves and a stylist in order to be maintained. The hair was often lightened using wood ash, unslaked lime and sodium bicarbonate, or darkened with copper filings, oak-apples or leeches marinated in wine and vinegar.  It was augmented by wigs, hairpieces and pads, and held in place by nets, pins, combs and pomade. Under the Byzantine Empire, noblewomen covered most of their hair with silk caps and pearl nets.\n\nFrom the time of the Roman Empire until the Middle Ages, most women grew their hair as long as it would naturally grow. It was normally just styled through cutting, as women's hair was tied up on the head and covered on most occasions when outside the home by using a snood, kerchief or veil; for an adult woman to wear uncovered and loose hair in the street was often restricted to prostitutes. Braiding and tying the hair was common. In the 16th century, women began to wear their hair in extremely ornate styles, often decorated with pearls, precious stones, ribbons, and veils. Women used a technique called \"lacing\" or \"taping,\" in which cords or ribbons were used to bind the hair around their heads. During this period, most of the hair was braided and hidden under wimples, veils or couvrechefs. In the later half of the 15th century and on into the 16th century, a very high hairline on the forehead was considered attractive, and wealthy women frequently plucked out hair at their temples and the napes of their necks, or used depilatory cream to remove it, if it would otherwise be visible at the edges of their hair coverings. Working-class women in this period wore their hair in simple styles.\n\nEarly modern history\n\nMale styles\nDuring the 15th and 16th centuries, European men wore their hair cropped no longer than shoulder-length, with very fashionable men wearing bangs or fringes. In Italy, it was common for men to dye their hair. In the early 17th century male hairstyles grew longer, with waves or curls being considered desirable in upper-class European men.\n\nThe male wig was supposedly pioneered by King Louis XIII of France (1601\u20131643) in 1624 when he had prematurely begun to bald. This fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor Louis XIV of France (1638\u20131715) that contributed to its spread in European and European-influenced countries. The beard had been in a long decline and now disappeared among the upper classes.\n\nPerukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English-speaking world with other French styles when Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, following a lengthy exile in France. These wigs were shoulder-length or longer, imitating the long hair that had become fashionable among men since the 1620s. Their use soon became popular in the English court. The London diarist Samuel Pepys recorded the day in 1665 that a barber had shaved his head and that he tried on his new periwig for the first time, but in a year of plague he was uneasy about wearing it:3rd September 1665: Up, and put on my coloured silk suit, very fine, and my new periwig, bought a good while since, but darst not wear it because the plague was in Westminster when I bought it. And it is a wonder what will be the fashion after the plague is done as to periwigs, for nobody will dare to buy any hair for fear of the infection? That it had been cut off the heads of people dead of the plague.\n\nLate 17th-century wigs were very long and wavy (see George I below), but became shorter in the mid-18th century, by which time they were normally white (George II). A very common style had a single stiff curl running round the head at the end of the hair. By the late 18th century the natural hair was often powdered to achieve the impression of a short wig, tied into a small tail or \"queue\" behind (George III).\n\nShort hair for fashionable men was a product of the Neoclassical movement. Classically inspired male hair styles included the Bedford Crop, arguably the precursor of most plain modern male styles, which was invented by the radical politician Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford as a protest against a tax on hair powder; he encouraged his friends to adopt it by betting them they would not. Another influential style (or group of styles) was named by the French \"\u00e0 la Titus\" after Titus Junius Brutus (not in fact the Roman Emperor Titus as often assumed), with hair short and layered but somewhat piled up on the crown, often with restrained quiffs or locks hanging down; variants are familiar from the hair of both Napoleon and George IV. The style was supposed to have been introduced by the actor Fran\u00e7ois-Joseph Talma, who upstaged his wigged co-actors when appearing in productions of works such as Voltaire's Brutus (about Lucius Junius Brutus, who orders the execution of his son Titus).  In 1799, a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even bald men were adopting Titus wigs, and the style was also worn by women, the Journal de Paris reporting in 1802 that \"more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig \u00e0 la Titus\".\n\nIn the early 19th century the male beard, and also moustaches and sideburns, made a strong reappearance, associated with the Romantic movement, and all remained very common until the 1890s, after which younger men ceased to wear them, with World War I, when the majority of men in many countries saw military service, finally despatching the full beard except for older men retaining the styles of their youth, and those affecting a Bohemian look. The short military-style moustache remained popular.\n\nFemale styles\n\nFrom the 16th to the 19th century, European women's hair became more visible while their hair coverings grew smaller, with both becoming more elaborate, and with hairstyles beginning to include ornamentation such as flowers, ostrich plumes, ropes of pearls, jewels, ribbons and small crafted objects such as replicas of ships and windmills. Bound hair was felt to be symbolic of propriety: loosening one's hair was considered immodest and sexual, and sometimes was felt to have supernatural connotations. Red hair was popular, particularly in England during the reign of the red-haired Elizabeth I, and women and aristocratic men used borax, saltpeter, saffron and sulfur powder to dye their hair red, making themselves nauseated and giving themselves headaches and nosebleeds. During this period in Spain and Latin cultures, women wore lace mantillas, often worn over a high comb,  and in Buenos Aires, there developed a fashion for extremely large tortoise-shell hair combs called peinet\u00f3n, which could measure up to three feet in height and width, and which are said by historians to have reflected the growing influence of France, rather than Spain, upon Argentinians.\n\nIn the middle of the 18th century the pouf style developed, with women creating volume in the hair at the front of the head, usually with a pad underneath to lift it higher, and ornamented the back with seashells, pearls or gemstones. In 1750, women began dressing their hair with perfumed pomade and powdering it white. Just before World War I, some women began wearing silk turbans over their hair.\n\nJapan\nIn the early 1870s, in a shift that historians attribute to the influence of the West, Japanese men began cutting their hair into styles known as  or  (which roughly means \"random cropping\"). During this period, Japanese women were still wearing traditional hairstyles held up with combs, pins, and sticks crafted from tortoise, metal, wood and other materials, but in the middle 1880s, upper-class Japanese women began pushing back their hair in the Western style (known as ), or adopting Westernized versions of traditional Japanese hairstyles (these were called , or literally, \"soir\u00e9e chignon\").\n\nInter-war years\nDuring the First World War, women around the world started to shift to shorter hairstyles that were easier to manage. In the 1920s women started for the first time to bob, shingle and crop their hair, often covering it with small head-hugging cloche hats. In Korea, the bob was called . Women began marcelling their hair, creating deep waves in it using heated scissor irons. Durable permanent waving became popular also in this period: it was an expensive, uncomfortable and time-consuming process, in which the hair was put in curlers and inserted into a steam or dry heat machine. During the 1930s women began to wear their hair slightly longer, in pageboys, bobs or waves and curls.\n\nDuring this period, Western men began to wear their hair in ways popularized by movie stars such as Douglas Fairbanks Jr. and Rudolph Valentino. Men wore their hair short, and either parted on the side or in the middle, or combed straight back, and used pomade, creams and tonics to keep their hair in place. At the beginning of the Second World War and for some time afterwards, men's haircuts grew shorter, mimicking the military crewcut.\n\nDuring the 1920s and 1930s, Japanese women began wearing their hair in a style called  (literally, \"ear hiding\"), in which hair was pulled back to cover the ears and tied into a bun at the nape of the neck. Waved or curled hair became increasingly popular for Japanese women throughout this period, and permanent waves, though controversial, were extremely popular. Bobbed hair also became more popular for Japanese women, mainly among actresses and , or \"cut-hair girls,\" young Japanese women who followed Westernized fashions and lifestyles in the 1920s.\n\nPost-war years\n\nAfter the war, women started to wear their hair in softer, more natural styles. In the early 1950s women's hair was generally curled and worn in a variety of styles and lengths. In the later 1950s, high bouffant and beehive styles, sometimes nicknamed B-52s for their similarity to the bulbous noses of the B-52 Stratofortress bomber, became popular.  During this period many women washed and set their hair only once a week, and kept it in place by wearing curlers every night and reteasing and respraying it every morning.  In the 1960s, many women began to wear their hair in short modern cuts such as the pixie cut, while in the 1970s, hair tended to be longer and looser. In both the 1960s and 1970s many men and women wore their hair very long and straight. Women straightened their hair through chemical straightening processes, by ironing their hair at home with a clothes iron, or by rolling it up with large empty cans while wet. African-American men and women began wearing their hair naturally (unprocessed) in large Afros, sometimes ornamented with Afro picks made from wood or plastic. By the end of the 1970s the Afro had fallen out of favour among African-Americans, and was being replaced by other natural hairstyles such as corn rows and dreadlocks.\n\nContemporary hairstyles\n\nSince the 1960s and 1970s, women have worn their hair in a wide variety of fairly natural styles. In the 1980s, women pulled back their hair with scrunchies, stretchy ponytail holders made from cloth over fabric bands. Women also often wear glittery ornaments today, as well as claw-style barrettes used to secure ponytails and other upswept or partially upswept hairstyles. \n\nToday, women and men can choose from a broad range of hairstyles, but they are still expected to wear their hair in ways that conform to gender norms: in much of the world, men with long hair and women whose hair does not appear carefully groomed may face various forms of discrimination, including harassment, social shaming or workplace discrimination. This is somewhat less true of African-American men, who wear their hair in a variety of styles that overlap with those of African-American women, including box braids and cornrows fastened with rubber bands and dreadlocks.\n\nDefining factors\n\nA hairstyle's aesthetic considerations may be determined by many factors, such as the subject's physical attributes and desired self-image and\/or the stylist's artistic instincts.\n\nPhysical factors include natural hair type and growth patterns, face and head shape from various angles, and overall body proportions; medical considerations may also apply. Self-image may be directed toward conforming to mainstream values (military-style crew cuts or current \"fad\" hairstyles such as the Dido flip), identifying with distinctively groomed subgroups (e.g., punk hair), or obeying religious dictates (e.g., Orthodox Jewish have payot, Rastafari have Dreadlocks, North India jatas, or the Sikh practice of Kesh), though this is highly contextual such that \"mainstream\" look in one setting may be limited to a \"subgroup\" in another.\n\nA hairstyle is achieved by arranging hair in a certain way, occasionally using combs, a blow-dryer, gel, or other products. The practice of styling hair is often called hairdressing, especially when done as an occupation.\n\nHairstyling may also include adding accessories (such as headbands or barrettes) to the hair to hold it in place, enhance its ornamental appearance, or partially or fully conceal it with coverings such as a kippah, hijab, tam or turban.\n\nProcess\n\nHair dressing may include cuts, weaves, coloring, extensions, perms, permanent relaxers, curling, and any other form of styling or texturing.\n\nWashing\nStylists often wash a subject's hair first, so that the hair is cut while still slightly damp. Compared to dry hair, wet hair can be easier to manage in a cut\/style situation because the added weight and surface tension of the water cause the strands to stretch downward and cling together along the hair's length, holding a line and making it easier for the stylist to create a form. It is important to note that this method of cutting hair while wet, may be most suitable (or common) for straight hair types. Curly, kinky and other types of hair textures with considerable volume may benefit from cutting while dry, as the hair is in a more natural state and the hair can be cut evenly.\n\nCutting\nHair cutting or hair trimming is intended to create or maintain a specific shape and form. There are ways to trim one's own hair but usually another person is enlisted to perform the process, as it is difficult to maintain symmetry while cutting hair at the back of one's head.\n\nCutting hair is often done with hair clipper, scissors, and razors. Combs and hair grips are often employed to isolate a section of hair which is then trimmed.\n\nBrushing and combing\nBrushes and combs are used to organize and untangle the hair, encouraging all of the strands to lie in the same direction and removing debris such as lint, dandruff, or hairs that have already shed from their follicles but continue to cling to the other hairs.\n\nThere are all manner of detangling tools available in a wide variety of price ranges. Combs come in all shapes and sizes and all manner of materials including plastics, wood, and horn. Similarly, brushes also come in all sizes and shapes, including various paddle shapes. Most benefit from using some form of a wide tooth comb for detangling. Most physicians advise against sharing hair care instruments like combs and clips, to prevent spreading hair conditions like dandruff and head lice.\n\nThe historical dictum to brush hair with one hundred strokes every day is somewhat archaic, dating from a time when hair was washed less frequently; the brushstrokes would spread the scalp's natural oils down through the hair, creating a protective effect. Now, however, this does not apply when the natural oils have been washed off by frequent shampoos. Also, hairbrushes are now usually made with rigid plastic bristles instead of the natural boar's bristles that were once standard; the plastic bristles increase the likelihood of actually injuring the scalp and hair with excessively vigorous brushing. However, traditional brushes with boar's bristles are still commonly used among African Americans and those with coarse or kinky textures to soften and lay down curls and waves.\n\nDrying\nHair dryers speed the drying process of hair by blowing air, which is usually heated, over the wet hair shaft to accelerate the rate of water evaporation.\n\nExcessive heat may increase the rate of shaft-splitting or other damage to the hair.  Hair dryer diffusers can be used to widen the stream of air flow so it is weaker but covers a larger area of the hair.\n\nHair dryers can also be used as a tool to sculpt the hair to a very slight degree. Proper technique involves aiming the dryer such that the air does not blow onto the face or scalp, which can cause burns.\n\nOther common hair drying techniques include towel drying and air drying.\n\nBraiding and updos\nTight or frequent braiding may pull at the hair roots and cause traction alopecia. Rubber bands with metal clasps or tight clips, which bend the hair shaft at extreme angles, can have the same effect.\n\nAn updo is a hair style that involves arranging the hair so that it is carried high on the head. It can be as simple as a ponytail, but is more commonly associated with more elaborate styles intended for special occasions such as a prom or weddings.\n\nIf hair is pinned too tightly, or the whole updo slips causing pulling on the hair in the follicle at the hair root, it can cause aggravation to the hair follicle and result in headaches. Although some people of African heritage may use braiding extensions (long term braiding hairstyle) as a form of convenience and\/or as a reflection of personal style, it is important not to keep the braids up longer than needed to avoid hair breakage or hair loss. Proper braiding technique and maintenance can result in no hair damage even with repeated braid styles.\n\nCurling and straightening\nCurling and straightening hair requires the stylist to use a curling rod or a flat iron to get a desired look. These irons use heat to manipulate the hair into a variety of waves, curls and reversing natural curls and temporarily straightening the hair. Straightening or even curling hair can damage it due to direct heat from the iron and applying chemicals afterwards to keep its shape.\nThere are irons that have a function to straighten or curl hair even when it's damp (from showering or wetting the hair), but this requires more heat than the average iron (temperatures can range from ). Heat protection sprays and hair-repairing shampoos and conditioners can protect hair from damage caused by the direct heat from the irons.\n\nIndustry\n\nHair styling is a major world industry, from the salon itself to products, advertising, and even magazines on the subject. In the United States, most hairstylists are licensed after obtaining training at a cosmetology or beauty school.\n\nIn recent years, competitive events for professional stylists have grown in popularity. Stylists compete on deadline to create the most elaborate hairstyle using props, lights and other accessories.\n\nTools\n\nStyling tools may include hair irons (including flat, curling, and crimping irons), hair dryers, hair brushes and hair rollers. Hair dressing might also include the use of hair product to add texture, shine, curl, volume or hold to a particular style.  Hairpins are also used when creating particular hairstyles.  Their uses and designs vary over different cultural backgrounds.\n\nProducts\nStyling products aside from shampoo and conditioner are many and varied. Leave-in conditioner, conditioning treatments, mousse, gels, lotions, waxes, creams, clays, serums, oils, and sprays are used to change the texture or shape of the hair, or to hold it in place in a certain style. Applied properly, most styling products will not damage the hair apart from drying it out; most styling products contain alcohols, which can dissolve oils. Many hair products contain chemicals which can cause build-up, resulting in dull hair or a change in perceived texture.\n\nWigs\n\nCare of human or other natural hair wigs is similar to care of a normal head of hair in that the wig can be brushed, styled, and kept clean using haircare products. Wigs can serve as a form of protective styling that allows freedom of control of the hairstyling. \n\nSynthetic wigs are usually made from a fine fiber that mimics human hair. This fiber can be made in almost any color and hairstyle, and is often glossier than human hair. However, this fiber is sensitive to heat and cannot be styled with flat irons or curling irons. There is a newer synthetic fiber that can take heat up to a certain temperature.\n\nHuman hair wigs can be styled with heat, and they must be brushed only when dry. Synthetic and human hair wigs should be brushed dry before shampooing to remove tangles. To clean the wig, the wig should be dipped into a container with water and mild shampoo, then dipped in clear water and moved up and down to remove excess water. The wig must then be air dried naturally into its own hairstyle. Proper maintenance can make a human hair wig last for many years.\n\nFunctional and decorative ornaments\nThere are many options to embellish and arrange the hair. Hairpins, clasps, barrettes, headbands, ribbons, rubber bands, scrunchies, and combs can be used to achieve a variety of styles. There are also many decorative ornaments that, while they may have clasps to affix them to the hair, are used solely for appearance and do not aid in keeping the hair in place. In India for example, the Gajra (flower garland) is common there are heaps on hair.\n\nSocial and cultural implications\n\nGender\nAt most times in most cultures, men have worn their hair in styles that are different from women's. American sociologist Rose Weitz once wrote that the most widespread cultural rule about hair is that women's hair must differ from men's hair. An exception is the men and women living in the Orinoco-Amazon Basin, where traditionally both genders have worn their hair cut into a bowl shape. In Western countries in the 1960s, both young men and young women wore their hair long and natural, and since then it has become more common for men to grow their hair. During most periods in human history when men and women wore similar hairstyles, as in the 1920s and 1960s, it has generated significant social concern and approbation.\n\nReligion\nHair in religion also plays an important role since women and men, when deciding to dedicate their life to faith, often change their haircut. Catholic nuns often cut their hair very short, and men who joined Catholic monastic orders in the eighth century adopted what was known as the tonsure, which involved shaving the tops of their heads and leaving a ring of hair around the bald crown. Many Buddhists, Hajj pilgrims and Vaisnavas, especially members of the Hare Krishna movement who are brahmacharis or sannyasis, shave their heads. Some Hindu and most Buddhist monks and nuns shave their heads upon entering their order, and Korean Buddhist monks and nuns have their heads shaved every 15 days. Adherents of Sikhism are required to wear their hair unshorn. Women usually wear it in a braid or a bun and men cover it with a turban.\n\nMarital status\nIn the 1800s, American women started wearing their hair up when they became ready to get married. Among the Fulani people of west Africa, unmarried women wear their hair ornamented with small amber beads and coins, while married women wear large amber ornaments. Marriage is signified among the Toposa women of South Sudan by wearing the hair in many small pigtails. Unmarried Hopi women have traditionally worn a \"butterfly\" hairstyle characterized by a twist or whorl of hair at each side of the face. Hindu widows in India used to shave their heads as part of their mourning although that practice has mostly disappeared.\n\nLife transitions\nIn many cultures, including Hindu culture and among the Wayana people of the Guiana highlands, young people have historically shaved off their hair to denote coming-of-age. Women in India historically have signified adulthood by switching from wearing two braids to one. Among the Rendille of north-eastern Kenya and the Tchikrin people of the Brazilian rainforest, both men and women shave their heads after the death of a close family member. When a man died in ancient Greece, his wife cut off her hair and buried it with him, and in Hindu families, the chief mourner is expected to shave his or her head 3 days after the death.\n\nSocial class\nUpper-class people have always used their hairstyles to signal wealth and status. Wealthy Roman women wore complex hairstyles that needed the labours of several people to maintain them, and rich people have also often chosen hairstyles that restricted or burdened their movement, making it obvious that they did not need to work. Wealthy people's hairstyles used to be at the cutting edge of fashion, setting the styles for the less wealthy. But today, the wealthy are generally observed to wear their hair in conservative styles that date back decades prior.\n\nMiddle-class hairstyles tend to be understated and professional. Middle-class people aspire to have their hair look healthy and natural, implying that they have the resources to live a healthy lifestyle and take good care of themselves.\n\nEuropean-influenced Working-class people's haircuts have tended to be somewhat simple. Working-class men have often shaved their heads or worn their hair close-cropped. While working-class women typically with long hair often have their hair sinched back away from their faces and secured on their scalp.\n\nHaircuts in space\n\nHaircuts also occur in the International Space Station. During the various expeditions astronauts use hair clippers attached to vacuum devices for grooming their colleagues so that the cut hair will not drift inside the weightless environment of the space station and become a nuisance to the astronauts or a hazard to the sensitive equipment installations inside the station.\n\nHaircutting in space was also used for charitable purposes in the case of astronaut Sunita Williams who obtained such a haircut by fellow astronaut Joan Higginbotham inside  the International Space Station. Sunita's ponytail was brought back to earth with the STS-116 crew and was donated to Locks of Love.\n\nHairstyles and Health  \nHair, when it is natural and meets certain criteria, is one of the indicators of a person's good or poor health. This is one of the explanations for the significant role that hairstyles play in both sexual and emotional attraction.\n\nIn the past, certain products used for hair graying (such as lead oxide or lead combs) have been a source of lead poisoning. Hair is sensitive to air pollution, particularly to various metallic pollutants in the environment (such as lead, mercury, or arsenic). These metals can also be absorbed through food and beverages, as hair bioconcentrates and stores them from the bloodstream to the skin. Additionally, certain medications can lead to hair loss, and this may be worsened by specific hairstyles.\n\nAccording to a study published in 2016 by the American Academy of Dermatology and notably reported by The Root and Science magazine, certain tightly braided hairstyles that exert significant and constant tension on the scalp can contribute to a specific form of alopecia known as traction alopecia (TA). This article categorized hairstyling practices into high, moderate, and low-risk categories of induced alopecia, enabling dermatologists and physicians to provide more precise advice to affected patients.\n\nThis is the case with common hairstyles among African-American women, including extensions, braids, and dreadlocks. This may explain why approximately one-third of black women suffer from hair loss. Hair damage can be further exacerbated by the use of chemical products used for chemical straightening. The study's findings support recommendations to wear looser hairstyles and avoid keeping braids and extensions for more than a few months.\n\nCertain products (hair dyes, hairsprays, bleaches, etc.) may contain allergenic ingredients. Several studies suggest that certain hairstyles or the use of bleaching or dyeing products may increase the risk of certain cancers (melanomas, as well as carcinomas); thus, long and dark hair that shades the skin and protects it from excessive ultraviolet exposure could be a protective factor against certain skin cancers (such as ear cancers).\n\nSee also\n Asymmetric cut\n Eponymous hairstyle\n Historical Christian hairstyles\n List of hairstyles\n Regular haircut\n Roman hairstyles\n Osadia\n Hair loss\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \nStyle","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":172,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-14":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-24":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":4,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":4,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":6,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":8,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":15,"2014-15":5}},"id":52401,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hairstyle","title":"Hairstyle","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Emperor\/Empress of India (Shahanshah-e-Hind in Hindustani) was used as a title by the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II, and also by the colonial British monarchs during the rule of British India.\n\nSometimes, the term \"Emperor of India\" is also used to refer to Indian emperors such as Ashoka the Great of the Maurya Dynasty and Emperor Akbar of the Mughal empire. However, they did not claim this title for themselves.\n\nBahadur Shah II \n\nAlthough the Mughal dynasty ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent from the 16th century onwards, they simply used the title Shahanshah (considered in the West to be the same as emperor). However dring the Indian revolt of 1857 against the British, the rebel sepoys seized Delhi and called the Mughal Bahadur Shah II as Shahanshah-e-Hind, or Emperor of India. After the Brtish defeated the rebels, he was captured and was forced to live in Rangoon, Burma in 1858, this ended the rule of the Mughals.\n\nBritish monarchs \n\nAfter the Mughal Emperor ended by the British East India Company, the title \"Empress of India\" was taken by Queen Victoria from 1 May 1876. \n\nPrime Minister Benjamin Disraeli is usually credited with creating the title for her. Also, the title was created when it became evident that Queen Victoria's daughter, Victoria, Princess Royal, would become an empress when her husband ascended the German imperial throne, many people thought it was wrong for the daughter to be an empress while her mother was just a Queen.\n\nWhen Victoria died, and her son Edward VII ascended the throne, his title became \"Emperor of India\". The title continued until India and Pakistan became independent from the United Kingdom at midnight on 14\/15 August 1947.\n\nWhen signing their name for Indian business, a British King-Emperor or the Queen-Empress used the initials R\u00a0I (Rex\/Regina Imperator\/Imperatrix) or the shorter version Ind. Imp. (Indiae Imperator\/Imperatrix) after their name. This was also used on many British coins, including some 1948 coins of George VI.\n\nKing of India and Pakistan \nGeorge VI continued to hold the title King of India for two years during the short Governor-Generalships of Lord Mountbatten and of C. Rajagopalachari until India became a republic on 26 January 1950. George VI remained as King of the United Kingdom and King of Pakistan until his death in 1952. Pakistan became a republic on 23 March 1956, Elizabeth II was Queen of Pakistan for four years.\n\nRelated pages\n Mughal Empire\n Governor-General of Pakistan\n Governor-General\n\nNotes \n\nBritish India\nBritish monarchy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":125729,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emperor%20of%20India","title":"Emperor of India","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Magic Flute (German: Die Zauberfl\u00f6te, K. 620) is an opera in two acts with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and a German libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder. \n\nIt premiered in Vienna on 30 September 1791 at Schikaneder's theater, the Freihaus-Theater auf der Wieden. The story has traditional fairy tale themes and Masonic elements.\n\nRoles\n\nThe story of the opera\n\nAct One\nPrince Tamino has got lost in the forest and now finds himself in a country which is ruled by the Queen of the Night. A huge monster chases him and he is very frightened. He falls down in a faint. Three ladies who work for the Queen of the Night come and kill the monster. Then they see the handsome prince and they argue about which one of them will stay to look after him.\n\nThe three ladies go off and Papageno enters. Papageno is a birdcatcher whose job is to catch birds for the Queen of the Night. He is a happy, simple young man. Tamino wakes up, sees him and asks him who he is. Papageno introduces himself. He has not noticed the dead monster. Tamino sees that the monster is dead and asks him who killed it. Papageno suddenly notices it and then decides to pretend that he killed it himself. The three ladies hear what he says and they come and punish him by giving him a stone instead of bread and wine, and by padlocking his mouth so that he cannot speak. Then they give Tamino a portrait of Princess Pamina. She is the daughter of the Queen of the Night. They tell him that Pamina has been captured by an evil man called Sarastro. In fact, Sarastro is a good man, and he is looking after Pamina because her mother, the Queen of the Night, is evil. The prince does not know this. He is already in love with the princess just from looking at her picture, and decides to go and rescue her.\n\nThe three ladies give the Prince a magic flute which will protect him if he finds himself in danger.  They promise Papageno that he, too, will find a lovely wife for himself if he goes with Tamino.  They take off his padlock and give him a set of magic bells which will help him if he is in danger.  They are told that three lovely boys will show them the way.\n\nIn the next scene we see Princess Pamina who is being guarded by a cruel Moor called Monostatos.  He has tied the princess up.  Papageno arrives and both men are frightened of one another.  Monostatos runs away, Papageno unties the rope around the princess and tells her about the prince who is on his way to rescue her.\n\nIn the next scene Tamino finds himself in a holy place.  The three boys have guided him there.  They tell him he must be patient and silent.  He meets a priest who tells him he must not think that Sarastro is cruel.  He tells him that Pamina is alive.  Tamino is very happy to hear this, takes his flute and plays.  The animals from the forest come round him.  Pamina and Papagena are caught by Monostatos.  He is about to tie them up, but Papageno plays his magic bells and, when they hear the music, Monostatos and all the animals cannot help dancing and they disappear, still dancing.  Sarastro enters.  He tells Pamina once more that she must stay with him to learn how to live a good, virtuous  life.  She must not become evil like her mother.  Monostatos enters with Tamino whom he has caught.  Tamino and Pamina see one another and embrace.  Sarastro says that Monostatos must have a beating.  He says that Tamino and Pamina cannot have one another yet.  First they will have to go to the temple and go through some trials to show that they are good.\n\nAct Two\n\nSarastro explains to the priests that Tamino and Pamina will have to go through the trials to show that they are worthy of one another.  If they can do this then they will be able to defeat the evil power of the Queen of the Night.\n\nTamino and Papageno go through the trials together.  Tamino remains calm and brave.  Papageno is frightened and finds it difficult to keep quiet, but he continues because he has been promised that a girl called Papagena will be waiting for him.\n\nIn the first trial the Three Ladies try to make them think that the dark place they are in will lead them to death.  In the second trial they see Monostatos about to rape Pamina.  The Queen of the Night explains why she wants power.  She says that Tamino and Pamina will be cursed unless Sarastro is killed.  Tamino realizes that this is all part of the trial and he must not do anything.  Papageno is given food and drink by Papagena who is disguised as an old lady.  Tamino plays his flute.  Pamina appears but turns her back on him. The Queen of the Night sings a very famous song in this section. It is famous because it reaches the highest ranges of a female voice. \n\nTamino and Pamina have to go through the last trial together.  Papagena enters and dances, then, when Papageno promises to be true, she throws off her disguise and disappears.  Pamina thinks her mother is going to use her dagger, but at the last moment the boys save her and take her to Tamino.  Tamino plays the flute as they go together through fire and water.  The chorus sing in triumph.\n\nPapageno cannot call Papagena back with his shepherd pipe.  The three boys remind him about his magic bells.  He plays them and Papagena appears.  They are united.\n\nIn the last scene Monostatos and the Queen of the Night enter to do battle, but they are defeated.  Good triumphs over evil.\n\nMasonic ideas in the opera\n\nMozart belonged to a group of Freemasons.  The Magic Flute is full of Masonic symbols.  For example: the number three is an important number in masonry and there are lot of things in the opera that happen in threes:  there are three long chords at the beginning of overture, and the three chords appear again in the scene in the temple.  Even the key is E flat major which has a key signature of three flats.  There are three ladies, three young boys and three trials.  The scenery used in the early productions make it look as if the story comes from Egypt or somewhere in the Orient.  Mozart and Schickaneder meant this to have a Masonic meaning. The trials are similar to the rituals in Masonic ceremonies.\n\nMovie versions\nTrollfl\u00f6jten (1975), directed by Ingmar Bergman, in Swedish\nThe Magic Flute (2006) directed by Kenneth Branagh, set during World War I\n\nCompositions by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\n1790s operas\n1791","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":64806,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The%20Magic%20Flute","title":"The Magic Flute","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Lower Jurassic is the first geological epoch in the Jurassic that began 201.3 million years ago, and ended at 174.1 million years ago. \n\nThe Jurassic period is divided into Lower, Middle and Upper. The Lower Jurassic started after the end-Triassic extinction event at 201.3 million years ago (mya). Its rocks form in Europe the Lias group of marine strata consisting mostly of limestone, with some clays and siltstone. It was in this formation on the Dorset Jurassic Coast that Mary Anning did much of her work. The mudstones of the earliest Jurassic (Blue Lias)  give way to carbonate rocks as the water deepens in the Middle Jurassic.\n\nThe Jurassic period was one of the time periods when dinosaurs were on the Earth. By this time, many groups of the Triassic period had become extinct.\n\nBritain \nAt the start of the Jurassic, Britain was warm temperate to subtropical, between 30\u00b0 and 40\u00b0 north of the equator. Temperature would have been in the range of 12\u201329\u00b0C. \n\nShallow seas were over southern England; higher ground like the Mendip Hills were a string of islands stretching westwards South Wales.\n\nNorth America \n\nThe Lower Jurassic in western North America is quite different. It is continental in origin, sandstones laid down in shifting streams and rivers. These sandstones were laid down over a long period from the later Permian to the Lower Jurassic.\n\nRelated pages \nBlue Lias\nJurassic\nMiddle Jurassic\nUpper Jurassic\n\nReferences\n \n\nJurassic","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":51927,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lower%20Jurassic","title":"Lower Jurassic","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Amaldus Clarin Nielsen (23 May 1838 \u2013 10 December 1932) was a Norwegian painter.\n\nEarly life\nHe was born in Halse as a son of shipmaster and merchant Niels Clemetsen Nielsen (1795\u20131845) and his wife Andrea Marie M\u00f8ller (1802\u20131866). He grew up in Mandal in Vest-Agder county, Norway. He lived most of his childhood and adolescence without a father. He received some tuition from a traveling drawing teacher and traveled to Copenhagen to study in 1854.\n\nCareer\nAfter one year of painting studies in Copenhagen, he enrolled at the Academy of Art in 1855. He failed to progress in the academy's system, but with financial support from his brother and business owner Diderik Cappelen (1856\u20131935), he studied under Hans Gude at the D\u00fcsseldorf Academy from 1857 to 1859. He spent the years 1859 to 1863 travelling over Western and Southern Norway, and spent 1863 to 1864 in D\u00fcsseldorf again. He is associated with the D\u00fcsseldorf school of painting. He then travelled home due to illness, moved to Christiania where he sealed a deal to make paintings that the Christiania Kunstforening would sell at auctions, securing a steady income. He spent the years 1867 to 1868 in Karlsruhe before finally settling at Majorstuen in 1869.\n\nHe painted in the naturalist style, and has been called \"Norway's first naturalist painter\". Important paintings include Hval\u00f8rhei (1874), Skovbillede (1896), Morgen ved Ny-Hellesund (1885, one of several from Ny-Hellesund), Ensomt sted (1901), Fra Bankefjorden (1910) and Kveld p\u00e5 J\u00e6ren (1925) Most of his paintings portrayed Western and Southern Norway, but also \u00d8stfold.\n\nHe participated almost annually in the Autumn Exhibit between 1883 and 1911, and held notable exhibitions in Christiania Kunstforening (1895, 1906, 1924, 1931), at the 1862 International Exhibition, the Exposition Universelle of 1889 and in Munich in 1913. Eleven of his works are owned by the National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design. He is also represented in Mandal Kunstforening and Mandal Bymuseum, but is perhaps best known for the collection of about 300 works which was donated to Oslo municipality by Nielsen's heirs in 1933. Since 1994 this collection is on permanent exhibit in the Stenersen Museum. Nielsen was also decorated as a Knight, First Class of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav in 1890. The square Amaldus Nielsens plass, which includes a bust of Nielsen, was named after him.\n\nPersonal life\nIn October 1868 in Christiania he married Johanne Nicoline Augusta Vangensteen, born 1845 as a daughter of district stipendiary magistrate Ove Bodvar Hussein Vangensteen (1806\u20131859). The couple had eleven children. Both his wife and three children died in March 1886 from a diphtheria epidemic. After a period of grief, he married Laura Tandberg (1857\u20131928) in February 1888 in Ris\u00f8r. Nielsen died in December 1932, aged 94, from pneumonia.\n\nGallery\n\nReferences\n\n1838 births\n1932 deaths\n19th-century Norwegian painters\n20th-century Norwegian painters\nNorwegian male painters\nPeople from Mandal, Norway\nNorwegian expatriates in Denmark\nNorwegian expatriates in Germany\nPainters from Oslo\nDeaths from pneumonia in Norway\n19th-century Norwegian male artists\n20th-century Norwegian male artists\nD\u00fcsseldorf school of painting","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":13,"dup_details":{"2024-30":26,"2024-26":34,"2024-22":26,"2024-18":20,"2024-10":6,"2023-50":14,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":3}},"id":19099977,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amaldus%20Nielsen","title":"Amaldus Nielsen","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"James Watt (19 January 1736  25 August 1819) was a Scottish mathematician and engineer. He did not invent the first steam engine, but he did modify it to work better. There were other patented steam engines (such as the Savery and Newcomen steam engines) in use by the time Watt started his work on them. His major contribution is in developing the modern form of the steam engine. The Watt steam engine is credited for driving the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. James Watt was a brilliant engineer and he also transformed the Newcomen engine.\n\nThe modern unit of power, the watt, is named after him. It replaced the horsepower invented by Watt.\n\nBiography \nJames Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire. His father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the town's chief baillie. His mother, Agnes Muirhead, came from a distinguished family and was well educated. Both were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters. Watt's grandfather, Thomas Watt, taught mathematics and was a baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn. Watt did not go to school every day. At first, he was mostly schooled at home by his mother but later he attended Greenock grammar school. He exhibited great skill with his hands and a natural ability for mathematics, although Latin and Greek failed to interest him. He also absorbed the legends and lore of the Scottish people.\n\nThe centrifugal governor \n\nOne of Watt's many improvements was the invention of a \"centrifugal governor\" to regulate automatically the speed of the engine. This is most obvious on steam engines where it regulates the admission of steam into the cylinder(s). It is also found on internal combustion engines and variously fueled turbines, and in some modern striking clocks.\n\nA centrifugal governor is a homeostatic device which controls the speed of an engine by regulating the amount of \"intermediate substance\" (steam) which drives the machine. This keeps a near constant speed whatever the load or fuel supply conditions. It uses the principle of proportional control: this means the stopping of (in this case) steam varies according to the speed of the machine.\n\nOn Watt's fly-ball device, as the machine speeds up, the balls fly round faster. As they fly round faster, they move out from the central post. As they move out from the central post, they close the steam supply more firmly. As they do so, the machine slows down and the balls spin more slowly, and allow more steam into the cylinders. In addition, the system has a safety release valve to allow excess steam to escape without driving the wheels. 500 Boulton & Watt engines were built by the firm between 1775 and 1800.\n\nLater, this kind of feedback loop became an important tool of cybernetics.\n\nPartnership \nWatt went into partnership with a fellow member of the Midlands Lunar Society, Matthew Boulton. The firm of Boulton & Watt designed and built steam engines, and was very important in the Industrial Revolution.\n\nThe Soho Foundry \nAt first the partnership made the drawing and specifications for the engines, and supervised the work to erect it on the customer's property. They produced almost none of the parts themselves. Watt did most of his work at his home in Harper's Hill in Birmingham, while Boulton worked at the Soho Manufactory.\n\nGradually the partners began to actually make more and more of the parts, and by 1795 they purchased a property about a mile away from the Soho manufactory, on the banks of the Birmingham Canal. There they built a new foundry for making the engines. The Soho Foundry opened in 1796 at a time when Watt's sons, Gregory and James Jr. were heavily involved in the management of the enterprise. In 1800, the year of Watt's retirement, the firm made a total of forty-one engines.\n\nWatt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and partnership with Boulton expired. The famous partnership was transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt Jr. Longtime firm engineer William Murdoch was soon made a partner and the firm prospered.\n\nOther websites \nHistory of Steam Engines\n\nReferences \n\n1736 births\n1819 deaths\nBritish mechanical engineers\nBritish inventors\nMembers of the Lunar Society\nScottish mathematicians\nPeople from Greenock","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":4651,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James%20Watt","title":"James Watt","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In biology, a mutation is a change in the genetic material. This means changes to the DNA or to the chromosomes which carry the DNA. These changes are heritable (can be passed on to the next generation) unless they have lethal effects.\n\nMutations can happen for several reasons. It can happen because of errors when meiosis produces the gametes (eggs & sperms). Damage by radiation, or by certain chemicals may cause mutations. Mutations occur at random.\n\nAlso, by derivation, an individual carrying the mutation may be called a mutant or a mutation. So is the trait (character) most obviously affected by the mutation.\n\nTypes of mutation\n\nDNA mutations \nWhen DNA is copied mistakes are sometimes made \u2013 these are called mutations. There are four main types of mutations:\n Deletion, where one or more DNA bases are left out.\n Insertion, where one or more extra base is put in.\n Substitution, where one or more bases are changed for another base in the sequence.\n Duplication, where whole genes are copied.\n\nChromosome mutations \nThese terms are explained in the third diagram.\n Deletion: a piece of chromosome is lost, together with any genes which may be on it.\n Duplication: part of a chromosome is repeated\n Inversion: part of a chromosome is reversed end to end\n Insertion: a smaller chromosome is added into a longer chromosome\n Translocation: part of a chromosome gets moved onto another chromosome\n\nResults of mutation \nMutations may be bad for the organism, or neutral, or benefit the organism. Sometimes mutations are fatal for the organism \u2013 the protein made by the 'new' DNA does not work at all, and causing the embryo to die. On the other hand, evolution is moved forward by mutations, when the new version of the protein works better for the organism.\n\nMutations are the ultimate source of variation, upon which natural selection acts. What happens is that some mutations affect the organism's ability to live and reproduce. This is an important part of the theory of evolution. The amount of heritable variation carried by a population can be huge, and as a result natural populations can change and adapt to conditions in their environment.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \n Variation\n\nClassical genetics\nCell biology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":153,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":35685,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mutation","title":"Mutation","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u00c6x o\u00f0ra naman \u00c6x-in-Profentse is Franclandes burg, in \u00fe\u00e6s r\u012bces s\u016b\u00fed\u01e3le.  Hiere nama on Francum is Aix (man s\u00e6g\u00fe \"eks\"), o\u00fe\u00fee Aix-en-Provence, for\u00fe\u01e3m is Aix nama be manigum \u01bficum geboren \u00fe\u0101 stent ofer h\u0101tum \u01bfiellum.  Hiere nama is of \u00fe\u01e3m L\u01e3den naman Aquae Sextiae.\n\n\u00c6x stent 189 m\u012bla be nor\u00f0en Marseille \u00fe\u01e3re ceastre. He is in Profentse-landscipe, and in \u00fe\u01e3re Bouches-du-Rh\u00f4ne d\u00e9partement, \u00f0\u00e6rof is hit sous-pr\u00e9fecture (se is 'under\u00feegnd\u014dm'). \u00de\u0113os burg h\u00e6f\u00fe ymbe 130,000 on\u01bfuniendas.\n\nSe m\u0113tere Paul Cezanne \u01bf\u00e6s geboren in \u00c6xe, and \u01bfunode and \u0101m\u0113tede \u00fe\u01e3r s\u01bf\u0101 ge\u00feogen.\n\nSt\u01e3r \n\nAix (Aquae Sextiae) \u01bfear\u00fe geseted in 123 BC fram \u00fe\u01fdm R\u00f3m\u00e1niscan consule Sextius Calvinus, \u00fee his naman his springum geaf, s\u01bf\u00e1 \"Aquae Sextiae Salluvorum.\" In 102 BC his ne\u0101hness \u01bf\u00e6s the scene of the Battle of Aquae Sextae when Romans under Gaius Marius defeated the Cimbri and Teutones, with mass suicides among the captured \u01bfifmannum, which passed into Roman legends of Germanic heroism (cf Ierome, letter cxxiii.8, 409 A.D. ).\n\nIn the 4th century BC it became the metropolis of Narbonensis Secunda. It was occupied by the Visigoths in 477. In the succeeding century was repeatedly plundered by the Franks and Lombards, and was occupied by the Saracens in 731. Aix, which during the middle ages was the capital of the county of Provence, did not reach its zenith until after the 12th century, when, under the houses of Aragon and Anjou, it became an artistic centre and seat of learning. \n\nWith the rest of Provence, it passed to the crown of Francland in 1487, and in \n1501 Louis XII established there the parliament of Provence which existed until 1789. In the 17th and 18th centuries the town was the seat of the intendance of Provence.\n\nGeography \n\nAix-en-Provence is situated in a plain overlooking the Arc, about a mile from the right bank of the river. The city slopes from North to South and the Montagne Sainte Victoire can easily be seen to the Nor\u00fe East.\n\nS\u00edena \n\nThe Cours Mirabeau, a wide thoroughfare, planted with double rows of plane-trees, bordered by fine houses and decorated by fountains, divides the town into two portions.  The new town extends to the south and west, the old town with its wide but irregular streets and its old mansions dating from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries lies to the north.\n\nAix is an important educational centre, being the seat of the faculties of law and letters of the university of Aix-Marseille, and there is a lot of students lodging and parties in the old town and around university buildings in the new part of downtown.\n\nThe cathedral of Saint-Sauveur, which dates from the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries, is situated in this portion of Aix. It is preceded by a rich portal in the Gothic style with elaborately carved doors, and is flanked on the north by an uncompleted tower. The interior contains tapestry of the 16th century, other works of art and a baptism pool from first century.  The archbishop's palace and a Romanesque cloister adjoin the cathedral on its south side.  The church of Saint-Jean-de-Malto, dating from the 13th century, contains some valuable pictures.\n\nThe Hotel de Ville, a building in the classical style of the middle of the 17th century, looks on to a picturesque square.  It contains some fine woodwork and a large library which includes many valuable manuscripts. At its side rises a handsome clock-tower erected in 1505. \n\nAix h\u00e6f\u00fe manige \u01bflitige \u01bf\u00e6ter\u01bfiellas, \u00fe\u00e1ra \u00e1n is in \u00fe\u01fdm Cours Mirabeau.  And h\u00e9 is onstigen fram manl\u00edcan \u00fe\u00e6s le bon Roi Ren\u00e9, count of Provence, who held a brilliant court at Aix in the 15th century. Aix h\u00e6f\u00fe h\u00e1te springas, remarkable for their heat and containing lime and carbonic acid. \nThe bathing establishment was built in 1705 near the site of the ancient baths of Sextius, of which vestiges still remain.\n\nSe t\u00fan, which is the seat of an archbishop and court of appeal, and the centre of an acad\u00e9mie (educational circumscription), numbers among its public institutions a Court of assizes, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and a chamber of arts and manufactures.  It also has training-colleges, a lyc\u00e9e, a school of art and technics, museums of antiquities, natural history and painting, and several learned societies.\n\nAix is often referred to as s\u00e9o burg \u00fe\u00fasanda springa.  Among them are the Fontaine des Quatre Dauphins (Fountain of the Four Dolphins), built in 1667 by Jean-Claude Rambot; King Ren\u00e9's Fountain, built in the 19th century, of Roi Ren\u00e9 holding a bunch of Muscat grapes, which he introduced into Provence; the hot-water fountain dating back to 1734, which is covered in moss due to the 35\u00a0\u00b0C (93\u00a0\u00b0F) water; and the great fountain, from 1860, at La Rotonde, the large roundabout at the center of town.\n\nEconomy \n\nThe industries formerly include flour-milling, the manufacture of confectionery, iron-ware and hats, manufacture of matches and the distillation of olive-oil.\n\nBut now they more include :\n Tourism\n Electronic Industry\n Development services (computer science)\n Provence Crafts \n Universities\n still, distillation of olive-oil\n manufacture of the famous \"calissons\", sweets made of almond pasta flavoured with \"confit\" melon and orange.\n\nMiscellaneous \n\nAix-en-Provence \u01bf\u00e6s se byrdstede t\u00f3:\n\n Eleanore of Provence (ged\u00e9adod 1291), c\u01bf\u00e9n consort of King Henry III of England\n Paul C\u00e9zanne (1839-1906), m\u00e9tere\n Maurice Rouvier (1842-1911), politician \n\nAix hosted the ninth Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne in 1953.\n\nS\u00e9o \u00e9ac \n Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen)\n Aix-les-Bains\n\n\u00datan\u01bfeard bend  \n\n Tourist office website\n Cyberflag : Fanne Aix-en-Provence\n Ambihtlic stede \u00fe\u00e6s t\u00fanes Aix-en-Provence\n\nCommunes of Bouches-du-Rh\u00f4ne\nByrig on Francum\nProfentse","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":1873,"url":"https:\/\/ang.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%86x-in-Profentse","title":"\u00c6x-in-Profentse","language":"ang"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Andes are a mountain range along the western coast of South America.\n\nThey stretch over 7,000\u00a0km \/ 4,400 miles from the south of Argentina and Chile to the north of Colombia. They are also found in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador.\n\nThe Amazon river system has its sources in the eastern flanks of the Andes.\n\nThe Andes are the longest exposed mountain range of the world, and the second-highest after the Himalayas. The Andes mountain range is the highest mountain range outside Asia.\n\nAconcagua, the highest peak, rises to 6,962\u00a0m (22,841\u00a0ft) above sea level. The top of Mount Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is the point on the Earth's surface most distant from its center. Mount Chimborazo is an inactive volcano in Ecuador, which last erupted over a thousand years ago.\n\nGeography \n\nThe Andes has three sections:\nThe southern Andes in Argentina and Chile;\nThe central Andes, having the Chilean and Peruvian mountain system and parts of Bolivia;\nThe northern part in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador.\n\nThe northern part has two parallel ranges. They are the Cordillera Occidental (western) and the Cordillera Oriental (eastern). The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word meaning 'rope'.\n\nIn Colombia, north to the border with Ecuador, the Andes split in three parallel ranges, western, central and eastern.\n\nIn the north the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Snowy Mountain Range of Saint Martha) is an isolated mountain range apart from the Andes chain that runs through Colombia. Reaching an altitude of 5,700 metres above sea level just 42\u00a0km from the Caribbean coast, the Sierra Nevada is the world's highest coastal range.\n\nThe western range of the eastern Cordillia Oriental is the only one which reaches Colombia .\n\nThe Andes range is about  wide throughout its length, except in Bolivia where it is  wide. The islands of the Dutch Caribbean Aruba, Bonaire, and Cura\u00e7ao, which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, represent the submerged tops of the northern edge of the Andes range.\n\nGeology \nThe Andes are a Mesozoic\u2013Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire.\n\nThe Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American continental plate. South America, like North America, has been moving west since the Cretaceous period. Thus the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate formed the Andes. This was caused by the westward movement of South America.\n\nThe formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic and Jurassic when Pangea begun to break up and several rifts developed. It was during the Cretaceous period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rock of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant and different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and weathering.\n\nClimate \n\nThe climate in the Andes differs depending on which area, the altitude, and how close it is to the sea. The southern section is rainy and cool. The central Andes are dry. The northern Andes are normally rainy and warm, with an average temperature of  in Colombia. The climate is known to change very much in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just miles away from the snow covered peak Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is at between 4,500 and 4,800\u00a0m (14,800\u201315,800\u00a0ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, going up to 4,800\u20135,200\u00a0m (15,800\u201317,060\u00a0ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30\u00b0S, then going down to  on Aconcagua at 32\u00b0S,  at 40\u00b0S,  at 50\u00b0S, and only  in Tierra del Fuego at 55\u00b0S; from 50\u00b0S, many of the bigger glaciers go down to sea level.\n\nThe Andes of Chile and Argentina can be put in two climatic and glaciological zones; the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes.\n\nPlants \nRainforests used to hold much of the northern Andes but are now reduced, especially in the Choc\u00f3 and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. Farming, deforestation, illegal crops, and population growth has done this. \n\nA direct opposite of the humid Andean slopes are the mostly dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile and Argentina. That area, and many Interandean Valles, normally have deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric (dry) vegetation, up to the mostly lifeless Atacama Desert.\n\nAbout 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes. About half of those are endemic to the region: it is a hotspot. The small tree Cinchona pubescens is a source of quinine used to treat malaria. It is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that came from the Andes are tobacco and potatoes. \n\nThe high-altitude Polylepis forests and woodlands are found in the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile. These trees are called Que\u00f1ua, Yagual and other names. They grow at altitudes of  above sea level. It is still unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan time. Regardless, in modern times the clearance has had a faster pace, and the trees are now endangered.  Some think as little as 10% of the original woodland is still here.\n\nWildlife \n\nThe Andes has a lot of wildlife. With almost 1,000 species, of which about 2\/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes is the most important region in the world for amphibians.\nAnimal diversity in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (1\/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptiles (45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (1\/3 endemic).\n\nThe Vicu\u00f1a and Guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano, while the closely related domesticated Llama and Alpaca are commonly kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool. The nocturnal chinchillas, two threatened members of the rodent order, live in the Andes' alpine regions. The Andean Condor, the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, lives throughout much of the Andes but mostly in very low numbers. Other animals found in the mostly open habitats of the high Andes are the huemul, cougar, and foxes in the genus Pseudalopex. And for birds, some species of tinamous (they are members of the genus Nothoprocta), are the Andean Goose, Giant Coot, flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes),  Lesser Rhea, Andean Flicker, Diademed Sandpiper-plover, miners, sierra-finches and diuca-finches.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \n List of mountains in the Andes\n\n \nMountains of South America","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":7726,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andes","title":"Andes","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Masaccio (, , ; December 21, 1401\u00a0\u2013 summer 1428), born Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone, was a famous painter of the Italian Renaissance. He worked in Florence. Masaccio was a nickname that meant Fat Untidy Tom. He lived a very short life and only a few of his paintings exist, but they were so different to the style of other artists around him that they helped other painters to see things in a new way.\n\nBiography\n\nYouth\nMasaccio was born on 21 December, 1401, in the town of San Giovanni Valdarno, in the valley of the Arno River, near Florence. He was the son of a notary, a person who writes legal documents. His older brother became a painter and moved to Florence to the workshop of a painter called Bicci di Lorenzo. It is not known for certain, but it is thought that Masaccio may have trained at the same workshop. Masaccio's brother was nicknamed Lo Scheggia which means The Splinter, so it is thought that he was a skinny as Masaccio.\n\nIn 1422, when he was 21, Masaccio was already known as a painter, because he joined the Company of Saint Luke, which was a guild that helped artists and set down the rules for their employment.\n\nEarliest painting\nThe earliest known painting by Masaccio is the San Giovenale Triptych, dating from 1422. A \"triptych\" is a painting in three parts, most often used as an altarpiece. This altarpiece has in the middle panel the Virgin Mary and Christ Child on a throne. The wings, or side panels, each show two saints. Kneeling in front of the Virgin Mary are two little angels. One of the things that makes this painting different from most other paintings of the same time is that the angels are shown from the back. Their position is an invitation for the viewer to kneel down and worship the Virgin and Child as well. Masaccio used this way of making the viewer feel part of the scene in many of his paintings.\n\nThe plump solemn Baby Jesus with his fingers in his mouth, the three-dimensional look of the figures and the lack of rich decoration make this picture look very different from most other altarpieces of this time, which were painted in a style called International Gothic.\n\nPortraits\nIn April 1422 an event took place in Florence that was to be important in Masaccio's life. A new church was opened, and there was a grand procession and feast to celebrate. The church was Santa Maria del Carmine and Masaccio went along with his good friends, the sculptor Donatello, the architect Brunelleschi and the painter Masolino.\n\nAfter the feast day, it seems that Masaccio went to Rome, probably with his friends. Brunelleschi and Donatello like to spend a lot of time poking around among the ruins of Ancient Rome. It is believed that on this trip Masaccio also spent a lot of time poking around in the ruins. What he saw were the sculptures of a previous age- more lifelike and realistic than anything that he had ever seen before. Many of the sculptures showed pocessions of figures, but each figure was different from the next, so that they all looked like real individual people.\n\nWhen Masaccio returned to Florence he was given a job, a commission to paint a fresco of the procession that had taken place for the opening of the new church. Masaccio was inspired by what he had seen in Rome. \nThe writer Vasari, who must have seen the picture before it was destroyed in the late 1500s, wrote that the people were in rows that were five or six deep, but painted in such a way that they were all different, fat ones and thin ones, tall ones and short ones, some in long cloaks, some in big hats, and every single one was a portrait of a real person who lived in Florence at the time. And of course, Masaccio put his friends Brunelleschi, Donatello and Masolino into the picture. Luckily, several artists made drawings at some time in the 1500s, so part of the design has been recorded, even though the painting itself has gone.\n\nWorking with Masolino\nIn the Uffizi Gallery in Florence is an altarpiece that shows the Madonna and Child with Saint Anne. The Madonna and Child are seated on a throne, as is usual. Saint Anne, who was the mother of the Virgin Mary, is shown standing behind Mary with one hand on her daughter's shoulder and the other hand above the head of the Baby Jesus in a sign of blessing. The painting may have been done for a convent of nuns who honoured Saint Anne.\n\nIt is believed that this painting is a collaboration; that two artists worked on it together. It is believed by Art Historians that Masaccio painted Mary and Jesus and the angel near the top right. It is believed that Saint Anne and the other four angels were painted by Masolino.\n\nMasolino was 17 years older than Masaccio. His name was Tommaso da Panicale, so when the two began to work together, they were known as Masaccio and Masolino, which means \"Little Tom\". Those are the names by which they are remembered as painters.\n\nThe Brancacci Chapel\n\nCollaborating\nThe Brancacci Chapel is a large chapel at the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine where Masaccio had previously worked painting the procession. It was sponsored by the Brancacci family who paid for its decoration. There are no written records to show why or how it happened, but it seems that Masaccio and Masolino were given the job together. At first everything went very well and then things went very badly. It looked as if the job would never be finished. In fact, it is lucky that the paintings in the chapel survived at all.\n\nThe job seems to have started in 1423 or 1424 but this is not certain. The plan of the paintings was to show firstly how Sin came into the world through the disobedience of Adam and Eve. A painting by Masolino shows their disobedience in taking fruit from the forbidden tree. A painting opposite it by Masaccio shows Adam and Eve in disgrace, being chased out of the Garden of Eden. The rest of the paintings show The Life of Saint Peter. This is because Saint Peter was the founder of the Catholic Church and the paintings were meant to show that the best way to know about God's love is through the Church.\n\nIt seems that Masaccio and Masolino happily planned a scheme of frescoes that went together is a pleasing way, even though they are in two styles. It is not hard to tell which scenes Masolino painted and which were done by Masaccio. Masolino's are prettier and more elegant. Masaccio's scenes show figures that are strong and have drapes like the statues that he saw in Rome. The thing that was most different in his painting to other artists of the same time was that the figures looked very solid and three-dimensional. He was influenced by the paintings of Giotto who had worked in Florence at the Church of Santa Croce nearly a hundred years earlier, but whose style of painting had given way to the International Gothic style.\n\nApart from the Adam and Eve scenes, which are the smallest of the pictures, the most famous is Masaccio's picture of The Tribute Money. This large picture is set partly against a background of mountains and a lake, and partly against the background of a town which is similar to Florence. There are three scenes from the story. In the centre of the picture is a large group, Jesus and his twelve disciples. A tax collector has come to ask for a payment, but none of the men have any money. Jesus tells Peter to go fishing in the lake. Peter looks rather annoyed, wondering what good it will do. To the left, the small figure of Peter is kneeling at the edge of the lake with a fish he has caught. Inside the fish is a coin. To the right side of the picture, Peter is shown giving the coin to the tax collector. He no longer looks argumentative. Instead, he looks humble. Masaccio has expertly shown the feelings of the characters, not only by their faces, but also through body language.\n\nNeither Masaccio nor Masolino were able to work on the frescoes continuously, as they both kept getting other jobs to attend to. In 1428 Masaccio was asked to go to Rome to paint an altarpiece for one of the most important and ancient churches, Santa Maria Maggiore. He only painted one panel, Saint Jerome and Saint John the Baptist, before he died at the age of 27 years. Masolino and perhaps another artist, Domenico Veneziano worked on, and finished the altarpiece, which was later broken into pieces and scattered to galleries in different countries. Masaccio's panel is in the National Gallery, London.\n\nMasolino lived for another 19 years, but he never went back to finish the Brancacci frescoes. The Brancacci family fell into disgrace and were chased out of Florence. One of Masaccio's pictures was attacked because it had portraits of some of the Brancacci family in it. Some 50 years later, in the 1480s, all the scenes that remained incomplete or not begun were painted by Filippino Lippi, who tried to respect the styles that Masaccio and Masolino had used before him.\n\nDamage\nThe chapel, which was dedicated to Saint Peter, was re-dedicated to Our Lady of the Common People and to her honour a magnificent ancient altarpiece by Coppo di Marcovaldo, dating from about 1280 was put into place. Because this image of the Virgin Mary was said to work miracles, many hundreds of candles were lit in front of it which soon stained the frescoes so that their bright colours could no longer be seen. Eventually the painting was moved to a different church. Then part of the roof fell in and had to be replaced. More damage was done in re-decorating. In 1680 the Marquis Francesco Ferroni decided that the paintings were too old-fashioned and should all be pulled down. Luckily the Grand Duchess Vittoria della Rovere stopped this from happening. In 1734 a painter called Antonio Pillori cleaned the frescoes. Then in the 1770, there was a fire in the church, causing worse staining and some damage to the frescoes. (Luckily the precious altarpiece had been moved.)\n\nDiscoveries\nIn recent years there have been four interesting discoveries. During a minor cleaning in 1904 two slabs of marble near the altar were moved. Underneath were the bright colours that showed what the frescoes should look like. Examination of the areas where two windows had been changed showed the plans for two paintings that had been destroyed. The final discoveries in the chapel itself were two painted roundels with little angel faces in them, one by Masaccio and one by Masolino.\n\nThere was a problem to be solved in the minds of some art historians. Despite these interesting findings, there was a scene missing from the story of Saint Peter. It is the scene where Jesus says \"You are Peter, and on this Rock I build my Church.\" This part of the story is of the greatest importance to the Roman Catholic Church because Peter was the first Bishop of Rome, and so the Pope rules as his direct line. The scene is usually shown by Jesus giving Peter the Keys of Heaven. The Keys, for hundreds of years, have been the symbol of the Pope. But the story of the Keys is completely missing.\n\nThen, in the 1940s, John Pope-Hennessy, the director of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, realised that the museum owned a work of art that was exactly the thing that was missing from the Brancacci Chapel. It was a thin, almost flat marble slab delicately carved with the scene of Jesus giving the Keys to Peter. It was just the right size to make the front of an altar. And although it could not be proved, it was almost certainly carved by Masaccio's friend, Donatello.\n\nThe Trinity\nAt some time while he was working on the Brancacci Chapel, Masaccio painted a fresco for another church in Florence, Santa Maria Novella, the church of the Dominican Order. This is a very remarkable painting and one of Masaccio's most famous. It shows the Holy Trinity, (or God in three parts). God is shown as the eternal Creator, as the humble Sacrifice in Jesus on the Cross and as the inspiring Spirit. On either side of the Cross stand the Virgin Mary and Saint John. The two kneeling figures are the family who paid for the painting.\n\nMasaccio has painted this very holy scene as if it was taking place in a deep recess or small chapel in the wall of the church. He has done this by using very accurate perspective. It is believed that the architect Brunelleschi may have helped him with this, as the painted architecture looks very much like buildings that Brunelleschi designed.\nRealJonWills\n\nInfluence\nVasari writes that Masaccio was not very famous in his own time. In 1440 his body was brought home to Florence and buried at Santa Maria del Carmine but no monument was put up in his honour. Shortly afterwards people began to honour him as a painter. Michelangelo and many other painters and sculptors went to the Brancacci Chapel to study Masaccio's paintings. His influence can be seen in the paintings of Fra Angelico, Piero della Francesca, Ghirlandaio and particularly Michelangelo.\n\nRelated pages\n List of Italian painters\n\nReferences\n\n Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Painters, translated by George Bull, Penguin Classics, \n Ornella Casazza, Masaccio, Scala\/Riverside, 1990, \n\n1401 births\n1428 deaths\n15th-century Italian painters\nRenaissance","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":57905,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Masaccio","title":"Masaccio","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A tehsil (also known as a mandal, tehsil, tahasil, taluka, taluk, or taluq) is a unit of government in Pakistan and in the Republic of India - it is similar to a county. It usually consists of a town (possibly more towns) and the villages around the towns. \n\nIn Pakistan, Tehsils are the second administrative division. They are further subdivided into Union Councils. Many Tehsils are grouped together into a district (Zillah). In Sindh the name taluka is generally used instead of tehsil.\n\nIn India, some states use taluk or taluka, others use tehsil. The TK often found in Indian addresses stands for Taluk. \n\nLocal government of Pakistan\nLocal government in India","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2}},"id":99372,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tehsil","title":"Tehsil","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The word Benedictine usually refers to a follower of the Order of Saint Benedict. These people usually lead a life in an abbey. They follow the rule of Benedict of Nursia. Benedict lived in the 6th century. He made some rules, called the Rule of St Benedict these people follow. The rules can be summed up by pax (peace) and ora et labora (pray and work). \n\nMost Benedictines see themselves as part of the Catholic Church. Some can also be found in the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Church. Officially, the order is known as Ordo Sancti Benedicti (OSB).\n\n \n6th-century works\u200e","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":92282,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benedictine","title":"Benedictine","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ecologie, or ecological science, is the scienteific study o the deistribution an rowth o leivin organisms an the wey that thir properties is affectit bi interactions atween the organisms an thair environs. The environs o an organism includes baith the pheesical properties, them that can be descrieved as the soum o local abiotic factors like climate an geologie, as weel as the ither organisms that shares its habitat. The wird oekologie wis cleckit in 1866 bi the German biologist, Ernst Haeckel, frae the Greek oikos meanin \"hoosehauld\" an logos meanin \"study\"; that is, the \"study o the hoosehauld o naitur\".\nbiology is as well the study of the human body or focile this is known as geology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-18":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":1929,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecologie","title":"Ecologie","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Law is a set of rules decided by a particular place or authority meant for the purpose of keeping the peace and security of society. \n\nCourts or police may enforce this system of rules and punish people who break the laws, such as by paying a fine, or other penalty including jail. In ancient societies, laws were written by leaders, to set out rules on how people can live, work and do business with each other. But many times in history when laws have been on a false basis to benefit few at the expense of society, they have resulted in conflict. To prevent this, in most countries today, laws are written and voted on by groups of politicians in a legislature, such as a parliament or congress, elected (chosen) by the governed peoples. Countries today have a constitution for the overall framework of society and make further laws as needed for matters of detail. Members of society generally have enough freedom within all the legal things they can choose to do. An activity is illegal if it breaks a law or does not follow the laws.\n\nA legal code is a written code of laws that are enforced. This may deal with things like police, courts, or punishments. A lawyer, jurist or attorney is a professional who studies and argues the rules of law. In the United States, there are two kinds of attorneys - \"transactional\" attorneys who write contracts and \"litigators\" who go to court. In the United Kingdom, these professionals are called solicitors and barristers respectively.\n\nThe Rule of Law is the law which says that government can only legally use its power in a way the government and the people agree on. It limits the powers a government has, as agreed in a country's constitution. The Rule of Law prevents dictatorship and protects the rights of the people. When leaders enforce the legal code honestly, even on themselves and their friends, this is an example of the rule of law being followed. \"The rule of law\", wrote the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in 350 BC, \"is better than the rule of any individual.\"\n\nCulture is usually a major source of the principles behind many laws, and people also tend to trust the ideas based on family and social habits. In many countries throughout history, religion and religious books like the Vedas, Bible or the Koran have been a major source of law.\n\nTypes of law \nMedical law is the body of laws concerning the rights and responsibilities of medical professionals and their patients. The main areas of focus for medical law include confidentiality, negligence and other torts related to medical treatment (especially medical malpractice), and criminal law and ethics.\nPhysician-Patient Privilege protects the patient's private conversations with a medical physician (doctor), this also extends to their personal information (like their contact details) shared with medical personnel.\n Property law states the rights and obligations that a person has when they buy, sell, or rent homes and land (called real property or realty), and objects (called personal property).\n Intellectual property (IP) law involves the rights people have over things they create, such as art, music, and literature. This is called copyright. It also protects inventions that people make, by a kind of law called patent. It also covers the rights people have to the names of a company or a distinctive mark or logo. This is called trademark.\n Trust law (business Law) sets out the rules for money that is put into an investment, such as pension funds that people save up for their retirement. It involves many different types of law, including administrative and property law.\nTort law helps people to make claims for compensation (repayment) when someone hurts them or hurts their property.\nCriminal law is used by the government to prevent people from breaking laws, and punish people who do break them.\nConstitutional law deals with the important rights of the government, and its relationship with the people. It mainly involves the interpretation of a constitution, including things like the Separation of powers of the different branches of government.\nA court order is an official proclamation by a judge that defines and authorizes the carrying out of certain steps for one or more parties to a case.\nAdministrative law is used by ordinary citizens who want to challenge decisions made by governments. It also involves things like regulations, and the operation of the administrative agencies. \nInternational law is used to set out rules on how countries can act in areas such as trade, the environment, or military action. The Geneva Conventions on the conduct of war and the Roerich Pact are examples of international law.\nCustom and tradition are practices that are widely adopted and agreed upon in a society, thought often not in a written form. Custom and tradition can be enforced in courts and are sometimes considered as part of the legal reasoning in matters decided in courts. In some societies and cultures all law is or was custom and tradition, though this is increasingly rare although there are some parts of the world where custom tradition are still binding or even the predominant form of law, for example tribal lands or failed states.\n\nCivil law and common law \nCivil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. Civil law is based on legislation that is found in constitutions or statutes passed by government. The secondary part of civil law is the legal approaches that are part of custom. In civil law governments, judges do not generally have much power, and most of the laws and legal precedent are created by Members of Parliament.\n \nCommon law is based on the decisions made by judges in past court cases. It comes from England and it became part of almost every country that once belonged to the British Empire, except Malta, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec. It is also the predominant form of law in the United States, where many laws called statutes are written by Congress, but many more legal rules exist from the decisions of the courts. Common law had its beginnings in the Middle Ages, when King John was forced by his barons to sign a document called the Magna Carta.\n\nReligious law \nReligious law is law based on religious beliefs or books. Examples include the Jewish Halakha, Islamic Sharia, and Christian Canon law.\n\nUntil the 1700s, Sharia law was the main legal system throughout the Muslim world. In some Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia and Iran, the whole legal systems still base their law on Sharia law. Islamic law is often criticised because it often has harsh penalties for crimes. A serious criticism is the judgement of the European Court that \"sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy\".\n\nThe Turkish Refah Party's sharia-based \"plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion\" was ruled to contravene the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The Court decided Refah's plan would \"do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms\" and \"infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy\".\n\nHistory of law \nThe history of law is closely connected to the development of human civilizations. Ancient Egyptian law developed in 3000 BC. In 1760 BC King Hammurabi, took ancient Babylonian law and organized it, and had it chiseled in stone for the public to see in the marketplace. These laws became known as the Code of Hammurabi.\n\nThe Torah from the Old Testament is an old body of law. It was written around 1280 BC. It has moral rules such as the Ten Commandments, which tell people what things are not permitted. Sometimes people try to change the law. For example, if prostitution is illegal, they try to make it legal.\n\nLegislature \nIn democracies, the people in a country usually choose people called politicians to represent them in a legislature. Examples of legislatures include the Houses of Parliament in London, the Congress in Washington, D.C., the Bundestag in Berlin, the Duma in Moscow and the Assembl\u00e9e nationale in Paris. Most legislatures have two chambers or houses, a 'lower house' and an 'upper house'. To pass legislation, a majority of Members of Parliament must vote for a bill in each house. The legislature is the branch of government that writes laws, and votes on whether they will be approved.\n\nJudiciary \nThe judiciary is a group of judges who resolve people's disputes and determine whether people who are charged with crimes are guilty. In some jurisdictions the judge does not find guilt or innocence but instead directs a jury, how to interpret facts from a legal perspective, but the jury determines the facts based on evidence presented to them and finds the guilt or innocences of the charged person.  Most countries of common law and civil law systems have a system of appeals courts, up to a supreme authority such as the Supreme Court or the High Court. The highest courts usually have the power to remove laws that are unconstitutional (which go against the constitution).\n\nExecutive (government) and Head of State \nThe executive is the governing center of political authority. In most democratic countries, the executive is elected from people who are in the legislature. This group of elected people is called the cabinet. In France, the US and Russia, the executive branch has a President which exists separately from the legislature.\n\nThe executive suggests new laws and deals with other countries. As well, the executive usually controls the military, the police, and the bureaucracy. The executive selects ministers, or secretaries of state to control departments such as the health department or the department of justice.\n\nIn many jurisdictions the Head of State does not take part in the day-to-day governance of the jurisdiction and takes a largely ceremonial role. This is the case in many Commonwealth nations where the Head of State, usually a Governor almost exclusively acts \"on the advice\" of the head of the Executive (e.g. the Prime Minister, First Minister or Premier). The primary legal role of the Head of State in these jurisdictions is to act as a check or balance against the Executive, as the Head of State has the rarely exercised power to dissolve the legislature, call elections and dismiss ministers.\n\nOther parts of the legal system \nThe police enforce the criminal laws by arresting people suspected of breaking the law. Bureaucrats are the government workers and government organizations that do work for the government. Bureaucrats work within a system of rules, and they make their decisions in writing.\n\nLawyers are people who have learned about laws. Lawyers give people advice about their legal rights and duties and represent people in court. To become a lawyer, a person has to complete a two- or three-year university program at a law school and pass an entrance examination. Lawyers work in law firms, for the government, for companies, or by themselves.\n\nCivil society is the people and groups that are not part of government that try to protect people against human rights abuses and try to protect freedom of speech and other individual rights. Organizations that are part of civil society include political parties, debating clubs, trade unions, human rights organizations, newspapers and charities.\n\n\"Corporations are among the organizations that use the legal system to further their goals.  Like the others, they use means such as campaign donations and advertising to persuade people that they are right.  Corporations also engage in commerce and make new things such as automobiles, vaporisers\/e-cigarettes, and Unmanned aerial vehicles (i.e. \"drones\") that the old laws are not well equipped to deal with. Corporations also makes use of a set of rules and regulations to ensure their employees remain loyal to them (usually presented in a legal contract), and that any disobedience towards these rules are considered uncivilized and therefore given grounds for immediate dismissal.\n\nRelated pages \nConstitution\nDeath penalty\nEthics\nLegal code\nLegal rights\nParliament\n Physical law\n Political economy\n\nFurther reading \nH.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law, (Penelope A. Bullock & Joseph Raz eds. 2nd ed. 1994) (1961).\nSandro Nielsen: The Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Principles and Practice for Legal Language. Benjamins 1994.\nA Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy. edited by Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit. .\nJohnson, Alan (1995). The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology. Blackwells publishers. .\nHandbook of Political Institutions. edited by R. A. W. Rhodes, Sarah A. Binder and Bert A. Rockman. Oxford University Press. \nAn Introduction to IP Law. edited by John Watts. Oxford University Press. Available at Patent Professionals LLC\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Law -Citizendium","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":190,"dup_dump_count":48,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":5,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":4,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":5,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":5,"2022-40":7,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":8,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":7,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":7,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":8,"2021-10":6,"2021-04":6,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":7,"2020-34":6,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":4,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":4,"2018-43":2}},"id":426,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law","title":"Law","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"William George Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong,  (26 November 1810 \u2013 27 December 1900) was an English engineer and industrialist who founded the Armstrong Whitworth manufacturing concern on Tyneside. He was also an eminent scientist, inventor and philanthropist. In collaboration with the architect Richard Norman Shaw, he built Cragside in Northumberland, the first house in the world to be lit by hydroelectricity. He is regarded as the inventor of modern artillery.\n\nArmstrong was knighted in 1859 after giving his gun patents to the government. In 1887, in Queen Victoria's golden jubilee year, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Armstrong of Cragside.\n\nEarly life\n\nArmstrong was born in Newcastle upon Tyne at 9 Pleasant Row, Shieldfield, about a mile from the city centre. Although the house in which he was born no longer exists, an inscribed granite tablet marks the site where it stood. At that time the area, next to the Pandon Dene, was rural. His father, also called William, was a corn merchant on the Newcastle quayside, who rose through the ranks of Newcastle society to become mayor of the town in 1850. An elder sister, Anne, born in 1802, was named after his mother, the daughter of Addison Potter.\n\nArmstrong was educated at the Royal Grammar School, Newcastle upon Tyne, until he was sixteen, when he was sent to Bishop Auckland Grammar School. While there, he often visited the nearby engineering works of William Ramshaw. During his visits he met his future wife, Ramshaw's daughter Margaret, six years his senior.\n\nArmstrong's father was set on his following a career in the law, and so he was articled to Armorer Donkin, a solicitor friend of his father's. He spent five years in London studying law and returned to Newcastle in 1833. In 1835 he became a partner in Donkin's business and the firm became Donkin, Stable and Armstrong. Armstrong married Margaret Ramshaw in 1835, and they built a house in Jesmond Dene, on the eastern edge of Newcastle. Armstrong worked for eleven years as a solicitor, but during his spare time he showed great interest in engineering, developing the \"Armstrong Hydroelectric Machine\" between 1840 and 1842. In 1837, he laid the foundations for the engineering and environmental consultancy which is today known as Wardell Armstrong.\n\nChange of career\nArmstrong was a very keen angler, and while fishing on the River Dee at Dentdale in the Pennines, he saw a waterwheel in action, supplying power to a marble quarry. It struck Armstrong that much of the available power was being wasted. When he returned to Newcastle, he designed a rotary engine powered by water, and this was built in the High Bridge works of his friend Henry Watson. Unfortunately, little interest was shown in the engine. Armstrong subsequently developed a piston engine instead of a rotary one and decided that it might be suitable for driving a hydraulic crane. In 1846 his work as an amateur scientist was recognized when he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.\n\nIn 1845 a scheme was set in motion to provide piped water from distant reservoirs to the households of Newcastle. Armstrong was involved in this scheme and he proposed to Newcastle Corporation that the excess water pressure in the lower part of town could be used to power a quayside crane specially adapted by himself. He claimed that his hydraulic crane could unload ships faster and more cheaply than conventional cranes. The Corporation agreed to his suggestion, and the experiment proved so successful that three more hydraulic cranes were installed on the Quayside.\n\nThe success of his hydraulic crane led Armstrong to consider setting up a business to manufacture cranes and other hydraulic equipment. He therefore resigned from his legal practice. Donkin, his legal colleague, supported him in his career move, providing financial backing for the new venture. In 1847 the firm of W. G. Armstrong & Company bought  of land alongside the river at Elswick, near Newcastle, and began to build a factory there. The new company received orders for hydraulic cranes from Edinburgh and Northern Railways and from Liverpool Docks, as well as for hydraulic machinery for dock gates in Grimsby. The company soon began to expand. In 1850 the company produced 45 cranes and two years later, 75. It averaged 100 cranes per year for the rest of the century. In 1850 over 300 men were employed at the works, but by 1863 this had risen to 3,800. The company soon branched out into bridge building, one of the first orders being for the Inverness Bridge, completed in 1855.\n\nHydraulic accumulator\n\nArmstrong was responsible for developing the hydraulic accumulator. Where water pressure was not available on site for the use of hydraulic cranes, Armstrong often built high water towers to provide a supply of water at pressure - for instance, the  Grimsby Dock Tower. However, when supplying cranes for use at New Holland on the Humber Estuary, he was unable to do this because the foundations consisted of sand. After much careful thought he produced the weighted accumulator, a cast-iron cylinder fitted with a plunger supporting a very heavy weight. The plunger would slowly be raised, drawing in water, until the downward force of the weight was sufficient to force the water below it into pipes at great pressure. The accumulator was a very significant, if unspectacular, invention, which found many applications in the following years.\n\nArmaments\n\nIn 1854, during the Crimean War, Armstrong read about the difficulties the British Army experienced in manoeuvring its heavy field guns. He decided to design a lighter, more mobile field gun, with greater range and accuracy. He built a breech-loading gun with a strong, rifled barrel made from wrought iron wrapped around a steel inner lining, designed to fire a shell rather than a ball. In 1855 he had a five-pounder ready for inspection by a government committee. The gun proved successful in trials, but the committee thought a higher calibre gun was needed, so Armstrong built an 18-pounder on the same design.\n\nAfter trials, this gun was declared to be superior to all its rivals. Armstrong surrendered the patent for the gun to the British government, rather than profit from its design. As a result he was created a Knight Bachelor and in 1859 was presented to Queen Victoria. Armstrong became employed as Engineer of Rifled Ordnance to the War Department. In order to avoid a conflict of interests if his own company were to manufacture armaments, Armstrong created a separate company, called Elswick Ordnance Company, in which he had no financial involvement. The new company agreed to manufacture armaments for the British government and no other. Under his new position, Armstrong worked to bring the old Woolwich Arsenal up to date so that it could build guns designed at Elswick.\n\nHowever, just when it looked as if the new gun was about to become a great success, a great deal of opposition to the gun arose, both inside the army and from rival arms manufacturers, particularly Joseph Whitworth of Manchester. Stories were publicised that the new gun was too difficult to use, that it was too expensive, that it was dangerous to use, that it frequently needed repair and so on. All of this smacked of a concerted campaign against Armstrong. Armstrong was able to refute all of these claims in front of various government committees, but he found the constant criticism very wearying and depressing. In 1862 the government decided to stop ordering the new gun and return to muzzle loaders. Also, because of a drop in demand, future orders for guns would be supplied from Woolwich, leaving Elswick without new business. Compensation was eventually agreed with the government for the loss of business to the company, which went on legitimately to sell its products to foreign powers. Speculation that guns were sold to both sides in the American Civil War was unfounded.\n\nWarships \n\nIn 1864 the two companies, W. G. Armstrong & Company and Elswick Ordnance Company merged to form Sir W. G. Armstrong & Company. Armstrong had resigned from his employment with the War Office, so there was no longer a conflict of interest. The company turned its attention to naval guns. In 1867 Armstrong reached an agreement with Charles Mitchell, a shipbuilder in Low Walker, whereby Mitchells would build warships and Elswick would provide the guns. The first ship, in 1868 was HMS Staunch, a gunboat.\n\nIn 1876, because the 18th-century bridge at Newcastle restricted access by ships to the Elswick works, Armstrong's company paid for a new Swing Bridge to be built, so that warships could have their guns fitted at Elswick. In 1882 Armstrong's company merged with Mitchell's to form Sir William Armstrong, Mitchell and Co. Ltd. and in 1884 a shipyard opened at Elswick to specialise in warship production. The first vessels produced were the torpedo cruisers Panther and Leopard for the Austro-Hungarian Navy. The first battleship produced at Elswick was HMS Victoria, launched in 1887. The ship was originally to be named Renown, but the name was changed in honour of the Queen's Golden Jubilee. Armstrong drove the first and last rivets. The ship was ill-fated, as she was involved in a collision with HMS Camperdown just six years later in 1893 and sank with the loss of 358 men, including Vice-Admiral Sir George Tryon. An important customer of the Elswick yard was Japan, which took several cruisers, some of which defeated the Russian fleet at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905. It was claimed that every Japanese gun used in the battle had been provided by Elswick. Elswick was the only factory in the world that could build a battleship and arm it completely.\n\nThe Elswick works continued to prosper, and by 1870 stretched for three-quarters of a mile along the riverside. The population of Elswick, which had been 3,539 in 1851, had increased to 27,800 by 1871. In 1894, Elswick built and installed the steam-driven pumping engines, hydraulic accumulators and hydraulic pumping engines to operate London's Tower Bridge. In 1897 the company merged with the company of Armstrong's old rival, Joseph Whitworth, and became Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co Ltd. Whitworth was by this time dead.\n\nArmstrong gathered many excellent engineers at Elswick. Notable among them were Andrew Noble and George Wightwick Rendel, whose design of gun-mountings and hydraulic control of gun-turrets were adopted worldwide. Rendel introduced the cruiser as a naval vessel. There was great rivalry and dislike between Noble and Rendel, which became open after Armstrong's death.\n\nCragside\n\nFrom 1863 onwards, although Armstrong remained the head of his company, he became less involved in its day-to-day running. He appointed several very able men to senior positions and they continued his work. When he married, he acquired a house called Jesmond Dean (sic), which is now demolished, and not to be confused with the nearby Jesmond Dene House. Armstrong's house was to the west of Jesmond Dene, Newcastle, and thus not far from his birthplace, and he began to landscape and improve land that he bought within the Dene. In 1860 he paid local architect John Dobson to design a Banqueting Hall overlooking the Dene, which still survives, though it is now roofless. His house close to Newcastle was convenient for his practice as a solicitor and his work as an industrialist, but when he had more spare time he longed for a house in the country.\n\nHe had often visited Rothbury as a child, when he was afflicted by a severe cough, and he had fond memories of the area. In 1863 he bought some land in a steep-sided, narrow valley where the Debdon Burn flows towards the River Coquet near Rothbury. He had the land cleared and supervised the building of a house perched on a ledge of rock, overlooking the burn. He also supervised a programme of planting trees and mosses so as to cover the rocky hillside with vegetation.\n\nHis new house was called Cragside, and over the years Armstrong added to the Cragside estate. Eventually the estate was  and had seven million trees planted, together with five artificial lakes and  of carriage drives. The lakes were used to generate hydro-electricity, and the house was the first in the world to be lit by hydro-electricity, using incandescent lamps provided by the inventor Joseph Swan.\n\nAs Armstrong spent less and less time at the Elswick works, he spent more and more time at Cragside, and it became his main home. In 1869 he commissioned the celebrated architect Richard Norman Shaw to enlarge and improve the house, and this was done over a period of 15\u00a0years. In 1883 Armstrong gave Jesmond Dene, together with its banqueting hall to the city of Newcastle. He retained his house next to the Dene. Armstrong entertained several eminent guests at Cragside, including the Shah of Persia, the King of Siam, the prime minister of China and the Prince and Princess of Wales.\n\nLater life\n\nIn 1873 he served as High Sheriff of Northumberland. He was President of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers from 1872 to 1875. He was elected as the president of the Institution of Civil Engineers in December 1881 and served in that capacity for the next year. He was conferred with Honorary Membership of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1884. In 1886, he was persuaded to stand as a Unionist Liberal candidate for Newcastle, but was unsuccessful, coming third in the election. That same year he was presented with the Freedom of the City of Newcastle. In 1887 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Armstrong, of Cragside in the County of Northumberland. His last great project, begun in 1894, was the purchase and restoration of the huge Bamburgh Castle on the Northumberland coast, which remains in the hands of the Armstrong family. His wife, Margaret, died in September 1893, at their house in Jesmond. Armstrong died at Cragside on 27 December 1900, aged ninety. He was buried in Rothbury churchyard, alongside his wife. The couple had no children, and Armstrong's heir was his great-nephew William Watson-Armstrong. He was succeeded as chairman of the company by his one-time prot\u00e9g\u00e9, Andrew Noble.\n\nSuch was Armstrong's fame as a gun-maker that he is thought to be a possible model for George Bernard Shaw's arms magnate in Major Barbara. The title character in Iain Pears' historical-mystery novel Stone's Fall also has similarities to Armstrong.\n\nHis attitude to armaments\nThere is no evidence that Armstrong agonised over his decision to go into armament production. He once said: \"If I thought that war would be fomented, or the interests of humanity suffer, by what I have done, I would greatly regret it. I have no such apprehension.\"  He also said: \"It is our province, as engineers to make the forces of matter obedient to the will of man; those who use the means we supply must be responsible for their legitimate application.\"\n\nViews on renewable energy\n\nArmstrong advocated the use of renewable energy. Stating that coal \"was used wastefully and extravagantly in all its applications\", he predicted in 1863 that Britain would cease to produce coal within two centuries. As well as advocating the use of hydroelectricity, he also supported solar power, stating that the amount of solar energy received by an area of  in the tropics would \"exert the amazing power of 4,000 horses acting for nearly nine hours every day\".\n\nThe benefactor\nArmstrong donated the long wooded gorge of Jesmond Dene to the people of the city of Newcastle upon Tyne in 1883, as well as Armstrong Bridge and Armstrong Park nearby. He was involved in the foundation in 1871 of the College of Physical Science  - a  forerunner of the University of Newcastle, renamed Armstrong College in 1906. He was President of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne from 1860 until his death, as well as twice president of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Armstrong gave \u00a311,500 towards the building of Newcastle's Hancock Natural History Museum, which was completed in 1882. This sum is equivalent to over \u00a3555,000 in 2010. Lord Armstrong's generosity extended beyond his death. In 1901 his heir, William Watson-Armstrong gave \u00a3100,000 (equivalent to \u00a3 in ), for the building of the new Royal Victoria Infirmary in Newcastle upon Tyne. Its original 1753 building at Forth Banks near the River Tyne was inadequate and impossible to expand. In 1903 the barony of Armstrong was revived in favour of William Watson-Armstrong.\n\nHonours\n In 1846 he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS).\n In 1850 he received the Telford Medal from the Institution of Civil Engineers. \n In 1859 William Armstrong was knighted as a Knight Bachelor (Kt).\n He was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the Civil Division\n In 1878 he received the Albert Medal from the Royal Society of Arts.\n In 1886 he was awarded the Freedom of the City of Newcastle.\n In 1887 he was raised to the peerage as a Hereditary peer, allowing him to sit in the House of Lords. He took the title Baron Armstrong, of Cragside in the County of Northumberland. \n In 1891 he received the Bessemer Gold Medal from the Iron and Steel Institute.\n\nHonorary Degrees\n\nArms\n\nPublications\n\n, Plates: 17\u201324\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n \n Heald, Henrietta (2012), William Armstrong: Magician of the North. Alnwick, Northumberland: McNidder & Grace. .\n Smith, Ken (2005), Emperor of Industry: Lord Armstrong of Cragside. Newcastle: Tyne Bridge Publishing, 48 pp. .\n Bastable, Marshall J. (2004), Arms and the State, Sir William Armstrong and the Remaking of British Naval Power. UK: Ashgate, 300 pp. .\n\nExternal links\n \n William Armstrong website\n\n1810 births\n1900 deaths\nPeople from Newcastle upon Tyne\nPeople from Rothbury\nPeople educated at the Royal Grammar School, Newcastle upon Tyne\nBarons Armstrong\nCompanions of the Order of the Bath\nEnglish industrialists\nEnglish engineers\nEnglish inventors\nFellows of the Royal Society\nHistory of Northumberland\nHydraulic engineers\nKnights Bachelor\nPeople associated with Newcastle University\nPresidents of the Institution of Civil Engineers\nWeapon designers\nHigh Sheriffs of Northumberland\nMayors of Newcastle upon Tyne\nLiberal Unionist Party parliamentary candidates\nBessemer Gold Medal\n19th-century English lawyers\nPeers of the United Kingdom created by Queen Victoria\n19th-century English businesspeople","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":50,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2019-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":2}},"id":60556,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William%20Armstrong%2C%201st%20Baron%20Armstrong","title":"William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Feldspar is the name of a group of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals that make up as much as 60% of the Earth's crust.\n\nFeldspar forms crystals from magma in both intrusive and extrusive rocks, and they can also happen as compact minerals, as veins, and are also present in many types of metamorphic rock. Rock formed entirely of plagioclase feldspar is known as anorthosite. Feldspar is also found in many types of sedimentary rock.\n\nFeldspar is typically reddish or pale pink in color, and has a hardness of 6 on the Mohs scale, making it roughly as hard to scratch as glass.\n\nThere are two groups of feldspar, both made out of silica and aluminum:\nOrthoclase or \"alkali\" feldspars: a group of minerals that all have the same formula (KAlSi3O8 with sodium sometimes replacing the potassium in some pieces), but are formed in different ways because of how different the times and places where they formed were. \nPlagioclase feldspars: A series of minerals that are made up of a series of two chemicals (Albite, NaAlSi3O8, and anorthite CaAl2Si2O8), with a given piece having its place on the series determined by the relative amounts of the two chemicals.\n\nMinerals","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":96303,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feldspar","title":"Feldspar","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"For the calendar of religious holidays and periods, see liturgical year.\n\n\u0997\u09cd\u09b0\u09c7\u0997\u09b0\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u09a8 \u09aa\u09be\u099e\u09cd\u099c\u09c0 (\u0987\u0982\u09b0\u09c7\u099c\u09c0: Gregorian calendar \u09ac\u09c1\u09b2\u09a4\u09be\u09b0\u09be \u09aa\u09be\u099e\u09cd\u099c\u09c0 \u098f\u09b9\u09be\u09a8 \u09aa\u09c3\u09a5\u09bf\u09ac\u09c0\u09b0 \u09b9\u09be\u09ac\u09cd\u09ac\u09bf \u09a6\u09c7\u09b6\u09c7 \u099a\u09b2\u09c7\u09b0 \u09ac\u09c1\u09b2\u09b2\u09c7\u0989 \u09af\u09bc\u09cd\u09af\u09be\u0995\u09b0\u09c7\u09b0\u0964 \u098f\u09b9\u09be\u09a8 \u099c\u09c1\u09b2\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u09a8 \u09aa\u09be\u099e\u09cd\u099c\u09c0\u09a4\u09cd\u09a4 \u09aa\u09a4\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be \u09b9\u0999\u0995\u09b0\u09bf\u09b8\u09bf\u09b9\u09be\u09a8 \u09af\u09c7\u09b9\u09be\u09a8 \u09aa\u09af\u09bc\u09b2\u09be\u0995\u09be \u0995\u09be\u09b2\u09be\u09ac\u09cd\u09b0\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u09a8 \u09a1\u0995\u09cd\u099f\u09b0 \u0986\u09b2\u0987\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u09b8 \u09b2\u09bf\u09b2\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u09b8\u09c7 \u09aa\u09cd\u09b0\u09b8\u09cd\u09a4\u09be\u09ac \u0995\u09b0\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be \u09ac\u09be\u09b0\u09cb \u099a\u09be\u09b2\u09c7\u0987\u09b2\u09a4\u09be \u09aa\u09cb\u09aa \u0997\u09cd\u09b0\u09c7\u0997\u09b0\u09bf \u09a4\u09cd\u09b0\u09af\u09bc\u09cb\u09a6\u09b6\u09c7 \u09af\u09c7\u0997\u09b0 \u09a8\u09be\u0982\u09b9\u09be\u09a8 \u0987\u09b2\u09af\u09bc\u09be \u098f\u09b9\u09be\u09a8\u09b0 \u09a8\u09be\u0982\u09b9\u09be\u09a8 \u09a5\u09a8\u09be \u0987\u09b2\u0964 \u09ab\u09c7\u09ac\u09cd\u09b0\u09c1\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u09b0\u09c0 \u09e8\u09ea \u09e7\u09eb\u09ee\u09e8 \u0996\u09cd\u09b0\u09c0\u09b8\u09cd\u099f\u09be\u09ac\u09cd\u09a6\u09a4\u09cd\u09a4 \u099a\u09b2\u09be\u09a8\u09bf \u0985\u0995\u09b0\u09b2\u09cb\u0964 \u0985\u09a4\u09be\u0987\u09b2\u09c7\u0989 \u09a4\u09bf\u09b2\u09aa\u09be\u09b0\u09be\u099c\u09cd\u09af \u09ac\u09be\u09b0\u09cb \u09b8\u09ae\u09af\u09bc\u0985\u09b9\u09be\u09a8\u09b0 \u09ac\u09cd\u09b0\u09bf\u099f\u09bf\u09b6 \u0995\u09b2\u09cb\u09a8\u09c0 \u09ac\u09c1\u09b2\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be \u09a4\u09bf\u09b2\u09aa\u09be\u09b0\u09be\u09b7\u09cd\u099f\u09a4 \u098f\u09b9\u09be\u09a8 \u099a\u09b2\u09bf\u09b2\u09a4\u09be \u09e7\u09ed\u09eb\u09e8 \u0996\u09cd\u09b0\u09c0\u09b8\u09cd\u099f\u09be\u09ac\u09cd\u09a6\u09a4\u09cd\u09a4\u0964 \u0987\u0989\u09b0\u09cb\u09aa\u09b0 \u0986\u09ac\u0995\u099a\u09be \u09a6\u09c7\u09b6, \u09af\u09c7\u09b8\u09be\u09a6\u09c7 \u09b0\u09be\u09b6\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u09a4 \u09e7\u09ee\u09e7\u09ef \u0996\u09cd\u09b0\u09c0\u09b8\u09cd\u099f\u09be\u09ac\u09cd\u09a6 \u09aa\u09c7\u09af\u09bc\u09be \u098f\u09b9\u09be\u09a8 \u099a\u09b2\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be \u0986\u09b9\u09bf\u09b8\u09bf\u09b2\u0964 \u098f\u09b9\u09be\u09a8\u09b0 \u09ae\u09be\u09b0\u09bf \u098f\u09a4\u09be \u09b0\u09c1\u09b9\u09bf\u09b9\u09be\u09a8 \u0987\u09af\u09bc\u09be \u09af\u09bf\u09b6\u09c1 \u0996\u09cd\u09b0\u09c0\u09b7\u09cd\u099f\u09b0 \u099c\u09b0\u09ae\u09b0 \u09b8\u09ae\u09af\u09bc \u0985\u09b9\u09be\u09a8\u09be\u09a4\u09cd\u09a4 \u0997\u09a8\u09be\u09a8\u09bf \u0985\u0995\u09b0\u09b2\u09be \u09af\u09c7\u09b9\u09be\u09a8\u09b0\u09c7 \"\u0986\u09a8\u09cd\u09a8 \u09a1\u09ae\u09bf\u09a8\u09bf\" \u098f\u09b0\u09be \u09ac\u09c1\u09b2\u09a4\u09be\u09b0\u09be\u0964\n\nThe Gregorian Calendar was devised both because the mean year in the Julian Calendar was slightly too long, causing the vernal equinox to slowly drift backwards in the calendar year, and because the lunar calendar used to compute the date of Easter had grown conspicuously in error as well.\n\nThe Gregorian calendar system dealt with these problems by dropping a certain number of days to bring the calendar back into synchronization with the seasons, and then slightly shortening the average number of days in a calendar year, by omitting three Julian leap-days every 400 years.\n\n\u09b8\u09be\u09b2\u0995\u09b0\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be \n\nThe Gregorian solar calendar is an arithmetical calendar. It counts days as the basic unit of time, grouping them into years of 365 or 366 days. The solar calendar repeats completely every 146,097 days, which fill 400 years, and which also happens to be 20871 seven-day weeks. Of these 400 years, 303 (the \"common years\") have 365 days, and 97 - the leap years - have 366 days. This gives an average year length of exactly 365.2425 days - or 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 seconds.\n\nA Gregorian year is divided into twelve months of irregular length (but note that there is a period of 153 days divided over 5 months in an alternating pattern from March to July that repeats from August to December):\n\nA calendar date is fully specified by the year (numbered by some scheme beyond the scope of the calendar itself), the month (identified by name or number), and the day of the month (numbered sequentially starting at 1).\n\nLeap years are all years divisible by 4, with the exception of those divisible by 100, but not by 400. These 366-day years add a 29th day to February, which normally has 28 days. Thus, the essential ongoing differential feature of the Gregorian calendar, as opposed to the Julian calendar, is that the Gregorian omits 3 leap days every 400 years. This difference would have been more noticeable in modern memory, were it not for the fact that the year 2000 was a leap year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendar systems.\n\nThe intercalary day in a leap year is known as a leap day. Since Roman times 24 February (bissextile) was counted as the leap day, but nowadays 29 February is regarded as the leap day in most countries.\n\nAlthough the calendar year runs from 1 January to 31 December, sometimes year numbers were based on a different starting point within the calendar. Confusingly, the term \"Anno Domini\" is not specific on this point, and actually refers to a family of year numbering systems with different starting points for the years. See the section below for more discussion of this issue.\n\n\u0987\u09a4\u09bf\u09b9\u09be\u09b8\u09b9\u09be\u09a8\n\n\u09b9\u0982\u0995\u09b0\u09be\u09a8\u09bf \nThe motivation of the Catholic Church in adjusting the calendar was to have Easter celebrated at the time that they thought had been agreed to at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Although a canon of the council implies that all churches used the same Easter, they did not. The Church of Alexandria celebrated Easter on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after the vernal equinox, which they placed on 21 March. However, the Church of Rome still regarded 25 March as the equinox and used a different day of the moon. By the tenth century all churches (except for some on the eastern border of the Byzantine Empire) had adopted the Alexandrian Easter, which still placed the vernal equinox on 21 March, although Bede had already noted its drift in 725\u2014it had drifted even further by the sixteenth century.\n\nWorse, the reckoned Moon that was used to compute Easter was fixed to the Julian year by a 19 year cycle. However, that approximation built up an error of one day every 310 years, so by the sixteenth century the lunar calendar was out of phase with the real Moon by four days.\n\nThe Council of Trent approved a plan in 1563 for correcting the calendrical errors, requiring that the date of the vernal equinox be restored to that which it held at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and that an alteration to the calendar be designed to prevent future drift. This would allow for a more consistent and accurate scheduling of the feast of Easter.\n\nThe fix was to come in two stages. First, it was necessary to approximate the correct length of a solar year. The value chosen was 365.2425 days in decimal notation. This is 365;14,33 days in sexagesimal notation\u2014the length of the tropical year, rounded to two sexagesimal positions; this was the value used in the major astronomical tables of the day. Although close to the mean tropical year of 365.24219 days, it is even closer to the vernal equinox year of 365.2424 days; this fact made the choice of approximation particularly appropriate as the purpose of creating the calendar was to ensure that the vernal equinox would be near a specific date (21 March). See Accuracy.\n\nThe second stage was to devise a model based on the approximation which would provide an accurate yet simple, rule-based calendar. The formula designed by Aloysius Lilius was ultimately successful. It proposed a 10-day correction to revert the drift since Nicaea, and the imposition of a leap day in only 97 years in 400 rather than in 1 year in 4. To implement the model, it was provided that years divisible by 100 would be leap years only if they were divisible by 400 as well. So, in the last millennium, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not. In this millennium, 2100, 2200, 2300 and 2500 will not be leap years, but 2400 will be. This theory was expanded upon by Christopher Clavius in a closely argued, 800 page volume. He would later defend his and Lilius's work against detractors.\n\nThe 19-year cycle used for the lunar calendar was also to be corrected by one day every 300 or 400 years (8 times in 2500 years) along with corrections for the years (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100 et cetera) that are no longer leap years. In fact, a new method for computing the date of Easter was introduced.\n\nLilius originally proposed that the 10-day correction should be implemented by deleting the Julian leap day on each of its ten occurrences during a period of 40 years, thereby providing for a gradual return of the equinox to 21 March. However, Clavius's opinion was that the correction should take place in one move and it was this advice which prevailed with Gregory. Accordingly, when the new calendar was put in use, the error accumulated in the 13 centuries since the Council of Nicaea was corrected by a deletion of ten days. The last day of the Julian calendar was Thursday 4 October 1582 and this was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday 15 October 1582 (the cycle of weekdays was not affected). Nevertheless, the dates \"5 October 1582\" to \"14 October 1582\" (inclusive) are still valid in virtually all countries because even most Roman Catholic countries did not adopt the new calendar on the date specified by the bull, but months or even years later (the last in 1587).\n\n\u09ae\u09be\u09b0\u09bf\u09b0 \u0985\u0995\u09b0\u09be\u09a8\u09bf\u09b9\u09be\u09a8 \nDuring the Middle Ages 1 January was given the name New Year's Day (or an equivalent name) in all Western European countries (those with predominantly Catholic populations), even while most of those countries began their numbered year on 25 December (the Nativity of Jesus), then 25 March (the Incarnation of Jesus), and even Easter, as in France. This name was the result of always displaying the months of the medieval calendar from January to December (in twelve columns containing 28 to 31 days each), just like the Romans did. Furthermore, all Western European countries (except for a few Italian states) shifted the first day of their numbered year to 1 January while they were still using the Julian calendar, before they adopted the Gregorian calendar, many during the sixteenth century. Eastern European countries (most of them with populations showing allegiance to the Orthodox Church) began their numbered year on 1 September (since about 988). The following list is partially based on Old Style and New Style Dates and The Change of New Year's Day.\n\nNeither the papal bull nor its attached canons explicitly state that the year of the Gregorian calendar is to begin on 1 January, contrary to popular opinion. However, it does imply such a year by including two tables of saint's days, one labeled 1582 which ends on 31 December, and another for any full year that begins on 1 January. It also specifies its epact relative to 1 January, in contrast with the Julian calendar, which specified it relative to 22 March. These would have been the inevitable result of the above shift in the beginning of the Julian year.\n\nDuring the period between 1582, when the first countries adopted the Gregorian calendar, and 1923, when the last European country adopted it, it was often necessary to indicate the date of some event in both the Julian calendar and in the Gregorian calendar, for example, \"10\/21\u00a0February 1751\/52\", where the dual year accounts for some countries already beginning their numbered year on 1 January while others were still using some other date. Even before 1582, the year sometimes had to be double dated because of the different beginnings of the year in various countries. Woolley, writing in his biography of John Dee (1527-1608\/9), notes that immediately after 1582 English letter writers \"customarily\" used \"two dates\" on their letters, one OS and one NS.\n\n\u09b0\u09cb\u09ae\u09be\u09a8 \u0995\u09cd\u09af\u09a5\u09b2\u09bf\u0995\u09b0 \u09ac\u09be\u09b0\u09c7\u09a6\u09c7 \u09af\u09bc\u09cd\u09af\u09be\u0995\u09b0\u09be\u09a8\u09bf \n\nOnly Spain and her territories, Portugal, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and most of Italy implemented the new calendar on Friday, 15 October 1582, following Julian Thursday, 4 October 1582. France adopted the new calendar on Monday, 20 December 1582, following Sunday, 9 December 1582. The Protestant Dutch provinces of Holland and Zeeland also adopted it in December of that year.\n\nMost non-Catholic countries initially objected to adopting a Catholic invention. England, Scotland and thereby the rest of the British Empire (including the eastern part of what is now the United States) did not adopt the Gregorian calendar until 1752; by which time it was necessary to correct by eleven days (Wednesday, 2 September 1752 being followed by Thursday, 14 September 1752) to account for 29 February 1700 (Julian). A few years later, when the son of the Earl of Macclesfield (who had been influential in passing the calendar law) ran for a seat in Parliament in Oxfordshire as a Whig in 1754, dissatisfaction with the calendar reforms was one of a number of issues raised by his Tory opponents. In 1755, William Hogarth made a painting (and an engraved print from the painting) loosely based on these elections, in which the campaign slogan \"Give us our Eleven Days\" appears (on floor at lower right); this was later misunderstood, giving rise to apocryphal stories of widespread riots at the change-over.\n\nGreat Britain legislated special provisions to make sure that monthly or yearly payments would not become due until the dates that they originally would have in the Julian calendar. From 1753 until 1799, the tax year in Great Britain began on 5 April, which was the \"old style\" new year of 25 March. A 12th skipped Julian leap day in 1800 changed its start to 6 April. It was not changed when a 13th Julian leap day was skipped in 1900, so the tax year in the United Kingdom is still 6 April.\n\n\"Old Style\" (OS) and \"New Style\" (NS) are sometimes added to dates to identify which system is used in the British Empire and other countries that did not immediately change. In Britain it is usual to map most dates from the Julian year onto the Gregorian year without converting the day and month. But because the start of the year did not change until the same year that the Gregorian calendar was introduced, OS\/NS is particularly relevant for dates which fall between 1 January and 25 March. For example the execution of King Charles I is usually recorded as having taken place on 30 January 1649 (NS), but in contemporary documents it is recorded as having taken place on 30 January 1648.\n\nDenmark, Norway and the Protestant states of Germany adopted the solar portion of the new calendar on Monday, 1 March 1700,, following Sunday, 18 February 1700, due to the influence of Ole R\u00f8mer, but did not adopt the lunar portion. Instead, they decided to calculate the date of Easter astronomically using the instant of the vernal equinox and the full moon according to Kepler's Rudolphine Tables of 1627. They finally adopted the lunar portion of the Gregorian calendar in 1776. The remaining provinces of the Dutch Republic also adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1700.\n\nSweden's relationship with the Gregorian Calendar had a difficult birth. Sweden started to make the change from the OS calendar and towards the NS calendar in 1700, but it was decided to make the (then 11 day) adjustment gradually, by excluding the leap days (29 February) from each of 11 successive leap years, 1700 to 1740. In the meantime, not only would the Swedish calendar be out of step with both the Julian calendar and the Gregorian calendar for 40 years, but also the difference would not be static but would change every 4 years. This strange system clearly had great potential for endless confusion when working out the dates of Swedish events in this 40 year period. To make matters worse, the system was poorly administered and the leap days that should have been excluded from 1704 and 1708 were not excluded. The Swedish calendar should by now have been 8 days behind the Gregorian, but it was still in fact 10 days behind. King Charles XII wisely recognised that the gradual change to the new system was not working and he abandoned it. However, rather than now proceeding directly to the Gregorian calendar (as in hindsight seems to have been the sensible and obvious thing to do), it was decided to revert to the Julian calendar. This was achieved by introducing the unique date 30 February in the year 1712, adjusting the discrepancy in the calendars from 10 back to 11 days. Sweden finally adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753, when Wednesday, 17 February was followed by Thursday, 1 March.\n\nIn Alaska, the change took place when Friday, October 6, 1867 was followed again by Friday, October 18 after the US purchase of Alaska from Russia, which was still on the Julian calendar. Instead of 12 days, only 11 were skipped, and the day of the week was repeated on successive days, because the International Date Line was shifted from east of to west of Alaska along with the change to the Gregorian calendar.\n\nIn Russia the Gregorian calendar was accepted after the October Revolution (so named because it took place in October 1917 in the Julian calendar). On 24 January 1918 the Council of People's Commissars decreed that Wednesday, 31 January 1918 was to be followed by Thursday, 14 February 1918.\n\nThe last country of Eastern Europe to adopt the Gregorian calendar was Greece on Thursday, 1 March 1923, following Wednesday, 15 February 1923. However, these were all civil adoptions\u2014none of the national churches accepted it. Instead, a Revised Julian calendar was proposed in May 1923 which dropped 13 days in 1923 and adopted a different leap year rule that resulted in no difference between the two calendars until 2800. The Greek Orthodox church and the churches of Bulgaria, Romania, Poland adopted the Revised Julian calendar, so these New calendarists will celebrate the Nativity along with the Western churches on 25 December in the Gregorian calendar until 2800. The Orthodox churches of Russia, Serbia, Jerusalem, and a few bishops in Greece did not accept the Revised Julian calendar. These Old Calendarists continue to celebrate the Nativity on 25 December in the Julian calendar, which is 7 January in the Gregorian calendar until 2100. All of the other Eastern churches that are not Orthodox churches, like the Coptic, Ethiopic, Nestorian, Jacobite, and Armenian, continue to use their own calendars, which usually result in fixed dates being celebrated in accordance with the Julian calendar. All Eastern churches continue to use the Julian Easter with the sole exception of the Finnish Orthodox Church, which has adopted the Gregorian Easter.\n\n\u09ae\u09c1\u0982 \u098f\u09b6\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u09a4 \u09af\u09bc\u09cd\u09af\u09be\u0995\u09b0\u09be\u09a8\u09bf \n\nThe Republic of China (ROC) formally adopted the Gregorian calendar at its founding on 1 January 1912, but China soon descended into a period of warlordism with different warlords using different calendars. With the unification of China under the Kuomintang in October 1928, the Nationalist Government decreed that effective 1 January 1929 the Gregorian calendar would be used henceforth. However, China retained the Chinese traditions of numbering the months and a modified Era System, backdating the first year of the ROC to 1912; this system is still in use in Taiwan where this ROC government retains control. Upon its foundation in 1949, the People's Republic of China continued to use the Gregorian calendar with numbered months, but abolished the ROC Era System and adopted the Western fashion of naming years.\n\nJapan replaced the traditional lunisolar calendar with the Gregorian calendar on 1 January 1873, but, like China, continued to number the months, and used reign names instead of the Common Era: Meiji 1=1868, Taisho 1=1912, Showa 1=1926, Heisei 1=1989, and so on. The \"Western calendar\" (\u897f\u66a6, seireki) using western year numbers, is also widely accepted by civilians and to a lesser extent by government agencies.\n\nKorea started using the Gregorian calendar on 1 January 1896 due to Japanese influence. The lunisolar Korean calendar used immediately before that day was based on the lunisolar Chinese calendar.\n\n\u09b8\u09ae\u09af\u09bc\u09b0\u09a6\u09c1\u09b0\u0997\n\nProleptic Gregorian calendar \n\nThe Gregorian calendar can, for certain purposes, be extended backwards to dates preceding its official introduction, producing the proleptic Gregorian calendar. However, this proleptic calendar should be used with great caution.\n\nFor ordinary purposes, the dates of events occurring prior to 15 October 1582 are generally shown as they appeared in the Julian calendar, and not converted into their Gregorian equivalents.\n\nHowever, events occurring in countries where the Gregorian calendar was introduced later than 4 October 1582 are a little more contentious. For example, in Great Britain and its overseas possessions (then including the American colonies), the new calendar was not introduced until 14 September 1752. How, then, would people date events occurring in Britain and her possessions in the 170 years between 1582 and 1752? The answer depends very much on the context, but writers who want to avoid confusion make it absolutely clear which calendar is being used. People have avoided changing historical records in Britain deriving from this period; however, it is often highly desirable to translate particular Old Style dates into their New Style equivalents, such as where the context includes reference to other countries that had already converted to New Style before Britain did. Astronomers avoid this ambiguity by the use of the Julian day number.\n\nIf comparisons of dates are done using different calendars, we can encounter logical absurdities such as William and Mary of Orange seeming to arrive in London to accept the English crown, a week or so before they left the Netherlands; and Shakespeare and Cervantes apparently dying on exactly the same date (23 April 1616), when in fact Cervantes predeceased Shakespeare by 10 days in real time. This coincidence however has allowed UNESCO to make 23 April the World Book and Copyright Day.\n\nFor dates before the year 1, unlike the proleptic Gregorian calendar used in the international standard ISO 8601, the traditional proleptic Gregorian calendar (like the Julian calendar) does not have a year 0 and instead uses the ordinal numbers 1, 2, \u2026 both for years AD and BC and for CE and BCE. Thus the traditional timeline is 2 BC, 1 BC, AD 1, and AD 2. ISO 8601 uses astronomical year numbering which includes a year 0 and negative numbers before it. Thus the ISO 8601 timeline is -0001, 0000, 0001, and 0002.\n\nConfusion with British versus American usage \nDates of events in Britain prior to 1752 are usually now shown in their original Old Style form, whereas dates of events in (then British) America prior to 1752 are usually now shown in the New Style form.\n\n For example, Shakespeare died on 23 April (OS), and it is rare to see this converted to 3 May (NS). But while George Washington was born on 11 February (OS), his birthday is now celebrated on 22 February (NS). (He changed its celebration date himself, as a twenty-one-year-old surveyor.)\n\nHowever, neither of these practices is universal in either country, so it is sometimes very unclear which calendar is being used, and this can lead to false assumptions, which can lead to dates being inaccurately converted from one calendar to the other. Since the resurgence of interest in the history of the calendar, more information about the real dates (according to various calendars) of events has been forthcoming and many previous errors have been corrected. While these changes are welcome, there is still much scope for confusion; therefore, noting the calendar being used in transitional periods would help the reader understand the dates involved.\n\nDifference between Gregorian and Julian calendar dates \nSince the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, the difference between faster Gregorian (New Style) and slower Julian (Old Style) calendar dates has increased as follows:\n\nThe difference grows by 3 days in every four centuries.\n\nOn average, 48,700 Gregorian years and 48,699 Julian years each equal 17,787,309.75 days. Any 194,800 consecutive Gregorian years and any consecutive 194,796 Julian years each have exactly 71,149,239 days. Approximately every 487 centuries, there is a period during which the difference between the calendars is approximately an integral number of years and the day of the year can be the same on both calendars. Every fourth one of these is a period that occurs exactly every 71,149,239 days (194,800 Gregorian years or 194,796 Julian years) and lasts 36,524 days (100 years on Gregorian calendar, and 99 years, 365 days on the Julian calendar), during which the difference between the calendars is an integral multiple of 1,461 days (four years) and the month and day of the month (but not the year) are the same on both calendars for the entire period. The remainder are periods of several centuries each, during which the day of the year coincides for approximately 25\u201375% of the months in each century.\n\nMonths of the year \n\nEnglish speakers sometimes remember the number of days in each month by the use of the traditional mnemonic verse:\n\nThirty days hath September,\nApril, June, and November.\nAll the rest have thirty-one,\nexcepting February alone,\nwhich hath twenty-eight.\nLeap year cometh one year in four,\nin which February hath one day more.\n\n(The hath in the first line of the poem is also given as has or have.)\n\nAlternate endings include:\n\nexcepting February alone,\nwhich has twenty-eight days or,\nin a leap year, adds one more.\n\nwhich has but twenty-eight, in fine,\ntill leap year gives it twenty-nine.\n\nwhich has eight and a score,\nuntil leap year gives it one day more.\n\nwhich hath twenty-eight days clear,\nand twenty-nine in each leap year.\n\nin each leap we assign,\nFebruary twenty-nine.\n\nWhen short February's done,\nall the rest have thirty-one.\n\n(except February,)\nFebruary alone don't hold the line,\nfor three years it has twenty-eight,\nand the fourth year twenty-nine.\n\nbut February, it is done\nat twenty-eight, but add one more\nwhenever the year divides by four.\n\nA language-independent alternative used in many countries is to hold up your two fists with the index knuckle of your left hand against the index knuckle of your right hand. Then, starting with January from the little knuckle of your left hand, count knuckle, space, knuckle, space through the months. A knuckle represents a month of 31 days, and a space represents a short month (a 28- or 29-day February or any 30-day month). The junction between the hands is not counted, so the two index knuckles represent July and August. (The knuckle method also works by starting the sequence on the right hand's index knuckle, and continue afterwards to the left hand's index knuckle.) You can also use just one hand; after counting the fourth knuckle as July, start again counting the first knuckle as August.\n\nThe Origins of English naming used by the Gregorian calendar:\n January: Janus (Roman god)\n February: februarius (mensis) (Latin for \"month of purification (rituals)\", of unknown origin, said to be Sabine word, last month of ancient pre-450 BC Roman calendar)\n March: Mars (Roman god)\n April: (mensis) Aprilis (Latin for \"month of Venus\", second month of ancient Roman calendar)\n May: Maia Maiestas (Roman goddess)\n June: Juno (Roman goddess)\n July: Julius Caesar (Roman dictator)\n August: Augustus (Roman emperor)\n September: septem (Latin for seven, the seventh month in the calendar of Romulus)\n October: octo (Latin for eight, the eighth month in the calendar of Romulus)\n November: novem (Latin for nine, the ninth month in the calendar of Romulus)\n December: decem (Latin for ten, the tenth month in the calendar of Romulus)\n\nAccuracy \nThe Gregorian calendar improves the approximation made by the Julian calendar by skipping three Julian leap days in every 400 years, giving an average year of 365.2425 mean solar days long, which has an error of about one day per 3300 years with respect to the mean tropical year of 365.24219 days but less than half this error with respect to the vernal equinox year of 365.24237 days. Both are substantially more accurate than the one day in 128 years error of the Julian calendar (average year 365.25 days).\n\nOn timescales of thousands of years, the Gregorian calendar falls behind the seasons drastically because the slowing down of the Earth's rotation makes each day slightly longer over time (see tidal acceleration and leap second) while the year maintains a more uniform duration. The equinox will occur earlier than now by a number of days approximately equal to [years into future\/5000]2. This is a problem that the Gregorian calendar shares with any fixed rule-based calendar.\n\nCalendar seasonal error \n\nThis image shows the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the seasons.\n\nThe y-axis is \"days error\" and the x-axis is Gregorian calendar years.\n\nEach point represents a single date on a given year. The error shifts by about a quarter of a day per year. Years that are multiples of 100 but not 400 are not leap years. This causes a correction on years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300.\n\nFor instance, these corrections cause 23 December 1903 to be the latest December solstice, and 20 December 2096 to be the earliest solstice\u20142.25 days of variation compared with the seasonal event.\n\nNumerical facts \nWhen leap years and common years are taken into account, there are a total of 14 possible Gregorian calendars.\n\nWhen different dates of Easter are also taken into account, there are a total of 70 possible Gregorian calendars.\n\nAn average year is 365.2425 days = 52.1775 weeks = 8,765.82 hours = 525,949.2 minutes = 31,556,952 seconds. All these numbers are exact, apart from leap seconds.\n\nA common year is 365 days = 8,760 hours = 525,600 minutes = 31,536,000 seconds.\n\nA leap year is 366 days = 8,784 hours = 527,040 minutes = 31,622,400 seconds.\n\nSince 1971, some years may also contain one or more leap seconds, to account for cumulative irregularities in the Earth's rotation. So far, these have always been positive and have occurred on average once every 18 months.\n\nThe day of the year is somewhat inconvenient to compute, not in the least because of the leap day somewhere in the middle; but the calendar has this repeating pattern for the months March through July and August through December: 31, 30, 31, 30, 31 days, totalling 153 days. In fact, any 5 consecutive months not containing February, count 153 days. 153 happens to be the 17th triangular number, and the sum of the first 5 factorials (among other numerical trivia).\n\nSee also common year starting on Sunday and dominical letter.\n\nThe 400-year cycle of the Gregorian calendar has 146,097 days and hence exactly 20,871 weeks. So, for example, the days of the week in Gregorian 1603 were exactly the same as for 2003. This also causes more months to begin on a Sunday (and hence have Friday 13) than any other day of the week (see below for a more detailed explanation of how this happens). 688 out of every 4800 months (or 172\/1200) begin on a Sunday, while only 684 out of every 4800 months (171\/1200) begin on each of Saturday and Monday, the least common cases.\n\nA smaller cycle is 28 years (1,461 weeks), provided that there is no dropped leap year in between. Days of the week in years may also repeat after 6, 11, 12, 28 or 40 years. Intervals of 6 and 11 are only possible with common years, while intervals of 28 and 40 are only possible with leap years. An interval of 12 years only occurs with common years when there is a dropped leap year in between.\n\nThe Doomsday algorithm is a method by which you can discern which of the 14 calendar variations should be used in any given year (after the Gregorian reformation). It is based on the last day in February, referred to as the Doomsday.\n\nThe Gregorian serial date, also called Rata Die, is the number of days from January 1, 1 A.D. (counting that day as day 1). For  , , the serial date is . It is 678576 more than the Modified Julian date, and 1721425 less than the Julian date .\n\nWeek \nIn conjunction with the system of months there is a system of weeks. A physical or electronic calendar provides conversion from a given date to the weekday, and shows multiple dates for a given weekday and month. Calculating the day of the week is not very simple, because of the irregularities in the Gregorian system.\n\nThe ISO week date connects Gregorian years and weeks, defining a leap week calendar with so-called \"ISO years\" deviating at the beginning and end up to 3 days from Gregorian years, and with week numbers by year.\n\nOrigins of English naming used by the Gregorian Calendar:\n\n Monday - moon day (celestial)\n Tuesday - Tyr's day (Old Norse god)\n Wednesday - Woden's day (Old English god)\n Thursday - Thor's day (Old Norse god)\n Friday - Frigg's day (Old Norse goddess) (Friday is often erroneously associated with Freyja)\n Saturday - Saturn's day (Roman god)\n Sunday - sun day (celestial)\n\nDistribution of dates by day of the week \nBecause there are 97 leap years in every 400 years in the Gregorian Calendar, there are on average 13 for each starting weekday in each cycle. This already shows that the frequency is not the same for each weekday, which is due to the effects of the \"common\" centennial years (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200 etc.).\n\nThe absence of an extra day in such years causes the following leap year (1704, 1804, 1904, 2104 etc.) to start on the same day of the week as the leap year twelve years before (1692, 1792, 1892, 2092 etc.). Similarly, the leap year eight years after a \"common\" centennial year (1708, 1808, 1908, 2108 etc.) starts on the same day of the week as the leap year immediately prior to the \"common\" centennial year (1696, 1796, 1896, 2096 etc.). Thus, those days of the week on which such leap years begin gain an extra year or two in each cycle. In each cycle there are:\n\n 13 leap years starting on Monday\n 14 leap years starting on Tuesday\n 14 leap years starting on Wednesday\n 13 leap years starting on Thursday\n 15 leap years starting on Friday\n 13 leap years starting on Saturday\n 15 leap years starting on Sunday\n\nNote that as a cycle, this pattern is symmetric with respect to the low Saturday value.\n\nA leap year starting on Sunday means the next year does not start on Monday, so more leap years starting on Sunday means less years starting on Monday, etc. Thus the pattern of number of years starting on each day is inverted and shifted by one weekday: 56, 58, 57, 57, 58, 56, 58 (symmetric with respect to the high Sunday value).\n\nThe number of common years starting on each day is found by subtraction: 43, 44, 43, 44, 43, 43, 43.\n\nThe frequency of a particular date being on a particular weekday can easily be derived from the above (for dates in March and later, relate them to the next New Year).\n\nSee also the cycle of Doomsdays.\n\nDays of the week \nJanuary 1 of any year whose number is a multiple of 400 is a Saturday. From this you can work out the day of the week of any date.\n\nSee also:\n Days of the week\n Calculating the day of the week\n\nTrivia \nThe Roman calendar was modified by Julius Caesar when he occupied the office of Pontifex Maximus and the Julian calendar was subsequently modified by Gregory XIII, who, as pope, also held the title Pontifex Maximus.\n\nNon-leap years always begin and end on the same day of the week. For example, 2003 began on a Wednesday and ended on a Wednesday. Leap years end on the next day of the week from which they begin. For example, 2004 began on a Thursday and ended on a Friday.\n\nNot counting leap years, any calendar date will move to the next day of the week the following year. For example, if your birthday fell on a Tuesday in 2002, it fell on a Wednesday in 2003. Leap years make things a little more complicated. 2004 was leap year, so calendar days of March 1 or later in the year, moved two days of the week from 2003. However, calendar days occurring before March 1 do not make the extra day of the week jump until the year following a leap year. So, if your birthday is June 15, then it must have fallen on a Sunday in 2003 and a Tuesday in 2004. If, however, your birthday is February 15, then it must have fallen on a Saturday in 2003, a Sunday in 2004 and a Tuesday in 2005.\n\nIn any year (even a leap year), July always begins on the same day of the week that April does. Therefore, the only difference between a July calendar page and an April calendar page in the same year is the extra day July has. The same relationship exists between September and December as well as between March and November. Add an extra day to the September page and you've got December. Take a day away from the March page and you've got November. In non-leap years only, there are additional matches: October duplicates January, and March and November duplicate February in their first 28 days. In leap years only, there is a different set of additional matches: July is a duplicate of January while February is duplicated in the first 29 days of August.\n\nSaint Teresa of \u00c1vila died on the night from 4 October to 15 October 1582, that is, exactly when Spain and the Catholic world switched to the Gregorian calendar.\n\n\u09aa\u09be\u09b8\u09bf\u09a4\u09be \n\n Gregorian reform of the calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican conference to commemorate its 400th anniversary, 1582-1992, ed. G. V. Coyne, M. A. Hoskin, and O. Pedersen (Vatican City: Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Specolo Vaticano, 1983).\n The Oxford Companion to the Year. Bonnie Blackburn & Leofranc Holford-Strevens. Oxford University Press 1999. ISBN 0-19-214231-3. Pages 98-99.\n Calendar: Humanity's Epic Struggle To Determine A True And Accurate Year, David Ewing Duncan, Harper Perennial, 1999, ISBN 0-380-79324-5.\n Online Etymology Dictionary retrieved August 23, 2006\n\nFootnotes\n\nExternal links \n Inter Gravissimas, Gregory XIII's bull introducing the new calendar (Latin and French)\n Inter Gravissimas (Latin and French plus English)\n British Calendar Act 1751\n Frequently Asked Questions about Calendars\n The Perpetual Calendar Gregorian Calendar adoption dates for many countries.\n Synoptical Julian - Gregorian calendar Compare Old and New Style dates 1582 - 2100.\n Gregorian Calendar Printer\n Gregorian Calendar in norwegian, with some norwegian information\n\nSpecific calendars\n1582 establishments\n\u09ae\u09be\u09b0\u09bf \u09e7\u09eb\u09ee\u09e8\n\u09aa\u09be\u099e\u09cd\u099c\u09c0","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":4707,"url":"https:\/\/bpy.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%20%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80","title":"\u0997\u09cd\u09b0\u09c7\u0997\u09b0\u09bf\u09af\u09bc\u09be\u09a8 \u09aa\u09be\u099e\u09cd\u099c\u09c0","language":"bpy"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Virtue (Latin virtus; Greek \u1f00\u03c1\u03b5\u03c4\u03ae) is a kind of behaviour which is thought to be good.  The adjective is \"virtuous\".  Someone who lives a virtuous life is someone who leads a good moral life, doing things that society thinks are good.  The opposite of virtue is vice.  \n\nPhilosophers throughout the ages have written their ideas about what they think virtue is.  The Ancient Greek philosophers from Plato onwards said that virtue consisted of four things: Justice, Courage, Wisdom, and Moderation.  In the Christian religion the three virtues  were Faith, Hope and Charity.  These are mentioned in the Bible in the First Epistle to the Corinthians chapter 13 verse 13.  These virtues are also very important in the Judaic and Muslim traditions.\n\nRelated pages\nEthics\nJustice\nSeven deadly sins\n\nEthics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":137505,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtue","title":"Virtue","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is an international organisation that represents chemists in individual countries. It governs everything to do with chemicals, elements and new discoveries. Every chemical known has a common name and a IUPAC name. This is also true for the Periodic Table of the Elements. Every element's name has been approved by IUPAC. This rule does not apply to those elements still given temporary names. The organisation was founded in 1919.\n\nOther websites \n \n\nChemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":127835,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International%20Union%20of%20Pure%20and%20Applied%20Chemistry","title":"International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Paris Op\u00e9ra or the Op\u00e9ra National de Paris is the most important opera company of France. It stages performances at the Op\u00e9ra Bastille and Op\u00e9ra Garnier in Paris. The theatre is also the home of the Paris Op\u00e9ra Ballet.\n\nOther opera houses in Paris are the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre du Ch\u00e2telet, Op\u00e9ra-Comique and Th\u00e9\u00e2tre des Champs-\u00c9lys\u00e9es.\n\nHistory \nKing Louis XIV allowed Jean-Baptiste Lully to start the Acad\u00e9mie Royale de Musique in 1672. This was an organization that included opera, ballet, and music. The ballet company was part of the opera company. Then Louis XIV started the ballet school, called Acad\u00e9mie Royale de Danse, in 1661. From 1671 until Lully's death in 1687, the school was directed by the great dancing master Pierre Beauchamp, the man who set down the five positions of the feet. \n\nIn 1713 King Louis XIV made the Opera company a state institution. There was a group of professional dancers called Le Ballet de l'Op\u00e9ra. From that time until 1875 they used lots of theatres, each one of which was destroyed by a fire. All these companies were called Paris Op\u00e9ra or Op\u00e9ra de Paris.\n\nOn 29 October 1873, the old Paris Op\u00e9ra, known as the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre de l'Acad\u00e9mie Royale de Musique, which had been used since 1821, was destroyed by a fire which burned for 27 hours. By 1875 the opera company moved to the new Palais Garnier which was part of the rebuilding of Paris by Emperor Napoleon III.\n\nWhen the Op\u00e9ra Bastille was built in 1989 the company chose it as their main theatre.\n\nOther websites \n Official site\n\nTheatres in Paris","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":151,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":146757,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paris%20Opera","title":"Paris Opera","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry () is a fictional boarding school of magic for students aged eleven to eighteen, and is the primary setting for the first six books in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series and serves as a major setting in the Wizarding World universe.\n\nHistory\n\nEstablishment \nFounded around the 9th century and 10th century by Godric Gryffindor, Rowena Ravenclaw, Helga Hufflepuff and Salazar Slytherin, Hogwarts was established in the Highlands of Scotland to educate young wizards and witches as well as to keep students safe from Muggle persecution. Theory has it that Rowena Ravenclaw came up with the name of Hogwarts after dreaming of a warty hog that led her to a cliff by a lake. Since then, Hogwarts educated most wizarding children with residence in Great Britain and Ireland, keeping its location hidden from other wizarding schools and Muggles.\n\nMiddle Ages \nAbout 300 years after the school was founded, the Triwizard Tournament was established as an interscholastic competition among the three most prestigious magical schools in Europe: Hogwarts, Beauxbatons, and Durmstrang. The tournament continued for six centuries before being discontinued. An attempt was made in the 1994\u20131995 school year to revive the tournament, but the consequential death of Cedric Diggory resulted in its permanent discontinuation.\n\nAcademics and traditions\nHogwarts is a coeducational, secondary boarding school, taking children from ages eleven to eighteen, in line with real-world combined secondary and sixth form institutions in Britain.  Education at Hogwarts is not compulsory, with some students being home schooled as stated in the seventh book. Rowling initially said there are about one thousand students at Hogwarts. She later suggested around six hundred, while acknowledging that this number was still inconsistent with the small number of people in Harry's year. She further explained that this had resulted from her creating only forty characters for Harry's year.\n\nAdmission\nAccording to the novels, admission to Hogwarts is selective, in that children who show magical ability will automatically gain a place, and squibs cannot attend the school as students (though they can work there in other roles, as Argus Filch does). A magical quill at Hogwarts detects the birth of magical children and writes their names into a large parchment book, but there is no admission test because \"you are either magical or you are not\". Every year, a teacher checks this book and sends a letter to the children who are turning eleven. Acceptance or refusal of a place at Hogwarts must be posted by 31 July. The letter also contains a list of supplies like spell books, uniform, and other things that the student will need. The prospective student is expected to buy all the necessary materials, normally from shops in Diagon Alley, a concealed street near Charing Cross Road in London that can be found behind the wizarding pub, The Leaky Cauldron. Students who cannot afford their supplies can receive financial aid from the school, as happened with the young orphan Tom Riddle.\n\nLetters to Muggle-born witches and wizards, who may not be aware of their powers and are unfamiliar with the concealed wizarding world, are delivered in person by a member of Hogwarts staff, who then explains to the parents or guardians about magical society, and reassures them regarding this news.\n\nThough the school is in Great Britain, its catchment area is the wider British Isles, as Irish students can also attend.\n\nEach student is allowed to bring an owl, a cat or a toad. Along with the acceptance letter, first-year students are sent a list of required equipment which includes a wand, subject books, a standard size 2 pewter cauldron, a set of brass scales, a set of glass or crystal phials, a kit of basic potion ingredients (for Potions), and a telescope (for Astronomy). The Hogwarts uniform consists of plain work robes in black, a plain black hat, a pair of protective gloves, and a black winter cloak with silver fastenings. Each uniform must contain the wearer's nametag. First years are not allowed a broomstick of their own, though an exception to this rule is made for Harry Potter in his first year after he demonstrates an excellent ability as a Seeker in Quidditch.\n\nArrival\nThe primary mode of transport to Hogwarts is the Hogwarts Express that students take at the start of each school year. Students board the train from the also fictional and hidden Platform  at King's Cross station in London. The train arrives at Hogsmeade station near Hogwarts, sometime after nightfall.\n\nFrom there, first-year students are accompanied by the \"Keeper of the Keys, Game and Grounds\" (which was Rubeus Hagrid during the first novel) to small boats, which magically sail across the lake and get them near the entrance of Hogwarts. The older students ride up to the castle in carriages pulled by creatures called Thestrals. When the first-year students initially arrive at the castle, they wait in a small chamber off the entrance hall until the older students have taken their seats, and then enter the Great Hall for the Sorting Ceremony to determine their House assignments. As Professor Minerva McGonagall said in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, \"The Sorting is a very important ceremony because, while you are here, your House will be something like your family within Hogwarts. You will have classes with the rest of your House, sleep in your House dormitory, and spend free time in your House common room.\"\n\nAfter the Sorting Hat sings a song, each student in turn is seated upon the stool in front of the rest of the student body. The Hat is placed on the student's head, whereupon it examines his or her mind and assigns them to one of the four Houses based on abilities, personality, and preferences. After the Sorting Ceremony, the students and teachers enjoy a feast, prepared by the Hogwarts house-elves. If Albus Dumbledore is feeling cheerful, he will lead the students in singing the school song.\n\nHouses\n\nHogwarts is divided into four houses, each bearing the last name of its founder: Godric Gryffindor, Salazar Slytherin, Rowena Ravenclaw and Helga Hufflepuff. Throughout the school year, the houses compete for the House Cup, gaining and losing points based on actions such as performance in class and rule violations. The house with the highest end-of-year total wins and has its colours displayed in the Great Hall for the following school year. Each house also has its own Quidditch team that competes for the Quidditch Cup. These two competitions breed rivalries between the houses. Houses at Hogwarts are living and learning communities for their students. Each house is under the authority of one of the Hogwarts staff members. The Heads of the houses, as they are called, are in charge of giving their students important information, dealing with matters of severe punishment, and responding to emergencies in their houses, among other things. The dormitory and common room of a House are, barring rare exceptions, inaccessible to students belonging to other Houses; however, different houses will share classes as they are based on year group rather than House. \n\nIn the early days of Hogwarts, the four founders hand-picked students for their Houses. When the founders worried how students would be selected after their deaths, Godric Gryffindor took his hat off and they each added knowledge to it, allowing the Sorting Hat to choose the students by judging each student's qualities and placing them in the most appropriate house. The student's own choices may affect the decision: the clearest example is the Hat telling Harry that he would do well in Slytherin in the first book, but ultimately selecting Gryffindor after Harry asks it not to put him in Slytherin.\n\nThe translators of the books' foreign editions had difficulty translating the \"house\" concept; in countries where this system does not exist, no word could adequately convey the importance of belonging to a house, the loyalty owed to it, and the pride taken in prizes won by the house.\n\nGryffindor \nGryffindor values courage, bravery, nerve, and chivalry. Gryffindor's mascot is the lion, and its colours are scarlet red and gold (maroon and gold on the ties and scarves). During the books, the Head of this house is the Transfiguration Professor and Deputy Headmistress, Minerva McGonagall until she becomes headmistress, and the house ghost is Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, more commonly known as Nearly Headless Nick. According to Rowling, Gryffindor corresponds roughly to the element of fire. The founder of the house is Godric Gryffindor.\n\nThe Gryffindor common room is in one of the castle's highest towers, and its entrance is on the seventh floor in the east wing of the castle and is guarded by a painting of The Fat Lady, who is garbed in a pink dress. She permits entry only after being given the correct password, as was established in the third book, when Sirius Black tried forcing entry into the tower, only to be blocked by The Fat Lady after he could not give the correct password. In the first book, Neville Longbottom tends to forget the password and must wait near the painting until other Gryffindors arrive to open the way.\n\nHufflepuff\nHufflepuff values hard work, patience, justice, and loyalty. The house mascot is the badger, and canary yellow and black (or golden yellow and graphite in the Fantastic Beasts films) are its colours. During the books, the Head of this house is the Herbology Professor Pomona Sprout, and the house ghost is the Fat Friar. According to Rowling, Hufflepuff corresponds roughly to the element of earth. The founder of this house is Helga Hufflepuff.\n\nThe entrance to the Hufflepuff dormitories and common room entrance is concealed in a pile of large barrels in an alcove in the corridor that holds the kitchen. To enter, one must tap the barrel two from the bottom in the middle of the second row in the rhythm of \"Helga Hufflepuff\". Unlike any other house, the Hufflepuff common room has a repelling device that douses the illegal entrant in vinegar if the wrong lid is tapped or the rhythm is wrong. The Hufflepuff common room is filled with yellow hangings and fat armchairs and it has little tunnels leading to the dormitories, all of which have perfectly round doors, like barrel tops.\n\nRavenclaw\nRavenclaw values intelligence, learning, wisdom and wit. The house mascot is an eagle (raven in the Harry Potter and Fantastic Beasts films) and the house colours are blue and bronze (blue and silver in the Harry Potter and Fantastic Beasts films). During the books, the head of this house is the Charms teacher, Professor Filius Flitwick, and the house ghost is the Grey Lady. According to Rowling, Ravenclaw corresponds roughly to the element of air. The founder of this house is Rowena Ravenclaw.\n\nThe dormitories are in Ravenclaw Tower, on the west side of Hogwarts. The common room is round and filled with blue hangings and armchairs, has a domed ceiling painted with stars and features a replica statue of Rowena wearing her diadem. Harry also notes that Ravenclaws \"have a spectacular view of the surrounding mountains\". A logical riddle must be solved to gain entry, whereas the Gryffindor and Slytherin common rooms only require a password. Professor McGonagall, the head of the Gryffindor House, solves the riddle accurately.\n\nSlytherin \nSlytherin values ambition, cunning, leadership, and resourcefulness; the Sorting Hat said in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone that Slytherins will do anything to get their way. The house mascot of Slytherin is the serpent, and the house colours are green and silver. Throughout the series, until the seventh book, the Head of House is Professor Severus Snape. Then, the previous Head of House Professor Horace Slughorn comes out of retirement, re-assuming authority after Snape becomes headmaster. The ghost of Slytherin house is the Bloody Baron. According to Rowling, Slytherin corresponds roughly to the element of water. The founder of this house is Salazar Slytherin.\n\nThe Slytherin dormitories and common room are reached by speaking a password to a patch of bare stone wall in the dungeons, which causes a hidden door to open. The Slytherin common room is a long, low, dungeon-style room, under the Hogwarts Lake, furnished with green lamps and carved armchairs. The room is described in the second book as having a greenish glow.\n\nThe Sorting Hat claims that blood purity is a factor in selecting Slytherins, although this is not mentioned until the fifth book. There is no reason to believe, however, that Muggle-born students are not sorted there, merely that pure-blooded students are more desirable to that house, as there are several examples of half-bloods in the house\u00a0\u2013 such as Snape and Tom Riddle\/Voldemort \u2013 and Harry himself was only excluded from the house at his own insistence. In Deathly Hallows, a group of Snatchers claim that \"not many Mudbloods\" are sorted into Slytherin.\n\nWhen believing Harry to be dead and thinking that he has victory in his grasp, Voldemort proclaims his intention to abolish the other three houses and force all Hogwarts students into Slytherin. This design is foiled by his defeat and death, after which Slytherin becomes more diluted in its blood purity, no longer remaining the pure-blood bastion it once was.\n\nSubjects and teachers\n\nBeing a school of magic, many subjects at Hogwarts differ from the studies of a typical school. Some subjects, such as History of Magic, derive from non-wizard\u00a0\u2013 or muggle\u00a0\u2013 subjects, but many others, such as charms and apparition classes, are unique to the wizarding world.\nThere are twelve named teachers (referred to as Professors), each specialising in a single subject. All professors are overseen by a school head and deputy head. Transfiguration, Defence Against the Dark Arts, Charms, Potions, Astronomy, History of Magic, and Herbology are compulsory subjects for the first five years, as well as flying lessons. At the end of their second year, students are required to add at least two optional subjects to their syllabus for the start of the third year. The five choices are Arithmancy, Muggle Studies, Divination, Study of Ancient Runes and Care of Magical Creatures. According to J.K. Rowling, \"very specialised subjects such as alchemy are sometimes offered in the final two years, if there is sufficient demand.\"\n\nAt the end of their fifth year, students take the Ordinary Wizarding Level (O.W.L.) examinations for all subjects in which they are enrolled. Each examination consists of a written knowledge test and, where applicable, a practical demonstration of skills before a panel of proctors from the Ministry of Magic. Students who achieve a high enough O.W.L. grade in a particular subject may take its advanced course for the final two years, in preparation for the Nastily Exhausting Wizarding Tests (N.E.W.T.) given at the end of the seventh year.\n\nDaily life\n\nThe day begins at Hogwarts with breakfast in the Great Hall. Students sit at their own House table and can eat and socialise, or finish homework. The Headmaster or Headmistress eats with the professors at the High Table placed at the far end of the hall. During breakfast, owls bring in the students' post, generally consisting of The Daily Prophet, letters from parents or friends, or packages from home. A bell signals the start of the first class of the morning at 9\u00a0am.\n\nThere are two long morning classes with a short break in between them for students to get to their next class. After lunch, classes resume at 1\u00a0pm, and there is a break around afternoon teatime before another class period. The classes are about one hour in length, with occasional double periods lasting two hours. Classes end around five o'clock. First-year students get Friday afternoons off, while sixth- and seventh-year students have several free periods during the week. In the evening, students eat their dinner in the Great Hall, after which they are expected to be in their common rooms. Astronomy classes take place late at night in the Astronomy Tower.\n\nThe four House dormitories have secret entrances, generally known only to members of that house and require a password (Gryffindor and Slytherin), riddle answer (Ravenclaw) or ritual (Hufflepuff) in order to gain entrance. Inside is the common room, which contains armchairs and sofas for the pupils and tables for studying and homework. There are fireplaces to keep the rooms warm, and students either relax here in the evenings or else complete their homework, but may complete their work in the bedroom. There are notice boards in each common room and at other strategic points throughout the school. The students sleep in their House dormitories, which branch off from the common rooms. Each dormitory gets at least two rooms; one for boys and one for girls (an enchantment prevents boys from entering the girls' area, although there is no spell to prevent the reverse from occurring). Each student sleeps in a large four-poster bed with bed covers and heavy curtains in the House colours, and thick white pillows. There is a bedside table for each bed, and each dormitory has a jug of water and goblets on a tray.\n\nOn designated weekends, Hogwarts students in their third year or higher, with a signed permission slip, are permitted to walk to the nearby wizarding village of Hogsmeade, where they can relax and enjoy the pubs, restaurants and shops. There appears to be a good relationship between the school and the village, and the students get on well with the locals. Favourite places in Hogsmeade include Honeydukes Sweetshop, Zonko's Joke Shop, clothing stores such as Gladrags Wizardwear, the Shrieking Shack (regarded as the most haunted building in Britain), the pubs The Three Broomsticks and The Hog's Head, and Madam Puddifoot's coffee shop.\n\nFood\nThe house-elves at Hogwarts amongst other duties provide all food to students and staff. They cook a wide variety of dishes especially at the feasts. The various dishes are prepared in the kitchens directly below the Great Hall. Within the kitchen are four long tables directly aligned with the house tables in the great hall above. At meal times the food is magically transported up, appearing directly in front of the students.\n\nDiscipline\nApart from losing points from a house, serious misdeeds at Hogwarts are punishable by detention. Whenever a student loses a house point, their house jewels (ruby for Gryffindors, emeralds for Slytherin, sapphires for Ravenclaw, and diamonds for Hufflepuff) are taken away from a glass hourglass located in every classroom. The same goes for adding points to the specific house, although the teacher or prefect must conjure the gems from thin air.\n\nAccording to the school caretaker, Argus Filch, detention meant subjection to various forms of corporal punishment until recently. Arthur Weasley claimed still to bear physical scars inflicted by Apollyon Pringle, Filch's predecessor. In present times, however, detention usually involves assisting staff or faculty with tedious tasks. Examples of detention include the one imposed on Harry by Dolores Umbridge in Order of the Phoenix. In this case, Harry was forced to write, \"I must not tell lies\" repeatedly using a magical quill which then carves what is written into the back of the writer's hand. However, most teachers at the school never use this cruel punishment. In another case, when Snape caught Harry using the Sectumsempra curse on Draco Malfoy, he was forced to go through over a thousand boxes of files describing wrongdoers at Hogwarts and their punishments. Harry was supposed to order them in alphabetical order, and rewrite the cards whose words were hard to see or otherwise damaged. The Weasley twins Fred and George Weasley had a whole drawer of these cards.\n\nFor even more serious offences, students may be suspended or even expelled from Hogwarts. Harry and Ron Weasley are threatened with expulsion after crashing Ron's car into the Whomping Willow at the start of their second year, and Harry is expelled before the start of his fifth year (although the sentence is quickly changed to a disciplinary hearing) after he is detected using magic in the presence of Muggles, a serious offence among the wizarding community. Dumbledore argued in Harry's defence, stating that it was done in self-defence, and that the Ministry has no authority to expel students\u00a0\u2013 such powers are invested in the Headmaster and the Board of Governors. Snape has attempted to have Harry expelled, and he attempted to have Harry's father, James Potter, expelled when they were at Hogwarts together. The only student known to have been expelled is Hagrid, for the murder of Myrtle with an acromantula believed to be the Monster of Slytherin and for opening the Chamber of Secrets\u00a0\u2013 crimes for which Tom Riddle had framed him.\n\nProfessors seem to be able to punish students with relative impunity and can hand out detention, even for unsatisfactory grades. Enforcement of rules outside of class mainly falls to the caretaker, with the assistance of the prefects. A student's Head of House usually has the final say in disciplinary matters. However, during Umbridge's tenure at Hogwarts, she quickly obtains the power to have the final say in disciplinary actions, due to an Educational Decree (one of many) passed by Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge.\n\nIn the summer before their fifth year, two fifth year students from each House are picked to be prefects, which grants them privileges and responsibilities and disciplinary responsibilities. The leaders of the student body, the Head Boy and Head Girl, are drawn from the seventh year students. Prefects have the authority to give detentions for infractions.\n\nCastle and grounds\n\nJ. K. Rowling says she visualises Hogwarts, in its entirety, to be:\n\nA huge, rambling, quite scary-looking castle, with a jumble of towers and battlements. Like the Weasleys' house, it isn't a building that Muggles could build, because it is supported by magic.\n\nIn the novels, Hogwarts is somewhere in Scotland (the film Prisoner of Azkaban says that Dufftown is near). The school is depicted as having numerous charms and spells on and around it that make it impossible for a Muggle to locate it. Muggles cannot see the school; rather, they see only ruins and several warnings of danger. The castle's setting is described as having extensive grounds with sloping lawns, flowerbeds and vegetable patches, a loch (called The Black Lake), a large dense forest (called the Forbidden Forest), several greenhouses and other outbuildings, and a full-size Quidditch pitch. There is also an owlery, which houses all the owls owned by the school and those owned by students. Some rooms in the school tend to \"move around\", and so do the stairs in the grand staircase. Witches and wizards cannot Apparate or Disapparate in Hogwarts grounds, except when the Headmaster lifts the enchantment, whether only in certain areas or for the entire campus, so as to make the school less vulnerable when it serves the headmaster to allow Apparition. Electricity and electronic devices are not found at Hogwarts. Hermione Granger indicates in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire that due to the high levels of magic, \"substitutes for magic (that) Muggles use\" such as computers, radar and electricity \"go haywire\" around Hogwarts. Radios however, make an exception. Rowling explains this by saying that the radios are not powered by electricity but by magic.\n\nHogwarts is on the shore of a lake, sometimes called the Black Lake. In that lake are merpeople, Grindylows, and a giant squid. The giant squid does not attack humans and sometimes acts as a lifeguard when students are in the lake. The castle and its grounds are home to many secret areas as well as well-known and well-used places.\n\nHiding place of the Philosopher's Stone\nAccessed by entering a trapdoor in the forbidden corridor on the third floor, and protected by a gauntlet of seven magical challenges set up by the teachers.\nA giant three-headed dog named Fluffy placed specially to guard the trapdoor by Hagrid.\nDevil's Snare, grown by Professor Sprout.\nA room containing dozens of keys, charmed by Flitwick to sprout wings and fly near the ceiling. One of these keys will unlock the door to the next section. However, in the film adaptation, the keys attack the seeker of the Stone.\nA large chessboard with an army of large chessmen, transfigured by McGonagall. To continue to the door on the opposite side, the person in question must beat the chessmen at a game of wizards' chess where the player must risk his life if he loses. Ron and Professor Quirrell are the only wizards to win the game of wizards' chess.\nA room with a large troll inside. This is Quirrell's challenge. In the book, Quirrell had knocked out his own troll to get to the last room and thus the trio did not have to fight it; in the film, it does not appear, but it appears in the PS1 and Game Boy Color version of the game.\nA series of potions, brewed by Snape. A logical riddle, not magic, has to be solved. There are two doors, blocked by fire. One potion will allow the person to exit the way he or she arrived, another will allow him or her to continue to the next chamber, two are nettle wine, and the other three are poison. This challenge does not appear in the film, but does in the video game adaptation.\nThe Mirror of Erised can be found in the final chamber, further enchanted by Dumbledore to bestow the Philosopher's Stone upon a seeker only hoping to acquire the stone but not use it for selfish means.\n\nChamber of Secrets\n\nThe Chamber of Secrets, which is deep under the school (most likely under the lake), was home to an ancient Basilisk, intended to be used to purge the school of Muggle-born students. Salazar Slytherin, one of the founders of Hogwarts, built the Chamber before he left the school.\n\nThe entrance to the Chamber is hidden in the second-floor girls' lavatory (haunted by Moaning Myrtle). One of the sink taps has a snake scratched into its side; when a command in Parseltongue is spoken, it opens to reveal the mouth of a dark, slimy chute, wide enough to slide down, that gives onto a stone tunnel. There are many skeletons of small animals littering the floor and even a gigantic skin shed by the Basilisk. The tunnel leads to a solid wall, carved with two entwined serpents with emeralds for eyes. At a command in Parseltongue, the wall opens to expose a long, dim corridor, lined with monumental statues of snakes, including two rows of towering stone pillars with more carved serpents that brace the ceiling. A colossal statue of Salazar Slytherin, looking ancient and monkey-like, is at the centre. The Basilisk rested inside the statue and emerged from its mouth when the Heir of Slytherin, Tom Riddle, summoned it.\nIn his second year at Hogwarts, Harry uses Parseltongue to open the chamber and destroys the diary containing the embodied memory of a 16-year-old Tom Riddle from his own days at Hogwarts and also slays the basilisk. It is later revealed that the diary was a Horcrux.\nIn Deathly Hallows, Ron and Hermione enter the Chamber. Ron opens the door (despite not speaking Parseltongue) by imitating sounds he heard Harry use to open Slytherin's locket. They pull a basilisk fang from its skeleton to use to destroy the Horcrux made from Helga Hufflepuff's cup.\n\nWhen Tom Riddle opened the Chamber, Myrtle was sulking in a stall after being teased by student Olive Hornby. She opened the door, intending to tell him to leave, but died immediately upon meeting the Basilisk's gaze and decided to become a ghost to get revenge on Hornby. The bathroom remains operational, but is rarely used by students because of Myrtle's disagreeable presence and her habit of flooding it when she is distraught.\n\nThe film's depiction of the Chamber has snake heads in place of the pillars and Slytherin's statue is only his head. Rowling reveals in the book Harry Potter Page to Screen; The Complete Filmmaking Journey that the Chamber has flooded since its creation under unknown circumstances.\n\nAs shown in Deathly Hallows, the Chamber of Secrets does not appear on the Marauder's Map.\n\nPassages\nThere are usually seven secret passages in and out of the school, and in addition, the series describes the use of twin vanishing cabinets to create another. Filch knows of just four of these, while the Marauders (James Potter, Sirius Black, Remus Lupin and Peter Pettigrew) and the Weasley twins know of all seven, though where some lead is unknown. The Room of Requirement may, on occasion, create an eighth passage out of the school. The only known instance of this occurring is a passage to the Hog's Head that forms in Deathly Hallows. Due to the nature of the Room of Requirement, it is possible that several passages to different locations could be accessed from the Room. The three passages out of Hogwarts that Filch does not know about are:\nA passage beneath the Whomping Willow, leading to the Shrieking Shack.\nA passage behind a mirror on the fourth floor, which is caved in. It leads to Hogsmeade, but it is not known exactly where.\nA passage beneath the one-eyed witch statue by the stairs to the Defence Against the Dark Arts classroom, leading to the cellar of Honeydukes. Speaking aloud the word 'Dissendium' to the witch allows access to this passage; the hump on the statue then opens and reveals the hidden passageway.\nA further link between two vanishing cabinets, one in the school and the other in Borgin and Burkes in Knockturn Alley presumably works until Chamber of Secrets when Peeves (persuaded by Nearly Headless Nick) smashes the Hogwarts cabinet. The passage is reopened in Half-Blood Prince when Draco Malfoy fixes the cabinet. This passage is not shown on the Marauder's Map as it is not part of the castle itself.\n\nBesides passages in and out of the school, there are also numerous short-cuts that lead from one part of the castle to another. These are often concealed in such fashions as a tapestry which hides a hole in the wall.\n\nRoom of Requirement\nOn the seventh floor opposite an enormous tapestry depicting Barnabas the Barmy attempting to train trolls for the ballet, the Room of Requirement appears only when someone is in need of it. To make it appear, one must walk past its hidden entrance three times while concentrating on what is needed. The room will then appear, outfitted with whatever is required. To the Hogwarts house-elves, it is also known as the Come and Go Room.\n\nDumbledore is the first to mention the room, noting that he discovered it at five-thirty in the morning, filled with chamber pots when he was trying to find a toilet. However, Dumbledore did not appear to know the Room's secrets. Dobby later told Harry of the Room in detail and admitted to frequently bringing Winky to the room to cure her bouts of Butterbeer-induced drunkenness, finding it full of antidotes and a \"nice elf-sized bed\". Filch was said to find cleaning supplies here when he had run out; when Fred and George needed a place to hide, it would appear as a broom cupboard. Trelawney also makes a habit of using it to hide her empty sherry bottles after she is sacked in Order of the Phoenix. It would seem that when one wishes to hide something it produces the same room for everyone: the Room of Hidden Things, which is full of many centuries worth of abandoned objects, such as broken furniture, books, and in one case a dead quintaped (for more information see Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them), which were presumably forgotten by their owners.\n\nHarry learns of the room's abilities from Dobby in Order of the Phoenix, finding it the perfect location for his Dumbledore's Army meetings, during which it is filled with bookcases full of Defence Against the Dark Arts volumes, many different kinds of Dark Detectors, and a plethora of floor cushions for practising defensive spells.  When the D.A. is betrayed, the room is left open, and Pansy Parkinson is able to retrieve the list of members of the organisation. In Half-Blood Prince Harry uses the Room of Hidden Things to stash his copy of Advanced Potion-Making, describing it as the size of a large cathedral and packed to overflowing with items hidden by Hogwarts inhabitants over the years, such as old potions, clothing, ruined furniture, an old tiara (which happens to be one of Voldemort's Horcruxes), or books which are \"no doubt banned or graffitied or stolen\". He later realises that Draco has been using the room in this state to hide and repair the Vanishing Cabinet to use it to smuggle Death Eaters into Hogwarts. Ironically, while Harry tries many times to get into the Room of Requirement to see what Draco is doing, the only time he succeeds to get into the room (and he is not thinking about Draco), he gains access to the room where Malfoy has been working.\n\nIn Deathly Hallows, the students who need a place to hide from the Carrows, two Death Eater professors, use the room. It is also revealed that the Room of Requirement's current version can change while still occupied, though should a completely different version be required (e.g. the Room of Hidden Things instead of DA Headquarters) the room must be empty. The Room can also answer to the desire of the wizard within the room, such as providing Harry with a whistle when he needed one during a Dumbledore's Army meeting, or creating a passage to the Hog's Head (as the room cannot produce food). Later, Ravenclaw's diadem is found to be one of Voldemort's Horcruxes and has been hidden in the Room of Hidden Things by Voldemort. Harry, Ron, and Hermione enter the Room, with Harry knowing that he must look for a place to hide things, and find the tiara; but they are ambushed by Draco, Crabbe and Goyle. The diadem is finally destroyed when Crabbe fills this version of the Room with what Hermione believes to have been Fiendfyre; a destructive magical fire. It is not known if the room continues to function after the events of Deathly Hallows; Ron expresses concern that it may have been ruined in all of its forms by the cursed fire.\n\nDue to the Room of Requirement not being in a fixed location, it is one of the select locations in Hogwarts that does not appear on the Marauder's Map.\n\nForbidden Forest\nThe Forbidden Forest is a large, dark enchanted forest in the boundaries of the school grounds. It is usually referred to simply as \"the Forest\" and in the film series as the \"Dark Forest\". It is strictly forbidden to all students, except during Care of Magical Creatures lessons and, on rare occasions, detentions.\n\nAmong the plant species within the Forest are trees such as beech, oak, pine, sycamore, yew and knotgrass and thorn undergrowth. Though the Forest is vastly dense and wild, there are a few paths and clearings. Hagrid, who frequently travels into the Forest for various reasons, mostly makes these trails. The Forest is also home to an assortment of creatures, many of them dangerous.\n\nIn 2017, a Forbidden Forest expansion was added to the Warner Bros. Studio Tour London - The Making of Harry Potter, enabling fans to explore it for the first time.\n\nHogwarts Express\n\nThe Hogwarts Express is a train that carries pupils non-stop from Platform  at King's Cross station in London to Hogsmeade Station, near Hogwarts. Prefects of the school ride in a separate carriage near the front of the train. The compartments on the train appear to be lettered; in Half-Blood Prince, the \"Slug Club\" meets in compartment C.\n\nThe train began use in the 1850s. Before that, pupils used to reach Hogwarts on brooms or enchanted carriages.\n\nThe steam engine used in the film adaptations is the GWR 4900 Class 5972 Olton Hall, but it was not the first locomotive to be disguised as the Hogwarts Express. To promote the books, the Southern Railway locomotive 34027 Taw Valley was repainted and renamed temporarily, but was rejected by director Chris Columbus as looking 'too modern' for the film. Filming locations for the Hogwarts Express sequences include Goathland on the North Yorkshire Moors Railway, Kings Cross railway station and the route of the Jacobite Express which follows the West Highland Line from Fort William to Mallaig in Scotland, as it crosses the Glenfinnan Viaduct.\n\nSeveral model trains have been made of the Hogwarts Express. An 00 gauge is produced by Hornby, though this is of a Castle Class locomotive rather than the Hall Class used in the films. A three-rail H0 gauge model is produced by M\u00e4rklin, and a two-rail H0\/00 was produced in the early 2000s by Bachmann. Several now-discontinued L gauge models have been produced by LEGO. Lionel has released an O gauge set in their 2007 catalogue and a G gauge set for 2008.\n\nA completely functioning full-scale replica of the Hogwarts Express was created for The Wizarding World of Harry Potter's expansion at Universal Orlando Resort connecting King's Cross Station at the Diagon Alley expansion in Universal Studios Florida to the Hogsmeade station at Islands of Adventure, manufactured by Doppelmayr Garaventa Group in the form of a funicular railway people mover. The Hogwarts Express King's Cross Station features a wall between Platforms 9 and 10, where guests can \"walk through\" to get to Platform , as in the first film.\n\nCreation for books and films\nRowling has suggested that she may have inadvertently taken the name from the hogwort plant (Croton capitatus), which she had seen at Kew Gardens some time before writing the series, although the names \"The Hogwarts\" and \"Hoggwart\" appear in the 1954 Nigel Molesworth book How to Be Topp by Geoffrey Willans. The name \"Hogwart\" also appears in the 1986 Labyrinth fantasy film.\n\nMost exterior scenes were shot on location at Alnwick Castle, but views of the exterior of the entire school were created from shots of Durham Cathedral with a digital spire added to the towers. Durham Cathedral also served as a set for Hogwarts interiors.\n\nA scale model was created for exterior shots of the entire school. Models of Alnwick Castle and Durham Cathedral were also built to create more integration between the model and on location shots. It took a team of 86 artists and crew members 74 years worth of man hours to complete the model.\n\nPopularity \nHogwarts school was voted as the 36th-best Scottish educational establishment in a 2008 online ranking, outranking Edinburgh's Loretto School. According to a director of the Independent Schools Network Rankings, it was added to the schools listing \"for fun\" and was then voted on.\n\nIn translation \nMost translations keep the name 'Hogwarts', transcribing it if necessary. For example, in Arabic it is transcribed as  = H\u016bghw\u016brts, in Russian as  = Khogvarts, in Japanese as  = Hoguw\u0101tsu, in Bengali as  = Hogowarts, in Greek as  = H\u00f3guarts, and in simplified Chinese as  = Hu\u00f2g\u00e9w\u00f2c\u00ed.\n\nHowever, some translations translate or otherwise adapt the name: French  ( = \"bacon\"), Latvian  shortened from  = \"pig\" +  = \"warts\", Dutch  modified from  = \"pig rock\", Norwegian Bokm\u00e5l  (galt = boar, vort = wart) (Nynorsk keeps \"\"), Finnish  ( = \"wart\"), Hungarian  (playing with the name of Oxford in tribute to Harry Potter's home country), Slovenian  ( = \"warts\")), Czech  means simply \"warts\". The Ancient Greek translation of the school is \"\u1f59\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03a0\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u0393\u03bf\u03b7\u03c4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u039c\u03b1\u03b3\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2\", loosely translating to \"Hogwizard's School of Wizardry and Magic\", \u1f59\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03ae\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 replacing \"Hogwarts\" and derived from the ancient Greek words \u1f51o- (hog) and \u03b3\u03bf\u03b7\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2 (wizard).\n\nSee also\n Albus Dumbledore\n Loch Shiel\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n The Harry Potter Lexicon's Hogwarts Atlas featuring numerous images of Hogwarts. hplex.info.\n The Marauder's Map from the Warner Bros website, harrypotter.warnerbros.co.uk\n\nFictional elements introduced in 1997\nFictional fortifications\nFictional locations in Scotland\nFictional magic schools\nHarry Potter organisations\nFictional buildings and structures originating in literature\nGlen Fiddich","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":258,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":6,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":4,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":4,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":5,"2018-09":5,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":5,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":11,"2017-04":11,"2016-50":8,"2016-44":11,"2016-40":12,"2016-36":12,"2016-30":12,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":14,"2015-48":11,"2015-40":12,"2015-35":13,"2015-32":11,"2015-27":12}},"id":45324,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hogwarts","title":"Hogwarts","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A smiley (also called a \"smiley face\" and an \"emoticon\") is a picture of a smiling face that is used to show emotion. The first smileys to be widely used were made as yellow buttons, but now the most common smileys are made using computer keyboard symbols. Smileys are used by many people in emails and other types of computer messages. A \"smiley\" is also sometimes spelt wrongly as \"smily\" or \"smilie\".\n\nHistory\n\nSmiley button\nThere were a number of early uses of simple graphics representing a smiling face. Some of these used a large circle containing two dots for eyes and a curve for the mouth. The most well-known smiley face was created in 1963 by Harvey Ball for an insurance company in Massachusetts. This design was a bright yellow circle representing a face, with black oval eyes and a big curved mouth with smile creases at the ends.\n\nThe design was made popular in the early 1970s by a pair of brothers, Murray and Bernard Spain, who though of a great plan to sell novelty items. The two used the \"smiley face\" on buttons as well to decorate coffee mugs, t-shirts, bumper stickers and many other things. They also used the phrase \"Have a happy day\" (which was the idea of Gyula Bogar). \"Smiley\" buttons were very popular from the 1970s onwards.\n\nSmileyworld Ltd \nSmiley is a brand developed by Franklin Loufrani since 1971. He controls Smileyworld Ltd, a company whose mission is to make the world a happier place to live. Its brand Smiley is sold all over the world in several lifestyle industries, and its designers are constantly developing very creative and edgy products. The company donates ten percent of its royalties to a charity called the Smiley World Association, active with social actions in several countries. Its baseline is \"Share your smile with those in need\".\n\nIn 1997 Franklin's son Nicolas Loufrani has started to create a new world with icons based on the original Smiley logo. Today over 1200 icons are used as part of a brand called Smileyworld. This brand is based on a communication concept aimed at helping people to communicate better through various social expression products (greeting cards, gifts, etc.). It is also an educative project with books, toys, interactive products as well as a lifestyle brand for children.\n\nLegal \nSmiley has been a registered trademark since 1971. The Smiley name and logo now registered and used in over 100 countries for 25 classes of goods and services. More than 1200 Smiley emoticons are registered with the Washington Library of Congress and protected by the Universal Copyrights Convention. In the past 10 years, Smileyworld Ltd  has signed more than 800 licensing contracts worldwide and has been using its rights in most classes of goods and services in all important countries on the 5 continents. Smileyworld Ltd works with over 60 law firms to protect its IP.\n\nEmoticon\n\nIn the 1990s people started using the internet and emails as a regular way of communicating. So that they could show happiness or fun in an easy way, people started making little smiling faces using some of the symbols on the keyboard. A keyboard smiley has a colon \":\" for the eyes, a hyphen \"-\" for the nose, and a parenthesis \")\" for the mouth. Some people make the smiley without the hyphen for a nose. The \"smileys\" that are made in this way are sideways.\n\nHere is a smiley:\n\n:-)\n\nWhen you tilt your head to the left, it looks like a smiling face.\n\nSmileys are usually used as part of a written message, but sometimes a smiley is just sent on its own to say \"I am happy with your last message.\" Smileys are a useful way to show feelings to someone who cannot see the face of person sending the message.\n A smiley is usually used to show happiness: \"I bought a new computer today! :-)\"\n A smiley can show that the sender does not want to hurt a person's feelings: \"That was a silly thing to do! :-)\"\n A smiley can show that the sender is joking or being sarcastic: \"Don't you think tests in school are really fun? :-)\"\n\nFrom the smiley came other ideas for showing emotions using keyboard symbols:\n :-) ... Smiley\n ;-)... I'm winking! (used to flirt with someone via text, mail, etc.)\n :-D ... I'm very happy!\n x-D ... I'm laughing!\n :-( ... I'm frowning!\n :-| ... I'm bored!\n :-o ... I'm surprised!\n :'( ... I'm crying!\n :-s ... I'm worried!\n {:-o .. I'm going crazy!\n :-P ... I'm poking my tongue out!\n x-P ... That's disgusting!\n <:o) .. Let's have a party!\n\nSome people use different symbols, or do not use a nose, etc.\n\nReferences\n\nInternet culture\nSymbols","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":13810,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smiley","title":"Smiley","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Indian independence movement was a movement from 1857 until 15 August 1947, when India got its independence from the British Raj.\n\nEuropean Rule \nVasco da Gama of Portugal had discovered a sea route to India. He had reached Kozhikode (Calicut, Kerala) in 1498. After this, many Europeans started coming to India for trading. They made their offices and forts in various parts of India. The British East India Company became the major force in India. The company's troops led by Robert Clive defeated the rulers of Bengal in 1757. This battle became famous as the Battle of Plassey. That was the beginning of British rule, known as the British Raj, in India. In 1764, the Battle of Buxar was won by the English forces. After this, the British got control over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.\n\nThe Parliament of the United Kingdom passed many laws to help the British East India Company. The Regulating Act of 1773, the India Act of 1784, and the Charter Act of 1813 were designed to help trade with India.\n\nBefore the First War of Independence (1857), Indians in different parts of India had revolted against the British. Many such of the revolts and armed struggles had taken place in this Some examples include:\n Revolts by many local rulers of Tamil people in southern India like Dheeran Chinnamalai, Veerapandiya Kattabomman ...etc.\n In 1825 in Karnataka kittur Chennamma rejected Doctrine of Lapsi and refused British rulers any royalty. She defeated British in the war. Kittur was defeated by British army in the second war. Her lieutenant Sangolli Rayanna continued the revolt until he was killed.\n A revolt in 1787 took place in Goa against the rule of Portugal. The histo call this revolt as the Conspiracy of the Pintos.\n A rebellion by tribes of Jharkhand in India. Historians call this Santhal Rebellion\n Rebellion under the leadership of Titumir in Bengal.\n\nRevolt of 1857 \n\nIndia's First War of Independence (by this name later a book was published by V.D Savarkar) was a revolt of Indian soldiers and people (rulers and peasants) against British rule. Historians had used the terms like the Indian Mutiny or the Sepoy Mutiny to describe this event. The rebellion by Indian troops of the British Raj started in May 1857 and continued until December 1858. Many reasons had combined to result in this rebellion.\n\nThe British rulers continued to forcibly take regions ruled by Indians and made these regions part of the British Raj. They did not give any respect to old royal houses of India like the Mughals and the Peshwa. They also made the Indian soldiers of their army use a special type of cartridge (immediate cause of the rebel). The soldiers had to open the cartridges with their teeth before loading them into their guns. The cartridges supposedly used cow and pig fat. For Hindus the cow is a sacred animal and they do not eat beef. Similarly, Muslims do not eat pork. Thus, the use of these cartridges made soldiers of both the religions turn against the British. Although the British tried to replace the cartridges, the feelings against them stayed.\n\nRebellion broke out when a soldier called Mangal Pandey attacked a British sergeant and wounded an adjutant. General Hearsey ordered another Indian soldier to arrest Mangal Pandey but he refused. Later the British arrested Mangal Pandey and the other Indian soldier. The British killed both by hanging them.\n\nAt the beginning the British were slow to respond. Then they took very quick action with heavy forces. They brought their regiments from the Crimean War to India. They also redirected many regiments that were going to China from India. The British forces reached Delhi, and they surrounded the city from 1st July 1857 until 31st August 1857. Street-to-street fights broke out between the British troops and the Indians. Ultimately, they took control of Delhi. The massacre at Kanpur (July 1857) and the siege of Lucknow (June to November 1857) were also important. The last important battle was at Gwalior in June 1858 in which the Rani of Jhansi was killed. With this, the British had practically suppressed the rebellion. However, some guerrilla fighting in many places continued until early in 1859 and Tantia Tope was captured and executed until April 1859.\n\nThe Results \nIndia's First War of Independence was a major event in the history of modern India. The Parliament of the United Kingdom withdrew the right of the British East India Company to rule India in November 1858. The United Kingdom started ruling India directly through its representative called the Viceroy of India(earlier governor-general of India). It made India a part of the British Empire. They promised \"the Princes, Chiefs, and People of India,\" equal treatment under the British law.\n\nThe British sent Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal Emperor, out of India, and kept him in Rangoon (now called Yangon in Burmese), Burma where he died in 1862. The Mughal dynasty, which had ruled India for about four hundred years, ended with his death.\n\nThe British also took many steps to employ Indian higher castes and rulers into the government. They stopped taking the lands of the remaining princes and rulers of India. They stopped interference in religious matters. They started employing Indians in the civil services but at lower levels. They increased the number of British soldiers, and allowed only British soldiers to handle artillery.\n\nOrganised movements \nThe period following India's First War of Independence was an important period in the Indian independence movement. Many leaders emerged at the national and provincial levels, and the Indians became more aware of their rights. Social movements also helped in shaping people's outlook, tried for social changes, and tried to remove bad social practices and evils like illiteracy and caste system. During this period, many social and religious leaders worked to inspire the Indian society. They included men like Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna , Sri Aurobindo, Subramanya Bharathy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore and Dadabhai Naoroji. They spread the message of self-confidence, removing of social evils, and making India free from domination of foreign power. Lokmanya Tilak was one such leader who was not very modest in his views. The British arrested him. In the court he declared: \"Swaraj (independence) is my birthright\". This concept of Swaraj later became a main policy and philosophy of India's independence movement in the following decades until India became independent. \nIn 1885, at the suggestion of Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Bombay. They founded the Indian National Congress. The delegates represented educated Indians in professions such as law, teaching, and journalism. A few years before, Dadabhai Naoroji had already formed the East India Association. It merged with the Indian National Congress to form a bigger party. \nTo begin with, the Indian National Congress was not a very active political party. It met annually and gave some suggestions to the rulers of the British Raj. The suggestions generally related to civil rights and opportunities for Indians in the government jobs. Despite its claim to represent all Indians, it represented only the educated and higher class of the society. But, it failed to attract all Muslims. Many Muslims had become distrustful of Hindu reformers who raised their voice against matters like religious conversion and killing of cows for their meat. For Hindus, the cow is a sacred animal not to be killed. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan launched a separate movement for Muslims, and founded in 1875 a college in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh state, India. Later, this college became Aligarh University in 1921. The objective of the college was to give modern education to India's Muslims. By 1900, the Indian National Congress had become a national party, but did not represent all groups of Indian society, particularly the Muslims.\n\nPartition of Bengal\nIn 1905, Lord Curzon (George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston), the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899-1905) of India divided Bengal province into two provinces: Eastern Bengal & Assam, with its capital at Dhaka, and West Bengal, with its capital at Calcutta (Kolkata). At that time Calcutta was the capital city of the British Raj. The people became very angry at that partition (division), and created the phrase \"divide and rule\" for the policy followed by the British Empire. The leading intellectual figures of India at that time expressed their unhappiness at this partition. For example, Rabindranath Tagore, the most famous Indian poet (originally from Bengal) composed a poem against this partition.\n\nWorld War I \nDuring the First World War, Indians gave support to the United Kingdom. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers went to many parts of Europe, Africa, and the Middle East to fight. Many Indians, including the princes and rich people of India, contributed money and materials to the war funds of the United Kingdom. However, many Indian soldiers died in foreign lands. In India, flu called Spanish flu spread like an epidemic killing many people. The tax rates increased in India, and prices also increased. The Indians became restless.\nIn August 1917, Edwin Samuel Montagu, the Secretary of State for India, announced in the British Parliament about many steps to give more rights to Indians. A new law named the Government of India Act of 1919 gave many rights to the Indians in the provincial government. These rights related to farming, local government, health, education, and public works. The British administrators kept matters like taxation, finance, and law and order under their control.\n\nThe Rowlatt Act \nIn 1919 the British made a new law named the Rowlatt Act. Under this law, the government got many powers, including the ability to arrest people and keep them in prisons without a trial. They also obtained the power to stop newspapers from reporting and printing news. The people called this act the Black Act. Indians protested against this law in many places.\n\nThe positive impact of reform was seriously undermined in 1919 by the Rowlatt Act, named after the recommendations made the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission, which had been appointed to investigate \"seditious conspiracy.\" The Rowlatt Act, also known as the Black Act, vested the Viceroy's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the press, detaining political activists without trial, and arresting any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant. In protest, a nationwide cessation of work (hartal) was called, marking the beginning of widespread, although not nationwide, popular discontent.\n\nThe agitation reached a peak in Amritsar (Punjab, India). In Amritsar, on 13th April 1919, about 10,000 Indians had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh. They had no idea of the law that they couldn't gather. The British military commander, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire at the civilians without any warning. The troops fired 1,650 times. Some historians estimate that the troops killed 379 and injured about 1,137 people. This incident came to be known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. With this killing of innocent people, the British lost the trust of the Indian people.\n\nCongress forced Britishers to investigate massacre of jallianwala later, a tehkikat committee was made by congress.\n\nGandhi's way \nMohandas Karamchand Gandhi (also known as Mahatma Gandhi) had received his education at London. He was a barrister (lawyer). In 1893, he went to South Africa. After Gandhi was thrown off a train because he was a colored person sitting in a first-class seat, he took that emotion and used it to begin to fight the injustices that many people of color faced at the time. He became successful and the government of South Africa removed most of such rules and restrictions. Gandhi led the Salt March, an act of protest.\n\nWhen Gandhi returned to India in 1915, few people knew him. Under the leadership of Gandhi, Indians began to use a different method to get freedom over the next few years.\n\nCivil disobedience \n\nIn December 1929, the Indian National Congress Party agreed to start a movement for complete independence from British rule. The Party decided to start a movement named to disobey the British rule. It became the civil disobedience movement. They decided to observe 26th January 1930 as the complete Independence Day (this is the reason why India celebrate republic day on 26 January). Many other political parties and revolutionaries came together to support this movement.\n\nGandhi started this movement, leading 72 people on a 400 kilometer route from Ahmedabad to Dandi (both in the Indian state of Gujarat), on the coast of the Arabian Sea. There they made salt from the seawater and broke a law of British India prohibiting making salt without paying taxes, so this event is referred to as the Salt March. Thus the civil disobedience movement began, and it soon spread throughout India. Indians started to break unfair laws in a peaceful manner in protest against the British rule.The effect of civil disobedience movement in Kerala was at Payannur and Beypore.\n\nRevolutionary activities \nMany Indians did not believe in such peaceful protests, claiming that the British would not give independence to Indians so easily. They believed in armed struggle was necessary to oust the British from India. In some way, this had continued for years after the partition of Bengal in 1905. Many revolutionaries and leaders emerged from time to time. Bhagat Singh was one of them.\n\nThe elections \nThe rulers of the British Raj made a new law to govern India, named the Government of India Act 1935. This law aimed at constitutional process to govern India. It had three major aims: to establish a federal system with many provinces, to give self-ruling position (autonomy) to the provinces, and to give the Muslim minority protection through giving them some separate electorates. In such separate electorates only Muslims could stand for elections. In February 1937, elections took place for the provincial assemblies. The members of the Indian National Congress won in five provinces, and held upper position in two more provinces. The Muslim League's performance in the election was not good.\n\nThe Indian move to freedom \nDuring the Second World War, the rulers of the British Raj declared India to be a party to the war. They did not discuss the matter with Indians and their leaders. The Indians and their leaders became divided over this matter. Some supported the British, while many did not. British rulers of India wanted the Indians to fight and die in the name of freedom, yet they had denied this freedom to India and the Indians for more than a hundred years. This created a lot of dissatisfaction among Indians, and two big movements for India's independence took shape. The first was the Indian National Army of Subhas Chandra Bose. The second was Quit India Movement of Mohandas Gandhi.\n\nThe Indian National Army \n\nSubhas Chandra Bose and many leaders did not like the British decision to drag India into the Second World War. He had twice (in 1937 and 1939) become president of the Indian National Congress Party, the leading Indian political party of that time. However, he and many other leaders of the Indian National Congress Party differed on many matters. He resigned and formed a new party named All India Forward Bloc. The British government of India put him under house arrest, but he escaped in 1941. He reached Germany and secured the support of Germany and Japan to fight the British in India. In 1943, he traveled in submarines of Germany and Japan, and reached Japan. He organised the Indian National Army. The INA fought the troops of the British Raj in northeastern India. Despite many difficulties, INA recorded many victories. However, with the surrender of Japan in 1945, INA's operations stopped. Bose died in a plane crash, but circumstances of his death are not clear.\n\nThe British government of India put on trial three Indian National Army officers at the Red Fort in Delhi. The British had chosen for this trial one Hindu, one Sikh, and one Muslim of the INA. This made many Indians of all religions very angry. A naval mutiny also broke out in Bombay. Ultimately, the British ruled that these officers were guilty, but they set them free seeing the public anger. When India became independent, the government of India did not allow the former officers and soldiers of the INA to join the armed forces of the independent India. However, the government granted them very good pensions and other facilities. The Indian public also gave them much respect.\n\nMany consider Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose a controversial figure due to his association with the Axis Powers. But, in India, people consider him a patriotic hero of the Indian independence movement.\n\nQuit India \nOn 8th August 1942, the leaders of the Indian National Congress Party met in Bombay (Mumbai). The leaders adopted a policy to force the British out of India. Gandhi's slogan \"Do or Die\" became a national slogan, and the movement became the Quit India Movement. At the beginning of the Second World War, the Indian National Congress Party had supported the British, but they had demanded freedom for India after the war. The British did not agree to this proposal. On 14th July 1942, the Indian National Congress Party passed a resolution demanding complete independence from the British rule. However, this did not have support of some other political parties.\n\nGandhi had asked the people to keep the Quit India Movement as a peaceful movement. Many people started the movement in many places of India. But at some places, the movements turned violent. Gandhi refused to eat until the violence stopped. He was successful in ending the violence.\n\nThe British action was very quick. They arrested over 100,000 people. They levied fines on many people. They dropped bombs on the people who demonstrated against the British Raj. The troops of the British Raj even beat people with sticks and caned them. The British arrested all the leaders of the Congress Party. Gandhi's wife, Kasturba Gandhi, died during detention, as well as his secretary Mahadev Desai. Gandhi's health had also become very bad. In 1944, the British set him free fearing that Gandhi's death might result in a very large protest by Indians. Gandhi continued to oppose the British, and demanded that all other leaders be set free.\n\nThe Second World War had reduced the economic, political, and military strength of the British Empire. They were also aware that after the war Indians would begin a larger movement for independence. The mood of the British people and the British Army had also changed. After the Second World War, most of them were no longer willing to support the British ruling class in India. That position was now clear to the leaders of the United Kingdom. By early 1946, those leaders set free all the political prisoners held in India and opened independence discussions with the Indian National Congress Party. On the 14th of August 1947 Pakistan gained independence and a day later on the 15th of August India gained its independence as well.\n\nIndia's independence (1947 to 1950) \n\nOn midnight of 15th August 1947, Britain handed India its formal political Independence. A short time after that, Gandhi, who was aging and ill, died from a bullet fired by a Hindu extremist named Nathuram Godse. The national leadership was then passed to his chief lieutenant, Jawaharlal Nehru. On 3rd June 1947, the Viceroy Lord Mountbatten announced partition of India into two countries: union of India, and an Islamic Pakistan. In this partition, many people died while others were separated from their families. On 26th January 1950, India adopted their constitution, the longest constitution in the world.\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n History of the Freedom movement in India  by R. C. Majumdar","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-23":1}},"id":31837,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indian%20independence%20movement","title":"Indian independence movement","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The urinary bladder is an organ in the human body in charge of storing urine. It is the part of our urinary system. All the liquids that are drunk go through the bladder. The bladder takes in the liquid in order for the body to work. The bladder works with the kidneys. The kidneys clean the liquid we drink. This goes on util the bladder is too full to hold any more. At this point, it is roughly the size of a softball. The bladder then tells the brain that it needs to be emptied. Once this message is received to the brain, the muscles around the bladder start to squeeze and the bladder starts to contract. At the same time the bladder sends a message to the sphincters to relax and let the liquid pass.\n\nAnatomy of the urinary system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":38030,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bladder","title":"Bladder","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u0930\u0947\u0938\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0930\u0947\u0924\u0930\u093f \u0938\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0927\u093e\u0903\u0917\u0941, \u0938\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092f\u094d \u092e\u0928\u0942 \u0935 \u092a\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0902\u091a\u0942 \u092a\u0936\u0941\u0924\u0947\u0917\u0941 \u092e\u094d\u0939\u092f\u094d \u0926\u092f\u093e\u091a\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0917\u0941 \u092b\u092f\u094d \u0939\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0917\u0941 \u092e\u094d\u0939\u0915\u0941\u091a\u093e\u0924\u0947\u0917\u0941 \u091b\u092a\u0941\u091a\u0903 \u0916\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0924\u092f\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0938\u0903 \u0932\u094d\u0939\u093e\u0907\u0917\u0941 (breathing)\u092f\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0947 \u0925\u094d\u0935 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0916\u0903 \u0927\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0928\u0942\u0924\u0947\u0938\u0902 \u0925\u0941\u0907\u0915\u093f\u0917\u0941 \u092f\u093e, \u0924\u0930 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\u0939\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0917\u0941 \u091c\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u094d \u0917\u094d\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0932\u093f \u092f\u093e\u0907\u0964 \u0925\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u094d\u0939\u0915\u0941\u091a\u093e \u092a\u0941\u091a\u0932\u0902 \u092e\u094d\u0939\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0938\u093f\u0926-\u092c\u0947\u0938\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u092f\u094d \u0924\u092f\u0947\u0924 \u0928\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0932\u093f \u092f\u093e\u0907\u0964\n\n\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\n\u092e\u0928\u0942 \u0935 \u092f\u0915\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u092e\u0947\u0917\u0941 \u092a\u0936\u0941\u0907 \u092b\u092f\u094d\u200c \u0939\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0917\u0941 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e (respiratory system)\u092f\u093e\u0924 \u091a\u094d\u0935\u092f\u094d\u200c (\u092b\u092f\u094d \u092c\u093e\u0939\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093f\u0917\u0941) \u0935 \u0915\u094d\u0935\u092f\u094d (\u092b\u092f\u094d \u0939\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0917\u0941 \u0925\u093e\u092f\u094d) \u0927\u093e\u0903\u0917\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0941 \u092d\u093e\u0917\u092f\u094d \u092c\u093e\u092f\u0947\u091b\u093f\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u0928\u0942\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0947\u0938\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0930\u0947\u0924\u0930\u093f \u0938\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u092e\u092f\u094d \u092b\u092f\u094d \u0925\u094d\u0935 \u091d\u094d\u0935\u0932\u092f\u094d \u0935\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0939\u093e\u0902 \u0935\u0928\u093f- \n \u0928\u094d\u0939\u093e\u092f\u094d\u200c\u092a\u094d\u0935\u093e\n \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092d\u093f\u091f\u0940\n \u092b\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0919\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0938\u094d (naso-, oro-, laryngo-)\n \u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0919\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0938\u094d (\u0938 \u092a\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0907\u0917\u0941 \u0925\u093e\u092f\u094d) \n \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e  \n \u092c\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0919\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0907 \n \u092c\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0919\u094d\u0915\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0932\u094d\u0938\u094d \n \u090f\u0932\u094d\u092d\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0932\u093e\u0907 (\u092b\u092f\u094d \u0939\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0917\u0941 \u0925\u093e\u092f\u094d)\n\n\u091a\u094d\u0935\u092f\u094d\u200c\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0947\u0938\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0930\u0947\u0924\u0930\u093f \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0924\/\u0938\u091e\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \nThe conducting zone starts with the nares (nostrils) of the nose, which open into the nasopharynx (nasal cavity). The primary functions of the nasal passages are to: 1) filter, 2) warm, 3) moisten, and 4) provide resonance in speech. The nasopharnyx opens into the oropharynx (behind the oral cavity). The oropharynx leads to the laryngopharynx, and empties into the larynx (voicebox), which contains the vocal cords, passing through the glottis, connecting to the trachea (wind pipe).\n\nLower respiratory tract\/respiratory zone \nThe trachea leads down to the thoracic cavity (chest) where it divides into the right and left \"main stem\" bronchi. The subdivision of the bronchus are: primary, secondary, and tertiary divisions (first, second and third levels). In all, they divide 16 more times into even smaller bronchioles. \n\nThe bronchioles lead to the respiratory zone of the lungs which consists of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and the alveoli, the multi-lobulated sacs in which most of the gas exchange occurs.\n\nVentilation \nVentilation of the lungs is carried out by the muscles of respiration.\n\nControl \nVentilation occurs under the control of the autonomic nervous system from the part of the brain stem, the medulla oblongata and the pons. This area of the brain forms the respiration regulatory center, a series of interconnected neurons within the lower and middle brain stem which coordinate respiratory movements. The sections are the pneumotaxic center, the apneustic center, and the dorsal and ventral respiratory groups. This section is especially sensitive during infancy, and the neurons can be destroyed if the infant is dropped or shaken violently. The result can be death due to \"shaken baby syndrome.\"\n\nInhalation \nInhalation is initiated by the diaphragm and supported by the external intercostal muscles. Normal resting respirations are 10 to 18 breaths per minute. Its time period is 2 seconds. During vigorous inhalation (at rates exceeding 35 breaths per minute), or in approaching respiratory failure, accessory muscles of respiration are recruited for support. These consist of sternocleidomastoid, platysma, and the strap muscles of the neck. \n\nInhalation is driven primarily by the diaphragm. When the diaphragm contracts, the ribcage expands and the contents of the abdomen are moved downward. This results in a larger thoracic volume, which in turn causes a decrease in intrathoracic pressure. As the pressure in the chest falls, air moves into the conducting zone. Here, the air is filtered, warmed, and humidified as it flows to the lungs.\n\nDuring forced inhalation, as when taking a deep breath, the external intercostal muscles and accessory muscles further expand the thoracic cavity.\n\nExhalation \nExhalation is generally a passive process, however active or forced exhalation is achieved by the abdominal and the internal intercostal muscles.\n\nThe lungs have a natural elasticity; as they recoil from the stretch of inhalation, air flows back out until the pressures in the chest and the atmosphere reach equilibrium.\n\nDuring forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles, generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of the lungs.\n\nCirculation \nThe right side of the heart pumps blood from the right ventricle through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk. The trunk branches into right and left pulmonary arteries to the pulmonary blood vessels. The vessels generally accompany the airways and also undergo numerous branchings. Once the gas exchange process is complete in the pulmonary capillaries, blood is returned to the left side of the heart through four pulmonary veins, two from each side. The pulmonary circulation has a very low resistance, due to the short distance within the lungs, compared to the systemic circulation, and for this reason, all the pressures within the pulmonary blood vessels are normally low as compared to the pressure of the systemic circulation loop. \t \n \t\t \nVirtually all the body's blood travels through the lungs every minute. The lungs add and remove many chemical messengers from the blood as it flows through pulmonary capillary bed . The fine capillaries also trap blood clots that have formed in systemic veins.\n\nGas Exchange \nThe major function of the respiratory system is gas exchange. As gas exchange occurs, the acid-base balance of the body is maintained as part of homeostasis. If proper ventilation is not maintained two opposing conditions could occur: 1) respiratory acidosis, a life threatening condition, and 2) respiratory alkalosis.\n\nUpon inhalation, gas exchange occurs at the alveoli, the tiny sacs which are the basic functional component of the lungs. The alveolar walls are extremely thin (approx. 0.2 micrometres), and are permeable to gases. The alveoli are lined with pulmonary capillaries, the walls of which are also thin enough to permit gas exchange. All gases diffuse from the alveolar air to the blood in the pulmonary capillaries, as carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from capillary blood to alveolar air. At this point, the pulmonary blood is oxygen-rich, and the lungs are holding carbon dioxide. Exhalation follows, thereby ridding the body of the carbon dioxide and completing the cycle of respiration. \n\nIn an average resting adult, the lungs take up about 250ml of oxygen every minute while excreting about 200ml of carbon dioxide. During an average breath, an adult will exchange from 500 ml to 700 ml of air. This average breath capacity is called tidal volume.\n\nDevelopment \nThe respiratory system lies dormant in the human fetus during pregnancy. At birth, the respiratory system is drained of fluid and cleaned to assure proper functioning of the system. If an infant is born before forty weeks gestational age, the newborn may experience respiratory failure due to the under-developed lungs. This is due to the incomplete development of the alveoli type II cells in the lungs. The infant lungs do not function due to the collapse of the alveoli caused by surface tension of water remaining in the lungs. Surfactant is lacking from the lungs, leading to the condition. This condition may be avoided if the mother is given a series of steroid shots in the final week prior to delivery. The steriods accelerate the development of the type II cells.\n\nRole in communication \nThe movement of gas through the larynx, pharynx and mouth allows humans to speak, or phonate. Because of this, gas movement is extremely vital for communication purposes.\n\nConditions of the respiratory system \nDisorders of the respiratory system can be classified into four general areas:\n\n Obstructive Conditions (e.g., Emphysema, Bronchitis, asthma attacks\n\n Restrictive Conditions (e.g., Fibrosis, Sarcoidosis, Alveolar Damage, Pleural Effusion)\n Vascular Diseases (e.g., Pulmonary Edema, Pulmonary Embolism, Pulmonary Hypertension)\n Infectious, Environmental and Other \"Disease\"s (e.g., Pneumonia, Tuberculosis, Asbestosis, Particulate Pollutants) Coughing is of major importance, as it is the body's main method to remove dust, mucus, saliva, and other debris from the lungs. Inability to cough can lead to infection. Deep breathing exercises may help keep finer structures of the lungs clear from particulate matter, etc.\n\nThe respiratory tract is constantly exposed to microbes due to the extensive surface area, which is why the respiratory system includes many mechanisms to defend itself and prevent pathogens from entering the body.\n\nDisorders of the respiratory system are usually treated internally by a Pulmonologist.\n\nGas exchange in plants \nPlants inhale and then use carbon dioxide gas in their bodily functions, and then exhale waste oxygen gas, as opposed to animals, which inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide.\n\nPlant respiration is limited by the process of diffusion. Plants take in carbon dioxide through holes on the undersides of their leaves known as stoma. However, most plants require little air. Most plants have relatively few living cells outside of their surface because air (which is required for metabolic content) can penetrate only skin deep. However, most plants are not involved in highly aerobic activities, and thus have no need of these living cells.\n\n\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u093e \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902 \n Liquid breathing\n Aquatic respiration\n Involuntary control of respiration\n Gill\n Respiratory tract\n\n\u0936\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \n Perkins, M. 2003.  Respiration Power Point Presentation. Biology 182 Course Handout. Orange Coast College, Costa Mesa, CA.\n Medical Dictionary\n\n\u092a\u093f\u0928\u0947\u092f\u093e\u0917\u0941 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092a\u0942\u0924\u0903 \n Science aid: Respiratory System A simple guide for high school students\n Introduction to Respiratory System\n A high school level description of the respiratory system\n\nExercise physiology\nRespiratory system\n\u090f\u0928\u093e\u091f\u094b\u092e\u0940","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2}},"id":3066,"url":"https:\/\/new.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AE","title":"\u0930\u0947\u0938\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0930\u0947\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u092e","language":"new"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"is a Japanese musician and artist. She is the widow of John Lennon. Before she married Lennon she was married to Toshi Ichiyanagi from 1956 to 1963 and Anthony Cox from 1963 to 1969. She has two children, Kyoko Chan Cox (with Cox) and Sean Lennon (with Lennon).\n\nEarly life \nBoth of her parents came from wealthy families. Her father, who was a descendant of a former Emperor of Japan, had been a concert pianist before giving up music to become a banker. Ono was tutored privately, then sent to exclusive private schools, studying classical music and art, and also learning English. She visited the United States before World War II with her family. Her father was on a business trip to the U.S. when the war began, and was  with many other Japanese in the country. He was not able to communicate with his family for many years. Ono's mother took her, her brother and sister away from Tokyo, and they stayed in a rural area.\n\nAfter the war ended, the family was reunited, and moved to New York for her father's job. Ono enrolled in Sarah Lawrence College, but quit during her third year. She became interested in  art and music, and began writing poetry. Many of her poems were instructions, for creating pieces of art. She later published some of these in a book, titled Grapefruit. Her parents were not happy that Ono chose to make her own way, rather than following her family's wishes for her life. When she married Toshi Ichiyanagi, a young pianist, her parents  her.\n\nThe marriage did not work out, and Ono rented a loft apartment of her own. She became friends with local artists in New York, including Andy Warhol and a group called Fluxus. She hosted small parties and \"happenings\" for her artist friends, and began to do artwork of her own. This brought her some notoriety in time, but not fame. She remarried, to Tony (Anthony) Cox, and they had a daughter, named Kyoko.\n\nMarriage to Lennon \nOno went to London with Cox and Kyoko during 1966, to promote her career as an artist. John Lennon, who was a member of The Beatles, went to one of her art shows. He enjoyed the  (fantasy-like) quality of her work. Ono and Lennon became friends, and later lovers, as each lost interest in their spouses. Lennon wanted them to be together as much as possible. He broke a rule the Beatles had never to bring a wife or girlfriend to their recording sessions. He brought her along anytime he could. They were married in March 1969, after they were both divorced.\n\nMany Beatles fans blamed Ono for \"breaking up\" the band through her influence on Lennon. He seemed to many people to have \"gone crazy\" since meeting her. Some suggest that Ono simply encouraged Lennon to do things he'd already wanted to do, but let himself be talked out of doing in the past \u2013 including quitting the Beatles. Ono and Lennon started a new, part-time group they called the Plastic Ono Band. They also tried to have a baby together. Ono miscarried several times, until their son Sean Lennon was born in 1975, on Lennon's 35th birthday. Ono was also able to  with her family, during the 1970s.\n\nOno was Lennon's \"muse\", inspiring his music and his creative side, for the rest of his life. The two worked together on both his post-Beatles records, and Ono's wish to also have a music career. She was more interested in \"experimental\" music than in classical or popular music. Ono's songs and unique style sounded strange to most listeners. It was offensive to many people, who thought Lennon should have either stayed with the Beatles, or made more music in their style. Ono changed her style, and began to write and record more pop songs, but her music never became popular. Years later, some younger musicians (such as The B-52's) admitted they had liked Ono's music. They were inspired by it, as Lennon had been.\n\nSince 1980s \nAfter Lennon's murderer in 1980, Ono recorded several solo albums. The first was titled Season of Glass. Her later records were praised by some music critics. \n\nWhen Sean Lennon grew up, he also became a musician. He helped Ono to compile (collect and put in order) her old recordings, and make some new ones. She also revived some of her earlier artwork, and gave the money made from sales and exhibits to charities. Ono recently (2006) appeared at the opening of Love, a Cirque du Soleil show featuring Beatles music, to help promote it.\n\nReferences \n\n1933 births\nFeminists\nGrammy Award winners\nLiving people\nJapanese artists\nMusicians from Tokyo\nHuffPost writers and columnists\nJohn Lennon","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":7716,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yoko%20Ono","title":"Yoko Ono","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A fugue is a piece of music written for a certain number of parts (voices). It is a type of counterpoint with a precisely defined structure. It is based on a tune called the \"subject\" of the fugue. The word \"fugue\" comes from the Italian \"fuga\" meaning \"flight\".\n\nHow a fugue is written \n\nA fugue is based on one particular tune. This tune is called the subject. Each part has an equal share in playing the subject. When we talk about the \"parts\" in a fugue we do not mean the \"sections\" of the piece but the number of voices needed to sing it or instruments to play it. A \"3 part fugue\" means a fugue written for three voices or instruments. \n\nFugues can be in 2, 3, 4, 5 or even 6 parts. The more parts there are the harder it is to write a fugue because each part has to sound interesting by itself, but together they must also make sense. 3, 4 and 5 part fugues are usual.\n\nA fugue always starts with just one part playing the subject. Then the other parts come in one at a time until they are all playing. When the second part comes in it will always be half an octave higher or lower than the beginning (musicians say: \"on the dominant\", meaning that it starts on the 5th note of the scale instead of the \"tonic\" or 1st note). This called: the answer. The third part to come in will be the \"subject\" (in the tonic once again) and the fourth part will be another answer, etc.\n\nIf the answer is an exact transposition of the subject (i.e. exactly the same but in the dominant key) it is called a real answer. Sometimes one or two notes have to be changed so that the music sounds right. This is called a tonal answer. For example: a subject that starts with a rising \"doh \u2013 soh\" (an interval of a fifth) will be answered by a rising \"soh \u2013 doh\" in the answer (an interval of a fourth).\n\nWhen the second part comes in with the answer the first part will have to play something else, called a countersubject. If this \"something else\" is used every time in the piece to accompany the answer then it is called a regular countersubject. The countersubject should sound nice, and be grammatically correct, whether it is on top or below the subject. This is called \"invertible counterpoint\".\n\nIf a part is not playing a countersubject it may just be playing a \"free part\".\n\nA redundant entry is the repetition of the subject or answer in a voice in which one or two of the aforementioned have already been stated.\n\nSometimes entries overlap. This is called stretto (NB \"stretto\" also has a different meaning in music: \"hurried\").\n\nIf none of the parts are playing the subject or answer (i.e. they are all playing free parts) this is called an episode. If it happens during the first section (exposition) then it is called a codetta.\n\nBecause a fugue is a piece which puts several lines of melody together it is a form of contrapuntal music.\n\nA fugue usually has three sections: the first section is called the \"exposition\". This lasts until all the parts have entered. The middle section will go through various keys (modulate), and the final section will be back in the main key (tonic), and all the parts will probably play the subject or answer in turn once more.\n\nComposers who wrote fugues \n\nThe fugue became a very popular form of music in the Baroque period. It was often played after a prelude. The most famous composer of fugues was Johann Sebastian Bach. He wrote two books, each with 24 Preludes and Fugues, called The Well-Tempered Clavier (in German: Das Wohltemperierte Klavier). Each book has a prelude and fugue in a different major and minor key. He also wrote many Preludes and Fugues for organ, sometimes writing a passacaglia, fantasia or toccata instead of the prelude, as in the case of the famous Toccata and Fugue in D minor. \n\nBach's fugues became models for future generations. Composers from later periods studied Bach's fugues in order to learn how to write their own. For example, Dmitri Shostakovich, a 20th century composer, wrote preludes and fugues in the same style as Bach.\n\nFugues can be very dramatic and exciting as each part comes in one at a time and the music builds up. This is why many composers have ended long works with a fugue. It helps to build up the tension towards the end of the work. Even if it is not a strict fugue it might be \"fugal\" i.e. it might start off as a fugue and then become freer (adding extra parts etc.). Beethoven uses fugues a lot in the last movement of his late piano sonatas. Benjamin Britten writes a fugue at the end of A Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra. At the end of his song for choir called \"The Twelve\" William Walton starts a fugue with a very long, fast and complicated fugues subject, but it soon develops into a much freer piece of music.\n\nMusical forms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":36007,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fugue","title":"Fugue","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dina matematik, fungsi nya\u00e9ta hiji hubungan, saperti unggal unsur tina susunan mangrupa gabungan tina susunan unsur unik s\u00e9j\u00e9nna (nu mungkin sarua). Kons\u00e9p fungsi jadi dasar pikeun sababaraha widang matematik sarta sakab\u00e9h \u00e9lmu kuantitatif.\n\nWatesan fungsi, mapping, map, transformation sarta operator mangrupa hal nu ilaharna meh sarua.\n\nIntuitive introduction \nEssentially, a function is a \"rule\" that assigns a unique output to \u00e9ach given input. Here are some examples of functions:\n\n \u00e9ach person has a favorite colour (red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, indigo, or violet). The colour is a function of the person. For example, John has favorite colour red, while Kim has favorite colour violet. Here, the input is the person, and the output is one of the 8 colours.\n Some children are selling lemonade in the summer. The number of lemonades they sell is a function of the temperature outside. For example, if it is 85 degrees outside, they sell 10 lemonades, but if it is 95 degrees outside, they sell 25 lemonades. Here, the input is the temperature, and the output is the number of lemonades they sell.\n A stone is dropped from different stories of a tall building. The dropped stone may take 2 seconds to fall from the second storey, and (only) 4 seconds to fall from the 10th storey. Here, the input is the storey, and the output is the number of seconds. The relevant function describes the relationship between the time it takes the stone to r\u00e9ach the ground and the storey. (See acceleration)\n\nThe \"rule\" defining a function can be specified by a formula, a relationship, or simply a table listing the outputs against inputs. The most important f\u00e9ature of a function is that it is deterministic, always producing the same output from the same input. In this way, a function may be thought of as a \"machine\" or a \"black box\", converting a valid input into a unique output. The input is often called the argument of the function, and the output the value of the function.\n\nA very common type of function occurs when the argument and the function value are both numbers, the functional relationship is expressed by a formula, and the value of the function is obtained by direct substitution of the argument into the formula. Consider for example\n\nwhich assigns to any number x its square.\n\nA straightforward generalization is to allow functions depending on several arguments. For instance,\n \nis a function which takes two numbers x and y and assigns to them their product, xy. It might seem that this is not r\u00e9ally a function as we described above, because this \"rule\" depends on two inputs. However, if we think of the two inputs together as a single pair (x, y), then we can interpret g as a function\u2014the argument is the ordered pair (x, y), and the function value is xy.\n\nIn the sciences, we often encounter functions that are not given by (known) formulas. Consider for instance the temperature distribution on \u00e9arth over time: this is a function which takes location and time as arguments and gives as output the temperature at that location at that time.\n\nWe have seen that the intuitive notion of function is not limited to computations using single numbers and not even limited to computations; the mathematical notion of function is still more general and is not limited to situations involving numbers. Rather, a function links a \"domain\" (set of inputs) to a \"codomain\" (set of possible outputs) in such a way that every element of the domain is associated to precisely one element of the codomain. Functions are abstractly defined as certain relations, as will be seen below. Because of this generality, the function concept is fundamental to virtually every branch of mathematics.\n\nSajarah \n\nAs a mathematical term, \"function\" was coined by Leibniz in 1694, to describe a quantity related to a curve, such as a curve's slope or a specific point of a curve. The functions Leibniz considered are today called differentiable functions, and they are the type of function most frequently encountered by nonmathematicians. For this type of function, one can talk about limits and derivatives; both are m\u00e9asurements of the change of output values associated to a change of input values, and these m\u00e9asurements are the basis of calculus.\n\nThe word function was later used by Euler during the mid-18th century to describe an expression or formula involving various arguments, e.g. f(x) = sin(x) + x3.\n\nDuring the 19th century, mathematicians started to formalize all the different branches of mathematics. Weierstrass advocated building calculus on arithmetic rather than on geometry, which favoured Euler's definition over Leibniz's (see arithmetization of analysis).\n\nBy broadening the definition of functions, mathematicians were then able to study \"strange\" mathematical objects such as continuous functions that are nowhere differentiable. These functions were first thought to be only th\u00e9oretical curiosities, and they were collectively called \"monsters\" as late as the turn of the 20th century. However, powerful techniques from functional analysis has shown that these functions are actually more common than differentiable functions. Such functions have since been applied to the mod\u00e9lling of physical phenomena such as Brownian motion.\n\nTowards the end of the 19th century, mathematicians started trying to formalize all of mathematics using set theory, and they sought to define every mathematical object as a set. Dirichlet and Lobachevcky independently and almost simultan\u00e9ously gave the mod\u00e9rn \"formal\" definition of function (see formal definition below).\n\nIn this definition, a function is a special case of a relation. In most cases of practical interest, however, the differences between the mod\u00e9rn definition and Euler's definition are negligible.\n\nThe notion of function as a rule for computing, rather than a special kind of relation, has been formalized in mathematical logic by m\u00e9ans of the lambda calculus.\n\nDadaran formal \n\nFormally, a function f from a set X of input values to a set Y of possible output values (written as f\u00a0:\u00a0X\u00a0\u2192\u00a0Y) is a relation between X and Y which satisfies:\n f is total: for all x in X, there exists a y in Y such that x f y (x is f-related to y), i.e. for \u00e9ach input value, there is at l\u00e9ast one output value in Y.\n f is many-to-one: if x f y and x f z, then y = z. i.e., many input values can be related to one output value, but one input value cannot be related to many output values.\n\nFor \u00e9ach input value x in the domain, the corresponding unique output value y in the codomain is denoted by f(x).\n\nA more concise expression of the above definition is the following: a function from X to Y is a subset f of the cartesian product X \u00d7 Y, such that for \u00e9ach x in X, there is a unique y in Y such that the ordered pair (x, y) is in f.\n\nThe set of all functions f\u00a0:\u00a0X\u00a0\u2192\u00a0Y is denoted by YX. Note that |YX|\u00a0=\u00a0|Y||X| (refer to Cardinal numbers).\n\nA relation between X and Y that satisfies condition (1) is a multivalued function. Every function is a multivalued function, but not every multivalued function is a function. A relation between X and Y that satisfies condition (2) is a partial function. Every function is a partial function, but not every partial function is a function. In this encyclopedia, the term \"function\" will m\u00e9an a relation satisfying both conditions (1) and (2), unless otherwise stated.\n\nConsider the following three examples:\n\nDomains, codomains, and ranges \n\nX, the set of input values, is called the domain of f, and Y, the set of possible output values, is called the codomain. The range of f is the set of all actual outputs {f(x) : x in the domain}. Beware that sometimes the codomain is incorrectly called the range because of a failure to distinguish between possible and actual values. \nAn endofunction is a function whose domain and range are identical.\n\nIn computer science, the datatypes of the arguments and return values specify the domain and codomain (respectively) of a subprogram. So the domain and codomain are constraints imposed initially on a function; on the other hand the range has to do with how things turn out in practice.\n\nInjective, surjective and bijective functions \n\nSeveral types of functions that are very useful have special names: \n Injective (one-to-one) functions send different arguments to different values; in other words, if x and y are members of the domain of f, then f(x) = f(y) only if x = y.\n Surjective (onto) functions have their range equal to their codomain; in other words, if y is any member of the codomain of f, then there exists at l\u00e9ast one x such that f(x) = y.\n Bijective functions are both injective and surjective; they are often used to show that the sets X and Y are the \"same size\" in some sense.\n\nImages and preimages \n\nThe image of an element x\u2208X under f is the output f(x).\n\nThe image of a subset A\u2282X under f is the subset of Y defined by\nf(A)\u00a0:= {f(x)\u00a0: x in A}. \n \nNotice that the range of f is the image f(X) of its domain. In our function above, the image of {2,3} under f is f({2, 3}) = {c, d} and the range of f is {a, c, d}.\n\nNote that with this definiton, the direct image f becomes a function whose domain is the set of all subsets of X (also known as the power set of X) and whose codomain is the power set of Y. Note that the same notation is used for the original function f and its direct image. This is a common convention; the intended usage must be inferred by context.\n\nThe preimage (or inverse image) of a set B \u2282 Y under f is the subset of X defined by\nf\u00a0\u22121(B)\u00a0:= {x in X\u00a0: f(x)\u2208B}.\nIn our function above, the preimage of {a, b} is f\u00a0\u22121({a, b}) = {1}.\n\nNote that with this definiton, f\u00a0\u22121 becomes a function whose domain is the power set of Y and whose codomain is the power set of X.\n\nSome consequences that follow immediately from these definitions are:\n f(A1\u00a0\u222a\u00a0A2)\u00a0= f(A1)\u00a0\u222a\u00a0f(A2).\n f(A1\u00a0\u2229\u00a0A2)\u00a0\u2286 f(A1)\u00a0\u2229\u00a0f(A2).\n f\u00a0\u22121(B1\u00a0\u222a\u00a0B2)\u00a0= f\u00a0\u22121(B1)\u00a0\u222a\u00a0f\u00a0\u22121(B2).\n f\u00a0\u22121(B1\u00a0\u2229\u00a0B2)\u00a0= f\u00a0\u22121(B1)\u00a0\u2229\u00a0f\u00a0\u22121(B2).\n f(f\u00a0\u22121(B))\u00a0\u2286\u00a0B.\n f\u00a0\u22121(f(A))\u00a0\u2287\u00a0A.\n\nThese are valid for arbitrary subsets A, A1 and A2 of the domain and arbitrary subsets B, B1 and B2 of the codomain.\nThe results relating images and preimages to the algebra of intersection and union work for any collections of subsets, not just for pairs of subsets.\n\n Graph of a function \n\nThe graph of a function f is the set of all ordered pairs(x, f(x)), for all x in the domain X. There are th\u00e9orems formulated or proved most \u00e9asily in terms of the graph, such as the closed graph theorem.\n\nIf X and Y are r\u00e9al lines, then this definition coincides with the familiar sense of graph. Below is the graph of a cubic function:\n\nThis function is surjective but not injective.\n\nNote that since a relation on the two sets X and Y is usually formalized as a subset of X\u00d7Y, the formal definition of function actually identifies the function f with its graph.\n\n Conto fungsi \n\n(More can be found at List of functions.)\n\n The relation wght between persons in the United States and their weights at a particular time.\n The relation between nations and their capitals, if we exclude those nations that maintain multiple capitals .\n The relation sqr between natural numbers n and their squares n2.\n The relation ln between positive real numbers x and their natural logarithms ln(x). Note that the relation between r\u00e9al numbers and their natural logarithms is not a function because not every r\u00e9al number has a natural logarithm; that is, this relation is not total.\n The relation dist between points in the plane R2 and their distances from the origin (0,0).\n The relation grav between a point in the punctured plane R2\u00a0\\ {(0,0)} and the vector describing the gravitational force that a certain mass at that point would experience from a certain other mass at the origin (0,0).\n\nMost commonly used types of mathematical functions involving addition, division, exponents, logarithms, multiplication, polynomials, radicals, rationals, subtraction, and trigonometric expressions. They are sometimes collectively referred as elementary functions -- but the m\u00e9aning of this term varies among different branches of mathematics. Example of non-elementary functions (or special functions) are Bessel functions sarta fungsi gamma.\n\n n-ary function: function of several variables \n\nFunctions in applications are often functions of several variables: the values they take depend on a number of different factors. From a mathematical point of view all the variables must be made explicit in order to have a functional relationship - no 'hidden' factors are allowed. Then again, from the mathematical point of view, there is no qualitative difference between functions of one and of several variables. A function of three r\u00e9al variables is just a function that applies to triples of r\u00e9al numbers. The following paragraph says this in more formal language.\n\nIf the domain of a function is a subset of the Cartesian product of n sets then the function is called an n-ary function.\nFor example, the relation dist has the domain R\u00a0\u00d7\u00a0R and is therefore a binary function.\nIn that case dist((x,y)) is simply written as dist(x,y).\n\nAnother name applied to some types of functions of several variables is operation. In abstract algebra, operators such as \"*\" are defined as binary functions; when we write a formula such as x*y in this context, we are implicitly invoking the function *(x,y), but writing it in a convenient infix notation.\n\nAn important th\u00e9oretical paradigm, functional programming, takes the function concept as central. In that setting, the handling of functions of several variables becomes an operational matter, for which the lambda calculus provides the basic syntax. The composition of functions (see under composing functions immediately below) becomes a question of explicit forms of substitution, as used in the substitution rule of calculus. In particular, a formalism called currying can be used to reduce n-ary functions to functions of a single variable.\n\n Composing functions \n\nThe functions f:\u00a0X\u00a0\u2192\u00a0Y and g:\u00a0Y\u00a0\u2192\u00a0Z can be composed by first applying f to an argument x and then applying g to the result.\nThus one obtains a function g\u00a0o\u00a0f: X\u00a0\u2192\u00a0Z defined by (g\u00a0o\u00a0f)(x)\u00a0:= g(f(x)) for all x in X.\nAs an example, suppose that an airplane's height at time t is given by the function h(t) and that the oxygen concentration at height x is given by the function c(x).\nThen (c\u00a0o\u00a0h)(t) describes the oxygen concentration around the plane at time t.\n\nIn the mid-20th century, some mathematicians decided that writing \"gof\" to m\u00e9an \"first apply f, then apply g\" was too confusing and decided to change notations. They wrote \"xf\" for \"f(x)\" and \"xfg\" for \"g(f(x))\". However, this movement never caught on, and nowadays this notation is found only in old books.\n\nThe functions g and f are commutative if g\u00a0o\u00a0f=f\u00a0o\u00a0g.\nIf\nY\u2282X\nthen \nf may compose with itself; this\nis sometimes denoted f\u00a02. (Do not confuse it with the notation\ncommonly seen in \ntrigonometry.) \nThe functional powersf of\u00a0n \n=\u00a0f\u00a0n o f\n=\u00a0f\u00a0n+1\nfor\nnatural \nn\nfollow immediately. This is a generalized version of the common f\u22121 for an inverse function. On their heels comes the id\u00e9a of functional root;\ngiven f and n, find a g such that\ngn=f. \n(Richard Feynman \nillustrated practical use of functional roots in one of his anecdotal books.\n<which?>\nTasked with building an \nanalogue\narctan \ncomputer and finding its parts overstressed, he inst\u00e9ad designed a machine for a functional root <fifth?> of arctan and chained enough copies to mak\u00e9 the arctan machine.)\n\n Inverse function \nIf a function f:X\u2192Y is bijective then preimages of any element y in the codomain Y is a singleton. A function taking y\u2208Y to its preimage f\u22121(y) is a well-defined function called the inverse of f and is denoted by f\u22121.\n\nAn example of an inverse function, for f(x) = 2x, is f(x)\u22121 = x\/2. The inverse function is the function that \"undoes\" its original. See also inverse image.\n\nInverses are sometimes difficult or impossible to find. Consider f(x) = x2. The function f(x) = \u221ax is not an inverse when the domain of f is R. (As -22 is 4, but \u221a4 is either 2 or -2).\n\n Restrictions and extensions \nSuppose that  is a subset of  and that\n\nis a function. Let\n\nbe the inclusion function\n\nfor x \u2208 X.\n\nThe restriction of  to  is then the function . Intuitively, this is the same function as  except that we restrict the domain of  to .\n\nAn extension of a function  is a function  defined on a superset  of  such that . Provided the domain of  is not the universal set,  always has lots of extensions.\n\n Pointwise operations \n\nIf f:\u00a0X\u00a0\u2192\u00a0R and g:\u00a0X\u00a0\u2192\u00a0R are functions with common domain X and codomain is a ring R, then one can define the sum function f\u00a0+\u00a0g: X\u00a0\u2192\u00a0R and the product function f\u00a0\u00d7\u00a0g: X\u00a0\u2192\u00a0R as follows:\n(f\u00a0+\u00a0g)(x)\u00a0:= f(x)\u00a0+\u00a0g(x);\n(f\u00a0\u00d7\u00a0g)(x)\u00a0:= f(x)\u00a0\u00d7\u00a0g(x);\nfor all x in X.\n\nThis turns the set of all such functions into a ring. The binary operations in that ring have as domain ordered pairs of functions, and as codomain functions. This is an example of climbing up in abstraction, to functions of more complex types.\n\nBy taking some other algebraic structure A in the place of R''', we can turn the set of all functions from X to A into an algebraic structure of the same type in an analogous way.\n\n Computable and non-computable functions \n\nThe number of computable functions from integers to integers is countable, because the number of possible algorithms is. The number of all functions from integers to integers is higher: the same as the cardinality of the real numbers. This argument shows that there are functions from integers to integers that are not computable. For examples of noncomputable functions, see the articles on the halting problem and Rice's theorem.\n\n Functions from the categorical viewpoint \n\nIn the context of category theory, a function no longer represents a rule for taking an input to an output, but inst\u00e9ad represents a relationship between its domain and its codomain. Since these functions are no longer functions in the usual sense, they are usually referred to as morphisms. A morphism is then an ordered triple (X, Y, f), where f is a \"function\" with domain X and codomain Y. Since X and Y'' do not necessarily correspond to a set of objects, however, morphisms do not always behave like functions, and, for example, enlarging the codomain (which does nothing to a function) gives a different morphism which you cannot identify with the original one.\n\nOrdinary functions are sometimes referred to as morphisms when they are morphisms in a concrete category.\n\nReferences \n Visual Calculus by Lawrence S. Husch, University of Tennessee (2001)\n\nExternal links \n http:\/\/functions.wolfram.com, a compendium of formulae for and visualizations of mathematical functions\n xFunctions is a versatile Java applet for exploring functions graphically. It can be used on line or downloaded for use off line.\n\nSet theory","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":140,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":1227,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fungsi%20%28matematika%29","title":"Fungsi (matematika)","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A nose is a body part which allows animals to smell things. The nose also helps animals breathe. It has parts that make it work and send messages to the brain. The nose's parts include smell receptors and nerve connectors to receptors. In humans, the nose is on the front of the face. The power of the nose varies for animals. For example, dogs have a stronger sense of smell than humans do. It is part of the respiratory system which is the system in animals that help them to breathe. Your nose is very powerful and can remember up to 50,000 different scents. \n\nThe nose is important to health. It filters the air breathed in, removing dust, germs, and irritants. It warms and moistens the air to keep the lungs and tubes that lead to them from drying out. The nose also contains nerve cells that help the sense of smell. When there is a problem with the nose, the whole body can suffer. For example, the stuffy nose of the\u00a0common cold\u00a0can make it hard to breathe, sleep, or get comfortable.\n\nMany problems besides the common cold can affect the nose. They include\n Deviated septum - a shifting of the wall that divides the nasal cavity into halves\n Nasal polyps - soft growths that develop on the lining of the nose or sinuses\n Nosebleeds\n Rhinitis - inflammation of the nose and sinuses sometimes caused by allergies. The main symptom is a runny nose.\n Nasal fractures, also known as a broken nose\n\nRelated pages\n Nose-picking\n\nBasic English 850 words\nAnatomy of the respiratory system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2}},"id":9585,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nose","title":"Nose","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Coal mining is the process of getting coal out of the ground. It is part of the mining industry. Coal is used as a resource for making electricity.\n\nExtraction\nSurface mining is done when the coal is near the surface. Coal miners remove the soil above the coal.  The coal can then be removed without the coal miners having to go deep underground..\n\nUnderground mining is when the coal is farther underground, making it too expensive to remove soil. In this process, coal miners and all of the coal mining equipment are brought deep underground and coal is carried up out of the ground. This is especially dangerous because of fires, explosions, and poison gas in coal mines.\n\nProcessing\n\nBefore coal can be used, it must be processed in a coal processing plant. It is made smaller using a sizer and crusher. Parts that might be harmful to any equipment which will use the coal later on, such as the screening for metallic parts inside the mined coal.\n\nDelivery\nCoal is delivered to customers in several ways. Trucks, conveyors, trains and ships transport coal to be used in factories and power plants.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":427278,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coal%20mining","title":"Coal mining","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A demonym or gentilic is a word used for people or the inhabitants of a place. The name of a people's language is usually the same as this word, for example, the \"English\" (language or people). Some places may not have a word for the people that live there.\n\nSuffix demonyms \nThe English language has many ways to create demonyms. The most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location's name. These may use Latin, Semitic or Germanic suffixes, such as:\n -an (America \u2192 American, Rome \u2192 Roman)\n -ian (Paris \u2192 Parisian, Russia \u2192 Russian, India \u2192 Indian, Canada \u2192 Canadian)\n -ine (Florence \u2192 Florentine, Argentina \u2192 Argentine)\n -ite (Vancouver \u2192 Vancouverite, Moscow \u2192 Muscovite) (mostly cities)\n -er (New Zealand \u2192 New Zealander, London \u2192 Londoner) (mostly cities)\n -eno (Los Angeles \u2192 Angeleno or Los Angeleno, uses the Spanish e\u00f1o suffix for demonyms)\n -ish (Spain \u2192 Spanish, Denmark \u2192 Danish) (mostly countries)\n \"-ish\" is usually used as an adjective. Many common \"-ish\" forms have different demonyms. (Spain\/Spanish\/Spaniard; Denmark\/Danish\/Dane; Judea\/Jewish\/Jew or Judean; Poland\/Polish\/Pole)\n -ese (Taiwan \u2192 Taiwanese, Vienna \u2192 Viennese, Tyrol \u2192 Tyrolese, Vietnam \u2192 Vietnamese, Japan \u2192 Japanese)\n \"-ese\" is usually only proper as an adjective, or to refer to the entire group of people. For example, \"The Chinese\" means all people from China.\n -i (Iraq \u2192 Iraqi, Bengal \u2192 Bengali) (mostly Middle Eastern and South Asian places)\n -ic (Hispania \u2192 Hispanic)\n \"-ic\" is mostly used as an adjective to refer to an ethnic or linguistic group, for example Hispanic vs. Spanish\n -iote (Cyprus \u2192 Cypriote, Phanar \u2192 Phanariote), especially for Greek locations.\n\nIrregular forms \nIn many cases, both the location's name and the demonym are created by using a suffix, for example England and English and Englishman. This is not always true, for example, France \u2192 French; Philippines \u2192 Filipino or Pilipino.\n\nIn a few cases, the name of the country is not at all related to the name of the people (Netherlands \u2192 Dutch). This is usually because the two words come from different languages. The demonyms in federal states or autonomous region can also differ in this way. For example, people in Khatumo State are often called reer darawiish. That's because the dominant tribe Dhulbahante used to be anti-colonial dervishes.Reer DarawiishDemonyms can be nouns or adjectives. In many cases the noun and adjective forms are the same (Canadian\/Canadian); in other cases they are different (Spaniard\/Spanish).\n\nIn the case of Canadian provinces and territories and U.S. states, demonyms are not usually used as adjectives.\n\n Cultural problems \nSome peoples, mainly cultures that were taken over by European colonists, have no demonym. They may also have a demonym that is the same as the name of their nation. Examples include Iroquois, Aztec, M\u0101ori, and Czech. Often, the native languages of these people have forms that did not get used in English. In Czech, for example, the language is \u010ce\u0161tina, the nation is \u010cesko or \u010cesk\u00e1 republika, and the people are \u010ce\u0161i.\n\nThe demonym for people of the United States of America has a similar problem. \"American\" can mean either someone from the United States, or someone from any part of American region or the two American continents (North America and South America). United Statian is not frequently used in English, but it exists. It is commonly used in Spanish (estadounidense) and widely used in Latin American Spanish. French (\u00e9tatsunien(ne)) exists but is rarely used, Portuguese (estado-unidense or estadunidense) but it is not as commonly used, Italian (statunitense) exists but is rarely used, and also in Interlingua (statounitese). In Esperanto the country is Usono and the demonym is Usonano, avoiding confusion with Amerikano. US American (for the noun) and US-American can be used but is not widely used in German (US-Amerikaner'').\n\nReferences\n\nWords","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":134,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2}},"id":54185,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Demonym","title":"Demonym","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Kyoto () is a city in Japan. This city was the capital of Japan from 794 until 1868.\n\nKyoto is a major city in the Kansai region of Japan. Its population is 1.5 million people. The city of Kyoto is the capital city of the prefecture of Kyoto. Kyoto is one of the cultural, educational, and technology centers of Japan. In it are many universities including Kyoto University, the second oldest national university of Japan.\n\nHistory\nAfter 794, the Japanese emperors lived in this city which was called Heian-ky\u014d.\n\nIn 1868, the city was called Saiky\u014d (\"Western capital\") in order to distinguish it from Edo (Tokyo) which was the \"Eastern capital\".\n\nGeography\nThere are mountains around the city on the east, north, and west sides. Some people in Kyoto believe that these mountains make Kyoto's summer especially hot and humid, and Kyoto's winter very cold.\n\nWe can see many temples and shrines built in traditional Japanese architectural styles here. Some of those buildings are registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. On the other hand, since Kyoto was one of biggest and richest Japanese cities in the middle of the 19th century; the citizens were eager to import European style, and there are many European style buildings in the center of Kyoto for company offices and schools.\n\nKyoto is one of oldest cities in Japan. Many tourists from all over the world come to Kyoto. Japanese people often come to Kyoto in the spring to see the cherry blossoms, and in the autumn to see the leaves change color.\n\nTraditional Kyoto food often uses vegetables. McDonald's signboards in Kyoto are brown to preserve the traditional surroundings.\n\nThe oldest novel in the world, Shikibu Murasaki's The Tale of Genji is set in Kyoto during the Heian Period.\n\nKyoto is famous for three festivals: Gion festival, Aoi festival in the summer, and Jidai festival in the autumn.\n\nRelated pages \n Kyoto Protocol\n Tokyo\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n \nFormer capitals of Japan","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":4470,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kyoto","title":"Kyoto","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A staff (or stave) is the name given to the five horizontal lines on which we can write music. Musical notes can be placed either on a line (i.e. with a line going through the middle of the note head) or in a space.  There are four inside spaces as well as the two outer spaces at the top or bottom.\n\nThe higher the pitch of the note the higher it will be on the staff. Taking the white notes of a keyboard: each note (A, B, C, D etc.) is placed higher on the stave (line, space, line, space etc.).  A clef is needed to show which notes they are. There are different clefs to suit high, medium or low instruments.\n\nThis musical example shows the opening of Symphony no 5 by Beethoven.  The first three notes are on the second line (counting from the bottom).  They are Gs, because there is a treble clef at the beginning of the staff.  The fourth note is a little lower: on the bottom line, the E line (because of the flats in the key signature it is an E flat).  The next note is between the other two in pitch (an F). After the three Fs comes a D in the outside bottom space.\n\nSometimes composers have used staves with fewer or more than 5 lines, but the five-line staff started to become the usual one in Western music in the 13th century.\n\nWhen notes are a little too high or low to put on the stave, extension lines are used.  These are called ledger lines.  \n\nIf two or more staves are being played at the same time the staves are joined on the left by a bracket which is called a brace.  Piano music, for example, is written on two staves: one for the right hand and one for the left.\n\nInstruments that only play a rhythm (such as the cymbals), do not need a stave.  The notes can be written just on one line. The beats are crosses. It's modern notation started from the Catholic Church.\n\nReferences \n\nMusical notation\n\nfi:Nuottikirjoitus#Nuottiviivasto","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":219,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2022-05":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":5,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":4,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":4,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":4}},"id":46976,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Staff%20%28music%29","title":"Staff (music)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The National League (or NL) is one of the two leagues that make up Major League Baseball (MLB). As of 2016, the NL has 15 teams. At the end of each season, five of these teams go to the \"post-season\" where one will win the National League championship. The champions of the National League plays against the champions of the American League in the World Series. The team that wins the World Series is the champion of Major League Baseball.\n\nDifferences\nThe only big difference between the National League and the American League (AL) was that the AL used the \"Designated Hitter\" (or DH). The Designated Hitter is a player who does not play in the field, but is used to bat for the pitcher. The NL did not use the Designated Hitter, and all players on the team must bat and field for themselves. This was changed following the new CBA signed in 2022.\n\nRelated pages\nAmerican League","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":48765,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National%20League","title":"National League","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter (UART ) is a computer hardware device for asynchronous serial communication in which the data format and transmission speeds are configurable. It sends data bits one by one, from the least significant to the most significant, framed by start and stop bits so that precise timing is handled by the communication channel. The electric signaling levels are handled by a driver circuit external to the UART. Common signal levels are RS-232, RS-485, and raw TTL for short debugging links. Early teletypewriters used current loops.\n\nIt was one of the earliest computer communication devices, used to attach teletypewriters for an operator console. It was also an early hardware system for the Internet.\n\nA UART is usually an individual (or part of an) integrated circuit (IC) used for serial communications over a computer or peripheral device serial port. One or more UART peripherals are commonly integrated in microcontroller chips. Specialised UARTs are used for automobiles, smart cards and SIMs.\n\nA related device, the universal synchronous and asynchronous receiver-transmitter (USART) also supports synchronous operation.\n\nTransmitting and receiving serial data\n\nA UART contains those following components:\n\n a clock generator, usually a multiple of the bit rate to allow sampling in the middle of a bit period\n input and output shift registers, along with the transmit\/receive or FIFO buffers\n transmit\/receive control\n read\/write control logic\n\nThe universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter (UART) takes bytes of data and transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion. At the destination, a second UART re-assembles the bits into complete bytes. Each UART contains a shift register, which is the fundamental method of conversion between serial and parallel forms. Serial transmission of digital information (bits) through a single wire or other medium is less costly than parallel transmission through multiple wires.\n\nThe UART usually does not directly generate or receive the external signals used between different items of equipment. Separate interface devices are used to convert the logic level signals of the UART to and from the external signaling levels, which may be standardized voltage levels, current levels, or other signals.\n\nCommunication may be 3 modes:\n simplex (in one direction only, with no provision for the receiving device to send information back to the transmitting device)\n full duplex (both devices send and receive at the same time)\n half duplex (devices take turns transmitting and receiving)\n\nFor UART to work the following settings need to be the same on both the transmitting and receiving side:\n\n Voltage level\n Baud Rate\n Parity bit \n Data bits size\n Stop bits size \n Flow Control\n\nFor the voltage level, 2 UART modules work well when they both have the same voltage level, e.g 3V-3V between the 2 UART modules. To use 2 UART modules at different voltage levels, a level switch circuit needs to be added externally.\n\nData framing \n\nA UART frame consists of 5 elements:\n Idle (logic high (1)) \n Start bit (logic low (0))\n Data bits\n Parity bit \n Stop (logic high (1))\n\nIn the most common settings of 8 data bits, no parity and 1 stop bit (aka 8N1), the protocol efficiency is 80%. For comparison, Ethernet's protocol efficiency when using maximum throughput frames with payload of 1500 bytes is up to 95% and up to 99% with 9000 byte jumbo frames. However due to Ethernet's protocol overhead and minimum payload size of 42 bytes, if small messages of one or a few bytes are to be sent, Ethernet's protocol efficiency drops much lower than the UART's 8N1 constant efficiency of 80%.\n\nThe idle, no data state is high-voltage, or powered. This is a historic legacy from telegraphy, in which the line is held high to show that the line and transmitter are not damaged.\n\nEach character is framed as a logic low start bit, data bits, possibly a parity bit and one or more stop bits. In most applications the least significant data bit (the one on the left in this diagram) is transmitted first, but there are exceptions (such as the IBM 2741 printing terminal).\n\nStart bit \nThe start bit signals to the receiver that a new character is coming.\n\nData bit \nThe next five to nine bits, depending on the code set employed, represent the character.\n\nParity bit \nIf a parity bit is used, it would be placed after all of the data bits.\n\nThe parity bit is a way for the receiving UART to tell if any data has changed during transmission.\n\nStop bit \nThe next one or two bits are always in the mark (logic high, i.e., '1') condition and called the stop bit(s). They signal to the receiver that the character is complete. Since the start bit is logic low (0) and the stop bit is logic high (1) there are always at least two guaranteed signal changes between characters.\n\nIf the line is held in the logic low condition for longer than a character time, this is a break condition that can be detected by the UART.\n\nReceiver\nAll operations of the UART hardware are controlled by an internal clock signal which runs at a multiple of the data rate, typically 8 or 16 times the bit rate. The receiver tests the state of the incoming signal on each clock pulse, looking for the beginning of the start bit. If the apparent start bit lasts at least one-half of the bit time, it is valid and signals the start of a new character. If not, it is considered a spurious pulse and is ignored. After waiting a further bit time, the state of the line is again sampled and the resulting level clocked into a shift register. After the required number of bit periods for the character length (5 to 8 bits, typically) have elapsed, the contents of the shift register are made available (in parallel fashion) to the receiving system. The UART will set a flag indicating new data is available, and may also generate a processor interrupt to request that the host processor transfers the received data.\n\nCommunicating UARTs have no shared timing system apart from the communication signal. Typically, UARTs resynchronize their internal clocks on each change of the data line that is not considered a spurious pulse. Obtaining timing information in this manner, they reliably receive when the transmitter is sending at a slightly different speed than it should. Simplistic UARTs do not do this; instead they resynchronize on the falling edge of the start bit only, and then read the center of each expected data bit, and this system works if the broadcast data rate is accurate enough to allow the stop bits to be sampled reliably.\n\nIt is a standard feature for a UART to store the most recent character while receiving the next. This \"double buffering\" gives a receiving computer an entire character transmission time to fetch a received character. Many UARTs have a small first-in, first-out (FIFO) buffer memory between the receiver shift register and the host system interface. This allows the host processor even more time to handle an interrupt from the UART and prevents loss of received data at high rates.\n\nTransmitter\nTransmission operation is simpler as the timing does not have to be determined from the line state, nor is it bound to any fixed timing intervals. As soon as the sending system deposits a character in the shift register (after completion of the previous character), the UART generates a start bit, shifts the required number of data bits out to the line, generates and sends the parity bit (if used), and sends the stop bits. Since full-duplex operation requires characters to be sent and received at the same time, UARTs use two different shift registers for transmitted and received characters. High performance UARTs could contain a transmit FIFO (first in first out) buffer to allow a CPU or DMA controller to deposit multiple characters in a burst into the FIFO rather than have to deposit one character at a time into the shift register. Since transmission of a single or multiple characters may take a long time relative to CPU speeds, a UART maintains a flag showing busy status so that the host system knows if there is at least one character in the transmit buffer or shift register; \"ready for next character(s)\" may also be signaled with an interrupt.\n\nApplication\nTransmitting and receiving UARTs must be set for the same bit speed, character length, parity, and stop bits for proper operation. The receiving UART may detect some mismatched settings and set a \"framing error\" flag bit for the host system; in exceptional cases, the receiving UART will produce an erratic stream of mutilated characters and transfer them to the host system.\n\nTypical serial ports used with personal computers connected to modems use eight data bits, no parity, and one stop bit; for this configuration, the number of ASCII characters per second equals the bit rate divided by 10.\n\nSome very low-cost home computers or embedded systems dispense with a UART and use the CPU to sample the state of an input port or directly manipulate an output port for data transmission. While very CPU-intensive (since the CPU timing is critical), the UART chip can thus be omitted, saving money and space. The technique is known as bit-banging.\n\nHistory\nSome early telegraph schemes used variable-length pulses (as in Morse code) and rotating clockwork mechanisms to transmit alphabetic characters. The first serial communication devices (with fixed-length pulses) were rotating mechanical switches (commutators). Various character codes using 5, 6, 7, or 8 data bits became common in teleprinters and later as computer peripherals. The teletypewriter made an excellent general-purpose I\/O device for a small computer.\n\nGordon Bell of DEC designed the first UART, occupying an entire circuit board called a line unit, for the PDP series of computers beginning with the PDP-1.\nAccording to Bell, the main innovation of the UART was its use of sampling to convert the signal into the digital domain, allowing more reliable timing than previous circuits that used analog timing devices with manually adjusted potentiometers. To reduce the cost of wiring, backplane and other components, these computers also pioneered flow control using XON and XOFF characters rather than hardware wires.\n\nDEC condensed the line unit design into an early single-chip UART for their own use. Western Digital developed this into the first widely available single-chip UART, the WD1402A, around 1971. This was an early example of a medium-scale integrated circuit. Another popular chip was the SCN2651 from the Signetics 2650 family.\n\nAn example of an early 1980s UART was the National Semiconductor 8250 used in the original IBM PC's Asynchronous Communications Adapter card. In the 1990s, newer UARTs were developed with on-chip buffers. This allowed higher transmission speed without data loss and without requiring such frequent attention from the computer. For example, the popular National Semiconductor 16550 has a 16-byte FIFO, and spawned many variants, including the 16C550, 16C650, 16C750, and 16C850.\n\nDepending on the manufacturer, different terms are used to identify devices that perform the UART functions. Intel called their 8251 device a \"Programmable Communication Interface\". MOS Technology 6551 was known under the name \"Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter\" (ACIA). The term \"Serial Communications Interface\" (SCI) was first used at Motorola around 1975 to refer to their start-stop asynchronous serial interface device, which others were calling a UART. Zilog manufactured a number of Serial Communication Controllers or SCCs.\n\nStarting in the 2000s, most IBM PC compatible computers removed their external RS-232 COM ports and used USB ports that can send data faster. For users who still need RS-232 serial ports, external USB-to-UART bridges are now commonly used. They combine the hardware cables and a chip to do the USB and UART conversion. Cypress Semiconductor and FTDI are two of the significant commercial suppliers of these chips. Although RS-232 ports are no longer available to users on the outside of most computers, many internal processors and microprocessors have UARTs built into their chips to give hardware designers the ability to interface with other chips or devices that use RS-232 or RS-485 for communication.\n\nSpecial transceiver conditions\n\nOverrun error \nAn overrun error occurs when the receiver cannot process the character that just came in before the next one arrives. Various devices have different amounts of buffer space to hold received characters. The CPU or DMA controller must service the UART in order to remove characters from the input buffer. If the CPU or DMA controller does not service the UART quickly enough and the buffer becomes full, an overrun error will occur, and incoming characters will be lost.\n\nUnderrun error \nAn underrun error occurs when the UART transmitter has completed sending a character and the transmit buffer is empty. In asynchronous modes this is treated as an indication that no data remains to be transmitted, rather than an error, since additional stop bits can be appended. This error indication is commonly found in USARTs, since an underrun is more serious in synchronous systems.\n\nFraming error \nA UART will detect a framing error when it does not see a \"stop\" bit at the expected \"stop\" bit time. As the \"start\" bit is used to identify the beginning of an incoming character, its timing is a reference for the remaining bits. If the data line is not in the expected state (high) when the \"stop\" bit is expected (according to the number of data and parity bits for which the UART is set), the UART will signal a framing error. A \"break\" condition on the line is also signaled as a framing error.\n\nParity error \nA parity error occurs when the parity of the number of one-bits disagrees with that specified by the parity bit. Parity checking is often used for the detection of transmission errors. Use of a parity bit is optional, so this error will only occur if parity-checking has been enabled.\n\nBreak condition \nA break condition occurs when the receiver input is at the \"space\" (logic low, i.e., '0') level for longer than some duration of time, typically, for more than a character time. This is not necessarily an error, but appears to the receiver as a character of all zero-bits with a framing error. \n\nThe term \"break\" derives from current loop signaling, which was the traditional signaling used for teletypewriters. The \"spacing\" condition of a current loop line is indicated by no current flowing, and a very long period of no current flowing is often caused by a break or other fault in the line. Some equipment will deliberately transmit the \"space\" level for longer than a character as an attention signal. When signaling rates are mismatched, no meaningful characters can be sent, but a long \"break\" signal can be a useful way to get the attention of a mismatched receiver to do something (such as resetting itself). Computer systems can use the long \"break\" level as a request to change the signaling rate, to support dial-in access at multiple signaling rates. The DMX512 protocol uses the break condition to signal the start of a new packet.\n\nUART models\nA dual UART, or DUART, combines two UARTs into a single chip. Similarly, a quadruple UART or QUART, combines four UARTs into one package, such as the NXP 28L194. An octal UART or OCTART combines eight UARTs into one package, such as the Exar XR16L788 or the NXP SCC2698.\n\nUART in modems\nModems for personal computers that plug into a motherboard slot must also include the UART function on the card. The original 8250 UART chip shipped with the IBM personal computer had a one character buffer for the receiver and the transmitter each, which meant that communications software performed poorly at speeds above 9600\u00a0bit\/s, especially if operating under a multitasking system or if handling interrupts from disk controllers. High-speed modems used UARTs that were compatible with the original chip but which included additional FIFO buffers, giving software additional time to respond to incoming data.\n\nA look at the performance requirements at high bit rates shows why the 16-, 32-, 64- or 128-byte FIFO is a necessity. The Microsoft specification for a DOS system requires that interrupts not be disabled for more than 1 millisecond at a time. Some hard disk drives and video controllers violate this specification. 9600\u00a0bit\/s will deliver a character approximately every millisecond, so a 1-byte FIFO should be sufficient at this rate on a DOS system which meets the maximum interrupt disable timing. Rates above this may receive a new character before the old one has been fetched, and thus the old character will be lost. This is referred to as an overrun error and results in one or more lost characters.\n\nA 16-byte FIFO allows up to 16 characters to be received before the computer has to service the interrupt. This increases the maximum bit rate the computer can process reliably from 9600 to 153,000\u00a0bit\/s if it has a 1 millisecond interrupt dead time. A 32-byte FIFO increases the maximum rate to over 300,000\u00a0bit\/s. A second benefit to having a FIFO is that the computer only has to service about 8 to 12% as many interrupts, allowing more CPU time for updating the screen, or doing other chores. Thus the computer's responses will improve as well.\n\nEmulation\n\nSince the UART's communication protocol is simple, it can be emulated by bit banging GPIO pins in software on modern microcontrollers (e.g. Arduino or Teensy), in a hardware description language on FPGAs (e.g. Verilog), or on programmable I\/O state machines (e.g. Raspberry Pi Pico's PIO or NXP's FlexIO).\n\nSee also\n Automatic baud rate detection\n Baud\n Bit rate\n Comparison of synchronous and asynchronous signalling\n Crystal oscillator frequencies\n MIDI\n Synchronous serial communication\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n Serial Port Complete: COM Ports, USB Virtual COM Ports, and Ports for Embedded Systems; 2nd Edition; Jan Axelson; Lakeview Research; 380 pages; 2007; .\n Serial Port Complete: Programming and Circuits for RS-232 and RS-485 Links and Networks; 1st Edition; Jan Axelson; Lakeview Research; 306 pages; 1998; .\n Serial port and Microcontrollers: Principles, Circuits, and Source Codes; 1st Edition; Grzegorz Niemirowski; CreateSpace; 414 pages; 2013; .\n Serial Programming (Wikibook).\n\nExternal links\n FreeBSD Serial and UART Tutorial, includes standard signal definitions, history of UART ICs, and pinout for commonly used DB25 connector.\n UART Tutorial for Robotics, contains many practical examples.\n\nData transmission\n\npt:USART","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":152,"dup_dump_count":63,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-24":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":5,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":6,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":7,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":5}},"id":75008,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal%20asynchronous%20receiver-transmitter","title":"Universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Rock and roll is a form of music that developed in the 1950s and 1960s. Rock and roll combines many kinds of music from the United States, such as country music, folk music, gospel music, work, blues and jazz. \n\nRock and roll developed in the early 1950s from a kind of music called rhythm and blues performed by black singers and musicians. At first, this music was popular only with African-Americans. In the later 1950s and in the 1960s, rock and roll became popular across the United States and in Europe.\n\nHistory of rock and roll\n\n1950s: Rockabilly \n\nDuring the early 1950s, the popularity of rhythm and blues music spread. It became very popular among young white people. They listened to this music on radio stations that broadcast across the country late at night. Some teenagers began buying rhythm and blues records as a form of rebellion. \n\nThis music was very different from the music that was popular with most of their parents. The music was exciting, and it had a very strong rhythm and beat. Some of the songs had words which suggested sexual themes. In other cases, the singers made sexually suggestive gestures or movements while they were singing. Some adults strongly objected to rhythm and blues music. They did not think young people should listen to it.\n\nAlan Freed had a radio show in Cleveland, Ohio in the early 1950s. He is said to be the first person to use the expression \"rock and roll\" to describe rhythm and blues music. Alan Freed was one of the first to play rock and roll music on his radio show, and he organized the first rock and roll concert in Cleveland in 1952.\n\nSongs by black performers like Jimmy Hendrix and Little Richard soon became popular with teenagers. These singers recorded their records in the southern city of New Orleans, Louisiana.\n\nSome early rock and roll music was created in the southern United States city of Memphis, Tennessee. In Memphis, a white record producer called Sam Phillips produced records by local black musicians. One day, an eighteen-year-old truck driver came to his studio to record a song for his mother. The young man was Elvis Presley. Phillips produced Presley's first real record in 1954, a song called \"That's All Right.\"\n\nBill Haley and his Comets recorded \"Rock Around the Clock\" in 1954. It was not popular at first. Then it was used in a movie about rebellious teenagers, called \"The Blackboard Jungle\". The movie caused a lot of debate on the origin of rock and roll. It also made the song a huge hit. \"Rock Around the Clock\" became a song of teenage rebellion. The song was recorded in April, Elvis' \"That's All Right\" was recorded in July. However, Cecil's Grant's 'We're Gonna Rock' recorded in mid 1950 is a song that many people have forgotten that was an early influence on rock n roll. Its lyrics and music were like those that would be in later songs. The drums and bass guitar would be similar to rock and roll songs that would be made later. \n\nMany other rock and roll singers became popular in the 1950s. They included Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley. Each performer created his own kind of rock and roll. Chuck Berry's music was a mixture of country and rhythm and blues. In 1955, his song \"Maybellene\" was one of the most popular songs in the country.\n\nRitchie Valens, Buddy Holly, and \"Big Bopper\" all died in a plane crash in Iowa on 3 February 1959, in an event that would become known as The Day the Music Died.\n\nBefore Bill Haley, grant goatbeurry recorded \"Move It On Over\" in 1947, however similar version of the song was recorded by blues artist Jim Jackson called \"Kansas City Blues\". The melody is similar to both \"Move It On\" and \"Rock Around Clock\", but latter has different tonal subtleties and chords.\n\n1960s: From Motown to Folk Rock\n\nMotown: African-American popular music \nIn the 1960s, black music and musicians became recognized as an important part of the music industry in America. This was because a company in Detroit, Michigan, called Motown Records that produced some of the most popular songs in American music. Berry Gordy started Motown Records. He presented \"black\" music in a way that both black people and white people would like. One of Motown's most successful groups was the Supremes, led by Diana Ross. One of their hits was \"Come See About Me\".\n\nSurf music \nA different kind of rock and roll music called surf music was being made in Southern California. Five young men from Los Angeles formed a group called the Beach Boys. Brian Wilson wrote, performed, and produced the group's records. The Beach Boys' songs had complex music and simple words. The words were about the local teenage culture. The group sang about riding surfboards on the ocean waves. One of their most popular songs was \"Surfin' USA,\" which used the same musical track as Chuck Berry's \"Sweet Little Sixteen.\"\n\nFolk rock \nIn the 1960s, rock and roll music began to change. The words became as important as the music. Bob Dylan began writing folk rock songs that many young people considered to be poetry. Dylan was influenced by folk singers and songwriters like Woody Guthrie. Dylan's early songs were about serious social issues. He wrote about war and racial injustice. Some of his songs were used as protest songs for the anti-war and civil rights movements in America. Later, Dylan wrote more personal songs. One of his most popular songs was \"Mister Tambourine Man,\" which many people thought was a song about drug use.\n\nIn 1964, a new rock and roll group from England called The Beatles visited the United States. The Beatles were very popular. They completely shaped the sixties pop era along with the Rolling Stones. They were icons, and still to this day are still considered icons.\n\n1970s: From Psychedelic Rock to Punk and Disco\n\nRock and Psychedelic Rock \nBy the 1970s, rock and roll became \"rock\". In the 1970s, rock bands such as Led Zeppelin, Aerosmith and the Rolling Stones played huge, loud concerts in outdoor stadiums. Rock music from the 1970s was usually louder and harder than the rock and roll from the 1950s.\n\nIn the early 1970s, many rock bands played psychedelic rock, a type of rock music which had words that described the use of legal drugs. Psychedelic rock described the experiences of taking illegal drugs such as marijuana and LSD and often encouraged people to take illegal drugs. Psychedelic rock bands included Big Brother & the Holding Company, Jefferson Airplane, The Grateful Dead, Jimi Hendrix, The Byrds, Pink Floyd, and The Doors.\n\nProgressive rock \nAnother type of rock music from the 1970s was progressive rock. Progressive rock bands such as Pink Floyd and The Moody Blues played music that was more complex. Some progressive rock bands used strange instruments, or created music that sounded weird. \nOther progressive rock bands include: Electric Light Orchestra, Pavlov's Dog, King Crimson, Caravan, Jethro Tull, Genesis, Gentle Giant, The Nice, Yes, Gong, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Soft Machine, Steve Hillage, Barclay James Harvest, Magma, Camel, Can, Rush and Faust.\n\nHeavy metal \nIn the 1970s, a harder form of rock music called \"heavy metal\" was invented. Bands such as Cream and Led Zeppelin played loud rock music based on blues music. Other bands such Deep Purple and Black Sabbath played even louder, harder heavy metal rock music.\n\nDisco \nIn the late 1970s, groups such as Donna Summer, K.C. and the Sunshine Band, Barry White, Gloria Gaynor, and CHIC, developed a pop music style called disco. Disco was dance music with a strong beat. A popular disco band was The Bee Gees, who wrote the music for the movie Saturday Night Fever.\n\nPunk rock \nAnother rock music style from the 1970s was punk rock. Punk rock was crude, loud, simple music. Many punk rock songs were rude or used bad words. Punk rock musicians often dressed in ripped or torn clothes, leather jackets, and black leather boots. Punk rock musicians sometimes had strange hairstyles, such as hair \"spiked\" with hair gel or shaved off. Well-known punk rock bands from Britain were the Sex Pistols and The Clash. Well-known punk musicians in the United States were the Ramones, Patti Smith, Blondie  and Black Flag.\n\nNew wave \nIn the late 1970s, another type of rock called new wave became popular. Bands such as INXS and Midnight Oil from Australia became popular. In the United States, New Wave bands such as Talking Heads and Devo played. In the 1980s, new wave bands such as Duran Duran, A Flock of Seagulls, Psychedelic Furs, and the Eurythmics were popular. These bands used the synthesizer keyboard a lot in their songs.\n\n1980s\n\nGlam metal \nIn the 1980s, a new type of rock music was invented, called glam metal. Glam metal rock bands mixed pop music with heavy metal music. Glam metal bands such as M\u00f6tley Cr\u00fce, W.A.S.P. and Ratt became popular. Glam metal rock bands had long hair and the men wore make up and leather pants and boots. Many glam metal songs were about sex, illegal drug use, and drinking alcohol. In the late 1980s, groups such as Guns N' Roses were very successful.\n\nAlternative music \nAnother rock music trend from the 1980s was alternative music. Bands such as R.E.M., Sonic Youth, The Smiths, Pixies, H\u00fcsker D\u00fc, The Cure, and others were popular with teens and young adults. The most immediate type of alternative music was \"grunge,\" a combination of punk, rock and metal. Proponents of grunge included Nirvana, Alice in Chains, Soundgarden and Pearl Jam with themes of sadness and loneliness.\n\nRelated pages\n Rockabilly, an early form of Rock and Roll from the 1950s\n New wave, a form of pop music from the late 1970s\n Disco, a popular dance music style of music from the 1970s\n Punk rock, a form of rebellious pop music from the late 1970s\n Heavy metal music, a loud, aggressive form of rock from the 1970s and 1980s. It continued in the 1990s and 2000s.\n Hardcore punk, a louder, more aggressive form of punk rock, from the 1980s\n Alternative rock, a pop-rock style from the 1980s\n Grunge, a hard rock style from the 1990s\n Pop-punk, a popular music from the 1990s which blends pop music with punk rock\n Hip-hop, a popular music from the 1990s and 2000s\n\nSources\n\nParts of the above article reused and rewrote public domain material provided by Voice of America Special English website.\n\nOther websites \n\n Visitors to America can learn more at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum in Cleveland, Ohio. Or visit, on the Internet --- http:\/\/www.rockhall.com\/\n\nAfrican-American history\nRock music","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":195,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":4,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":4,"2019-04":4,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":6}},"id":12945,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rock%20and%20roll","title":"Rock and roll","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"R\u00e9union () is an island of France. It is also a region of France and an overseas department of France, meaning France owns the island nation. It is in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar, about 200 km (125 miles) southwest of Mauritius. Its capital is Saint-Denis. The highest point in La Reunion is La piton des neiges. The island is also famous for its black beaches, even though people think that there are white beaches. The island is 63 kilometres (39\u00a0mi) long; 45 kilometres (28\u00a0mi) wide; and covers 2,512 square kilometres (970 sq mi). It is similar to the island Hawaii as both are above hotspots in the Earth's crust.\n\nThe Piton de la Fournaise, a shield volcano on the eastern end of R\u00e9union Island, rises more than 2,631 metres (8,632\u00a0ft) above sea level and is sometimes called a sister to Hawaiian volcanoes because of the similarity of climate and volcanic nature. It has erupted more than 100 times since 1640 and is under constant monitoring. It most recently erupted on 2 January 2010. Before that, the most noticeable was during April 2007, when the lava flow was estimated at 3,000,000 cubic metres (3,900,000 cu yd) per day.  The Piton de la Fournaise is created by a hotspot volcano, which also created the Piton des Neiges and the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues.\n\nThe Piton des Neiges volcano, the highest point on the island at 3,070 metres (10,070\u00a0ft) above sea level, is northwest of the Piton de la Fournaise. Collapsed calderas and canyons are southwest of the mountain. Like Kohala on the Big Island of Hawaii, the Piton des Neiges is an extinct volcano. Despite its name, snow (French: neige) practically never falls on the summit.\n\nOther websites \n Facts about Reunion \n Pictures of Reunion Island","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":19304,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R%C3%A9union","title":"R\u00e9union","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Felix von Weingartner (born 2 June 1863; died Winterthur, 7 May 1942) was an Austrian conductor, composer and pianist. He is remembered today mainly as a conductor, but he also composed many works.\n\nLife \nWeingartner was born in Zara, Dalmatia, which today is called Zadar in Croatia. His parents were Austrian. They were from a noble family. Felix had the title Edler von M\u00fcnzberg. The family moved to Graz in 1868. His father died that same year. In 1881 he went to Leipzig to study philosophy, but soon spent all his time on music. He started his studies at the Conservatory in 1883. At the same time he studied with the great composer and pianist Franz Liszt in Weimar. Liszt helped him to get his first opera performed. In the same year, 1884, he became the director of the K\u00f6nigsberg Opera. He got conducting jobs in Danzig, then in Hamburg and in Mannheim. From 1891 he was Kapellmeister of the Royal Opera and conductor of symphony concerts in Berlin. Then he gave up that job and went to live in Munich.\n\nIn 1902, at the Festival of Mainz, Weingartner conducted all the symphonies of Beethoven. He was becoming famous in Europe as well as in the USA and in South America. From 1908 to 1911 he was the main conductor of the Vienna Hofoper, following on from Gustav Mahler. He kept the job of conductor of the Vienna Philharmonic until 1927. From 1912 he was again Kapellmeister in Hamburg, but in 1914 he went to Darmstadt. In 1919-20 he was conductor of the Vienna Volksoper. In 1920 he was Professor of the Franz Liszt Academy in Budapest. From 1927 to 1934 he was conductor of the Sinfonieorchester Basel. He gave his last concert in London in 1940 and died in Winterthur, Switzerland two years later.\n\nWeingartner was married five times.\n\nHis reputation \nWeingartner thought of himself as a composer just as much as a conductor. However, it is as a conductor that he is remembered today. His compositions are hardly ever played now. He composed in a late-Romantic style, and he was an influence on the composer Erich Korngold. He is best remembered today as one of the great conductors of classical music, who conducted in a precise way without exaggerated effects. He wrote books about music including one about conducting.\n\nReferences \nNew Groves Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980. \n\n1863 births\n1942 deaths\n20th-century composers\nAustrian pianists\nAustrian composers\nAustrian conductors\nRomantic composers\nAustrian nobility","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":177844,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Felix%20Weingartner","title":"Felix Weingartner","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Headquarters is a name given to the main building of an organization where most of its functions are done. All large companies have headquarters which control the business. A large non-governmental organization also has a headquarter from where its activities are controlled. The term is also used regarding military organizations.\n\nAdministrative buildings","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":131,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":58357,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Headquarters","title":"Headquarters","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bogomilism (Bulgarian: ; Macedonian: ; ) was a Christian neo-Gnostic or dualist sect founded in the First Bulgarian Empire by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Peter I in the 10th century. It most probably arose in the region of Kutmichevitsa, today part of the region of Macedonia.\n\nThe Bogomils called for a return to what they considered to be early spiritual teaching, rejecting the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Their primary political tendencies were resistance to the state and church authorities. This helped the movement spread quickly in the Balkans, gradually expanding throughout the Byzantine Empire and later reaching Kievan Rus', Bosnia (Bosnian Church), Dalmatia, Serbia, Italy, and France (Cathars).\n\nThe Bogomils were dualists or Gnostics in that they believed in a world within the body and a world outside the body. They did not use the Christian cross, nor build churches, as they revered their gifted form and considered their body to be the temple. This gave rise to many forms of practice to cleanse oneself through purging, fasting, celebrating and dancing.\n\nEtymology \nThe term Bogomil in free translation means \"dear to God\", and is a compound of the Slavic words for \"god\" (Common Slavic: *bog\u044a) and \"dear\" (Common Slavic: *mil\u044a). It may be also a translation of the Greek name Theophilos, literally \"dear to God; loved by the gods,\" from theos \"god\" + philos \"loved, beloved\". It is difficult to ascertain whether the name was taken from the reputed founder of that movement, the priest Bogomil, or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the sect itself. The word is an Old Church Slavonic calque of Massaliani, the Syriac name of the sect corresponding to the Greek Euchites. The Bogomils are identified with the Messalians in Greek and Slavonic documents from the 12th-14th centuries.\n\nThe members are referred to as Babuni in Church Slavonic documents, which originally meant \"superstition; superstitious person\" (Common Slavic: *babon\u044a, *babun\u044a *babona). Toponyms which retain the name include the river Babuna, the mountain Babuna, the Bogomila Waterfall and village Bogomila, all in the region of Azot, today in central North Macedonia, suggesting that the movement was very active in the region.\n\nSources\n\nMuch of their literature has been lost or destroyed by the contemporary Christian Churches. The earliest description of the Bogomils is in a letter from Patriarch Theophylact of Bulgaria to Peter I of Bulgaria. The main source of doctrinal information is the work of Euthymius Zigabenus, who says that they believe that God created man's soul but matter was the invention of Satan, God's older son, who in seducing Eve lost his creative power. Concerning the Bogomils, something can be gathered from the polemic Against the Newly-Appeared Heresy of the Bogomils written in Slavonic by Cosmas the Priest, a 10th-century Bulgarian official. The old Slavonic lists of forbidden books of the 15th and 16th century also give us a clue to the discovery of this heretical literature and of the means the Bogomils employed to carry on their teachings. Much may also be learned from the doctrines of the numerous variations of Bogomilism which spread in Medieval Kievan Rus' after the 11th century.\n\nHistory\n\nPaulicians\n\nOne of the earliest Christian dualist sects, Marcionism, originated in Armenia (in the eastern part of present Turkey). The church Marcion himself established appeared to die out around the 5th century, although similarities between Marcionism and Paulicianism, a sect in the same geographical area, indicate that Marcionist elements may have survived. Paulicianism began in the mid-7th century, when Constantine of Mananalis, basing his message solely on his personal interpretation of the New Testament, began to teach that there were two gods: a good god who had made men's souls, and an evil god who had created the entire physical universe including the human body. His followers, who became known as Paulicians, were not marked by extreme deviance in lifestyle compared to contemporaries, despite their belief that the world was evil, and were renowned as good fighting men.\n\nHowever, it is not certain that the Paulicians were Dualistic, as in the Key of Truth it is said that: \"The Paulicians are not dualists in any other sense than the New Testament is itself dualistic. Satan is simply the adversary of man and God\".\n\nIn 970 the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes transplanted 200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe and settled them in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis (today's Plovdiv, Bulgaria). Under Byzantine and then later Ottoman rule, the Armenian Paulicians lived in relative safety in their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and further northward. Linguistically, they were assimilated into the Bulgarians, by whom they were called pavlikiani (the Byzantine Greek word for Paulician). In 1650, the Roman Catholic Church gathered them into its fold. Fourteen villages near Nicopolis, in Moesia, embraced Catholicism, as well as the villages around Philippopolis. A colony of Paulicians in the Wallachian village of  near Bucharest also followed the example of their brethren across the Danube.\n\nOrigins\nThe Gnostic social-religious movement and doctrine originated in the time of Peter I of Bulgaria (927\u2013969), alleged in the modern day to be a reaction against state and clerical oppression of the Byzantine church. In spite of all measures of repression, it remained strong and popular until the fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in the end of the 14th century. Bogomilism was an outcome of many factors that had arisen in the beginning of the 10th century, most probably in the region of Macedonia.  It was also strongly influenced by the Paulicians who had been driven out of Armenia.\n\nSpread of Bogomilism in the Balkans \n\nSlav peasantry in parts of Bulgaria were very likely the first to come into in closer contact with Bogomilism and the young Bulgarian church was aware of the danger. Pope Nicholas I warns Boris I of the danger of false teachings but he was not specific about heresy as such. Bogomilism was a native Slavic sect from the middle of the 10th century began to flourish while the Theophylact of Constantinople warned Peter I against this new heresy.\nThe Bogomils spread westwards and settled in Serbia, where they were to be known as Babuns (Babuni). At the end of the 12th century Serbian Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja and the Serbian council deemed Bogomilism a heresy, and expelled them from the country. Large numbers, the majority of whom were of Vlach origin, took refuge in Bosnia and Dalmatia where they were known under the name of Patarenes (Patareni).\n\nIn the time of Samuel, Bogomilism spread into Serbia and Bosnia. The most active area became west Bosnia, centred on the valley of the River Bosna.  In the province of Hum (modern Herzegovina) the Bogomils were also strong, in the cities of Split and Trogir Bogomils were numerous but later they took refuge in Bosnia. \nProviding refuge to those labeled heretics, including Bogomils, was a recurrent pretext for Hungarian rulers to declare crusades against Bosnia and extend their influence in the region. A first Hungarian complaint to the Pope was averted by the public abjuration of the Bosnian ruler Ban Kulin, a close relative of Stefan Nemanja, in 1203. A second Hungarian crusade against Bosnia on the pretext of Bogomil heresy was launched in 1225, but failed. In 1254, rebelling against the Papal order to accept a Hungarian bishop, the Bosnian Church chose the schism. In the following centuries, the Bosnian Church and the heretic sect of the Bogomils came to be identified with each other, due to the scarcity of documents after the Ottoman conquest.\n\nIn 1203, Pope Innocent III, with the aid of the King of Hungary, forced an agreement of Kulin to acknowledge Papal authority and religion, but in practice this was ignored. On the death of Kulin in 1216 a mission was sent to convert Bosnia to Rome but failed. In 1234, the Catholic Bishop of Bosnia was removed by Pope Gregory IX for allowing heretical practices. In addition, Gregory called on the Hungarian king to crusade against the heretics. However, Bosnian nobles were able to expel the Hungarians.\n\nIn 1252, Pope Innocent IV decided to put Bosnia's bishop under the Hungarian Kalocsa jurisdiction. Such decision provoked the schism of the Bosnian Christians, who refused to submit to the Hungarians and broke off their relations with Rome. In that way, an autonomous Bosnian Church came into being, in which some later saw a Bogomil or Cathar Church, while in reality no trace of Bogomilism, Catharism or dualism can be found in the original documents of the Bosnian Christians.\n\nIt was not until Pope Nicholas' Bull \"Prae cunctis\" in 1291 that the Dominican-led inquisition was imposed on Bosnia. The Inquisition reported of the existence of a dualist sect in Bosnia in the late 15th century and called them \"Bosnian heretics\", but this sect was most likely not the same as the Bosnian Church.\n\nBogomilism was eradicated in Bulgaria, Rascia (a Serbian medieval state) and Byzantium in the 13th century, but some smaller elements survived in Rascia's principality of Hum (present day Herzegovina) and Bosnia by embracing eastern tradition of the Bosnian church until the Ottoman Empire gained control of the region in 1463. Some scholars, who sought certain ideological backgrounds and justifications for their political narratives, argue that both Catholics and Orthodox persecuted the Bogomils as heretics and according to them, the pressures drew Bosnia to Bogomilism. It has purportedly been said that, with the introduction of Ottoman rule, Bosnians were often more likely to convert to Islam since some of them were not adherents of either the Roman Catholic or Serb Orthodox churches. However, these claims have been rejected by some as an anachronism from the Austro-Hungarian era. \n\nFrom Bosnia, their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The Hungarians undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but towards the close of the 15th century, the conquest of that country by the Turks put an end to their persecution. Few or no remnants of Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia. The Ritual in Slavonic written by the Bosnian Radoslav, and published in vol. xv. of the Starine of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, shows great resemblance to the Cathar ritual published by Cunitz, 1853.\n\nThere are still over ten thousand Banat Bulgarians in Banat today in the villages of Dude\u015ftii Vechi, Vinga, Bre\u015ftea and also in the city of Timi\u0219oara, with a few in Arad; however, they no longer practice Bogomilism, having converted to Roman Catholicism. There are also a few villages of Paulicians in the Serbian part of Banat, especially the villages of Ivanovo and Belo Blato, near Pan\u010devo.\n\nSocial factors \nThe gradual Christianization of the Bulgarian population, the fact that the service was initially practiced in Greek, which only the elite knew, resulted in a low level of understanding of the religion among the peasantry. Due to the constant wars during the time of Tsar Simeon I, the lands near the Byzantine border (Thrace) were devastated, and the people living there were left without occupation. The constant change of authority over these lands, and the higher taxes during the time of Tsar Peter I, gave birth to a great social discontent at the beginning of the 10th century. Moreover, the corruption of the church as an institution led to grave disappointment among its recently converted flock.\n\nReligious factors \nThe existence of older Christian heresies in the Bulgarian lands (Manichaeism and Paulicianism), which were considered very dualistic, influenced the Bogomil movement. Manichaeism's origin is related to Zoroastrianism; that is why Bogomilism is sometimes indirectly connected to Zoroastrianism in the sense of its duality.\n\nConnections to the royal court \nMost probably, as Samuil of Bulgaria revolted against the Byzantine Empire, he relied on the popular support of the movement. There are no sources of Bogomil persecution during his reign (976\u20131014).\n\nDoctrine \n\nFrom the imperfect and conflicting data that is available, one positive result can be gathered that the Bogomils were gnostics, adoptionists and dualists.\n\nTheir dualism was initially moderate (or \"monarchian\"): according to their teachings, God created and rules the spiritual part of the world, and Satan the material, but Satan is ultimately inferior to God and his side by virtue of being God's son. However, Bogomils were not quite free from the absolute dualism of Manichaeism and Paulicianism, and over time adopted an absolute position too, believing God and Satan as eternal opponents, similar to the one maintained by the posterior Cathars.\n\nTheir adoptionist teaching apparently came from Paul of Samosata (though at a later period the name of Paul was believed to be that of the Apostle). They rejected the Christianity of the Orthodox churches, though did not accept the docetic teaching of some of the other gnostic sects. They also opposed established forms of government and church, alike to later Christian anarchist beliefs.\n\nIn the Bogomil and Cathar text The Secret Supper Jesus calls God his father and it says that Mary received Jesus through the Holy Spirit.\n\nBogomils have been accused of believing that John the Baptist comes from Satan in the Book of Boril. \n\nSupporters of the Baptist successionism theory argue that allegations of Bogomil doctrines are largely false, due to most sources being hostile.\n\nSource texts\nPossible source texts for Bogomil doctrine include:\n\n The Bulgarian priest Jeremiah's \"The Story of the Cross-tree\" and \"The Prayer Against Fever\"\n Book of the Secret Supper, which was wrongly described by inquisitors as similar to the Apocryphon of John\n Vision of Isaiah (according to Euthymius Zigabenus)\n\nBogomils accepted the four Gospels, fourteen Epistles of Paul, the three Epistles of John, James, Jude, and an Epistle to the Laodiceans, which they professed to have. They sowed the seeds of a rich, popular religious literature in the East as well as the West. The Historiated Bible, the Letter from Heaven, the Wanderings through Heaven and Hell, the numerous Adam and Cross legends, the religious poems of the \"Kal\u0113ki perehozhie\" and other similar productions owe their dissemination to a large extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their successors in other lands. The Bogomils also made use of many apocryphal writings, such as Apocalypse of Abraham, 2 Enoch, and the Vision of Isaiah.\n\nCosmology \nIn their original Monarchian dualist story, Bogomils taught that God had two sons, the elder Satanail and the younger Michael. Satanail rebelled against the father and became an evil spirit. He created the lower heavens and the Earth and tried in vain to create man, though in the end he had to appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation, Adam was allowed to till the ground on condition that he sold himself and his posterity to the owner of the Earth, Satanail.\n\nIn order to free Adam and his offspring, Michael was sent in the form of a man, becoming identified with Jesus Christ, and was \"elected\" by God after the baptism in the Jordan. When the Holy Ghost appeared in the shape of the dove, Jesus received power to break the covenant in the form of a clay tablet (hierographon) held by Satanail from Adam. He had now become the angel Michael in a human form, and as such he vanquished Satanail, and deprived him of the suffix il (meaning God), in which his power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into Satan. However, through Satan's machinations the crucifixion took place, and Satan was the originator of the whole Orthodox community with its churches, vestments, ceremonies, sacraments and fasts, with its monks and priests. This world being the work of Satan, the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its pleasure, though not so far as asceticism.\n\nThey held the \"Lord's Prayer\" in high respect as the most potent weapon against Satan, and had a number of conjurations against \"evil spirits\". Each community had its own twelve \"apostles\", and women could be raised to the rank of \"elect\". The Bogomils wore garments like those of mendicant friars and were known as enthusiastic missionaries, travelling far and wide to propagate their doctrines. Healing the sick and exorcising evil spirits, they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal literature along with some of the books of the Old Testament, deeply influencing the religious spirit of the nations and preparing them for the Reformation.\n\nChristology and the Trinity \nFor Bogomils \"the Logos was not the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, the Eternal Word incarnate, but merely the spoken word of God, shown in the oral teaching of Christ\". Although Bogomils regarded themselves as \"Trinitarian\", anathemas against Bogomils (circa 1027) charge Bogomils with rejection of the Trinity. In the Bogomil and Cathar text \"The Secret Supper\" the book starts with: \"In the name of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, Amen.\"\n\nOpposition to institutions and materialism \nThe Catholic Church considered Bogomilism a heresy due to the duality in the Bogomil cosmogony, wherein the earthly sinful corporeal life is a creation of Satan, an angel that was sent to Earth.\n\nKarp Strigolnik, who in the 14th century preached the doctrine in Novgorod, explained that St. Paul had taught that simpleminded men should instruct one another; therefore they elected their \"teachers\" from among themselves to be their spiritual guides, and had no special priests. There is a tradition that the Bogomils taught that prayers were to be said in private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches. Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any specially appointed minister. The congregation were the \"elect\", and each member could obtain the perfection of Christ and become a Christ or \"Chlist\". Marriage was not a sacrament. Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays and Fridays, and they rejected monasticism. They declared Christ to be the Son of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the bread and wine of the eucharist were not physically transformed into flesh and blood; that the last judgement would be executed by God and not by Jesus; that the images and the cross were idols and the veneration of saints and relics idolatry.\n\nThese doctrines have survived in the great Russian sects, and can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the Bogomils. But in addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist origin, they held the Manichaean dualistic conception of the origin of the world. This has been partly preserved in some of their literary remains, and has taken deep root in the beliefs and traditions of Balkan nations with substantial Bogomil followings. The chief literature of all the heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of apocryphal Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books \"which no orthodox dare read\". Though these writings are mostly of the same origin as those from the older lists of apocryphal books, they underwent a modification at the hands of their Bogomil editors, so as to be useful for the propagation of their own specific doctrines.\n\nIn its most simple and attractive form\u2014invested with the authority of the reputed holy author\u2014their account of the creation of the world and of man, the origin of sin and redemption, the history of the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and wrong, heaven and hell, were embodied either in \"Historiated Bibles\" (Paleya) or in special dialogues held between Christ and his disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church who expounded these views in a simple manner adapted to the understanding of the people (Lucidaria).\n\nLegacy\n\nLink with later religious movements \nThe Bogomils were the connecting link between both Eastern and Western sects considered heretical. They were also the most active in disseminating \"heretical\" teachings in the Kievan Rus' and other European kingdoms. In the 12th and 13th century, the Bogomils were already known in the West as \"Cathars\" or as \"Bulgari\", i.e. Bulgarians (\u0431\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0438). In 1207 the Bulgarorum heresis is mentioned. In 1223 the, Albigenses are declared to be the local Bougres, and in the same period mention is made of the \"Pope of the Albigenses who resided within the confines of Bulgaria\" (see also Nicetas, Bogomil bishop). Groups such as the Cathars, Patarenes, Waldenses, Anabaptists, and the Russian Strigolniki, and Spiritual Christians, have all, at different times, been either identified with the Bogomils or closely linked with them, despite several being unrelated and\/or non-dualistic.\n\nConsiderable scholarly debate has arisen about the exact relationship between dualist groups that arose in different times and places across medieval Europe, questioning whether it was indeed a single movement or belief system which was spread from one region to the next, or if it was multiple movements which arose independently across Europe. Furthering this confusion is that many medieval sources themselves, such as the 13th century Papal Inquisition in France, would often simply assume that all dualistic groups were directly connected to previous movements, regardless of location.  Inquistors often described 13th century Cathars as a direct outgrowth of surviving Manichean dualists from previous centuries\u2014though by the same logic, Inquisitors who encountered pagan religions on the edges of the Christian world (Such as those encountered in the Baltic Crusades or the missionary efforts in Ireland) would directly accuse non-Christians of worshiping \"Apollo and Mercury\", simply applying previous terms and rhetoric to new contexts in which they didn't accurately apply. Thus medieval scholarship is divided over whether the \"Cathars\" actually were an offshoot of the \"Bogomils\", or if the 13th century Inquisition itself simply mistook or conflated \"Cathars\" for \"Bogomils\", due to their known tendency for conflation and confusion.\n\nIn modern and popular culture\nIn Foucault's Pendulum, a novel by the Italian philosopher and writer Umberto Eco, the plot concerning a widespread secret and mystic conspiracy has its ground in the disappearance of the Bogomils after the fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire under the rule of the Ottoman Empire.\n\nThe Secret Book is a Macedonian feature film combining the detective, thriller and conspiracy fiction genres, based on a fictional story of the quest for the original Slavic language \"Secret Book\", written by the Bogomils in Macedonia and carried to Western Europe during the Middle Ages.\n\nA French and consequently an English word emerged based on twisted perceptions of the Bogomils by the Catholic Church. The words \"bouguer\" and \"buggery\" emerged, by way of the word \"bougre\" in French, from the Latin Bulgarus (Bulgarian). \"Buggery\" first appears in English in 1330 with the sense \"abominable heresy\", though \"bugger\" in a sexual sense is not recorded until 1555. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology quotes a similar form\u2014\"bowgard\" (and \"bouguer\"), but claims that the Bulgarians were heretics \"as belonging to the Greek Church, sp. Albigensian\". Webster's Third New International Dictionary gives the only meaning of the word \"bugger\" as sodomite, \"from the adherence of the Bulgarians to the Eastern Church considered heretical\".\n\nBogomil Cove on Rugged Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica, is named after Priest Bogomil.\n\nThe Bogomils make a significant part in the Thomas Pynchon novel Against the Day, when Cyprian Lakewood becomes a postulant and gives up his life of sodomitic servitude as a spy.\n\nIn Olga Tokarczuk's novel The Books of Jacob, the character Antoni Kossakowski (Moliwda) lives in a Bogomil aligned community.\n\nSee also\n Albigensian Crusade\n Constantine Chrysomalus\n Nada Mileti\u0107\n Novgorod Codex\n Restorationism\n Synod of Tarnovo (1211)\n\nCitations\n\nGeneral and cited sources \n D. Angelov, Bogomilstvoto (Stara Zagora, 1995)\n L. P. Brockett, The Bogomils of Bulgaria and Bosnia: The Early Protestants of the East (s.l., 1879)\n J. Ivanov, Bogomilski knigi i legendi (Sofija, 1925). French translation by M. Ribeyrol, Livres et L\u00e9gendes bogomiles (Paris, 1976).\n C. J. Jirecek, Geschichte d. Bulgaren (Prague, 1876), pp. 155, 174-175\n J. Meiers, Archbishop Ancient Order of Bogomil, of Americas'.\n D. Obolensky, The Bogomils: A Study in Balkan Neo-Manichaeism (Cambridge, 1948), reprint New York, 1978\n K. Papasov, Christen oder Ketzer \u2013 die Bogomilen (Stuttgart, 1983)\n S. Runciman, The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy (Cambridge, 1947)\n V. Sharenkoff, A Study of Manicheism in Bulgaria (New York, 1927).\n J. C. Wolf, Historia Bogomilorum (Wittenberg, 1712)\n Euthymius Zygabenus, Narratio de Bogomilis, ed. Gieseler (G\u00f6ttingen, 1842)\n\nFurther reading\n\n H. G. Beck, Vom Umgang mit Ketzern (M\u00fcnchen 1993), esp. Chapter 8.\n Averil Cameron, \"How to Read Heresiology\". Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 33, no. 3 (2003), 471-92\nJ. Wolski, \"Autoproscoptae, Bogomils and Messalians in the 14th Century Bulgaria\". Studia Ceranea, no. 4 (2014), 233\u2013241.\n O. Ciobanu, \"The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils' Expansion in the Balkans.\", Jurnal of Balkan and Black Sea Studies, Year 4, Issue 7, December 2021, pp. 11-32.\n \n Aurelio de Santos Otero, Bogomilen, Theologische Realenzyklop\u00e4die 7 (Berlin 1981)\n \n \n N. Garso\u00efan, Byzantine Heresy: A Reinterpretation, Dumbarton Oaks Papers (=DOP) 25 (1971),87-113\n J. Gouillard, L'h\u00e9r\u00e9sie dans l'empire byzantin des origines au XIIe si\u00e8cle, Travaux et M\u00e9moires 1\n B. Hamilton, \"The State of Research: The legacy of Charles Schmidt to the study of Christian Dualism\", Journal of Medieval History 24-2 (1998), 191-214\n J. Hamilton, Bernard Hamilton, and Yuri Stoyanov. Christian Dualist Heresies in the Byzantine World, C. 650-C. 1450: Selected Sources (New York 1998)\n E. H\u00f6sch, \"Kritische Anmerkungen zum gegenw\u00e4rtigen Stand der Bogomilen Forschung\", Kurturelle Tradition in Bulgarien (G\u00f6ttingen 1989)\n Isidor Ie\u015fan, Secta pataren\u0103 \u00een Balcani \u015fi \u00een Dacia Traian\u0103 (Romanian). Institutul de arte grafice C. Sfetea, Bucure\u0219ti, 1912\n H. Ch. Puech et A. Vaillant, Le trait\u00e9 contre les bogomiles de Cosmas le pr\u00eatre, Paris 1945\n A. Schmaus, Der Neumanich\u00e4ismus auf dem Balkan, Saeculum 3 (1951), 271-297\n M. Loos, Dualist Heresy in the Middle Ages, Praha 1972 \n Y. Stoyanov, The Hidden Tradition in Europe: The Secret History of Medieval Christian heresy, Penguin Books 1994\n\nExternal links\n\n Anna Comnena's The Bogomils\n Modern Day Bogomil Movement Worldwide\n Modern Day Bogomil Movement in Balkans\n Raoul Vaneigem, The Resistance to Christianity \n Djordje Capin: Myth about Bogomils\n Christian Dualist Heresies in the Byzantine World C.650\u2013C.1450\n L. P. Brockett, The Bogomils of Bulgaria and Bosnia: The Early Protestants of the East\n Euthymius Zygadenus, Narratio de Bogomilis\n\n \n10th century in Bulgaria\n10th-century Christianity\nFirst Bulgarian Empire\nGnosticism\nMedieval Thrace","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":167,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":6,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":8,"2014-35":8,"2014-23":11,"2024-30":2}},"id":160660,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bogomilism","title":"Bogomilism","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Hermann Emil Fischer(1852 nienz 10 nyied 9 hauh -1919 nienz 7 nyied 15 hauh), Dwzgoz vaqhaggya. De habsingz le bwnzginj, youq gwn leixlwnh dawz gij caedgou dangzmakit yenzgiu yienh lo. Youq 1902 nienz ndaej Nobel vaqhag ciengj.\n\nCienh\n\nBigonq \nFischer was born in Euskirchen, near Cologne, the son of a businessman. After graduating he wished to study natural sciences, but his father compelled him to work in the family business until determining that his son was unsuitable. Fischer then attended the University of Bonn in 1872, but switched to the University of Strasbourg in 1872. He earned his doctorate in 1874 with his study of phthalein and was appointed to a position at the university.\n\nHagsoq \nIn 1875 von Baeyer was asked to succeed Liebig at the University of Munich and Fischer went there with him to become an assistant in organic chemistry.\n\nIn 1878 Fischer qualified as a Privatdozent at Munich, where he was appointed Associate Professor of Analytical Chemistry in 1879. In the same year he was offered, but refused, the Chair of Chemistry at Aachen. \n\nIn 1881 he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at the University of Erlangen and in 1883 he was asked by the Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik to direct its scientific laboratory. Fischer, however, whose father had now made him financially independent, preferred academic work.\n\nIn 1885 he was asked to become Professor of Chemistry at the University of W\u00fcrzburg and here he remained until 1892, when he was asked to succeed A. W. Hofmann in the Chair of Chemistry at the University of Berlin. Here he remained until his death in 1919.\n\nYenzgiu \n\nFischer's early discovery of phenylhydrazine and its influence on his later work have already been mentioned. While he was at Munich, Fischer continued to work on the hydrazines and, working there with his cousin Otto Fischer, who had followed him to Munich, he and Otto worked out a new theory of the constitution of the dyes derived from triphenylmethane, proving this by experimental work to be correct.\n\nAt Erlangen, Fischer studied the active principles of tea, coffee and cocoa, namely, caffeine and theobromine, and established the constitution of a series of compounds in this field, eventually synthesizing them.\n\nThe work, however, on which Fischer's fame chiefly rests, was his studies of the purines and the sugars. This work, carried out between 1882 and 1906 showed that various substances, little known at that time, such as adenine, xanthine, in vegetable substances, caffeine and, in animal excrement, uric acid and guanine, all belonged to one homogeneous family and could be derived from one another and that they corresponded to different hydroxyl and amino derivatives of the same fundamental system formed by a bicyclic nitrogenous structure into which the characteristic urea group entered. This parent substance, which at first he regarded as being hypothetical, he called purine in 1884, and he synthesized it in 1898. Numerous artificial derivatives, more or less analogous to the naturally-occurring substances, came from his laboratory between 1882 and 1896.\n\nIn 1884 Fischer began his great work on the sugars, which transformed the knowledge of these compounds and welded the new knowledge obtained into a coherent whole. Even before 1880 the aldehyde formula of glucose had been indicated, but Fischer established it by a series of transformations such as oxidation into aldonic acid and the action of phenylhydrazine which he had discovered and which made possible the formation of the phenylhydrazones and the osazones. By passage to a common osazone, he established the relation between glucose, fructose and mannose, which he discovered in 1888. In 1890, by epimerization between gluconic and mannonic acids, he established the stereochemical and isomeric nature of the sugars, and between 1891 and 1894 he established the stereochemical configuration of all the known sugars and exactly foretold the possible isomers, by an ingenious application of the theory of the asymmetrical carbon atom of Van't Hoff and Le Bel, published in 1874. Reciprocal syntheses between different hexoses by isomerization and then between pentoses, hexoses, and heptoses by reaction of degradation and synthesis proved the value of the systematics he had established. His greatest success was his synthesis of glucose, fructose and mannose in 1890, starting from glycerol.\n\nThis monumental work on the sugars, carried out between 1884 and 1894, was extended by other work, the most important being his studies of the glucosides.\n\nBetween 1899 and 1908 Fischer made his great contributions to knowledge of the proteins. He sought effective analytical methods of separating and identifying the individual amino acids, discovering a new type, the cyclic amino acids: proline and hydroxyproline. He also studied the synthesis of proteins by obtaining the various amino acids in an optically active form in order to unite them. He was able to establish the type of bond that would connect them together in chains, namely, the peptide bond, and by means of this he obtained the dipeptides and later the tripeptides and polypeptides. In 1901 he discovered, in collaboration with Ernest Fourneau, the synthesis of the dipeptide, glycylglycine, and in that year he also published his work on the hydrolysis of casein. Amino acids occurring in nature were prepared in the laboratory and new ones were discovered. His synthesis of the oligopeptides culminated in an octodecapeptide, which had many characteristics of natural proteins. This and his subsequent work led to a better understanding of the proteins and laid the foundations for later studies of them.\n\nIn addition to his work in the fields already mentioned, Fischer also studied the enzymes and the chemical substances in the lichens which he found during his frequent holidays in the Black Forest, and also substances used in tanning and, during the final years of his life, the fats. In 1890, he also proposed a \"Lock and Key Model\" to visualize the substrate and enzyme interaction. Though, later studies did not support this model in all enzymatic reactions.\n\nFischer is noted for his work on sugars among other work the organic synthesis of (+) glucose  and purines (including the first synthesis of caffeine).\n\nNdwenngoenz \nAt the age of 18, before he went to the University of Bonn, Fischer suffered from gastritis, which attacked him again towards the end of his tenure of the Chair at Erlangen and caused him to refuse a tempting offer to follow Victor Meyer at the Federal Technical University at Zurich and to take a year's leave of absence before he went, in 1888, to W\u00fcrzburg. \nThroughout his life he was well served by his excellent memory, which enabled him, although he was not a naturally good speaker, to memorize manuscripts of lectures that he had written.\n\nHe was particularly happy at W\u00fcrzburg where he enjoyed walks among the hills and he also made frequent visits to the Black Forest. His administrative work, especially when he went to Berlin, revealed him as a tenacious campaigner for the establishment of scientific foundations, not only in chemistry, but in other fields of work as well. His keen understanding of scientific problems, his intuition and love of truth and his insistence on experimental proof of hypotheses, marked him as one of the truly great scientists of all time.\n\nIn 1888 Fischer married Agnes Gerlach, daughter of Joseph von Gerlach, Professor of Anatomy at Erlangen. His wife died seven years after their marriage. They had three sons, one of whom was killed in World War I; another committed suicide at the age of 25 as a result of compulsory military training. In 1919 in Berlin, Fischer, like his son, committed suicide. The oldest son, Hermann Otto Laurenz Fischer, was Professor of Biochemistry in the University of California at Berkeley from 1948 until his death in 1960.\n\nVaqhaggya","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":1}},"id":10252,"url":"https:\/\/za.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emil%20Fischer","title":"Emil Fischer","language":"za"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root. It supports leaves, flowers and fruits, transports water and dissolved substances between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem, photosynthesis takes place here, stores nutrients, and produces new living tissue. The stem can also be called halm or haulm or culms.\n\nThe stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes:\n The nodes are the points of attachment for leaves and can hold one or more leaves. There are sometimes axillary buds between the stem and leaf which can grow into branches (with leaves, conifer cones, or flowers). Adventitious roots may also be produced from the nodes. Vines may produce tendrils from nodes.\n The internodes distance one node from another.\n\nThe term \"shoots\" is often confused with \"stems\"; \"shoots\" generally refers to new fresh plant growth, including both stems and other structures like leaves or flowers. \n\nIn most plants, stems are located above the soil surface, but some plants have underground stems.\n\nStems have several main functions:\n\n Support for and the elevation of leaves, flowers, and fruits. The stems keep the leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits.\n Transport of fluids between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem.\n Storage of nutrients.\n Production of new living tissue. The normal lifespan of plant cells is one to three years. Stems have cells called meristems that annually generate new living tissue.\n Photosynthesis.\n\nStems have two pipe-like tissues called xylem and phloem. The xylem tissue arises from the cell facing inside and transports water by the action of transpiration pull, capillary action, and root pressure. The phloem tissue arises from the cell facing outside and consists of sieve tubes and their companion cells. The function of phloem tissue is to distribute food from photosynthetic tissue to other tissues. The two tissues are separated by cambium, a tissue that divides to form xylem or phloem cells.\n\nSpecialized terms \nStems are often specialized for storage, asexual reproduction, protection, or photosynthesis, including the following:\n\n Acaulescent: Used to describe stems in plants that appear to be stemless. Actually these stems are just extremely short, the leaves appearing to rise directly out of the ground, e.g. some Viola species.\n Arborescent: Tree with woody stems normally with a single trunk.\n Axillary bud: A bud which grows at the point of attachment of an older leaf with the stem. It potentially gives rise to a shoot.\n Branched: Aerial stems are described as being branched or unbranched.\n Bud: An embryonic shoot with immature stem tip.\n Bulb: A short vertical underground stem with fleshy storage leaves attached, e.g. onion, daffodil, and tulip. Bulbs often function in reproduction by splitting to form new bulbs or producing small new bulbs termed bulblets. Bulbs are a combination of stem and leaves so may better be considered as leaves because the leaves make up the greater part.\n Caespitose: When stems grow in a tangled mass or clump or in low growing mats.\n Cladode (including phylloclade): A flattened stem that appears leaf-like and is specialized for photosynthesis, e.g. cactus pads.\n Climbing: Atems that cling or wrap around other plants or structures.\n Corm: A short enlarged underground storage stem, e.g. taro, crocus, gladiolus.\n\n Decumbent: A stem that lies flat on the ground and turns upwards at the ends.\n Fruticose: Stems that grow shrublike with woody like habit.\n Herbaceous: Non woody stems which die at the end of the growing season.\n Internode: An interval between two successive nodes. It possesses the ability to elongate, either from its base or from its extremity depending on the species.\n Node: A point of attachment of a leaf or a twig on the stem in seed plants. A node is a very small growth zone.\n Pedicel: Stems that serve as the stalk of an individual flower in an inflorescence or infrutescence.\n Peduncle: A stem that supports an inflorescence or a solitary flower.\n Prickle: A sharpened extension of the stem's outer layers, e.g. roses.\n Pseudostem: A false stem made of the rolled bases of leaves, which may be  tall, as in banana.\n Rhizome: A horizontal underground stem that functions mainly in reproduction but also in storage, e.g. most ferns, iris.\n Runner: A type of stolon, horizontally growing on top of the ground and rooting at the nodes, aids in reproduction. e.g. garden strawberry, Chlorophytum comosum.\n Scape: A stem that holds flowers that comes out of the ground and has no normal leaves. Hosta, lily, iris, garlic.\n Stolon: A horizontal stem that produces rooted plantlets at its nodes and ends, forming near the surface of the ground.\n Thorn: A modified stem with a sharpened point.\n Tuber: A swollen, underground storage stem adapted for storage and reproduction, e.g. potato.\n Woody: Hard textured stems with secondary xylem.\n Sapwood: A woody stem, the layer of secondary phloem that surrounds the heartwood; usually active in fluid transport\n\nStem structure \n\nStem usually consist of three tissues: dermal tissue, ground tissue, and vascular tissue. \n\nDermal tissue covers the outer surface of the stem and usually functions to waterproof, protect, and control gas exchange. The dermal tissue of aquatic plants stems may lack the waterproofing found in aerial stems.\n\nGround tissue usually consists mainly of parenchyma cells and fills in around the vascular tissue. It sometimes functions in photosynthesis. Most or all ground tissue may be lost in woody stems.\n\nVascular tissue provides long distance transport and structural support. The arrangement of the vascular tissues varies widely among plant species.\n\nDicot stems \nDicot stems with primary growth have pith in the center, with vascular bundles forming a distinct ring visible when the stem is viewed in cross section. The outside of the stem is covered with an epidermis, which is covered by a waterproof cuticle. The epidermis also may contain stomata for gas exchange and multicellular stem hairs called trichomes. A cortex consisting of hypodermis (collenchyma cells) and endodermis (starch containing cells) is present above the pericycle and vascular bundles.\n\nWoody dicots and many nonwoody dicots have secondary growth originating from their lateral or secondary meristems: the vascular cambium and the cork cambium or phellogen. The vascular cambium forms between the xylem and phloem in the vascular bundles and connects to form a continuous cylinder. The vascular cambium cells divide to produce secondary xylem to the inside and secondary phloem to the outside. As the stem increases in diameter due to production of secondary xylem and secondary phloem, the cortex and epidermis are eventually destroyed. Before the cortex is destroyed, a cork cambium develops there. The cork cambium divides to produce waterproof cork cells externally and sometimes phelloderm cells internally. Those three tissues form the periderm, which replaces the epidermis in function. Areas of loosely packed cells in the periderm that function in gas exchange are called lenticels.\n\nSecondary xylem is commercially important as wood. The seasonal variation in growth from the vascular cambium is what creates yearly tree rings in temperate climates. Tree rings are the basis of dendrochronology, which dates wooden objects and associated artifacts. Dendroclimatology is the use of tree rings as a record of past climates. The aerial stem of an adult tree is called a trunk. The dead, usually darker inner wood of a large diameter trunk is termed the heartwood and is the result of tylosis. The outer, living wood is termed the sapwood.\n\nMonocot stems \n\nVascular bundles are present throughout the monocot stem, although concentrated towards the outside. This differs from the dicot stem that has a ring of vascular bundles and often none in the center. The shoot apex in monocot stems is more elongated. Leaf sheathes grow up around it, protecting it. This is true to some extent of almost all monocots. Monocots rarely produce secondary growth and are therefore seldom woody, with palms and bamboo being notable exceptions. However, many monocot stems increase in diameter via anomalous secondary growth.\n\nGymnosperm stems \nAll gymnosperms are woody plants. Their stems are similar in structure to woody dicots except that most gymnosperms produce only tracheids in their xylem, not the vessels found in dicots. Gymnosperm wood also often contains resin ducts. Woody dicots are called hardwoods, e.g. oak, maple and walnut. In contrast, softwoods are gymnosperms, such as pine, spruce and fir.\n\nFern stems \nMost ferns have rhizomes with no vertical stem. The exception is tree ferns, which have vertical stems that can grow up to about 20 metres. The stem anatomy of ferns is more complicated than that of dicots because fern stems often have one or more leaf gaps in cross section. A leaf gap is where the vascular tissue branches off to a frond. In cross section, the vascular tissue does not form a complete cylinder where a leaf gap occurs. Fern stems may have solenosteles or dictyosteles or variations of them. Many fern stems have phloem tissue on both sides of the xylem in cross-section.\n\nRelation to xenobiotics\nForeign chemicals such as air pollutants, herbicides and pesticides can damage stem structures.\n\nEconomic importance \n\nThere are thousands of species whose stems have economic uses. Stems provide a few major staple crops such as potato and taro. Sugarcane stems are a major source of sugar. Maple sugar is obtained from trunks of maple trees. Vegetables from stems are asparagus, bamboo shoots, cactus pads or nopalitos, kohlrabi, and water chestnut. The spice, cinnamon is bark from a tree trunk. Gum arabic is an important food additive obtained from the trunks of Acacia senegal trees. Chicle, the main ingredient in chewing gum, is obtained from trunks of the chicle tree.\n\nMedicines obtained from stems include quinine from the bark of cinchona trees, camphor distilled from wood of a tree in the same genus that provides cinnamon, and the muscle relaxant curare from the bark of tropical vines.\n\nWood is used in thousands of ways; it can be used to create buildings, furniture, boats, airplanes, wagons, car parts, musical instruments, sports equipment, railroad ties, utility poles, fence posts, pilings, toothpicks, matches, plywood, coffins, shingles, barrel staves, toys, tool handles, picture frames, veneer, charcoal and firewood. Wood pulp is widely used to make paper, paperboard, cellulose sponges, cellophane and some important plastics and textiles, such as cellulose acetate and rayon. Bamboo stems also have hundreds of uses, including in paper, buildings, furniture, boats, musical instruments, fishing poles, water pipes, plant stakes, and scaffolding. Trunks of palms and tree ferns are often used for building. Stems of reed are an important building material for use in thatching in some areas.\n\nTannins used for tanning leather are obtained from the wood of certain trees, such as quebracho. Cork is obtained from the bark of the cork oak. Rubber is obtained from the trunks of Hevea brasiliensis. Rattan, used for furniture and baskets, is made from the stems of tropical vining palms. Bast fibers for textiles and rope are obtained from stems of plants like flax, hemp, jute and ramie. The earliest known paper was obtained from the stems of papyrus by the ancient Egyptians.\n\nAmber is fossilized sap from tree trunks; it is used for jewelry and may contain preserved animals. Resins from conifer wood are used to produce turpentine and rosin. Tree bark is often used as a mulch and in growing media for container plants. It also can become the natural habitat of lichens.\n\nSome ornamental plants are grown mainly for their attractive stems, e.g.:\n\n White bark of paper birch\n Twisted branches of corkscrew willow and Harry Lauder's walking stick (Corylus avellana 'Contorta')\n Red, peeling bark of paperbark maple\n\nSee also \n Edible plant stem\n Stipe (botany)\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n \n Overview of stem anatomy\n\nStem","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":191,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":5,"2019-18":5,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":4,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":4,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":6,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":7,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":7,"2014-15":3}},"id":18952693,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plant%20stem","title":"Plant stem","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dance (frae auld French danser, faurder history isna kent) for ordinar refers tae human muivement aither uised as a furm o expression or presentit in a social, speeritual or performance settin.\n\nDance is uised tae descrive methods o nane-verbal communication atween humans or ainimals an aw (bee dance, matein dance), motion in inanimate objects (the leafs danced in the wind), an certaint muisical furms or genres. Fowk that dances is cawed dancers an the act o dance is kent as dancin. An event whaur dancin taks place micht be cawed a dance. Choreographie is the airt o makkin dances.\n\nDefineetions o whit constitutes dance lippens on social, cultural, aesthetic airteestic an moral constraints an reenges frae functional muivement (sic as Folk dance) tae codifee'd, virtuoso techniques sic as ballet. In sports, gymnastics, feegur skeitchin an synchronized soumin conteens dance disciplines while Martial airts 'Kata' is aften compeared wi dances.\n\nDance","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":1950,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dance","title":"Dance","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An axle or axletree is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported.  In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside a central hole in the wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle.  Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type of axle is referred to as a spindle.\n\nTerminology\nOn cars and trucks, several senses of the word axle occur in casual usage, referring to the shaft itself, its housing, or simply any transverse pair of wheels. Strictly speaking, a shaft that rotates with the wheel, being either bolted or splined in fixed relation to it, is called an axle or axle shaft. However, in looser usage, an entire assembly including the surrounding axle housing (typically a casting) is also called an axle.\n\nAn even broader (somewhat figurative) sense of the word refers to every pair of parallel wheels on opposite sides of a vehicle, regardless of their mechanical connection to each other and to the vehicle frame or body.  Thus, transverse pairs of wheels in an independent suspension may be called an axle in some contexts.  This very loose definition of \"axle\" is often used in assessing toll roads or vehicle taxes, and is taken as a rough proxy for the overall weight-bearing capacity of a vehicle, and its potential for causing wear or damage to roadway surfaces.\n\nVehicle axles\nAxles are an integral component of most practical wheeled vehicles. In a solid, 'live-axle' suspension system, the turning inner axle cores (aka half-shafts) serve to transmit driving torque to the wheels at each end, while the rigid outer tube maintains the position of the wheels at fixed angles relative to the axle, and controls the angle of the axle and wheels assembly to the vehicle body. The solid axles (housings) in this system must also bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo. A non-driving axle, such as the front beam axle in heavy-duty trucks and some two-wheel drive light trucks and vans, will have no shaft, and serves only as a suspension and steering component.  Conversely, many front-wheel drive cars have a one-piece rear beam axle.\n\nIn other types of suspension systems, the axles serve only to transmit driving torque to the wheels \u2013 the position and angle of the wheel hubs is made independent from the axles by the function of the suspension system.  This is typical of the independent suspensions found on most newer cars, and even SUVs, and on the front of many light trucks.  An exception to this rule, is the independent (rear) swing axle suspension, wherein the half-axles are also load-bearing suspension arms.\n\nIndependent drive-trains still need differentials (or diffs), but without fixed axle-housing tubes attached. The diff may be attached to the vehicle frame or body, and\/or be integrated with the transmission (or gearbox) in a combined transaxle unit.  The axle (half-)shafts then transmit driving torque to the wheels, usually via constant-velocity joints.  Like a full floating axle system, the drive shafts in a front-wheel drive independent suspension system do not support any vehicle weight.\n\nStructural features and design\n\nA straight axle is a single rigid shaft connecting a wheel on the left side of the vehicle to a wheel on the right side.  The axis of rotation fixed by the axle is common to both wheels.  Such a design can keep the wheel positions steady under heavy stress, and can therefore support heavy loads.  Straight axles are used on trains (that is, locomotives and railway wagons), for the rear axles of commercial trucks, and on heavy-duty off-road vehicles.  The axle can optionally be protected and further reinforced by enclosing the length of the axle in a housing.\n\nIn split-axle designs, the wheel on each side is attached to a separate shaft. Modern passenger cars have split-drive axles. In some designs, this allows independent suspension of the left and right wheels, and therefore a smoother ride. Even when the suspension is not independent, split axles permit the use of a differential, allowing the left and right drive wheels to be driven at different speeds as the automobile turns, improving traction and extending tire life.\n\nA tandem axle is a group of two or more axles situated close together. Truck designs use such a configuration to provide a greater weight capacity than a single axle. Semi-trailers usually have a tandem axle at the rear.\n\nAxles are typically made from SAE grade 41xx steel or SAE grade 10xx steel.  SAE grade 41xx steel is commonly known as \"chrome-molybdenum steel\" (or \"chrome-moly\") while SAE grade 10xx steel is known as \"carbon steel\".  The primary differences between the two are that chrome-moly steel is significantly more resistant to bending or breaking, and is very difficult to weld with tools normally found outside a professional welding shop.\n\nDrive axle\n\nAn axle that is driven by the engine or prime mover is called a drive axle.\n\nModern front-wheel drive cars typically combine the transmission (gearbox and differential) and front axle into a single unit called a transaxle. The drive axle is a split axle with a differential and universal joints between the two half axles. Each half axle connects to the wheel by use of a constant velocity (CV) joint which allows the wheel assembly to move freely vertically as well as to pivot when making turns.\n\nIn rear-wheel drive cars and trucks, the engine turns a driveshaft (also called a propellor shaft or tailshaft) which transmits the rotational force to a drive axle at the rear of the vehicle. The drive axle may be a live axle, but modern rear-wheel drive automobiles generally use a split axle with a differential. In this case, one half-axle or half-shaft connects the differential with the left rear wheel, a second half-shaft does the same with the right rear wheel; thus the two half-axles and the differential constitute the rear axle. The front drive axle is providing the force to drive the truck. In fact, only one wheel of that axle is actually moving the truck and trailer down the road.\n\nSome simple vehicle designs, such as leisure go-karts, may have a single driven wheel where the drive axle is a split axle with only one of the two shafts driven by the engine, or else have both wheels connected to one shaft without a differential (kart racing).  However, other go-karts have two rear drive wheels too.\n\nLift axle\n\nSome dump trucks and trailers may be configured with a lift axle (also known as an airlift axle or drop axle), which may be mechanically raised or lowered.  The axle is lowered to increase the weight capacity, or to distribute the weight of the cargo over more wheels, for example, to cross a weight-restricted bridge.  When not needed, the axle is lifted off the ground to save wear on the tires and axle, and to increase traction in the remaining wheels. Lifting an axle also alleviates lateral scrubbing of the additional axle in very tight turns, allowing the vehicle to turn more readily. In some situations, the removal of pressure from the additional axle is necessary for the vehicle to complete a turn at all.\n\nSeveral manufacturers offer computer-controlled airlifts so that the dead axles are automatically lowered when the main axle reaches its weight limit. The dead axles can still be lifted by the press of a button if needed, for better maneuverability.\n\nLift axles were in use in the early 1940s. Initially, the axle was lifted by a mechanical device. Soon hydraulics replaced the mechanical lift system. One of the early manufacturers was Zetterbergs, located in \u00d6sterv\u00e5la, Sweden. Their brand was Zeta-lyften.\n\nThe liftable tandem drive axle was invented in 1957 by the Finnish truck manufacturer Vanajan Autotehdas, a company sharing history with Sisu Auto.\n\nFull-floating vs semi-floating\nA full-floating axle carries the vehicle's weight on the axle casing, not the half-shafts; they serve only to transmit torque from the differential to the wheels. They \"float\" inside an assembly that carries the vehicle's weight. Thus the only stress it must endure is torque (not lateral bending force). Full-floating axle shafts are retained by a flange bolted to the hub, while the hub and bearings are retained on the spindle by a large nut. In contrast, a semi-floating design carries the weight of the vehicle on the axle shaft itself; there is a single bearing at the end of the axle housing that carries the load from the axle and that the axle rotates through. To be \"semi-floating\" the axle shafts must be able to \"float\" in the housing, bearings and seals, and not subject to axial \"thrust\" and\/or bearing preload. Needle bearings and separate lip seals are used in semi-floating axles with axle retained in the housing at their inner ends typically with \"c-clips\" which are 3\/4-round hardened washers that slide into grooves machined at the inner end of the shafts and retained in\/by recesses in the differential carrier side gears which are themselves retained by the differential pinion gear or \"spider gear\" shaft. A true semi-floating axle assembly places no side loads on the axle housing tubes or axle shafts.\n\nAxles that are pressed into ball or tapered roller bearings which are in turn retained in\/on the axle housings with flanges, bolts, and nuts do not \"float\" and place axial loads on the bearings, housings, and only a short section of the shaft itself that also carries all radial loads.\n\nThe full-floating design is typically used in most 3\/4- and 1-ton light trucks, medium-duty trucks, and heavy-duty trucks. The overall assembly can carry more weight than a semi-floating or non-floating axle assembly because the hubs have two bearings riding on a fixed spindle. A full-floating axle can be identified by a protruding hub to which the axle shaft flange is bolted.\n\nThe semi-floating axle setup is commonly used on half-ton and lighter 4x4 trucks in the rear. This setup allows the axle shaft to be the means of propulsion, and also support the weight of the vehicle. The main difference between the full- and semi-floating axle setups is the number of bearings. The semi-floating axle features only one bearing, while the full-floating assembly has bearings on both the inside and outside of the wheel hub. The other difference is axle removal. To remove the semi-floating axle, the wheel must be removed first; if such an axle breaks, the wheel is most likely to come off the vehicle. The semi-floating design is found under most 1\/2-ton and lighter trucks, as well as in SUVs and rear-wheel-drive passenger cars, usually being smaller or less expensive models.\n\nA benefit of a full-floating axle is that even if an axle shaft (used to transmit torque or power) breaks, the wheel will not come off, preventing serious accidents.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n Beam axle\n G\u00f6lsdorf axle\n Klien-Lindner axle\n List of auto parts\n Lutterm\u00f6ller axle\n Portal axle\n Powertrain\n Transaxle\n Wagon wheel (transportation)\n Wheel and axle\n Wheelset (rail transport)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n Truck Axle Design \n\nAutomotive suspension technologies\nRail technologies\nVehicle parts","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":131,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":5,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":5}},"id":160573,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Axle","title":"Axle","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Aggression is hostile and antagonistic behavior, often with the intent to cause harm, although it can be channeled into creative and practical outlets for some. It may occur either reactively or without provocation. In humans, aggression can be caused by various triggers. For example, built-up frustration due to blocked goals or perceived disrespect. Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression; whilst the former is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the latter is characterized by behavior intended to harm the social relations of an individual or group.\n\nIn definitions commonly used in the social sciences and behavioral sciences, aggression is an action or response by an individual that delivers something unpleasant to another person. Some definitions include that the individual must intend to harm another person.\n\nIn an interdisciplinary perspective, aggression is regarded as \"an ensemble of mechanism formed during the course of evolution in order to assert oneself, relatives or friends against others, to gain or to defend resources (ultimate causes) by harmful damaging means. These mechanisms are often motivated by emotions like fear, frustration, anger, feelings of stress, dominance or pleasure (proximate causes). Sometimes aggressive behavior serves as a stress relief or a subjective feeling of power.\" Predatory or defensive behavior between members of different species may not be considered aggression in the same sense.\n\nAggression can take a variety of forms, which may be expressed physically, or communicated verbally or non-verbally: including anti-predator aggression, defensive aggression (fear-induced), predatory aggression, dominance aggression, inter-male aggression, resident-intruder aggression, maternal aggression, species-specific aggression, sex-related aggression, territorial aggression, isolation-induced aggression, irritable aggression, and brain-stimulation-induced aggression (hypothalamus). There are two subtypes of human aggression: (1) controlled-instrumental subtype (purposeful or goal-oriented); and (2) reactive-impulsive subtype (often elicits uncontrollable actions that are inappropriate or undesirable). Aggression differs from what is commonly called assertiveness, although the terms are often used interchangeably among laypeople (as in phrases such as \"an aggressive salesperson\").\n\nOverview\nDollard et al. (1939) proposed that aggression was due to frustration, which was described as an unpleasant emotion resulting from any interference with achieving a rewarding goal. Berkowitz extended this frustration\u2013aggression hypothesis and proposed that it is not so much the frustration as the unpleasant emotion that evokes aggressive tendencies, and that all aversive events produce negative affect and thereby aggressive tendencies, as well as fear tendencies. Besides conditioned stimuli, Archer categorized aggression-evoking (as well as fear-evoking) stimuli into three groups; namely, pain, novelty, and frustration, although he also described \"looming\", which refers to an object rapidly moving towards the visual sensors of a subject, and can be categorized as \"intensity.\"\n\nAggression can have adaptive benefits or negative effects. Aggressive behavior is an individual or collective social interaction that is a hostile behavior with the intention of inflicting damage or harm. Two broad categories of aggression are commonly distinguished. One includes affective (emotional) and hostile, reactive, or retaliatory aggression that is a response to provocation, and the other includes instrumental, goal-oriented or predatory, in which aggression is used as a means to achieve a goal. An example of hostile aggression would be a person who punches someone who insulted him or her. An instrumental form of aggression would be armed robbery. Research on violence from a range of disciplines lend some support to a distinction between affective and predatory aggression. However, some researchers question the usefulness of a hostile versus instrumental distinction in humans, despite its ubiquity in research, because most real-life cases involve mixed motives and interacting causes.\n\nA number of classifications and dimensions of aggression have been suggested. These depend on such things as whether the aggression is verbal or physical; whether or not it involves relational aggression such as covert bullying and social manipulation; whether harm to others is intended or not; whether it is carried out actively or expressed passively; and whether the aggression is aimed directly or indirectly. Classification may also encompass aggression-related emotions (e.g. anger) and mental states (e.g. impulsivity, hostility). Aggression may occur in response to non-social as well as social factors, and can have a close relationship with stress coping style. Aggression may be displayed in order to intimidate.\n\nThe operative definition of aggression may be affected by moral or political views. Examples are the axiomatic moral view called the non-aggression principle and the political rules governing the behavior of one country toward another. Likewise in competitive sports, or in the workplace, some forms of aggression may be sanctioned and others not (see Workplace aggression). Aggressive behaviors are associated with adjustment problems and several psychopathological symptoms such as Antisocial Personality Disorder, Borderline Personality Disorder, and Intermittent Explosive Disorder.\n\nBiological approaches conceptualize aggression as an internal energy released by external stimuli, a product of evolution through natural selection, part of genetics, a product of hormonal fluctuations. Psychological approaches conceptualize aggression as a destructive instinct, a response to frustration, an affect excited by a negative stimulus, a result of observed learning of society and diversified reinforcement, a resultant of variables that affect personal and situational environments.\n\nEtymology\nThe term aggression comes from the Latin word aggressio, meaning attack. The Latin was itself a joining of ad- and gradi-, which meant step at. The first known use dates back to 1611, in the sense of an unprovoked attack. A psychological sense of \"hostile or destructive behavior\" dates back to a 1912 English translation of Sigmund Freud's writing. Alfred Adler theorized about an \"aggressive drive\" in 1908. Child raising experts began to refer to aggression, rather than anger, from the 1930s.\n\nEthology\n\nEthologists study aggression as it relates to the interaction and evolution of animals in natural settings. In such settings aggression can involve bodily contact such as biting, hitting or pushing, but most conflicts are settled by threat displays and intimidating thrusts that cause no physical harm. This form of aggression may include the display of body size, antlers, claws or teeth; stereotyped signals including facial expressions; vocalizations such as bird song; the release of chemicals; and changes in coloration. The term agonistic behaviour is sometimes used to refer to these forms of behavior.\n\nMost ethologists believe that aggression confers biological advantages. Aggression may help an animal secure territory, including resources such as food and water. Aggression between males often occurs to secure mating opportunities, and results in selection of the healthier\/more vigorous animal. Aggression may also occur for self-protection or to protect offspring. Aggression between groups of animals may also confer advantage; for example, hostile behavior may force a population of animals into a new territory, where the need to adapt to a new environment may lead to an increase in genetic flexibility.\n\nBetween species and groups\nThe most apparent type of interspecific aggression is that observed in the interaction between a predator and its prey. However, according to many researchers, predation is not aggression. A cat does not hiss or arch its back when pursuing a rat, and the active areas in its hypothalamus resemble those that reflect hunger rather than those that reflect aggression. However, others refer to this behavior as predatory aggression, and point out cases that resemble hostile behavior, such as mouse-killing by rats. In aggressive mimicry a predator has the appearance of a harmless organism or object attractive to the prey; when the prey approaches, the predator attacks.\n\nAn animal defending against a predator may engage in either \"fight or flight\" or \"tend and befriend\" in response to predator attack or threat of attack, depending on its estimate of the predator's strength relative to its own. Alternative defenses include a range of antipredator adaptations, including alarm signals. An example of an alarm signal is nerol, a chemical which is found in the mandibular glands of Trigona fulviventris individuals. Release of nerol by T. fulviventris individuals in the nest has been shown to decrease the number of individuals leaving the nest by fifty percent, as well as increasing aggressive behaviors like biting. Alarm signals like nerol can also act as attraction signals; in T. fulviventris, individuals that have been captured by a predator may release nerol to attract nestmates, who will proceed to attack or bite the predator.\n\nAggression between groups is determined partly by willingness to fight, which depends on a number of factors including numerical advantage, distance from home territories, how often the groups encounter each other, competitive abilities, differences in body size, and whose territory is being invaded. Also, an individual is more likely to become aggressive if other aggressive group members are nearby. One particular phenomenon\u00a0\u2013 the formation of coordinated coalitions that raid neighbouring territories to kill conspecifics\u00a0\u2013 has only been documented in two species in the animal kingdom: 'common' chimpanzees and humans.\n\nWithin a group\nAggression between conspecifics in a group typically involves access to resources and breeding opportunities. One of its most common functions is to establish a dominance hierarchy. This occurs in many species by aggressive encounters between contending males when they are first together in a common environment. Usually the more aggressive animals become the more dominant. In test situations, most of the conspecific aggression ceases about 24 hours after the group of animals is brought together. Aggression has been defined from this viewpoint as \"behavior which is intended to increase the social dominance of the organism relative to the dominance position of other organisms\". Losing confrontations may be called social defeat, and winning or losing is associated with a range of practical and psychological consequences.\n\nConflicts between animals occur in many contexts, such as between potential mating partners, between parents and offspring, between siblings and between competitors for resources. Group-living animals may dispute over the direction of travel or the allocation of time to joint activities. Various factors limit the escalation of aggression, including communicative displays, conventions, and routines. In addition, following aggressive incidents, various forms of conflict resolution have been observed in mammalian species, particularly in gregarious primates. These can mitigate or repair possible adverse consequences, especially for the recipient of aggression who may become vulnerable to attacks by other members of a group. Conciliatory acts vary by species and may involve specific gestures or simply more proximity and interaction between the individuals involved. However, conflicts over food are rarely followed by post conflict reunions, even though they are the most frequent type in foraging primates.\n\nOther questions that have been considered in the study of primate aggression, including in humans, is how aggression affects the organization of a group, what costs are incurred by aggression, and why some primates avoid aggressive behavior. For example, bonobo chimpanzee groups are known for low levels of aggression within a partially matriarchal society. Captive animals including primates may show abnormal levels of social aggression and self-harm that are related to aspects of the physical or social environment; this depends on the species and individual factors such as gender, age and background (e.g. raised wild or captive).\n\nAggression, fear and curiosity\nWithin ethology, it has long been recognized that there is a relation between aggression, fear, and curiosity. A cognitive approach to this relationship puts aggression in the broader context of inconsistency reduction, and proposes that aggressive behavior is caused by an inconsistency between a desired, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation (e.g., \"frustration\"), and functions to forcefully manipulate the perception into matching the expected situation. In this approach, when the inconsistency between perception and expectancy is small, learning as a result of curiosity reduces inconsistency by updating expectancy to match perception. If the inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on the size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context. Uninhibited fear results in fleeing, thereby removing the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field and resolving the inconsistency. In some cases thwarted escape may trigger aggressive behavior in an attempt to remove the thwarting stimulus.\n\nEvolutionary explanations\nLike many behaviors, aggression can be examined in terms of its ability to help an animal itself survive and reproduce, or alternatively to risk survival and reproduction. This cost-benefit analysis can be looked at in terms of evolution. However, there are profound differences in the extent of acceptance of a biological or evolutionary basis for human aggression.\n\nAccording to the male warrior hypothesis, intergroup aggression represents an opportunity for men to gain access to mates, territory, resources and increased status. As such, conflicts may have created selection evolutionary pressures for psychological mechanisms in men to initiate intergroup aggression.\n\nViolence and conflict\nAggression can involve violence that may be adaptive under certain circumstances in terms of natural selection. This is most obviously the case in terms of attacking prey to obtain food, or in anti-predatory defense. It may also be the case in competition between members of the same species or subgroup, if the average reward (e.g. status, access to resources, protection of self or kin) outweighs average costs (e.g. injury, exclusion from the group, death). There are some hypotheses of specific adaptions for violence in humans under certain circumstances, including for homicide, but it is often unclear what behaviors may have been selected for and what may have been a byproduct, as in the case of collective violence.\n\nAlthough aggressive encounters are ubiquitous in the animal kingdom, with often high stakes, most encounters that involve aggression may be resolved through posturing, or displaying and trial of strength. Game theory is used to understand how such behaviors might spread by natural selection within a population, and potentially become 'Evolutionary Stable Strategies'. An initial model of resolution of conflicts is the hawk-dove game. Others include the Sequential assessment model and the Energetic war of attrition. These try to understand not just one-off encounters but protracted stand-offs, and mainly differ in the criteria by which an individual decides to give up rather than risk loss and harm in physical conflict (such as through estimates of resource holding potential).\n\nGender\n\nGeneral\nGender plays an important role in human aggression. There are multiple theories that seek to explain findings that males and females of the same species can have differing aggressive behaviors. One review concluded that male aggression tended to produce pain or physical injury whereas female aggression tended towards psychological or social harm.\n\nIn general, sexual dimorphism can be attributed to greater intraspecific competition in one sex, either between rivals for access to mates and\/or to be chosen by mates. This may stem from the other gender being constrained by providing greater parental investment, in terms of factors such as gamete production, gestation, lactation, or upbringing of young. Although there is much variation in species, generally the more physically aggressive sex is the male, particularly in mammals. In species where parental care by both sexes is required, there tends to be less of a difference. When the female can leave the male to care for the offspring, then females may be the larger and more physically aggressive. Competitiveness despite parental investment has also been observed in some species. A related factor is the rate at which males and females are able to mate again after producing offspring, and the basic principles of sexual selection are also influenced by ecological factors affecting the ways or extent to which one sex can compete for the other. The role of such factors in human evolution is controversial.\n\nThe pattern of male and female aggression is argued to be consistent with evolved sexually-selected behavioral differences, while alternative or complementary views emphasize conventional social roles stemming from physical evolved differences. Aggression in women may have evolved to be, on average, less physically dangerous and more covert or indirect. However, there are critiques for using animal behavior to explain human behavior. Especially in the application of evolutionary explanations to contemporary human behavior, including differences between the genders.\n\nAccording to the 2015 International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, sex differences in aggression is one of the most robust and oldest findings in psychology. Past meta-analyses in the encyclopedia found males regardless of age engaged in more physical and verbal aggression while small effect for females engaging in more indirect aggression such as rumor spreading or gossiping. It also found males tend to engage in more unprovoked aggression at higher frequency than females. This analysis also conforms with the Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology which reviewed past analysis which found men to use more verbal and physical aggression with the difference being greater in the physical type. There are more recent findings that show that differences in male and female aggression appear at about two years of age, though the differences in aggression are more consistent in middle-aged children and adolescence. Tremblay, Japel and P\u00e9russe (1999) asserted that physically aggressive behaviors such as kicking, biting and hitting are age-typical expressions of innate and spontaneous reactions to biological drives such as anger, hunger, and affiliation. Girls' relational aggression, meaning non-physical or indirect, tends to increase after age two while physical aggression decreases. There was no significant difference in aggression between males and females before two years of age. A possible explanation for this could be that girls develop language skills more quickly than boys, and therefore have better ways of verbalizing their wants and needs. They are more likely to use communication when trying to retrieve a toy with the words \"Ask nicely\" or \"Say please.\"\n\nAccording to the journal of Aggressive Behaviour, an analysis across 9 countries found boys reported more in the use of physical aggression. At the same time no consistent sex differences emerged within relational aggression. It has been found that girls are more likely than boys to use reactive aggression and then retract, but boys are more likely to increase rather than to retract their aggression after their first reaction. Studies show girls' aggressive tactics included gossip, ostracism, breaking confidences, and criticism of a victim's clothing, appearance, or personality, whereas boys engage in aggression that involves a direct physical and\/or verbal assault. This could be due to the fact that girls' frontal lobes develop earlier than boys, allowing them to self-restrain.\n\nOne factor that shows insignificant differences between male and female aggression is in sports. In sports, the rate of aggression in both contact and non-contact sports is relatively equal. Since the establishment of Title IX, female sports have increased in competitiveness and importance, which could contribute to the evening of aggression and the \"need to win\" attitude between both genders. Among sex differences found in adult sports were that females have a higher scale of indirect hostility while men have a higher scale of assault. Another difference found is that men have up to 20 times higher levels of testosterone than women.\n\nIn intimate relationships \nSome studies suggest that romantic involvement in adolescence decreases aggression in males and females, but decreases at a higher rate in females. Females will seem more desirable to their mate if they fit in with society and females that are aggressive do not usually fit well in society. They can often be viewed as antisocial. Female aggression is not considered the norm in society and going against the norm can sometimes prevent one from getting a mate. However, studies have shown that an increasing number of women are getting arrested for domestic violence charges. In many states, women now account for a quarter to a third of all domestic violence arrests, up from less than 10 percent a decade ago. The new statistics reflect a reality documented in research: women are perpetrators as well as victims of family violence. However, another equally possible explanation is a case of improved diagnostics: it has become more acceptable for men to report female domestic violence to the authorities while at the same time actual female domestic violence has not increased at all. This can be the case when men have become less ashamed of reporting female violence against them, therefore an increasing number of women are arrested, although the actual number of violent women remains the same.\n\nIn addition, males in competitive sports are often advised by their coaches not to be in intimate relationships based on the premises that they become more docile and less aggressive during an athletic event. The circumstances in which males and females experience aggression are also different. A study showed that social anxiety and stress was positively correlated with aggression in males, meaning as stress and social anxiety increases so does aggression. Furthermore, a male with higher social skills has a lower rate of aggressive behavior than a male with lower social skills. In females, higher rates of aggression were only correlated with higher rates of stress. Other than biological factors that contribute to aggression there are physical factors as well.\n\nPhysiological factors \nRegarding sexual dimorphism, humans fall into an intermediate group with moderate sex differences in body size but relatively large testes. This is a typical pattern of primates where several males and females live together in a group and the male faces an intermediate number of challenges from other males compared to exclusive polygyny and monogamy but frequent sperm competition.\n\nEvolutionary psychology and sociobiology have also discussed and produced theories for some specific forms of male aggression such as sociobiological theories of rape and theories regarding the Cinderella effect. Another evolutionary theory explaining gender differences in aggression is the Male Warrior hypothesis, which explains that males have psychologically evolved for intergroup aggression in order to gain access to mates, resources, territory and status.\n\nPhysiology\n\nBrain pathways\nMany researchers focus on the brain to explain aggression. Numerous circuits within both neocortical and subcortical structures play a central role in controlling aggressive behavior, depending on the species, and the exact role of pathways may vary depending on the type of trigger or intention.\n\nIn mammals, the hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray of the midbrain are critical areas, as shown in studies on cats, rats, and monkeys. These brain areas control the expression of both behavioral and autonomic components of aggression in these species, including vocalization. Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus causes aggressive behavior and the hypothalamus has receptors that help determine aggression levels based on their interactions with serotonin and vasopressin. In rodents, activation of estrogen receptor-expressing neurons in the ventrolateral portion of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMHvl) was found to be sufficient to initiate aggression in both males and females. Midbrain areas involved in aggression have direct connections with both the brainstem nuclei controlling these functions, and with structures such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.\n\nStimulation of the amygdala results in augmented aggressive behavior in hamsters, while lesions of an evolutionarily homologous area in the lizard greatly reduce competitive drive and aggression (Bauman et al. 2006). In rhesus monkeys, neonatal lesions in the amygdala or hippocampus results in reduced expression of social dominance, related to the regulation of aggression and fear. Several experiments in attack-primed Syrian golden hamsters, for example, support the claim of circuitry within the amygdala being involved in control of aggression. The role of the amygdala is less clear in primates and appears to depend more on situational context, with lesions leading to increases in either social affiliatory or aggressive responses. Amygdalotomy, which involves removing or destroying parts of the amygdala, has been performed on people to reduce their violent behaviour.\n\nThe broad area of the cortex known as the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is crucial for self-control and inhibition of impulses, including inhibition of aggression and emotions. Reduced activity of the prefrontal cortex, in particular its medial and orbitofrontal portions, has been associated with violent\/antisocial aggression. In addition, reduced response inhibition has been found in violent offenders, compared to non-violent offenders.\n\nThe role of the chemicals in the brain, particularly neurotransmitters, in aggression has also been examined. This varies depending on the pathway, the context and other factors such as gender. A deficit in serotonin has been theorized to have a primary role in causing impulsivity and aggression. At least one epigenetic study supports this supposition. Nevertheless, low levels of serotonin transmission may explain a vulnerability to impulsiveness, potential aggression, and may have an effect through interactions with other neurochemical systems. These include dopamine systems which are generally associated with attention and motivation toward rewards, and operate at various levels. Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, may influence aggression responses both directly and indirectly through the hormonal system, the sympathetic nervous system or the central nervous system (including the brain). It appears to have different effects depending on the type of triggering stimulus, for example social isolation\/rank versus shock\/chemical agitation which appears not to have a linear relationship with aggression. Similarly, GABA, although associated with inhibitory functions at many CNS synapses, sometimes shows a positive correlation with aggression, including when potentiated by alcohol.\n\nThe hormonal neuropeptides vasopressin and oxytocin play a key role in complex social behaviours in many mammals such as regulating attachment, social recognition, and aggression. Vasopressin has been implicated in male-typical social behaviors which includes aggression. Oxytocin may have a particular role in regulating female bonds with offspring and mates, including the use of protective aggression. Initial studies in humans suggest some similar effects.\n\nIn human, aggressive behavior has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body serotonin systems, catecholamine systems, and the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal axis. Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by stress, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress\n\nTestosterone\n\nEarly androgenization has an organizational effect on the developing brains of both males and females, making more neural circuits that control sexual behavior as well as intermale and interfemale aggression become more sensitive to testosterone. There are noticeable sex differences in aggression. Testosterone is present to a lesser extent in females, who may be more sensitive to its effects. Animal studies have also indicated a link between incidents of aggression and the individual level of circulating testosterone. However, results in relation to primates, particularly humans, are less clear cut and are at best only suggestive of a positive association in some contexts.\n\nIn humans, there is a seasonal variation in aggression associated with changes in testosterone. For example, in some primate species, such as rhesus monkeys and baboons, females are more likely to engage in fights around the time of ovulation as well as right before menstruation. If the results were the same in humans as they are in rhesus monkeys and baboons, then the increase in aggressive behaviors during ovulation is explained by the decline in estrogen levels. This makes normal testosterone levels more effective. Castrated mice and rats exhibit lower levels of aggression. Males castrated as neonates exhibit low levels of aggression even when given testosterone throughout their development.\n\nChallenge hypothesis\nThe challenge hypothesis outlines the dynamic relationship between plasma testosterone levels and aggression in mating contexts in many species. It proposes that testosterone is linked to aggression when it is beneficial for reproduction, such as in mate guarding and preventing the encroachment of intrasexual rivals. The challenge hypothesis predicts that seasonal patterns in testosterone levels in a species are a function of mating system (monogamy versus polygyny), paternal care, and male-male aggression in seasonal breeders. This pattern between testosterone and aggression was first observed in seasonally breeding birds, such as the song sparrow, where testosterone levels rise modestly with the onset of the breeding season to support basic reproductive functions. The hypothesis has been subsequently expanded and modified to predict relationships between testosterone and aggression in other species. For example, chimpanzees, which are continuous breeders, show significantly raised testosterone levels and aggressive male-male interactions when receptive and fertile females are present. Currently, no research has specified a relationship between the modified challenge hypothesis and human behavior, or the human nature of concealed ovulation, although some suggest it may apply.\n\nEffects on the nervous system\n\nAnother line of research has focused on the proximate effects of circulating testosterone on the nervous system, as mediated by local metabolism within the brain. Testosterone can be metabolized to estradiol by the enzyme aromatase, or to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by 5\u03b1-reductase.\n\nAromatase is highly expressed in regions involved in the regulation of aggressive behavior, such as the amygdala and hypothalamus. In studies using genetic knockout techniques in inbred mice, male mice that lacked a functional aromatase enzyme displayed a marked reduction in aggression. Long-term treatment with estradiol partially restored aggressive behavior, suggesting that the neural conversion of circulating testosterone to estradiol and its effect on estrogen receptors influences inter-male aggression. In addition, two different estrogen receptors, ER\u03b1 and ER\u03b2, have been identified as having the ability to exert different effects on aggression in mice. However, the effect of estradiol appears to vary depending on the strain of mouse, and in some strains it reduces aggression during long days (16 h of light), while during short days (8 h of light) estradiol rapidly increases aggression.\n\nAnother hypothesis is that testosterone influences brain areas that control behavioral reactions. Studies in animal models indicate that aggression is affected by several interconnected cortical and subcortical structures within the so-called social behavior network. A study involving lesions and electrical-chemical stimulation in rodents and cats revealed that such a neural network consists of the medial amygdala, medial hypothalamus and periaqueductal grey (PAG), and it positively modulates reactive aggression. Moreover, a study done in human subjects showed that prefrontal-amygdala connectivity is modulated by endogenous testosterone during social emotional behavior.\n\nIn human studies, testosterone-aggression research has also focused on the role of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). This brain area is strongly associated with impulse control and self-regulation systems that integrate emotion, motivation, and cognition to guide context-appropriate behavior. Patients with localized lesions to the OFC engage in heightened reactive aggression. Aggressive behavior may be regulated by testosterone via reduced medial OFC engagement following social provocation. When measuring participants' salivary testosterone, higher levels can predict subsequent aggressive behavioral reactions to unfairness faced during a task. Moreover, brain scanning with fMRI shows reduced activity in the medial OFC during such reactions. Such findings may suggest that a specific brain region, the OFC, is a key factor in understanding reactive aggression.\n\nGeneral associations with behavior\nScientists have for a long time been interested in the relationship between testosterone and aggressive behavior. In most species, males are more aggressive than females. Castration of males usually has a pacifying effect on aggressive behavior in males. In humans, males engage in crime and especially violent crime more than females. The involvement in crime usually rises in the early teens to mid teens which happen at the same time as testosterone levels rise. Research on the relationship between testosterone and aggression is difficult since the only reliable measurement of brain testosterone is by a lumbar puncture which is not done for research purposes. Studies therefore have often instead used more unreliable measurements from blood or saliva.\n\nThe Handbook of Crime Correlates, a review of crime studies, states most studies support a link between adult criminality and testosterone although the relationship is modest if examined separately for each sex. However, nearly all studies of juvenile delinquency and testosterone are not significant. Most studies have also found testosterone to be associated with behaviors or personality traits linked with criminality such as antisocial behavior and alcoholism. Many studies have also been done on the relationship between more general aggressive behavior\/feelings and testosterone. About half the studies have found a relationship and about half no relationship.\n\nStudies of testosterone levels of male athletes before and after a competition revealed that testosterone levels rise shortly before their matches, as if in anticipation of the competition, and are dependent on the outcome of the event: testosterone levels of winners are high relative to those of losers. No specific response of testosterone levels to competition was observed in female athletes, although a mood difference was noted. In addition, some experiments have failed to find a relationship between testosterone levels and aggression in humans.\n\nThe possible correlation between testosterone and aggression could explain the \"roid rage\" that can result from anabolic steroid use, although an effect of abnormally high levels of steroids does not prove an effect at physiological levels.\n\nDehydroepiandrosterone\nDehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is the most abundant circulating androgen hormone and can be rapidly metabolized within target tissues into potent androgens and estrogens. Gonadal steroids generally regulate aggression during the breeding season, but non-gonadal steroids may regulate aggression during the non-breeding season. Castration of various species in the non-breeding season has no effect on territorial aggression. In several avian studies, circulating DHEA has been found to be elevated in birds during the non-breeding season. These data support the idea that non-breeding birds combine adrenal and\/or gonadal DHEA synthesis with neural DHEA metabolism to maintain territorial behavior when gonadal testosterone secretion is low. Similar results have been found in studies involving different strains of rats, mice, and hamsters. DHEA levels also have been studied in humans and may play a role in human aggression. Circulating DHEAS (its sulfated ester) levels rise during adrenarche (\u22487 years of age) while plasma testosterone levels are relatively low. This implies that aggression in pre-pubertal children with aggressive conduct disorder might be correlated with plasma DHEAS rather than plasma testosterone, suggesting an important link between DHEAS and human aggressive behavior.\n\nGlucocorticoids\nGlucocorticoid hormones have an important role in regulating aggressive behavior. In adult rats, acute injections of corticosterone promote aggressive behavior and acute reduction of corticosterone decreases aggression; however, a chronic reduction of corticosterone levels can produce abnormally aggressive behavior. In addition, glucocorticoids affect development of aggression and establishment of social hierarchies. Adult mice with low baseline levels of corticosterone are more likely to become dominant than are mice with high baseline corticosterone levels.\n\nGlucocorticoids are released by the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis in response to stress, of which cortisol is the most prominent in humans. Results in adults suggest that reduced levels of cortisol, linked to lower fear or a reduced stress response, can be associated with more aggression. However, it may be that proactive aggression is associated with low cortisol levels while reactive aggression may be accompanied by elevated levels. Differences in assessments of cortisol may also explain a diversity of results, particularly in children.\n\nThe HPA axis is related to the general fight-or-flight response or acute stress reaction, and the role of catecholamines such as epinephrine, popularly known as adrenaline.\n\nPheromones\nIn many animals, aggression can be linked to pheromones released between conspecifics. In mice, major urinary proteins (Mups) have been demonstrated to promote innate aggressive behavior in males, and can be mediated by neuromodulatory systems. Mups activate olfactory sensory neurons in the vomeronasal organ (VNO), a subsystem of the nose known to detect pheromones via specific sensory receptors, of mice and rats. Pheremones have also been identified in fruit flies, detected by neurons in the antenna, that send a message to the brain eliciting aggression; it has been noted that aggression pheremones have not been identified in humans.\n\nGenetics\n\nIn general, differences in a continuous phenotype such as aggression are likely to result from the action of a large number of genes each of small effect, which interact with each other and the environment through development and life.\n\nIn a non-mammalian example of genes related to aggression, the fruitless gene in fruit flies is a critical determinant of certain sexually dimorphic behaviors, and its artificial alteration can result in a reversal of stereotypically male and female patterns of aggression in fighting. However, in what was thought to be a relatively clear case, inherent complexities have been reported in deciphering the connections between interacting genes in an environmental context and a social phenotype involving multiple behavioral and sensory interactions with another organism.\n\nIn mice, candidate genes for differentiating aggression between the sexes are the Sry (sex determining region Y) gene, located on the Y chromosome and the Sts (steroid sulfatase) gene. The Sts gene encodes the steroid sulfatase enzyme, which is pivotal in the regulation of neurosteroid biosynthesis. It is expressed in both sexes, is correlated with levels of aggression among male mice, and increases dramatically in females after parturition and during lactation, corresponding to the onset of maternal aggression. At least one study has found a possible epigenetic signature (i.e. decreased methylation at a specific CpG site on the promoter region) of the serotonin receptor 5-HT3a that is associated with maternal aggression among human subjects.\n\nMice with experimentally elevated sensitivity to oxidative stress (through inhibition of copper-zinc superoxide dismutase, SOD1 activity) were tested for aggressive behavior. Males completely deficient in SOD1 were found to be more aggressive than both wild-type males and males that express 50% of this antioxidant enzyme. They were also faster to attack another male. The causal connection between SOD1 deficiency and increased aggression is not yet understood.\n\nIn humans, there is good evidence that the basic human neural architecture underpinning the potential for flexible aggressive responses is influenced by genes as well as environment. In terms of variation between individual people, more than 100 twin and adoption studies have been conducted in recent decades examining the genetic basis of aggressive behavior and related constructs such as conduct disorders. According to a meta-analysis published in 2002, approximately 40% of variation between individuals is explained by differences in genes, and 60% by differences in environment (mainly non-shared environmental influences rather than those that would be shared by being raised together). However, such studies have depended on self-report or observation by others including parents, which complicates interpretation of the results. The few laboratory-based analyses have not found significant amounts of individual variation in aggression explicable by genetic variation in the human population. Furthermore, linkage and association studies that seek to identify specific genes, for example that influence neurotransmitter or hormone levels, have generally resulted in contradictory findings characterized by failed attempts at replication. One possible factor is an allele (variant) of the MAO-A gene which, in interaction with certain life events such as childhood maltreatment (which may show a main effect on its own), can influence development of brain regions such as the amygdala and as a result some types of behavioral response may be more likely. The generally unclear picture has been compared to equally difficult findings obtained in regard to other complex behavioral phenotypes. For example, both 7R and 5R, ADHD-linked VNTR alleles of dopamine receptor D4 gene are directly associated with the incidence of proactive aggression in the men with no history of ADHD.\n\nSociety and culture\nHumans share aspects of aggression with non-human animals, and have specific aspects and complexity related to factors such as genetics, early development, social learning and flexibility, culture and morals.\nKonrad Lorenz stated in his 1963 classic, On Aggression, that human behavior is shaped by four main, survival-seeking animal drives. Taken together, these drives\u2014hunger, fear, reproduction, and aggression\u2014achieve natural selection. E. O. Wilson elaborated in On Human Nature that aggression is, typically, a means of gaining control over resources. Aggression is, thus, aggravated during times when high population densities generate resource shortages. According to Richard Leakey and his colleagues, aggression in humans has also increased by becoming more interested in ownership and by defending his or her property. However, UNESCO adopted the Seville Statement of Violence in 1989 that refuted claims, by evolutionary scientists, that genetics by itself was the sole cause of aggression.\n\nSocial and cultural aspects may significantly interfere with the distinct expression of aggressiveness. For example, a high population density, when associated with a decrease of available resources, might be a significant intervening variable for the occurrence of violent acts.\n\nCulture\nCulture is one factor that plays a role in aggression. Tribal or band societies existing before or outside of modern states have sometimes been depicted as peaceful 'noble savages'. The \u01c3Kung people were described as 'The Harmless People' in a popular work by Elizabeth Marshall Thomas in 1958, while Lawrence Keeley's 1996 War Before Civilization suggested that regular warfare without modern technology was conducted by most groups throughout human history, including most Native American tribes. Studies of hunter-gatherers show a range of different societies. In general, aggression, conflict and violence sometimes occur, but direct confrontation is generally avoided and conflict is socially managed by a variety of verbal and non-verbal methods. Different rates of aggression or violence, currently or in the past, within or between groups, have been linked to the structuring of societies and environmental conditions influencing factors such as resource or property acquisition, land and subsistence techniques, and population change.\n\nAmerican psychologist Peter Gray hypothesizes that band hunter-gatherer societies are able to reduce aggression while maintaining relatively peaceful, egalitarian relations between members through various methods, such as fostering a playful spirit in all areas of life, the use of humor to counter the tendency of any one person to dominate the group, and non-coercive or \"indulgent\" child-rearing practices. Gray likens hunter-gatherer bands to social play groups, while stressing that such play is not frivolous or even easy at all times. According to Gray, \"Social play\u2014that is, play involving more than one player\u2014is necessarily egalitarian. It always requires a suspension of aggression and dominance along with a heightened sensitivity to the needs and desires of the other players\".\n\nJoan Durrant at the University of Manitoba writes that a number of studies have found physical punishment to be associated with \"higher levels of aggression against parents, siblings, peers and spouses\", even when controlling for other factors. According to Elizabeth Gershoff at the University of Texas at Austin, the more that children are physically punished, the more likely they are as adults to act violently towards family members, including intimate partners. In countries where physical punishment of children is perceived as being more culturally accepted, it is less strongly associated with increased aggression; however, physical punishment has been found to predict some increase in child aggression regardless of culture. While these associations do not prove causality, a number of longitudinal studies suggest that the experience of physical punishment has a direct causal effect on later aggressive behaviors. In examining several longitudinal studies that investigated the path from disciplinary spanking to aggression in children from preschool age through adolescence, Gershoff concluded: \"Spanking consistently predicted increases in children's aggression over time, regardless of how aggressive children were when the spanking occurred\". similar results were found by Catherine Taylor at Tulane University in 2010. Family violence researcher Murray A. Straus argues, \"There are many reasons this evidence has been ignored. One of the most important is the belief that spanking is more effective than nonviolent discipline and is, therefore, sometimes necessary, despite the risk of harmful side effects\".\n\nAnalyzing aggression culturally or politically is complicated by the fact that the label 'aggressive' can itself be used as a way of asserting a judgement from a particular point of view. Whether a coercive or violent method of social control is perceived as aggression\u00a0\u2013 or as legitimate versus illegitimate aggression\u00a0\u2013 depends on the position of the relevant parties in relation to the social order of their culture. This in turn can relate to factors such as: norms for coordinating actions and dividing resources; what is considered self-defense or provocation; attitudes towards 'outsiders', attitudes towards specific groups such as women, disabled people or those with lower status; the availability of alternative conflict resolution strategies; trade interdependence and collective security pacts; fears and impulses; and ultimate goals regarding material and social outcomes.\n\nCross-cultural research has found differences in attitudes towards aggression in different cultures. In one questionnaire study of university students, in addition to men overall justifying some types of aggression more than women, United States respondents justified defensive physical aggression more readily than Japanese or Spanish respondents, whereas Japanese students preferred direct verbal aggression (but not indirect) more than their American and Spanish counterparts. Within American culture, southern men were shown in a study on university students to be more affected and to respond more aggressively than northerners when randomly insulted after being bumped into, which was theoretically related to a traditional culture of honor in the Southern United States, or \"saving face.\" Other cultural themes sometimes applied to the study of aggression include individualistic versus collectivist styles, which may relate, for example, to whether disputes are responded to with open competition or by accommodating and avoiding conflicts. In a study including 62 countries school principals reported aggressive student behavior more often the more individualist, and hence less collectivist, their country's culture. Other comparisons made in relation to aggression or war include democratic versus authoritarian political systems and egalitarian versus stratified societies. The economic system known as capitalism has been viewed by some as reliant on the leveraging of human competitiveness and aggression in pursuit of resources and trade, which has been considered in both positive and negative terms. Attitudes about the social acceptability of particular acts or targets of aggression are also important factors. This can be highly controversial, as for example in disputes between religions or nation states, for example in regard to the Arab\u2013Israeli conflict.\n\nMedia\n\nSome scholars believe that behaviors like aggression may be partially learned by watching and imitating people's behavior, while other researchers have concluded that the media may have some small effects on aggression. There is also research questioning this view. For instance, a long-term outcome study of youth found no long-term relationship between playing violent video games and youth violence or bullying. One study suggested there is a smaller effect of violent video games on aggression than has been found with television violence on aggression. This effect is positively associated with type of game violence and negatively associated to time spent playing the games. The author concluded that insufficient evidence exists to link video game violence with aggression. However, another study suggested links to aggressive behavior.\n\nChildren\nThe frequency of physical aggression in humans peaks at around 2\u20133 years of age. It then declines gradually on average. These observations suggest that physical aggression is not only a learned behavior but that development provides opportunities for the learning and biological development of self-regulation. However, a small subset of children fail to acquire all the necessary self-regulatory abilities and tend to show atypical levels of physical aggression across development. These may be at risk for later violent behavior or, conversely, lack of aggression that may be considered necessary within society. Some findings suggest that early aggression does not necessarily lead to aggression later on, however, although the course through early childhood is an important predictor of outcomes in middle childhood. In addition, physical aggression that continues is likely occurring in the context of family adversity, including socioeconomic factors. Moreover, 'opposition' and 'status violations' in childhood appear to be more strongly linked to social problems in adulthood than simply aggressive antisocial behavior. Social learning through interactions in early childhood has been seen as a building block for levels of aggression which play a crucial role in the development of peer relationships in middle childhood. Overall, an interplay of biological, social and environmental factors can be considered. Some research indicates that changes in the weather can increase the likelihood of children exhibiting deviant behavior.\n\nTypical expectations\n Young children preparing to enter kindergarten need to develop the socially important skill of being assertive. Examples of assertiveness include asking others for information, initiating conversation, or being able to respond to peer pressure.\n In contrast, some young children use aggressive behavior, such as hitting or biting, as a form of communication.\n Aggressive behavior can impede learning as a skill deficit, while assertive behavior can facilitate learning. However, with young children, aggressive behavior is developmentally appropriate and can lead to opportunities of building conflict resolution and communication skills.\n By school age, children should learn more socially appropriate forms of communicating such as expressing themselves through verbal or written language; if they have not, this behavior may signify a disability or developmental delay.\n\nAggression triggers\n Physical fear of others\n Family difficulties\n Learning, neurological, or conduct\/behavior disorders\n Psychological trauma\n\nThe Bobo doll experiment was conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961. In this work, Bandura found that children exposed to an aggressive adult model acted more aggressively than those who were exposed to a nonaggressive adult model. This experiment suggests that anyone who comes in contact with and interacts with children can affect the way they react and handle situations.\n\nSummary points from recommendations by national associations\nAmerican Academy of Pediatrics (2011): \"The best way to prevent aggressive behavior is to give your child a stable, secure home life with firm, loving discipline and full-time supervision during the toddler and preschool years. Everyone who cares for your child should be a good role model and agree on the rules he's expected to observe as well as the response to use if he disobeys.\"\n National Association of School Psychologists (2008): \"Proactive aggression is typically reasoned, unemotional, and focused on acquiring some goal. For example, a bully wants peer approval and victim submission, and gang members want status and control. In contrast, reactive aggression is frequently highly emotional and is often the result of biased or deficient cognitive processing on the part of the student.\"\n\nGender\n\nGender is a factor that plays a role in both human and animal aggression. Males are historically believed to be generally more physically aggressive than females from an early age, and men commit the vast majority of murders (Buss 2005). This is one of the most robust and reliable behavioral sex differences, and it has been found across many different age groups and cultures. However, some empirical studies have found the discrepancy in male and female aggression to be more pronounced in childhood and the gender difference in adults to be modest when studied in an experimental context. Still, there is evidence that males are quicker to aggression (Frey et al. 2003) and more likely than females to express their aggression physically. When considering indirect forms of non-violent aggression, such as relational aggression and social rejection, some scientists argue that females can be quite aggressive, although female aggression is rarely expressed physically. An exception is intimate partner violence that occurs among couples who are engaged, married, or in some other form of intimate relationship.\n\nAlthough females are less likely than males to initiate physical violence, they can express aggression by using a variety of non-physical means. Exactly which method women use to express aggression is something that varies from culture to culture. On Bellona Island, a culture based on male dominance and physical violence, women tend to get into conflicts with other women more frequently than with men. When in conflict with males, instead of using physical means, they make up songs mocking the man, which spread across the island and humiliate him. If a woman wanted to kill a man, she would either convince her male relatives to kill him or hire an assassin. Although these two methods involve physical violence, both are forms of indirect aggression, since the aggressor herself avoids getting directly involved or putting herself in immediate physical danger.\n\nSee also the sections on testosterone and evolutionary explanations for gender differences above.\n\nSituational factors\n\nThere has been some links between those prone to violence and their alcohol use. Those who are prone to violence and use alcohol are more likely to carry out violent acts. Alcohol impairs judgment, making people much less cautious than they usually are (MacDonald et al. 1996). It also disrupts the way information is processed (Bushman 1993, 1997; Bushman & Cooper 1990).\n\nPain and discomfort also increase aggression. Even the simple act of placing one's hands in hot water can cause an aggressive response. Hot temperatures have been implicated as a factor in a number of studies. One study completed in the midst of the civil rights movement found that riots were more likely on hotter days than cooler ones (Carlsmith & Anderson 1979). Students were found to be more aggressive and irritable after taking a test in a hot classroom (Anderson et al. 1996, Rule, et al. 1987). Drivers in cars without air conditioning were also found to be more likely to honk their horns (Kenrick & MacFarlane 1986), which is used as a measure of aggression and has shown links to other factors such as generic symbols of aggression or the visibility of other drivers.\n\nFrustration is another major cause of aggression. The Frustration aggression theory states that aggression increases if a person feels that he or she is being blocked from achieving a goal (Aronson et al. 2005). One study found that the closeness to the goal makes a difference. The study examined people waiting in line and concluded that the 2nd person was more aggressive than the 12th one when someone cut in line (Harris 1974). Unexpected frustration may be another factor. In a separate study to demonstrate how unexpected frustration leads to increased aggression, Kulik & Brown (1979) selected a group of students as volunteers to make calls for charity donations. One group was told that the people they would call would be generous and the collection would be very successful. The other group was given no expectations. The group that expected success was more upset when no one was pledging than the group who did not expect success (everyone actually had horrible success). This research suggests that when an expectation does not materialize (successful collections), unexpected frustration arises which increases aggression.\n\nThere is some evidence to suggest that the presence of violent objects such as a gun can trigger aggression. In a study done by Leonard Berkowitz and Anthony Le Page (1967), college students were made angry and then left in the presence of a gun or badminton racket. They were then led to believe they were delivering electric shocks to another student, as in the Milgram experiment. Those who had been in the presence of the gun administered more shocks. It is possible that a violence-related stimulus increases the likelihood of aggressive cognitions by activating the semantic network.\n\nA new proposal links military experience to anger and aggression, developing aggressive reactions and investigating these effects on those possessing the traits of a serial killer. Castle and Hensley state, \"The military provides the social context where servicemen learn aggression, violence, and murder.\" Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is also a serious issue in the military, also believed to sometimes lead to aggression in soldiers who are suffering from what they witnessed in battle. They come back to the civilian world and may still be haunted by flashbacks and nightmares, causing severe stress. In addition, it has been claimed that in the rare minority who are claimed to be inclined toward serial killing, violent impulses may be reinforced and refined in war, possibly creating more effective murderers.\n\nAs a positive adaptation theory\nSome recent scholarship has questioned traditional psychological conceptualizations of aggression as universally negative. Most traditional psychological definitions of aggression focus on the harm to the recipient of the aggression, implying this is the intent of the aggressor; however this may not always be the case. From this alternate view, although the recipient may or may not be harmed, the perceived intent is to increase the status of the aggressor, not necessarily to harm the recipient. Such scholars contend that traditional definitions of aggression have no validity because of how challenging it is to study directly.\n\nFrom this view, rather than concepts such as assertiveness, aggression, violence and criminal violence existing as distinct constructs, they exist instead along a continuum with moderate levels of aggression being most adaptive. Such scholars do not consider this a trivial difference, noting that many traditional researchers' aggression measurements may measure outcomes lower down in the continuum, at levels which are adaptive, yet they generalize their findings to non-adaptive levels of aggression, thus losing precision.\n\nSee also\n\n Aggressionism\n Aggressive narcissism\n Bullying\n Child abuse\n Conflict (disambiguation)\n Displaced aggression\n Duelling\n Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis\n Hero syndrome\n Homo homini lupus\n Microaggression\n Non-aggression pact \n Non-aggression principle\n Parental abuse by children\n Passive aggressive behavior\n Rage (emotion)\n Relational aggression\n Resource holding potential\n Revenge\n School bullying\n School violence\n Social defeat\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n R. Douglas Fields, \"The Roots of Human Aggression:  Experiments in humans and animals have started to identify how violent behaviors begin in the brain\", Scientific American, vol. 320, no. 5 (May 2019), pp.\u00a064\u201371. \"Decisions to take aggressive action are risky and bring into play specific neural circuits.\" (p.\u00a066.)\n\nExternal links \n\n When Family Life Hurts: Family experience of aggression in children \u2013 Parentline plus, 31 October 2010\n Aggression and Violent Behavior, a Review Journal\n International Society for Research on Aggression (ISRA)\nProblems in the Concepts and Definitions of Aggression, Violence and some Related Terms by Johan van der Dennen, originally published in 1980\n Aggression and brain asymmetry \n\n \nProblem behavior\nDispute resolution\nSymptoms and signs of mental disorders\nViolence","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":239,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":4,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":6,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":6,"2015-48":6,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":7,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":7,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":8,"2014-41":10,"2014-35":12,"2014-23":15,"2014-15":8,"2021-10":1,"2019-47":2}},"id":58687,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aggression","title":"Aggression","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u00c0w\u1ecdn \u00ccd\u00edje \u00d2l\u00edmp\u00edk\u00ec \u00ccgb\u00e0 Oru 2004, lonibise bi Awon Idije Olimpiadi 28k, je idije pataki akariaye oniere-idaraya pupo to waye ni Athens, Greece lati August 13 de August 29, 2004 pelu motto Welcome Home. Awon elere-idaraya 10,625 ni won kopa nibe, eyi fi 600 ju iye ti won reti lo, awonn wonyi je titele leyin pelu awon osise egbe 5,501 lati orile-ede 201. Idije 301 fun eso waye ninu awon ere-idaraya 28. Athens odun 2004 ni igba akoko lati igba Awon Idije Olimpiki Igba Oru 1996 ti gbogbo awo orile-ede ti won ni Igbimo Olorile-ede Olimpiki kopa. Bakanna o tun je igba akoko lati odun 1896 (leyin Idije 1906 to ti je riresile latigba na) ti awon Idije Olimpiki waye ni Girisi.\n\n\u00ccd\u00f9\n\nAthens je yiyan gegebi ilu agbalejo ninu Ipade 106k IOC to waye ni Lausanne ni September 5, 1997.  Athens ti kuna idu re lodun meje seyin ni September 18, 1990 ninu Ipade 96k IOC ni Tokyo lati gbalejo Awon Idije Igba Oru 1996 eyi to sele ni Atlanta. abe idari Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, Athens mura fun idu miran, nigba yi fun eto lati gbalejo Awon Idije Igba Oru 2004. Iyorisirere ilu Athens lati gba awon Idije 2004 da lori ibebe Athens si itan Olimpiki ati itenu re mo ipa pataki ti orile-ede Girisi ati ilu Athens le ko nipa pipolongo iwa Olimpiki ati Isunkankan Olimpiki. Bakanna, ko ri bi idu won fun awon Idije 1996 to je fifi abuku kan fun ailojutu ati iyaju re - nibi ti idu na ko ni unkankan pato, to kan je pe o gbokan le itara ati ero okan pe eto ilu Athens ni lati gbalejo awon Idije ti ogorun odun; idu fun awon Idije 2004 je yiyin fun inirewesi ati ooto re, iranse re to lojutu, ati ekunrere eto idu re. Idu ti 2004 yanju awon isoro ti ti 1996 ko le yanju - pataki imura ilu Athens, idibaje afefeayika re, isuna re, ati ifoselu se ipalemo awon Idije. Iyorisirere Athens nigba to gbalejo Idije-eye Agbaye Ere Ori Papa 1997 losu kan ki idiboyan ilu agbalejo o to waye na tun se pataki nipa imura re lati gbalejo ere-idaraya akariaye. Eyi to tun fa ti won fi yyan ilu Athens ni itara larin awon omo egbe IOC lati da ogo Olimpiki pada si awon Idije, eyi ni won ro pe o sonu nigba Awon Idije Atlanta 1996 ti won fi abuku kan pe o ti je siseju lokowo. Nitorie, iyan Athens je bi ero pe yio yato si awon Idije 1996.\n\nLeyin to ti lewaju ninu gbogbo awon iyipo idibo, Athens segun Rome laini inira nini ibo 5k to dopin. Cape Town, Stockholm, ati Buenos Aires, awon ilu meta miran ti won bo sinu iwe-kukuru IOC, je lile kuro ninu awon iyipo idibo seyin. Awon ilu mefa miran na tun se itoro, sugbon idu won je fifisile latowo IOC ni 1996. Awon ilu na ni Istanbul, Lille, Rio de Janeiro, San Juan, Seville, ati Saint Petersburg.\n\n\u00ccm\u00fara\nNi November 13, 2004, ile-ise isoju Greek sediye iye owo ti igbalejo Olimpiki yio na pe o je  egbegberunkeji \u20ac8.954 (to to egbegberunkeji $11.2 ni 2004) lai ni iye owo ikole ti won ba se nitori awon Idije, sugbon to ni egbegberunkeji 1.08 Euros ($1.35 billion) fun eto abo. NBC Universal san egbegberun $793 fun IOC fun awon eto igbehansode ni Amerika, iye topojulo ti enikan san fun eto igbehansode orile-ede. \n\nLeyin isele adaniloro Osu kesan 2001 ideru waye nipa [terrorism|isdaniloro]]. Girisi safikun si iye ti wo na lori abo Olimpiki de egbegberun \u20ac970 (US$1.2 billion). Bii awon olopa to to 70,000 ni won so ilu Athens ati awon ibi idije nigba Olimpiki. NATO ati Isokan ara Europe na tun se itoleyin die, leyin igba ti Athens ti toro ifowosowopo lodo won.\n\nNigba ti Igbimo Olimpiki Akariaye fi expressed its concern over the progress of construction work of the new Olympic venues, a new Organizing Committee was formed in 2000 under President Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki. In the years leading up to the Games, Athens was transformed into a city that used state-of-the-art technology in transportation and urban development. Some of the most modern sporting venues in the world at the time were built to host the 2004 Olympic Games.\n\nThe general cost of the games was estimated to be 7.2 billion euros.\n\n\u00cck\u1ecd\u0301l\u00e9\n\nBy late March 2004, some Olympic projects were still behind schedule, and Greek authorities announced that a roof it had initially proposed as an optional, non-vital addition to the Aquatics Center would no longer be built. The main Olympic Stadium, the designated facility for the opening and closing ceremonies, was completed only two months before the games opened.  This stadium was completed with a retractable glass roof designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava. The same architect also designed the Velodrome and other facilities.\n\nInfrastructure, such as the tram line linking venues in southern Athens with the city proper, and numerous venues were considerably behind schedule just two months before the games. The subsequent pace of preparation, however, made the rush to finish the Athens venues one of the tightest in Olympics history. The Greeks, unperturbed, maintained that they would make it all along. By July\/August 2004, all venues were delivered: in August, the Olympic Stadium was officially completed and opened, joined or preceded by the official completion and openings of other venues within the Athens Olympic Sports Complex (OAKA), and the sports complexes in Faliro and Helliniko.\n\nLate July and early August witnessed the Athens Tram and Light Rail become operational, and these two systems provided additional connections to those already existing between Athens and its waterfront communities along the Saronic Gulf.  These communities included the port city of Piraeus, Agios Kosmas (site of the sailing venue), Helliniko (the site of the old international airport which now contained the fencing venue, the canoe\/kayak slalom course, the 15,000-seat Helliniko Olympic Basketball Arena, and the softball and baseball stadia), and the Faliro Coastal Zone Olympic Complex (site of the taekwondo, handball, indoor volleyball, and beach volleyball venues, as well as the newly-reconstructed Karaiskaki Stadium for football). The upgrades to the Athens Ring Road were also delivered just in time, as were the expressway upgrades connecting Athens proper with peripheral areas such as Markopoulo (site of the shooting and equestrian venues), the newly constructed Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport, Schinias (site of the rowing venue), Maroussi (site of the OAKA), Parnitha (site of the Olympic Village), Galatsi (site of the rhythmic gymnastics and table tennis venue), and Vouliagmeni (site of the triathlon venue). The upgrades to the Athens Metro were also completed, and the new lines became operational by mid-summer.\n\nEMI released Unity, the official pop album of the Athens Olympics, in the leadup to the Olympics. It features contributions from Sting, Lenny Kravitz, Moby, Destiny's Child, and Avril Lavigne. EMI has pledged to donate US$180,000 from the album to UNICEF's HIV\/AIDS program in Sub-Saharan Africa.\n\nAt least 14 people died during the work on the facilities. Most of these people were not from Greece.\n\nBefore the games, Greek hotel staff staged a series of one-day strikes over wage disputes. They had been asking for a significant raise for the period covering the event being staged. Paramedics and ambulance drivers also protested.  They claimed to have the right to the same Olympic bonuses promised to their security force counterparts.\n\nIgbe Ogunso\n\nThe lighting ceremony of the Olympic flame took place on March 25 in Ancient Olympia. For the first time ever, the flame travelled around the world in a relay to former Olympic cities and other large cities, before returning to Greece.\n\nAwon Maskoti\n\nMascots have been a tradition at the Olympic Games since the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France.  The Athens games had two official mascots: Athin\u00e1 and Ph\u00e9vos (pronounced in Greek, Athina and Fivos).  The sister and brother were named after Athena, the goddess of wisdom, strategy and war, and Phoebus, the god of light and music, respectively. They were inspired by the ancient daidala, which were dolls that had religious connotations as well as being toys.\n\nTeknoloji\n\nAs with any enterprise, the Organizing Committee and everyone involved with it relied heavily on technology in order to deliver a successful event. ATHOC maintained two separate data networks, one for the preparation of the Games (known as the Administrative network) and one for the Games themselves (Games Network). The technical infrastructure involved more than 11,000 computers, over 600 servers, 2,000 printers, 23,000 fixed-line telephone devices, 9,000 mobile phones, 12,000 TETRA devices, 16,000 TV and video devices and 17 Video Walls interconnected by more than 6,000 kilometers of cabling (both optical fiber and twisted pair).\n\nThis infrastructure was created and maintained to serve directly more than 150,000 ATHOC Staff, Volunteers, Olympic family members (IOC, NOCs, Federations), Partners & Sponsors and Media. It also kept the information flowing for all spectators, TV viewers, Website visitors and news readers around the world, prior and during the Games. The Media Center was located inside the Zappeion which is a Greek national exhibition center.\n\nBetween June and August 2004, the technology staff worked in the Technology Operations Center (TOC) from where it could centrally monitor and manage all the devices and flow of information, as well as handle any problems that occurred during the Games. The TOC was organized in teams (e.g. Systems, Telecommunications, Information Security, Data Network, Staffing, etc.) under a TOC Director and corresponding team leaders (Shift Managers). The TOC operated on a 24x7 basis with personnel organized into 12-hour shifts.\n\nAwon Idije\n\nAjoyo Ibere\n\nThe widely praised Opening Ceremony by avant garde choreographer Dimitris Papaioannou held on August 13, 2004 began with a twenty eight (the number of the Olympiads up to then) second countdown paced by the sounds of an amplified heartbeat. As the countdown was completed, fireworks rumbled and illuminated the skies overhead. After a drum corps and bouzouki players joined in an opening march, the video screen showed images of flight, crossing southwest from Athens over the Greek countryside to ancient Olympia. Then, a single drummer in the ancient stadium joined in a drum duet with a single drummer in the main stadium in Athens, joining the original ancient Olympic games with the modern ones in symbolism. At the end of the drum duet, a single flaming arrow was launched from the video screen (symbolically from ancient Olympia) and into the reflecting pool, which resulted in fire erupting in the middle of the stadium creating a burning image of the Olympic rings rising from the pool. The Opening Ceremony was a pageant of traditional Greek culture and history hearkening back to its mythological beginnings. The program began as a young Greek boy sailed into the stadium on a 'paper-ship' waving the host nation's flag to aethereal music by Hadjidakis and then a centaur appeared, followed by a gigantic head of a cycladic figurine which eventually broke into many pieces symbolising the Greek islands. Underneath the cycladic head was a Hellenistic representation of the human body, reflecting the concept and belief in perfection reflected in Greek art. A man was seen balancing on a hovering cube symbolising man's eternal 'split' between passion and reason followed by a couple of young lovers playfully chasing each other while the god Eros was hovering above them. There followed a very colourful float parade chronicling Greek history from the ancient Minoan civilization to modern times.\n\nAlthough NBC in the United States presented the entire opening ceremony from start to finish, a topless Minoan priestess was shown only briefly, the breasts having been pixelated digitally in order to avoid controversy (as the \"Nipplegate\" incident was still fresh in viewer's minds at the time) and potential fines by the Federal Communications Commission. Also, lower frontal nudity of men dressed as ancient Greek statues was shown in such a way that the area below the waist was cut off by the bottom of the screen. In most other countries presenting the broadcast, there was no censorship of the ceremony.\n\nFollowing the artistic performances, a parade of nations (staged by 5 time Olympic Choreographer Doug Jack) entered the stadium with over 10,500 athletes walking under the banners of 201 nations. The nations were arranged according to Greek alphabet making Finland, Fiji, Chile, and Hong Kong the last four to enter the stadium before the Greek delegation. On this occasion, in observance of the tradition that the delegation of Greece opens the parade and the host nation closes it, the Greek flag bearer opened the parade and all the Greek delegation closed it. Based on audience reaction, the emotional high point of the parade was the entrance of the delegation from Afghanistan which had been absent from the Olympics and had female competitors for the first time. The Iraqi delegation also stirred emotions. Also recognized was the symbolic unified march of athletes from North Korea and South Korea under the Korean Unification Flag. The country of Kiribati made a debut at these games and East Timor made a debut under its own flag. After the Parade of Nations, during which the Dutch DJ Ti\u00ebsto provided the music, the Icelandic singer Bj\u00f6rk performed the song Oceania, written specially for the event by her and the poet Sj\u00f3n.\n\nThe Opening Ceremony culminated in the lighting of the Olympic Cauldron by 1996 Gold Medalist Windsurfer Nikolaos Kaklamanakis. Many key moments in the ceremony, including the lighting of the Olympic Cauldron, featured music composed and arranged by John Psathas from New Zealand. The gigantic cauldron, which was styled after the Athens 2004 Olympic Torch, pivoted down to be lit by the 35 year-old, before slowly swinging up and lifting the flame high above the stadium. Kaklamanakis would later win his silver medal in the men's mistral behind Israeli windsurfer Gal Fridman. Following this, the stadium found itself at the centre of a rousing fireworks spectacular.\n\nAwon orile-ede to kopa\n\nAll National Olympic Committees (NOCs) participated in the Athens Games, as was the case in 1996. Two new NOCs had been created since 1996, and made their debut at these Games (Kiribati, and Timor-Leste), therefore along with the re-appearance of Afghanistan (missing the 2000 Summer Olympics) the total number of participating nations increased from 199 to 202. Also since 2000, Yugoslavia had changed its name to Serbia and Montenegro and its code from YUG to SCG. The number in parentheses indicates the number of participants that NOC contributed.\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n  (al\u00e1gb\u00e0\u1e63e)\n\nAwon ere-idaraya\nThe sports featured at the 2004 Summer Olympics are listed below. Officially there were 28 sports as swimming, diving, synchronised swimming and water polo are classified by the IOC as disciplines within the sport of aquatics, and wheelchair racing was a demonstration sport. For the first time, the wrestling category featured women's wrestling and in the fencing competition women competed in the sabre. American Kristin Heaston, who led off the qualifying round of women's shotput became the first woman to compete at the ancient site of Olympia but Cuban Yumileidi Cumba became the first woman to win a gold medal there.\n\nThe demonstration sport of wheelchair racing was a joint Olympic\/Paralympic event, allowing a Paralympic event to occur within the Olympics, and for the future, opening up the wheelchair race to the able-bodied. The 2004 Summer Paralympics were also held in Athens, from September 20 to 28.\n\n  Archery (4)\n  Athletics (46)\n  Badminton (5)\n  Baseball (1)\n  Basketball (2)\n  Boxing (11)\n  Canoeing (16)\n  Cycling (18)\n\n  Diving (8)\n  Equestrian (6)\n  Fencing (10)\n  Field Hockey (2)\n  Football (2)\n  Gymnastics (18)\n  Handball (2)\n  Judo (14)\n\n  Modern pentathlon (2)\n  Rowing (14)\n  Sailing (11)\n  Shooting (17)\n  Softball (1)\n  Swimming (32)\n  Synchronized swimming (2)\n  Table tennis (4)\n\n  Taekwondo (8)\n  Tennis (4)\n  Triathlon (2)\n  Volleyball (4)\n  Water polo (2)\n  Weightlifting (15)\n  Wrestling (18)\n\nKalenda\n\nIsele pataki\n Greek sprinters Konstantinos Kenteris and Ekaterini Thanou withdraw from the games after allegedly staging a motorcycle accident in order to avoid a drug test.\n World record holder and strong favourite Paula Radcliffe crashes out of the women's marathon in spectacular fashion, leaving Mizuki Noguchi to win the gold.\n While leading in the men's marathon with less than 10 kilometres to go, Brazilian runner Vanderlei de Lima is attacked by Irish priest Cornelius Horan and dragged into the crowd. De Lima recovered to take bronze, and was later awarded the Pierre de Coubertin medal for sportsmanship.\n British athlete Kelly Holmes wins gold in the 800 m and 1500 m.\n Liu Xiang wins gold in the 110 m hurdles, equalling Colin Jackson's 1993 world record time of 12.91 seconds. This was China's first ever gold in men's track and field.\n The Olympics saw Afghanistan's first return to the Games since 1999 (it was banned due to the Taliban's extremist attitudes towards women, but was reinstated in 2002).\n Hicham El Guerrouj wins gold in the 1500 m and 5000 m. He is the first person to accomplish this feat at the Olympics since Paavo Nurmi in 1924.\n Greek athlete Fani Halkia comes out of retirement to win the 400 m hurdles.\n The US women's 4x200m swimming team of Natalie Coughlin, Carly Piper, Dana Vollmer and Kaitlin Sandeno win gold, smashing the long standing world record set by the German Democratic Republic in 1987.\n The United States lost for the first time in Olympic men's basketball since NBA players were permitted to play in the Games. This defeat came at the hands of Puerto Rico 92-73.\n Argentina wins a shocking victory over the United States in the semi-finals of men's basketball. They go on to beat Italy 84-69 in the final.\n Windsurfer Gal Fridman wins Israel's first-ever gold medal.\n Dominican athlete F\u00e9lix S\u00e1nchez won the first ever gold medal for the Dominican Republic in the 400 m hurdles event.\n German kayaker Birgit Fischer wins gold in the K-4 500 m and silver in the K-2 500 m. In so doing, she became the first woman in any sport to win gold medals at 6 different Olympics, the first woman to win gold 24 years apart and the first person in Olympic history to win two or more medals in five different Games.\n Swimmer Michael Phelps wins 8 medals (6 gold and 2 bronze), becoming the first athlete to win 8 medals in non boycotted Olympics.\n United States' gymnast Carly Patterson becomes only the second American woman to win the all-around gold medal.\n Chilean Tennis players Nicol\u00e1s Massu and Fernando Gonzalez won the gold medal in the Doubles Competition, while Massu won the gold and Gonzalez the bronze on the Singles competition. This were Chile's first-ever gold medals.\n Anchored by Brazil, South America had its best Olympics, with nine Gold Medals.\n\nAjoyo ipari\n\nThe Games were concluded on August 29, 2004. The closing ceremony was held at the Athens Olympic Stadium, where the Games had been opened 16 days earlier. Around 70,000 people gathered in the stadium to watch the ceremony.\n\nThe initial part of the ceremony interspersed the performances of various Greek singers, and featured traditional Greek dance performances from various regions of Greece (Crete, Pontos, Thessaly, etc.). The event was meant to highlight the pride of the Greeks in their culture and country for the world to see.\n\nA significant part of the closing ceremony was the exchange of the Olympic flag of the Antwerp games between the mayor of Athens and the mayor of Beijing, host city of the next Olympic games. After the flag exchange a presentation from the Beijing delegation presented a glimpse into Chinese culture for the world to see. Beijing University students (who were at first incorrectly cited as the Twelve Girls Band) sang Mo Li Hua (Jasmine Flower) and the medal ceremony for the last event of the Olympics, the men's marathon, was conducted, with Stefano Baldini from Italy as the winner.\n\nA flag-bearer from each nation's delegation then entered along the stage, followed by the competitors en masse on the floor.\n\nShort speeches were presented by Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, President of the Organising Committee, and by President Dr. Jacques Rogge of the IOC, in which he described the Athens Olympics as \"unforgettable, dream Games\".\n\nDr. Rogge had previously declared he would be breaking with tradition in his closing speech as President of the IOC and that he would never use the words of his predecessor Juan Antonio Samaranch, who used to always say 'these were the best ever games'. Dr. Rogge had described Salt Lake City 2002 as \"superb games\" and in turn would continue after Athens 2004 and describe Turin 2006 as \"truly magnificent games.\"\n\nThe national anthems of Greece and China were played in a handover ceremony as both nations' flags were raised. The Mayor of Athens, Dora Bakoyianni, passed the Olympic Flag to the Mayor of Beijing, Wang Qishan. After a short cultural performance by Chinese actors, dancers, and musicians directed by eminent Chinese director Zhang Yimou, Rogge declared the 2004 Olympic Games closed. The Olympic flag was next raised again on February 10, 2006 during the opening ceremony of next Winter Olympic games in Torino.\n\nA young Greek girl, Fotini Papaleonidopoulou, lit a symbolic lantern with the Olympic Flame and passed it on to other children before \"extinguishing\" the flame in the cauldron by blowing a puff of air. The ceremony ended with a variety of musical performances by Greek singers, including George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou, Anna Vissi, Sakis Rouvas, Eleftheria Arvanitaki, Alkistis Protopsalti, Antonis Remos, Mixalis Xatzigiannis, Marinella and Dimitra Galani, as thousands of athletes carried out symbolic displays on the stadium floor.\n\nOnka Eso\n\nItokasi","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-14":4,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1,"2024-30":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":53588,"url":"https:\/\/yo.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%80w%E1%BB%8Dn%20%C3%8Cd%C3%ADje%20%C3%92l%C3%ADmp%C3%ADk%C3%AC%20%C3%8Cgb%C3%A0%20Oru%202004","title":"\u00c0w\u1ecdn \u00ccd\u00edje \u00d2l\u00edmp\u00edk\u00ec \u00ccgb\u00e0 Oru 2004","language":"yo"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In music, an ostinato (; derived from Italian word for stubborn, compare English obstinate) is a motif or phrase that persistently repeats in the same musical voice, frequently in the same pitch. Well-known ostinato-based pieces include classical compositions such as Ravel's Bol\u00e9ro and the Carol of the Bells, and popular songs such as Donna Summer and Giorgio Moroder's \"I Feel Love\" (1977), Henry Mancini's theme from Peter Gunn (1959), The Who's \"Baba O'Riley\" (1971), and The Verve's \"Bitter Sweet Symphony\" (1997).\n\nBoth ostinatos and ostinati are accepted English plural forms, the latter reflecting the word's Italian etymology.\n\nThe repeating idea may be a rhythmic pattern, part of a tune, or a complete melody in itself. Strictly speaking, ostinati should have exact repetition, but in common usage, the term covers repetition with variation and development, such as the alteration of an ostinato line to fit changing harmonies or keys.\n\nWithin the context of film music, Claudia Gorbman defines an ostinato as a repeated melodic or rhythmic figure that propels scenes that lack dynamic visual action.\n\nOstinati play an important part in improvised music (rock and jazz), in which they are often referred to as riffs or vamps. A \"favorite technique of contemporary jazz writers\", ostinati are often used in modal and Latin jazz and traditional African music including Gnawa music.\n\nThe term ostinato essentially has the same meaning as the medieval Latin word pes, the word ground as applied to classical music, and the word riff in contemporary popular music.\n\nClassical music\nOstinati are used in 20th-century music to stabilize groups of pitches, as in Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring Introduction and Augurs of Spring. A famous type of ostinato, called the Rossini crescendo, owes its name to a crescendo that underlies a persistent musical pattern, which usually culminates in a solo vocal cadenza. This style was emulated by other bel canto composers, especially Vincenzo Bellini; and later by Wagner (in pure instrumental terms, discarding the closing vocal cadenza).\n\nApplicable in homophonic and contrapuntal textures, they are \"repetitive rhythmic-harmonic schemes\", more familiar as accompanimental melodies, or purely rhythmic. The technique's appeal to composers from Debussy to avant-garde composers until at least the 1970s \"... lies in part in the need for unity created by the virtual abandonment of functional chord progressions to shape phrases and define tonality\". Similarly, in modal music, \"... relentless, repetitive character help to establish and confirm the modal center\". Their popularity may also be justified by their ease as well as range of use, though, \"... ostinato must be employed judiciously, as its overuse can quickly lead to monotony\".\n\nMedieval\nOstinato patterns have been present in European music from the Middle Ages onwards. In the famous English canon \"Sumer Is Icumen In\", the main vocal lines are underpinned by an ostinato pattern, known as a pes:\n\nLater in the medieval era, Guillaume Dufay's 15th-century chanson Resvelons Nous features a similarly constructed ostinato pattern, but this time 5 bars long. Over this, the main melodic line moves freely, varying the phrase-lengths, while being \"to some extent predetermined by the repeating pattern of the canon in the lower two voices.\"\n\nGround bass: Late Renaissance and Baroque\n\nGround bass or basso ostinato (obstinate bass) is a type of variation form in which a bass line, or harmonic pattern (see Chaconne; also common in Elizabethan England as Grounde) is repeated as the basis of a piece underneath variations. Aaron Copland describes basso ostinato as \"... the easiest to recognize\" of the variation forms wherein, \"... a long phrase\u2014either an accompanimental figure or an actual melody\u2014is repeated over and over again in the bass part, while the upper parts proceed normally [with variation]\". However, he cautions, \"it might more properly be termed a musical device than a musical form.\"\n\nOne striking ostinato instrumental piece of the late Renaissance period is \"The Bells\", a piece for virginals by William Byrd. Here the ostinato (or 'ground') consists of just two notes:\n\nIn Italy, during the seventeenth century, Claudio Monteverdi composed many pieces using ostinato patterns in his operas and sacred works. One of these was his 1650 version of \"Laetatus sum\", an imposing setting of Psalm 122 that pits a four-note \"ostinato of unquenchable energy.\" against both voices and instruments:\n\nLater in the same century, Henry Purcell became famous for his skilful deployment of ground bass patterns.  His most famous ostinato is the descending chromatic ground bass that underpins the aria \"When I am laid in earth\" (\"Dido's Lament\") at the end of his opera Dido and Aeneas: While the use of a descending chromatic scale to express pathos was fairly common at the end of the seventeenth century, Richard Taruskin pointed out that Purcell shows a fresh approach to this musical trope: \"Altogether unconventional and characteristic, however, is the interpolation of an additional cadential measure into the stereotyped ground, increasing its length from a routine four to a haunting five bars, against which the vocal line, with its despondent refrain (\"Remember me!\"), is deployed with marked asymmetry. That, in addition to Purcell's distinctively dissonant, suspension-saturated harmony, enhanced by additional chromatic descents during the final ritornello and by many deceptive cadences, makes this little aria an unforgettably poignant embodiment of heartache.\" See also: Lament bass.\n\nHowever, this is not the only ostinato pattern that Purcell uses in the opera. Dido's opening aria \"Ah, Belinda\" is a further demonstration of Purcell's technical mastery: the phrases of the vocal line do not always coincide with the four-bar ground:\n\n\"Purcell's compositions over a ground vary in their working out, and the repetition never becomes a restriction.\" Purcell's instrumental music also featured ground patterns. A particularly fine and complex example is his Fantasia upon a Ground for three violins and continuo: \n\nThe intervals in the above pattern are found in many works of the Baroque Period. Pachelbel's Canon also uses a similar sequence of notes in the bass part: \n\nTwo pieces by J.S.Bach are particularly striking for their use of an ostinato bass: the Crucifixus from his Mass in B minor and the Passacaglia in C minor for organ, which has a ground rich in melodic intervals: The first variation that Bach builds over this ostinato consists of a gently syncopated motif in the upper voices: This characteristic rhythmic pattern continues in the second variation, but with some engaging harmonic subtleties, especially in the second bar, where an unexpected chord creates a passing implication of a related key:  In common with other Passacaglias of the era, the ostinato is not simply confined to the bass, but rises to the uppermost part later in the piece: A performance of the entire piece can be heard here.\n\nLate eighteenth and nineteenth centuries\n\nOstinatos feature in many works of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Mozart uses an ostinato phrase throughout the big scene that ends Act 2 of the Marriage of Figaro, to convey a sense of suspense as the jealous Count Almaviva tries in vain to incriminate the Countess, his wife, and Figaro, his butler, for plotting behind his back. A famous type of ostinato, called the Rossini crescendo, owes its name to a crescendo that underlies a persistent musical pattern, which usually culminates in a solo vocal cadenza.\n\nIn the energetic Scherzo of Beethoven's late C sharp minor Quartet, Op. 131, there is a harmonically static passage, with \"the repetitiveness of a nursery rhyme\" that consists of an ostinato shared between viola and cello supporting a melody in octaves in the first and second violins: Beethoven reverses this relationship a few bars later with the melody in the viola and cello and the ostinato shared between the violins:\n\nBoth the first and third acts of Wagner's final opera Parsifal feature a passage accompanying a scene where a band of Knights solemnly processes from the depths of forest to the hall of the Grail.  The \"Transformation music\" that supports this change of scene is dominated by the iterated tolling of four bells: Brahms used ostinato patterns in both the finale of his Fourth Symphony and in the closing section of his Variations on a Theme by Haydn:\n\nTwentieth century\nDebussy featured an ostinato pattern throughout his Piano Prelude \"Des pas sur la neige\". Here, the ostinato pattern stays in the middle register of the piano\u00a0\u2013 it is never used as a bass. \"Remark that the footfall ostinato remains nearly throughout on the same notes, at the same pitch level... this piece is an appeal to the basic loneliness of all human beings, oft-forgotten perhaps, but, like the ostinato, forming a basic undercurrent of our history.\"  Of all the major classical composers of the 20th century, Stravinsky is possibly the one most associated with the practice of ostinato. In conversation with the composer, his friend and colleague Robert Craft remarked \"Your music always has an element of repetition, of ostinato. What is the function of ostinato?\"  Stravinsky replied; \"It is static\u00a0\u2013 that is, anti-development; and sometimes we need a contradiction to development.\" Stravinsky was particularly skilled at using ostinatos to confound rather than confirm rhythmic expectations. In the first of his Three Pieces for String Quartet, Stravinsky sets up three repeated patterns, which overlap one another and never coincide. \"Here a rigid pattern of (3+2+2\/4) bars is laid over a strictly recurring 23-beat tune (the bars being marked by a cello ostinato), so that their changing relationship is governed primarily by the pre-compositional scheme.\" \"The rhythmical current running through the music is what binds together these curious mosaic-like pieces.\"\n\nA subtler metrical conflict can be found in the final section of Stravinsky's Symphony of Psalms. The choir sing a melody in triple time, while the bass instruments in the orchestra play a 4-beat ostinato against this. \"This is built up over an ostinato bass (harp, two pianos and timpani) moving in fourths like a pendulum.\"\n\nSub-Saharan African music\n\nCounter-metric structure\nMany instruments south of the Sahara Desert play ostinato melodies. These include lamellophones such as the mbira, as well as xylophones like the balafon, the bikutsi, and the gyil. Ostinato figures are also played on string instruments such as the kora, gankoqui bell ensembles, and pitched drums ensembles. Often, African ostinatos contain offbeats or cross-beats, that contradict the metric structure. Other African ostinatos generate complete cross-rhythms by sounding both the main beats and cross-beats. In the following example, a gyil sounds the three-against-two cross-rhythm (hemiola). The left hand (lower notes) sounds the two main beats, while the right hand (upper notes) sounds the three cross-beats.\n\nAfrican harmonic progressions\nPopular dance bands in West Africa and the Congo region feature ostinato-playing guitars. The African guitar parts are drawn from a variety of sources, including the indigenous mbira, as well as foreign influences such as James Brown-type funk riffs. However, the foreign influences are interpreted through a distinctly African ostinato sensibility. African guitar styles began with Congolese bands doing Cuban cover songs. The Cuban guajeo had a both familiar and exotic quality to the African musicians. Gradually, various regional guitar styles emerged, as indigenous influences became increasingly dominant within these Africanized guajeos.\n\nAs Moore states, \"One could say that I\u00a0\u2013 IV\u00a0\u2013 V\u00a0\u2013 IV [chord progressions] is to African music what the 12-bar blues is to North American music.\" Such progressions seem superficially to follow the conventions of Western music theory. However, performers of African popular music do not perceive these progressions in the same way. Harmonic progressions which move from the tonic to the subdominant (as they are known in European music) have been used in Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony for hundreds of years. Their elaborations follow all the conventions of traditional African harmonic principles. Gehard Kubik concludes:\n\nThe harmonic cycle of C\u2013F\u2013G\u2013F [I\u2013IV\u2013V\u2013IV] prominent in Congo\/Zaire popular music simply cannot be defined as a progression from tonic to subdominant to dominant and back to subdominant (on which it ends) because in the performer's appreciation they are of equal status, and not in any hierarchical order as in Western music\u2014(Kubik 1999).\n\nAfro-Cuban guajeo\nA guajeo is a typical Cuban ostinato melody, most often consisting of arpeggiated chords in syncopated patterns. The guajeo is a hybrid of the African and European ostinato. The guajeo was first played as accompaniment on the tres in the folkloric chang\u00fc\u00ed and son. The term guajeo is often used to mean specific ostinato patterns played by a tres, piano, an instrument of the violin family, or saxophones. The guajeo is a fundamental component of modern-day salsa, and Latin jazz. The following example shows a basic guajeo pattern.\n\nThe guajeo is a seamless Afro-Euro ostinato hybrid, which has had a major influence upon jazz, R&B, rock 'n' roll and popular music in general. The Beatles' \"I Feel Fine\" guitar riff is guajeo-like.\n\nRiff\n\nIn various popular music styles, riff refers to a brief, relaxed phrase repeated over changing melodies. It may serve as a refrain or melodic figure, often played by the rhythm section instruments or solo instruments that form the basis or accompaniment of a musical composition. Though they are most often found in rock music, heavy metal music, Latin, funk and jazz, classical music is also sometimes based on a simple riff, such as Ravel's Bol\u00e9ro. Riffs can be as simple as a tenor saxophone honking a simple, catchy rhythmic figure, or as complex as the riff-based variations in the head arrangements played by the Count Basie Orchestra.\n\nDavid Brackett (1999) defines riffs as \"short melodic phrases\", while Richard Middleton (1999) defines them as \"short rhythmic, melodic, or harmonic figures repeated to form a structural framework\". Rikky Rooksby states: \"A riff is a short, repeated, memorable musical phrase, often pitched low on the guitar, which focuses much of the energy and excitement of a rock song.\"\n\nIn jazz and R&B, riffs are often used as the starting point for longer compositions. The riff from Charlie Parker's bebop number \"Now's the Time\" (1945) re-emerged four years later as the R&B dance hit \"The Hucklebuck\". The verse of \"The Hucklebuck\"\u2014another riff\u2014was \"borrowed\" from the Artie Matthews composition \"Weary Blues\". Glenn Miller's \"In the Mood\" had an earlier life as Wingy Manone's \"Tar Paper Stomp\". All these songs use twelve bar blues riffs, and most of these riffs probably precede the examples given.\n\nNeither of the terms 'riff' or 'lick' are used in classical music. Instead, individual musical phrases used as the basis of classical music pieces are called ostinatos or simply phrases. Contemporary jazz writers also use riff- or lick-like ostinatos in modal music. Latin jazz often uses guajeo-based riffs.\n\nVamp\n\nIn music, a vamp is a repeating musical figure, section, or accompaniment used in blues, jazz, gospel, soul, and musical theater. Vamps are also found in rock, funk, reggae, R&B, pop, and country. Vamps are usually harmonically sparse: A vamp may consist of a single chord or a sequence of chords played in a repeated rhythm. The term frequently appeared in the instruction 'Vamp till ready' on sheet music for popular songs in the 1930s and 1940s, indicating the accompanist should repeat the musical phrase until the vocalist was ready. Vamps are generally symmetrical, self-contained, and open to variation. The equivalent in classical music is an ostinato, in hip hop and electronic music the loop, and in rock music the riff.\n\nThe slang term vamp comes from the Middle English word vampe (sock), from Old French avanpie, equivalent to Modern French avant-pied, literally before-foot.\n\nMany vamp-oriented songwriters begin the creative process by attempting to evoke a mood or feeling while riffing freely on an instrument or scat singing. Many well known artists primarily build songs with a vamp\/riff\/ostinato based approach\u2014including John Lee Hooker (\"Boogie Chillen\", \"House Rent Boogie\"), Bo Diddley (\"Hey Bo Diddley\", \"Who Do You Love?\"), Jimmy Page (\"Ramble On\", \"Bron Yr Aur\"), Nine Inch Nails (\"Closer\"), and Beck (\"Loser\").\n\nClassic examples of vamps in jazz include \"A Night in Tunisia\", \"Take Five\", \"A Love Supreme\", \"Maiden Voyage\", and \"Cantaloupe Island\". Rock examples include the long jam at the ends of \"Loose Change\" by Neil Young and Crazy Horse and \"Sooner or Later\" by King's X.\n\nJazz, fusion, and Latin jazz\nIn jazz, fusion, and related genres, a background vamp provides a performer with a harmonic framework supporting improvisation. In Latin jazz guajeos fulfill the role of piano vamp. A vamp at the beginning of a jazz tune may act as a springboard to the main tune; a vamp at the end of a song is often called a tag.\n\nExamples\n\"Take Five\" begins with a repeated, syncopated figure in  time, which pianist Dave Brubeck plays throughout the song (except for Joe Morello's drum solo and a variation on the chords in the middle section).\n\nThe music from Miles Davis's modal period (1958\u20131963) was based on improvising songs with a small number of chords. The jazz standard \"So What\" uses a vamp in the two-note \"Sooooo what?\" figure, regularly played by the piano and the trumpet throughout. Jazz scholar Barry Kernfeld calls this music vamp music.\n\nExamples include the outros to George Benson's \"Body Talk\" and \"Plum\", and the solo changes to \"Breezin'\". The following songs are dominated by vamps: John Coltrane, Kenny Burrell, and Grant Green's versions of \"My Favorite Things\", Herbie Hancock's \"Watermelon Man\" and \"Chameleon\", Wes Montgomery's \"Bumpin' on Sunset\", and Larry Carlton's \"Room 335\".\n\nThe Afro-Cuban vamp style known as guajeo is used in the bebop\/Latin jazz standard \"A Night in Tunisia\". Depending upon the musician, a repeating figure in \"A Night in Tunisia\" could be called an ostinato, guajeo, riff, or vamp. The Cuban-jazz hybrid spans the disciplines that encompass all these terms.\n\nGospel, soul, and funk\nIn gospel and soul music, the band often vamps on a simple ostinato groove at the end of a song, usually over a single chord. In soul music, the end of recorded songs often contains a display of vocal effects\u2014such as rapid scales, arpeggios, and improvised passages. For recordings, sound engineers gradually fade out the vamp section at the end of a song, to transition to the next track on the album. Salsoul singers such as Loleatta Holloway have become notable for their vocal improvisations at the end of songs, and they are sampled and used in other songs. Andrae Crouch extended the use of vamps in gospel, introducing chain vamps (one vamp after the other, each successive vamp drawn from the first).\n\n1970s-era funk music often takes a short one or two bar musical figure based on a single chord one would consider an introduction vamp in jazz or soul music, and then uses this vamp as the basis of the entire song (\"Funky Drummer\" by James Brown, for example). Jazz, blues, and rock are almost always based on chord progressions (a sequence of changing chords), and they use the changing harmony to build tension and sustain listener interest. Unlike these music genres, funk is based on the rhythmic groove of the percussion, rhythm section instruments, and a deep electric bass line, usually all over a single chord. \"In funk, harmony is often second to the 'lock,' the linking of contrapuntal parts that are played on guitar, bass, and drums in the repeating vamp.\"\n\nExamples include Stevie Wonder's vamp-based \"Superstition\" and Little Johnny Taylor's \"Part Time Love\", which features an extended improvisation over a two-chord vamp.\n\nMusical theater\nIn musical theater, a vamp, or intro, is the few bars, one to eight, of music without lyrics that begin a printed copy of a song. The orchestra may repeat the vamp or other accompaniment during dialogue or stage business, as accompaniment for onstage transitions of indeterminate length. The score provides a one or two bar vamp figure, and indicates, \"Vamp till cue\", by the conductor. The vamp gives the onstage singers time to prepare for the song or the next verse, without requiring the music to pause. Once the vamp section is over, the music continues to the next section.\n\nThe vamp may be written by the composer of the song, a copyist employed by the publisher, or the arranger for the vocalist. The vamp serves three main purposes: it provides the key, establishes the tempo, and provides emotional context. The vamp may be as short as a bell tone, sting (a harmonized bell tone with stress on the starting note), or measures long. The rideout is the transitional music that begins on the downbeat of the last word of the song and is usually two to four bars long, though it may be as short as a sting or as long as a Roxy Rideout.\n\nIndian classical music\n\nIn Indian classical music, during Tabla or Pakhawaj solo performances and Kathak dance accompaniments, a conceptually similar melodic pattern known as the Lehara (sometimes spelled Lehra) or Nagma is played repeatedly throughout the performance. This melodic pattern is set to the number of beats in a rhythmic cycle (Tala or Taal) being performed and may be based on one or a blend of multiple Ragas.\n\nThe basic idea of the lehara is to provide a steady melodious framework and keep the time-cycle for rhythmic improvisations. It serves as an auditory workbench not only for the soloist but also for the audience to appreciate the ingenuity of the improvisations and thus the merits of the overall performance. In Indian Classical Music, the concept of 'sam' (pronounced as 'sum') carries paramount importance. The sam is the target unison beat (and almost always the first beat) of any rhythmic cycle. The second most important beat is the Khali, which is a complement of the sam. Besides these two prominent beats, there are other beats of emphasis in any given taal, which signify 'khand's (divisions) of the taal. E.g. 'Roopak' or 'Rupak' taal, a 7-beat rhythmic cycle, is divided 3\u20132\u20132, further implying that the 1st, 4th, and 6th beats are the prominent beats in that taal. Therefore, it is customary, but not essential, to align the lehara according to the divisions of the Taal. It is done with a view to emphasize those beats that mark the divisions of the Taal.\n\nThe lehara can be played on a variety of instruments, including the sarangi, harmonium, sitar, sarod, flute and others. The playing of the lehara is relatively free from the numerous rules and constraints of Raga Sangeet, which are upheld and honoured in the tradition of Indian Classical Music. The lehara may be interspersed with short and occasional improvisations built around the basic melody. It is also permissible to switch between two or more disparate melodies during the course of the performance. It is essential that the lehara be played with the highest precision in Laya (Tempo) and Swara control, which requires years of specialist training (Taalim) and practice (Riyaaz). It is considered a hallmark of excellence to play lehara alongside a recognised Tabla or Pakhawaj virtuoso as it is a difficult task to keep a steady pulse while the percussionist is improvising or playing difficult compositions in counterpoint. While there may be scores of individually talented instrumentalists, there are very few who are capable of playing the lehra for a Tabla \/ Pakhawaj solo performance.\n\nSee also\n\n Canto Ostinato\n Chaconne\n Chanking\n Fill (music)\n Folia\n Glossary of musical terminology\n Hook (music)\n Imitation (music)\n Leitmotif\n Music sequencer\n O Fortuna\n Passacaglia\n Pedal point\n Sequence (music)\n Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n Jazz Guitar Riffs\n Explanation with musical examples.\n\nAccompaniment\nItalian words and phrases\nBass (sound)\nMusical analysis\nMusical terminology\nRepetition (music)\nRhythm and meter\nRiffs\nTonality","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":167,"dup_dump_count":43,"dup_details":{"2023-50":3,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":5,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-10":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":4,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":10,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":10,"2018-47":5,"2018-43":13,"2018-39":7,"2018-34":11,"2018-30":7,"2018-26":10,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":5,"2018-13":4,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":7,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3}},"id":180339,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ostinato","title":"Ostinato","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture  of two or more substances.  The substances that are dissolved are called solutes. The substance the solutes are dissolved in is called the solvent. An example from everyday experience is a solid like salt or sugar (which are crystalline solids), dissolved in a liquid (like water).  Gases can dissolve in liquids.  An example is carbon dioxide or oxygen in water. Liquids may dissolve in other liquids and gases in other gases.\n\nThe amount of solute added to the solvent determines the concentration of the solution. The solution with the large amount of solute is called a concentrated solution; the solution with less solute is called a dilute solution.\n\nExamples of solid solutions are alloys and some minerals. For example, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.\n\nRelated pages\nHypertonic\nHypotonic\n\nReferences \n\nChemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-18":4,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":41362,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solution%20%28chemistry%29","title":"Solution (chemistry)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Whisky (or whiskey) is an alcoholic drink distillt frae grain, aften includin maut, that haes than been aged in widden baurrels.\n\nSpellin\nThe spellin whisky (plural whiskies) is for ordinar uised for thaim that's distillt in Scotland, Canadae, an Japan, while whiskey (wi an e; plural whiskeys) is uised for the speirits distillt in Ireland an the Unitit States; houaniver, the'r exceptions. Internaitional law resers the term \"Scotch whisky\" for thae whiskies that's produced in Scotland; whiskies produced in ither kintras in the Scotch wey maun uise anither name. Seimilar conventions exists for \"Irish whiskey,\"  \"Canadian whisky,\" an \"Bourbon whiskey\".\n\nThe Welsh version is wysgi. The name is derived frae Gaelic uisge beatha (watter o life).  (Ither kintras haes thair ain \"watter o life\" forbye: for exemplar Scandinavie Akvavit, that's name comes frae the Laitin aqua vitae.)\n\nIrish whiskey is for ordinar distillt three times frae melderin. Scots whisky, richt cryed Scotch, is for normal distilt twice, aither frae baurley maut its lane (see single maut whisky), or frae baurley mauts an ither grain mauts that's than mixt thegither. Kentucky whiskey, cryed Bourbon, is for ordinar juist distillt the aince, lik maist ither American an Canadian whiskies.\n\nChairacteristics \n\nWhisky is drunken straucht, wi watter or ice, or mixt wi ither speirits or drinks (lik \"Scotch & Coke\", \"Scotch & Ginger\" or \"Scotch & Irn Bru\").\n\nWhisky is selt in monie styles. Maut whisky conseists o whisky made frae 100 percent mautit grain, an maut whisky frae ae distillery, raither nor blendit, is cryed single maut. The grains uised tae mak maut whisky includes baurley in Ireland, Scotland, Canadae, an the Unitit States, an rye in Canadae an the Unitit States. Pure pot still whiskey is made in Ireland frae a mixtur o mautit an wanmautit baurley. Sindry types o straucht whiskey, sic as rye whiskey, Tennessee whiskey, an Bourbon whiskey is produced in the US that's aged in new, charred, aik baurels. Blendit whisky is made frae a mixtur o monie o the abuin whiskies wi the seimilar grain whisky or neutral grain speirits, that's faur less expensive tae produce nor the ither kinds o whisky.  Blends will aamaist aye identifee the kin o base whisky uised, i.e. blendit Scotch, blendit Canadian, or blendit Bourbon.  Licht whiskey is a kin o American whiskey made up aamaist hailie o neutral grain speirits, wi smaa amoonts (for ordinar nae mair nor 5\u201310 percent o the hail volume) o straucht whiskey an sherry eikit for flavor an colourin.\n\nIn time syne, maist o the whiskey produced in the US wis \"Bottelt-in-Bond\" accordin tae the dictates o an 1898 Act o Congress; this practice haes been maistlins discontinued, acause ane o the requirements o the Act wis that sicna whiskey shuid be produced at 100 US alcoholic pruif (50% alcohol bi volume).  Nae muckle whiskey this potent is produced in the US oniemair, partially acause o chyngin public gusts but forbye acause an alcoholic content that heich is illegal in monie kintras, leimitin the export mercat for it.\n\nSee forby \n Bourbon whiskey\n Canadian whisky\n Corn whiskey\n Irish whiskey\n Moonshine\n Rye whisky\n Scotch whisky\n Tennessee whiskey\n Whisky glass\n\nWhisky-based drinks \n Leet o cocktails\n\nFremmit airtins \n\n The Whisky Guide \n Whisky Magazine \n DrinkSwap.Com \n Scotch Whisky and distilleries \n\nWhisky","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":1961,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Whisky","title":"Whisky","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Old age is when a person is near or beyond the usual life expectancy, usually from the age of 65 onwards.  Old people are usually retired from work and spend their time in other ways like helping take care of small children who are kin to them in some way. Often people of old age have wrinkly skin. They will move slower, and become constantly cold. \n\nOld people have more health problems than young adults, and many of them take medicine.  The reason for this is that their bodies are slowly deteriorating, so they have more problems, especially with moving. Osteoporosis weakens the bones, and is one of the problems that become more common with age. Others include blindness and deafness. Gerontology is the part of medicine that deals with these things.\n\nOld people are also called \"senior citizens\" or \"elders\". Elders are considered to be wise because they have had much experience in their long lives. Many cultures view elders with respect and kindness, and depend upon them to pass down knowledge to the younger generations of people.\n\nRelated pages \n Gerontology\n\nOld age","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":50,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":5,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1}},"id":32452,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Old%20age","title":"Old age","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u00c9ropa nya\u00e9ta salasahiiji tina tujuh buana tradisional di Marcapada. Sacara fisik jeung g\u00e9ologis, \u00c9ropa mangrupa semenanjung pangkulonna tina \u00c9rasia, di kuloneun Asia.  \u00c9ropa diwatesan ku Samudra Arktik di belah kal\u00e9reuna, Samudra Atlantik di kuloneuna, Laut M\u00e9diterania di kiduleuna, sarta di w\u00e9tan kidulna ku jalan cai nu ngahubungkeun M\u00e9diterania kana jeung kaasup Laut Hideung jeung PAgunungan Kaukasus. DI belah w\u00e9tanna, \u00c9ropa kapisahkeun ti Asia ku babagian cai Pagunungan Ural jeung Laut Kaspia.\n\nNumutkeun legana, \u00c9ropa t\u00e9h minangka buana pangleutikna kadua sanggeus Australia, ngawengku 10.400.000 kilom\u00e9ter pasagi atawa 2,0% tina ambul Bumi. Numutkeun populasina, ieu buana t\u00e9h katilu pangbadagna (sanggeus Asia jeung Afrika) kalawan populasi 710 juta atawa kira 11% ti populasi sadunya. \nHowever, the term continent can refer to a cultural and political distinction or a physiographic one, l\u00e9ading to various perspectives about Europe's precise borders, ar\u00e9a, and population.\n\nThe European Union \u2013 comprising 27 member states, and 3 candidates in accession negotiations (Republic of Macedonia,Turkey and Croatia) \u2013 is the largest political and economic entity covering the Europ\u00e9an continent, while Russia (excluding portions in Asia) is the second largest entity and Europe's largest state in ar\u00e9a and population. The Europ\u00e9an Union also f\u00e9atured the world's largest economy with an estimated nominal GDP of 13.4 trillion USD.\n\n\u00c9timologi \n\nIn Greek mythology, Europa was a Phoenician princess who was abducted by Zeus in bull form and taken to the island of Crete, where she gave birth to Minos. For Homer, Europe (Greek:  ; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was a mythological queen of Crete, not a g\u00e9ographical designation. Later Europa stood for mainland Greece, and by 500 BC its m\u00e9aning had been extended to lands to the north.\n\nIn etymology one th\u00e9ory suggests the name Europe is derived from the Greek words m\u00e9aning broad (eurys) and face (ops) \u2013 broad having been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion; see Prithvi (Plataia). A minority, however, suggest this Greek popular etymology is r\u00e9ally based on a Semitic word such as the Akkadian erebu m\u00e9aning \"sunset\" (see also Erebus). From the Middle Eastern vantagepoint, the sun does set over Europe, the lands to the west. Likewise, Asia is sometimes thought to have derived from a Semitic word such as the Akkadian asu, m\u00e9aning \"sunrise\", and is the land to the \u00e9ast from a Middle \u00e9astern perspective.\n\nThe majority of major world languages use words derived from \"Europa\" to refer to the continent \u2013 e.g. Chinese uses the word  (\u6b50\u6d32), which is an abbreviation of the transliterated name  (\u6b50\u7f85\u5df4\u6d32).\n\nSajarah \n\nThe origins of Western democratic and individualistic culture are often attributed to Ancient Greece, though numerous other distinct influences, in particular Christianity, can also be credited with the spr\u00e9ad of concepts such as egalitarianism and universality of law.\n\nAfter the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a long period of changes arising from what is known as the Age of Migrations. That period has been known as the \"Dark Ages\" to Renaissance thinkers. Isolated monastic communities in Ireland and elsewhere carefully safeguarded and compiled written knowledge accumulated previously.\n\nDuring this time, the western part of the Roman Empire was \"reborn\" as the Holy Roman Empire, later called Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. The \u00e9astern part of the Roman Empire became known in the west as the Byzantine Empire. The 'Byzantines' themselves still called themselves  Basileia t\u014dn Romai\u014dn - the Empire of the Romans. In 1453, when the Ottoman Empire conquered the Byzantine capital Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire c\u00e9ased to exist, with a small hold out state of Trebizond which lasted until 1461.\n\nThe Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the start of a period of discovery, exploration, and incr\u00e9ase in scientific knowledge. In the 15th century, Portugal opened the age of discoveries, soon followed by Spain. They were later joined by France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in Africa, the Americas, and Asia.\n\nAfter the age of discovery, the id\u00e9as of democracy took hold in Europe. Struggles for independence arose, most notably in France during the period known as the French Revolution. This led to vast uph\u00e9aval in Europe as these revolutionary id\u00e9as propagated across the continent. The rise of democracy led to incr\u00e9ased tension within Europe on top of the tension alr\u00e9ady existing due to competition within the New World. The most famous of these conflicts happened when Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power and set out on a conquest, forming a new French Empire, which soon collapsed. After these conquests Europe stabilised, but the old foundations were alr\u00e9ady beginning to crumble.\n\nThe Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain in the late 18th century, l\u00e9ading to a move away from agriculture, much gr\u00e9ater general prosperity and a corresponding incr\u00e9ase in population. Many of the states in Europe took their present form in the aftermath of World War I. From the end of World War II through the end of the Cold War, Europe was divided into two major political and economic blocks: Communist nations in Eastern Europe  and Capitalist countries in Southern Europe, Northern Europe and Western Europe. About 1990, with the fall of the Berlin Wall, the wider Iron Curtain, and the Soviet Union the Eastern Block disintegrated.\n\nEuropean integration has been a theme in Europ\u00e9an relations since the end of the second World War, and has accelerated since the end of the Cold War. The European Union, the successor to the European Community, has enlarged from 6 original founding members to 27 today.  The potential admission of Turkey is contentious, as it involves a transcontinental country with a predominantly Muslim population.  Turkey is also in dispute with an existing member, Greece, over the future of Cyprus.  Negotiations are therefore expected to be lengthy.  The Europ\u00e9an Union has developed from a trade-oriented organisation into one resembling a confederation in a number of respects. Europ\u00e9an membership of NATO has also incr\u00e9ased since the end of the Cold War, with the admission of number of \u00e9astern Europ\u00e9an countries.\n\nG\u00e9ografi jeung legana \n\nPhysiographically, Europe is the northwestern constituent of the larger landmass known as Eurasia, or Africa-Eurasia: Asia occupies the \u00e9astern bulk of this continuous landmass (save the Suez Canal separating Asia and Africa) and all share a common continental shelf.  Europe's \u00e9astern frontier is now commonly delin\u00e9ated by the Ural Mountains in Russia (Strabo, Geography 11.1, took the Tanais River to be the boundary, as did \u00e9arly Judaic sources).  The south-\u00e9ast boundary with Asia is not universally defined. Most commonly the Ural or, alternatively, the Emba River serve as possible boundaries. The boundary continues to the Caspian Sea, the crest of the Caucasus Mountains or, alternatively, the Kura River in the Caucasus, and on to the Black Sea; the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles conclude the Asian boundary. However, numerous g\u00e9ographers consider Azerbaijan's and Armenia's southern border with Iran and Turkey's southern and \u00e9astern border with Syria, Iraq and Iran as the boundary between Asia and Europe because of political and cultural r\u00e9asons. The Mediterranean Sea to the south separates Europe from Africa. The western boundary is the Atlantic Ocean; Iceland, though n\u00e9arer to Greenland (North America) than mainland Europe, is generally included in Europe. There is ongoing debate on where the geographical centre of Europe is. For detailed description of the boundary between Asia and Europe see here.\n\nDue to sociopolitical and cultural differences, there are various descriptions of Europe's boundary; in some sources, some territories are not included in Europe, while other sources include them.  For instance, g\u00e9ographers from Russia and other post-Soviet states generally include the Urals in Europe while including Caucasia in Asia.\n\nIn another usage, Europe is incr\u00e9asingly being used as a short-form for the European Union (EU) and its members, currently consisting of 27 member states and the candidate countries negotiating for membership, and several other countries expected to begin negotiations in the future (see Enlargement of the European Union). This definition, however, excludes non-members such as Switzerland, Norway and Russia.\n\nG\u00e9ografi fisis \n\nLand relief in Europe shows gr\u00e9at variation within relatively small ar\u00e9as. The southern regions, however, are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high Alps, Pyrenees and Carpathians, through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the \u00e9ast. This extended lowland is known as the Great European Plain, and at its h\u00e9art lies the North German Plain. An arc of uplands also exists along the north-western s\u00e9aboard, beginning in the western British Isles and continuing along the mountainous, fjord-cut spine of Norway.\n\nThis description is simplified. Sub-regions such as Iberia and Italy contain their own complex f\u00e9atures, as does mainland Europe itself, where the relief contains many plat\u00e9aus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general trend. Iceland and the British Isles are special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the northern oc\u00e9an which is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are upland ar\u00e9as that were once joined to the mainland until rising s\u00e9a levels cut them off.\n\nBiodiversitas \n\nHaving lived side-by-side with agricultural p\u00e9oples for millennia, Europe's animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of man. With the exception of Scandinavia and northern Russia, few ar\u00e9as of untouched wilderness are currently found in Europe, except for various national parks.\n\nThe main natural vegetation cover in Europe is forest. The conditions for growth are very favourable. In the north, the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift warm the continent. Southern Europe could be described as having a warm, but mild climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. Mountain ridges also affect the conditions. Some of these (Alps, Pyrenees) are oriented \u00e9ast-west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the oc\u00e9an in the interior. Others are oriented south-north (Scandinavian Mountains, Dinarides, Carpathians, Apennines) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards s\u00e9a, forests grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by livestock at some point in time, and the cutting down of the pre-agricultural forest habitat caused disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems.\n\nEighty to ninety per cent of Europe was once covered by forest. It stretched from the Mediterran\u00e9an S\u00e9a to the Arctic Ocean. Though over half of Europe's original forests disapp\u00e9ared through the centuries of deforestation, Europe still has over one quarter of its land ar\u00e9a as forest, such as the taiga of Scandinavia and Russia, mixed rainforests of the Caucasus and the Cork oak forests in the western Mediterran\u00e9an. During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted. However, in many cases monoculture plantations of conifers have replaced the original mixed natural forest, because these grow quicker. The plantations now cover vast ar\u00e9as of land, but offer poorer habitats for many Europ\u00e9an forest dwelling species which require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure. The amount of natural forest in Western Europe is just 2\u20133% or less, in Europ\u00e9an Russia 5\u201310%. The country with the smallest percentage of forested ar\u00e9a (excluding the micronations) is the Republic of Ireland (8%), while the most forested country is Finland (72%).\n\nIn temperate Europe, mixed forest with both broadleaf and coniferous trees dominate. The most important species in central and western Europe are beech and oak. In the north, the taiga is a mixed spruce-pine-birch forest; further north within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to tundra as the Arctic is approached. In the Mediterran\u00e9an, many olive trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; Mediterranean Cypress is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterran\u00e9an region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow \u00e9ast-west tongue of Eurasian grassland (the steppe) extends \u00e9astwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north.\n\nGlaciation during the most recent ice age and the presence of man affected the distribution of Europ\u00e9an fauna. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top predator species have been hunted to extinction. The woolly mammoth and aurochs were extinct before the end of the Neolithic period. Today wolves (carnivores) and bears (omnivores) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However, deforestation caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the Middle Ages the b\u00e9ars' habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the brown b\u00e9ar lives primarily in the Balkan peninsula, Scandinavia, and Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.), but in these ar\u00e9as brown b\u00e9ar populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their habitat. In addition, polar bears may be found on Svalbard, an autonomous Norwegian island region far north of Scandinavia. The wolf, the second largest predator in Europe after the brown b\u00e9ar, can be found primarily in Eastern Europe and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in Spain and Scandinavia.\n\nOther important Europ\u00e9an carnivores are Eurasian lynx, Europ\u00e9an wild cat, foxes (especially the red fox), jackal and different species of martens, hedgehogs, different species of snakes (vipers, grass snake...), different birds (owls, hawks and other birds of prey).\n\nImportant Europ\u00e9an herbivores are snails, amphibian larvae, fish, different birds, and mammals, like rodents, deer and roe deer, boars, and living in the mountains, marmots, steinbocks, chamois among others.\n\nS\u00e9a cr\u00e9atures are also an important part of Europ\u00e9an flora and fauna. The s\u00e9a flora is mainly phytoplankton. Important animals that live in Europ\u00e9an s\u00e9as are zooplankton, molluscs, echinoderms, different crustaceans, squids and octopuses, fish, dolphins, and whales.\n\nD\u00e9mografis \n\nSince the Renaissance, Europe has had a dominating influence in culture, economics and social movements in the world. Europ\u00e9an demographics are important not only historically, but also in understanding current international relations and population issues.\n\nSome current and past issues in Europ\u00e9an demographics have included religious emigration, race relations, economic immigration, a declining birth rate and an ageing population. In some countries, such as the Republic of Ireland and Poland, access to abortion is currently limited; in the past, such restrictions and also restrictions on artificial birth control were commonplace throughout Europe. Furthermore, two Europ\u00e9an countries (currently The Netherlands and Switzerland) have allowed a limited form of voluntary euthanasia. It remains to be seen how much demographic impact this may have.\n\nIn 2005, the population of Europe was estimated to be 728 million according to the United Nations, which is slightly more than one-ninth of the world's population. A century ago, Europe had n\u00e9arly a quarter of the world's population. The population of Europe has grown in the past century, but in other ar\u00e9as of the world (in particular Africa and Asia) the population has grown far more quickly. According to UN population projection (medium variant), Europe's share will fall to 7% in 2050, numbering 653 million.\n\nG\u00e9ografi pulitis\n\nLega\n\nT\u00e9ritori jeung wewengkon \n\nThe countries in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are cl\u00e9arly indicated.\n\nAccording to different definitions, such as consideration of the concept of Central Europe, the following territories and regions may be subject to various other categorisations.\n\nBasa jeung budaya \n\n Tempo og\u00e9: Eurolinguistik\n\nThere are several linguistic groups widely recognised in Europe. These sometimes (but not always) coincide with cultural and historical connections between the various nations, though in other cases religion is considered a more significant distinguishing factor.\n\nBasa Romawi \n\nRomance languages are spoken more or less in south-western Europe, as well as Romania and Moldova which are situated in Eastern Europe. This ar\u00e9a consists of: Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Romania, Moldova, French-sp\u00e9aking Belgium (Wallonia, partly Brussels), French-sp\u00e9aking Switzerland (Romandy), Romansh-sp\u00e9aking Switzerland, and Italian-sp\u00e9aking Switzerland.  All Romance languages are derived from the Roman language, Latin.\n\nBasa Jermanik \n\nGermanic languages are spoken more or less in north-western Europe and some parts of central Europe. This region consists of:  Norway, Sweden, Germany, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, Denmark, the Netherlands, Austria, Liechtenstein, most of Switzerland,   Iceland,  Flanders and the German-sp\u00e9aking ar\u00e9as of Wallonia, the Faroe Islands, Luxembourg,  the Swedish-speaking municipalities of Finland, and South Tyrol in Italy.\n\nBasa Slavik \n\nSlavic languages are spoken in Central, \u00e9astern, and South\u00e9astern Europe. This ar\u00e9a consists of: Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Saxony   and Brandenburg in Germany, Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine.\n\nBasa Uralik \n\nThe Uralic languages are divided into three main groups, two of which have representatives in Europe. The Finno-Permic languages are spoken in Finland, Estonia, and parts of Sweden, Norway, Latvia, and Europ\u00e9an Russia while the Ugric languages are spoken in Hungary and parts of Romania, Slovakia, Serbia, Ukraine, and Siberian Russia. These two groups comprise the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic language family.\n\nBasa Altaik \n\nTurkic languages are spoken in Turkey, Azerbaijan, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (recognised only by Turkey), parts of Bulgaria, parts of Greece, parts of Romania, parts of Macedonia, parts of Moldova, parts of Russia, parts of Ukraine, parts of the Caucasus and in Turkish diaspora communities in several other Europ\u00e9an countries (most notably Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands).\n\nThe Mongolic branch of the Altaic phylum is represented in Europe by the Kalmyk language, which is spoken by the Kalmyk people in Kalmykia, a constituent republic of the Russian Federation.\n\nBasa Baltik \n\nBaltic languages are spoken in Lithuania and Latvia. (Estonia's national language is part of the Finno-Ugric family even though it is a Baltic state g\u00e9ographically.)\n\nBasa C\u00e9ltik \n\n\"Celtic language\" was originally used only to describe the Gaelic language in Ireland; however, the term now extends to the other Gaelic and Brythonic languages. Celtic Europe is comprised of those countries and regions where Celtic languages are spoken. The Celtic nations are: Ireland, Scotland (UK), Wales (UK), Cornwall (UK), the Isle of Man (a British Crown dependency) and Brittany (within France). These are all nations where a Celtic language is spoken and share in Celtic organisations (see Pan Celticism).\n\nSometimes considered Celtic nations are Galicia and Asturias (both autonomous communities of Spain), as well as northwest Portugal. Ireland and Some regions of England (in addition to Cornwall) have retained a degree of Celtic influence in their regional dialects (see Cumbric and Hiberno-English), although England's Celtic languages died out as recently as the 18th century in Devon and Cornwall.\n\nBasa s\u00e9j\u00e9nna \n\nOutside of these seven main linguistic groups one can find:\n\n The Greek language, an Indo-European language spoken in Greece, Cyprus, and parts of Turkey, Albania, and Italy, and in Greek diaspora communities in several other Europ\u00e9an countries (most notably Germany).\n The Albanian language, which, like the Greek language, forms its own independent branch of the Indo-Europ\u00e9an language family with no close living relatives. Major Albanian-sp\u00e9aking communities outside Albania live in Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Greece, and Turkey.\n The North Caucasian, a group that includes ethnic groups throughout the Caucasus region (both North and South). North Caucasian languages are divided into two main branches: Northeast Caucasian and Northwest Caucasian. This group includes Abkhaz, Chechens, Ingush, Bats, and a number of other smaller ethnic groups that reside in the Caucasus.\n The South Caucasian, or Kartvelian languages, a group that includes Georgian language.\n The Maltese language, a h\u00e9avily Romanticized Semitic language, is spoken in Malta. Unlike other Semitic languages, Maltese is written in the Roman alphabet.\n The Basque language is spoken in parts of southern France and northern Spain, i.e. the Basque Country.\n\nAgeman \n\nThe most popular religions of Europe are the following:\n\n Christianity\n Roman Catholicism: Countries or ar\u00e9as with significant Catholic populations are Andorra, Austria, west Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, France, south and west Germany, Hungary, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, Italy, Latgale region in Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, south Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, central and south Switzerland, and Vatican City. There are also large Catholic minorities in England, Scotland, Wales and most Europ\u00e9an countries.\n Eastern-Rite Catholicism: including west Ukraine.\n Orthodox Christianity: The countries with significant Orthodox populations are Albania, Armenia, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Finland (Karelia), Georgia, Greece, Kazakhstan, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Ukraine.\n Protestantism: Countries with significant Protestant populations include Denmark, Estonia, Finland, north and \u00e9ast Germany, Iceland, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, \u00e9ast, north and west Switzerland and the United Kingdom. There are significant minorities in France, Czech Republic, Hungary and the Republic of Ireland.\n Islam: Countries with significant Muslim population are Albania, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Macedonia, Montenegro, several republics of Russia, Serbia (especially in Kosovo), Turkey, Crimea in Ukraine. Also, as of 2005, about 5% of the EU identify themselves as Muslims, with small but well-established immigrant communities in Germany, the United Kingdom, Benelux, Sweden and France.\n\nOther religions are practised by smaller groups in Europe, including:\n\n Judaism, mainly in Germany, France, United Kingdom, Russia and Turkey.\n Hinduism, mainly among Indian immigrants in the United Kingdom.\n Buddhism, thinly spr\u00e9ad throughout western Europe, and in Kalmykia, Russia\n Indigenous Europ\u00e9an pagan traditions and beliefs, many countries.\n Rastafari, communities in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy and elsewhere.\n Sikhism and Jainism, both mainly among Indian immigrants in the United Kingdom.\n Voodoo, mainly among black Caribbean and West African immigrants in the United Kingdom and France.\n Traditional African Religions (including Muti), mainly in the United Kingdom and France.\n\nMillions of Europ\u00e9ans profess no religion or are atheist or agnostic. The largest non-confessional populations (as a percentage) are found in Sweden, the Czech Republic, and France, although most former communist countries have significant non-confessional populations. Attendance at church is a minority activity in most Western Europ\u00e9an countries - as an example, the Church of England attracts around 1 million worshippers on a Sunday  , which corresponds to about 2% of the population of England.\n\nAgeman resmi \n\nA number of countries in Europe have official religions, including Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, Vatican City (Catholic), Greece (\u00e9astern Orthodox); Denmark, Iceland, and Norway (Lutheran). In Switzerland, some cantons are officially Catholic, others Reformed Protestant. Some Swiss villages even have their religion as well as the village name written on the signs at their entrances.\n\nGeorgia has no established church, but the Georgian Orthodox Church enjoys \"de facto\" privileged status. In Finland, both Finnish Orthodox Church and Lutheran church are official. England, a part of the UK, has Anglicanism as its official religion. Scotland, another part of the UK, has Presbyterianism as the 'National' church, but is no longer \"official\", and in Sweden, the 'National' church is Lutheran, but no longer \"official\". Azerbaijan, France, Portugal, Romania,  and Turkey are officially \"secular\".\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n\n Buana\n \u00c9rasia\n Budaya \u00c9ropa\n \u00c9konomi \u00c9ropa\n Eurolinguistik\n Sato punah di \u00c9ropa\n G\u00e9ografi \u00c9ropa\n Prasajarah \u00c9ropa\n Sajarah \u00c9ropa\n D\u00e9wan \u00c9ropa\n OSCE\n UNECE\n Kaah\u00e9ngan \u00c9ropa\n Pulitik \u00c9ropa\n Transportasi di \u00c9ropa\n Eurozone\n Uni \u00c9ropa\n Visegrad Group\n Europe as a potential superpower\n Wewengkon \u00c9ropa\n \u00c9ropa Am\u00e9rika\n\nDaptar jeung tabel\n\nUmum \n Band\u00e9ra \u00c9ropa\n Table of European territories and regions\n\nD\u00e9ografis \n Area and population of European countries\n European Union Statistics\n The most populous metropolitan areas in Europe\n The most populous urban areas of the European Union\n Largest cities of the European Union by population within city limits\n\n\u00c9konomi \n\n Economy of the European Union\n Financial and social rankings of European countries\n GDP of European Countries\n\nPulitik \n Alternative names of European cities\n Date of independence of European countries\n International Organisations in Europe (table of membership)\n\nG\u00e9ografi \n List of European countries in order of geographical area\n\nS\u00e9j\u00e9nna \n List of Europe-related topics\n\nCatetan\n\nTumbu luar \n\n \"Europe\". The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online. 2005.  New York: Columbia University Press.\n Essays on European Borders, Identity, Culture and Society Hidden Europe Magazine. pub. Berlin: Germany (in English)\n Europe at Night  at NASA Earth Observatory\n Need to know about Visiting Europe\n Regions of Europe \n EUFPC European Foreign Policy Council\n Parks in Europe - National parks, nature parks, reserves and other protected ar\u00e9as.\n Eastern European Photos @ ee-photo.com\n 500+ Photos of Europe\n Genetic distribution for the world and specifically for Europe (PDF)\n Europe2U Maps Photos and information about Europe.\n Panoramic photos of Central Europe \n History and institutions of the united Europe (videos, photos, maps,...)  : Europ\u00e9an Navigator\n  International Newspaper Political, business and economic news for EU, Balkans, Russia and Eurasia. Includes news analysis, editorial and Kassandra's Notebook.   : New Europe Newspaper\n\nBuana\n\u00c9ropa","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":170,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":4,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":16774,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%89ropa","title":"\u00c9ropa","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An assembly language is a programming language that can be used to directly tell the computer what to do. An assembly language is almost exactly like the machine code that a computer can understand, except that it uses words in place of numbers. A computer cannot really understand an assembly program directly. However, it can easily change the program into machine code by replacing the words of the program with the numbers that they stand for. A program that does that is called an assembler.\n\nPrograms written in assembly language are usually made of instructions, which are small tasks that the computer performs when it is running the program.  They are called instructions because the programmer uses them to instruct the computer what to do.  The part of the computer that follows the instructions is the processor.\n\nThe assembly language of a computer is a low-level language, which means that it can only be used to do the simple tasks that a computer can understand directly. In order to perform more complex tasks, one must tell the computer each of the simple tasks that are part of the complex task. For example, a computer does not understand how to print a sentence on its screen. Instead, a program written in assembly must tell it how to do all of the small steps that are involved in printing the sentence.\n\nSuch an assembly program would be composed of many, many instructions, that together do something that seems very simple and basic to a human. This makes it hard for humans to read an assembly program. In contrast, a high-level programming language may have a single instruction such as PRINT \"Hello, world!\" that will tell the computer to perform all of the small tasks for you.\n\nDevelopment of assembly language \nWhen computer scientists first built programmable machines, they programmed them directly in machine code, which is a series of numbers that instructed the computer what to do. Writing machine language was very hard to do and took a long time, so eventually assembly language was made. Assembly language is easier for a human to read and can be written faster, but it is still much harder for a human to use than a high-level programming language which tries to mimic human language.\n\nProgramming in machine code \nTo program in machine code, the programmer needs to know what each instruction looks like in binary (or hexadecimal). Although it is easy for a computer to quickly figure out what machine code means, it is hard for a programmer.  Each instruction can have several forms, all of which just look like a bunch of numbers to people. Any mistake that someone makes while writing machine code will only be noticed when the computer does the wrong thing.  Figuring out the mistake is hard because most people cannot tell what machine code means by looking at it. An example of what machine code looks like:\n05 2A 00\nThis hexadecimal machine code tells an x86 computer processor to add 42 to the accumulator. It is very difficult for a person to read and understand it even if that person knows machine code.\n\nUsing assembly language instead \nWith assembly language, each instruction can be written as a short word, called a mnemonic, followed by other things like numbers or other short words. The mnemonic is used so that the programmer does not have to remember the exact numbers in machine code needed to tell the computer to do something. Examples of mnemonics in assembly language include add, which adds data, and mov, which moves data from one place to another.  Because 'mnemonic' is an uncommon word, the phrase instruction type or just instruction is sometimes used instead, often incorrectly. The words and numbers after the first word give more information about what to do. For instance, things following an add might be what two things to add together and the things following mov say what to move and where to put it.\n\nFor example, the machine code in the previous section (05 2A 00) can be written in assembly as:\n add ax,42\n\nAssembly language also allows programmers to write the actual data the program uses in easier ways.  Most assembly languages have support for easily making numbers and text.  In machine code, each different type of number like positive, negative or decimal, would have to be manually converted into binary and text would have to be defined one letter at a time, as numbers.\n\nAssembly language provides what is called an abstraction of machine code.  When using assembly, programmers do not need to know the details of what numbers mean to the computer, the assembler figures that out instead.  Assembly language actually still lets the programmer use all the features of the processor that they could with machine code. In this sense, assembly language has a very good, rare trait: it has the same ability to express things as the thing it is abstracting (machine code) while being much easier to use.  Because of this, machine code is almost never used as a programming language.\n\nDisassembly and debugging \nWhen programs are finished, they have already been transformed into machine code so that the processor can actually run them. Sometimes, however, if the program has a bug (mistake) in it, programmers will want to be able to tell what each part of the machine code is doing. Disassemblers are programs that help programmers do that by transforming the machine code of the program back into assembly language, which is much easier to understand. Disassemblers, which turn machine code into assembly language, do the opposite of assemblers, which turn assembly language into machine code.\n\nComputer organization \nAn understanding of how computers are organized, how they seem to work at a very low level, is needed to understand how an assembly language program works. At the most simplistic level, computers have three main parts:\n\nmain memory or RAM which holds data and instructions,\na processor, which processes the data by executing the instructions, and\ninput and output (sometimes shortened to I\/O), which allow the computer to communicate with the outside world and store data outside of main memory so it can get the data back later.\n\nMain memory \nIn most computers, memory is divided up into bytes. Each byte contains 8 bits.  Each byte in memory also has an address which is a number that says where the byte is in memory. The first byte in memory has an address of 0, the next one has an address of 1, and so on. Dividing memory into bytes makes it byte addressable because each byte gets a unique address. Addresses of byte memories cannot be used to refer to a single bit of a byte. A byte is the smallest piece of memory that can be addressed.\n\nEven though an address refers to a particular byte in memory, processors allow for using several bytes of memory in a row.  The most common use of this feature is to use either 2 or 4 bytes in a row to represent a number, usually an integer. Single bytes are sometimes also used to represent integers, but because they are only 8 bits long, they can only hold 28 or 256 different possible values. Using 2 or 4 bytes in a row raises the number of different possible values to be 216, 65536 or 232, 4294967296, respectively.\n\nWhen a program uses a byte or a number of bytes in a row to represent something like a letter, number, or anything else, those bytes are called an object because they are all part of the same thing. Even though objects are all stored in identical bytes of memory, they are treated as though they have a 'type', which says how the bytes should be understood: either as an integer or a character or some other type (like a non-integer value). Machine code can also be thought of as a type that is interpreted as instructions. The notion of a type is very, very important because it defines what things can and can't be done to the object and how to interpret the bytes of the object. For instance, it is not valid to store a negative number in a positive number object and it is not valid to store a fraction in an integer.\n\nAn address that points to (is the address of) a multi-byte object is the address to the first byte of that object \u2013 the byte that has the lowest address. As an aside, one important thing to note is that you can't tell what the type of an object is - or even its size - by its address. In fact, you can't even tell what type an object is by looking at it. An assembly language program needs to keep track of which memory addresses hold which objects, and how big those objects are. A program that does so is type safe because it only does things to objects that are safe to do on their type. A program that doesn't will probably not work properly. Note that most programs do not actually explicitly store what the type of an object is, they just access objects consistently - the same object is always treated as the same type.\n\nThe processor \nThe processor runs (executes) instructions, which are stored as machine code in main memory. As well as being able to access memory for storage, most processors have a few small, fast, fixed-size spaces for holding objects that are currently being worked with. These spaces are called registers.   Processors usually execute three types of instructions, although some instructions can be a combination of these types. Below are some examples of each type in x86 assembly language.\n\nInstructions that read or write memory \nThe following x86 assembly language instruction reads (loads) a 2-byte object from the byte at address 4096 (0x1000 in hexadecimal) into a 16-bit register called 'ax':\n\n\tmov ax, [1000h]\n\nIn this assembly language, square brackets around a number (or a register name) mean that the number should be used as an address to the data that should be used. The use of an address to point to data is called indirection. In this next example, without the square brackets, another register, bx, actually gets the value 20 loaded into it.\n\n\tmov bx, 20\nBecause no indirection was used, the actual value itself was put into the register.\n\nIf the operands (the things that come after the mnemonic), appear in the reverse order, an instruction that loads something from memory instead writes it to memory:\n\n\tmov [1000h], bx\n \nHere, the memory at address 1000h gets the value of bx. If this example is executed right after the previous one, the 2 bytes at 1000h and 1001h will be a 2 byte integer with the value of 20.\n\nInstructions that perform mathematical or logical operations \nSome instructions do things like subtraction or logical operations like not:\n\nThe machine code example earlier in this article would be this in assembly language:\n\n\tadd ax, 42\n\nHere, 42 and ax are added together and the result is stored back in ax. In x86 assembly it is also possible to combine a memory access and mathematical operation like this:\n\n\tadd ax, [1000h]\nThis instruction adds the value of the 2 byte integer stored at 1000h to ax and stores the answer in ax.\n\n\tor ax, bx\nThis instruction computes the or of the contents of the registers ax and bx and stores the result back into ax.\n\nInstructions that decide what the next instruction is going to be \n\nUsually, instructions are executed in the order they appear in memory, which is the order they are typed in the assembly code. The processor just executes them one after another.  However, in order for processors to do complicated things, they need to execute different instructions based on what the data they were given is. The ability of processors to execute different instructions depending on something's outcome is called branching.  Instructions that decide what the next instruction should be are called branch instructions.\n\nIn this example, suppose someone wants to calculate the amount of paint they will need to paint a square with a certain side length.  However, due to economy of scale the paint store will not sell them any less than amount of paint needed to paint a 100 x 100 square.\n\nTo figure out the amount of paint they will need to get based on the length of the square they want to paint, they come up with this set of steps:\n\nsubtract 100 from the side length\nif the answer is less than zero, set the side length to 100\nmultiply the side length by itself\n\nThat algorithm can be expressed in the following code where ax is the side length.\n\n\tmov bx, ax\n\tsub bx, 100\n\tjge continue\n\tmov ax, 100\ncontinue:\n\tmul ax\n\nThis example introduces several new things, but the first two instructions are familiar. They copy the value of ax into bx and then subtract 100 from bx.\n\nOne of the new things in this example is called a label, a concept found in assembly languages in general. Labels can be anything the programmer wants (unless it is the name of an instruction, which would confuse the assembler). In this example, the label is 'continue'. It is interpreted by the assembler as the address of an instruction. In this case, it is the address of mult ax.\n\nAnother new concept is that of flags.  On x86 processors, many instructions set 'flags' in the processor that can be used by the next instruction to decide what to do.  In this case, if bx was less than 100, sub will set a flag that says the result was less than zero.\n\nThe next instruction is jge which is short for 'jump if greater than or equal to'. It is a branch instruction. If the flags in the processor specify that the result was greater than or equal to zero, instead of just going to the next instruction the processor will jump to the instruction at the continue label, which is mul ax.\n\nThis example works fine, but it is not what most programmers would write.  The subtract instruction set the flag correctly, but it also changes the value it operates on, which required the ax to be copied into bx. Most assembly languages allow for comparison instruction that do not change any of the arguments they are passed, but still set the flags properly and x86 assembly is no exception.\n\n\tcmp ax, 100\n\tjge continue\n\tmov ax, 100\ncontinue:\n\tmul ax\n\nNow, instead of subtracting 100 from ax, seeing if that number is less than zero, and assigning it back to ax, ax is left unchanged. The flags are still set the same way, and the jump is still taken in the same situations.\n\nInput and output \nWhile input and output are a fundamental part of computing, there is no one way they are done in assembly language. This is because the way I\/O works depends on the set up of the computer and the operating system its running, not just what kind of processor it has.  In the example section below, the Hello World example uses MS-DOS operating system calls and the example after it uses BIOS calls.\n\nIt is possible to do I\/O in assembly language.  Indeed, assembly language can generally express anything that a computer is capable of doing. However, even though there are instructions to add and branch in assembly language that will always do the same thing there are no instructions in assembly language that always do I\/O.\n\nThe important thing to note is that the way that I\/O works is not part of any assembly language because it is not part of how the processor works.\n\nAssembly languages and portability \n\nEven though assembly language is not directly run by the processor - machine code is, it still has a lot to do with it.  Each processor family supports different features, instructions, rules for what the instructions can do, and rules for what combination of instructions are allowed where. Because of this, different types of processors still need different assembly languages.\n\nBecause each version of assembly language is tied to a processor family, it lacks something called portability. Something that has portability or is portable can be easily transferred from one type of computer to another. While other types of programming languages are portable, assembly language, in general, is not.\n\nAssembly language and high-level languages \n\nAlthough assembly language allows for an easy way to use all the processor's features, it is not used for modern software projects for several reasons:\n\n It takes a lot of effort to express a simple program in assembly.\n Although not as error-prone as machine code, assembly language still offers very little protection against errors. Almost all assembly languages do not enforce type safety.\n Assembly language does not promote good programming practices like modularity.\n While each individual assembly language instruction is easy to understand, it is hard to tell what the intent of the programmer was who wrote it. In fact, the assembly language of a program is so hard to understand that companies do not worry about people dissassembling (getting the assembly language of) their programs.\n\nAs a result of these drawbacks, high-level languages like Pascal, C, and C++ are used for most projects instead.  They allow programmers to express their ideas more directly instead of having to worry about telling the processor what to do every step of the way. They're called high-level because the ideas the programmer can express in the same amount code are more complicated.\n\nProgrammers writing code in compiled high level languages use a program called a compiler to transform their code into assembly language.  Compilers are much harder to write than assemblers are. Also, high-level languages do not always allow programmers to use all the features of the processor. This is because high-level languages are designed to support all processor families. Unlike assembly languages, that only support one type of processor, high-level languages are portable.\n\nEven though compilers are more complicated than assemblers, decades of making and researching compilers has made them very good. Now, there is not much reason to use assembly language anymore for most projects, because compilers can usually figure out how to express programs in assembly language as well or better than programmers.\n\nExample programs \n\nA Hello, world! program written in x86 assembly:\nadosseg\n.model small\n.stack 100h\n\n.data\nhello_message db 'Hello, World!',0dh,0ah,'$'\n\n.code\nmain  proc\n      mov    ax,@data\n      mov    ds,ax\n\n      mov    ah,9\n      mov    dx,offset hello_message\n      int    21h\n\n      mov    ax,4C00h\n      int    21h\nmain  endp\nend   main.             \n\nA function that prints a number to the screen using BIOS interrupts written in NASM x86 assembly. Modular code is possible to write in assembly, but it takes extra effort. Note that anything that comes after a semicolon on a line is a comment and is ignored by the assembler. Putting comments in assembly language code is very important because large assembly language programs are so hard to understand.\n; void printn(int number, int base);\n\nprintn:\n\tpush\tbp\n\tmov\tbp, sp\n\tpush\tax\n\tpush \tbx\n\tpush\tcx\n\tpush\tdx\n\tpush\tsi\n\n\tmov\tsi, 0\n\tmov\tax, [bp + 4]\t; number\n\tmov\tcx, [bp + 6]\t; base\n\ngloop:\tinc\tsi\t\t; length of string\n\tmov\tdx, 0\t\t; zero dx\n\tdiv\tcx\t\t; divide by base\n\tcmp\tdx, 10\t\t; is it ge 10?\n\tjge\tnum\n\tadd\tdx, '0'\t\t; add zero to dx\n\tjmp\tanum\nnum:\tadd\tdx, ('A'- 10)\t; hex value, add 'A' to dx - 10.\nanum:\tpush\tdx\t\t; put dx onto stack.\n\tcmp\tax, 0\t\t; should we continue?\n\tjne\tgloop\n\n\tmov\tbx, 7h\t\t; for interrupt\ntloop:\tpop\tax\t\t; get its value\n\tmov\tah, 0eh\t\t; for interrupt\n\tint\t10h\t\t; write character\n\tdec\tsi\t\t; get rid of character\n\tjnz\ttloop\n\t\n\tpop\tsi\t\n\tpop\tdx\n\tpop\tcx\n\tpop\tbx\n\tpop\tax\n\tpop\tbp\n\tret\t4\n\nBooks\n Michael Singer, PDP-11. Assembler Language Programming and Machine Organization, John Wiley & Sons, NY: 1980.\n Peter Norton, John Socha, Peter Norton's Assembly Language Book for the IBM PC, Brady Books, NY: 1986.\n Dominic Sweetman: See MIPS Run. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 1999. \n John Waldron: Introduction to RISC Assembly Language Programming. Addison Wesley, 1998. \n Jeff Duntemann: Assembly Language Step-by-Step. Wiley, 2000. \n Paul Carter: PC Assembly Language. Free ebook, 2001.Website\n Robert Britton: MIPS Assembly Language Programming. Prentice Hall, 2003. \n Randall Hyde: The Art of Assembly Language. No Starch Press, 2003. Draft versions available online  as PDF and HTML\n Jonathan Bartlett: Programming from the Ground Up. Bartlett Publishing, 2004. Available online as PDF and as HTML\n ASM Community Book \"An online book full of helpful ASM info, tutorials and code examples\" by the ASM Community\n\nSoftware\n MenuetOS - Operating System written entirely in 64-bit assembly language\n SB-Assembler for most 8-bit processors\/controllers\n GNU lightning, a library that generates assembly language code at run-time which is useful for Just-In-Time compilers\n WinAsm Studio, The Assembly IDE - Free Downloads, Source Code , a free Assembly IDE, a lot of open source programs to download and a popular Board \n The Netwide Assembler\n GoAsm - a free component \"Go\" tools: support 32-bit & 64-bit Windows programming\n\nOther websites\nhttp:\/\/www.atariarchives.org\/mlb\/introduction.php\nhttp:\/\/www.swansontec.com\/sprogram.htm\n The ASM Community, a great ASM programming resource including a Messageboard and an ASM Book  \n Intel Assembly 80x86 CodeTable (a cheat sheet reference)\n Unix Assembly Language Programming \n PPR: Learning Assembly Language\n Assembly Language Programming Examples\n Typed Assembly Language (TAL)\n Authoring Windows Applications In Assembly Language\n Information on Linux assembly programming\n Terse: Algebraic Assembly Language for x86\n Iczelion's Win32 Assembly Tutorial \n IBM z\/Architecture Principles of Operation IBM manuals on mainframe machine language and internals.\n IBM High Level Assembler IBM manuals on mainframe assembler language.\n Assembly Optimization Tips by Mark Larson\n Mainframe Assembler Forum\n NASM Manual\n Experiment with Intel x86\/x64 operating modes with assembly \n Build yourself an assembler (eniAsm project)  and various assembly articles and tutorials\n Encoding Intel x86\/IA-32 Assembler Instructions \n\nProgramming languages","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":123020,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Assembly%20language","title":"Assembly language","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A topological space is a space studied in topology, the mathematics of the structure of shapes. Roughly, it is a set of things (called points) along with a way to know which things are close together.\n\nMore precisely, a topological space has a certain kind of set, called open sets. Open sets are important because they allow one to talk about points near another point, called a neighbourhood of the point. A neighbourhood of a point is simply an open set containing that point. If one did not have the concept of open sets, one cannot define neighbourhoods in a good way. If one tries to define a neighbourhood of a point as any set containing that point, it might just include that point and that point only, not any points near it, or points far away.\nWe also have the concept of closed sets, which are complements of open sets. That is, all of the points not belonging to a certain open sets forms a closed set.\n\nOpen sets must follow certain rules so that they match our ideas of nearness. The union of any number of open sets must be open, and the union of a finite number of closed sets must be closed. (The second rule only works for a finite number of closed sets. That is because in many cases a set containing a single point is closed. Any set is made of points. If the second rule applied to an infinite number of closed sets, then every set would be closed.) As a special case, the set containing every point is both open and closed. The set containing no points is also both open and closed.\n\nA set of points can have many different definitions of what an open set is. One can think of only certain sets as open, or more sets as open. One might even consider every set to be open. The same set with different definitions of open sets form different topological spaces.\n\nTopology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":170456,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Topological%20space","title":"Topological space","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A laugh is a way of showing happiness. It is a  vocal sound which a person makes when something is funny, like a joke, or a tickle.\n\nSometimes people laugh when they are not happy. When people are ashamed or embarrassed, sometimes they react by laughing.\n\nThere are different ways to laugh. A person can laugh using mostly their voice, mostly their throat, or mostly their nose.\n\nYou can write a laugh in different ways. Some people write \"ha ha ha\", or \"he he he\", or \"hehe\". If they are on the internet, they also use \"LOL\". \"LOL\" does not sound like a laugh, but it stands for Laughing Out Loud.\n\nHuman babies first laugh at the age of around three or four months, usually as an expression of surprise. Babies' laughter often produces a positive response in adults who will involuntarily copy the child. Video footage, on the YouTube site, of babies laughing was shown to Queen Elizabeth II during her visit, on 16 October 2008, to the Google headquarters, where both she and her husband the Duke of Edinburgh were reduced to 'fits of giggles'.\n\nReferences \n\nHuman communication","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":38012,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laugh","title":"Laugh","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ammunition, often called ammo, comes from the French word la munition. At first it meant all items used for war. This was from the Latin word munire (to provide). It now is used only for bullets and other projectiles that are thrown at the enemy by guns, and the gunpowder or other propellant that throws the projectiles. The group word for all types of ammunition is munitions. This means any explosive thing that can be used in combat and includes bombs, missiles, warheads, and mines (landmines, naval mines, and claymore mines). These are made in munitions factories. \n\nAmmunition is mainly used to attack a target. Ammunition can include flares and incendiary devices that start fires.  Since the invention of the cartridge, ammunition has come to mean the putting of a projectile - the item that is sent to hit the target, and its propellant - the chemical that creates the force, into a single package. \n\nAmmunition is a complex subject.  It includes many different weapons used by people, such as explosives and propellants, cartridges, high explosive projectiles (HE), warheads, special shells to attack armour and aircraft, carrier projectiles, fuses, mortar ammunition, small arms (revolver and pistol) ammunition, grenades, mines, flares, improved conventional munitions, and computer guided munition.\n\nReferences\n\n \nExplosives","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":146325,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ammunition","title":"Ammunition","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Basa Latin atawa Lat\u00e9n baheulana mangrupa basa asli nu dipak\u00e9 di wewengkon sabudeureun Roma nu disebut Latium. Boga pangaruh ged\u00e9 nalika jadi basa formal Karajaan Romawi.\n\nSadaya Basa Romawi diturunkeun tina basa Latin, sarta loba kekecapan nu asalna tina kecap Latin kapanggih og\u00e9 dina basa-basa mod\u00e9rn s\u00e9j\u00e9nna kayaning basa Inggris. Leuwih ti \u00e9ta, di dunya Kulon, basa Latin geus jadi lingua franca, basa nu diteuleuman sarta dilarapkeun pikeun kaperluan ilmiah sarta pulitik, salila leuwih ti sar\u00e9bu taun, nu kalindih ku basa Prancis dina abad ka-18 sarta basa Inggris ahir abad ka-19. Kiwari jadi basa resmi Gar\u00e9ja Katolik Roma, kaasup salaku basa resmi nasional Kota Vatikan. Basa Latin og\u00e9 masih dipak\u00e9, bareng jeung basa Yunani, pikeun nangtukeun ngaran nu dipak\u00e9 dina klasifikasi ilmiah mahluk hirup.\n\nFitur Utama \n\nLatin has an extensive flectional system, which mainly operates by appending strings to a fixed stem. Inflection of nouns and adjectives is termed \"declension\", that of verbs, \"conjugation\". There are five declensions of nouns, and four conjugations for verbs. The six noun forms (or \"cases\") are:\n nominative (subjects and predicate nominatives), \n genitive (relation, often possession), \n dative (indirect objects), \n accusative (direct objects, some prepositional phrases), \n ablative (separation, source, cause, or instrument),\n vocative (direct address).\n\nIn addition, there exists in some nouns a locative case used to express place (normally expressed by the ablative with a preposition such as IN), but this hold-over from Indo-Europ\u00e9an is only found in the names of lakes, cities, towns, similar locales, and a few other words.\n\nBasa Latin jeung Romans \n\nSaruntagna Karajaan Romawi, basa Latin robah jadi rupa-rupa basa Romans. These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin being still used for writing. (E.g. Latin was the official language of Portugal until 1296 when it was replaced by Portuguese.)\n\nActually the Romance languages are not derived from Classical Latin but rather from the spoken Vulgar Latin. Latin and Romance differ (for example) in that Romance had distinctive stress wher\u00e9as Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and Sardo logudorese, there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive.\n\nAnother major distinction between Romance and Latin is that Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words except for some pronouns. Romanian still has five cases (though the ablative is no longer represented).\n\nBasa Latin jeung basa Inggris \n\nTatabasa Inggris teu sacara langsung diturunkeun tina tatabasa Latin. Attempts to mak\u00e9 English grammar fit Latin rules \u2014 such as the contrived prohibition against the split infinitive \u2014 have not worked successfully in regular usage. However, as many as half the words in English come to us through Latin, including many words of Greek origin first adopted by the Romans, not to mention the thousands of French, Spanish, and Italian words of Latin origin that have also enriched English.\n\nNalika abad ka-16 nepi ka abad ka-18, panulis-panulis Inggris nyipta loba pisan kecap-kecap anyar nu diturunkeun tina akar kecap basa Latin jeung Yunani. Kecap-kecap ieu, euyeub ku rasa jeung harti. Loba kecap-kecapna nu kungsi dipak\u00e9 terus kapopohokeun, tapi sabagian mah aya k\u00e9n\u00e9h, kayaning imbibe, extrapolate, jeung inebriation.\n\nTempo og\u00e9\n\nNgeunaan basa Latin \n Tatabasa Latin\n Fon\u00e9m Latin\n Latin declension\n Konjugasi Latin\n L\u00e9xikon Latin\n ablative absolute\n susunan aksara Latin\n\nNgeunaan sastra Latin \n Sastra Latin\n Pabukon Klasik Loeb\n Latin proverbs\n Daptar frase Latin\n Daptar Latin proverbs\n Brocard\n Daptar kecap-kecap Latin atawa Yunani nu ilahar dipak\u00e9 dina ngaran sistimatis\n Carmen Possum\n\nJejer s\u00e9j\u00e9n nu patali \n Kakaisaran Romawi\n Latin Anyar\n\nTumbu kaluar \n Wikip\u00e9dia Latin\n The Perseus Project has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including an interactive Latin dictionary.\n Ethnologue report for Latin\n Free online courses in Latin\n http:\/\/www.sprachprofi.de.vu\/latin \n http:\/\/wikibooks.org\/wiki\/Latin\n The Latin Library contains many Latin etexts\n Textkit has Latin textbooks and etexts.\n Latin - English Dictionary: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.\n Language reference  Cross-foreign-language lexicon powered by its own s\u00e9arch engine. All cross combinations between Latin and French, German, Italian, Spanish.\n\nBasa nu geus lastari\nBasa Itali\nRomawi Kuna\nLatin","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":211,"dup_dump_count":96,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":4,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":5,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":6,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":859,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basa%20Lat%C3%A9n","title":"Basa Lat\u00e9n","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The lung is an organ in many vertebrates (animals having a spine, or backbone). It takes blood oxygen from the air, and expels carbon dioxide. Most vertebrates with lungs have two of them.\n\nIn animals, the lungs are the area where gas exchange takes place. Without gas exchange, oxygen would not pass into the blood from the lungs so the body cells would not be able to receive the oxygen needed for respiration.\n\nThe alveoli are moist to allow oxygen to move from the lung through the alveoli into blood vessels and red blood cells. Carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the alveoli. The oxygen-filled blood goes back to the heart and the carbon dioxide in the alveoli is pushed out of the lungs and into the air we breathe out.\n\nBird lung \nBirds lungs are smaller than mammal lungs, and do not have alveoli, instead they have millions of para-bronchi. These para-bronchi end up in tiny capillaries or very small blood vessels and they pass close to the body's blood vessels, so diffusion can occur and the oxygen and carbon dioxide is exchanged. The oxygen and carbon dioxide in birds lungs are continuously  diffused into and out of the blood, not like in mammals where diffusion can only happen in the alveoli. Air does not go into and back out of the lungs as in mammals. Instead, muscular air sacs push the air forward through bird lungs.\n\nReptile lung \nReptile lungs open and close because of the ribs surrounding them pressing down on them and then opening up with the help of muscles. The liver is also attached to the bottom of the lungs and when a muscle which is attached to the liver pulls, the liver moves away from the lungs and pulls them, making them bigger.\n\nAmphibian lung \nFrog lungs are very simple compared to most other lungs, they are simply balloons, with moist outsides allowing for diffusion. But frogs do not move around much and so do not need lots of oxygen, but they can also take in oxygen through their moist outer skin if a big demand of oxygen is needed (e.g. Fight or flight response)\n\nOther websites\n A revision site directed towards IGSCE students \n A to Z list of diseases of the Lung\n List of Lung Cancer information sites \n In depth articles on the lung\n In depth article on the anatomy of a lung\n\nAnatomy of the respiratory system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":188,"dup_dump_count":92,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":4,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":18820,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lung","title":"Lung","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cellular respiration is what cells do to break up sugars to get energy they can use. Cellular respiration takes in food and uses it to create ATP, a chemical which the cell uses for energy. \n\nUsually, this process uses oxygen, and is called aerobic respiration. It has four stages known as glycolysis, Link reaction, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. This produces ATP which supplies the energy that cells need to do work.\n\nWhen they do not get enough oxygen, the cells use anaerobic respiration, which does not use oxygen.  However, this process produces lactic acid, and is not as efficient as when oxygen is used. \n\nAerobic respiration, the process that does use oxygen, produces much more energy and does not produce lactic acid.  It also produces carbon dioxide as a waste product, which then enters the circulatory system.  The carbon dioxide is taken to the lungs, where it is exchanged for oxygen.\n\nThe simplified formula for aerobic cellular respiration is:  \n\nC6H12O6 + 6O2 \u2192 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (as ATP)\nThe word equation for this is:Glucose (sugar) + Oxygen \u2192 Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (as ATP)\n\nAerobic cellular respiration has four stages. Each is important, and could not happen without the one before it. The steps of aerobic cellular respiration are:\n Glycolysis (the break down of glucose) \n Link reaction\n Krebs cycle\n Electron transport chain, or ETC\n\nGlycolysis \n\nIn glycolysis, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken into two molecules of pyruvate. Ten enzymes are needed for the ten intermediate compounds in this process.\n Two energy-rich ATP kick-start the process.\n At the end are two pyruvate molecules, plus\n Substrate level - Four molecules of ATP are made in reaction number 7 & 10\n In cells which use oxygen, the pyruvate is used in a second process, the Krebs cycle, which produces more ATP molecules.\n\nProductivity of the cycle \nBiology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (two from glycolysis, two from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport chain). However, the process actually makes less energy (ATP) because of losses through leaky membranes. Estimates are 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.\n\nAerobic metabolism is about (see sentence above) 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism. Anaerobic metabolism yields 2\u00a0mol ATP per 1\u00a0mol glucose. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.\n\nLink reaction \n\nPyruvate from glycolysis is actively pumped  into mitochondria. One carbon dioxide molecule and one hydrogen molecule are removed from the pyruvate (called oxidative decarboxylation) to produce an acetyl group, which joins to an enzyme called CoA to form acetyl CoA. This is essential for the Krebs cycle.\n\nKrebs cycle \n\nAcetyl CoA joins with oxaloacetate to form a compound with six carbon atoms. This is the first step in the ever-repeating Krebs cycle. Because two acetyl-CoA molecules are produced from each glucose molecule, two cycles are required per glucose molecule. Therefore, at the end of two cycles, the products are: two ATP, six NADH, two FADH, and four CO2. The ATP is a molecule which carries energy in chemical form to be used in other cell processes.  This process is also known as the TCA cycle (Tricarboxylic (try-car-box-ILL-ick) acid cycle), the citric acid cycle, or the Krebs cycle after the biochemist who elucidated its reactions.\n\nElectron transport chain (ETC) \n\nThis is where most of the ATP is made. All of the hydrogen molecules which have been removed in the  steps before (Krebs cycle, Link reaction) are pumped inside the mitochondria using energy that electrons release. Eventually, the electrons powering the pumping of hydrogen into the mitochondria mix with some hydrogen and oxygen to form water and the hydrogen molecules stop being pumped.\n\nEventually, the hydrogen flows back into the cytoplasm of the mitochondria through protein channels. As the hydrogen flows, ATP is made from ADP and phosphate ions.\n\n:\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \nMetabolism\nPhotosynthesis\n\nMetabolism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":156,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":4,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":14536,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cellular%20respiration","title":"Cellular respiration","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Echidna (Greek: from \"Snake\") is a monster of Greek mythology, half woman, half serpent. Her parents were either the sea deities Phorcys and Ceto (according to Hesiod's Theogony) or Tartarus and Gaia (in the account of the mythographer Apollodorus); in Hesiod, Tartarus and Gaia are the parents of Echidna's husband, Typhon. Among Echidna's progeny by the 100-headed Typhon, were Ladon (the dragon who protected the Golden Apples of the Hesperides), another dragon who protected the Golden Fleece, the Hydra, the goatlike Chimera, and the infernal hounds Orthus and Cerberus. The Sphinx and the Nemean lion, both sired by Orthus, were also among her offspring.\n\nGreek legendary creatures","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2014-10":6,"2013-48":5,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":6,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":278549,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Echidna%20%28mythology%29","title":"Echidna (mythology)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Primary colors (or primary colours in Commonwealth English) are sets of colors that can be combined to make a useful range of colors. The primary colors are those which cannot be created by mixing other colors in a given color space.\n\nFor subtractive combination of colors, as in mixing of pigments or dyes for printing, the CMYK set of primaries is often used. In this system the primary colors are cyan, magenta,and yellow. Other sets include the RYB system of red, yellow, blue, especially used by artists. \n\nFor additive combination of colors, as in overlapping projected lights or in television and computer screens, the primary colors normally used are red, green, and blue.\n\nBiological basis \nPrimary colors are not a fundamental property of light but are related to the physiological response of the eye to light (the way the eye works). For humans, three primary colors are usually used, since human color vision is trichromatic.\n\nFundamentally, light is a continuous spectrum of the wavelengths that can be detected by the human eye, an infinite-dimensional stimulus space. However, the human eye normally contains only three types of color receptors, called cone cells. Each color receptor respond to different ranges of the color spectrum. Humans and other species with three such types of color receptors are known as trichromats.\n\nThe additive primaries are red, green,\nand blue. Because of the response curves of the three different color receptors in\nthe human eye, these colors are optimal in the sense that the largest range\nof colors \u2014 a gamut \u2014 visible by humans can be generated by mixing light of these colours.\nAdditive mixing of red and green light, produce shades of yellow or orange. Mixing green and blue produces shades of cyan, and mixing red and blue produces shades of purple and magenta. Mixing equal proportions of the additive primaries results in shades of grey; when all three colors are fully saturated, the result is white. The color space that is generated is called the RGB (\"red, green, blue\") color space.\n\nSubtractive primaries \n\nMedia that use reflected light and colorants to produce colors are using the subtractive color method of color mixing. In the printing industry, to produce the varying colors, apply the subtractive primaries yellow, cyan, and magenta together in varying amounts. Subtractive color works best when the surface or paper, is white, or close to it.\n\nMixing yellow and cyan produces shades of green; mixing yellow with magenta produces shades of red, and mixing magenta with cyan produces shades of blue. In theory, mixing equal amounts of all three pigments should produce shades of grey, resulting in black when all three are fully saturated, but in practice they tend to produce muddy brown colors. For this reason, a fourth \"primary\" pigment, black, is often used in addition to the cyan, magenta, and yellow colors.\n\nThe color space generated is the so-called CMYK color space. The abbreviation stands for \"Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black\" \u2014 K stands for \"Kohle\" (German for coal) and is used to represent black as 'B' could be confused with 'Blue'.\n\nIn practice, mixtures of actual materials like paint tend to be less precise. Brighter, or more specific colors can be created using natural pigments instead of mixing, and natural properties of pigments can interfere with the mixing. For example, mixing magenta and green in acrylic creates a dark cyan - something which would not happen if the mixing process were perfectly subtractive.\n\nReference \n\nColor","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"unknown":6,"2024-26":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":19759,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Primary%20color","title":"Primary color","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Camille Saint-Saens (French: Camille Saint-Sa\u00ebns) (born Paris 9 October 1835, died Algiers, 16 December 1921) was a French composer, pianist and organist. He was one of the greatest composers of his day. He composed lots of music of different kinds. Among his best works are his Symphony no 3 (with organ) , Piano Concerto no 2, Violin Concerto no 3, Cello Concerto no 1, the opera Samson and Delilah and the Danse Macabre. His most popular work, however, is the Carnival of the Animals. Saint-Saens hated being thought of as \"the composer of the Carnival of the Animals\". He said he had only written it for a bit of fun and he did not want anyone to perform it. Today it still remains one of the most popular pieces for children.\n\nLife \nThree months after Saint-Saens was born his father died. Saint-Saens was often ill with tuberculosis when he was very small and this carried on throughout his life. He was brought up by his mother and his aunt. this illness still didn't hold Saint-Saens back. at the age of two his aunt taught him the piano. When he was ten he played piano concertos by Beethoven and Mozart at a public concert, playing everything from memory. He was very good at school and was interested in lots of subjects including science and philosophy. In 1858 he published some duets for harmonium and piano and he used the money to buy a telescope.\n\nHe studied music at the Paris Conservatoire and was a brilliant student, although he did not win the Prix de Rome. He soon became known as a composer, pianist and organist and he made many friends, among them Gounod, Berlioz and Rossini. Liszt thought he was the greatest organist in the world. Like Liszt, Saint-Sa\u00ebns was often very kind to other composers and helped them to become known by playing and conducting their music. He was the first person to conduct Liszt's symphonic poems in France. He himself wrote symphonic poems such as Le Rouet d'Omphale (1871) and Danse Macabre (1874). The idea of music which describes a story was quite a new idea at that time. He also helped people to like Bach whose music had been forgotten for a long time.\n\nIn the 1860s his fame spread and he also did some teaching at the \u00c9cole Niedermeyer which educated young musicians for church music. His pupils included Faure, Messager and Gigout who all became lifelong friends. He also founded the Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Nationale de Musique which helped new music to be performed. Faure, Cesar Franck and Lalo were all members. The society gave first performances of works by Saint-Saens, Chabrier, Debussy, Dukas and Ravel and others.\n\nSaint-Saens married a 19-year-old girl. The marriage was not a success. They had two sons who died within six weeks of one another: the baby from an illness and the two-year-old from falling out of a fourth floor window. Saint-Saens blamed his wife and they eventually divorced.\n\nFor many years Saint-Saens travelled all over the world as a famous musician. Eventually he became less popular in France, but in England and the United States he was still very much admired. He played for Queen Victoria and spent some time studying original manuscripts of Handel in the library of Buckingham Palace. He was awarded the title of Doctor by the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge and was made a Commander of the Victorian Order because he had composed a march for the coronation of King Edward VII in 1902. He died in Algiers in 1921. His funeral was in the cathedral there, and his body was then taken back to Paris where he was given a state funeral at the church of Madeleine.\n\nHis music \nSaint-Saens was more famous in the concert hall than he was in the theatre. He wrote 13 operas, but only one of them is still regularly performed: Samson et Dalila (Samson and Delilah). One of the arias from this opera, Mon c\u0153ur s'ouvre \u00e0 ta voix, is especially famous.\n\nSaint-Saens wrote many concertos, symphonies, sonatas and chamber music. He often uses the style of dance music and creates a happy atmosphere by repeating certain patterns. His music is late Romantic, but based on the classical traditions rather than following the style of Wagner like many other French composers were doing at the time.\n Camille Saint-Sa\u00ebns' \"Organ-Symphony\" (together with works of Debussy and Faur\u00e9). Spanish Radio and Television Symphony Orchestra.\n\n20th-century French composers\nRomantic composers\nFrench pianists\nFrench organists\n1835 births\n1921 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":54507,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Camille%20Saint-Sa%C3%ABns","title":"Camille Saint-Sa\u00ebns","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Celestial navigation is a method of navigation where a person figures out their location and direction using the stars in the night sky. It has been used by sailors to help them find their way in the night. They look for familiar stars or constellations, which will help them find their way. \n\nCelestial navigation involves comparing the angle of certain stars to other stars and how high they are above the Earth's horizon. By doing this, a person can find their longitude.\n\nNavigation\nAstronomy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":160,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":3,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-39":1,"2020-24":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":5,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":8}},"id":262887,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Celestial%20navigation","title":"Celestial navigation","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Transistor nya\u00e9ta parangkat s\u00e9mikonduktor nu miboga tilu terminal, bisa digunakeun keur nguatkeun, nyaklar, nytabilkeun voltase, modulasi sinyal, sarta loba deui kagunaan s\u00e9j\u00e9nna. Transistor mangrupa blok wangunan dasar tina integrated circuit (IC) analog atawa digital -- sirkuit nu dipak\u00e9 ngoperasikeun komputer, telepon s\u00e9lul\u00e9r, jeung \u00e9l\u00e9ktronika mod\u00e9ren s\u00e9j\u00e9nna.\n\nPangwanoh \n\nKecap transistor mangrupa kecap pondokna tina transfer varistor. Dingaranan kitu sabab hiji sinyal asupan digunakeun keur ngarobah r\u00e9sistansi dina jalur sinyal kaluaran (varistor nya\u00e9ta variable resistor).\n\nTransistor kabagi jadi dua kategori utama: bipolar junction transistor (BJT) jeung field effect transistor (FET). Panerapan arus dina BJT jeung tegangan dina FET antara asupan jeung terminal common bakal nambah konduktivitas antara terminal common jeung kaluaran, antukna arus pangaturannana ngalir di antarana. \nKeur leuwih j\u00e9ntr\u00e9 ngeunaan operasi dua tipe transistor ieu, tempo field effect transistor jeung bipolar junction transistor.\n\nDina sirkuit analog, transistor dipak\u00e9 dina panguat, (panguat arus saarah, panguat sora, panguat fr\u00e9ku\u00e9nsiradio), jeung Sumber daya nu diregulasi linier. Transistor og\u00e9 dipak\u00e9 dina sirkuit digital nu mana fungsina minangka sakelar. Sirkuit digital ngawengku lawang logika, random access memory (RAM), mikroprosesor, jeung pamroses sinyal digital (digital signal processors) (DSP).\n\nPentingna transistor \nThe transistor is considered by many to be one of the gr\u00e9atest inventions in mod\u00e9rn history, ranking in importance with the printing press, automobile and telephone. It is the key active component in practically all mod\u00e9rn electronics. Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass produced using a highly automated process (fabrication) that achieves vanishingly low per-transistor costs.\n\nAlthough millions of individual (known as discrete) transistors are still used, the vast majority of transistors are fabricated into integrated circuits (also called microchips or simply chips) along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate comprises about twenty transistors wher\u00e9as an advanced microprocessor, as of 2006, can use as many as 1.7 billion transistors (MOSFETs)  .\n\nThe transistor's low cost, flexibility and reliability have made it a universal device for non-mechanical tasks, such as digital computing. Transistorized circuits have replaced electromechanical devices for the control of appliances and machinery as well. It is often less expensive and more effective to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function.\n\nBecause of the low cost of transistors and hence digital computers, there is a trend to digitize information. With digital computers offering the ability to quickly find, sort and process digital information, more and more effort has been put into making information digital. As a result, today, much media data is delivered in digital form, finally being converted and presented in analog form by computers. Ar\u00e9as influenced by the Digital Revolution include television, radio, and newspapers.\n\nSajarah \n\nThe first patents for the transistor principle were registered in Germany in 1928 by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld. In 1934 German physicist Dr. Oskar Heil patented the field-effect transistor. It is not cl\u00e9ar whether either design was ever built, and this is generally considered unlikely.\n\nOn 22 December 1947 William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain succeeded in building the first practical point-contact transistor at Bell Labs. This work followed from their war-time efforts to produce extremely pure germanium \"crystal\" mixer diodes, used in radar units as a frequency mixer element in microwave radar receivers. \u00e9arly tube-based technology did not switch fast enough for this role, l\u00e9ading the Bell t\u00e9am to use solid state diodes inst\u00e9ad. With this knowledge in hand they turned to the design of a triode, but found this was not at all \u00e9asy. Bardeen eventually developed a new branch of surface physics to account for the \"odd\" behaviour they saw, and Bardeen and Brattain eventually succeeded in building a working device.\n\nBell Telephone Laboratories needed a generic name for the new invention: \"Semiconductor Triode\", \"Solid Triode\", \"Surface States Triode\", \"Crystal Triode\" and \"Iotatron\" were all considered, but \"transistor,\" coined by John R. Pierce, won an internal ballot. The rationale for the name is described in the following extract from the company's Technical Memoranda calling for votes:\n\nBell put the transistor into production at Western Electric in Allentown, Pennsylvania. They also licensed it to a number of other electronics companies, including Texas Instruments, who produced a limited run of transistor radios as a sales tool. Another company liked the id\u00e9a and also decided to take out a license, introducing their own radio under the brand name Sony. \u00e9arly transistors were \"unstable\" and only suitable for low-power, low-frequency applications, but as transistor design developed, these problems were slowly overcome. Over the next two decades, transistors gradually replaced the \u00e9arlier vacuum tubes in most applications and later made possible many new devices such as integrated circuits and personal computers.\n\nShockley, Bardeen and Brattain were honored with the Nobel Prize in Physics \"for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect\". Bardeen would go on to win a second Nobel in physics, one of only two p\u00e9ople to receive more than one in the same discipline, for his work on the exploration of superconductivity.\n\nIn August 1948 German physicists Herbert F. Matar\u00e9 (1912\u2013 ) and Heinrich Walker (ca. 1912\u20131981), working at Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse in Paris, France applied for a patent on an amplifier based on the minority carrier injection process which they called the \"transistron.\" Since Bell Labs did not mak\u00e9 a public announcement of the transistor until June 1948, the transistron was considered to be independently developed. Matar\u00e9 had first observed transconductance effects during the manufacture of germanium duodiodes for German radar equipment during WWII. Transistrons were commercially manufactured for the French telephone company and military, and in 1953 a solid-state radio receiver with four transistrons was demonstrated at the D\u00fcsseldorf Radio Fair.\n\nTipe \n\n|- align = \"center\"\n|  || PNP ||  || P-channel\n|- align = \"center\"\n|  || NPN ||  || N-channel\n|- align = \"center\"\n| BJT || || JFET ||\n\nTransistors are categorized by: \n Semiconductor material: germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon carbide\n Structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), IGBT, \"other types\"\n Polarity: NPN, PNP, N-channel, P-channel \n Maximum power rating: low, medium, high \n Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio frequency (RF), microwave (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by the term , an abbreviation for \"frequency of transition.\" The frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain).\n Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair\n Physical packaging: through hole metal, through hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array\n\nThus, a particular transistor may be described as: silicon, surface mount, BJT, NPN, low power, high frequency switch.\n\nBipolar junction transistor \nThe bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the first type of transistor to be mass-produced. Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The three terminals are named emitter, base and collector. Two p-n junctions exist inside a BJT: the base\/collector junction and base\/emitter junction. The BJT is commonly described as a current-operated device because the emitter\/collector current is controlled by the current flowing between base and emitter terminals. Unlike the FET, the BJT is a low input-impedance device. The BJT has a higher transconductance than the FET. Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct with light (photons) as well as current. Devices designed for this purpose are called phototransistors.\n\nField-effect transistor \nThe field-effect transistor (FET), sometimes called a unipolar transistor, uses either electrons (N-channel FET) or holes (P-channel FET) for conduction. The three main terminals of the FET are named source, gate and drain. On some FETs a fourth connection to the body (substrate) is provided, but normally the body is connected internally to the source.\n\nA voltage applied between the gate and source controls the current flowing between the source and drain. In FETs the source\/ drain current flows through a conducting channel n\u00e9ar the gate. This channel connects the source region to the drain region. The channel conductivity is varied by the electric field generated by the voltage applied between the gate\/source terminals. In this way the current flowing between the source and drain is controlled. Like bipolar transistors, FETs can be made to conduct with light (photons) as well as voltage. Devices designed for this purpose are called phototransistors.\n\nFETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET), from their original construction as a layer of metal (the gate), a layer of oxide (the insulation), and a layer of semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a PN diode with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the N-channel JFET the solid state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a diode between its grid and cathode. Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage.\n\nMESFETs are JFETs, in which the reverse biased PN junction is replaced by a semiconductor-metal Schottky-junction. These, and the HEMFETs (high electron mobility FETs), in which a two-dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used for charge transport, are especially suitable for use at very high frequencies (microwave frequencies; several GHz).\n\nFETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types. Mode refers to the polarity of the gate voltage with respect to the source at the threshold of conduction. For N-channel depletion-mode FETs the gate is negative with respect to the source while for N-channel enhancement-mode FETs the gate is positive, at the threshold of conduction. For both modes, if the gate voltage is made more positive the source\/drain current will incr\u00e9ase. For P-channel devices the polarities are reversed. N\u00e9arly all JFETs are depletion-mode types and most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types.\n\nTipe transistor s\u00e9j\u00e9nna \n Unijunction transistors can be used as simple pulse generators. They comprise a main body of either P-type or N-type semiconductor with ohmic contacts at \u00e9ach end (terminals Base1 and Base2). A junction with the opposite semiconductor type is formed at a point along the length of the body for the third terminal (Emitter).\n Dual gate FETs have a single channel with two gates in cascode; a configuration that is optimized for high frequency amplifiers, mixers, and oscillators.\n Transistor arrays are used for general purpose applications, function generation and low-level, low-noise amplifiers. They include two or more transistors on a common substrate to ensure close param\u00e9ter matching and thermal tracking, characteristics that are especially important for long tailed pair amplifiers. \n Darlington transistors comprise a medium power BJT connected to a power BJT. This provides a high current gain equal to the product of the current gains of the two transistors. Power diodes are often connected between certain terminals depending on specific use.\n Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) use a medium power IGFET, similarly connected to a power BJT, to give a high input impedance. Power diodes are often connected between certain terminals depending on specific use. IGBTs are particularly suitable for h\u00e9avy-duty industrial applications. The Asea Brown Boveri (ABB) 5SNA2400E170100  illustrates just how far power semiconductor technology has advanced. Intended for three-phase power supplies, this device houses three NPN IGBTs in a case m\u00e9asuring 38 by 140 by 190\u00a0mm and weighing 1.5\u00a0kg. \u00e9ach IGBT is rated at 1,700 volts and can handle 2,400 amperes.\n Single-electron transistors (SET) consist of a gate island between two tunnelling junctions. The tunnelling current is controlled by a voltage applied to the gate through a capacitor.  \n Complete list of transistor types T-Transistor.com\n\nBahan s\u00e9mikonduktor \nThe first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge) and some high power types still are. Silicon (Si) types currently predominate but certain advanced microwave and high performance versions now employ the compound semiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor alloy silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as elemental.\n\nCharacteristics of the most common semiconductor materials used to mak\u00e9 transistors are given in the table below:\n\nThe junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter-base junction of a BJT in order to mak\u00e9 the base conduct a specified current. The current incr\u00e9ases exponentialally as the junction forward voltage is incr\u00e9ased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this m\u00e9ans that less power is required to \"drive\" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decr\u00e9ases with temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is approximately \u22122.1 mV\/\u00b0C.\n\nThe electron mobility and hole mobility columns show the average speed that electrons and holes diffuse through the semiconductor material with an electric field of 1 volt per m\u00e9ter applied across the material. In general, the higher the electron mobility the faster the transistor. The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in this respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide: its maximum temperature is limited, it has relatively high leakage current, it cannot withstand high voltages and it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits. Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar NPN transistor tends to be faster than an equivalent PNP transistor type. GaAs has the fastest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this r\u00e9ason that GaAs is used in high frequency applications. A relatively recent FET development, the high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has double the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12\u00a0GHz.\n\nMax. junction temperature values represent a cross section taken from various manufacturers' data sheets. This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be damaged.\n\nAl-Si junction refers to the high-speed (aluminum-silicon) semiconductor-metal barrier diode, commonly known as a Schottky diode. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have a parasitic reverse Schottky diode formed between the source and drain as part of the fabrication process.\n\nKemasan \n\nTransistors come in many different packages (chip carriers) (see images). The two main categories are through-hole (or leaded), and surface-mount, also known as surface mount device (SMD). The ball grid array (BGA) is the latest surface mount package (currently only for large transistor arrays). It has solder \"balls\" on the underside in place of l\u00e9ads. Because they are smaller and have shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high frequency characteristics but lower power rating.\n\nTransistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic or plastic. The package often dictates the power rating and frequency characteristics. Power transistors have large packages that can be clamped to heat sinks for enhanced cooling. Additionally, most power transistors have the collector or drain physically connected to the metal can\/metal plate. At the other extreme, some surface-mount microwave transistors are as small as grains of sand.\n\nOften a given transistor type is available in different packages. Transistor packages are mainly standardized, but the assignment of a transistor's functions to the terminals is not: different transistor types can assign different functions to the package's terminals. Even for the same transistor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally indicated by a suffix letter to the part number- i.e. BC212L and BC212K).\n\nPanggunaan \nIn the \u00e9arly days of transistor circuit design, the bipolar junction transistor, or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor. Even after MOSFETs became available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for digital and analog circuits because of their \u00e9ase of manufacture and speed. However, the MOSFET has several desirable properties for digital circuits, and since major advancements in digital circuits have pushed MOSFET design to state-of-the-art. MOSFETs are now commonly used for both analog and digital functions.\n\nSaklar \nTransistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power applications including switched-mode power supplies and low power applications such as logic gates.\n\nPanguat \nFrom mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually incr\u00e9ased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved.\n\nTransistors are commonly used in mod\u00e9rn musical instrument amplifiers, where circuits up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively ch\u00e9ap. Transistors have largely replaced valves in instrument amplifiers.\nSome musical instrument amplifier manufacturers mix transistors and vacuum tubes in the same circuit, to utilize the inherent benefits of both devices.\n\nKomputer \nThe \"first generation\" of electronic computers used vacuum tubes, which generated large amounts of h\u00e9at and were bulky, and unreliable. The development of the transistor was key to computer miniaturization and reliability. The \"second generation\" of computers, through the late 1950s and 1960s f\u00e9atured boards filled with individual transistors and magnetic memory cores. Subsequently, transistors, other components, and their necessary wiring were integrated into a single, mass-manufactured component: the integrated circuit. Transistors incorporated into integrated circuits have replaced most discrete transistors in mod\u00e9rn digital computers.\n\nKauntungan transistor dibandingkeun jeung solobong vakum \nBefore the development of transistors, vacuum tubes (or in the UK thermionic valves or just valves) were the main active components in electronic equipment. The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are:\n Smaller size (despite continuing miniaturization of vacuum tubes)\n Highly automated manufacture\n Lower cost (in volume production)\n Lower possible operating voltages (but vacuum tubes can operate at higher voltages)\n No warm-up period (most vacuum tubes need 10 to 60 seconds to function correctly)\n Lower power dissipation (no h\u00e9ater power, very low saturation voltage) \n Higher reliability and gr\u00e9ater physical ruggedness (although vacuum tubes are electrically more rugged. Also the vacuum tube is much more resistant to nucl\u00e9ar electromagnetic pulses (NEMP) and electrostatic discharge (ESD))\n Much longer life (vacuum tube cathodes are eventually exhausted and the vacuum can become contaminated)\n Complementary devices available (allowing circuits with complementary-symmetry: vacuum tubes with a polarity equivalent to PNP BJTs or P type FETs are not available)\n Ability to control large currents (power transistors are available to control hundreds of amperes, vacuum tubes to control even one ampere are large and costly)\n Much less microphonic (vibration can modulate vacuum tube characteristics, though this may contribute to the sound of guitar amplifiers)\n\n\" Nature abhors a vacuum tube \" Myron Glass (see John R. Pierce), Bell Telephone Laboratories, circa 1948.\n\nGallery \nA wide range of transistors has been available since the 1960s and manufacturers continually introduce improved types. A few examples from the main families are noted below. Unless otherwise stated, all types are made from silicon semiconductor. Complementary pairs are shown as NPN\/PNP or N\/P channel. Links go to manufacturer datasheets, which are in PDF format. (On some datasheets the accuracy of the stated transistor category is a matter of debate.)\n\n 2N3904\/2N3906, BC182 \/BC212 and BC546\/BC556: Ubiquitous, BJT, general-purpose, low-power, complementary pairs. They have plastic cases and cost roughly ten cents U.S. in small quantities, making them popular with hobbyists.\n AF107: Germanium, 0.5 watt, 250\u00a0MHz PNP BJT.\n BFP183: Low power, 8\u00a0GHz microwave NPN BJT.\n LM394: \"supermatch pair\", with two NPN BJTs on a single substrate.\n 2N2219A\/2N2905A: BJT, general purpose, medium power, complementary pair. With metal cases they are rated at about one watt.\n 2N3055\/MJ2955: For y\u00e9ars, the venerable NPN 2N3055 has been the \"standard\" power transistor. Its complement, the PNP MJ2955 arrived later. These 1\u00a0MHz, 15 A, 60 V, 115 W BJTs are used in audio power amplifiers, power supplies, and control.\n 2SC3281\/2SA1302: Made by Toshiba, these BJTs have low-distortion characteristics and are used in high-power audio amplifiers. They have been widely counterfeited  .\n BU508: NPN, 1500 V power BJT. Designed for television horizontal deflection, its high voltage capability also makes it suitable for use in ignition systems.\n MJ11012\/MJ11015: 30 A, 120 V, 200 W, high power Darlington complementary pair BJTs. Used in audio amplifiers, control, and power switching.\n 2N5457\/2N5460: JFET (depletion mode), general purpose, low power, complementary pair.\n BSP296\/BSP171: IGFET (enhancement mode), medium power, n\u00e9ar complementary pair. Used for logic level conversion and driving power transistors in amplifiers.\n IRF3710\/IRF5210 : IGFET (enhancement mode), 40 A, 100 V, 200 W, n\u00e9ar complementary pair. For high-power amplifiers and power switches, especially in automobiles.\n\nPabrik transistor \n APT \n Fairchild Semiconductor\n Infineon Technologies\n IRF\n IXYS Corporation\n ON Semiconductor\n Panasonic Semiconductors\n Powerex\n Rohm\n Sanyo Transistors \n Semikron\n STMicroelectronics\n Toshiba Semiconductor\n Zetex Semiconductors\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n Transistor avalans\n Band gap\n Bipolar junction transistor\n Compound transistor\n Transistor Darlington\n Field effect transistor\n FREDFET\n IGBT\n NPN\n PNP\n S\u00e9mikonduktor\n Transkonduktansi\n Transr\u00e9sistansi\n Transistor count\n Mod\u00e9l transistor\n Transistor tilu lawang\n Solobong vakum\n Hukum Moore\n Very-large-scale integration\n\nR\u00e9f\u00e9r\u00e9nsi\n\nPat\u00e9n \n  \u2014 J. Bardeen et. al.\n  \u2014 W. Shockley\n\nBuku \n \n \n  The invention of the transistor & the birth of the information age\n\nS\u00e9j\u00e9nna\n\nTumbu luar \n\n [http:\/\/www.audiouk.com\/info\/transistor.htm AudioUK's Milestones]. Photograph of first working transistor\n [http:\/\/www.pbs.org\/transistor\/ Transistorized]. Historical and technical information from the Public Broadcasting Service\n IEEE Virtual Museum, Let's Get Small: The Shrinking World of Microelectronics. All about the history of transistors and integrated circuits.\n [http:\/\/www.lucent.com\/minds\/transistor\/ The Transistor Legacy Then and Now] . From Lucent Technologies (Bell Telephone Laboratories\/AT&T)\n [http:\/\/www.aps.org\/apsnews\/1100\/110004.cfm This Month in Physics History: November 17 to December 23 1947: Invention of the First Transistor]. From the American Physical Society\n [http:\/\/www.sciencefriday.com\/pages\/1997\/Dec\/hour1_121297.html 50 Years of the Transistor] . From Science Friday, December 12 1997\n [http:\/\/www.ck722museum.com\/ The CK722 Museum]. Website devoted to the \"classic\" hobbyist germanium transistor\n [http:\/\/users.arczip.com\/rmcgarra2\/index.html Bob's Virtual Transistor Museum & History] . Treasure trove of transistor history\n [http:\/\/people.msoe.edu\/~reyer\/regency\/ 1954 to 2004, the TR-1's Golden Anniversary]. In depth coverage of the Regency radio.\n The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors.\n [http:\/\/www.ee.washington.edu\/circuit_archive\/parts\/cross.html Jerry Russell's Transistor Cross Reference Database] .\n Pictures of TO and SOT packages \n How transistors work\n Transistor Flow Control - Scientific American Magazine (October 2005)\n\nTransistor\n\u00c9l\u00e9ktronika","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":8729,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transistor","title":"Transistor","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is technology that allows a person to connect an electronic device to a computer. It is a fast serial bus type.\n\nIt is mostly used on personal computers. USB is also used on other devices, such as smartphones and video game consoles. USB connects different devices using a standard interface.\n\nMost people use USB for computer mice, keyboards, scanners, printers, digital cameras, and USB flash drives. There are over six billion USB devices around the world.\n\nThe standard was made to improve plug and play devices. This means that a device can be plugged into a free socket, and simply work. The computer will notice the device. The computer sometimes installs special software to use the device. The device can be removed after it stops being used. This technology is called \"hot swapping\". \"Hot swapping\" means it can be plugged and unplugged while the power is on. The computer does not need to be turned off for people to change the devices.\n\nUSB can provide a small amount of power to the attached device through the USB cord. Devices that only need a little power can get it from the bus, and do not need a separate electric power plug. That allows gadgets like USB battery chargers, lights, and fans. They can also power external hard drives and SSD.\n\nAs of 2022, almost all computers have USB and have replaced older standerds. Those include the parallel port, serial port and SCSI. These old standards are rare nowadays, but very few computers in the world still use these old connectors for a few jobs where USB cannot replace them.\n\nBrief history \n\nThe first version of the Universal Serial Bus was created in 1995. This new technology became an instant success. Since the introduction of USB, people that make electronic devices thought about how it could be used in the future. Today, USB connects a computer or other devices like laptops and MP3 players to peripheral devices.\n\nThe bus was introduced by seven companies which represent the leaders in the industry of information technology: Compaq, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, Northern Telecom, and Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).\n\nSeveral years earlier, adopters and developers of USB held a meeting called Plugfest at a special hotel in California to test their devices. They selected a hotel that included rooms for sleeping and for testing. The meeting lasted three days. During the meeting, the representatives of about 50 companies connected their USB devices to one general host system.\n\nThe logo of the USB device also has its own history. The USB logo was in development for several months.\n\n 1994 - Seven companies united to begin the development of USB.\n 1995 - 340 companies formed the USB Implementation Forum.\n 1996 - More than five hundred USB products were already developing around the world.\n 1997 - USB Implementation Forum became richer with 60 more companies.\n 1998 - USB becomes the most popular technology on the market of electronics.\n 2000 - The introduction of USB 2.0. Today it represents the most widely used USB device.\n 2005 - USB becomes wireless.\n 2008 - USB 3.0 is introduced. It is over 10 times faster than USB 2.0.\n 2013 - USB 3.1 is introduced. It is about twice as fast as USB 3.0.\n 2015 - USB Type-C is introduced. It is a reversible connector, which means that you can plug it in both ways.\n 2019 - USB 4 is introduced. It is over 8 times faster than USB 3.0.\n\nDifferent standards \nCurrently, five different USB standards are used: USB 1.0, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, USB 3.0 and USB 3.1. USB 3.1 was released in 2016 and doubled the speed of 3.0. It optionally uses a different connector called USB Type-C, which is reversible (meaning you can plug it in both ways). USB 1.0 is now rarely used.\n\nUSB offers five different transfer speeds: 1.5 MBit per second (called low speed), 12 MBit per second (Full Speed), 480 MBit\/second (Hi Speed), 5Gbit per second (called super speed),  and 10 Gbit\/s (\"super speed+\"). Hi speed is only available in USB 2.0 and later, and Super speed is only available in USB 3.0. These speeds are raw bit rates (in Million bits per second). The actual data rate is usually lower due to protocol overhead.\n\nIn order to use the hi speed transfer rate, the USB controller and the connected device both need to support it. USB is backwards compatible. Faster and slower USB devices and controllers can be connected together, but they will run at the slower speed.\n\nUSB Hubs \n\nAs of 2022, almost all computers sold today have USB ports, and most of them support USB 3.0 or later and have at least one USB-C port. Apple Macbooks only have USB-C ports. The number of ports they have is usually limited, though. Between two and four ports are common. USB allows connecting USB hubs to add more USB ports.\n\nThe hubs themselves are also compliant to one of the USB standards. Devices connected to a USB 2.0 hub will only go as fast as USB 2.0 rates. Devices connected to a later controller can use different standards.\n\nUSB Connectors \n\nUSB was designed to be easy to use. The engineers learned from other connectors before they designed USB connectors. There are 3 connectors.\n Type A, commonly used at computer end of cable\n Micro-A (rare)\n Type B, at peripheral end, rare except for printers\n Micro-B, at peripheral end, for most smartphones\n Type C, at either end. As of 2022, many computers, phones and peripherals use it.\n\nUsability \n It's not possible to plug in a USB A or B connector the wrong way. They can not go in upside down, and it is obvious from the look and kinesthetic feeling, when it goes in properly. Sometimes, however, a user doesn't understand or see how the connector goes, so it might be necessary to try both ways.\n Type C USB connectors can be plugged in both ways. It does not matter which way the connector is plugged in.\n There is no need to push or pull very hard to plug or unplug it. This was in the specification. USB cables and small USB devices are held in place by the gripping force from the receptacle. USB does not need screws, clips, or other fasteners. The force needed to make or break a connection is small. This allows connections to be made in awkward positions or by those with motor disabilities.\n Before the advent of Type C, the connectors enforced the directed topology of a USB network. USB does not support cyclical networks, so the connectors from incompatible USB devices are themselves incompatible. Unlike other communications systems (e.g. RJ-45 cabling) gender-changers were almost never used before the advent of USB-On-The-Go (OTG), making it difficult to create a cyclic USB network.\n\nDurability \n The connectors are designed to be tough. Early connector designs were fragile, with pins or other delicate components which could easily bend or break, even if treated gently. The electrical contacts in a USB connector are protected by a plastic tongue. The entire connecting assembly is usually further protected by an enclosing metal sheath. As a result, USB connectors can safely be handled, inserted, and removed, even by a small child.\n The connector construction always ensures that the external sheath on the plug contacts with its counterpart in the receptacle before the four connectors within are connected. This sheath is typically connected to the system ground, allowing otherwise damaging static charges to be safely discharged by this route (rather than via delicate electronic components). This means of enclosure also means that there is a (moderate) degree of protection from electromagnetic interference afforded to the USB signal while it travels through the mated connector pair (this is the only location when the otherwise twisted data pair must travel a distance in parallel). As well, the power and common connections are made after the system ground but before the data connections. This type of staged make-break timing allows for safe hot-swapping and has been used for connectors in the aerospace industry.\n The newer USB micro receptacles are designed to allow up to 10,000 cycles of insertion and exertion between the receptacle and plug, compared to 500 for the standard USB and Mini-USB receptacle. This is done by adding a locking device and by moving the leaf-spring connector from the jack to the plug, so that the most-stressed part is on the cable side of the connection. This change was made so that the connector on the (relatively inexpensive) cable would bear the most wear instead of the micro-USB device.\n\nCompatibility \n The USB standard specifies relatively big tolerances for compliant USB connectors. This is done to minimize incompatibilities in connectors produced by different vendors (a goal that has been very successfully achieved). Unlike most other connector standards, the USB specification also defines limits to the size of a connecting device in the area around its plug. This was done to prevent a device from blocking adjacent ports due to its size. Compliant devices must either fit within the size restrictions or support a compliant extension cable which does.\n Two-way communication is also possible. Usually cables have only plugs, and hosts and devices have only receptacles: hosts having type-A receptacles and devices type-B. Type-A plugs only join with type-A receptacles, and type-B with type-B. However, an extension to USB called USB On-The-Go allows a single port to act as either a host or a device \u2014 chosen by which end of the cable plugs into the socket on the unit. Even after the cable is hooked up and the units are talking, the two units may \"swap\" ends under program control. This facility targets units such as PDAs where the USB link might connect to a PC's host port as a device in one instance, yet connect as a host itself to a keyboard and mouse device in another instance.\n\nHow USB works \nA USB system has an asymmetric design. It is made of a host, several downstream USB ports, and multiple peripheral devices connected in a star topology. Additional USB hubs may be included in the tiers, allowing branching into a tree structure with up to five tier levels.\n\nA USB host can have multiple host controllers. Each host controller provides one or more USB ports. Up to 127 devices, including the hub devices, may be connected to a single host controller.\n\nUSB devices are linked in series through hubs. There is always one hub known as the root hub. The root hub is built into the host controller. There are special hubs, called \"sharing hubs\". These allow multiple computers to access the same peripheral devices. They work by switching the access between PCs, either manually or automatically. They are popular in small-office environments. In network terms, they converge rather than diverge branches.\n\nA physical USB device can have several logical sub-devices that are referred to as device functions. A single device may provide several functions, for example, a webcam (video device function) with a built-in microphone (audio device function).\n\nUSB device communication is based on pipes (logical channels). Pipes are connections from the host controller to a logical entity on the device named an endpoint. The term endpoint is occasionally used to incorrectly refer to the pipe. A USB device can have up to 32 active pipes, 16 into the host controller and 16 out of the controller.\n\nEach endpoint can transfer data in one direction only, either into or out of the device, so each pipe is uni-directional. Endpoints are grouped into interfaces and each interface is associated with a single device function. An exception to this is endpoint zero, which is used for device configuration and which is not associated with any interface.\n\nWhen a USB device is first connected to a USB host, the USB device enumeration process is started. The enumeration starts by sending a reset signal to the USB device. The speed of the USB device is determined during the reset signaling. After reset, the USB device's information is read by the host, then the device is assigned a unique 7-bit address. If the device is supported by the host, the device drivers needed for communicating with the device are loaded and the device is set to a configured state. If the USB host is restarted, the enumeration process is repeated for all connected devices.\n\nThe host controller polls the bus for traffic, usually in a round-robin fashion, so no USB device can transfer any data on the bus without an explicit request from the host controller.\n\nHost controllers \nThe computer hardware that contains the host controller and the root hub has an interface for the programmer. It is called Host Controller Device (HCD) and is defined by the hardware implementer.\n\nFor USB 1.0 and 1.1, there were two different HCD implementations, Open Host Controller Interface (OHCI) and Universal Host Controller Interface (UHCI). OHCI was developed by Compaq, Microsoft and National Semiconductor, UHCI by Intel.\n\nVIA Technologies licensed the UHCI standard from Intel; all other chipset implementers use OHCI. UHCI relies more on software. This means UHCI is slightly more processor-intensive than OHCI but easier and cheaper to make. Because there were two different implementations, operating system vendors and hardware vendors  needed to develop and test on both of them. This increased cost.\n\nThe USB specification does not specify any HCD interfaces and is not concerned with them. In other words, USB defines the format of data transfer through the port, but not the system by which the USB hardware communicates with the computer it sits in.\n\nDuring the design phase of USB 2.0, the USB-IF insisted  that there was only one implementation. The USB 2.0 HCD implementation is called the Enhanced Host Controller Interface (EHCI). Only EHCI can support hi-speed (480\u00a0Mbit\/s) transfers. Most of PCI-based EHCI controllers have other HCD implementations called 'companion host controller' to support Full Speed (12\u00a0Mbit\/s) and may be used for any device that claims to be a member of a certain class. An operating system is supposed to implement all device classes, so it can provide generic drivers for any USB device. Device classes are decided upon by the Device Working Group of the USB Implementers Forum.\n\nUSB device classes \nDevice classes include:\n\n Use class information in the Interface Descriptors. This base class is defined to be used in Device Descriptors to indicate that class information should be determined from the Interface Descriptors in the device.\n\nRelated pages\n FireWire\n\nReferences \n\nComputer hardware\nComputer buses\nUSB","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":150,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":5,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":5,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2}},"id":15128,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USB","title":"USB","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Vijayanagara empire was an Indian empire. From 1336 and afterwards, it was in the Deccan, in the peninsula and in southern India. It was founded by Harihara (Hakka) and his brother Bukka Raya.  The empire is named after its capital city Vijayanagara, now Hampi in modern Karnataka, India.  It began in 1336 and ended in 1660, though in its last century it began losing its power. Stories of the empire's creation and history are not certain, though tales of the empire's wealth and power were described by European travellers such as the Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Nuniz, and the Venetian traveler Niccol\u00f2 Da Conti.\n\nDynasties and kings \nThis list is based on the book by Robert Sewell (A Forgotten Empire).\n\nSangama Dynasty\nHarihara I (Deva Raya) \t1336-1343\/56(some accounts claim that there was brief period of other ruler probably a 3rd brother)\nBukka I\t1343\/56-1379\nHarihara II\t1379-1399\nBukka II\t1399-1406\nDeva Raya I\t1406-1412\nVira Vijaya\t1412-1419\nDeva Raya II\t1419-1444\n(unknown)\t1444-1449\nMallikarjuna\t1452-1465\t(Dates uncertain)\nRajasekhara\t1468-1469\t(Dates uncertain)\nVirupaksha I\t1470-1471\t(Dates uncertain)\nPraudha Deva Raya\t1476-?\t(Dates uncertain)\nRajasekhara\t1479-1480\t(Dates uncertain)\nVirupaksha II\t1483-1484\t(Dates uncertain)\nRajasekhara\t1486-1487\t(Dates uncertain)\n\nSaluva Dynasty\nNarasimha\t1490-?\nNarasa (Vira Narasimha)\t?-1509\nKrishna Deva \t1509-1529\nAchyuta\t1529-1542\nSadasiva (puppet ruler in the hands of Ram Raya)\t1542-1567\n\nTuluva dynasty\nRama (ruled in practice)\t1542-1565\nTirumala (ruled in practice)\t1565-1567\nTirumala (crowned ruler)\t1567-1575\nRanga II\t1575-1586\nVenkata I\t1586-1614\n\nAravidu (dates are not known), includes these rulers. There is certainly more than one ruler under each name. \nRanga\nVenkata\nRama\n\nOther websites\n History of Karnataka - Mr. Arthikaje\n Indian Inscriptions - Archeological Survery Of India\n A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar: A Contribution to the History of India\n http:\/\/freeindia.org\/biographies\/greatlkings\/hakkabukka\/index.htm(Biography of Hakka and Bukka.) \n Vijayanagar Empire, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat\n Hampi - History and Tourism\n\nHistory of India\nFormer empires\n1336 establishments\n1660 disestablishments\n14th-century establishments in India\nDisestablishments in India\nFormer countries in South Asia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":25151,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vijayanagara%20Empire","title":"Vijayanagara Empire","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Nigeria's present national anthem, \"Arise, O compatriots\" was adopted in 1978.\n\nArise, O compatriots, Nigeria's call obey\nTo serve our fatherland\nWith love and strength and faith\nThe labour of our heroes past\nShall never be in vain\nTo serve with heart and might\nOne nation bound in freedom, peace and\nunity.\n\nOh God of creation, direct our noble cause\nGuide our leaders right\nHelp our youth the truth to know\nIn love and honesty to grow\nAnd living just and true\nGreat lofty heights attain\nTo build a nation where peace and justice\nshall reign\n\nIt replaced the anthem \"Nigeria We Hail Thee\", adopted on independence in 1960. The words were written by a British expatriate, Lilian Jean Williams, while the music was composed by Frances Benda.\n\nNigeria, we hail thee,\nOur own dear native land,\nThough tribe and tongue may differ,\nIn brotherhood we stand,\nNigerians all, and proud to serve\nour sovereign motherland.  \n\nOur flag shall be a symbol,\nThat truth and justice reign,\nIn peace or battle honoured,\nAnd this we count as gain\nTo hand on to our children\nA banner without stain\n\nO Lord of all creation,\nGrant this our one request\nHelp us to build a nation\nWhere no man is oppressed\nAnd so, with peace and plenty,\nNigeria may be blessed.\n\nItokasi\n\n\u00c0w\u1ecdn \u00e0m\u00ec-\u00ecd\u00e1m\u1ecd\u0300 on\u00edb\u00ednib\u00ed il\u1eb9\u0300 N\u00e0\u00ecj\u00edr\u00ed\u00e0","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":7172,"url":"https:\/\/yo.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/D%C3%ACde%2C%20%C3%88yin%20Ar%C3%A1","title":"D\u00ecde, \u00c8yin Ar\u00e1","language":"yo"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dina matematika, probability density function dipak\u00e9 keur ngagambarkeun probability distribution di watesan integrals. Lamun probability distribution mibanda densiti f(x), saterusna interval tak terhingga [x, x + dx] mibanda probabiliti f(x) dx. Probability density function bisa og\u00e9 ditempo tina versi \"smoothed out\" histogram: if one empirically m\u00e9asures values of a variabel acak rep\u00e9atedly and produces a histogram depicting relative frequencies of output ranges, then this histogram will resemble the random variable's probability density (assuming that the variable is sampled sufficiently often and the output ranges are sufficiently narrow).\n\nFormally, a probability distribution has density f(x) if f(x) is a non-negative Lebesgue-integrable function R \u2192 R such that the probability of the interval [a, b] is given by\n\nfor any two numbers a and b. This implies that the total integral of f must be 1. Conversely, any non-negative Lebesgue-integrable function with total integral 1 is the probability density of a suitably defined probability distribution.\n\nContona, sebaran seragam dina interval [0,1] mibanda probabiliti densiti f(x) = 1 keur 0 \u2264 x \u2264 1 jeung nol dimamana. Standar sebaran normal mibanda probabiliti densiti\n\n.\n\nLamun variabel acak X dib\u00e9r\u00e9keun sarta distribusina kaasup kana fungsi probabiliti densiti f(x), mangka nilai ekspektasi X (lamun \u00e9ta aya) bisa diitung ku\n\nNot every probability distribution has a density function: the distributions of discrete random variables do not; nor does the Cantor distribution, even though it has no discrete component, i.e., does not assign positive probability to any individual point.\n\nA distribution has a density function if and only if its cumulative distribution function F(x) is absolutely continuous. In this case, F is almost everywhere differentiable, and its derivative can be used as probability density. If a probability distribution admits a density, then the probability of every one-point set {a} is zero.\n\nIt is a common mistake to think of f(a) as the probability of {a}, but this is incorrect; in fact, f(a) will often be bigger than 1 - consider a random variable with a uniform distribution between 0 and 1\/2.\n\nDua densiti f jeung g for the same distribution can only differ on a set of Lebesgue measure zero.\n\nTempo oge:\n likelihood\n probability mass function\n exponential family\n\nRujukan\n Wikip\u00e9dia basa Inggris, disalin ping 17 Agustus 2004.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":4,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":1168,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fungsi%20d%C3%A9nsitas%20probabilitas","title":"Fungsi d\u00e9nsitas probabilitas","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"ACM, singkatan dari Association for Computing Machinery (Asosiasi untuk Permesinan Komputer), adalah sebuah serikat ilmiah dan pendidikan komputer pertama di dunia yang didirikan pada tahun 1947. Anggota ACM sekitar 78.000 terdiri dari para profesional dan para pelajar yang tertarik akan komputer. Dia bermarkas besari di Kota New York.\n\nAktivitas \n\nACM diatur menjadi 170 bagian(\"chapter\") lokal dan 34 grup minat khusus (special interest group, SIG), di mana mereka melakukan kebanyakan kegiatan mereka.\n\nBanyak dari SIG, seperti SIGGRAPH, SIGPLAN dan SIGCOMM, mensponsori konferensi teratur yang menjadi terkenal sebagai acara utama untuk memperkenalkan inovasi baru dalam bidang tertentu. SIG juga menerbitkan sejumlah jurnal khusus, majalah, dan surat berita.\n\nACM juga mensponsori acara yang berhubungan dengan ilmu komputer seperti\nACM International Collegiate Programming Contest (ICPC) yang mendunia, dan telah mensponsori beberapa acara lainnya, seperti pertandingan catur antara Garry Kasparov dan komputer IBM Deep Blue.\n\nJournal of the ACM, and general magazines for computer professionals, Communications of the ACM and Queue. Many of the great debates in the history of computing have taken place in the pages of Communications. Examples include the famous \"GOTO considered harmful\" letter, the issue of what to call the then-fledgling field of computer science, and the issue of changing ACM's name (since the \"machinery\" in question is no longer the size of a house and is now measured in micrometres). All three attempts at changing ACM's name have failed.\n\nACM has made almost all of its publications available online at its Digital Library and also has a Guide to Computing Literature. It also offers insurance and other services to its members.\n\nDigital Library \n\nACM has created a digital library where it has made all of its publications available. ACM's digital library is the world's largest collection of information on computing machinery and contains an archive of journals, magazines, conference proceedings online, and the recent issues of ACM's publications. Online services include a forum called Ubiquity and Tech News digest, both containing the latest information about the IT world.\n\nCompetition \n\nACM's primary competitor is the IEEE Computer Society. It is difficult to generalize accurately about the distinction between the two, but ACM focuses on theoretical computer science and end-user applications while IEEE focuses more on hardware and standardization issues. Another blunt way to state the difference is that ACM is for computer scientists and IEEE is for electrical engineers, although the largest IEEE subgroup is its Computer Society. Of course, there is significant overlap between the two organizations, and they occasionally cooperate on projects like developing computer science curricula.\n\nLeadership \n\nThe President of the ACM for 2004\u20132006 is David A. Patterson of the University of California, Berkeley, Amerika Serikat.\n\nInfrastructure \n\nACM has four \"Boards\" that make up various committees and subgroups, to help Headquarters staff maintain quality services and products. These boards are as follows:\n\n Publications\n SIG Governing Board\n Education\n Membership Services Board\n\nACM's Committee on Women in Computing \n\nACM's committee on women in computing is set up to support, inform, celebrate, and work with women in computing. Dr. Anita Borg was a great supporter of ACM-W. ACM-W provides various resources for women in computing as well as high school girls interested in the field. ACM-W also reaches out internationally to those women who are involved and interested in computing.\n-->\n\nLihat pula \n\n Garis waktu penghitungan 750 BC-1949\n Skema pengklasifikasian ACM\n Penghargaan Grace Murray Hopper, diberikan oleh ACM\n Penghargaan Turing\n Kecerdasan Buatan\n\nPranala luar \n\n ACM official website\n ACM portal for publications\n\nACM\nOrganisasi internasional\nAsosiasi profesional\nOrganisasi berhubungan dengan komputer","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":11288,"url":"https:\/\/id.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association%20for%20Computing%20Machinery","title":"Association for Computing Machinery","language":"id"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A stimulant is any of a group of drugs that can increase alertness and awareness, usually for a short time only. Most stimulants have more side-effects than other drugs. Some are classified as illegal drugs, most can cause addiction. For this reason, most legal stimulants are only available on prescription. Stimulants act on the nerves: Stimulants cause more neurotransmitters to the synapse (this is the gap between different nerves)\n\nMost stimulants fall into one of the following groups:\n Amphetamine and its derivates: Methylphenidate, Methamphetamine, Pseudoephedrine Ephedrine, Ecstasy\n Xanthines: Caffeine, Theophylline, Theobromine\n Piperazine and its derivates: Benzylpiperazine, Trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine\n Various others: Cocaine, Nicotine, Modafinil\n\nSome of the substances mentioned above can be used to treat certain diseases. Some are mostly used as illegal drugs.\n\nPsychoactive drugs","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":2}},"id":133325,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stimulant","title":"Stimulant","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Espionage or spying is a practice of getting information about an organization, society, or country that is meant to be secret or confidential, without permission. Espionage usually involves having access to where the needed information is stored or to the people that know the information. In wartime, espionage is a war crime. The person who does it is called a \"spy\" or more vaguely an \"agent\". A double agent is one who trades information to both sides, and is (without their knowledge) being employed by both sides.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":162,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":4,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":55353,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Espionage","title":"Espionage","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An optical drive is usually a CD drive or DVD drive. Optical means it uses lenses. The drive uses a light called a laser. A laser is the most exact and powerful sort of light but the laser in the drive is very, very small. The CD or DVD disk is similar to a mirror and the laser light reflects off it. The disk has very small (microscopic) codes written on it. The drive has a very small camera lens beside the laser which can read the codes. Another part of the drive is plugged in to the computer by a wire (inside) and the code goes through the wire as a signal to the computer.\n\nList of optical drives\nCD drive\nDVD drive\nBlu-ray Disc drive\nHD-DVD drive\nLaserDisc drive\n\nComputer science\nMachines\nElectronics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":99040,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical%20disc%20drive","title":"Optical disc drive","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Lancashire is a ceremonial county in the North West of England. Its two cities are Lancaster and Preston. Before 1974, Liverpool and Manchester were part of the administrative county of Lancashire.\n\nRivalry\nThe county has developed a fierce rivalry with Yorkshire, the next county east. This comes from rivalry in sport, such as in cricket, and comes from the War of the Roses.\n\nPlaces\nA big attraction in Lancashire is Blackpool, an English seaside resort, which has a theme park called Blackpool Pleasure Beach. It has the second largest rollercoaster in Europe (\"The Big One\") and Blackpool Tower, a tower which was made to look like the Eiffel Tower in Paris.\n\nLancashire has market towns (like Chorley) and small villages (like Bretherton, Croston and Eccleston). It is just south of an area of outstanding natural beauty called the Lake District. Lancashire also has a lot of pleasant countryside such as White Coppice and the Rivington Moors.\n\nFood\nA famous food from Lancashire is \"Lancashire hotpot\" which is made of meat, onion or other vegetables and potatoes. It is often found on many pub menus in the county and in other places in Britain.\n\nPeople\nThe people of Lancashire are known for their friendly nature. Humour is also an important part of Lancashire life.\n\nCeremonial counties of England","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":28051,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lancashire","title":"Lancashire","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (August 28, 1749 \u2013 March 22, 1832) was a German writer, poet, novelist, and playwright. He also worked as an actor, administrator, scientist, geologist, botanist, and philosopher. He influenced many 19th century writers and thinkers. His contributions to science include his work in botany and his Theory of Colours. Famous lines from his books are often quoted, and some of his phrases have become part of the German language. His poems were set to music by composers like Schubert, Schumann, Brahms, Wolf, and Strauss. Most of his scientific work now seems old-fashioned.\n\nEarly life \nGoethe was born in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. His father was well-educated and very strict. His mother was only eighteen when he was born. When Goethe was a young boy, he began to write stories and plays for his friends.\n\nEducation\nIn his youth, he learned Greek, Latin and French. He studied law in Leipzig from 1765 to 1768. He also wrote some letters that are seen as beautiful, and that showed his promise as a writer. He continued his studies in Strasbourg from 1770 to 1771. He joined other young men who wanted to change the way that Germans were writing. He thought that people like Johann Christoph Gottsched were too strict about writing poetry. Instead of the ideas of the Enlightenment, he wanted poets to be creative and make their own rules.\n\nAfter youth\nOne man who had many new ideas was a poet named Johann Gottfried von Herder. Herder liked the plays of Shakespeare (which he had learned in German) as well as folk poetry. These ideas were exciting for Goethe, and he helped Herder to collect folk poetry. Both men believed that poetry should always come from the heart, and that it should be based on the poet's experiences instead of on an old-fashioned idea of what a good poem should be. Some of Goethe's best known poems were written during this time, like Heidenr\u00f6slein, Der K\u00f6nig in Thule, and Erlk\u00f6nig.\n\nGoethe fell in love with several women during his lifetime. During the early period of his life, he was in love with a girl named Friederike Brion, the daughter of a pastor. Several of his poems are inspired by her. He felt extremely sad when they split up.  The feeling of desertion by a lover is found in a lot of Goethe's works. They are all based on his own experience. His disappointment in love inspired him when writing about Werther in Die Leiden des jungen Werthers and Gretchen in his great play Faust. His poems also show his ideas about science and philosophy.\n\nDie Leiden des jungen Werthers (The Sufferings of Young Werther) is a book written in the form of letters. Werther is a young man who falls passionately in love with a girl called Lotte who is married to someone else. Werther kills himself in the end. The book was very successful all over Europe. People talked about \"Werther fever.\"  Many young men who were disappointed in love copied Werther and killed themselves.\n\nEarly works\nGoethe's most famous work is a very long play called Faust. He spent most of his life working at it. He was writing the first version of Faust at this time. Based on a legendary character, it tells of a man called Faust who is tired of studying and wants to have the greatest possible happiness. The devil (called Mephistopheles in the play) tells Faust he can help him to do this, but that in the end Faust must give him his soul and go with him to hell. Faust uses magic in the hope that it will tell him everything about life.\n\nAlong with writing, Goethe was developing a career in law. In 1772, he spent four months in Wetzlar at the Imperial Law Courts. Here he made new friends, including a young girl who was already engaged to someone else.\n\nMiddle Period: Arrival in Weimar until death of Schiller (1775-1805) \nGoethe had been well-educated and was good at organizing and getting on with important people. For eleven years he worked at the court of Weimar for a young Duke called Karl August. He became a member and later the president of the Duke's cabinet. He had to organize road-building projects, and look after parks and buildings. He studied geology, mineralogy, botany and anatomy. He fell in love with a woman called Charlotte von Stein who was married and had several children. He wrote love letters to her, and she inspired him to write many poems. At this time he felt that a man's task in life was to be useful. The heroes of his books at this time were often ordinary people instead of geniuses.\n\nVisit to Italy\nAfter a time he realized that all his work on governmental duties were not giving him time for his writing. So he went to Italy for 18 months. He loved the landscape and made lots of sketches, and he read the ancient poets and books on the history of art. He wrote a play in rhyme called Iphigenie auf Tauris which combines the beauty of Classicism with great poetry.\n\nWhen he returned from Italy he settled once more in Weimar. He visited Italy a second time. He became great friends with the famous poet and playwright Friedrich Schiller. The two men talked about many of their ideas and helped one another by offering criticism of their works. He wrote short works such as Hermann und Dorothea which is about life in a small German town at the time of the French Revolution.\n\nWilhelm Meister\nTwo works of the greatest importance works occupied him at this time. One is the novel Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre. This is an example of what is called in German a \"Bildungsroman\" which means something like \"Education novel\". It means a novel which shows a person growing up and developing his character and learning about the world. This book was a very important influence on the 19th century Romantic novel and on all German autobiographical novels ever since. Goethe spent many years working on this book.\n\nFaust\nThe second work of enormous importance was his play Faust. He made changes to the original version, putting all the small bits together into one great play. Schiller gave him advice while he was writing it. Faust enters into a pact with the devil, Mephistopheles who promises him all his soul can wish for: fine living, gold, women and honour. He signs the pact with his blood.\n\nLater life (1805-1832) \n\nNapoleon was fighting wars all over Europe at this time. Germany, which was still made up of lots of small countries, was an enemy of France. Goethe always thought of Napoleon as a hero. His ideas about politics were still based on 18th century ideas. He hated war and so he did not take part in politics but concentrated on science and literature. He wrote a book called Die Wahlverwandtschaften (Elective Affinities) which is about a divorce problem. Some of his scientific ideas are used in the story as he talks about the way that two chemical compounds can break up and form new unions. He compares this to the people in his story. His poems in West\u00f6stlicher Divan are some of his greatest. He uses ideas from Persia and other Eastern countries together with ideas from the West. It has a lot of parables about human life.\n\nMany interesting things that Goethe said were written down in a book by his friend Eckermann, who published them in a book called Conversations with Goethe. Goethe also wrote about his own life in his autobiography which he called Dichtung und Wahrheit (Poetry and Truth). The book tells us about his youth up to the time of his arrival in Weimar. It is in four parts. The fourth part was published after his death. He chose the title to show that he was telling us the truth about his life, but that he had changed the order of some events to make it into a poetic book.\n\nLater works\nGoethe wrote a sequel (a part which follows on) to Wilhelm Meister called Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre (The Years of Wilhelm Meister's Wanderings). It consists of several sections which are like separate stories. They tell us about Wilhelm Meister's relationship with society and how he has to change his ways to fit in with other people.\n\nGoethe's Faust had made him the greatest person in European literature. At the end of his life he finished a second part of Faust. It is quite hard to read, and is more of a long poem than a dramatic play. It talks of his ideas about allegory, science and philosophy.\n\nDeath\nGoethe died in Weimar on March 22, 1832. He had started as a great Classical writer of the 18th century and finished as a young Romantic of the 19th century. No one else had such a big influence on art and literature of that time.\n\nHis most important works \n\n G\u00f6tz von Berlichingen mit der eisernen Hand, 1774\n Prometheus, 1774\n Die Leiden des jungen Werthers, 1774\n Iphigenie auf Tauris, 1779\n Torquato Tasso, 1780 - 1790\n R\u00f6mische Elegien, 1788-90\n Venezianische Epigramme, 1790\n Faust. Ein Fragment, 1790\n Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre, 1795\/96\n Faust. Eine Trag\u00f6die, 1808\n Theory of colours, 1810\n West-\u00f6stlicher Divan, 1819\n Faust II, 1833\n\nOther websites \n Works by Johann Wolfgang Goethe at Zeno.org (German)\n\n1749 births\n1832 deaths\n18th-century German philosophers\n19th-century German philosophers\nGerman autobiographers\nGerman poets\nWriters from Frankfurt","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":5,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":5,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":5125,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johann%20Wolfgang%20von%20Goethe","title":"Johann Wolfgang von Goethe","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In communications, such as radio and television, broadcasting means sending information such as television shows or music electronically to a large audience.  The information is sent through the air in radio waves, through a wire, or by a communications satellite, and then the television viewers or radio listeners pick up the signal using their television sets and radio receivers.  Gugliemo Marconi invented wireless telegraphy, in December 1901 he transmitted first radio signals across the Atlantic Ocean.  This was point to point. Experiments with voice broadcasting began a few years later, and it grew rapidly in the 1920s.\n\nTypes of broadcasters\nDifferent broadcasters use different radio waves and different modulating methods. amplitude modulation on medium waves was the first to be much used. \n\nSome television networks are said to be broadcasting, even if they are only or mainly on cable TV rather than by radio waves.\n\nPublic broadcasters \nMany countries have Public broadcasting, using money from the government to broadcast television shows and radio programs. Examples include the BBC in Britain, NHK in Japan, and the CBC in Canada. \n\nIn the United States, most public broadcast radio and television stations are run by educational groups (such as colleges or universities) or by a state's educational department.  Public broadcasters, by law, cannot accept or display commercial advertising.  However, businesses can make donations to a public broadcaster.  Most are part of the Public Broadcasting System.\n\nPBS is different than the other public broadcasters such as BBC, NHK and CBC, because the PBS gets a lot of its funding (money) from donations by viewers and listeners. Public broadcasters make programs that the private companies are not interested in making, such as educational children's shows, documentaries, and public affairs shows about current issues.\n\nPrivate broadcasters \nAs well, there are private broadcasting companies. These are companies that broadcast television and radio programs. To make money, private broadcasting companies sell advertisements called commercials.\n\nCommunity broadcasters\nA third type of broadcaster is community broadcasters. There are community television stations and community radio stations.\n\nCommunity television stations are often provided on cable networks. Community television stations usually have shows about local issues and community events. Some community television stations film and broadcast community cultural activities, such as musical performances or town hall meetings. \n\nCommunity radio stations play music and have public affairs shows about community issues. Community radio stations are usually small organizations that are run by volunteers. Community radio stations often get their funding (money) from local governments, local universities, and from donations by listeners. Some community radio stations also have poetry readings by local poets, or performances by local musicians or singers.\n\nOther meanings\nBroadcasting can also mean sending a message to many users on a computer network at exactly the same time, or sending a message from one computer to many other computers, giving information about itself, such as its name and location.\n\nSending information to a small selected group is called narrowcasting.\n\nMass media\n\nel:\u03a1\u03b1\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c6\u03c9\u03bd\u03af\u03b1","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":181,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":6,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3}},"id":4790,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Broadcasting","title":"Broadcasting","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dina fisika, mom\u00e9ntum (dina hijian SI kg\u00b7m\/s, atawa, nu satara, N\u00b7s) mangrupa hasil pakalian massa jeung laju hiji oby\u00e9k (). Inyana kalan-kalan disebut salaku mom\u00e9ntum lini\u00e9r pikeun ngab\u00e9dakeun jeung jejer nu pakait ngeunaan mom\u00e9ntum sudut atawa mom\u00e9ntum puter. Mom\u00e9ntum lini\u00e9r mangrupa hiji kuantitas v\u00e9ktor lantaran inyana boga arah tujuan sarta ged\u00e9. Mom\u00e9ntum sudut mangrupa hiji kuantitas v\u00e9ktor palsu lantaran inyana \n\n it gains an additional sign flip under an improper rotation.  The total momentum of any group of objects remains the same unless outside forces act on the objects (law of conservation of momentum).\n\nMomentum is a conserved quantity, m\u00e9aning that the total momentum of any closed system (one not affected by external forces) cannot change. This concept is extended in the second law of thermodynamics and special relativity.\n\nHistory of the concept \nThe word for the general concept of m\u014dmentum was used in the Roman Republic primarily to m\u00e9an \"a movement, motion (as an indwelling force ...).\" A fish was able to change velocity (velocitas) through the m\u014dmentum of its tail. The word is formed by an accretion of suffices on the stem of Latin mov\u0113re, \"to move.\" A movi-men- is the result of the mov\u0113re just as frag-men- is the result of frangere, \"to break.\" Extension by -to- obtains m\u014dvimentum and fragmentum, the former contracting to m\u014dmentum.\n\nThe m\u014dmentum was not m\u00e9r\u00e9 ly the motion, which was m\u014dtus, but was the power residing in a moving object, captured by today's mathematical definitions. A m\u014dtus, \"movement\", was a stage in any sort of change, while velocitas, \"swiftness\", captured only speed. The Romans, due to limitations inherent in the Roman numeral system, were unable to go further with the perception.\n\nThe concept of momentum in classical mechanics was originated by a number of gr\u00e9at thinkers and experimentalists. The first of these was Ibn Sina (Avicenna) circa 1000, who referred to impetus as proportional to weight times velocity. Ren\u00e9 Descartes later referred to mass times velocity as the fundamental force of motion. Galileo in his Two New Sciences used the Italian word \"impeto.\"\n\nThe question has been much debated as to what Sir Isaac Newton's contribution to the concept was. Apparently nothing, except to state more fully and with better mathematics what was alr\u00e9ady known. The first and second of Newton's Laws of Motion had alr\u00e9ady been stated by John Wallis in his 1670 work, Mechanica slive De Motu, Tractatus Geometricus: \"the initial state of the body, either of rest or of motion, will persist\" and \"If the force is greater than the resistance, motion will result....\" Wallis uses momentum and vis for force.\n\nNewton's \"Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy\" when it first came out in 1686 showed a similar casting around for words to use for the mathematical momentum. His Definition II defines quantitas motus, \"quantity of motion,\" as \"arising from the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly\", which identifies it as momentum. Thus when in Law II he refers to mutatio motus, \"change of motion,\" being proportional to the force impressed, he is generally taken to m\u00e9an momentum and not motion.\n\nIt remained only to assign a standard term to the quantity of motion. The first use of \"momentum\" in its proper mathematical sense is not cl\u00e9ar but by the time of Jenning's Miscellanea in 1721, four y\u00e9ars before the final edition of Newton's Principia Mathematica, momentum M or \"quantity of motion\" was being defined for students as \"a rectangle\", the product of Q and V where Q is \"quantity of material\" and V is \"velocity\", s\/t.\n\nLinear momentum of a particle \n\nIf an object is moving in any reference frame, then it has momentum in that frame. It is important to note that momentum is frame dependent. That is, the same object may have a certain momentum in one frame of reference, but a different amount in another frame. For example, a moving object has momentum in a reference frame fixed to a spot on the ground, while at the same time having 0 momentum in a reference frame attached to the object's center of mass.\n\nThe amount of momentum that an object has depends on two physical quantities: the mass and the velocity of the moving object in the frame of reference. In physics, the usual symbol for momentum is a small bold p (bold because it is a vector); so this can be written:\n\nwhere:\n is the momentum \n is the mass\n the velocity\n\nExample: a mod\u00e9l airplane of 1\u00a0kg travelling due north at 1\u00a0m\/s in straight and level flight has a momentum of 1\u00a0kg m\/s due north m\u00e9asured from the ground. To the dummy pilot in the cockpit it has a velocity and momentum of zero.\n\nAccording to Newton's second law the rate of change of the momentum of a particle is proportional to the resultant force acting on the particle and is in the direction of that force. In the case of constant mass, and velocities much less than the speed of light, this definition results in the equation\n\nor just simply\n\nwhere F is understood to be the resultant.\n\nExample: a mod\u00e9l airplane of 1\u00a0kg accelerates from rest to a velocity of 1\u00a0m\/s due north in 1 sec. The thrust required to produce this acceleration is 1 newton. The change in momentum is 1\u00a0kg m\/s. To the dummy pilot in the cockpit there is no change of momentum. Its pressing backward in the s\u00e9at is a r\u00e9action to the unbalanced thrust, shortly to be balanced by the drag.\n\nLinear momentum of a system of particles\n\nRelating to mass and velocity \nThe lin\u00e9ar momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum of the momenta of all the individual objects in the system.\n\nwhere\n is the momentum of the particle system\n is the mass of object i\n the vector velocity of object i\n is the number of objects in the system\n\nIt can be shown that, in the center of mass frame the momentum of a system is zero. Additionally, the momentum in a frame of reference that is moving at a velocity vcm with respect to that frame is simply:\n\nwhere:\n.\n\nRelating to force- General equations of motion \n\nThe lin\u00e9ar momentum of a system of particles can also be defined as the product of the total mass  of the system times the velocity of the center of mass \n\nThis is commonly known as Newton's second law.\n\nFor a more general derivation using tensors, we consider a moving body (see Figure), assumed as a continuum, occupying a volume  at a time , having a surface ar\u00e9a , with defined traction or surface forces  acting on every point of the body surface, body forces  per unit of volume on every point within the volume , and a velocity field  prescribed throughout the body. Following the previous equation, The lin\u00e9ar momentum of the system is:\n\nBy definition the stress vector is  , then\n\nUsing the Gauss's divergency theorem to convert a surface integral to a volume integral gives\n\nFor an arbitrary volume the integrand itself must be zero, and we have the Cauchy's equation of motion\n\nIf a system is in equilibrium, the change in momentum with respect to time is equal to 0, as there is no acceleration.\n\nor using tensors,\n\nThese are the equilibrium equations which are used in solid mechanics for solving problems of linear elasticity.\nIn engineering notation, the equilibrium equations are expressed in Cartesian coordinates as\n\nConservation of linear momentum \nThe law of conservation of lin\u00e9ar momentum is a fundamental law of nature, and it states that the total momentum of a closed system of objects (which has no interactions with external agents) is constant. One of the consequences of this is that the center of mass of any system of objects will always continue with the same velocity unless acted on by a force from outside the system.\n\nConservation of momentum is a mathematical consequence of the homogeneity (shift symmetry) of space (position in space is the canonical conjugate quantity to momentum). So, momentum conservation can be philosophically stated as \"nothing depends on location per se\".\n\nIn an isolated system (one where external forces are absent) the total momentum will be constant: this is implied by Newton's first law of motion. Newton's third law of motion, the law of reciprocal actions, which dictates that the forces acting between systems are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign, is due to the conservation of momentum.\n\nSince position in space is a vector quantity, momentum (being the canonical conjugate of position) is a vector quantity as well - it has direction. Thus, when a gun is fired, the final total momentum of the system (the gun and the bullet) is the vector sum of the momenta of these two objects. Assuming that the gun and bullet were at rest prior to firing (m\u00e9aning the initial momentum of the system was zero), the final total momentum must also equal 0.\n\nIn an isolated system with only two objects, the change in momentum of one object must be equal and opposite to the change in momentum of the other object. Mathematically,\n\nMomentum has the special property that, in a closed system, it is always conserved, even in collisions and separations caused by explosive forces. Kinetic energy, on the other hand, is not conserved in collisions if they are inelastic. Since momentum is conserved it can be used to calculate an unknown velocity following a collision or a separation if all the other masses and velocities are known.\n\nA common problem in physics that requires the use of this fact is the collision of two particles. Since momentum is always conserved, the sum of the momenta before the collision must equal the sum of the momenta after the collision:\n\nwhere:\nu signifies vector velocity before the collision\nv signifies vector velocity after the collision.\n\nUsually, we either only know the velocities before or after a collision and would like to also find out the opposite. Correctly solving this problem m\u00e9ans you have to know what kind of collision took place. There are two basic kinds of collisions, both of which conserve momentum:\nElastic collisions conserve kinetic energy as well as total momentum before and after collision.\nInelastic collisions don't conserve kinetic energy, but total momentum before and after collision is conserved.\n\nElastic collisions \nA collision between two Pool balls is a good example of an almost totally elastic collision; a totally elastic collision exists only in th\u00e9ory. In addition to momentum being conserved when the two balls collide, the sum of kinetic energy before a collision must equal the sum of kinetic energy after:\n\nSince the 1\/2 factor is common to all the terms, it can be taken out right away.\n\nHead-on collision (1 dimensional) \nIn the case of two objects colliding h\u00e9ad on we find that the final velocity\n\nwhich can then \u00e9asily be r\u00e9arranged to \n\nSpecial Case: m1>>m2\n\nNow consider the case when the mass of one body, say m1, is far gr\u00e9ater than that of the other, m2 (m1>>m2).\nIn that case m1+m2 is approximately equal to m1 and m1-m2 is approximately equal to m1.\n\nUsing these approximations, the above formula for  reduces to .\nIts physical interpretation is that in the case of a collision between two bodies, one of which is much more massive than the other, the lighter body ends up moving in the opposite direction with twice the original speed of the more massive body.\n\nSpecial Case: m1=m2\n\nAnother special case is when the collision is between two bodies of equal mass.\n\nSay body m1 moving at velocity v1 strikes body m2 that is at rest (v2).\nPutting this case in the equation derived above we will see that after the collision, the body that was moving (m1) will start moving with velocity v2 and the mass m2 will start moving with velocity v1. So there will be an exchange of velocities.\n\nNow suppose one of the masses, say m2, was at rest. In that case after the collision the moving body, m1, will come to rest and the body that was at rest, m2, will start moving with the velocity that m1 had before the collision.\n\nNote that all of these observations are for an elastic collision.\n\nThis phenomenon is demonstrated by Newton's cradle, one of the best known examples of conservation of momentum, a r\u00e9al life example of this special case.\n\nMulti-dimensional collisions \nIn the case of objects colliding in more than one dimension, as in oblique collisions, the velocity is resolved into orthogonal components with one component perpendicular to the plane of collision and the other component or components in the plane of collision. The velocity components in the plane of collision remain unchanged, while the velocity perpendicular to the plane of collision is calculated in the same way as the one-dimensional case.\n\nFor example, in a two-dimensional collision, the momenta can be resolved into x and y components. We can then calculate \u00e9ach component separately, and combine them to produce a vector result. The magnitude of this vector is the final momentum of the isolated system.\n\nSee the elastic collision page for more details.\n\nInelastic collisions \nA common example of a perfectly inelastic collision is when two snowballs collide and then stick together afterwards. This equation describes the conservation of momentum:\n\nIt can be shown that a perfectly inelastic collision is one in which the maximum amount of kinetic energy is converted into other forms. For instance, if both objects stick together after the collision and move with a final common velocity, one can always find a reference frame in which the objects are brought to rest by the collision and 100% of the kinetic energy is converted. This is true even in the relativistic case and utilized in particle accelerators to efficiently convert kinetic energy into new forms of mass-energy (i.e. to cr\u00e9ate massive particles).\n\nIn case of Inelastic collision, there is a param\u00e9ter attached called coefficient of restitution (denoted by small 'e' or 'c' in many text books). It is defined as the ratio of relative velocity of separation to relative velocity of approach. It is a ratio hence it is a dimensionless quantity.\n\nWhen we have an elastic collision the value of e (= coefficient of restitution) is 1, i.e. the relative velocity of approach is same as the relative velocity of separation of the colliding bodies. In an elastic collision the Kinetic energy of the system is conserved.\n\nWhen a collision is not elastic (e<1) it is an inelastic collision. In case of a perfectly inelastic collision the relative velocity of separation of the centre of masses of the colliding bodies is 0. Hence after collision the bodies stick together after collision. In case of an inelastic collision the loss of Kinetic energy is maximum as stated above.\n\nIn all types of collision if no external force is acting on the system of colliding bodies, the momentum will always be preserved.\n\nExplosions \nAn explosion occurs when an object is divided into two or more fragments due to a rel\u00e9ase of energy. \nNote that kinetic energy in a system of explosion is not conserved because it involves energy transformation. (i.e. kinetic energy changes into h\u00e9at and sound energy)\n\nhttp:\/\/www.glenbrook.k12.il.us\/gbssci\/phys\/Class\/momentum\/u4l2e.html \n\nIn the exploding cannon demonstration, total system momentum is conserved. The system consists of two objects - a cannon and a tennis ball. Before the explosion, the total momentum of the system is zero since the cannon and the tennis ball located inside of it are both at rest. After the explosion, the total momentum of the system must still be zero. If the ball acquires 50 units of forward momentum, then the cannon acquires 50 units of backwards momentum. The vector sum of the individual momenta of the two objects is 0. Total system momentum is conserved.\n\nSee the inelastic collision page for more details.\n\nModern definitions of momentum\n\nMomentum in relativistic mechanics \nIn relativistic mechanics, in order to be conserved, momentum must be defined as:\n\nwhere\n is the invariant mass of the object moving,\n is the Lorentz factor\n is the relative velocity between an object and an observer\n is the speed of light.\n\nRelativistic momentum can also be written as invariant mass times the object's proper velocity, defined as the rate of change of object position in the observer frame with respect to time elapsed on object clocks (i.e. object proper time).  Relativistic momentum becomes Newtonian momentum:  at low speed .\n\nRelativistic four-momentum as proposed by Albert Einstein arises from the invariance of four-vectors under Lorentzian translation.  The four-momentum is defined as:\n\nwhere \n is the  component of the relativistic momentum,\n is the total energy of the system:\n\nThe \"length\" of the vector is the mass times the speed of light, which is invariant across all reference frames:\n\nMomentum of massless objects\n\nObjects without a rest mass, such as photons, also carry momentum. The formula is:\n\nwhere\n is Planck's constant,\n is the wavelength of the photon,\n is the energy the photon carries and\n is the speed of light.\n\nGeneralization of momentum\n\nMomentum is the Noether charge of translational invariance. As such, even fields as well as other things can have momentum, not just particles. However, in curved space-time which is not asymptotically Minkowski, momentum isn't defined at all.\n\nMomentum in quantum mechanics \n\nIn quantum mechanics, momentum is defined as an operator on the wave function. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle defines limits on how accurately the momentum and position of a single observable system can be known at once. In quantum mechanics, position and momentum are conjugate variables.\n\nFor a single particle with no electric charge and no spin, the momentum operator can be written in the position basis as\n\nwhere:\n  is the gradient operator;\n  is the reduced Planck constant; \n  is the imaginary unit.\n\nThis is a commonly encountered form of the momentum operator, though not the most general one.\n\nMomentum in electromagnetism \nElectric and magnetic fields possess momentum regardless of whether they are static or\nthey change in time. It is a gr\u00e9at surprise for freshmen who are introduced\nto the well known fact of the pressure  of an electrostatic (magnetostatic) field upon a metal sphere,\ncylindrical capacity or ferromagnetic bar:\n\nwhere  ,\n, ,\nare electromagnetic energy density , electric and magnetic fields respectively.\nThe electromagnetic pressure  may be sufficiently high to explode capacity.\nThus electric and magnetic fields do carry momentum.\n\nLight (visible, UV, radio) is an electromagnetic wave and also has momentum.  Even though photons (the particle aspect of light) have no mass, they still carry momentum.  This l\u00e9ads to applications such as the solar sail.\n\nMomentum is conserved in an electrodynamic system (it may change from momentum in the fields to mechanical momentum of moving parts).  The tr\u00e9atment of the momentum of a field is usually accomplished by considering the so-called energy-momentum tensor and the change in time of the Poynting vector integrated over some volume. This is a tensor field which has components related to the energy density and the momentum density.\n\nThe definition canonical momentum corresponding to the momentum operator of quantum mechanics when it interacts with the electromagnetic field is, using the principle of least coupling:\n,\ninst\u00e9ad of the customary\n,\nwhere:\n is the electromagnetic vector potential\n the charged particle's invariant mass\n its velocity\n its charge.\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n\n Conservation law\n Force\n Impulse\n Kinetic energy\n Moment map\n Noether's theorem\n Velocity\n\nCatetan\n\nRujukan \n \n Serway, Raymond; Jewett, John (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6 ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7\nStenger, Victor J. (2000). Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Prometheus Books. Chpt. 12 in particular.\n Tipler, Paul (1998). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-492-6\n 'H C Verma' 'Concepts of Physics, Part 1' 'Bharti Bhawan'\n For numericals refer 'IE Irodov','Problems in General Physics'\n\nTumbu luar \n\n Conservation of momentum  - A chapter from an online textbook\n Demonstration of calculation of Momentum\n\nFisika\nKons\u00e9p fisika dasar","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":5,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":28563,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mom%C3%A9ntum","title":"Mom\u00e9ntum","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Vitoria-Gasteiz is the capital of the Basque Country. It is in the north of Spain and was a little town until 1950. Since 1950 the city has changed a lot because of important industrialization.\n\nThe official name of the city is Vitoria-Gasteiz. People usually call it simply Vitoria or Gasteiz. In Basque it is called Gasteiz, and some Basque speakers call it Vitorixe.\n\nPopulation\nIn 2010, Vitoria-Gasteiz had a population of more or less 240,000. Between 1960 and 1970, the city grew quickly as people arrived to work at the new and great industrial companies. Statistics say the population doubled between these dates, and this is the motive for a great transformation, not only demographic but social.\n\nLater, in 1980, Vitoria-Gasteiz  was named the Basque Country capital, and the new public institutions, the Basque Government and Basque Parliament were located in Vitoria. This was an important impetus for the tertiary sector. This, together with the great industrial firms were responsible for a big social change in the city.\n\nThere has been another change in the population as people have come from other countries in recent years to work in building and industry. This happened later in Vitoria-Gasteiz and the Basque Country than in other areas. Today, non-EU (European Union) newcomers form 5.8% of the population in Vitoria-Gasteiz, 5% in Araba and 3.4% in the Basque Country. The main motive why Vitoria-Gasteiz has more of these immigrants is because recently there was a lot of jobs in building, a sector where Basque people won't work.\n\nThe inhabitants in Vitoria-Gasteiz live in apartments, and there are not many detached houses like in other towns in Europe. There are nice neighbourhoods, some with big squares, trees and parks where young people and families with children live, and other older neighbourhoods with beautiful and narrow streets and where older people walk.\n\nIndustrialization\nVitoria-Gasteiz became an industrial city in the second half of the twentieth century. There had been some companies already. For example, Bartolome Riego set up a printing press in the town for the first time in 1722.\n \nIndustries began on the outskirts of the city, away from the centre, special areas for making objects. Companies from  Biscay (Bizkaia) and Gipuzkoa moved to Vitoria because land was cheaper there. Between 1950 and 1977, 833 companies started in the city.\n \nThe largest effects of this was that the city grew quickly, with many immigrants and a mixture of cultures. Between 1950 and 1975 the population grew from 53,000 to 173,000. In 1975, only 41.8% of the population had been born in the city.\n\nHistory\n\nMedieval origins\nVitoria-Gasteiz is a very old city. It was founded in 1180 by the Navarrese King Sancho VI, who conquered the small hill village of Gasteiz and decided to call it New Victoria.\nOnly nineteen years later the city fell into the hands Castille\u00b4s King Alfonso VIII. The new king enlarged the city with three new streets on the west side of the hill. (Correr\u00eda, Zapater\u00eda, Herrer\u00eda)\nIn 1202 a terrible fire almost destroyed the town.\nThe city prospered quickly it was on  the shortest way between the Court of Castille and northern Europe.\n\nBetween the 15th and 18th centuries \nIn 1443 another terrible fire affected the western part of the city.\nAfter that, new houses had to be built of stone and adobe.\nIn 1492 the expulsion of Jews had an negative impact and caused a long period of decline.\n\n19th century\n\nIn this century the customs house was moved from Vitoria to the coast, seriously affecting  the local economy. However, the effect was softened with the development of the services sector. In 1813 Spanish forces with their allies defeated France in the Battle of Vitoria, ending the French invasion.\n\n20th century\n\nWith the turn of the century come the first modern factories. They were small family businesses. Now there are also multinationals, for example Mercedes Benz and Michelin.\nBetween 1950 and 1975 the city tripled its population and new districts were built.\nIn 1980 the Basque Parliament chose Vitoria-Gasteiz as the capital of the Basque Country.\n\n21st century\n\nThe city is characterized as green and sustainable.\nWe could define the current Vitoria-Gasteiz as a city designed and planned to live in.\n\nBuildings\n\nVitoria-Gasteiz has several important buildings. Its medieval quarter is in the highest part of the city.\nIts streets are narrow. There are several historic houses : Montehermoso, Villasuso, Escoriaza, Esqu\u00edbel, etc. There are also the Archaeology and Card Museums.\nOther buildings are the Cordon House, and the Portalon, where there is a famous restaurant.\n\nIn Senda Avenue is Ajuria-Enea, the house of the President of the Basque Country.\nOpposite it is the Ruiz de Austri Palace, now the Fine Art Gallery.\n\nThe Architect Olaguibel designed the Arquillos building, the most important in the City.\n\nEnvironment\nVitoria - Gasteiz will be European  Green Capital in 2012. The European Green Capital Conference in Stockholm gave the award to Vitoria on  21 October 2011; Other cities competed, for example Barcelona, Malmo, Nantes, Nuremberg and Reykjavik. In the end Vitoria, the second smallest city, was champion.\n\nVitoria has a green ring around the city, with more than 11000 hectares  (27,000 acres) of trees and different species of animals. There are also a lot of tracks for walking and cycing.\n\nWater usage is another reason why Gasteiz won the award, because it is one the cities of Europe than wastes less water - only 10%, and its inhabitants are reasonable consumers. Other towns lose 50%.   25% of domestic rubbish is recycled, but it is possible to improve.\n\nIt is true that a lot of inhabitants use  public transport (trams and buses) and bike to move in the city but there are too many people who use cars.\n\nThe prize is very important for the city because its population has been working on improving its environment for the last 30 years. With the green capital prize the environment is the future for Vitoria and its inhabitants.\n\nMuseums and Art Galleries\n\nThe Museo de Bellas Artes - the Fine Art Gallery - in Frai Francisco Walk (street) is of special interest. It is an early twentieth century renaissance style building opposite Ajuria Enea, the lehendakari's (Basque president) residence. In this museum there are paintings by Ignacio Zuloaga, Joaquin Sorolla, Ignacio Diaz de Olano and Fernando Amarica.\n\nAnother important art gallery is the Artium (Basque Museum of Contemporary Art) The permanent collection has works by Basque and Spanish artists with paintings, sculptures, prints, photographs and videos made by Chillida, Oteiza, and Moraza, among others. This modern building was opened in 2002 and is on Frantzia Street.\n\nBibat is an important museum, devoted to archaeology and playing cards. This museum is in an old renaissance building in Aiztogile Street, recently renovated by the architect Patxi Mangado.\n\nThere are other interesting museums such as the Arms Museum in Fray Francisco Walk or the Museum of Natural Sciences  in  Do\u00f1a Ochanda Tower, a fort house built in the sixteenth century, in Jesusen Zerbitzarien Fundatzailean Street. Nearby is the Museum of the lanterns in Zapateri street.\n\nVitoria is also an outdoor museum with sculptures and statues in its streets by contemporary artists such as Oteiza, Ibarrola, Chillida, Casto Solano, Nestor Basterrechea, etc.\n\nCuisine\n\nAlthough Vitoria-Gasteiz food is similar to the rest of the Basque Country, the city does have its specialities. \"Perretxikos\" (Calocybe_gambosa\/St. George's mushroom), a type of mushroom, and snails are two traditional dishes of the city.\n\nIn  early December, the province of Araba holds its \"cazuelitas\" (small dishes) and wine week. About twenty-five pubs participate, including more than twenty in Vitoria-Gasteiz, and you can eat small portions of local dishes and drink local wines.  Another event, Vinogourmet, takes place about the same time. This fair is held in the city's food market, with wine on the ground floor and pintxos (bar snacks) on the first floor.\n\nThere is an important restaurant in the city. Its name is \"El Portalon\". It is located in a beautiful fifteenth century house. In this restaurant the food is very good.\nIn 2010, the Ikea restaurant won its first Michelin star.\n\nTourists say Vitoria-Gasteiz has very good cake-shops.\n\nLeisure\nLeisure in Vitoria refers to several things, music and performing arts, concerts and festivals.\n\nThe city's most famous concerts  take place in Los Fueros Square in the Blanca holidays in August, and very important Spanish groups come to Vitoria.\n\nThere are also events for the young. Workshops, where children can have fun making thing, for example, Christmas cards.\n\nOn the first Saturday of every month there is a market in the old part of the city, where people sell home and beauty products, cheese and other foods and all types of things. Once a year in September there is a medieval market.\n\nAt The Principal Theatre you can see plays, shows, dances etc.\n\nThere are also a lot of pubs and restaurants to spend the afternoon and evening with friends. The \"pintxo-pote\" is typical every Thursday in the pubs of Gasteiz, in these the price of a small glass of wine and a snack is \u20ac1.\n\nPolitical Data\nVitoria is the political and administrative capital of the Basque Country and home of its principal autonomous institutions.\nThe Basque Parliament is the legislative body of the autonomous region. There are 75 MPs (Members of Parliament),25 of each of the three provinces.\nIn the current parliament (since 2009), the distribution of seats among the various political parties is as follows: \n\nOf these MPs, 40 are women, and 35 are men. The current Speaker\/President of the Chamber is Arantxa Quiroga.\nThe Basque Government headquarters are also in the city, in Lakua, and the official residence of the President of the Basque Government is  Ajuria Enea, in Fray Francisco Street.\nThe current Prime Minister is Patxi L\u00f3pez.\n\nAnother institution that has its headquarters in Vitoria is the Diputaci\u00f3n Foral de \u00c1lava, the provincial council. There are 51 seats on the council. After the 2007 elections, the distribution among political parties is as follows:\n\nThe current General Deputy of Alava is Xabier Aguirre.\n\nThe city council of Vitoria is made up of 27 councillors. The distribution of political parties in the current term is:\n          \nThe current mayor is Patxi L\u00f3pez.\n\nIn addition to the City Council, there are a small administrative units that are the councils of the different villages that make up the municipality of Vitoria (about 60 villages, some of which are being absorbed by the growth of the city).\n\nRelated pages \n\n Basque Country\n Deportivo Alav\u00e9s\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n Vitoria-Gasteiz City Council\n Tourist information\n Vitoria-Gasteiz travel information at Wikivoyage\n\nCapital cities in Spain\n\u00c1lava\nMunicipalities in the Basque Country","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":275608,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vitoria-Gasteiz","title":"Vitoria-Gasteiz","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A blacksmith is a person who works with iron and steel. The blacksmith hammers hot iron on an anvil to change its shape. Blacksmiths make iron and steel tools.\n\nA smith is a person who works in metal. A blacksmith works with iron and steel. A thousand years ago, people only knew about seven metals (iron, gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, and mercury). By color: gold is yellow; copper is red; and silver, tin, lead, and mercury are different gray colors. Iron is also a gray color if you shine it, but usually its surface is covered with a black oxide, which is a kind of rust. This black color forms very fast in a blacksmith's fire. The other metals have light colors, but iron is a dark color, so it is called the black metal in English. A smith who works the black metal is a blacksmith.\n\nA farrier works with iron like a blacksmith.  The only ironwork a farrier does is to make horseshoes.\n\nForge \nA forge is a special type of oven that is used for metalworking. Using a forge to change metal is called \"forging\". Forging is one of the oldest forms of metal working. To be shaped with a hammer, iron must be very hot. Hot iron becomes cold very quickly when it is taken out of the forge. A blacksmith only has a short time to hammer a piece of iron before it must be put back in the fire to become hot again.\n\nA forge burns coal or charcoal in a very hot fire.  Bellows push air into the forge to make the fire burn hotter.  The blacksmith puts pieces of iron in the fire to make the iron hot and to keep it hot until it is used.\n\nWays to hammer iron \nThere are a few ways to change a piece of iron's shape with hammer and heat. Here are the most important ways that a blacksmith uses:\n\n Bending: hammering a piece of hot iron, to make it curve or to make it have a corner.\n Drawing: hammering on the sides of a piece of hot iron, to make it longer and thinner.\n Upsetting: hammering on the end of a piece of hot iron, to make it shorter and fatter.\n\nA punch is a tool like a short stick of iron. The end of the punch is flat.\n Punching:  A blacksmith hammers a punch through a piece of hot iron, to make a hole in the hot iron.\n\nA chisel is a tool like a short stick of iron. The end of the chisel is sharp to cut. \n Cutting: hammering a chisel through the side of a piece of hot iron, to make two shorter pieces.\n Splitting: hammering a chisel into the end of a piece of hot iron, to make a stick of iron into a \"Y\" shape, to make a fork.\n Rivetting: a rivet is like a machine bolt with a head at both ends. Rivets are used to make different pieces of iron stay together. The blacksmith makes a hole in each piece of iron, where he wants the pieces to come together. A rivet is then put in the holes, and the blacksmith hammers on the rivet to make the heads at each end of the rivet.\n Welding: making different pieces of iron become one piece of iron. The blacksmith makes the pieces of iron so hot that they almost melt. Then he puts the pieces together and hammers on them so there is no line where they came together. Welding is the hardest thing for a blacksmith to learn and to do.\n\nHard iron and steel \n\nIron is one of the 92 natural elements.\n\nSteel is iron with a little carbon in it (0.3% to 1.7% carbon by weight).\n\nAll metals get harder when a smith hammers or bends them. This is called \"work-hardening\". If a smith hammers or bends a piece of metal that is already work-hardened, it will crack and break. To make work-hardened metal soft again, so that a smith can hammer and bend it more, the smith anneals the metal.\n\nTo anneal iron or steel, a blacksmith heats the metal until it no longer pulls a magnet, and then makes the metal become cold very slowly. Blacksmiths can cover the hot metal with sand, so that it takes hours to become cold. This makes iron or steel very soft.\n\nSteel acts just like iron, until a blacksmith \"heat-treats\" the steel. This is a special way to make the steel hot and then cold, so that the steel will become hard enough to keep a cutting edge (blade). A blade made from a piece of iron (instead of steel) will very soon become dull and will not cut. Good blades (for knives, chisels, axes, and other tools with cutting edges) are always made of steel, then heat-treated, and then sharpened.\n\nTo heat-treat steel, a blacksmith heats the steel until it no longer pulls a magnet, then makes the steel become cold very quickly. A blacksmith does this by putting the hot steel into a bucket of water and moving it around until it is cold. This is called \"quenching\". When this is finished, the steel will be as hard as it can be. This hardness can make it brittle, so if someone hits or drops it, it can break like glass.\n\nThe next step is to \"draw the temper\" or \"temper\" the steel, so that it will not break like glass. To temper steel, a blacksmith polishes a part of the steel so that it is smooth and shiny. The blacksmith then slowly heats the steel in the fire. When the steel is between , the polished steel will turn different colors. These colors do not glow in the dark; they look like dye on the polished steel. As the steel gets hotter from 300 to 650 degrees F, it will turn through the colors: yellow, then brown, then purple, then blue. Yellow means the steel will still be harder, blue means the steel will be softer (but still hard). When the steel turns the color that the blacksmith wants, he puts the steel into a bucket of water to stop the change. Different tools are tempered to different colors, but it also depends on how much carbon there is in the steel. Usually, stone chisels are tempered to yellow, and axes for trees are tempered to blue, but the blacksmith has to decide.\n\nA blacksmith does not hammer a blade edge thin. A blacksmith hammers the steel so that the edge stays thick. After the \"heat-treat\" and \"temper\", stones are used to grind the blade edge to make it sharp.\n\nIf a blacksmith has a piece of iron or steel, but does not know which one it is, the blacksmith can heat-treat it like steel. If it does not become hard, then it is not steel. Iron will show the same temper colors as steel, but it will not be hard.\n\nIf a blacksmith has an old steel tool, and wants to hammer it into a new different tool, the blacksmith anneals the steel. The steel will then be very soft like iron. The blacksmith can then hammer it into a new tool, and heat-treat and temper it, to make a new, hard steel tool.\n\nA blacksmith must be careful when hammering hardened steel or work-hardened iron, because small pieces can break off and fly, and these can hurt his or her eyes. Many blacksmiths wear plastic safety glasses to keep their eyes safe.\n\nThings made by blacksmiths \n\n Weapons\n Knife\/knives and swords\n Spear heads\n Armor\n Helmets\n Shields\n Chain mail shirts\n Suits of plate armor\n Tools\n Pickaxes\n Hammers\n Chisels\n Axes\n Adzes\n hoes\n Shovels\n Hardware\n Handles for doors and drawers\n Hinges for doors\n Hooks to hang things on\n Nails for construction\n\nHistory \n\nThe first blacksmiths were Hittites. They started working iron to make tools around 1500 BC. The ways that tools are made by blacksmiths have changed very little since then.\n\nAround 1850, countries like the United States of America and the United Kingdom made new ways to make steel and tools in factories. Factories now make tools faster, and for less money than blacksmiths. There are now very few blacksmiths in countries that have a lot of factories.\n\nThe few blacksmiths that are still in countries with a lot of factories, make iron that is art. These blacksmiths make gates, stair rails, and chairs and tables for outdoors. People buy this iron as art, because each piece is different from the other pieces.\n\nBooks \n\nIndustrial occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":140,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":12262,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blacksmith","title":"Blacksmith","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Electricity is the presence and flow of electric current. Using electricity, we can transfer energy in ways that allow us to do simple chores. Its best-known form is the flow of electrons through conductors such as copper wires.\n\nThe word \"electricity\" is sometimes used to mean \"electrical energy\". They are not the same thing: electricity is a transmission medium for electrical energy, like sea water is a transmission medium for wave energy. An item which allows electricity to move through it is called a conductor. Copper wires and other metal items are good conductors, allowing electricity to move through them and transmit electrical energy. Plastics are a poor conductor (they are insulators) and don't allow much electricity to move through them. They stop the transmission of electrical energy.\n\nElectrical energy can be made naturally (such as lightning), or by people (such as in a generator). It can be used to power machines and electrical devices. When electrical charges are not moving, electricity is called static electricity. When the charges are moving they are an electric current, sometimes called 'dynamic electricity'. Lightning is the most known - and dangerous - kind of electric current in nature, but sometimes static electricity causes things to stick together in nature as well.\n\nElectricity can be dangerous, especially around water because water is a form of good conductor as it has impurities like salt in it. Salt can help electricity flow. Since the nineteenth century, electricity has been used in every part of our lives. Until then, it was just a curiosity seen in the lightning of a thunderstorm.\n\nElectrical energy can be created if a magnet passes close to a metal wire. This is the method used by a generator. The biggest generators are in power stations. Electrical energy can also be released by combining chemicals in a jar with two different kinds of metal rods. This is the method used in a battery. Static electricity can be created through the friction between two materials - for instance a wool cap and a plastic ruler. This may make a spark. Electrical energy can also be created using energy from the sun, as in photovoltaic cells.\n\nElectrical energy arrives at homes through wires from the places where it is made. It is used by electric lamps, electric heaters, etc. Many appliances such as washing machines and electric cookers use electricity. In factories, electrical energy powers machines. People who work with electricity and electrical devices in homes and factories are called \"electricians\".\n\nHistory \nThe idea of electricity, or the fact that amber acquires the power to attract light objects when rubbed, may have been known to the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus, who lived about 600 B.C.\n\nAnother Greek philosopher, Theophrastus, stated in a treatise that this power is possessed by other substances.\n\nThe first scientific study of electrical and magnetic happenings, however, did not appear until A.D. 1600, from research done by the English physician William Gilbert. Gilbert was the first to apply the term electric (Greek, elektron, \"amber\") to the force that substances exerted after being rubbed. He also distinguished between magnetic and electric action.\n\nBen Franklin spent much time in electrical research. His famous kite experiment proved that the atmospheric electricity (that causes the phenomena of lightning and thunder) is identical with the electrostatic charge on a Leyden jar. Franklin developed his theory that electricity is a single \"fluid\" existing in all matter, and that its effects can be explained by excesses and shortages of this fluid.\n\nHow electricity works \nThere are two types of electric charges that push and pull on each other: positive charges and negative charges. Electric charges push or pull on each other if they are not touching. This is possible because each charge makes an electric field around itself. An electric field is an area that surrounds a charge. At each point near a charge, the electric field points in a certain direction. If a positive charge is put at that point, it will be pushed in that direction. If a negative charge is put at that point, it will be pushed in the exact opposite direction.\n\nIt works like magnets, and in fact, electricity creates a magnetic field, in which similar charges repel each other and opposite charges attract. This means that if you put two negatives close together and let them go, they would move apart. The same is true for two positive charges. But if you put a positive charge and a negative charge close together, they would pull towards each other. A short way to remember this is the phrase opposites attract, likes repel.\n\nAll the matter in the universe is made of tiny particles with positive, negative or neutral charges. The positive charges are called protons, and the negative charges are called electrons. Protons are much heavier than electrons, but they both have the same amount of electric charge, except that protons are positive and electrons are negative. Because \"opposites attract,\" protons and electrons stick together. A few protons and electrons can form bigger particles called atoms and molecules. Atoms and molecules are still very tiny. They are too small to see. Any large object, like your finger, has more atoms and molecules in it than anyone can count. We can only estimate how many there are. \n\nBecause negative electrons and positive protons stick together to make big objects, all big objects that we can see and feel are electrically neutral. Electrically is a word meaning \"describing electricity\", and neutral is a word meaning \"balanced.\" That is why we do not feel objects pushing and pulling on us from a distance, as they would if everything was electrically charged. All big objects are electrically neutral because there is the same amount of positive and negative charge in the world. We could say that the world is exactly balanced, or neutral. Scientists still do not know why this is so.\n\nElectric current \n\nThe electrons can move all around the material. Protons never move around a solid object because they are so heavy, at least compared to the electrons. A material that lets electrons move around is called a conductor. A material that keeps each electron tightly in place is called an insulator. Examples of conductors are copper, aluminum, silver, and gold. Examples of insulators are rubber, plastic, and wood. Copper is used very often as a conductor because it is a very good conductor and there is so much of it in the world. Copper is found in electrical wires. But sometimes, other materials are used.\n\nInside a conductor, electrons bounce around, but they do not keep going in one direction for long. If an electric field is set up inside the conductor, the electrons will all start to move in the direction opposite to the direction the field is pointing (because electrons are negatively charged). A battery can make an electric field inside a conductor. If both ends of a piece of wire are connected to the two ends of a battery (called the electrodes), the loop that was made is called an electrical circuit. Electrons will flow around and around the circuit as long as the battery is making an electric field inside the wire. This flow of electrons around the circuit is called electric current.\n\nA conducting wire used to carry electric current is often wrapped in an insulator such as rubber. This is because wires that carry current are very dangerous. If a person or an animal touched a bare wire carrying current, they could get hurt or even die depending on how strong the current was and how much electrical energy the current is transmitting. You should be careful around electrical sockets and bare wires that might be carrying current.\n\nIt is possible to connect an electrical device to a circuit so that electrical current will flow through a device. This current will transmit electrical energy to make the device do something that we want it to do. Electrical devices can be very simple. For example, in a light bulb, current carries energy through a special wire called a filament, which makes it glow. Electrical devices can also be very complicated. Electrical energy can be used to drive an electric motor inside a tool like a drill or a pencil sharpener. Electrical energy is also used to power modern electronic devices, including telephones, computers, and televisions.\n\nSome terms related to electricity \nHere are a few terms that a person can come across when studying how electricity works. The study of electricity and how it makes electrical circuits possible is called electronics. There is a field of engineering called electrical engineering, where people come up with new things using electricity. All of these terms are important for them to know.\n Current is the amount of electric charge that flows. When 1 coulomb of electricity moves past somewhere in 1 second, the current is 1 ampere. To measure current at one point, we use an ammeter.\n Voltage, also called \"potential difference\", is the \"push\" behind the current. It is the amount of work per electric charge that an electric source can do. When 1 coulomb of electricity has 1 joule of energy, it will have 1 volt of electric potential. To measure voltage between two points, we use a voltmeter.\n Resistance is the ability of a substance to \"slow\" the flow of the current, that is, to reduce the rate at which the charge flows through the substance. If an electric voltage of 1 volt maintains a current of 1 ampere through a wire, the resistance of the wire is 1 ohm - this is called Ohm's law. When the flow of current is opposed, energy gets \"used up\" which means it is converted to other forms (such as light, heat, sound or movement)\n Electrical energy is the ability to do work by means of electric devices. Electric energy is a \"conserved\" property, meaning that it behaves like a substance and can be moved from place to place (for example, along a transmission medium or in a battery). Electric energy is measured in joules or kilowatt-hours (kWh).\n Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is being used, stored, or transferred. Flow of electrical energy along power lines are measured in watts. If the electric energy is being converted to another form of energy, it is measured in watts. If some of it is converted and some of it is stored, it is measured in volt-amperes, or if it is stored (as in electric or magnetic fields), it is measured in volt-ampere reactive.\n Switch:the switch is a device that aid in the flow of electriicity.When the switch  is turn on, electrical current flow and when its turn of the electrical current stop flowing. The switch can be small for domestic purposes and large switch for industrial purpose for the various substations\n\nGenerating electrical energy \n\nElectrical energy is mostly generated in places called power stations. Most power stations use heat to boil water into steam which turns a steam engine. The steam engine's turbine turns a machine called a 'generator'. Coiled wires inside the generator are made to spin in a magnetic field. This causes electricity to flow through the wires, carrying electrical energy. This process is called electromagnetic induction. Michael Faraday discovered how to do this.\n\nMany sources of heat can be used to boil water for generators. Heat sources may use renewable energy resources in which the supply of heat energy never runs out and non-renewable energy resources in which the supply will be eventually used up.\n\nSometimes a natural flow, such as wind power or water power, can be used directly to turn a generator so no heat is needed.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Electricity -Citizendium\n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":149,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":3,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":5,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":4,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":5,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":4,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":2}},"id":7163,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electricity","title":"Electricity","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bamberg (, , ; East Franconian: Bamb\u00e4rch, archaic: Babenberg) is a town in the region of Upper Franconia, Bavaria, and the seat of the district administration Bamberg. \n\nThe town has about 70,000 inhabitants. Bamberg is an university city and administrative city. Its Lord Mayor is Andreas Starke (SPD). Beside being a modern regional centre, the city also has a cultural and historical side.\n\nBamberg is a famous town because it has many buildings which are very old. The basic structure of the town remained untouched through the centuries. Unlike most other German towns (such as N\u00fcrnberg), it was little damaged in World War II. Only 4.6% was totally ruined. The town centre is protected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.\n\nBamberg is like Rome because it is built on seven hills, each one with a church at the top. The cathedral (Dom) is on the main hill. For hundreds of years the prince-bishops of the cathedral ruled over the land. This continued until the beginning of the 19th century after which they just continued in their religious function as archbishops. \n\nThe town centre below is built by the banks of the river Regnitz which splits into two parts. The left arm of the river is where the old town centre lies. The right arm is the Main-Danube Canal (Main-Donau-Kanal), which allows big ships to travel from the river Main to the Danube.\n\nBamberg town centre \n\nMany tourists visit the beautiful city of Bamberg. A good place to start is by the statue of Neptune in the pedestrian precinct. The Bambergers call this statue Gabelmann because Neptune is holding his three-pronged fork (\"Gabel\"). \n\nThe area here is called the Gr\u00fcner Markt (Green Market). This place became centre of the bourgeois settlement which developed around it. Very close by is a big square called Maximiliansplatz. It is very lively here on market days. People eat the traditional sausages which are cooked at the sausage stall, and drink Bamberg beer. There used to be a church at the north-west end, but it was destroyed in 1806 at the time when the archbishops lost their political power. The patronage of St. Martin was taken over by the former Jesuit church which was built by the architect Georg Dientzenhofer until 1693, situated at the Green Market.\n\nThe names of nearby streets tell a lot about the town history. There is the Fischstrasse (Fish Street) where fishermen used to live. This leads down to the left arm of the river Regnitz where one can see the place where the boats used to stop to load and unload their goods. There is an old slaughterhouse.  The Old Canal (Alter Kanal) runs along the east side of town, making a large island on which there are some very old buildings. The oldest buildings, dating from the 16th century, were built by tanners who became quite rich through their trade of making leather.\n\nBamberg's Old Town Hall was built in the middle of the river Regnitz. It is not on the island, but it is was built by the people who drove huge beams of wood into the riverbed. Their town hall therefore stood between the south-west bank where the bishops ruled and the north-east bank where the ordinary tradespeople lived. \n\nThe Old Town Hall is the most-often photographed building of Bamberg. There are two bridges here for pedestrians: the Upper and Lower Bridge. The ancient Lower Bridge passes through the archway of the town hall. On one side there are beautiful Baroque paintings. On the other side one can still see the medieval black-and-white walls. This side was also plastered over with paintings in the Baroque times, but when a bridge nearby was blown up in World War II the plaster fell off, so it is now kept with the original medieval walls showing.\nUp a steep climb on a cobbled street is the Cathedral Square (Domplatz).  All the buildings around the square are made from the local sandstone, although they date from different periods. Bamberg Cathedral (called Kaiserdom i.e. Emperor Cathedral) shows Romanesque and Gothic architecture. \n\nEveryone should have seen the world-famed Rider or Bamberg horseman inside and many other medieval sandstone figures as well. The Ratsstube is built in the Renaissance style. The Alte Hofhaltung is medieval. It is a 15th century courtyard with a long row of two-storey buildings with a wooden gallery. Across the street from there is the New Residence (Neue Residenz) which is a Baroque palace. A walk through here leads into the famous Rose Garden (Rosengarten). From here one can see Abbey Church of St Michael at the very top of the hill. Just below, going back towards the river, is the Sandstrasse famous for its pubs and night life.\n\nCulture \n\nBamberg is home to the world-famous Bamberger Symphoniker who perform in a new concert hall a short distance from the town centre. There are also many other music groups, including the Musica Canterey Bamberg who perform old music in some of the historical buildings. \n\nThe 19th century German writer E.T.A.Hoffmann lived in Bamberg. There is a new theatre in the town centre which is named after him.\n\nThere is also an important library, the Bamberg State Library.\n\nTraffic \n\nBamberg has a railway station from where one can travel to other large towns such as W\u00fcrzburg, Munich, Nuremberg, Leipzig, Berlin and Hamburg as well as to other towns in eastern Upper Franconia such as Forchheim, Lichtenfels, Coburg, and Kronach.\n\nBamberg is served by Bamberg-Breitenau Airfield. At \"Flugplatz Bamberg-Breitenau\" are operating mostly public aircraft, although it is classificated as a military airport (IATA-Code: ZCD, ICAO-Code: ETEJ). \nIt is also possible to charter public flights to and from this airport. \nMost international tourists who travel by plane arrive at Frankfurt International Airport or Munich Airport. The nearest bigger airport is Nuremberg Airport which can be reached within half an hour by car or one hour by train.\n\nBamberg has a problem with road traffic because, although there is a bypass, it cannot go all the way round the town because of the hills. Traffic is not allowed in many streets in the town centre. There is no parking allowed in the beautiful Domplatz except on Sundays.\n\nBecause Bamberg is on a river, transport by boat has always been important. The Rhine-Main-Danube Canal begins near Bamberg. It was completed in 1992 and makes it possible for boats to travel from the North Sea to the Black Sea.\n\nIn the town itself many people travel by bus. There is also a Park-and-Ride system.\n\nEducation \nThere is a University in Bamberg. About 9000 students study there. The university is spread over lots of buildings in the town centre. It is a good way to make use of many of the large, historical buildings.\n\nThere are good schools in Bamberg including 8 Gymnasien. Pupils often choose which one to go to according to the subjects they are good at, because each school is strong in a particular area: science, music, language etc.\n\nTwin towns \n , Bedford\n , Esztergom\n , Feldkirchen\n , Prague\n , Rodez\n , Villach\n\nThe areas of the town \n 1. Bergstadt (\"Hilltown\")\n 2. Gaustadt (Gaustadt)\n 3. Gartenstadt (\"Gardentown\")\n 4. Bug (Bug)\n 5. Wildensorg (Wildensorg)\n 6. Inselstadt (\"Islandtown\")\n 7. Bamberg-Ost (\"Bamberg-East\")\n 8. Bamberg-Nord (\"Bamberg-North\")\n 9. Gereuth (Gereuth)\n 10. Wunderburg (Wunderburg)\n 11. G\u00e4rtnerstadt (\"Gardenertown\")\n 12. Am Klinikum-Babenberger Viertel (\"At the hospital-Babenberger Quarter\")\n\nBreweries \nBamberg is famous for its beer. There are ten breweries in the town, of which the most famous is Schlenkerla which makes smoked beer (Rauchbier).\n\nThe ten breweries are:\n Schlenkerla (since 1678)\n Spezial (since 1635)\n Kaiserdom (since 1718)\n F\u00e4ssla (since 1649)\n Ambr\u00e4usianum (since 2004)\n Greifenklau (since ca. 1700)\n Klosterbr\u00e4u (since 1533)\n Keesmann (since 1867 managed by one family)\n Mahr (since 1602)\n Maisel (since 1894, closed 2008)\n\nSport teams in Bamberg \n Basketball clubs: Brose Baskets Bamberg\n Football (soccer) clubs: 1. FC Eintracht Bamberg, ASV Gaustadt, DJK Don Bosco Bamberg, Wacker Bamberg, DJK Gaustadt, ETSV Bamberg, ASV Viktoria Bamberg, Post SV Bamberg\n\nGallery\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n Official website (German, English)\n Bamberg info for visitors (English, German, French, Italian, Russian, Japanese, Chinese, Spanish)\n Schlenkerla Brewery website (German, English)\n Bamberg beer guide (English)\n US Army garrison Bamberg  (English)\n Description on the UNESCO World Heritage website {English}\n\nUpper Franconia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":37383,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bamberg","title":"Bamberg","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Pripyat (Ukrainian: \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0301\u043f'\u044f\u0442\u044c, Pryp\"iat') is an abandoned city in northern Ukraine. It lies in Kyiv Oblast, near the border with Belarus. It was home to Chernobyl nuclear power plant workers. The city was abandoned in 1986 after the Chernobyl accident, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history. Before being abandoned, about 48,000 people lived in the city. The city was founded in the 1970s, when the nuclear power plant opened.\nThe site today is practically a museum showing the late Soviet era. With entirely abandoned buildings, including abandoned apartment buildings (four of which were yet to be used), swimming pools and hospitals, everything inside remains, from records to papers to children's toys and clothing. Pripyat and the surrounding area will not be safe for people to live there for several centuries. Scientists think that the most dangerous radioactive elements will take up to nine hundred years to decay sufficiently to render the area safe.\n\nThe city is entirely accessible and is relatively safe on the road, although it is unsafe to go around the city without a radiation dosimeter that measures exposure. The doors of all the buildings are open to reduce the risk to visitors, although many have accumulated too much radioactive material to be safe to visit.\n\nRelated pages\n Chernobyl disaster\n\nOther websites \n\n Site about Pripyat created by its former residents. Contains photos from the deserted town of Pripyat and much other useful information \n Pripyat Ghost Town (1970-1986): a tale by Elena Filatova with photos\n Greenpeace pictures with no text \n Pripyat - Ghost Town II (www.opuszczone.com)\n\nGhost towns\nNuclear accidents\n1970s establishments in Europe\n1986 disestablishments in Europe\n20th-century establishments in Ukraine\nCities in Kyiv Oblast","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":54,"dup_details":{"2021-43":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5}},"id":23342,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pripyat","title":"Pripyat","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The United States Secret Service (which is often just called the Secret Service in the United States) is part of the United States government. Part of its job is to investigate when people make fake money. (Making fake money is called counterfeiting). However, the United States Secret Service is more well known for protecting important government leaders. Secret Service agents work as bodyguards and protect people like the President, Vice President, members of the United States Cabinet, people who are running for high office, and the family members of these people, and leaders from other countries who are visiting the United States. There are other people whom the Secret Service protects, too. A United States President would never be seen in public without Secret Service agents protecting him or her at all times.\n\nIt is often not easy to recognize Secret Service agents, because they often dress to blend in wherever they are. This means that they will often be dressed the same way as everybody else in a crowd.\n\nThey employ about a total of 5,000 people.\n\nHistory \nThe United States Secret Service was created in 1865 to stop counterfeiters. It did not start protecting the President until after President William McKinley was shot and killed in 1901. In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt became the first President of the United States to be protected by Secret Service agents. Since then, every president has received Secret Service Protection. In 1981 when Ronald Reagan was shot, Timothy McCarthy became one of four Secret Service agents to take a bullet of a President.\n\nThe Secret Service used to be part of the Treasury Department, but is now part of the Department of Homeland Security.\n\nOther websites \nSecretservice.gov: The official Secret Service website\n\nReferences\n\nFederal law enforcement agencies of the United States","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":129,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"unknown":19,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":228412,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United%20States%20Secret%20Service","title":"United States Secret Service","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In vertebrates, thoracic vertebrae compose the middle segment of the vertebral column, between the cervical vertebrae and the lumbar vertebrae. In humans, there are twelve thoracic vertebrae and they are intermediate in size between the cervical and lumbar vertebrae; they increase in size going towards the lumbar vertebrae, with the lower ones being much larger than the upper. They are distinguished by the presence of facets on the sides of the bodies for articulation with the heads of the ribs, as well as facets on the transverse processes of all, except the eleventh and twelfth, for articulation with the tubercles of the ribs. By convention, the human thoracic vertebrae are numbered T1\u2013T12, with the first one (T1) located closest to the skull and the others going down the spine toward the lumbar region.\n\nGeneral characteristics\n\nThese are the general characteristics of the second through eighth thoracic vertebrae. The first and ninth through twelfth vertebrae contain certain peculiarities, and are detailed below.\n\nThe bodies in the middle of the thoracic region are heart-shaped and as broad in the anteroposterior as in the transverse direction. At the ends of the thoracic region they resemble respectively those of the cervical and lumbar vertebrae. They are slightly thicker behind than in front, flat above and below, convex from side to side in front, deeply concave behind, and slightly constricted laterally and in front. They present, on either side, two costal demi-facets, one above, near the root of the pedicle, the other below, in front of the inferior vertebral notch; these are covered with cartilage in the fresh state, and, when the vertebrae are articulated with one another, form, with the intervening intervertebral fibrocartilages, oval surfaces for the reception of the heads of the ribs.\n\nThe pedicles are directed backward and slightly upward, and the inferior vertebral notches are of large size, and deeper than in any other region of the vertebral column.\n\nThe laminae are broad, thick, and imbricated\u00a0\u2013 that is to say, they overlap those of subjacent vertebrae like tiles on a roof and connect with the pedicles to surround and protect the spinal cord.\n\nThe intervertebral foramen is small, and circular, with two at each intervertebral level, one for the right and one for the left exiting nerve roots.\n\nThe vertebral foramen is the large opening posterior to the vertebral body also known as the spinal canal. It contains and protects the spinal cord at the thoracic level.\n\nThe spinous process is long, triangular on coronal section, directed obliquely downward, arising from the lamina and ending in a tuberculated extremity. These processes overlap from the fifth to the eighth, but are less oblique in direction above and below.\n\nThe superior articular processes are thin plates of bone projecting upward from the junctions of the pedicles and laminae; their articular facets are practically flat, and are directed backward and a little lateralward and upward.\n\nThe inferior articular processes are fused to a considerable extent with the laminae, and project but slightly beyond their lower borders; their facets are directed forward and a little medialward and downward.\n\nThe transverse processes arise from the arch behind the superior articular processes and pedicles; they are thick, strong, and of considerable length, directed obliquely backward and lateralward, and each ends in a clubbed extremity, on the front of which is a small, concave surface, for articulation with the tubercle of a rib.\n\nIndividual thoracic vertebrae\n\nFirst thoracic vertebra (T1)\nThe first thoracic vertebra has, on either side of the body, an entire articular facet for the head of the first rib, and a demi-facet for the upper half of the head of the second rib.\n\nThe body is like that of a cervical vertebra, being broad, concave, and lipped on either side.\n\nThe superior articular surfaces are directed upward and backward; the spinous process is thick, long, and almost horizontal.\n\nThe transverse processes are long, and the upper vertebral notches are deeper than those of the other thoracic vertebrae.\n\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 1 (T1) passes out underneath it.\n\nSecond thoracic vertebra (T2)\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 2 (T2) passes out underneath it.\nThe second thoracic vertebra is larger than the first thoracic vertebra\n\nThird thoracic vertebra (T3)\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 3 (T3) passes out underneath it.\n\nFourth thoracic vertebra (T4)\nThe fourth thoracic vertebra, together with the fifth, is at the same level as the sternal angle.\n\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 4 (T4) passes out underneath it.\n\nFifth thoracic vertebra (T5)\nThe fifth thoracic vertebra, together with the fourth, is at the same level as the sternal angle. The human trachea divides into two main bronchi at the level of the 5th thoracic vertebra, but may also end higher or lower, depending on breathing.\n\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 5 (T5) passes out underneath it.\n\nSixth thoracic vertebra (T6)\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 6 (T6) passes out underneath it.\n\nSeventh thoracic vertebra (T7)\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 7 (T7) passes out underneath it.\n\nEighth thoracic vertebra (T8)\nThe eighth thoracic vertebra is, together with the ninth thoracic vertebra, at the same level as the xiphisternum.\n\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 8 (T8) passes out underneath it.\n\nNinth thoracic vertebra (T9)\n\nThe ninth thoracic vertebra may have no demi-facets below. In some subjects however, it has two demi-facets on either side; when this occurs the tenth doesn't have facets but demi-facets at the upper part.\n\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 9 (T9) passes out underneath it.\n\nThe xiphisternum (or xiphoid process of the sternum) is at the same level in the axial plane.\n\nTenth thoracic vertebra (T10)\n\nThe tenth thoracic vertebra has  an entire articular facet (not demi-facet) on either side, which is placed partly on the lateral surface of the pedicle. It doesn't have any kind of facet below, because the following ribs only have one facet on their heads.\n\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 10 (T10) passes out underneath it.\n\nEleventh thoracic vertebra (T11)\n\nIn the eleventh thoracic vertebra the body approaches in its form and size to that of the lumbar vertebrae.\n\nThe articular facets for the heads of the ribs are of medium size, and placed chiefly on the pedicles, which are thicker and stronger in this and the next vertebra than in any other part of the thoracic region.\n\nThe spinous process is short, and nearly horizontal in direction.\n\nThe transverse processes are very short, tuberculated at their extremities, and do not have articular facets.\n\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 11 (T11) passes out underneath it.\n\nTwelfth thoracic vertebra (T12)\n\nThe twelfth thoracic vertebra has the same general characteristics as the eleventh, but may be distinguished from it by its inferior articular surfaces being convex and directed lateralward, like those of the lumbar vertebrae; by the general form of the body, laminae, and spinous process, in which it resembles the lumbar vertebrae; and by each transverse process being subdivided into three elevations, the superior, inferior, and lateral tubercles: the superior and inferior correspond to the mammillary and accessory processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Traces of similar elevations are found on the transverse processes of the tenth and eleventh thoracic vertebrae.\n\nThe thoracic spinal nerve 12 (T12) passes out underneath it.\n\nOther animals\n\nIn other animals the number of thoracic vertebrae can vary greatly; for example, most marsupials have 13, but koalas have only 11. 12 to 15 is common among mammals, with 18 to 20 in horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses, and elephants, and extremes in mammals are marked by certain sloths with 25 and cetaceans with 9.\n\nAdditional images\n\nSee also\n Costovertebral articulations\n Vertebral column\n Cervical vertebrae\n Lumbar vertebrae\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Interactive tool to identify parts\n \n Photos at University of Utah\n SpineUniverse anatomical diagram\n\nBones of the thorax\nBones of the vertebral column","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":176,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":5,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":8,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":8,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":5,"2014-10":5,"2013-48":5,"2013-20":5}},"id":1239635,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thoracic%20vertebrae","title":"Thoracic vertebrae","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Stand-up comedy is a style of comedy where the comedian speaks directly to the audience. A person who performs stand-up comedy is known as a stand-up comic, stand-up comedian, or simply stand-up. It is usually done by a single comedian, and with the help of a microphone. The comedian normally speaks quickly many funny stories and short jokes (called bits). This is called a monologue, routine or act. Some stand-up comedians use music, props, or magic tricks in their acts. Stand-up comedy is usually done in comedy clubs, bars, colleges, and theaters. However, there is no restriction on where it can be done. Many smaller clubs, bars, and restaurants do \"open microphone\" events where amateur comedians can perform comedy in front of a live audience, offering a way for the performers to become better and possibly become professional comedians.\n\nRelated pages\n List of stand-up comedians\n Rakugo \u2013 Japanese verbal entertainment\n Manzai \u2013 style of stand-up comedy in Japan\n Open mike \u2013 live show where audience members may perform at the microphone\n\nComedy\nTheatrical forms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":66966,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stand-up%20comedy","title":"Stand-up comedy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Erik Alfred Leslie Satie (born Honfleur (France), 17 May 1866; died Paris, 1 July 1925) was a French composer. He is mainly remembered today for his music and the strange ways he behaved. He often gave his music unusual titles such as Piece in the form of a pear. His best known musical compositions are the three piano pieces which he called Gymnop\u00e9dies. The first of these pieces is a very famous piece of music: it is a simple tune over a gentle accompaniment. Satie sometimes used unusual instruments such as sirens and typewriters.\n\nSatie was more than just an unusual man. He was very important in the development of music in France in the late 19th and early 20th century. He was important because of the ideas he had, and many people were influenced by him. Satie used ways of composing such as very chromatic music and Minimalism before many other people. These ways of writing music became more common later in the century. Satie was not a brilliant composer, but he was happy to compose well in a simple way. He was also interested in other arts such as literature and painting and he was associated with the new ideas called esprit nouveau (new spirit) which was fashionable in France around the time of World War I.\n\nHis Life\n\nEarly years \nHe was born Alfred Eric Leslie Satie, but as a grown-up he always spelled his name \"Erik\". His father had been in the shipping business, but the family then moved to Paris. He was still quite young when his mother died and he was sent back to his birthplace, Honfleur, to be brought up by his father's parents. However, his grandmother drowned, so he was sent back to Paris again where his father taught him. His father had married again. His new wife was a pianist and sent young Eric to have piano lessons at the Paris Conservatoire.\n\nSatie hated his piano lessons. His teacher said that he was the laziest pupil in the Conservatoire. He was bad at sight-reading, but he continued with his lessons because this would make it possible for him to do just one year of military service instead of five. In fact, he did less than a year in the army because he deliberately got himself ill with bronchitis. While he was getting better he started to compose. His father published a few songs he had written. However, he did not get on well with his family and he left home in 1887.\n\nThe young Satie \n\nSatie soon got to know many people in the famous cabaret Chat Noir. He grew his hair long and wore a frock coat and a top hat. He wrote a ballet which most people found shocking. He became friends with Debussy who was one of the only people who understood the serious reasons for Satie's unusual behaviour.\n\nIn 1890 he moved to new rooms on a top floor of a house so that people to whom he owed money could not get at him. He tried to compose in a simple style and became interested in mystical religion and Gothic art. He inherited a small amount of money with which he bought himself seven velvet suits which were all exactly the same: one for each day of the week. He started a church called \u00c9glise M\u00e9tropolitaine d'Art de J\u00e9sus Conducteur (Metropolitan Church of Art of Conductor Jesus), but nobody belonged to the church except himself.\n\nAt the end of 1898 he moved to Arceuil, a suburb of Paris. He spent the rest of his life there. He stopped performing in public and earned money by playing the piano in caf\u00e9s and pubs. Every morning he walked the 10 kilometres into Paris, stopping on the way at caf\u00e9s to drink or compose. He wore a bowler hat, wing collar and always carried a rolled-up umbrella. If it was raining he kept his umbrella underneath his coat to keep it dry. He also carried a hammer in case anyone attacked him. Late at night he walked home again or took the last train back. His flat was a terrible mess.\n\nRise to fame \n\nIn 1905, at the age of 39, he became a student again and studied music at the Schola Cantorum. He wanted to become a better composer. He learned how to write fugues. He still liked to use parody in his music.\n\nIn 1911 Maurice Ravel played some of Satie's piano pieces in public. Suddenly people began to take notice of Satie. They realized that he had been one of the first Impressionist composers. Debussy conducted his Gymnop\u00e9dies in his arrangement for orchestra. Music critics started to write articles about Satie. He was at last becoming famous. He had some humorous piano pieces published. He was earning some money from his compositions, so he was able to give up playing in cabarets. He met Jean Cocteau who introduced him to Diaghilev for whom he wrote the music for Parade. Some people loved it, some hated it, but people were taking notice of him. He was asked to write more theatre music. He was a very important influence on the six composers who were known as Les Six. He was asked to write a symphonic drama which he called Socrate. Many musicians think it is his best piece.\n\nFinal years \n\nIn the 1920s he wrote many articles for newspapers and journals and became associated with the art movement known as Dada. His ballets Rel\u00e2che and Mercure both shocked the audiences when they were first performed. Rel\u00e2che is an early example of what later became the theatre of alienation.\n\nSatie drank a lot of alcohol and became ill. He got cirrhosis of the liver and died in 1925. When his friends entered his flat after he died, there was so much mess that they had to throw away two cartloads of rubbish before they could get at his papers and manuscripts.\n\nHis music \nSatie was involved with dance, theatre and cabaret for most of his life and that is what much of his music is written for. He was always trying out new ideas in his music. He was capable of writing in a late Romantic style with chromatic harmonies, but he also wrote in more modern styles, often using very simple ideas. He was always more interested in beautiful melodies than in writing complicated rhythms. His three Gymnop\u00e9dies are still extremely popular. They seem to come from an old-fashioned world where there is great simplicity. His three Gnossiennes (1890) sound more Oriental, and Satie wrote some very strange remarks in the music. His piano piece Vexations (1893) is a short piece with strange, chromatic chords, which the pianist is then supposed to play 840 times. Uspud was an early example of what later became the \"Theatre of the Absurd\". The text was all written in lower-case letters: the first time this had ever been done. He wrote many cabaret songs.\n\nLater, after he had studied at the Schola Cantorum, he became famous, and then wrote lots of piano pieces with funny titles and strange comments (e.g. \"like a nightingale with toothache\"). Parade has strange instruments such as typewriters. Socrate was his most serious work.\n\nAfter his death all the people he had insulted wrote about Satie that he was a bad composer. As a result he was almost forgotten until the 1960s when John Cage became interested in his music and made it popular again. Many Surrealist artists were often inspired by Satie's music and ideas.\n\n1866 births\n1925 deaths\n20th-century French composers\nDeaths from cirrhosis","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":79316,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erik%20Satie","title":"Erik Satie","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A liquid crystal display is a special thin flat panel that can let light go through it, or can block the light. (Unlike an LED it does not produce its own light). The panel is made up of several blocks, and each block can be in any shape.  Each block is filled with liquid crystals that can be made clear or solid, by changing the electric current to that block.  Liquid crystal displays are often abbreviated LCDs. \n\nLiquid crystal displays are often used in battery-powered devices, such as digital watches, because they use very little electricity.  They are also used for flat screen TV's.  Many LCDs work well by themselves when there is other light around (like in a lit room, or outside in daylight).  For smartphones, computer monitor, TV's and some other purposes, a back-light is built into the product. This is  an LED or Cold Cathode Fluorescent Light (CCFL).\n\nConstruction \n\nThe LCD uses technology called electro-optical modulation. This means it uses electricity to change how much light passes through it.\n\nEach pixel (block) of an LCD is made of a thin layer of molecules between two electrodes and two polarizing filters. The electrodes provide electric power to the liquid crystal layer, and don't block the light.  Light travels with 'polarity' or direction, and a polarizing filter only lets light with one kind of polarity to go through it, like trying to slide a ruler through a narrow opening.  Only when the ruler is lined up right, will it fit.  These two filters are perpendicular to one another, so the narrow openings are in different directions. This means that without the liquid crystals between them, they would block all light from passing through \u2013 whatever light gets through the first filter will not fit through the second filter.\nThe layer of liquid crystals between the two filters can 'twist' the light so that the polarity changes.  This means the light can then pass through both filters, and the pixel appears clear.  When giving an electric current to the liquid crystals, the molecules will untwist and will not change the light. The filters then block the light and the pixel appears dark. \n\nThe chemical formula of the liquid crystals used in LCDs may vary. Formulas may be patented. An example is a mixture of 2-(4-alkoxyphenyl)-5-alkylpyrimidine  with cyanobiphenyl, patented by Merck and Sharp Corporation. The patent that covered that specific mixture expired.\n\nWhen a large number of pixels are needed in a display, it becomes difficult to have enough wires and electrodes to control each pixel and still have a clean display. Instead, the display is multiplexed. In a multiplexed display, electrodes on one side of the display are grouped and wired together (usually in columns). On the other side, the electrodes are also grouped (typically in rows), with each group getting a voltage sink. By turning on one row and one column, each pixel can be controlled one at a time.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Buying an LCD monitor... Things to know  \u2013 Some additional useful tips about LCD monitors\n How do LCDs Work? \u2013 Engineers & physics students answer how LCDs work\n Liquid crystals are distributed by Merck Group (DE), and Yangcheng Smiling (CN).\n\nDisplay technology\nTelevision technology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":47342,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liquid%20crystal%20display","title":"Liquid crystal display","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Commodity markets are markets where raw or primary products are exchanged. These raw commodities are traded on regulated commodities exchanges, in which they are bought and sold in standardized contracts.\n\nThis article focuses on the history and current debates regarding global commodity markets.  It covers physical product (food, metals, electricity) markets but not the ways that services, including those of governments, nor investment, nor debt, can be seen as a commodity.  Articles on reinsurance markets, stock markets, bond markets and currency markets cover those concerns separately and in more depth.  One focus of this article is the relationship between simple commodity money and the more complex instruments offered in the commodity markets.\n\nSee List of traded commodities for some commodities and their trading units and places.\n\nHistory\nThe modern commodity markets have their roots  in the trading of agricultural products.  While wheat and corn, cattle and pigs, were widely traded using standard instruments in the 19th century in the United States, other basic foodstuffs such as soybeans were only added quite recently in most markets.  For a commodity market to be established, there must be very broad consensus on the variations in the product that make it acceptable for one purpose or another.\n\nThe economic impact of the development of commodity markets is hard to over-estimate.  Through the 19th century \"the exchanges became effective spokesmen for, and innovators of, improvements in transportation, warehousing, and financing, which paved the way to expanded interstate and international trade.\"\n\nEarly history of commodity markets \nHistorically, dating from ancient Sumerian use of sheep or goats, or other peoples using pigs, rare seashells, or other items as commodity money, people have sought ways to standardize and trade contracts in the delivery of such items, to render trade itself more smooth and predictable.\n\nCommodity money and commodity markets in a crude early form are believed to have originated in Sumer where small baked clay tokens in the shape of sheep or goats were used in trade.  Sealed in clay vessels with a certain number of such tokens, with that number written on the outside, they represented a promise to deliver that number.  This made them a form of commodity money - more than an \"I.O.U.\" but less than a guarantee by a nation-state or bank.  However, they were also known to contain promises of time and date of delivery - this made them like a modern futures contract.  Regardless of the details, it was only possible to verify the number of tokens inside by shaking the vessel or by breaking it, at which point the number or terms written on the outside became subject to doubt.  Eventually the tokens disappeared, but the contracts remained on flat tablets.  This represented the first system of commodity accounting.\n\nHowever, the Commodity status of living things is always subject to doubt -  it was hard to validate the health or existence of sheep or goats.  Excuses for non-delivery were not unknown, and there are recovered Sumerian letters that complain of sickly goats, sheep that had already been fleeced, etc.\n\nIf a seller's reputation was good, individual \"backers\" or \"bankers\" could decide to take the risk of \"clearing\" a trade.  The observation that trust is always required between market participants later led to credit money.  But until relatively modern times, communication and credit were primitive.\n\nClassical civilizations built complex global markets trading gold or silver for spices, cloth, wood and weapons, most of which had standards of quality and timeliness.  Considering the many hazards of climate, piracy, theft and abuse of military fiat by rulers of kingdoms along the trade routes, it was a major focus of these civilizations to keep markets open and trading in these scarce commodities.  Reputation and clearing became central concerns, and the states which could handle them most effectively became very powerful empires, trusted by many peoples to manage and mediate trade and commerce.\n\nForward contracts \n\nCommodity and Futures contracts are based on what's termed \"Forward\" Contracts. Early on these \"forward\" contracts (agreements to buy now, pay and deliver later) were used as a way of getting products from producer to the consumer. These typically were only for food and agricultural Products. Forward contracts have evolved and have been standardized into what we know today as futures contracts. Although more complex today, early \"Forward\" contracts for example, were used for rice in seventeenth century Japan. Modern \"forward\", or futures agreements, began in Chicago in the 1840s, with the appearance of the railroads. Chicago, being centrally located, emerged as the hub between Midwestern farmers and producers and the east coast consumer population centers.\n\nHedging \n\"Hedging\", a common (and sometimes mandatory) practice of farming cooperatives, insures against a poor harvest by purchasing futures contracts in the same commodity.  If the cooperative has significantly less of its product to sell due to weather or insects, it makes up for that loss with a profit on the markets, since the overall supply of the crop is short everywhere that suffered the same conditions.\n\nWhole developing nations may be especially vulnerable, and even their currency tends to be tied to the price of those particular commodity items until it manages to be a fully developed nation.  For example, one could see the nominally fiat money of Cuba as being tied to sugar prices, since a lack of hard currency paying for sugar means less foreign goods per peso in Cuba itself.  In effect, Cuba needs a hedge against a drop in sugar prices, if it wishes to maintain a stable quality of life for its citizens.\n\nDelivery and condition guarantees \nIn addition, delivery day, method of settlement and delivery point must all be specified.  Typically, trading must end two (or more) business days prior to the delivery day, so that the routing of the shipment (which for soybeans is 30,000 kilograms or 1,102 bushels) can be finalized via ship or rail, and payment can be settled when the contract arrives at any delivery point.\n\nStandardization \nU.S. soybean futures, for example, are of standard grade if they are \"GMO or a mixture of GMO and Non-GMO No. 2 yellow soybeans of Indiana, Ohio and Michigan origin produced in the U.S.A. (Non-screened, stored in silo),\" and of deliverable grade if they are \"GMO or a mixture of GMO and Non-GMO No. 2 yellow soybeans of Iowa, Illinois and Wisconsin origin produced in the U.S.A. (Non-screened, stored in silo).\"  Note the distinction between states, and the need to clearly mention their status as \"GMO\" (\"Genetically Modified Organism\") which makes them unacceptable to most \"organic\" food buyers.\n\nSimilar specifications apply for orange juice, cocoa, sugar, wheat, corn, barley, pork bellies, milk, feedstuffs, fruits, vegetables, other grains, other beans, hay, other livestock, meats, poultry, eggs, or any other commodity which is so traded.\n\nThe concept of an interchangeable deliverable or guaranteed delivery is always to some degree a fiction.  Trade in commodities is like trade in any other physical product or service.  No magic of the commodity contract itself makes \"units\" of the product totally uniform nor gets it to the delivery point safely and on time.\n\nRegulation of commodity markets \nCotton, kilowatt-hours of electricity, board feet of wood, long distance minutes, royalty payments due on artists' works, and other products and services have been traded on markets of varying scale, with varying degrees of success.  One issue that presents major difficulty for creators of such instruments is the liability accruing to the purchaser:\n\nUnless the product or service can be guaranteed or insured to be free of liability based on where it came from and how it got to market, e.g. kilowatts must come to market free from legitimate claims for smog death from coal burning plants, wood must be free from claims that it comes from protected forests, royalty payments must be free of claims of plagiarism or piracy, it becomes impossible for sellers to guarantee a uniform delivery.\n\nGenerally, governments must provide a common regulatory or insurance standard and some release of liability, or at least a backing of the insurers, before a commodity market can begin trading.  This is a major source of controversy in for instance the energy market, where desirability of different kinds of power generation varies drastically.  In some markets, e.g. Toronto, Canada, surveys established that customers would pay 10-15% more for energy that was not from coal or nuclear, but strictly from renewable sources such as wind.\n\nProliferation of contracts, terms, and derivatives \nHowever, if there are two or more standards of risk or quality, as there seem to be for electricity or soybeans, it is relatively easy to establish two different contracts to trade in the more and less desirable deliverable separately.  If the consumer acceptance and liability problems can be solved, the product can be made interchangeable, and trading in such units can begin.\n\nSince the detailed concerns of industrial and consumer markets vary widely, so do the contracts, and \"grades\" tend to vary significantly from country to country.  A proliferation of contract units, terms, and futures contracts have evolved, \ncombined into an extremely sophisticated range of financial instruments.\n\nThese are more than one-to-one representations of units of a given type of commodity, and represent more than simple futures contracts for future deliveries.  These serve a variety of purposes from simple gambling to price insurance.\n\nThe underlying of futures contracts are no longer restricted to commodities.\n\nOil and fiat \nBuilding on the infrastructure and credit and settlement networks established for food and precious metals, many such markets have proliferated drastically in the late 20th century.  Oil was the first form of energy so widely traded, and the fluctuations in the oil markets are of particular political interest.\n\nSome commodity market speculation is directly related to the stability of certain states, e.g. during the Gulf War, speculation on the survival of the regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq.  Similar political stability concerns have from time to time driven the price of oil.  Some argue that this is not so much a commodity market but more of an assassination market speculating on the survival (or not) of Saddam or other leaders whose personal decisions may cause oil supply to fluctuate by military action.\n\nThe oil market is, however, an exception.  Most markets are not so tied to the politics of volatile regions - even natural gas tends to be more stable, as it is not traded across oceans by tanker as extensively.\n\nCommodity markets and protectionism \nDeveloping countries (democratic or not) have been moved to harden their currencies, accept IMF rules, join the WTO, and submit to a broad regime of reforms that amount to a \"hedge\" against being isolated.  China's entry into the WTO signalled the end of truly isolated nations entirely managing their own currency and affairs.  The need for stable currency and predictable clearing and rules-based handling of trade disputes, has led to a global trade hegemony - many nations \"hedging\" on a global scale against each other's anticipated \"protectionism\", were they to fail to join the WTO.\n\nThere are signs, however, that this regime is far from perfect.  U.S. trade sanctions against Canadian softwood lumber (within NAFTA) and foreign steel (except for NAFTA partners Canada and Mexico) in 2002 signalled a shift in policy towards a tougher regime perhaps more driven by political concerns - jobs, industrial policy, even sustainable forestry and logging practices.\n\nNon-conventional commodities\n\nNature's commodity outputs \n\nCommodity thinking is undergoing a more direct revival thanks to the theorists of \"natural capital\" whose products, some economists argue, are the only genuine commodities - air, water, and calories we consume being mostly interchangeable when they are free of pollution or disease.  Whether we wish to think of these things as tradeable commodities rather than birthrights has been a major source of controversy in many nations.\n\nMost types of environmental economics consider the shift to measuring them inevitable, arguing that reframing political economy to consider the flow of these basic commodities first and foremost, helps avoids use of any military fiat except to protect \"natural capital\" itself, and basing credit-worthiness more strictly on commitment to preserving biodiversity aligns the long-term interests of ecoregions, societies, and individuals.  They seek relatively conservative sustainable development schemes that would be amenable to measuring well-being over long periods of time, typically \"seven generations\", in line with Native American thought.\n\nWeather trading \nHowever, this is not the only way in which commodity thinking interacts with ecologists' thinking.  Hedging began as a way to escape the consequences of damage done by natural conditions.  It has matured not only into a system of interlocking guarantees, but also into a system of indirectly trading on the actual damage done by weather, using \"weather derivatives\".  For a price, this relieves the purchaser of the following types of concerns:\n\n\"Will a freeze hurt the Brazilian coffee crop? Will there be a drought in the U.S. Corn Belt? What are the chances that we will have a cold winter, driving natural gas prices higher and creating havoc in Florida orange areas? What is the status of El Ni\u00f1o?\"\n\nEmissions trading \nWeather trading is just one example of \"negative commodities\", units of which represent harm rather than good.\n\n\"Economy is three fifths of ecology\" argues Mike Nickerson, one of many economic theorists who holds that nature's productive services and waste disposal services are poorly accounted for.  One way to fairly allocate the waste disposal capacity of nature is \"cap and trade\" market structure that is used to trade toxic emissions rights in the United States, e.g. SO2.  This is in effect a \"negative commodity\", a right to throw something away.\n\nIn this market, the atmosphere's capacity to absorb certain amounts of pollutants is measured, divided into units, and traded amongst various market players.  Those who emit more SO2 must pay those who emit less.  Critics of such schemes argue that unauthorized or unregulated emissions still happen, and that \"grandfathering\" schemes often permit major polluters, such as the state governments' own agencies, or poorer countries, to expand emissions and take jobs, while the SO2 output still floats over the border and causes death.\n\nIn practice, political pressure has overcome most such concerns and it is questionable whether this is a capacity that depends on U.S. clout: The Kyoto Protocol established a similar market in global greenhouse gas emissions without U.S. support.\n\nCommunity as commodity? \nThis highlights one of the major issues with global commodity markets of either the positive or negative kind.  A community must somehow believe that the commodity instrument is real, enforceable, and well worth paying for.\n\nA very substantial part of the anti-globalization movement opposes the commodification of currency, national sovereignty, and traditional cultures.  \nThe capacity to repay debt, as in the current global credit money regime anchored by the Bank for International Settlements, does not in their view correspond to measurable benefits to human well-being worldwide.  They seek a fairer way for societies to compete in the global markets that will not require conversion of natural capital to natural resources, nor human capital to move to developed nations in order to find work.\n\nSome economic systems by green economists would replace the \"gold standard\" with a \"biodiversity standard\".  It remains to be seen if such plans have any merit other than as political ways to draw attention to the way capitalism itself interacts with life.\n\nIs human life a commodity? \nWhile classical, neoclassical, and Marxist approaches to economics tend to treat labor differently, they are united in treating nature as a resource.\n\nThe green economists and the more conservative environmental economics argue that not only natural ecologies, but also the life of the individual human being is treated as a commodity by the global markets.  A good example is the IPCC calculations cited by the Global Commons Institute as placing a value on a human life in the developed world \"15x higher\" than in the developing world, based solely on the ability to pay to prevent climate change.\n\nIs free time a commodity? \nAccepting this result, some argue that to put a price on both is the most reasonable way to proceed to optimize and increase that value relative to other goods or services.  This has led to efforts in measuring well-being, to assign a commercial \"value of life\", and to the theory of Natural Capitalism - fusions of green and neoclassical approaches - which focus predictably on energy and material efficiency, i.e. using far less of any given commodity input to achieve the same service outputs as a result.\n\nIndian economist Amartya Sen, applying this thinking to human freedom itself, argued in his 1999 book \"Development as Freedom\" that human free time was the only real service, and that sustainable development was best defined as freeing human time.  Sen won The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel in 1999 (sometimes incorrectly called the \"Nobel Prize in Economics\") and based his book on invited lectures he gave at the World Bank.\n\nRelated pages\nCurrency market\nStock market\n\nOther websites\n National Futures Association\nFutures Quotes & Charts \n\nCommerce","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":57,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":50951,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commodity%20market","title":"Commodity market","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Secure Digital card (SD card) is a kind of memory card. Such cards are often used to store images or data in digital cameras. As of 2008, different capacities between 4 megabytes and 32 gigabytes have been made. The card has a rectangular design, but one edge is chipped off. This means that the cards cannot be inserted into the cameras (or other devices) the wrong way.\n\nThere are different kinds of cards:\n\nThose labeled SD, with capacities up to 2 GB\nThose labeled SDHC, with capacities between 4GB and 32GB\nThose labeled SDXC, with capacities of up to 2 TB (the largest made is currently 1TB for SDXC or microSDXC). \n\nSD and SDHC are not compatible, but devices that accept SDHC also accept SD cards. The interface of SDHC and SDXC cards is the same, but SDXC uses a different file system. Some devices (for example the Wii) that originally shipped only with support for SD can be made to support SDHC with a firmware update.\n\nThere are also different classes. These refer to the read and write speeds. Currently in use are Class 2 - which means 2 MBytes\/second, Class 4 - 4 MB\/sec and Class 6 at 6 MB\/sec. The problem with this is that different manufacturers measure different things with it, some measure write speeds, others read speeds. There are also differences because some give guarantees, and others simply say that the speeds they indicate are the maximum achievable under good conditions.\n\nStill another measurement is called rating. A rating of 1 corresponds to 150 KBytes per second, the read speed of a CD. That way, a class 2 is equal to a speed of 13x.\n\nmicroSD cards do the same thing but are much smaller. \n\nComputing","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":161,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":6}},"id":184308,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure%20Digital%20card","title":"Secure Digital card","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Celts were a large group of Caucasian tribes in Europe. They first appeared in the early Iron Age, around 1200 B.C. in Austria.  The name 'Celt' comes from the Greeks.  The Romans called them \"Gauls\".  They came from the Hallstatt and La T\u00e8ne cultures. Their culture and genes spread through much of Europe, and by the time the Greeks and later the Romans started emerging, the British Isles and parts of western, southern and eastern Europe were Celtic - the most prominent Celtic tribes were in Gaul. The Celts spoke Celtic languages. Today, the Celtic languages that remain are the Breton, Cornish, Welsh and Gaelic languages.\n\nCeltic society and technology, although not as advanced as the Romans, was far from being primitive for its time. The Celts lived a way of life based on ethical codes and honor codes and had developed a culture of their own, full of unique drawings, sculptures, jewellery, folklore, and building designs and techniques. They were also skilled in blacksmithing, farming and diplomacy.\n\nCeltic warriors would wear war paint and try to scare their enemies by shouting war cries.  Tribes had different dress standards for battle; some warriors wore chainmail and\/or leather armor, some wore only clothes and some were known to fight fully naked.  They also had their own type of sword that was very strong and a shield that was very protective. \n\nWhen the Roman Republic started expanding, the Gauls and the Romans became very hostile towards each other and clashed on many occasions; however, the Romans were eventually able to defeat them and ended up conquering most of the Celtic tribes in Europe and ruled them until the fall of the Western Roman Empire.  Celtic tribes also fought among each other.  After winning a battle, the Celts would cut off the heads of their enemies and take them home.\n\nDuring the fall of the Roman Empire most of the old Celtic land ended up being ruled by migrating Germanic tribes and they merged with Romano-Celtic stock (people with both Roman and Celtic ancestry) to eventually form several European nations of today e.g. Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg as well as Southern and Western Germany. Territories that are still considered Celtic are Ireland, Wales, Scotland, Isle of Man, Cornwall and Brittany.\n\nReferences \n\nCeltic peoples","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":210,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-22":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":49725,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Celts","title":"Celts","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The  3rd Summit of the Americas  was a summit held in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada, on April 20\u201322, 2001.\n\nThis international meeting was a round of negotiations regarding a proposed Free Trade Area of the Americas. The talks are perhaps better known for the security preparations and demonstrations (known as the Quebec City protest) that surrounded them than for the progress of the negotiations.\n\nOverview\nThe \"Summits of the Americas\" is the name for a continuing series of summits bringing together the leaders of North America and South America.  The function of these summits is to foster discussion of a variety of issues affecting the western hemisphere. These high-level summit meetings have been organized by a number of multilateral bodies under the aegis of the Organization of American States.  In the early 1990s, what were formerly ad hoc summits came to be institutionalized into a regular \"Summits of the Americas\" conference program.\n\n December 9\u201311, 1994  \u2013 1st Summit of the Americas at Miami in the United States.\n December 7\u20138, 1996  \u2013 Summit of the Americas on Sustainable Development at Santa Cruz de la Sierra in Bolivia.\n April 18\u201319, 1998  \u2013 2nd Summit of the Americas at Santiago in Chile.\n\nProgress of the negotiations \nThe talks were the third in the negotiation process for the FTAA. 34 heads of state and government met in Quebec City, representing all the countries of North and South America, except Cuba. Partially due to resistance from the leaders of some poorer countries, no deal was reached in Quebec City.\n\nThe participants did make a statement titled \"The Declaration of Quebec City\" which includes the quotation: \"We, the democratically elected Heads of State and Government of the Americas, have met in Quebec City at our Third Summit, to renew our commitment to hemispheric integration\"\n\nSecurity and public response\n\nPreparations\n\nFrom the beginning, the authorities indicated their intent to use very intensive security measures to restrict the ability of anti- and alter-globalization movement protesters to approach the area where the summit was to take place, in light of the well-known previous incidents in Seattle (November 30, 1999), Prague (September 26, 2000), and Montreal (November 20, 2000).\n\nThe most controversial of these preparations was the construction of a 3-metre high concrete and wire fence around a large section of La Colline Parlementaire that encircled the meeting site, the National Assembly and many government and residential buildings. Only residents, summit delegates and certain accredited journalists were allowed inside. Businesses and churches within the area were not permitted to open.\n\nThe Royal Canadian Mounted Police, in collaboration with the Canadian Forces, the Canadian Security Intelligence Service, S\u00fbret\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec and local municipal police forces provided security.\n\nProtests\n\nThe Quebec City protests (called A20) were one of the largest anti-globalization demonstrations to that point, attracting some 20,000 protesters from throughout the Americas. Groups represented at the protest included trade unions, civil society groups such as Greenpeace and the Council of Canadians, New Democratic Party and Parti Qu\u00e9b\u00e9cois caucuses, and a great many groups from faith communities, universities and colleges.\n\nIn addition to the political concerns of the anti-globalization movement, many focused their attention on the division of the city with the security barrier, and what they saw as the draconic nature of police responses.\n\nProtesters began to arrive on Friday, April 20, many being hosted at Universit\u00e9 Laval, college campuses, and churches. A number of clashes with police took place on Friday afternoon, with the first perimeter breach on Boulevard Ren\u00e9-L\u00e9vesque Est, less than 5\u00a0minutes after the protesters arrived at the site, and in the evening. Many peaceful gatherings, including a vegan supper and concert underneath the Dufferin-Montmorency Autoroute, also took place.\n\nThe primary day of protests was Friday, April 20. It began with the Second Peoples' Summit of the Americas, an educational and political gathering near the Gare du Palais, in the lower city east of the summit site. From there, the protesters marched northwest along Boulevard Charest towards Rue de la Couronne. The number of people marching has been estimated at anywhere from 50,000 to 150,000.\n\nProtests were divided into three classes: \"green zone,\" being legal protests with no risk of arrest; \"yellow zone,\" peaceful, unsanctioned protest with some risk of arrest or confrontation with police, and \"red zone,\" being direct acts of civil disobedience carrying a high risk of arrest. This innovative division was developed after the G-20 protest in Montreal in October 2000, which though meant to be peaceful suffered from sporadic violence.  A number of riot police on horseback were used to disperse the violent protestors. The zone system was meant to protect those who do not wish to run the risk of arrest or of police violence.\n\nAt Rue de la Couronne, the protest march split, with the majority of protesters (the green zone) heading north, towards a main rally at the Colis\u00e9e.\n\nProtesters favouring the yellow or red zones headed south, towards Cap Diamant. Many spread out through the Saint-Jean Baptiste area north of and below the fence; others marched along the edge of the mountain on C\u00f4te d'Abraham towards its intersection with the Dufferin-Montmorency Autoroute, through which the fence passed. Peaceful protesters, including individuals running speaker's corners, were in great numbers throughout this area during the afternoon.\n\nProtestors who headed towards the yellow and red zones confronted the fence.  Approximately 15\u00a0minutes after the bulk of the march reached the fence on Boulevard Ren\u00e9 L\u00e9vesque, the fence was brought down by protestors, which the security personnel deemed a clear security threat and danger not only to the conference delegates in the area, but also to the police.\n\nA number of people moved into the once fenced-off area, and a catapult that launched teddy bears was rolled in.  Eventually, the police line fell back and was replaced by a second line of officers, all wearing gas masks. The protestors were then repulsed by the police.\n\nPolice responded to the protesters in the \"green zone\" by firing tear gas canisters, water cannon, and rubber bullets, dispersing large groupings of protesters both violent and peaceful, including teach-ins and teams of medics providing first aid to other protesters. Other tactical interventions aimed at arresting various perceived movement leaders and the expulsion of the independent media centre and protest clinic from their locations. So much tear gas was used that delegates were incommoded inside their meeting halls. The security wall was breached on several occasions, though protester incursion across the perimeter was limited. According to David Graeber in his book Direct Action: An Ethnography, \"plastic bullets were being used increasingly, and from guns with laser sights so at night people could often see that the cops were intentionally aiming for heads or groins.\"\n\nProtests continued into the night. In addition to continued peaceful protests and acts of civil disobedience, some protesters vandalized storefronts and advertisements and built bonfires. Police continued to respond with tear gas, in several cases firing at areas beneath the mountain where no protests were taking place, as well as with direct assaults on protester positions.\n\nProtests concluded on Sunday, April 22.\n\nResponse to protest conduct\n\nPolice claimed that their actions were justified in protecting delegates from \"red-zone\" attempts to break through the fence, as well as to violent protesters destroying property and attacking the police, the media, and other protesters.\n\nMany protesters accuse the police of excessive force, claiming that the police's abundant use of tear gas and rubber bullets was both completely disproportionate to the scale of violence, and primarily directed at unarmed, peaceful demonstrators with dispersal of violent protesters an afterthought. A number of protesters were severely injured by rubber bullets; also, tear gas canisters were fired directly at protesters on numerous occasions, in violation of the protocols governing their use. They also criticize the actions of prison authorities. Altogether, the anti-globalization movement describes the actions of the police in Quebec City as an attempt to suppress dissent.\n\nIntelligence operations prior to the event were also criticized, For example, Joan Russow, then leader of the Green Party of Canada, was arrested while attempting to photograph the prison where protesters would be held. During the event, some prominent protesters such as Jaggi Singh were arrested by undercover police officers while they were engaging in legal activities in \"green-zone\" areas.\n\nA formal complaint regarding the RCMP's conduct was filed by New Democrat MP Svend Robinson with the Commission for Public Complaints against the RCMP. On November 13, 2003, the complaint's chairwoman Shirley Heafey found that \"RCMP members used excessive and unjustified force in releasing tear gas to move the protesters when a more measured response could have been attempted first.\" The commission recommended improved crowd-control techniques, disciplinary action against certain officers, and a formal apology to protesters.\n\nNotes\nLink to an article detailing some of the events in The Quebec City Riot of April 20, 2001.https:\/\/rabble.ca\/babble\/rabble-news-features\/g-20-summit-toronto-and-tear-gas-summit-quebec-city\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n Summits of the Americas - Quebec City Summit of the Americas\n Collection of reports about the Quebec City anti-FTAA protests 2\u00a0hour-long MP3s\n Watch View from the Summit, a National Film Board of Canada documentary\n\nEconomy of Canada\nEconomy of Mexico\nEconomy of the United States\nHistory of Quebec City\nPolitics of the Americas\nAnti-globalization protests\nSummit of the Americas\nRiots and civil disorder in Canada\nSummit of the Americas\nDiplomatic conferences in Canada\n21st-century diplomatic conferences (Americas)\nSummit of the Americas\nSummit of the Americas\nSummit of the Americas\nOrganization of American States\nSummit of the Americas\nSummit of the Americas\nSummit of the Americas, 3rd","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":3,"2022-27":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":2}},"id":365922,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/3rd%20Summit%20of%20the%20Americas","title":"3rd Summit of the Americas","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A generator usually means a machine that makes electrical energy. It has a generator head with wires, spinning inside a magnetic field. The resulting electromagnetic induction makes electricity flow through the wires. Hybrid electric vehicles carry a generator powerful enough to make them go. The biggest generators don't go anywhere; they stay in power stations.\n\nDifferent things can be used to make the generator head spin. Some small ones are cranked by someone's arms or legs. Bigger ones are connected to an engine. The biggest ones use a steam turbine or hydroelectric water power. Some use wind power. Whatever makes it turn, the generator converts this energy into electrical energy.\n\nSome portable generators have an internal combustion engine. They are harmful when used indoors because they make carbon monoxide.\n\nComponents\nSimple generators have:\na rotor, which is the moving part of the generator\nan axle\na magnet\nbrushes\n\nSome kinds have:\na commutator, which is a switch that reverses the current\na power supply to start the generator\n\nRelated pages\n Electricity\n\nElectricity\nmotors","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2}},"id":68360,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrical%20generator","title":"Electrical generator","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Pentecostalism is a faith within Evangelical Christianity. It believes in a personal experience with God through the baptism of the Holy Spirit (); the same as in the Biblical account on the Day of Pentecost. Pentecostalism is similar to the Charismatic groups, but it came about earlier and separated from the main church branches. Charismatic Christians, at least in the beginning, tended to stay in their denominations and did not divide away.\n\nBeliefs \nThere are different types of Pentecostal churches. Most believe that you must be saved by believing in Jesus as their Savior; to be forgiven for their sins and to be pleasing to God. Pentecostals also believe, like most other evangelicals, that the Bible is true and must be obeyed in decisions of faith. In this majority group, speaking in tongues is the sign of the Baptism of the Holy Spirit and is not required for salvation. To this group, the Baptism of the Holy Spirit is a supernatural gift for ministry that one receives after they have become a Christian.\n\nOther groups believe in an \"\" based salvation. This means a person needs to repent and be baptized in the name of Jesus. They then receive the Holy Spirit (Holy Ghost). In this belief, the Holy Spirit is required for salvation; which includes speaking in tongues. In this group, some Pentecostals churches baptize in the name of Jesus only, and some baptize in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost\/spirit.\n\nPentecostal churches believe that Jesus still heals the sick, with the power of the Holy Spirit.\nThey also believe in other gifts such as speaking in tongues, interpretation of tongues, supernatural knowledge, mainly about sickness or spiritual matters, and prophesy about future spiritual happenings. Many also practice exorcism, that is, casting out evil spirits.\n\nStatistics\nSee also: List of Christian denominations by number of members This list indicates that there may be 150 million Pentecostals. The largest Pentecostal denominations are:\n\nDenomination statistics\n Assemblies of God -51 million\n Independent - 50 million\n Church of God in Christ - 9 million\n Church of God (Cleveland, Tennesee) - 8.5 million\n The Apostolic Church - 6 million\n The Pentecostal Mission -6.7 million\n United Pentecostal Church International - 4 million\n Christ Apostolic Church - 2.8 million\n Christian Congregation of Brazil- 2.5 million\n Zion Christian Church - 2.5 million\n Church of the Lord Aladura - 2.5 million\n International Church of the Foursquare Gospel 2 million\n Universal Church of the Kingdom of God - 2 million\n Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada - 1 million\n Christian Outreach Centre - less than 1 million\n Christian City Church = less than 1 million\n World Christian Ministries Association - less than 1 million\nWhile not as large as some of the above organizations the following have made quite an impact on Pentecostalism:\n Northgate Pentecostals (Dallas - Fort Worth, Texas, USA [Colleyville, TX 76034])\n Church of Jesus Christ of Prophecy (AKA Mercy Tabernacle, Benton Tennessee)\n International Church of Jesus Christ (Columbus, Ohio)\n Potter's House Christian Fellowship (Prescott, Arizona)\n United Christian Church (Cleveland, Tennessee)\n Igreja Pentecostal e Apost\u00f3lica Miss\u00e3o Jesus (S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil)\n Revival Centres International and The Revival Fellowship in Australia\n\nGeographical distribution\n Africa: 41.1 million\n Nigeria: 13.0 million (34.5 million ; 41.0 million  )\n Kenya: 4.1 million (18.94 million )\n South Africa: 4.4 million (15.1 million  )\n Ethiopia: 2.6 million\n Ghana: 1.76 million\n America: 58.9 million\n United States: Total of: 30 million; 20.2 million (30.0 million  ; 80.0 million including Charismatics and Neo-charismatics  )\n Brazil: 15.0 million (20-90 million ; 84 million  )\n Argentina: 3.5 million\n Mexico: 2.7 million\n Guatemala: 2.0 million (7.2 million )\n Chile: 1.8 million (4.8 million )\n Canada: 1.3 million\n Asia: 15.3 million\n South Korea: 5.35 million  (8.75 million  )\n China: unknown; 72.0 million  \n Philippines: 9.0 million (38.65 million ; 25.0 million  )\n Indonesia: 7.0 million\n India: Total of: 54 million; 5.2 million (54.0 million  ; 38.0 million  )\n Pakistan: 0.25 million\n Europe: 9.5-11.0 million\n England: 0.9-1.7 million\n Ukraine: 1.2-1.5 million\n Russia: 1.0 million\n Italy: 0.55 million\n Romania: 0.33 million \n Germany: 0.3 million\n Spain: 0.28 million\n France: 0.2-0.3 million\n Netherlands: 0.15 millions\n Hungary: 0.11 million\n Switzerland: 0.1 million\n Greece: 0.03 million\n Oceania: 3.3 million\n Papua New Guinea: 0.4 million\n Australia: 0.4 million\n New Zealand: 0.11 million\n\nSources:\n\nOperation World by Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk, 2000, unless otherwise indicated.\n Pentecostal survey\n Statistics on Pentecostal renewalists \n World Christian Database\n\nLeaders\n\nPrecursors\n William Boardman\n John Alexander Dowie (1848-1907)\n Edward Irving\n Albert Benjamin Simpson (1843-1919)\n\nEarly history\n Maria Woodworth-Etter (1844 - 1924)\n Smith Wigglesworth (1859 - 1947)\n Mary Magdalena Lewis Tate (1879 - 1930) - Mother of Holiness. Founder of the Church of the Living God and its dominion churches.\n Charles Fox Parham (1873 - 1929) Father of Modern Pentecostalism\n William J. Seymour (1870 - 1922) Azusa Street Mission Founder (Azusa Street Revival)\n Bishop R.A.R. Johnson (1876 -1940) Founder of the House of God, Holy Church of the Living God, The Pillar and the Ground of the Truth, The House of Prayer for All People. A Commandment (Sabbath) keeping Pentecostal organization.\n George Jeffreys (1889 - 1972) Founder of the Elim Foursquare Gospel Alliance and the Bible-Pattern Church Fellowship in Britain\n Aimee Semple McPherson (1890 - 1944) American Female Evangelist and organizer of the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel\n Joseph Ayo Babalola (1904 - 1959) Oke - Ooye, Ilesa revivalist in 1930. Also, spiritual founder of Christ Apostolic Church\n David du Plessis (1905 - 1987) South-African Pentecostal church leader, one of the founders of the Charismatic movement\n Kathryn Kuhlman (1907 - 1976) American female evangelist who brought Pentecostalism into the mainstream denominations\n William M. Branham (1909 - 1965) Healing Evangelists of the mid 20th century\n Jack Coe (1918 - 1956) Healing Tent Evangelist of the 1950s\n A. A. Allen (1911 - 1970) Healing Tent Evangelist of the 1950s and 1960s\n Oral Roberts (1918 - 2009) Healing Tent Evangelist who made the transition to televangelism\n Rex Humbard (b.1919) The first successful TV evangelist of the mid-1950s, 1960s, and the 1970s and at one time had the largest television audience of any televangelist in the U.S.\n\nRelated pages\n Prophecy\n\nReferences\n\nStudies\n Paul Alexander, (2000), \"An Analysis of the Emergence and Decline of Pacifism in the History of the Assemblies of God\", PhD Dissertation, Baylor University.\n Grant Wacker, (2001), Heaven Below: Early Pentecostals and American Culture, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA - An academic history of early Pentecostalism.\n Walter Hollenweger, (1972), The Pentecostals: the charismatic movement in the churches, Augsburg Publishing House, Minneapolis, \n Walter Hollenweger, (1997), Pentecostalism : origins and developments worldwide, Peabody, Mass. : Hendrickson Publishers, \n Clifton, S. J., (2005), An Analysis of the Developing Ecclesiology of the Assemblies of God in Australia, PhD thesis Australian Catholic University \n Matthew Steel, (2005), Pentecostalism in Zambia : Power, Authority and the Overcomers, MSc Dissertation - an examination of the growth and effects of Pentecostalism on development, University of Wales\n Pentecostalism losing its youth?\n\nOther websites \n Journal of Pentecostal Theology  is published by SAGE publications. The editorial board is comprised of members of the Church of God Theological Seminary faculty.\n The REFLEKS journal  is published by REFLEKS-Publishing in Oslo, Norway and contains scholarly Scandinavian and English articles on Pentecostalism and neo-Pentecostalism.\n Encounter: Journal for Pentecostal Ministry  is a published by the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary (AGTS)\n The European Research Network on Global Pentecostalism (GloPent) is an initiative by three leading European Universities in Pentecostal studies networking academic research on Pentecostal and Charismatic movements.\n Hollenweger Center  for the interdisciplinary study of Pentecostal and Charismatic movements at the Free University of Amsterdam\n Cyberjournal for Pentecostal Charismatic Research\n Flower Pentecostal Heritage Center  (Assemblies of God archives), one of the largest collections of materials documenting the global Pentecostal movement; website contains free research tools, including over 250,000 digitized pages of periodicals and online catalog with over 80,000 entries.\n Pentecostalism \n Lecture on \"Pentecostalism\" \n Map showing Percentage of Pentecostal Population in USA by county  from Valparaiso University\n Apostolic Herald Online newsletter sharing Pentecostal and Apostolic concepts written primarily by Pentecostal authors.\n Pentecostal Conference of the North American Keralites\n Australasian Pentecostal Studies journal \n Pew Religious Forum Pentecostal Hub\n Some statistic\n\n \nChristian movements and denominational families","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":63,"dup_details":{"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":61939,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pentecostalism","title":"Pentecostalism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A port is a place at the edge of an ocean, river, or lake for ships to load and unload their cargo. Persons on ships can get on or off ships at a port. It is also called a harbour or harbor. This kind of port is the same as sea port.\n\nA good port is easy to get to over water or land. It is also in a place that is not easily hurt by bad weather, like strong wind or big waves. \n\nSome ports are important for trade; other ports are important to a country's navy.\n\nTypes of ports\nIf a port is visited by ships that can go on the ocean, it is called a \"sea port\" or just a \"port\". If a port is visited only by river boats like barges, it is called a \"river port\".\n\nIf a port is on a lake, river, or canal that goes to a sea or ocean, that port can be called an \"inland port\".\n\nA fishing port is a port or harbour used by people who are fishing.\n\nA warm water port is a port where the water does not freeze in winter time.\n\nA cruise home port is a port where people get on and off cruise-ships. It is also where the cruise ship gets its supplies, like fresh water, fuel, and food. The Port of Miami, Florida is called the \"Cruise Capital of the World\". Port Everglades, Florida and the Port of San Juan, Puerto Rico also have big cruise ports.\n\nA port of call is a place where a ship stops before it has finished its trip. \n\nA cargo port is a port that is used to move things people want to buy or sell.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":335080,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Port","title":"Port","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Upanishads are some of the sacred books of the Hindu people. The Upanishads are part of a large collection of sacred books of Hindu people, called the Vedas. They are placed at the end of the Vedas and they primarily deal with knowledge or wisdom. Because they deal with knowledge portion of the Vedas, they are called Jnana-Kanda (Jnana means knowledge). Also because they come at the end portion of the Vedas they are often called texts of Vedanta (veda: of vedas, anta: at the end). Upanishads form the foundation of the philosophy of Hindu religion. \nMany scholars believe that originally Upanishads are rebellion against Vedas and it has added to Vedas by its unique spiritual quest.\nUpanishad means \"sit down with\" master to learn about the Atman(soul).\nThe Upanishads do not belong to a specific period of Sanskrit literature. The oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishad, may be as old as 8th century BC, while the youngest, depending on the specific Upanishad, may date to the medieval or early modern period. More than 300 text about Upanishad have been found but we have  108 Upanishad in written.\nGeeta which is the most religious book of Hindu's is also a Greatest Upanishad.\n\nOther websites \n Philosophia Ultima:Osho commentary on Mandukyopanishad \n\nHindu texts","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":23102,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Upanishad","title":"Upanishad","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An adverb is a word used to tell more about a verb, and it almost always answers the questions how?, when?, where?, how often?, and in what way?. Words like slowly, loudly, carefully, quickly, quietly or sadly are all adverbs. Adverbs usually, but not always, end in -ly.\n\nExamples of adverbs in a sentence (with the adverb in italics):\n How did the man walk? The man walked slowly. \n How did the dogs bark? The dogs barked loudly.\n\nAn adverb can also modify (describe) an adjective or another adverb\n\nExamples:\nAdverb modifying a verb: He writes well\nAdverb modifying another adverb: He writes very well\nAdverb modifying an adjective: He is very well\n\nIn the first two examples the word 'well' is an adverb. In the last example, it is an adjective. This is one example in which the same word can be both an adjective and an adverb but not in the same sentence. \n\nAs a rule, the same word can play different roles but not in the same sentence. It all depends on what the word is doing in the sentence. It could be a noun, an adjective, an adverb, a verb, etc. Example: take the word 'cool'. In the sentence, \"he walks cool\", the word 'cool' is an adverb. In the sentence, \"cool the hot dish\", the word 'cool' is a verb. In the sentence, \"it is a cool evening\", the word 'cool' is an adjective. In the first example, \"he walks cool\", the word 'cool' really means 'coolly' as in \"play it cool\" (do not get excited; be calm).\n\nAdverb form \nMost adverbs are formed by adding ly to the end of an adjective. To see 100 adjectives used in Basic English, click here ---> : adjective\n\nParts of speech","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":3829,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adverb","title":"Adverb","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An abbreviation is a shorter way to write a word or phrase. People use abbreviations for words that they write a lot. The English language occasionally uses the apostrophe mark ' to show that a word is written in a shorter way, but some abbreviations do not use this mark. More often, they use periods, especially the ones that come from the Latin language. Common Latin abbreviations include i.e. [id est] that is, e.g. [exempli gratia] for example, and et al. [et alia] and others.\n\nSome new abbreviations have been created by scientists, by workers in companies and governments, and by people using the Internet.\n\nPeople often think words are abbreviations when in fact they are acronyms.\n\nHere are examples of common acronyms: The word \"radar\" is an acronym for \"Radio Detection and Ranging\". The name of the large computer company IBM comes from the words \"International Business Machines\". The name of the part of the United States government that sends rockets into outer space is NASA, from the words \"National Aeronautics and Space Administration\". When people using the Internet think that something is very funny, they sometimes write \"LOL\" to mean \"Laughing Out Loud\". People sometimes write \"ASAP\" for \"As Soon As Possible\".\n\nOther websites \n Acronym Finder - largest acronym site with many ways to search for acronyms and abbreviations in many languages. Over 10-year history.\n All Acronyms - a website with a large number of abbreviations and acronyms\n Acronyms Abbreviations and Slang  - over 3 million different acronyms and abbreviations in searchable database\n SlangLang Abbreviations  - Slang Words: 2,700 abbreviations and their meanings\nLinguistics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1}},"id":32,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abbreviation","title":"Abbreviation","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Exxon Valdez oil spill was a shipping accident that happened off the coast of the United States on March 24, 1989. An oil tanker, the Exxon Valdez, hit a reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska. At the time of the disaster, the ship carried 53,094,510 U.S. gallons (44,210,430 imp gal\/200,984,600 L) of crude oil. The accident caused a massive oil spill: 10.8 million U.S.\u00a0gallons (9.0 million\u00a0imp\u00a0gal\/41 million\u00a0L) were spilled into the Prince William Sound. It was one of the worst man-made environmental disasters in the history of the United States.\n\nThe ship had left the shipping lanes because of icebergs. The ship never returned to the shipping lane and hit Bligh Reef at around 12:04 AM. Later, people looked at the causes, and found that the people on board were badly trained and overworked. What made things worse was the fact that the government was not prepared to handle a disaster with such large consequences for the environment. This disaster badly damaged the ecosystems of the area. An estimated 21,300 fish died after being poisoned by the crude oil. The birds that ate the fish got sick.\n\nSome of the methods tried to clean up the oil were: burning, mechanical cleaning, and chemical dispersants.\n\nReferences \n\n1989 disasters\n1989 in the United States\n20th century in Alaska\nTransport disasters in the United States","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":314651,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exxon%20Valdez%20oil%20spill","title":"Exxon Valdez oil spill","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An exhibition is an organized event in which a collection of special objects can be viewed by the public.  The objects are often brought together from many places for the period of the exhibition.  The objects on show are called exhibits.\n\nMuseums often organize special exhibitions, such as paintings by a famous painter.  These paintings will mostly be \"on loan\", i.e. specially borrowed from other museums.  Exhibitions can be about anything.  They may be to do with art, or they can also be science exhibitions.\n\nSome exhibitions show things which can be bought.  Firms exhibit the things they have made, hoping to encourage business.  These exhibitions are called trade fairs.  They are sometimes called expositions or expos.  They may be open to the public, but others are just for invited business people.\n\nRelated pages\nArt exhibition\nThe Great Exhibition\nConvention center\nWorld's Fair","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":225587,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exhibition","title":"Exhibition","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A nuclear reaction is a process involving an atomic nucleus or more than one nucleus. The most common kinds are\nNuclear fusion, a reaction in which two or more particles collide. The results are new particles which are different from the first ones. \nNuclear fission, a nucleus breaking into pieces. \nRadioactive decay, in which a nucleus spits something out, changing itself into a different kind of nucleus.\n\nIn the case of radioactivity the reaction is spontaneous. Fission and fusion can be done on purpose, to release energy. This energy can then be used for different things, for example to make steam (as in a nuclear power plant). It can also be used as energy for a bomb.\n\nIn the example figure 6Li fuses with deuterium. This makes Beryllium which then decays into two alpha particles. \n\nNuclear reactions occur in the sun, in nuclear reactors, in particle accelerators, and in outer space.  Other than radioactive decay, very few nuclear reactions occur on earth except in these special places.  Nuclear reactors use nuclear reactions to make heat and electricity.  Accelerators sometimes cause nuclear reactions to make radioactive materials.  Particles from outer space cause nuclear reactions in earth's atmosphere that make air slightly radioactive.\n\nNuclear reactions differ from chemical reactions in that they do not need a catalyst.  Radioactive decay also cannot be stopped, sped up or slowed down.\n\nRelated pages \nChemical reaction\n\nOther websites \nImages for nuclear reaction\nVideos for nuclear reaction\n\nNuclear physics\nNuclear energy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":54857,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear%20reaction","title":"Nuclear reaction","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"This article is about the constructed languages of J. R. R. Tolkien, used in his Middle-earth universe.\n\nExternal history \nJ. R. R. Tolkien was a philologist, and he was interested in language since he was a child. He invented several languages, which he then used in his Middle-earth writings. Aside from the external history, most of his languages have also an invented \"internal history\". The internal history means how the languages evolved and were used inside the fictional story by the fictional people who spoke them. \nSome of Tolkien's languages have a detailed grammar and vocabulary. Other languages are not very detailed, and some languages have only a few words and names. Quenya and Sindarin are the best and most developed languages, while others like Rohirric, Khuzd\u00fbl, or Black Speech, are not so developed.\n\nTolkien also created the Tengwar, Sarati, and Cirth scripts for his languages.\n\nLanguages of Middle-earth\n\nElvish languages \nThe Elvish languages or Eldarin languages are the languages of the Elves. At other times, Elvish languages were the common speech. Later the Elvish languages were also used by humans, especially by scientists and the nobility. The Eldarin languages can be divided into two groups: Quenya language and Telerin languages (which includes Telerin, Nandorin, and Sindarin).\n\nQuenya \nQuenya is an Elvish language. It was spoken by the Vanyar and Noldor elves in Valinor. When the Noldor returned to Middle-earth in the First Age, they brought Quenya with them. But the native Sindarin became far more common in everyday speech. In the Second Age and especially in the Third Age, Quenya in Middle-earth was used more as a scientific and ritual language. Because of this Tolkien sometimes called Quenya the \"Elf-Latin\".\n\nTelerin \nTelerin is an Elvish language. It was spoken by the Teleri elves. From Telerin developed several new languages and dialects, for example Sindarin.\n\nSindarin \nSindarin is an Elvish language. It came from the Telerin language. It was spoken by the Sindar (or Grey Elves) in Middle-earth. It later became the most common elvish language spoken in Middle-earth.\n\nMannish (Human) languages\n\nAd\u00fbnaic \nAd\u00fbnaic is the language of the people of N\u00famenor. After the Fall of N\u00famenor, Ad\u00fbnaic was not often used anymore. From Ad\u00fbnaic and the native languages of the western coastlands of Middle-earth developed Westron.\n\nWestron \nWestron (Westron: Ad\u00fbni, Sindarin: Ann\u00fanaid), or the Common Speech (Westron: S\u00f4val Ph\u00e2r\u00eb), is a language of Middle-earth. It comes from Ad\u00fbnaic and the natives languages of Middle-earth. In the Third Age, Westron is used as the common language, spoken by most peoples.\nIn the books, the text written in English is meant to be Westron most of the time.\n\nRohirric \nRohirric (also Rohirian or Rohanese) is the language of the Rohirrim of Rohan. In the books, Rohirric text and names are always represented by Old English. This is made because Rohirric should feel older but similar to the hobbit's Westron, and they are in the books represented by Old English and Modern English.\n\nKhuzd\u00fbl \nKhuzd\u00fbl is the language of the Dwarves. The dwarves keep much of what they do a secret, and they also do this with their language. Because of this, only a few place-names and phrases are known from Khuzd\u00fbl. Dwarves have never told other (non-dwarven) people their Khuzd\u00fbl names. Instead, they use other names when talking to the other peoples of Middle-earth. The dwarven \"nicknames\" that appear in the books are  all taken from Norse mythology. \nBesides the spoken language, called aglab, Khuzd\u00fbl had the iglishmek, which was a sign language.\n\nEntish \nEntish is the language of the Ents. The language is, like the Ents themselves, very \"unhasty\": it takes a lot of time to say something. The language uses very long descriptions and many repetitions. Because it is so complicated and takes so much time, nobody but the Ents use or understand this language.\n\nValarin \nValarin was the language spoken by the Ainur.\n\nBlack Speech \nBlack Speech is the language of Sauron. The language was created by him and used by his followers. The inscription on the One Ring was Black Speech, written in Tengwar. Aside from the Ring-inscription, there are several names and words of Black Speech known.\n\nRelated pages\n\nMiddle-earth\nTengwar\n\nLanguages\nFictional languages","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":189,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":6,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":6,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":6,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":9,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":7,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":5,"2024-10":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3}},"id":99295,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Languages%20constructed%20by%20J.%20R.%20R.%20Tolkien","title":"Languages constructed by J. R. R. Tolkien","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"John Milton (9 December 1608 \u2013 8 November 1674) was an English poet, religious thinker, and civil servant for the English Commonwealth Government. He is one of the most important figures in Western literature. He is most famous for his Christian epic poem Paradise Lost. His writing influenced both later poets and religious thinkers.\n\nLife \nJohn Milton was born on 9 December 1608, the son of John Milton (senior) and Sarah Jerry. His family lived in Bread Street, London. His father was a musician and composer. His main work was as a scrivener, a secretary who reads and writes letters for people who cannot read and write for themselves. Milton's father was well paid at this work, and was able to hire a private tutor to teach his clever eldest son. Milton's brother Christopher said he studied very long into each night. Milton then went to St. Paul's School where he studied Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.\n\nMilton then studied at Christ's College, Cambridge and graduated with a B.A. in 1629. On 3 July 1632, he received his Master of Arts degree. He returned home where he continued to study and write poetry for six years. He wrote a large number of poems. In 1638 he made a tour of the Continent, spending a lot of time in France and Italy, where he learned about other authors such as Dante, Tasso, and Ariosto. When he was 34, he married Mary Powell, who was 17. He defended freedom of speech and freedom of press.\n\nPublications \nIn 1645, during the English Civil War, he published Poems of Mr. John Milton, in which there were his famous poems \"L'Allegro\" and \"Il'Penseroso\", which was mostly ignored. In 1649, during the trial of Charles I, Milton wrote Of the Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, arguing that kings can rule only when the people allow them to. He then became secretary to the Council of State and wrote in Latin Eikonoklastes in 1649. That was the last big writing project he did before he began to become blind. In 1652, he became completely blind and was very unhappy. However, in 1667, he published the famous Paradise Lost, one of the greatest English-language epics. Four years later, he wrote Paradise Regained, a story about how men became sinful and how Jesus Christ won the battle with the devil. The last work that was published while he was alive was Samson Agonistes. He died, probably because of gout, on 8 November 1674.\n\nOther websites \n\n \n Milton Reading Room  \u2013 online, almost fully annotated, collection of all of Milton's poetry and selections of his prose\n Milton 400th Anniversary  \u2013 lots of Milton material and details of the Milton 400th Anniversary Celebrations, from Christ's College, Cambridge, where Milton studied\n \"Milton and De Doctrina Christiana\"  by Gordon Campbell et al., 1996\n \"The masque in Milton's Arcades and Comus\" by Gilbert McInnis\n History of the John Milton Society for the Blind in Canada \n How Milton Works by Stanley Fish\n Milton's cottage\n Paradise Lost by John Milton, Introduction and Notes by David Hawkes\n A common-place book of John Milton, and a Latin essay and Latin verses presumed to be by Milton Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. \n\n1608 births\n1674 deaths\nAlumni of the University of Cambridge\nCivil servants\nEnglish poets\nEnglish Protestants\nWriters from London","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":83418,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John%20Milton","title":"John Milton","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The R\u00e9aumur scale is a way of measuring temperature. The unit associated with the scale is called R\u00e9aumur, named after the physicist  Ren\u00e9-Antoine Ferchault de R\u00e9aumur who created it in 1731. The unit is usually abbreviated \"R\u00e9\", sometimes \"r\". The two base points of the scale are the melting point of ice and the boiling point of water, both at normal pressure. There are 80 degrees between those values, one degree R\u00e9aumur is the 80th part of that temperature difference. \n\nR\u00e9aumur used ethanol for his thermometers. Thermometers that use ethanol show the change of temperature better than those using mercury. This is because, when heated, ethanol expands faster than mercury. There is the problem though that the expansion of ethanol is different at different temperatures -  it is non-linear. Ethanol has a very low boiling point, which makes thermometers based on it unusable for many applications. Soon, instrument-makers used other liquids, and then chose \"80\u00b0R\u00e9\" as the boiling point of water. \n\nIn 1772 Jean-Andr\u00e9 Deluc studied the several substances used in thermometers at the time. At the time, new theories of heat were being developed. \nDeluc's analysis came to the conclusion that mercury-based thermometers were the best for practical use: He made an experiment, as follows: Suppose there are two amounts of water, say one liter, are mixed. The two amounts have different temperatures. The temperature of both liquids are taken, before the mix, and the temperature of the mix is measured. The mix should have the temperature that is the mean of both temperatures. This relationship only held reliably, when mercury was used in thermometers. From the late 18th century, almost all thermometers used mercury, for this reason. Thermometers that use other substances than ethanol but have 80 scales between the boiling and the freezing points of water have nothing in common with R\u00e9aumur's thermometer, except for the name.\n\nReferences\n\nUnits of temperature","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":163802,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R%C3%A9aumur%20scale","title":"R\u00e9aumur scale","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Skype for Business Server (formerly Microsoft Office Communications Server and Microsoft Lync Server) is real-time communications server software that provides the infrastructure for enterprise instant messaging, presence, VoIP, ad hoc and structured conferences (audio, video and web conferencing) and PSTN connectivity through a third-party gateway or SIP trunk. These features are available within an organization, between organizations and with external users on the public internet or standard phones (on the PSTN as well as SIP trunking).\n\nFeatures\nOne basic use of Skype for Business Server is instant messaging (IM) and presence within a single organization. This includes support for rich presence information, file transfer and voice and video communication. Skype for Business Server uses Interactive Connectivity Establishment for NAT traversal and TLS encryption to enable secure voice and video both inside and outside the corporate network.\n\nSkype for Business Server also supports remote users, both corporate users on the Internet (e.g. mobile or home workers) as well as users in partner companies. Skype for Business supports identity federation, enabling interoperability with other corporate IM networks. Federation can be configured either manually (where each partner manually configures the relevant edge servers in the other organization) or automatically (using the appropriate SRV records in the DNS).\n\nMicrosoft Skype for Business Server uses Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) for signaling along with the SIMPLE extensions to SIP for IM and presence. Media is transferred using RTP and SRTP. The live meeting client uses Persistent Shared Object Model (PSOM) to download meeting content. The communicator client also uses HTTPS to connect with the web components server to download address books and expand distribution lists. By default, supported combinations include encrypted communications using SIP over TLS and SRTP as well as unencrypted SIP over TCP and RTP. Microsoft has published details of supported configuration for qualified vendors through Unified Communications Open Interoperability Program (UCOIP).\n\nIM is only one portion of the Skype for Business suite. The other major components are VoIP telephony and video conferencing through the desktop communicator client. Remote access is possible using the desktop, mobile and web clients.\n\nSeveral third parties have incorporated Skype for Business functionality on existing platforms. HP has implemented it on its Halo video conferencing platform.\n\nHistory\nWhen Microsoft Office Live Communications Server was originally launched on 29 December 2003, it replaced the Exchange Instant Messenger Service that had been included in Exchange 2000, but which was removed from the Exchange 2003 feature set. Holders of Exchange 2000 licenses which included Software Assurance were entitled to receive Live Communications Server as an upgrade, along with Exchange 2003; however, Live Communications Server Client Access Licenses were purchased as normal for new users.\n\nOCS R2 was announced at VoiceCon in Amsterdam in October 2008, a year after releasing Office Communications Server 2007.\n\nMicrosoft released Microsoft Office Communications Server 2007 R2 in February 2009. The R2 release added the following features:\n\n Dial-in audioconferencing\n Desktop sharing\n Persistent Group Chat (only available on Windows OS clients)\n Attendant console and delegation\n Session Initiation Protocol trunking\n Mobility and single-number reach\n\nMicrosoft Lync Server 2010 reached general availability in November 2010. Microsoft Lync 2013 was released to manufacturing in October 2012 with SP1 being released in March 2014.\nIn 2015, the new version of Lync became Skype for Business with a new client experience, new server release and updates to the service in Office 365. Microsoft has stated that general availability for Skype for Business Server 2019 is targeted for the end of 2018.\n\nVersions\n 2018 - Skype for Business Server 2019 (due end of 2018)\n 2015 - Skype for Business Server 2015\n 2012 - Lync Server 2013 (RTM 11 October 2012)\n 2010 - Lync Server 2010\n 2009 - Office Communications Server 2007 R2\n 2007 - Office Communications Server 2007\n 2006 - Live Communications Server 2005 with SP1\n 2005 - Live Communications Server 2005, codenamed Vienna\n 2003 - Live Communications Server 2003\n\nClient software and devices\nMicrosoft Lync is the primary client application released with Lync Server. This client is used for IM, presence, voice and video calls, desktop sharing, file transfer and ad hoc conferences. With Lync 2013 there will be a release of Lync Light Client with fewer features.\nMicrosoft also ships the Microsoft Attendant Console. This is a version of the Lync more oriented towards receptionists or delegates \/ secretaries or others who get a large volume of inbound calls.\n\nPersistent Group Chat functionality (introduced with Lync Server 2010) is only supported on the Windows OS client at this time. This requires an additional server or multiple servers for processing group chat transactions.\n\nOther client software and devices include:\n Lync Mobile is a mobile edition of the Lync Server 2010 client that offers similar functionality, including voice calls via the GSM network, instant messaging, presence and single number reachability. Clients for Lync Mobile includes the IPhone, IPad, Android, Windows Phone 7 and 8. New releases of Lync Mobile 2013 (Wave 2) are anticipated, bringing features such as collaboration and voice and video over IP.\n Microsoft RoundTable is an audio and video conferencing device that provides a 360-degree view of the conference room and tracks the various speakers. This device is now produced and sold via Polycom under the product name CX5000.\n The Skype for Business client is supported by Lync Server 2013, as well as Skype for Business Server.\nThe documentation of Lync 2013 contains references to Lync Room Edition Devices - these are anticipated to provide close to immersive experience.\n LG-Nortel and Polycom also make IP phones in a traditional phone form factor that operate an embedded edition of Office Communicator 2007. The physical plastic phones as referred by Microsoft are also named Tanjay Phones.\n IP Desk Phones 'Optimized for Lync': Powered by Lync Phone Edition these phones have full support to PBX functionalities, access to calendar and contacts, rich conferencing, extended functionalities when connected to the PC, and integrated security and manageability. Built from the ground up for Lync, these phones come in different models designed to meet specific business needs, including a rich information worker experience, a basic desk phone, common area phone, or conference room phone. Aastra and other vendors offer IP Desk Phones Optimized for Microsoft Lync.\n Damaka has Lync clients for Android, iOS (iPhone\/iPad), BlackBerry, Symbian, Windows 8, Mac OS X. It provides chat, voice, file transfer, video, and desktop sharing functions.\n Fisil has Lync clients for Linux, Android, iPhone, iPad.\n\nLinux support:\n\nFisil makes the only available supported Linux client for Lync. The unifiedme.co.uk reference lists a Pidgin-based workaround, but according to the information at CERN, it has important limitations. The Damaka reference leads to the Google+ main page and has no information on a Linux client that I could find. The Fisil reference goes to a project management company that can write custom software.\n\nCompliance\nLync Server also has the capability to log and archive all instant message traffic passing through the server and to create Call Detail Records for conferences and voice. These features can help provide compliance with legal requirements for many organizations. The Archiving server is not an overall end-to-end compliance solution, as archiving requires you to install the Archiving Server and to configure front end servers accordingly.\n\nPublic IM connectivity (PIC)\nLync Server also enables organizations to interoperate with four external IM services: AOL Instant Messenger, Microsoft Messenger service, Yahoo! Messenger, and Google Talk. PIC was first introduced with Service Pack 1 for Live Communications Server 2005, PIC is licensed separately for Yahoo, but is free for AOL and Messenger service for customers with Software Assurance. Microsoft announced that effective 30 June 2014, they will no longer support PIC connectivity to AOL\/AIM\n\nThird-party software support\n\nSIPE plugin\n, the third-party SIPE plugin enables third-party clients such as Pidgin, Adium and Miranda NG as well as clients using the Telepathy framework to support MS Lync Servers with some limitation (Audio but no SRTP, No Video) via the extended version of SIP\/SIMPLE.\n\nXMPP\nLync Server has an XMPP gateway server to federate with external XMPP servers. With Lync Server 2013, XMPP is natively part of the product.\n\nThe ejabberd XMPP server has a bridge that enables federation with OCS servers, without gateways (transports).\n\nCompetition\nCompetitors to Lync Server include:\n Alcatel-Lucent Enterprise OpenTouch Conversation Platform\n 3CX Phone System; 3CX Phone System for Windows is a software-based IP PBX\n Alceo's BCS Communicator\n Asterisk (PBX) Platform - SIP, ISDN, IAX, SMS, open source telephone system\n AT&T UC and SIP Services\n Avaya Aura (tm) Presence Services (with Messaging) and one-X software\n Bopup Communication Server; Based on private and secure IM protocol\n Cisco's Unified Communications Manager IM & Presence (on-Prem) or WebEx Connect Jabber Service (Cisco cloud)\n ejabberd\n Elastix; Elastix PBX, VoIP email, IM, faxing and collaboration functionality\n  openUC Enterprise\n IBM's Lotus Sametime\n iChat Server (see Mac OS X Server)\n Jabber XCP (from Jabber, Inc., not to be confused with the IETF open standard XMPP)\n NEC's UCB and UCE\n Mitel Micollab\n Openfire\n Prosody\n ShoreTel\n Siemens' OpenScape\n sipXecs\n Sun Java System Instant Messaging (see Sun Java System Communications Suite)\n Swyx\n Tigase\n TrueConf\n Vertical Communications\n Algoria; TWS\n\nIn instant messaging, the free public instant messaging networks (Google, Live Messenger, Yahoo and AOL) are widely used and represent a degree of competition. There have been attempts by other vendors at providing solutions such as Yahoo!'s Enterprise Instant Messenger; however these attempts have been largely unsuccessful. An ICQ corporate client and server option once existed, but it is no longer supported or developed.\n\nProducts such as Cisco Unified Presence Server (Version 6.0.2+) support federation with Microsoft Office Communication Server 2007 to provide presence of Cisco IP phones and remote call control of the IP phone from the Microsoft Office Communicator client.\n\nThe Siemens OpenScape solution offers a federation with the Office communicator, and also an integration into the office communicator, allowing to use the standard functionalities of the office communication suite together with the SIP based voice functionalities of the Siemens platform.\n\nThe Asterisk telephone platform supports SIP, IAX, and ISDN connections. Most telephones that support these protocols may be used with Asterisk, including software phone clients.\n\nSee also\nSimilar products\n LG-Nortel IP Phone 8540\nLists\n List of Microsoft\u2013Nortel Innovative Communications Alliance products\n Microsoft Servers\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n Lync Dev Center\n\nMicrosoft Office servers\nMicrosoft server software\nMicrosoft server technology\nInstant messaging server software\nInnovative Communications Alliance products","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":50,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":5,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":2}},"id":1976821,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skype%20for%20Business%20Server","title":"Skype for Business Server","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Claudio Monteverdi (b.Cremona, 1567; d.Venice 25 November 1643) was the most important composer of the early Baroque period. He lived at a time of great change in musical style. The first opera ever written was composed in 1597 by a composer named Jacopo Peri. Just eleven years later Monteverdi wrote an opera Orfeo which was a really great work. Other important operas of his are Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda and Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria. He wrote 9 books of madrigals. He also wrote a lot of church music including the 1610 Vespers. He was director of music at St Mark's, Venice, which was the most important musical job in Italy.\n\nEarly life in Cremona\n\nMonteverdi was the son of an apothecary and a doctor. He was very talented as a young boy and was only 15 when he published his first pieces of music. In the introduction to this music he says that his music teacher was Marc' Antonio Ingegneri, the maestro di cappella of Cremona cathedral. We cannot find anything that shows that he sang in the cathedral choir. He probably had private music lessons. He learned composition, singing and how to play string instruments such as the viol and viola da braccio. He got several compositions published in Venice. By the time he got his first job he had already published two books of madrigals.\n\nMantua\nHis first job was working at the court of the Duke of Mantua. In Mantua there was a small band of excellent musicians. The musical director was the famous Giaches de Wert. Monteverdi got to know many famous poets, and there were famous singers at Ferrara which was not far away.\n\nAt first Monteverdi had a low-paid job. He married the daughter of one of the court musicians in the string band. Monteverdi soon became well-known. He sent several of his compositions to be performed at Ferrara, and he went with the duke to when his army was fighting the Turks.\n\nThe young Monteverdi was developing a new musical style. The old style was known as prima pratica (\"first practice\") and the new style was called the seconda pratica (\"second practice\"). The prima pratica continued to be used for church music. In this style of writing the music was thought to be more important than the words. This meant that the music could be very contrapuntal, with several things going on at once so that the words could not be clearly heard. However, in the seconda pratica the words were more important than the music, i.e. it was important to be able to hear all the words clearly, and the music had to be simple enough for this to happen. This was particularly important in opera and in madrigals.\n\nThere were a lot of arguments among musicians about these two styles of composition, and this is perhaps the reason why there was a gap of 11 years between Monteverdi's 3rd and his 4th book of madrigals. His opera Orfeo (1608) was performed at least twice at court, and several times at Salzburg. Monteverdi was becoming famous all over Europe.\n\nMonteverdi went back to Cremona. His wife died, leaving him with their three small children. It was a terrible tragedy for Monteverdi, and he did not want to go back to Mantua, but the Duke wrote to him telling him he must come back to provide music for the wedding of Prince Francesco Gonzaga and Margharita of Savoy.\n\nMonteverdi returned to Mantua, where he composed his opera Arianna. The performance was a great success, and the audience were moved to tears by the music Arianna's lament. This song is the only part of the opera that has not been lost.\n\nAlthough Monteverdi's fame was increasing, there were a lot of arguments with his employer. Eventually he found another job, this time as a church musician, in the biggest church in Venice. Monteverdi had a difficult journey from Mantua to Venice. The passengers were robbed by highwaymen on the way. He arrived in Venice in October 1613.\n\nVenice\nThe job of maestro (director of music) at San Marco (Saint Mark's church) in Venice was perhaps the most important job for a church musician in the whole of Europe. However, the music was in a bad state because previous directors of music had not been very good. Monteverdi started to reorganize the music there: he bought new music for the library and got some new musicians. He had to compose music for many special feast days during the year. He was doing a good job, and in 1616 his salary was increased to 400 ducats (about 44.28 ounces of gold, worth about US$73,500 today). The duke of Mantua was probably cross that he had lost such a good musician. He still asked Monteverdi to write music for him. Monteverdi probably had to obey, as he was still a Mantuan citizen (Italy did not become one country until more than two centuries later). He wrote music for important events such as weddings and carnivals at Mantua.\n\nBy 1619 Monteverdi had published his seventh book of madrigals. However, he then started to publish less music. Perhaps it was because he was so busy, or perhaps because he no longer needed to look for fame. He probably wrote a lot of church music which is now lost.\n\nDuring the 1620s continued his work in Venice, although he may have tried to get other jobs. His hobbies include alchemy. He welcomed the composer Heinrich Sch\u00fctz who visited Venice for a second time. After the Duke of Mantua died in 1626 Monteverdi wrote less music for Mantua. He was supposed to receive an annual salary from them, but he often did not get it. There was a war in Mantua, a lot of buildings were destroyed and the invading armies brought the plague. Monteverdi became a priest in 1632. It is not clear whether he did this because he really was religious or whether he thought it would help his career.\n\nIn 1637 public opera was started in Venice. Monteverdi, who was now in his 70s, wrote operas for Venice. Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (1640) and L'incoronazione di Poppea (1642) form a brilliant end to his career. After the performance of this opera he made a six-month trip to Lombard and Mantua, where again he had to argue at the court about not being paid his pension. After he returned to Venice he was ill for nine days and then died.\n\nReferences\n Groves Dictionary of Music Online\n\n1567 births\n1643 deaths\n16th-century Italian composers\nBaroque composers\nPeople from Cremona\n17th-century Italian composers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":28822,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Claudio%20Monteverdi","title":"Claudio Monteverdi","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ukraine (, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. Russia is to the north-east of Ukraine, Belarus is to the north-west, Poland and Slovakia are to the west, Hungary, Romania, Moldova and self-proclaimed Transnistria are to the south-west and the Black Sea is to the south.\n\nUkraine is a republic.\nThe capital of Ukraine is Kyiv (). It was a part of the Soviet Union from 1922 until 1991.\n\nOfficial language\nThe official language of Ukraine is Ukrainian (, [ukrajin's'ka mova]). In the 2001 census, about 29% of people in Ukraine said that they consider Russian to be their main language. These two East Slavic languages are similar in some ways but different in other ways.\n\nDivision of Ukraine\nUkraine is divided into 24 oblasts and one Autonomous Republic of Crimea.\n\nThe largest cities of Ukraine\nThe largest cities in Ukraine are:\n\n Kyiv (from the late 9th century was the capital of Kyivan Rus; the capital of Ukraine since the restoration of the independent Ukrainian state in 1919)\n Kharkiv (was the capital of USSR in 1919\u20141934)\n Dnipro\n Odesa\n Zaporizhia\n Lviv\n\nName origin \nThe name \"Ukraine\" (u-krayina) has usually been interpreted as \"edge\" or \"borderland\", but this an alternative interpretation as \"territory\" has been proposed. Language specialists are still searching for evidence of the history of the meaning of the word.\n\nIt was first used in reference to a core part of the territory of Kyivan Rus in the 12th century. In English, the historical region was usually known as \"the Ukraine\". Since independence in 1991, adding \"the\" is no longer proper style for referring to the country.\n\nHistory\n\nAncient times\nMany different tribes lived on the territory of modern Ukraine since pre-historical times. Most historians believe that the Great Steppe at the North of the Black Sea was a homeland of all Indo-European and Indo-Iranian languages. Some believe it was also the birthplace of the whole European population. Wends, Goths, Huns, Sclaveni, Avars, and other tribes and tribal groups fought among themselves, joined unions, terminated, and assimilated each other.\n\nBy the middle of the 4th century AD, Antes joined other tribes and established a state under their rule.  Their state fell under the pressure of  Avars in 602\u00a0AD and their name was longer mentioned.  Since the 7th century over 10 tribal groups joined under the name \"Slavs\" and made their own state named Rus.  The chronicles mention three centers that formed this state: Kuyavia (Kyiv land with Kyiv itself), Slavia (Novgorod land), and Artania (exact location unknown).\n\nHistorians still argue about whether Kyiv was founded by Slavs themselves, or they just captured the Khazar fortress which was located on the bank of the Dnieper river, but since the 10th century, it became the capital of the largest and most powerful state in Europe.\n\nKyivan Rus \nKyivan Rus, is the medieval state of Eastern Slavs.  Established by the Slavic with the help of the Varangian squads whose force was used to integrate separate tribes and their lands into one powerful state. Varangian princes, who ruled Rus from its first years were gradually assimilated by natives, but the dynasty started by semy-legendary Rurik survived and continued to govern their separate principalities even after the collapse of Rus.\n\nAt an early stage of its existence Rus destroyed such powerful states as the Khazar Khaganate and Old Great Bulgaria.  Rus princes successfully fought against the Byzantine Empire, whose emperors had to pay tribute to them.  Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities.\n\nIn the reign of Volodymyr the Great (980-1015) the Kyivan State almost finished its expansion. It occupied the territory from Peipus, Ladoga and Onega lakes in the north to the River Don, Ros, Sula, Southern Bug in the south, from the Dniester, the Carpathians, the Neman, Western Dvina River in the west to the Volga and the Oka River in the east, its area became about 800,000\u00a0km2. Although some of his predecessors already accepted Christianity for themselves, Volodymyr decided to convert the entire population of the state to the new religion. Partially with the help of Byzantine missionaries preachers, partly by the brutal violence, he finally made all Kyiv population to be baptized. For this action, the Ukrainian, and later the Russian Orthodox Churches canonized him under the name of Vladimir the Baptist.\n\nDuring the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, (1019\u20131054), Rus reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power. Rus raised the prestige of Eastern Slavs in Europe, improved the international significance of Kyiv. Rus influenced the political relations in all of Europe, Western Asia, and the Middle East. Kyivan princes supported the political, economic, dynastic relations with France, Sweden, England, Poland, Hungary, Norway, Byzantium.\n\nThe Rus state also ruled non-Slavic people (Finno-Ugric population of the North, Turkic of the East and South, Balts of the West, etc.).  Those people gradually assimilated with the Slavs, and with each other, establishing a framework for the future emergence of three new Eastern-Slavic peoples.\n\nThe Kyivan State was an eastern outpost of European Christendom, it kept the movement of nomad hordes to the West, and reduced their onslaught against Byzantium and Central European countries.\n\nAfter the death of Mstyslav Volodymyrovych (1132), Rus lost its political unity and finally was divided into 15 principalities and lands. Among them, Kyiv, Chernygiv, Volodymyr-Suzdal, Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk, and Halycian lands and principalities were most large and powerful.\n\nMajor political conditions of fragmentation were:\n The succession among the princes of Kyivan State was different: in some regions lands passed from father to son, in others from the older to the younger brother, etc.\n The political relationship between individual fiefdoms and private lands was weakened, and the better development of certain lands led to the formation of local separatism;\n In some regions the local aristocracy required a strong prince to rule, in order to protect their rights. On the other hand,  while the feudal princes and boyars real power increased, and the power of the Grand Prince decreased, more and more nobles felt priority of their local interests above national ones;\n There was not created their own dynasty  in the Kyiv principality, because all the princely families struggled with each other for possession of Kyiv ;\n Nomads dramatically intensified their expansion to Kyivan lands.\n\nWhile Kyiv was the center of all social, economic, political, cultural, and ideological life in the country for a long time before, other centers have competed with it since the mid-12th century. There were old powers (Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk), as well as new ones...\n\nNumerous princely feuds, large and small wars between different lords, were tearing Rus. However, the ancient Ukrainian state did not fall apart.  It only changed the form of its government: The personal monarchy was replaced by the federal one, Rus came to be co-ruled by the group of the most influential and powerful princes. Historians call this way of governing \"the collective suzerainty.\" The Principality of Kyiv remained a national center and the residence of bishops.\n\nIn 1206 the new powerful military-feudal Mongolian state headed by Genghis Khan started the war of conquest against his neighbors. In 1223 in the battle near the Kalka River, 25,000 Tatar-Mongols won a crushing victory over the squads of Southern Rus Princes, who were unable to come together even in the face of grave danger. Under the leadership of Batu, Genghis Khan's grandson, from 1237 to 1238, they conquered Riazan, Volodymir, Suzdal, and Yaroslavl lands.\n\nIn 1240, they attacked Kyiv.  The city was plundered and destroyed. According to the legend, the enemy saved governor Dimitri's life for his personal courage in the battle. Then Kamenetz, Iziaslav, Volodymyr, and Halych lost against invaders.  Batu was able to attach most of Rus to his empire, the Golden Horde, which covered the whole territory from the Urals to the Black Sea,\n\nAfter the fall of Kyivan State, the political, economic, and cultural center of Ukrainian lands was transferred to the Halycian-Volyn Land.  In 1245 Prince Danylo of Halych had to admit his dependence on the Golden Horde.  Hoping to get help from Catholic Europe in his struggle for independence, he also made a secret alliance with Poland, Hungary, Masovia, and the Teutonic Knights.  In 1253 he received the crown from Pope Innocent IV and became a King of Rus. In 1259, due to the lack of military aid from the West, the king was forced to re-recognize the supremacy of the Horde. His successor, Lev I had to take part in the Tartar campaigns against Poland and Lithuania.\n\nIn 1308 the government moved to Danylo's grandchildren - Andrew and Lev II, who started the new struggle against the Golden Horde allied with the Teutonic knights and princes of Mazowia. However, after their death the last monarch Yuri II again had to claim himself as the Golden Horde vassal. He was murdered in 1340 and his death gave the rise to Poland and Lithuania (the neighbors who had a  dynastic right for the throne of Rus) to start a war for the Halycian-Volyn heritage. In 1392 Galicia, with Belz and Chelm Lands were finally incorporated to the Kingdom of Poland and Volhynia to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.\n\nAt the end of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were divided between different states. Lithuania seized Kyiv, Chernihiv, and Volyn Lands. Poland ruled in Halycian and Podolian. Southern Ukraine was under the rule of the Crimean Khanate (formed in 1447) and the Eastern under the power of Muscovy. In 1569 Lithuania and Poland merged to the united state called Commonwealth (Polish: Rzeczpospolita) to deal with neighbors, as a result, the central Ukrainian lands of Lithuania came under Polish control.\n\nEtymology \nRus, or The Kyivan State, , ; often misspelled as \"Kievan State\" or even \"Kievan Rus\", using Russian spelling of its capital Kyiv ( [\u02c8ki\u025bf]).\n\nAs for the origin and definition of the name \"Rus\", there is no consensus among researchers. Several versions exist:\n Normans (Vikings), tribes who called themselves Ruses, and founded a state among Slavs, which naturally was called 'Rus Land'. This theory originated in the 17th century and was called the 'Norman theory'. Its authors are German historians G. Bayer and G. Miller, their followers and associates are called 'Normanists';\n Ruses were a Slavic tribe that lived in the middle reaches of the Dnieper;\n Rusa - the Proto-Slavic language word which means 'river';\n\nUkrainian historians generally adhere to anti-Norman opinion, while not denying the contribution Varangians in the process of formation of the Rus state system. Russ, or The Rus Land in their opinion means:\n The name of the territory where Kyiv, Chernigov and Pereiaslav are located (Polans, Severians, Drevlians tribes);\n The name of the tribes who lived on the banks of the rivers Ros, Rosava, Rostavytsia, Roska, etc.\n The name of the Kyivan state itself since the 9th century.\n\nCossackian State\nAt the end of the 15th century, the groups of warriors who called themselves Cossacks appeared on the territory between the borders of Lithuania, Muscovy, and the Crimea, in the \"wild steppes\" of Zaporizhia.  From the 16th century, the Sich became their military centre. Zaporizhian Cossacks participated in the wars on the side of the Commonwealth: the Livonian War (1558-1583), the Polish-Muscovite War (1605-1618), Khotyn war (1620-1621), and Smolensk war (1632-1634).  Cossacks also organized their own campaigns in Moldavia, Muscovy, and Crimea, on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria and in Asia Minor for looting. They willingly became mercenaries, particularly during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).\n\nDue to the legal and social oppression of the nobility Cossacks repeatedly revolted. The largest rebellions were raised under the guidance of Kosynskiy (1591-1593), Nalyvaiko (1594-1596), Zhmaylo (1625), Fedorovych (1630), Sulima (1635), Pavlyuk (1637), and Ostryanin (1638). Cossacks, again and again, defended the rights of the Ukrainian population in the Commonwealth who experienced religious and national oppression regularly.\n\nFor the conflict in the 1850s see Crimean War.\n\n20th century \nIn 1917 an independent Ukrainian People's Republic was established.  The Red Army captured it and made it into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.\n\nSoviet Russia in the 1920s encouraged the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian culture.  In the 1930s this policy changed to making the Ukrainians into Russians.  There were mass repressions of Ukrainian poets, historians, and linguists.  As in other parts of the Soviet Union millions of people starved to death in 1932 and 1933.\n\nDuring the first years of World War II, Ukrainian nationalists collaborated with Nazis against Soviet Union hoping to reestablish Ukrainian independence or to get autonomy under the authority of Germany. Nationalists took part in mass murders of Jews, Roma people, and other victims of the Nazi regime. However, hopes of independence were ruined and Ukrainian nationalists created Ukrainian Insurgent Army which fought against Nazi Germany but against the Soviet Union (mainly Soviet partisans) for the most part. They failed to get independence. Most Ukrainians fought on the side of the Soviet Union and participated in the liberation of Ukraine from Nazi Germany.\n\nIn 1986, the fourth reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded as a result of an improper test. The accident contaminated large portions of northern Ukraine and southern Belarus with uranium, plutonium, and radioactive isotopes. It was one of only two INES level 7 accidents (the worst level) in the history of nuclear power, the other being the Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan.\n\nUnder the second Soviet occupation repressions against Ukrainian nationalists continued and lasted till the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.\n\nIn the Soviet epoch, Ukraine was renamed to so-called a \"Soviet Socialist Republic\" incorporated into Soviet Union.\nIndependence day \u2014 24 August 1991\n\nModern independence \nPresident elections: 1 December 1991, July 1994, October-November 1999, October-December 2004, January 2010\n\nParliament elections: March 1994, March 1998, March 2002, March 2006, September 2007 (prematurely), October 2012\n\nConstitution of Ukraine was adopted by Parliament (Verkhovna Rada) 28 July 1996 with changes 8 December 2004.\n\nThe political demonstrations in autumn-winter 2004 after the Presidential elections gathered millions of people all over the country. On November 26, 2004, Victor Yuschenko lost the Ukrainian presidential election (Viktor Yanukovych was declared the winner). However, Yuschenko and his followers argued that the election had been corrupted. They argued that the election results had been falsified by the Ukrainian government, in support of the opposing candidate Victor Yanukovych. They organized political demonstrations in autumn-winter 2004 that gathered millions of people all over the country. They called the demonstrations The Orange Revolution (). Former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko was an important ally of Victor Yuschenko during the demonstrations. The Constitutional Court of Ukraine ordered the second round of elections, which Yuschenko won.\n\nBig pro-European Union protests called Euromaidan () began in November 2013 and made the President go away in February.\n\nRussian-occupation of Crimea \nIn March 2014, Russia occupied Crimea, made a pseudo-referendum which proclaimed Crimea independence and annexed it. Most countries did not recognize the referendum. The EU, OSCE, USA and Ukraine demanded that Crimea be returned. Several countries sought to use economic sanctions to punish Russia's leaders for this.\n\nAfter some conflicts, the regions of Donetsk and Luhansk declared independence from Ukraine; they are known as the Donetsk People's Republic, and Luhansk People's Republic.  In both areas of Ukraine, there's a majority of Russian speakers.  \n\nIn 2016, the New Safe Confinement was built to cover the remains of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant and prevent radiation from escaping.\n\nRussian invasion\n\nOn 24 February 2022, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced the invasion and attack on Ukraine. Russia invaded Ukraine from the North, East, South, from the Black Sea and from the air (having launched hundred of missiles).\n\nMany people suffered, and people were hiding out in subway systems underground. Poland was allowing refugees into the country, but men of fighting age had to stay and fight in the military.\n\nPresidents of Ukraine\n Leonid Makarovych Kravchuk (1991\u20141994)\n Leonid Danylovych Kuchma (1994\u20142005)\n Victor Yushchenko (2005\u20142010)\n Victor Yanukovych (2010\u20142014)\n Oleksandr Turchynov (2014)\n Petro Poroshenko (2014\u20132019)\n Volodymyr Zelensky (since 2019)\n\nRelated pages\n List of rivers of Ukraine\n Ukraine at the Olympics\n Ukraine national football team\n\nReferences\n\n \n1991 establishments in Europe","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":144,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":4,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2}},"id":3464,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ukraine","title":"Ukraine","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is a chemical compound, the oxide of silicon. Its chemical symbol is SiO2. It is known for its hardness since the 16th century. It has an important compound used in most types of glass and other hard substances such as concrete, porcelain and stoneware. It is made up of 2 oxygen atoms and 1 silicon atom.\n\nSilicon dioxide exists in nature in a number of forms, including flint, quartz and opal. If it is breathed in as dust, it can cause silicosis and cancer, as the dust is trapped in the lungs. Besides the dangers of inhaling it in dust form, it is harmless.\n\nChemical compounds\nOxides","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":150,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":65835,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silicon%20dioxide","title":"Silicon dioxide","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A formation, or rock formation, is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy. \n\nA formation consists of a certain number of rock strata. They have similar lithology (rocks), sedimentary facies (appearance) or other properties. Formations are not defined on the thickness of the rock strata, and the thickness of different formations can therefore vary widely.\n\nThe concept of formally defined layers or strata is central to stratigraphy. A formation can be divided into 'members' and are themselves packed together in 'groups'.\n\nFormations were initially described as time markers, based on relative dating and the law of superposition. The divisions of the history of the Earth were the formations described and put in chronological order by the geologists and stratigraphers of the 18th and 19th centuries. \n\nRock formations are formed by sedimentary deposition in environments which may persist for hundreds of millions of years. For example, the Hammersley Basin in Pilbara, Western Australia, is a Proterozoic sedimentary basin where up to 1200 million years of sedimentation is preserved intact. Here, up to 300 million years is represented by a single unit of banded iron formation and shale.\n\nIn order \nStratigraphic groups\nFormations\nMembers\nStratum (the smallest unit)\n\n \nSedimentary rocks\nStratigraphy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":289234,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geological%20formation","title":"Geological formation","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is an object or type of material that allows the flow of charge (electric current) in one or more directions. Materials made of metal are common electrical conductors. The flow of negatively charged electrons generates electric current, positively charged holes, and positive or negative ions in some cases. \n\nIn order for current to flow within a closed electrical circuit, one charged particle does not need to travel from the component producing the current (the current source) to those consuming it (the loads). Instead, the charged particle simply needs to nudge its neighbor a finite amount, who will nudge its neighbor, and on and on until a particle is nudged into the consumer, thus powering it. Essentially what is occurring is a long chain of momentum transfer between mobile charge carriers; the Drude model of conduction describes this process more rigorously. This momentum transfer model makes metal an ideal choice for a conductor; metals, characteristically, possess a delocalized sea of electrons which gives the electrons enough mobility to collide and thus affect a momentum transfer. \n\nAs discussed above, electrons are the primary mover in metals; however, other devices such as the cationic electrolyte(s) of a battery, or the mobile protons of the proton conductor of a fuel cell rely on positive charge carriers. Insulators are non-conducting materials with few mobile charges that support only insignificant electric currents.\n\nResistance and conductance\n\nThe resistance of a given conductor depends on the material it is made of, and on its dimensions. For a given material, the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. For example, a thick copper wire has lower resistance than an otherwise-identical thin copper wire. Also, for a given material, the resistance is proportional to the length; for example, a long copper wire has higher resistance than an otherwise-identical short copper wire. The resistance  and conductance  of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be computed as\n\n \n\nwhere  is the length of the conductor, measured in metres [m], A is the cross-section area of the conductor measured in square metres [m2], \u03c3 (sigma) is the electrical conductivity measured in siemens per meter (S\u00b7m\u22121), and \u03c1 (rho) is the electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in ohm-metres (\u03a9\u00b7m). The resistivity and conductivity are proportionality constants, and therefore depend only on the material the wire is made of, not the geometry of the wire. Resistivity and conductivity are reciprocals: . Resistivity is a measure of the material's ability to oppose electric current.\n\nThis formula is not exact: It assumes the current density is totally uniform in the conductor, which is not always true in practical situation. However, this formula still provides a good approximation for long thin conductors such as wires.\n\nAnother situation this formula is not exact for is with alternating current (AC), because the skin effect inhibits current flow near the center of the conductor. Then, the geometrical cross-section is different from the effective cross-section in which current actually flows, so the resistance is higher than expected. Similarly, if two conductors are near each other carrying AC current, their resistances increase due to the proximity effect. At commercial power frequency, these  effects are significant for large conductors carrying large currents, such as busbars in an electrical substation, or large power cables carrying more than a few hundred amperes.\n\nAside from the geometry of the wire, temperature also has a significant effect on the efficacy of conductors. Temperature affects conductors in two main ways, the first is that materials may expand under the application of heat. The amount that the material will expand is governed by the thermal expansion coefficient specific to the material. Such an expansion (or contraction) will change the geometry of the conductor and therefore its characteristic resistance. However, this effect is generally small, on the order of 10\u22126. An increase in temperature will also increase the number of phonons generated within the material. A phonon is essentially a lattice vibration, or rather a small, harmonic kinetic movement of the atoms of the material. Much like the shaking of a pinball machine, phonons serve to disrupt the path of electrons, causing them to scatter. This electron scattering will decrease the number of electron collisions and therefore will decrease the total amount of current transferred.\n\nConductor materials\n\nConduction materials include metals, electrolytes, superconductors, semiconductors, plasmas and some nonmetallic conductors such as graphite and conductive polymers.\n\nCopper has a high conductivity. Annealed copper is the international standard to which all other electrical conductors are compared; the International Annealed Copper Standard conductivity is , although ultra-pure copper can slightly exceed 101% IACS.  The main grade of copper used for electrical applications, such as building wire, motor windings, cables and busbars, is electrolytic-tough pitch (ETP) copper (CW004A or ASTM designation C100140).  If high conductivity copper must be welded or brazed or used in a reducing atmosphere, then oxygen-free high conductivity copper (CW008A or ASTM designation C10100) may be used. Because of its ease of connection by soldering or clamping, copper is still the most common choice for most light-gauge wires.\n\nSilver is 6% more conductive than copper, but due to cost it is not practical in most cases. However, it is used in specialized equipment, such as satellites, and as a thin plating to mitigate skin effect losses at high frequencies.  Famously,  of silver on loan from the United States Treasury were used in the making of the calutron magnets during World War II due to wartime shortages of copper. \n\nAluminum wire is the most common metal in electric power transmission and distribution.  Although only 61% of the conductivity of copper by cross-sectional area, its lower density makes it twice as conductive by mass.  As aluminum is roughly one-third the cost of copper by weight, the economic advantages are considerable when large conductors are required.\n\nThe disadvantages of aluminum wiring lie in its mechanical and chemical properties.  It readily forms an insulating oxide, making connections heat up.  Its larger coefficient of thermal expansion than the brass materials used for connectors causes connections to loosen.  Aluminum can also \"creep\", slowly deforming under load, which also loosens connections.  These effects can be mitigated with suitably designed connectors and extra care in installation, but they have made aluminum building wiring unpopular past the service drop.\n\nOrganic compounds such as octane, which has 8 carbon atoms and 18 hydrogen atoms, cannot conduct electricity. Oils are hydrocarbons, since  carbon has the property of tetracovalency and forms covalent bonds with other elements such as hydrogen, since it does not lose or gain electrons, thus does not form ions. Covalent bonds are simply the sharing of electrons. Hence, there is no separation of ions when electricity is passed through it. Liquids made of compounds with only covalent bonds cannot conduct electricity. Certain organic ionic liquids, by contrast, can conduct an electric current. \n\nWhile pure water is not an electrical conductor, even a small portion of ionic impurities, such as salt, can rapidly transform it into a conductor.\n\nWire size\nWires are measured by their cross sectional area. In many countries, the size is expressed in square millimetres. In North America, conductors are measured by American wire gauge for smaller ones, and circular mils for larger ones.\n\nConductor ampacity\nThe ampacity of a conductor, that is, the amount of current it can carry, is related to its electrical resistance: a lower-resistance conductor can carry a larger value of current. The resistance, in turn, is determined by the material the conductor is made from (as described above) and the conductor's size. For a given material, conductors with a larger cross-sectional area have less resistance than conductors with a smaller cross-sectional area.\n\nFor bare conductors, the ultimate limit is the point at which power lost to resistance causes the conductor to melt. Aside from fuses, most conductors in the real world are operated far below this limit, however. For example, household wiring is usually insulated with PVC insulation that is only rated to operate to about 60\u00a0\u00b0C, therefore, the current in such wires must be limited so that it never heats the copper conductor above 60\u00a0\u00b0C, causing a risk of fire. Other, more expensive insulation such as Teflon or fiberglass may allow operation at much higher temperatures.\n\nIsotropy\nIf an electric field is applied to a material, and the resulting induced electric current is in the same direction, the material is said to be an isotropic electrical conductor.  If the resulting electric current is in a different direction from the applied electric field, the material is said to be an anisotropic electrical conductor.\n\nSee also\n\nBundle conductor\nCharge transfer complex\nElectrical cable\nElectrical resistivity and conductivity\n Fourth rail\n Overhead line\n Stephen Gray, first to identify electrical conductors and insulators\nSuperconductivity\n Third rail\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nPioneering and historical books\n William Henry Preece. On Electrical Conductors.  1883.\n Oliver Heaviside. Electrical Papers. Macmillan, 1894.\n\nReference books\n Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Electrical Conductors. American Society for Testing and Materials. (every year)\n IET Wiring Regulations. Institution for Engineering and Technology. wiringregulations.net\n\nExternal links\n BBC: Key Stage 2 Bitesize: Electrical Conductors\n The discovery of conductors and insulators by Gray, Dufay and Franklin.\n\nElectricity","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":129,"dup_dump_count":51,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":4,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":8,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":9,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":4,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2}},"id":198984,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrical%20conductor","title":"Electrical conductor","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A vaccination is a treatment which makes the body stronger against an infection.\n\nThe body fights infections using the immune system, which is made up of millions upon millions of cells including T cells and B cells. An important part of the adaptive immune system is that it is much stronger when fighting a disease that it has already fought against before. Vaccination involves showing the immune system something which looks very similar to a particular virus or bacteria, which helps the immune system be stronger when it is fighting against the real infection.\n\nThe  World Health Organisation estimates that vaccines save 4-5 million lives per year.\n\nVaccination versus immunization\nAnother word used for vaccines is immunization. These words mean things that are a little different. Vaccination is when a person is given something to make the immune system learn to fight an infectious disease.\n\nImmunization is when a person's immune system learns to fight an infection. Immunization can happen from vaccination. But immunization can also happen from getting the infection. For example, a person can be immune to hepatitis B if he gets sick with hepatitis B. After a person gets hepatitis B and then gets well, he is immunized from getting it again. A person can also be immunized from hepatitis B by taking the hepatitis B vaccination.\n\nSo vaccination and immunization have meanings that are a little different. But when people say these words, they usually mean the same thing.\n\nHerd immunity \n\nHerd immunity is an important part of how vaccines work. A herd is a group of animals. Herd immunity happens when most of the animals in a group are immune to an infection. If most animals are immune they cannot get the disease. If they do not get the disease, they cannot give it to other animals. So even one animal who is not immune is safer. If none of the other animals in a herd get the infection, they cannot give the infection to the one who is non immune.\n\nThis is important in people too. If 95% of people in a place are immune to a disease, the other 5% are safer. They are not near infected people, so they won't get infected.\n\nThe people who are in the 5% are there for many reasons. Some got the vaccine but did not react to it. Their immune system did not learn how to fight it well. Some of them are too sick to get the vaccine. It can be children who are too sick with other diseases to get vaccines. It can be a pregnant woman who cannot get the vaccine because it could hurt her baby. It can be a person with cancer who does not have a strong immune system. It can be an older person who has a weak immune system.\n\nSo if everyone in a place gets vaccinated, it protects these people too. If they are not protected by herd immunity, they can get more sick from an infection. They get the infection more easily and they get sicker from it. So it is important that people who are healthy get their vaccinations. It protects the healthy people. But it also is important to protect other people who are old, weak, or sick.\n\nTypes of vaccines \n\nThere are different types of vaccines:\n Inactivated vaccines contain particles (usually viruses). These have been grown for the purpose. They have been killed, using formaldehyde or by other means. But the virus still looks intact; the immune system can develop antibodies against it.\n Attenuated vaccines contain live viruses, that have been weakened. They will reproduce, but very slowly, making it an \"easy win\" for the immune system. Such vaccines cannot be used on patients with a severely weakened immune system, such as those with AIDS, as they are unable to defeat even this very weak virus. \n Subunit vaccines show antigens to the immune system, without introducing virus material.\n\nThere are various other methods. All aim to develop the immune response without allowing the full viral infection to happen.\n\nDelivery \nIn England the School Age Immunisation Services deliver vaccinations in schools  every Autumn for Human Papilloma Virus, Diphtheria, Tetanus and Polio, Meningococcal ACWY , Measles, Mumps and Rubella  and Flu.\n\nSafety of vaccination \nToday in modern countries almost all people are vaccinated, which has caused many serious diseases to become rare. However, some people argue against vaccination, as they are worried about possible side effects from the vaccination.\n\nVaccinations do have some side effects. These include swelling and redness around the injection site, a sore arm, or fever. These effects are because of the immune system fighting with the viruses or bacteria which have been injected. Very rarely, the immune system overreacts so much to the virus that the immune system damages other areas in the body.\n\nAs well as these real side effects of vaccinations, some people believe that vaccines cause other serious problems like autism, brain damage, or diabetes. There is no evidence for this. Almost all doctors and scientists believe that vaccination does not cause any of these things.\n\nOverall, the vast majority of medical professionals and scientists believe that vaccinations are a good thing and that the benefits of avoiding diseases are far greater than the very small risk of side effects. All medical organizations around the world, including the World Health Organization(WHO), the American Medical Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and the United States Centers for Disease Control support vaccination.\n\nOrigin \nThe word \"vaccine\" was created by Edward Jenner. The word comes from the Latin word vacca, meaning cow. A virus that mainly affects cows (Cowpox) was used in the first scientific demonstration that giving a person one virus could protect against a related and more dangerous one.\n\nHistory of vaccination \n\nThe first vaccination ever was for smallpox. The earliest hints of the practice of inoculation for smallpox in China come during the 10th century.\n\nIn 1796 an English doctor, Edward Jenner, noticed something. He saw that people who got cowpox did not get sick from smallpox. He gave a young boy the cowpox virus to protect him from smallpox. This was done by scratching liquid from cowpox sores into the boy's skin. This same method using the liquid from sores was also used to give people smallpox. People did this so they might get smallpox on one place on their bodies. Then they could pick which body part got scars from smallpox. But sometimes people who did this got very sick from smallpox. Some even died. This was a dangerous thing to do. But people did it because it was less dangerous than getting smallpox.\n\nEdward Jenner gave the boy cowpox in the same way people tried to give smallpox. Six weeks later, he scratched smallpox into the boy's skin. The boy did not get sick from smallpox. This boy was the first person ever to get a vaccination.\n\nIt was not until almost 100 years after the smallpox vaccination that the next vaccine for cholera was found in 1879. After that, vaccines for many types of infectious diseases became available.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n World Health Organization about vaccines \n Sabin Vaccine Institute\n Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research \n Walter Reed National Vaccine Healthcare Centers Network (US) \n American Academy of Pediatrics Vaccine Information \n Vaccination -Citizendium \n\nImmunization","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":13421,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vaccination","title":"Vaccination","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sir Isaac Newton  (25 December 1643\u00a0\u2013 20 March 1726\/27) was an English physicist, mathematician and astronomer. He is well known for his work on the laws of motion, optics, gravity, and calculus. In 1687, Newton published a book called the Philosophi\u00e6 Naturalis Principia Mathematica in which he presents his theory of universal gravitation and  three laws of motion.\n\nNewton built the first practical reflecting telescope in 1668. He also developed a theory of light based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the colors of the rainbow. Newton also shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus. \n\nNewton's ideas on light, motion, and gravity dominated physics for the next three centuries, until modified by Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.\n\nAfter being knighted in 1705 because he was Master of the Royal Mint, he was \"Sir\" Isaac Newton.\n\nLife\n\nEarly life \nIsaac Newton was born (according to the Julian calendar, in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 (N.S. 4 January 1643) \"an hour or two after midnight\", at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire, England. His father, also named Isaac Newton, died three months before his birth. When Newton was three, his mother, Hannah Ayscough, remarried with Reverend Barnabas Smith. Young Newton remained with his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough.\n\nFrom 1655 to 1659, Newton was educated at The King's School, Grantham. When he was seventeen, he was removed from school. His mother tried to make him a farmer, but he did not like that. Henry Stokes, master at The King's School, requested his mother to send him back to school.\n\nIn June 1661, he was sent to the University of Cambridge to study.\n\nDiscoveries \nIn 1666 Isaac Newton experimented with light, and found that different colors had different refractions. He began lecturing on this topic in 1670.\n\nNewton explained the workings of the universe through mathematics. He described laws of motion and gravitation. These laws are math formulas that explain how objects move when a force acts on them. Newton published his most famous book, Principia, in 1687 while he was a mathematics professor at Trinity College, Cambridge. In the Principia, Newton explained three basic laws that govern the way objects move. He then described his idea, or theory, about gravity. Gravity is the force that causes things to fall down. If a pencil fell off a desk, it will land on the floor, not the ceiling. In his book Newton also used his laws to show that the planets revolve around the suns in orbits that are oval, not round. Newton also discovered diffraction. This led him to enter the field of physics, where he prospered.\n\nNewton's Three Laws Of Motion \n\nFollowing are the three laws of motion.\n The first law (Law of Inertia)\n Newton's first law of motion states is that an object that is not being pushed or pulled by some force will stay still, or will keep moving in a straight line at a steady speed. It is easy to understand that a rocket will not move unless something pushes or pulls it. It is harder to understand that an object will continue to move without help. Think of the rocket again. If someone is flying a rocket and jumps off before the rocket is stopped, what happens? The rocket continues on until it goes into space. The tendency of an object to remain still, or keep moving in a straight line at a steady speed is called inertia.\n The second law (Law of Acceleration)\n The second law explains how a force acts on an object. An object accelerates in the direction the force is moving it. If someone gets on a bicycle and pushes the pedals forward the bicycle will begin to move. If someone gives the bicycle a push from behind, the bicycle will speed up. If the rider pushes back on the pedals the bicycle will slow down. If the rider turns the handlebars, the bicycle will change direction. The formula showing this law is F=m*a, or the force acting on an object is equal to mass times acceleration.\n The third law (Law of Reciprocal Actions)\n The third law states that if an object is pushed or pulled, the object will push or pull equally in the opposite direction. If someone lifts a heavy box, they use force to push it up. The box is heavy because it is producing an equal force downward on the lifter's arms. The weight is transferred through the lifter's legs to the floor. The floor presses upward with an equal force. If the floor pushed back with less force, the person lifting the box would fall through the floor. If it pushed back with more force the lifter would fly into the air.\n\nOne proposed \"zeroth law\" is the fact that at any instant, a body reacts to the forces applied to it at that instant. Likewise, the idea that forces add like vectors (or in other words obey the superposition principle ), and the idea that forces change the energy of a body, have each been proposed as a \"fourth law\".\n\nThe discovery of the Law of Gravitation \n\nWhen most people think of Isaac Newton, they think of him sitting under an apple tree watching an apple fall. Some people believe the apple fell onto his head. Newton understood that what makes things like apples fall to the ground is a specific kind of force \u2014 the force we call gravity. Newton thought that gravity was the force of attraction between two objects, such as an apple and the earth. He also thought that an object with more matter exerted the same force on smaller objects as they exerted on it. That meant that the large mass of the earth pulled objects toward it. That is why the apple fell down instead of up, and why people do not float in the air.\n\nIsaac Newton went on thinking about gravity. Before Newton, people thought that only objects near to the earth would fall down. But Newton thought that gravity should not just be limited to the earth and the objects on it. What if gravity went to the moon and beyond?\n\nNewton invented a formula for calculating the force of attraction between two bodies. He used it to calculate the force needed to keep the moon moving around the earth. Then he compared it with the force that made the apple fall downward. After allowing for the fact that the moon is much farther from the earth, and has a much greater mass, he discovered that the forces were the same. The moon is held in an orbit around the earth by the pull of earth's gravity.\n\nThe formula invented by Newton is called the Law of gravitation.\n\nImpact \nSir Isaac Newton's calculations changed the way people understood the universe. No one had been able to explain why the planets stayed in their orbits. What held them up? Less than 50 years before Isaac Newton was born it was thought that the planets were held in place by an invisible shield. Isaac proved that they were held in place by the sun's gravity. He also showed that the force of gravity was affected by distance and by mass. He was not the first to understand that the orbit of a planet was not circular, but more elongated, like an oval. What he did was to explain how it worked.\n\nIsaac Newton was the first to discover the laws of gravitation and the laws of motion. He also established a new field in mathematics known as calculus, though the German Gottfried Leibniz had developed the ideas at the same time. His work has greatly contributed in the areas of science and mathematics making him one of the most influential scientists in human history and one of the greatest mathematician of all times.\n\nThe great physicist, Albert Einstein, thought that Newton's idea of gravity was not completely accurate. He corrected many of the things that Newton did.\n\nDeath \nIsaac Newton died a virgin on  in London, England.\n\nHe is buried in Westminster Abbey. He set the stage for many famous physicists to come. such as Albert Einstein, James Chadwick, and Stephen Hawking.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n What did Isaac Newton invent?\n\n1643 births\n1727 deaths\nEnglish mathematicians\nEnglish physicists\nEnglish science writers\nFellows of the Royal Society\nPeople buried in Westminster Abbey\nPresidents of the Royal Society\nBritish theoretical physicists\nWriters from Lincolnshire","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":5,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":5,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":5123,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Isaac%20Newton","title":"Isaac Newton","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A shrub or bush is a category of plants. A tree usually has one stem, which at some height has branches. A shrub can have multiple stems from the bottom up. Usually, bushes do not grow as tall as trees, very often they are less than 1\u20132 m tall.\n\nVery many  plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen.\n\nA shrubbery is a garden with shrubs as the main feature.\n\nShrubs as a botanical structural form \nIn botany and ecology a shrub is more specifically used to describe the particular physical structural or plant life-form of woody plants which are less than 8 meters high and usually have many stems arising at or near the base.\n\nFor example, a descriptive system widely used in Australia is based on structural characteristics based on life-form, plus the height and amount of foliage cover of the tallest layer or dominant species.\n\nFor shrubs 2\u20138 m high the following structural forms are categorized:\n dense foliage cover (70\u2013100%) \u2014 closed-scrub\n mid-dense foliage cover (30\u201370%) \u2014 open-scrub\n sparse foliage cover (10\u201330%) \u2014 tall shrubland\n very sparse foliage cover (<10%) \u2014 tall open shrubland\n\nFor shrubs less than 2 m high the following structural forms are categorized:\n dense foliage cover (70\u2013100%) \u2014 closed-heath\n mid-dense foliage cover (30\u201370%) \u2014 heath\n sparse foliage cover (10\u201330%) \u2014 low shrubland\n very sparse foliage cover (<10%) \u2014 low open shrubland\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\nSelecting Shrubs for Your Home (University of Illinois Extension)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":151,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":21014,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shrub","title":"Shrub","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Content management (CM) is a set of processes and technologies that supports the collection, managing, and publishing of information in any form or medium. When stored and accessed via computers, this information may be more specifically referred to as digital content, or simply as content.  \n Digital content may take the form of text (such as electronic documents), images, multimedia files (such as audio or video files), or any other file type that follows a content lifecycle requiring management.\n The process of content development and management and is complex enough that various commercial software vendors (large and small), such as Interwoven and Microsoft, offer content management software to control and automate significant aspects of the content lifecycle.\n\nProcess\nContent management practices and goals vary by mission and by organizational governance structure.\nNews organizations, e-commerce websites, and educational institutions all use content management, but in different ways. This leads to differences in terminology and in the names and number of steps in the process.\n\nFor example, some digital content is created by one or more authors. Over time that content may be edited. One or more individuals may provide some editorial oversight, approving the content for publication.\n\nPublishing may take many forms: it may be the act of \"pushing\" content out to others, or simply granting digital access rights to certain content to one or more individuals. Later that content may be superseded by another version of the content and thus retired or removed from use (as when this wiki page is modified).\n\nContent management is an inherently collaborative process. It often consists of the following basic roles and responsibilities:\n\n Creator \u2013 responsible for creating and editing content.\n Editor \u2013 responsible for tuning the content message and the style of delivery, including translation and localization.\n Publisher \u2013 responsible for releasing the content for use.\n Administrator \u2013 responsible for managing access permissions to folders, collections and files, usually accomplished by assigning access rights to user groups or roles. Admins may also assist and support users in various ways.\n Consumer, viewer or guest \u2013 the person who reads or otherwise consumes the content after it is published or shared.\n\nA critical aspect of content management is the ability to manage versions of content as it evolves (see also version control). Authors and editors often need to restore older versions of edited products due to a process failure or an undesirable series of edits. Time-sensitive content may also require updates as the subject matter evolves over time.\n\nAnother equally important aspect of content management involves the creation, maintenance, and application of review standards. Each member of the content creation and review process has a unique role and set of responsibilities in the development or publication of the content. Each review team member requires clear and concise review standards. These must be maintained on an ongoing basis to ensure the long-term consistency and health of the knowledge base.\n\nA content management system is a set of automated processes that may support the following features:\n\n Import and creation of documents and multimedia material\n Identification of all key users and their roles\n The ability to assign roles and responsibilities to different instances of content categories or types\n Definition of workflow tasks often coupled with messaging so that content managers are alerted to changes in content\n The ability to track and manage multiple versions of a single instance of content\n The ability to publish the content to a repository to support access\n The ability to personalize content based on a set of rules\n\nIncreasingly, the repository is an inherent part of the system, and incorporates enterprise search and retrieval. Content management systems take the following forms:\n\n Web content management system\u2014software for web site management (often what content management implicitly means)\n Output of a newspaper editorial staff organization\n Workflow for article publication\n Document management systems\n Knowledge management software\n Single source content management system\u2014content stored in chunks within a relational database\n Variant management system\u2014where personnel tag source content (usually text and graphics) to represent variants stored as single source \"master\" content modules, resolved to the desired variant at publication (for example: automobile owners manual content for 12 model years stored as single master content files and \"called\" by model year as needed)\u2014often used in concert with database chunk storage (see above) for large content objects\n\nGovernance structures\nContent management expert Marc Feldman defines three primary content management governance structures: localized, centralized, and federated\u2014each having its unique strengths and weaknesses.\n\nLocalized governance\nBy putting control in the hands of those closest to the content, the context experts, localized governance models empower and unleash creativity.  These benefits come, however, at the cost of a partial-to-total loss of managerial control and oversight.\n\nCentralized governance\nWhen the levers of control are strongly centralized, content management systems are capable of delivering an exceptionally clear and unified brand message.  Moreover, centralized content management governance structures allow for a large number of cost-savings opportunities in large enterprises, realized, for example, (1) the avoidance of duplicated efforts in creating, editing, formatting, repurposing and archiving content, (2) through process management and the streamlining of all content related labor, and\/or (3) through an orderly deployment or updating of the content management system.\n\nFederated governance\nFederated governance models potentially realize the benefits of both localized and centralized control while avoiding the weaknesses of both. While content management software systems are inherently structured to enable federated governance models, realizing these benefits can be difficult because it requires, for example, negotiating the boundaries of control with local managers and content creators.  In the case of larger enterprises, in particular, the failure to fully implement or realize a federated governance structure equates to a failure to realize the full return on investment and cost savings that content management systems enable.\n\nImplementation\nContent management implementations must be able to manage content distributions and digital rights in content life cycle. Content management systems are usually involved with digital rights management in order to control user access and digital rights. In this step, the read-only structures of digital rights management systems force some limitations on content management, as they do not allow authors to change protected content in their life cycle. Creating new content using managed (protected) content is also an issue that gets protected contents out of management controlling systems. A few content management implementations cover all these issues.\n\nSee also\n\n Content delivery\n Content engineering\n Content Management Interoperability Services\n Content management system (CMS)\n Digital asset management\n Enterprise content management\n Enterprise information management\n Information architecture\n List of content management systems\n Single source publishing\n Snippet management\n Web content lifecycle\n Web design\n Website governance\n Personalization management system\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n Teleperformance Content Moderation Service\n Multimedia Digital Content Management Platform\n \n \n \n \n\nTechnical communication\nData management\nContent management systems\n\nfr:Syst\u00e8me de gestion de contenu","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":147,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":2,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":7,"2016-44":6,"2016-40":7,"2016-36":7,"2016-30":7,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":5,"2015-35":6,"2015-32":7,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":1}},"id":223240,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content%20management","title":"Content management","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Authority is the ability of a person or an organization to conduct a certain lifestyle for another person or a group. Authority is known as one of the basis of society and stands against cooperation. Adopting lifestyle patterns as a result of authority is called obedience and authority as a concept includes most leadership cases.\n\nAlthough authority is usually described as human there is also frequent mention of divine authority.\n\nAuthority is made by a certain social power. This power might be materialistic (such as a threat to harm someone) or fictitious (such as belief in a certain person's power). The power exists because of the possible use of sanction : An action who harms a person who's not obeying the authority or threatening it in order to conduct a social power.\n\nAuthority may exists in a direct way by virtue of an actual power (such as a threat of imprisonment), which is called \"forcing\", or by legitimization that the subject gives to the authority (such as recognition of aristocratic authority). In most cases both types exist.\n\nOnly a few authorities are based on physical power, most are based on an organizational authority system. In this way, the authoritys ability to act depends on her existence.\n\nFor example: the authority of a state leader takes part when there is some sort of a police that punishes individuals that do not obey him. The policeman are subordinated to the leader and his rules because they are also under the police threat. If all citizens of the state choose to deny the leader and his rules, the authority will be lost, but the very fact that the authority semi-exists allowes it to be full.\n\nObedience\n\nObedience, as said, is the sign that means authority is being enforced. While obedience is the law, disobedience, insubordination and crime are a violation and resistance to the authority. \n\nTheoretically, violation of the authority drags with it a sanction or punishment that's given by the authority owner. The severity of the sanction and the threat it presents are based on the particular social situation, on the balance of power, on the local norms and so on.\n\nStanley Milgram was a psychologist who was interested in obedience. He designed an experiment to measured how willing people were to do what an authority figure told them to do. The experiment had three participants. The person running the experiment told one participant, the volunteer, to pretend to be a teacher. Another participant was an actor, but the volunteer didn't know this. The actor's role was to be the teacher's student. The actor and the volunteer were separated with a wall. The person running the experiment told the volunteer to test their \"student\"'s ability to remember pairs of words. When the teacher's \"student\" remembered a pair of words incorrectly, the experimenter told the teacher to give the student an electric shock from an electroshock generator. The electric shocks were not real, but the volunteer did not know this. Every time the student got a question wrong, the voltage of the shock went up by 15 volts. In Milgram's first set of experiments, 65% of the volunteers gave the highest shock. It was 450 volts. Milgram had two theories for why he got the results he did. \nThe first is the theory of conformism. Milgram based this theory on Solomon Asch's conformity experiments. \nThe second is the agentic state theory. According to agentic state theory, the participants who obeyed the experimenter's orders did this because they did not see themselves as responsible for their actions.\n\nCriticism\nMany people criticize people in authority, and some even criticize the existence of authority. Anarchism is a philosophy that opposes all forms of authority.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages\nAuthoritarianism\nConformity\nHierarchy\n\nBasic English 850 words\nHierarchy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":8463,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authority","title":"Authority","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A contract is an agreement or promise that the law can enforce. The law will enforce some agreements but not others. For example, in most places, if a parent promises to take a child to get ice cream, the law will not enforce that promise as a legal contract.\n\nThe legal rules about which promises are enforced by the law can be different in different places (or jurisdictions), but a contract is usually enforced only if it is made by people or groups who want it to be enforced and who know what they are doing.\n\nSometimes, a contract is written down and signed by the people agreeing to it, but it does not always need to be. People usually sign a contract when something important or costly is being done. For example, when people take a job, they will sometimes sign a contract with their employers. The contract will show what the person must do as part of his job, how much they will be paid, and so on. The person and the employer will sign the contract, and it will become a legal promise.\n\nIf someone breaks a contract, another person might sue him or her. In a lawsuit about a contract, the court will look at the contract, listen to what the people who made the contract say about it, and then make a decision about what the contract means.\n\nRelated pages\n Law \n Oath\nDocuments\n\nBusiness law","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":4060,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contract","title":"Contract","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher FRS (17 February 1890 \u2013 29 July 1962) was an English statistician, evolutionary biologist, and geneticist. He was described as \"a genius who almost single-handedly created the foundations for modern statistical science\". Richard Dawkins described him as \"the greatest of Darwin's successors\".\n\nProfessional years \n\nIn 1915, he invented the infinitesimal model. This is also known as the polygenic model. It is named this because it says traits are influenced by many genes. He defined the term \"variance\" for the first time in his paper, published in 1918.\n\nIn 1919 Fisher started work at Rothamsted Experimental Station at Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England.  Here he started a major study of the extensive collections of data recorded over many years.  This resulted in a series of reports under the general title Studies in crop variation.\n\nThis began a period of great productivity.  Over the next seven years, he pioneered the principles of the design of experiments and elaborated his studies of the analysis of variance. He studied the statistics of small samples. Perhaps even more important, he began his systematic approach of the analysis of real data as the springboard for the development of new statistical methods.\n\nHe began to pay particular attention to the labour involved in the necessary computations, and developed practical methods. In 1925, his first book was published: Statistical methods for research workers. This went into many editions and translations in later years, and became a standard reference work for scientists in many disciplines. In 1935, this was followed by The design of experiments, which also became a standard.\n\nHis work on the theory of population genetics made him one of the three great figures of that field, together with Sewall Wright and J.B.S. Haldane. He was one of the founders of the neo-Darwinian modern evolutionary synthesis. In addition to founding modern quantitative genetics with his 1918 paper, he was the first to use diffusion equations to attempt to calculate the distribution of gene frequencies among populations.\n\nHe pioneered the estimation of genetic linkage and gene frequencies by maximum likelihood methods. His 1950 paper on gene frequency clines is notable as the first application of a computer to biology.\n\nFisher had a long and successful collaboration with E.B. Ford in the field of ecological genetics. The outcome of this work was the recognition that the force of natural selection was often much stronger than had been appreciated. Many ecogenetic situations (such as polymorphism) were not selectively neutral, on the contrary, they were maintained by the force of selection.\n\nFisher was the original author of the idea of heterozygote advantage, which was later found to play a frequent role in genetic polymorphism. The discovery of indisputable cases of natural selection in nature was one of the main strands in the modern evolutionary synthesis.\n\nFisher's genetical theory and eugenics \n\nFisher was an ardent promoter of eugenics, and he held the Chair in Eugenics at University College London from 1933 until he moved to Cambridge University as Professor of Genetics in 1943.\n\nBetween 1929 and 1934 the Eugenics Society also campaigned hard for a law permitting sterilisation on eugenic grounds. They believed that it should be entirely voluntary, and a right, not a punishment. They published a draft of a proposed bill, and it was submitted to Parliament. Although it was defeated by a 2:1 ratio, this was viewed as progress, and the campaign continued. Fisher played a major role in this movement, and served in several official committees to promote it.\n\nIn 1934, Fisher moved to increase the power of scientists within the Eugenics Society, but was ultimately thwarted by members with an environmentalist point of view, and he, along with many other scientists, resigned.\n\nFisher's books \nFisher wrote three books of great significance.\n\nThe Genetical Theory of Natural Selection \nHis book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection was started in 1928 and published in 1930, with a second edition in 1950. He developed ideas on sexual selection, mimicry and the evolution of dominance. He showed that the probability of a mutation increasing the fitness of an organism decreases proportionately with the magnitude of the mutation. He also proved that larger populations carry more variation and have a larger chance of survival. He set forth the foundations of what was to become known as population genetics.\n\nAbout a third of the book concerned the applications of these ideas to humans, and presented the data available at that time. He presented a theory that attributed the decline and fall of civilizations to the fertility of the upper classes being low. Using the census data of 1911 for Britain, he showed that there was an inverse relationship between fertility and social class. This was partly due, he believed, to the rise in social status of families who were not capable of producing many children but who rose because of the financial advantage of having a small number of children.\n\nTherefore he proposed the abolishment of the economic advantage of small families by instituting subsidies (he called them allowances) to families with larger numbers of children, with the allowances proportional to the earnings of the father. He himself had two sons and six daughters. According to Yates and Mather, \"His large family, reared in conditions of great financial stringency, was a personal expression of his genetic and evolutionary convictions\".\n\nThe book was reviewed, among others, by physicist Charles Galton Darwin, a grandson of Charles Darwin's. After his review, C.G. Darwin sent Fisher his copy of the book, with notes in the margin. The marginal notes became the food for a correspondence running at least three years. Fisher's book also had a major influence on W.D. Hamilton and the development of his theories on the genetic basis for kin selection.\n\nStatistical Methods for Research Workers \nStatistical Methods for Research Workers () is a classic 1925 book on statistics by Fisher. It is one of the 20th century's most influential books on statistical methods. According to Conniffe,\nRonald A. Fisher was \"interested in application and in the popularization\nof statistical methods... his early book Statistical Methods for Research Workers, published in 1925, went through many editions and influenced the practical use of statistics in many fields of\nstudy.\n\nDesign of Experiments \nFisher's Design of Experiments (1935) was \"also fundamental, [and promoted] statistical technique and application... The mathematical justification of the methods was not stressed and proofs were often barely sketched or omitted altogether .... [This] led H.B. Mann to fill the gaps with a rigorous mathematical treatment in his treatise\".\n\nReferences \n\n1890 births\n1962 deaths\nEnglish biologists\nEnglish mathematicians\nEnglish evolutionary biologists\nEugenics\nFellows of the Royal Society\nEnglish geneticists\nScientists from London\nBritish statisticians","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"unknown":5}},"id":116182,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ronald%20Fisher","title":"Ronald Fisher","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet,  (14 November 1797 \u2013 22 February 1875) was a British geologist. He was the foremost geologist of his day, and an influence on the young Charles Darwin. His work was rewarded with a knighthood, and later he was created a hereditary baronet.\n\nThe house of his birth is in the Scottish Lowlands. it is in the valley of the Highland Boundary Fault, one of the great features of Scottish geology. Round the house is farmland, but within a short distance to the north-west are the Grampian Mountains in the Scottish Highlands. \n\nCharles would have seen this view from his house as a child. He was also fortunate that his family's second home was in a completely different area: at Bartley Lodge in the New Forest, England. Both these places lit his interest in the natural world.\n\nLyell was a rich man, and earned more money as an author. He came from a prosperous family, and worked briefly as a lawyer in the 1820s. He held was a Professor of Geology at King's College London in the 1830s. From 1830 onward his books gave him both income and fame.\n\nLyell's Principles of Geology was his most famous and most important book. It was first published in three volumes, in 1830\u201333. The book was about the ideas of James Hutton, but with many additions, improvements and examples. The book made Lyell to be known as an important geological theorist. It was a work of synthesis, backed by his own personal observations on his travels.\n\nThe central argument in Principles was that the present is the key to the past. This was called by William Whewell 'uniformitarianism'. Geological remains from the distant past are explained by processes we can see operating now. Lyell's interpretation of geologic change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a big influence on his young friend, Charles Darwin.\n\nOther websites \n Charles Lyell -Citizendium\n\n1797 births\n1875 deaths\n\nBritish naturalists\nBritish geologists\nScottish scientists\nKnights Bachelor\nBaronets\nEnglish science writers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":199791,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles%20Lyell","title":"Charles Lyell","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Union Council or Village Council in Pakistan is an elected local government body that has 21 councillors. They are elected by the people. Each Union Council is headed by a Nazim, which is similar to a mayor, and a Naib Nazim (similar to a deputy mayor).\n\nAdministration \nUnion Councils are the fifth level (the lowest level) of government in Pakistan. Union Councils are often known as Village Councils in rural areas, esp. in KP during the PTI Government provincial reforms.\nThe area represented by a Village Council usually comprises a large village and surrounding areas, often including nearby smaller villages. The term \"Union Council\" may be used for areas that are part of cities.\n\nEach Union Council is governed by a Union Nazim (similar to a mayor), each union council has 13 elected members known as councillors. As well as four male and two female members elected directly, there are two male and two female representatives of the labour, a minority member, a Nazim and his deputy known as Naib Nazim.\n\nAlso as well as the elected members, there are several government employees and functionaries in every union council, who report to the Secretary of the Union Council. The last one is a civil servant appointed by the state.\n\nThe territory of a Union Council or Village Council is usually part of a tehsil, (a tehsil is a district subdivision). Less commonly, a Union Council may be part of a City District.\n\nStructure of local Government  \nShown below is a simplified structure of the political hierarchy.\n the federal government governs the provinces (allocation of resources and policy decisions. \n the provinces govern the districts etc. \n the union councils are involved directly in local government administration.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n \n\nLocal government of Pakistan","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":135,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":99220,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Union%20councils%20of%20Pakistan","title":"Union councils of Pakistan","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Metaphysics of Quality (MOQ) is a theory of reality introduced in Robert M. Pirsig's philosophical novel, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance (1974) and expanded in Lila: An Inquiry into Morals (1991). The MOQ incorporates facets of Sophistry, East Asian philosophy, pragmatism, the work of F. S. C. Northrop, and Indigenous American philosophy. Pirsig argues that the MOQ is a better lens through which to view reality than the subjective\/objective mindset that Pirsig attributes to Aristotle. Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance references the Sanskrit doctrine of Tat Tvam Asi (\"Thou art that\"), which asserts an existential monism as opposed to the subject\u2013object dualism.\n\nDevelopment\nThe Metaphysics of Quality originated with Pirsig's college studies as a biochemistry student at the University of Minnesota.  He describes in Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance that as he studied, he found the number of rational hypotheses for any given phenomenon appeared to be unlimited. It seemed to him this would seriously undermine the validity of the scientific method. His studies began to suffer as he pondered the question and eventually he was expelled from the university.\n\nAfter spending some time in Korea as a soldier, Pirsig concluded that Oriental philosophy was a better place to search for ultimate answers. On his return home from Korea, Pirsig read F. S. C. Northrop's book The Meeting of East and West which related Western culture to the culture of East Asia in a systematic way.  In 1950, Pirsig continued his philosophical studies at Banaras Hindu University, where he came across the Sanskrit doctrine of Tat Tvam Asi\u00a0\u2014in his words, \"Thou art that, which asserts that everything you think you are (Subjective), and everything you think you perceive (Objective), are undivided. To fully realize this lack of division is to become enlightened.\" The nature of mystical experience plays an underlying role throughout his work.\n\nIn the late 1950s and early 1960s, Pirsig taught rhetoric at Montana State College\u00a0\u2013 Bozeman and, with the encouragement of an older colleague, Sarah Vinke, decided to explore what exactly was meant by the term quality. He assigned his students the task of defining the word. This, coupled with a Native American Church peyote ceremony he attended with an anthropologist friend, James Verne Dusenberry, led Pirsig into what he called \"a mushroom cloud of thought.\" Pirsig began developing his ideas about quality in his first book, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, and expanded and codified his ideas into the MOQ in Lila.\n\nQuality \n\n\"Quality,\" or \"value,\" as described by Pirsig, cannot be defined because it empirically precedes any intellectual construction of it, namely due to the fact that quality (as Pirsig explicitly defines it) exists always as a perceptual experience before it is ever thought of descriptively or academically. Quality is the \"knife-edge\" of experience, found only in the present, known or at least potentially accessible to all of \"us\" (cf. Plato's Phaedrus, 258d). Equating it with the Tao, Pirsig postulates that Quality is the fundamental force in the universe stimulating everything from atoms to animals to evolve and incorporate ever greater levels of Quality. According to the MOQ, everything (including ideas, and matter) is a product and a result of Quality.\n\nStatic quality patterns and dynamic quality \nThe MOQ maintains that Quality itself is undefinable (Tao), but to better understand it, Pirsig breaks quality down into two (\"knife-edge\") forms: static quality patterns (patterned) and dynamic quality (unpatterned). The four patterns of static quality as well as dynamic quality account exhaustively for all of (\"knife-edged\") reality. As the initial (cutting edge) dynamic quality becomes habituated, it turns into static patterns (viz. data, expectations). Pirsig is not proposing a duality: quality is one, \"every last bit of it\", yet manifests itself differently. Rather than dualism, this manifestation of quality in terms of dynamic and static aspects represents a dialectical monism.\n\nDynamic quality \nAccording to Pirsig, East Asian philosophers and American Indian mystics, dynamic quality\/the Tao\/God\/the One cannot be defined.  It can only be understood intellectually through the use of analogy.  Pirsig calls dynamic quality \"the pre-intellectual cutting edge of reality\" because it is recognized before it can be conceptualized. This is why the dynamic beauty of a piece of music can be recognized before a static analysis explaining why the music is beautiful can be constructed.\n\nStatic quality patterns \nDynamic quality can be poetically described as the force of change in the universe; however, when an aspect of Quality becomes repeated, it becomes static. Pirsig defines 'static quality' patterns as everything which can be defined. Everything found in a dictionary, for instance, is a static quality pattern. Pirsig then divides static quality into inorganic, biological, social, and intellectual patterns, in ascending order of morality (based on evolutionary order). These static forms, if they have enough 'high' or 'low' quality, are given names and are interchanged with other \"sentient beings\", building the base of knowledge for a culture. \n \nInorganic patterns: non-living things \nBiological patterns: living things \nSocial patterns: behaviors, habits, rituals, institutions. \nIntellectual patterns: ideas \n \nPirsig describes evolution as the moral progression of these patterns of value. For example, a biological pattern overcoming an inorganic pattern (e.g. bird flight which overcomes gravity) is a moral thing because a biological pattern is a higher form of evolution. Likewise, an intellectual pattern of value overcoming a social one (e.g. civil rights) is a moral development because intellect is a higher form of evolution than society. Therefore, decisions about one's conduct during any given day can be made using the Metaphysics of Quality. Pirsig is not proposing criticism or responsibility, but acceptance, and pure absorption: \"When he wrote it he felt momentary fright and was about to strike out the words \"All of it. Every last bit of it.\" Madness there. I think he saw it. But he couldn't see any logical reason to strike these words out and it was too late now for faintheartedness. He ignored his warning and let the words stand.\"-ZMM, Ch.20 \n\n\"Good is a noun. That was it. That was what Phaedrus had been looking for. That was the homer, over the fence, that ended the ball game. Good as a noun rather than as an adjective is all the Metaphysics of Quality is about. Of course, the ultimate Quality isn't a noun or an adjective or anything else definable, but if you had to reduce the whole Metaphysics of Quality to a single sentence, that would be it.\"-Lila, The End\n\n\"The language we've inherited confuses this. We say \"my\" body and \"your\" body and \"his\" body and \"her\" body, but it isn't that way. \u2026 This Cartesian \"Me,\" this autonomous little homunculus who sits behind our eyeballs looking out through them in order to pass judgment on the affairs of the world, is just completely ridiculous. This self-appointed little editor of reality is just an impossible fiction that collapses the moment one examines it.\"-ZMM, Ch.15\n\n\"Another immoral way of killing the static patterns is to pass the patterns to someone else, in what Phaedrus called a 'karma dump.' ... If you take all this karmic garbage and make yourself feel better by passing it on to others that's normal. That's the way the world works. But if you manage to absorb it and not pass it on, that's the highest moral conduct of all.\"-Lila, Ch.32\n\nSee also \n Charles Sanders Peirce \n Platonism, Plato \n Pragmatism \n Taoism, Tao \n William James \n Energy quality \n Flow (psychology) \n C. S. Lewis (esp. The Abolition of Man) \n John Dewey\n Alfred North Whitehead and process philosophy\n William Kingdon Clifford's mindstuff and tribal self\n\nReferences\n\nSources \n Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values (1974)  \n Lila: An Inquiry into Morals (1991)  \n Guidebook to Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by R. DiSanto and T. J. Steele (1990)  \n \"Lila's Child: An Inquiry into Quality (2002) \n Granger, David A.: John Dewey, Robert Pirsig, and the Art of Living: Revisioning Aesthetic Education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.\n \"The Truth About Art: Reclaiming Quality\" by Patrick Doorly (2013)\n\nExternal links \n moq.org \u2013 Essays, interviews and reviews pertaining to Pirsig's Metaphysics of Quality\n\nAxiological theories\nRobert M. Pirsig\nOntology\nMetaphysical theories\nQuality","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":168,"dup_dump_count":60,"dup_details":{"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":4,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":6,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":9,"2014-15":6,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":8}},"id":5461167,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pirsig%27s%20Metaphysics%20of%20Quality","title":"Pirsig's Metaphysics of Quality","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u00c9tienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (15 April 1772 \u2013 19 June 1844) was a French naturalist who established the principle of \"unity of composition\".  He was a colleague of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and believed in the underlying unity of organismal design, and the possibility of the change of species in time. He collected evidence for his claims  in comparative anatomy, paleontology, and embryology.\n\nGeoffroy's theory \nGeoffroy was a deist, which is to say that he believed in a God, but also in a law-like universe, with no supernatural interference in the details of existence. This kind of opinion was common in the Enlightenment, and goes with a rejection of revelation and miracles, and does not interpret the Bible as the literal word of God. \n\nGeoffroy's theory was not a theory of common descent, but a working-out of existing potential in a given type. For him, the environment causes a direct induction of organic change. This opinion Ernst Mayr labels as 'Geoffroyism'. It is definitely not what Lamarck believed (for Lamarck, a change in habits is what changes the animal). The direct effect of environment is not believed today by any main-stream evolutionist; even Sir William Lawrence knew by 1816 that climate does not directly cause the differences between human races.\n\nReferences \n\n1772 births\n1844 deaths\nFrench deists\nEvolutionary biologists\nFrench naturalists","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":4,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":212257,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%89tienne%20Geoffroy%20Saint-Hilaire","title":"\u00c9tienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Suatu perlawanan pertunjukan (juga dikenali sebagai  pertunjukan, demonstrasi, demo atau persahabatan) adalah acara sukan yang mana ia tidak mempunyai nilai pertandingan kepada sesiapa yang bertanding (seperti kejohanan atau kedudukan semusim atau hadiah wang) tidak kira apa yang keluar dari tamat perlawanan itu. Perlawanan ini boleh diadakan di antara pasukan yang dipisahkan atau sebahagian daripada pasukan yang sama. Kualiti permainan akan dinilai di akhir permainan. Istilah yang seerti dengannya adalah perlawanan persediaan.\n\nThroughout the world, many team and one-on-one sports and games feature exhibition matches.  For example, two professional snooker or chess players, or two ice hockey teams, may play an exhibition to settle a challenge, to provide professional entertainment, or often to raise money for charities.\n\nIn some sports, especially in North America, exhibition games also take the form of a handful of pre-season games that are intended to familiarize teammates with each other and prepare for upcoming matches. In professional sports, pre-season games also help teams decide which players to keep for the regular season.\n\nBola sepak\n\nIn the early days of association football, friendly matches (or \"friendlies\") were the most common type of match. However since the development of The Football League in England in 1888, league tournaments became established, in addition to lengthy cup tournaments. By the turn of the millennium, national leagues were established in almost every country, as well as regional leagues for lower level teams, thus the significance of friendlies has seriously declined since the 19th century.\n\nToday most club sides play a number of friendlies before the start of each season (called pre-season friendlies). Friendly football matches are considered to be non-competitive and are only used to 'warm up' players for a new season\/competitive match. There is generally nothing competitive at stake and some rules may be changed or experimented with (such as unlimited substitutions and no cards). Although most friendlies are simply one-off matches arranged by the clubs themselves, in which a certain amount is paid by the challenger club to the incumbent club, some teams do compete in short tournaments, such as the Emirates Cup, Teresa Herrera Trophy and the Amsterdam Tournament.  Although these events may involve sponsorship deals and the awarding of a trophy and may even be broadcast on television, there is little prestige attached to them.\n\nInternational teams also play friendlies, generally in preparation for the qualifying or final stages of major tournaments. This is essential, since national squads generally have much less time together in which to prepare. The biggest difference between friendlies at the club and international levels is that international friendlies mostly take place during club league seasons, not between them. This has on occasion led to disagreement between national associations and clubs as to the availability of players, who could become injured or fatigued in a friendly.\n\nInternational friendlies give team managers the opportunity to experiment with team selection and tactics before the tournament proper, and also allow them to assess the abilities of players they may potentially select for the tournament squad.  Players can be booked in international friendlies, and can be suspended from future international matches based on red cards or accumulated yellows in a specified period. Caps and goals scored also count towards a player's career records. In 2004, FIFA ruled that substitutions by a team be limited to six per match in international friendlies, in response to criticism that such matches were becoming increasingly farcical with managers making as many as 11 substitutions per match.\n\nIn the UK and Ireland, \"exhibition match\" and \"friendly match\" refer to different types of matches. The types described above as friendlies are not termed exhibition matches, while annual all-star matches such as those held in the US MLS or Japan's J. League are called exhibition matches rather than friendly matches. A one-off match for charitable fundraising, usually involving one or two all-star teams, or a match held in honour of a player for service to his\/her club, may be described as exhibition matches but they are normally referred to as Charity football matches and testimonial matches respectively.\n\nRujukan\n\nPautan luar\nArticle about NBA vs. ABA exhibitions\n Free iptv article\nArticle about the 2003 NCAA ruling \n\nIstilah sukan\nIstilah bola sepak","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":276864,"url":"https:\/\/ms.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perlawanan%20pertunjukan","title":"Perlawanan pertunjukan","language":"ms"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Oviparous animals are animals that reproduce by laying eggs. This is how most fish, amphibians, reptiles, insects, and arachnids reproduce. All birds and monotremes also reproduce like this.\n\nThe eggs that of most animals that live on land are protected by hard shells. They fertilize their eggs internally. Water-dwelling animals like fish and amphibians lay eggs that have not been fertilized yet. Then the males lay sperm on top of the eggs, which is called external fertilization.\n\nRelated pages \nViviparity\nOvoviviparity\n\nZoology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":225820,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oviparous%20animals","title":"Oviparous animals","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A lawyer (also called an \"advocate\", \"attorney\", \"barrister\", \"counsel\", \"counsellor\", or \"solicitor\") is someone who practices law. A lawyer has earned a degree in law, and has a license to practice law in a particular area. \n\nIf people have any problem regarding the law, they can contact a lawyer for advice.  A legal problem is referred to as a case.  A person can hire a lawyer to start a case against someone else, or to help with a case that has been started against them.  If the case goes to court, the lawyer will represent their client in court.  The lawyer will use their knowledge of the law to convince the court that the client is on the right side of the argument.  Lawyers also help people \"settle out of court,\" which means that both sides of the argument agree to resolve the dispute ahead of time so that they will not have to go to trial. \n\nWhen a person is accused of a crime, the person has a defense lawyer to try to show they have not committed a crime.  The lawyer arguing that they did do the crime is called the prosecutor.\n\nLawyers also prepare legal documents for their clients. Examples: buying or selling property or making a will (testament). Certain lawyers (called \"commissioners of oaths\" in England) can take legally binding witness statements which can be presented to the court.\n\nLawyers work in different settings.  Some work by themselves, while some work in law firms.  Some lawyers work for hospitals and private companies. Lawyers who work for private companies are usually called in-house counsel.\n\nLawyers generally charge a fee for the work that they do, but sometimes advice is offered freely, which is called \"pro bono,\" meaning \"for the public good.\"  In many countries, if a person is accused of a crime and unable to pay for a lawyer, the government will pay a lawyer to represent them using tax money.\n\nLaw occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":414,"dup_dump_count":94,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":3,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":5,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":5,"2022-49":6,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":5,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":7,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":6,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":7,"2021-17":8,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":7,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":8,"2020-29":7,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":10,"2020-10":10,"2020-05":13,"2019-51":10,"2019-47":8,"2019-43":11,"2019-39":10,"2019-35":8,"2019-30":6,"2019-26":8,"2019-22":9,"2019-18":7,"2019-13":4,"2019-09":6,"2019-04":6,"2018-51":6,"2018-47":6,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":6,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":4,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":4,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":6,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":4,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":19345,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lawyer","title":"Lawyer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A county is a small subdivision of a country. It is a form of local government. A county is usually a group of towns or villages. It has a different meaning in different languages. Originally the word was for the land under a count (in Great Britain an earl). Today a \"county\" is often something between a larger state and a smaller town or district.\n\nCounty governments keep records and organize elections and laws. They are a kind of local government.\n\nCanada \n\nSix of Canada's ten provinces are divided into counties. The provinces with counties are Alberta, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia.\n\nChina \nThe word \"county\" is the English name for the Chinese word xi\u00e0n (\u53bf or \u7e23).  On Mainland China under the People's Republic of China, counties are the third level of local government.  On Taiwan, the county is the highest governmental level below the Republic of China central government. \n\nThere are about 2,000 counties in China; this number is about the same as in  the Han dynasty, 2,000 years ago. The county is one of the oldest levels of government in China.\n\nIn the past, \"prefecture\" and \"district\" were names for xi\u00e0n, before the Republic of China. People started using the English name \"county\" after the start of the Republic of China.\n\nThe head of a county is the magistrate.\n\nCroatia \nCounties started to be units of regional self-government in Croatia in 1990. There are twenty counties and the city of Zagreb which has the same status. They are called \u017eupanije and their leader is a \u017eupan.\n\nFrance \nThere was a change in the historical counties of France in 1790 after the Revolution. The new government unit was the d\u00e9partement. But French people use the word county (comt\u00e9) in the name of the Free County region, the old Free County of Burgundy.\n\nHungary \nThe government unit of Hungary is megye, or in Latin: comitatus. This is the same as the word county. Today Hungary has 19 counties, 20 city counties and 1 capital, Budapest. The comitatus was also the unit in the Kingdom of Hungary.\n\nIreland \nIreland originally had 32 counties in the nineteenth century. 26 of these later formed the Republic of Ireland and 6 formed Northern Ireland. The counties were in 4 provinces - Leinster (12 counties), Munster (6) Connacht (5) and Ulster (9). \n\nIn the 1970s in Northern Ireland and in the 1990s in the Republic of Ireland, there was a change in the county numbers and borders (where they started and finished). In the Republic, for example, the change broke Dublin County into four parts: Dublin City, D\u00fan Laoghaire - Rathdown, Fingal, and South Dublin. 'County Tipperary' is really two counties, Tipperary North Riding and Tipperary South Riding. The towns Cork, Galway, Limerick, and Waterford are now separated from the countryside areas of their counties. So the Republic of Ireland now has thirty-four \"county-level\" units. But for sports, culture etc. people normally talk about the original 32 counties and 4 provinces.\n\nEach county has a flag\/colours and often a nickname too.\n\nJapan \n\"County\" is one name for gun (\u90e1), which is a part of a prefecture. Other names for gun are \"rural district\", \"rural area\" or \"district\". People do not like to use \"district\" because the usual translation of \"district\" is choume (\u4e01\u76ee). \n\nToday, \"counties\" have no political power or organisation use. Postal services use it.\n\nNew Zealand \nAfter New Zealand ended its provinces in 1876, they began using a county system as in other countries. They used it until 1989.\n\nDuring the second half of the 20th century, many people went to the country counties from nearby cities. Because of this, sometimes they put the two together, making a \"district\" (e.g. Rotorua). Or sometimes they changed the name to \"district\" (e.g. Waimairi) or \"city\" (e.g. Manukau).\n\nIn 1974 they had a big change; they made the organisation the same all over New Zealand. Today the country has cities and districts, but no counties.\n\nNorway \nNorway has 19 Counties (singular fylke, plural fylker, literally \"folk\"). Until 1972, Bergen was a county, but today it is a municipality in the county of Hordaland. All counties have municipalities (singular kommune, plural kommuner). \n\nEach county has an assembly (fylkesting). Norwegians choose the people in the assembly every 4 years. The counties work with high schools and roads, etc. Some people, and political parties, such as the Conservatives, H\u00f8yre, want the end of the counties. Others want to make some of them into larger regions.\n\nPoland \nIn English we normally call the Polish second-level organisation unit powiat a \"county\" or \"district\".\n\nRomania \nThe smaller units of Romania are called  jude\u0163 (plural: jude\u0163e). This name comes from jude, a judge of a city. Today Romania has 40 counties and the capital, Bucharest has a separate status.\n\nSerbia \nWe sometimes call the units of Serbia (okrug) counties, but more often we call them districts.\n\nSweden \nIn 1634 the old provinces in Sweden had a new name: counties. Today there are 21 Counties, and in each County there are Municipalities. \nThe Swedish name is L\u00e4n.\n\nUnited Kingdom \nSee also List of counties of the United Kingdom\n\nIn the United Kingdom there are 92 traditional counties (also known as shires), 86 in Great Britain and 6 in Northern Ireland. The British counties are different ages.\n\nIn England, in Anglo-Saxon times, Shires were units for getting taxes. They usually had a town at their centre. People called these towns the shire town. The shires had the same name as their shire town (for example Bedfordshire). Later people called these towns the county town. The name \"county\" came from the Normans, from a Norman word for an area under a Count (lord).\n\nIn 1539 Wales got thirteen counties. The counties in Scotland are this age or older.\n\nThe county boundaries (borders) of England are different today. In medieval times, some important cities got the status of counties, for example London, Bristol and Coventry. Some small places, e.g. Islandshire, were also counties. In 1844, a lot of these small places returned to their old counties.\n\nUnited States\n\nThe name \"county\" is also used in 48 of the 50 states of the United States, for the next government unit smaller than the state. Louisiana uses the name parishes and Alaska uses boroughs. The U.S. Census Bureau lists 3,141 counties or organisation units of this sort. The power of the county government is very different in every state.\n\nIn New England, counties are mostly for law. In Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, they have no governmental use; they are only geographic names. Most power is in the New England town. \n\nIn other places than New England, counties are for the police, water, gas and electricity, libraries, statistics and birth certificates. County sheriffs are the head of the police in some states, for areas outside of cities and towns. Other places have \"County Police\" and county sheriffs are for law. Each county has a county seat, usually the biggest town, where the county offices are.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":147,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":4,"2020-50":4,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":5893,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/County","title":"County","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (January 27, 1756 \u2013 December 5, 1791; pronounced MOHT-sart) was a composer (music writer), instrumentalist, and music teacher. His full baptised name was Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophillus Mozart. He was born in Salzburg (then a free archbishopric city within the Bavarian Imperial Circle \/ German Empire, now Austria), the youngest child of Leopold and Anna Maria Mozart. From a very early age, the young Mozart showed great musical talent. He toured Europe with his parents and older sister \"Nannerl\" for several years performing for royalty and the aristocratic elite.\n\nAs a young man, Mozart tried but failed to establish himself as a composer in Paris. He returned to Salzburg where he was briefly employed in the court of the Archbishop of Salzburg. He was restless, aware of his genius, and thought Salzburg too small for his talent. He relocated to Vienna where he met with some success. He married Constanze Weber and fathered two sons. He died in Vienna after a brief but unknown illness.\n\nMozart wrote more than 600 musical works, all of the very highest quality. His works include the operas The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, Cos\u00ec fan tutte and The Magic Flute; the symphonies in E-flat major, G minor, and C major (\"Jupiter\"); concertos for piano, violin, and various wind instruments; and numerous chamber pieces, works for the church, minuets and other dances, songs, and the Requiem.  Along with Bach and Beethoven, Mozart is regarded as one of the greatest composers who has ever lived.\n\nLife\n\nFamily and early years\nWolfgang Amadeus Mozart (\"Wolfi\" or Wolferl\") was born in Salzburg to Leopold and Anna Maria Mozart. Leopold was a violinist in the orchestra of the archbishop of Salzburg and the author of a best-selling introduction to playing the violin. \n\nYoung Mozart showed evidence of great musical talent at a very early age. He was playing the harpsichord and the violin at the age of five, and writing little pieces of music.\n\nMozart's sister Maria Anna (\"Nannerl\") was a talented girl. The two children received their musical and academic education from their father. The family toured Europe for a few years, performing for royals and aristocrats.\n\nMozart performed in Munich, Prague, Paris, The Hague and London. In London, he performed for King George III. He met the composer Johann Christian Bach, one of the sons of Johann Sebastian Bach. He sat on the knee of Johann Christian Bach (1735\u20131782) and improvised a fugue. And here, at the age of eight, he heard his first two symphonies performed. \n\nEventually, the Mozarts made their way back to Salzburg. But in 1768, they were off again to Vienna, where the now twelve-year-old Wolfgang staged a production of his first opera, Bastien und Bastienne. And he was infected with smallpox at that time. He recovered but his face was pock-marked for life. He went to Italy where he heard music by many famous Italian composers, including Gregorio Allegri who had written a piece called Miserere. This piece had been written for the Pope for the choir of the Vatican to sing. No one was allowed to see the written music so that no other choir would be able to sing it. Mozart heard the piece once and then wrote it all down from memory. He met the Pope and was given a knighthood (Order of the Golden Spur).\n\nIn 1777, he went on a journey with his mother. In Mannheim, he fell in love with Aloysia Weber. She was 16 years old and studying singing. Mozart wanted to take her to Italy to make her famous, but his father put a stop to these plans. By 1778, Mozart and his mother were in Paris. His mother died there.\n\nMozart wrote some small operas when he was young, but his first really important opera was Idomeneo. It was first performed in Munich in 1780. The next year he went to Vienna. By this time he was working, like his father, for the Archbishop of Salzburg. When he went back to Salzburg he argued with the Archbishop who actually kicked him out. Mozart went off to Vienna where he would spend the rest of his life.\n\nIn 1782 he married Constanze Weber, one of the three younger sisters of Aloysia (who by now was married to someone else). They were to have seven children, but five of them died in childhood. Mozart's father did not approve of the marriage. Constanze was a loving wife, but, like Mozart, she was not good at looking after money, so they were often very poor.\n\nIn that same year, 1782, Mozart wrote another very successful opera: Die Entf\u00fchrung aus dem Serail (\"The Abduction from the Seraglio\"). One famous story tells that, after the emperor had heard the opera, he told Mozart that there were \"too many notes\". Mozart answered: \"Just as many as are necessary, Your Majesty.\"\n\nMozart started a series of concerts in which he played his own piano concertos, conducting from the keyboard. He met the composer Joseph Haydn and the two men became great friends, often playing together in a string quartet. Haydn said to Leopold Mozart one day: \"Before God and as an honest man I tell you that your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by name. He has taste, and what is more, the most profound knowledge of composition.\" Mozart was in the same Masonic Lodge as Haydn, and he dedicated some of his string quartets to him.\n\nThe audiences in Vienna did not give Mozart much support after a few years, so he often went to Prague where the audiences loved him. His opera The Marriage of Figaro was very popular, and in 1787 he gave the first performance there of his opera Don Giovanni.\n\nIllness and death \nThere are several stories about Mozart's last illness and death, and it is not easy to be sure what happened. He was working on an opera The Magic Flute which is one of his best works and a very popular opera today. It is written in German, not Italian, like most of his other operas. In some ways it is like an English pantomime. At the same time that he was working on this he was asked by a stranger to compose a requiem. He was told to write this in secret. Then he was asked to write an Italian opera La Clemenza di Tito, which was performed in Prague during September 1791. At the end of September The Magic Flute  was given its first performance. Mozart then worked very hard at the Requiem. He must have realized that he was already very ill, and that in a way the requiem (a mass for the dead) was for himself. He died in Vienna before he could finish it. Constanze asked another composer, a man called Franz Xaver S\u00fcssmayr, to finish the work. Mozart was buried in the St. Marx Cemetery.\n\nMozart's music \nMozart's music, like that of Haydn, is the very best of what is known as the Classical style. At the time he started to compose, the Baroque period was just coming to an end. Tastes were changing in music. Form, balance and elegance were thought of as more important than counterpoint. Mozart was the first great composer to write music for the piano, an instrument which had only just become popular. He wrote almost every kind of music: symphonies, operas, solo concertos, chamber music, especially string quartets and string quintets, and the piano sonata. He also wrote a lot of religious music, including masses, as well as popular music like dances, divertimenti and serenades.\n\nWhen Mozart was young a symphony was usually a short, simple piece for entertainment. Mozart made the symphony into a carefully worked-out piece lasting up to half an hour. His last three symphonies are especially fine masterpieces. His concertos, especially his piano concertos, are far more advanced than anything that had been written before. Although Mozart behaved in truly childish ways at times, he was good at understanding human character. This is clear in his operas, where he introduced many subtle effects to describe the characters in the story.\n\nMozart's operas are among his greatest works.  He understood people's characters very well and was able to write music which tells us everything about the personalities in the operas.  The three operas in which he set words by Lorenzo Da Ponte: Don Giovanni, Le Nozze di Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro) and Cosi fan tutte each include some very clever ensembles in which several characters are singing at once, each one showing his or her view of the situation.\n\nAs well as many great masterpieces, Mozart wrote many pieces in a more popular style, including some tunes that everybody knows today. His serenade Eine kleine Nachtmusik K525 is known everywhere, as is the Turkish Rondo from his Piano Sonata in A K331, the opening of the Symphony No. 40 in G minor K550, and the birdcatcher's song from The Magic Flute K620.\n\nRegarding the instruments that Mozart was using for composing and performing, there was a number of them. In his early years he got to know pianos made by Franz Jakob Sp\u00e4th from Regensburg. Later in Augsburg Mozart got impressed by pianos from Stein. After moving to Vienna the composer purchased an instrument by Walter.\n\nCatalogue of works \nSome time after Mozart's death a man called K\u00f6chel studied all Mozart's music, tried to put them in chronological order, and gave them a number. The number helps us to know exactly which work is meant, for example Symphony in G minor K183 is not the same piece as Symphony in G minor K550 (K stands for K\u00f6chel. Sometimes it is written \"KV550\" standing for \"K\u00f6chel Verzeichnis\" i.e. \"K\u00f6chel Catalogue\"). The highest K\u00f6chel number is 626, his requiem mass.\n\nRelated pages\n Amadeus (movie)\n\nReferences \n\nGroves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie; 1980; \nListening To Western Music, written by Craig Wright; ISBN 978-0-495-11627-1\n\nOther websites \n\n The Mozart Project \n Mozart livecams Live pictures of Mozart Birth house, Mozart Monument, Mozart lives on View and so on.\n\n1756 births\n1791 deaths\nAustrian composers\nChild prodigies\nClassical era composers\nPeople from Salzburg\nSmallpox survivors\nAustrian Roman Catholics\nWolfgang Amadeus","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":226,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2023-50":4,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":6,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":4,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":4,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":5,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5}},"id":4462,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wolfgang%20Amadeus%20Mozart","title":"Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The inch is a unit of length in the Imperial system and the United States customary system. The abbreviation for inches is in or \". There are 12\u00a0inches in a foot. One inch is equal to 2.54\u00a0centimetres.\n\nThe word \"inch\" came from Middle English unche, which came from Old English ynce, from Latin uncia meaning \"a twelfth part\".\n\nHistory \n\nThe inch was originally defined as 3 barleycorns. The inch was finally standardised in the International Yard and Pound Treaty in 1959 between the United States, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. The international yard was made equal to 0.9144 metres. From this, subdivisions and multiples of the yard were specifically defined.\n\nUsage \n\nIn Britain and the United States, people use inches more than they use millimetres or centimetres. In the rest of the world, international units are almost always used. The inch is not used by scientists.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, road signs that show how high a vehicle can be in order to pass through a tunnel are required to be in feet and inches. Theme parks and drive thru signs usually show it in metres. People regularly measure their height in feet and inches. Official medical records, however, are required to record people's height in metric measurements only.\n\nIn Canada, a mix of centimetres and inches are used in height. Older generations, especially, use Imperial units. A lot of exposure to Americanized phrases leads to younger generations often having a good understanding of both the Imperial and metric systems.\n\nIn the United States, height is always in feet and inches. Science is the only field to use metric measurements.\n\nOther Commonwealth countries, including Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Jamaica use inches to varying degrees. From every day use to exclusively the older community.\n\nLength \n\nUnits of length\nImperial units","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":381,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inch","title":"Inch","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Hobbits are a fictional race in the Middle-earth world invented by J. R. R. Tolkien, also often called halflings.\n\nThey appeared in the books The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Several important main characters in those books are hobbits, such as Bilbo Baggins and Frodo Baggins. \n\nHobbits (or similar beings) have become very popular and are now often used in fantasy fiction and (video) games.\n\nAppearance \nHobbits are like small humans between two and four foot tall (between 60 and 120 centimeters). They have hair\/fur on the top side of their feet, leathery foot-soles, and slightly pointed ears. They tend to be stout and often have brown and curly hair. Male hobbits do not have beards. Hobbits live longer compared to humans, and many hobbits reach the age of 100.\n\nCulture \nHobbits are a peaceful people and live a simple, pre-industrial life in the land which they call The Shire, and also in Bree-land.\n\nA typical hobbit-house has a long hallway with rooms on both sides, and round doors and windows. Originally these were underground in hills, then the house was called a smial; but this architecture(style of building) is also used for 'normal' houses above ground.\n\nRelated pages\n The Hobbit\n The Lord of the Rings\n Middle-earth\n\nMiddle-earth\nFictional races","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":28760,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hobbit","title":"Hobbit","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"La boh\u00e8me (pronounced, \"La bo-EM\") is an Italian opera in four acts. The music was written by Giacomo Puccini. The libretto was written by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa.\n\nThe opera tells the story of a love affair between a poor poet and an equally poor seamstress in 19th century Paris. The opera is based on a book by Henri Murger called Scenes from Bohemian Life ().   \n \nArturo Toscanini conducted the first performance of La boh\u00e8me on February 1, 1896 at the Teatro Regio in Turin, Italy. The opera was adapted to a movie in 1965 and the 1996 Broadway musical, Rent.\n\nHenri Murger \n\nHenri Murger was born in 1822 to an immigrant German tailor in Paris.  He worked as a secretary until 1841 when he became a journalist and joined the poor artists and writers who called themselves Bohemians.\n\nFrom 1845 to 1848, Murger's stories about Bohemian life in Paris were serialized (published in parts) in a French magazine. The book brought Murger little income. Playwright Th\u00e9odore Barri\u00e8re suggested making a play of the book, and Murger accepted. The play appeared in 1849. It was a success.\n\nAlmost every chapter of Murger's book mentions an incident or event which found its way into Puccini's opera. However, the love affair between the poet and the seamstress appears only as a little tale in the book about a sculptor named Jacques and a seamstress named Francine.\n\nAfter the publication of the play, adaptations appeared. In 1877, an operetta was staged in Paris. In 1897, an opera by Ruggero Leoncavallo was staged in Venice. Another play based on the book was performed in New York in 1896. The first movie was released in 1916, and other movies were released in the following years.\n\nDevelopment \n\nPuccini wrote most of La boh\u00e8me at Torre del Lago, a village in Tuscany he had just made his home. Most decisions about the opera were made through letters sent back and forth between Ricordi (Puccini's publisher), the two librettists, and the composer. This arrangement was not the best for getting the work done in a timely manner.\n\nPuccini began toying with the idea of writing another work called La lupa (The She-Wolf). The librettists were furious. Puccini was dividing his time between two projects while taking them to task for their slowness on the present one. Giacosa complained that he used more paper and time on La boh\u00e9me that he had on any of his other dramas.\n\nWhole scenes were rewritten, revised, and even discarded before going through the cycle again. Despite the turmoil, Puccini was considering the David Belasco play Tosca as yet another project. He briefly interrupted work on La boh\u00e8me to travel to Florence to see Sarah Bernhardt perform the play.\n\nPuccini and Ruggero Leoncavallo (composer of the 1892 opera I pagliacci) both chose to set M\u00fcrger's book to music. Each claimed he was the first to make this decision. Leoncavallo's La Boh\u00e8me was first performed in 1897, the year after Puccini's opera. Leoncavallo's opera never attained the fame that Puccini's did  probably because Puccini's opera was gaining a popularity in 1897 that left Leoncavallo's opera in the dust.\n\nPerformances \n\nLa boh\u00e8me was first performed in Turin, Italy on February 1, 1896 at the Teatro Regio. It was conducted by Arturo Toscanini. In 1946, Toscanini conducted a radio performance that was released to LP records and later compact discs. It is the only recording of a Puccini opera by its original conductor.\n\nWithin a few years, the opera was performed in theatres throughout Italy including La Scala and La Fenice. The first performance outside of Italy was in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 1896. Other performances followed in the next ten years around the world.\n\nThe first performance in United Kingdom took place in Manchester, on 22 April 1897. It was performed by the Carl Rosa Opera Company in English and was supervised by Puccini. On 2 October 1897 the same company gave the opera's first staging at the Royal Opera House in London.\n\nThe opera was first performed in the United States by the Carl Rosa Opera Company on October 14, 1897 in Los Angeles, California. It was performed in New York City at Palmo's Opera House on May 16, 1898. The Metropolitan Opera House staged the opera for the first time on December 26, 1900.\n\nRoles\n\nStory of the opera\n\nAct 1 \n\nIn the four bohemians' attic room\n \n\nAct 1 takes place in Paris around 1830. A group of bohemians live in a room in an attic. Marcello is painting while Rodolfo gazes out of the window. They are so poor and so cold that they burn a drama that Rodolfo has written. Colline, the philosopher, comes in shivering and cross because he had not been able to pawn some books. Schaunard, the musician of the group, arrives with food, firewood, wine, cigars, and money. He tells his friends that he has got these things because he has a job with an English gentleman. The others hardly listen as they are so hungry that they try to eat the food. Schaunard interrupts them, taking the meal away, and saying that they will all celebrate his luck by having dinner at Cafe Momus instead.\n\nWhile they drink the wine, Benoit, the landlord, arrives to collect the rent. The group gives him lots of wine so that he becomes drunk and starts to tell the people his adventures about love. Eventually, the group throws him out. The money that should have been used to pay the rent is divided among them so they can have a good time.\n\nThe other Bohemians go out, but Rodolfo stays alone for a moment in order to finish a newspaper article, promising to join his friends soon. There is a knock at the door, and Mimi, a seamstress who lives in a flat below, enters. Her candle has blown out, and she has no matches; she asks Rodolfo to light it. She thanks him, but returns a few seconds later, saying she has lost her key. Both candles go out. It is dark, and the couple try to feel their way about. Rodolfo wants to spend time with Mimi. He finds the key, but puts it in his pocket and does not tell her. In two famous arias (Rodolfo's \"Che gelida manina\" \u2014 \"What a cold little hand,\" and Mimi's \"S\u00ec, mi chiamano Mim\u00ec\" \u2014 \"Yes, they call me Mimi\"), they tell each other about their backgrounds. Rodolfo's friends call for him to come out and join them. He would prefer to stay there with Mimi but she decides they should go together. They go out, singing about their love for one another.\n\nAct 2 \nLatin Quarter on Christmas Eve\n\nThe streets are crowded with happy people. Rodolfo buys Mimi a bonnet. The friends go into a caf\u00e9. Musetta, who used to be Marcello's sweetheart, comes into the cafe with Alcindoro, a rich old man. She is tired of him. She sings a naughty song, hoping Marcello will notice her.\n\nMarcello becomes mad with jealousy. To be rid of Alcindoro for a bit, Musetta pretends to have a tight shoe and sends him with it to the shoemaker. Musetta and Marcello fall into each other's arms.\n\nThe sound of a military parade is heard. Marcello and Colline carry Musetta out on their shoulders while everyone claps. Alcindoro returns with the repaired shoe. The waiter hands him the bill. He is surprised by how much he has to pay, and sinks into a chair.\n\nAct 3 \n\nAt a toll gate a month or two later\n\nMim\u00ec passes through the toll gate. She is coughing. She finds Marcello, who lives in a little tavern near the gate. She tells him of her hard life with Rodolfo, who has left her that night.\n\nRodolfo comes out of the tavern looking for Marcello. Mim\u00ec hides. She hears Rodolfo telling Marcello why he left her. At first he says Mim\u00ec does not love him, but then he says he left her because she is dying of an illness.\n\nRodolfo is poor and can do little to help Mim\u00ec. He hopes that a rich man may fall in love with her and pay for her to have medical treatment. Out of kindness towards Mim\u00ec, Marcello tries to stop Rodolfo, but she has already heard everything.\n\nShe coughs, and Rodolfo discovers her. They sing of their lost love, and agree that although they should separate, they love one another and agree to stay together until the spring. Marcello and Musetta are heard quarrelling in the background.\n\nAct 4 \n\nThe attic room\n\nMarcello and Rodolfo are both sad at losing their loved ones. Schaunard and Colline arrive with a tiny bit of food. They pretend they are having a big feast, and they all dance. Musetta arrives with news: Mimi, who had found a rich gentleman, has now left him and is wandering in the streets feeling very ill and weak.\n\nMusetta has brought Mimi back with her to the attic room. Mimi is helped into a chair. Musetta and Marcello leave to sell Musetta's earrings in order to buy medicine, and Colline leaves to pawn his overcoat. Schaunard leaves quietly to give Mimi and Rodolfo time together. Left alone, the two remember their past happiness.\n\nThey remember their first meeting. Rodolfo gives Mimi the pink bonnet he bought her, which he has kept as a souvenir of their love. The others return, with a gift of a muff to warm Mimi's hands and some medicine, and tell Rodolfo that a doctor has been called, but it is too late. As Musetta prays, Mimi dies. Rodolfo collapses in tears.\n\nOrchestra\nLa boh\u00e8me is scored for the standard orchestra of the period:\nstrings: violins I, II, viola, cello, double bass\nwoodwind: 2 flutes, piccolo, 2 oboes, cor anglais, 2 clarinets in A and B flat, bass clarinet in A and B flat, 2 bassoons\nbrass: 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in F, 3 trombones, bass trombone\npercussion: harp, timpani, snare drum, triangle, cymbals, bass drum, xylophone, glockenspiel, chimes\n\nMovies \nIn 1965, a West German movie version of the opera was released. It was filmed on location in Milan and Munich. The movie was produced by conductor Herbert von Karajan and designed by Franco Ziffirelli. It starred Mirella Freni as Mimi, Adriana Martino as Musetta, Gianni Raimondi as Rudolpho, and Rolando Panerai as Marcello. The movie won the 1966 National Board of Review for Top Foreign Film.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\nVocal Score from the Indiana University School of Music.\nUpcoming performances  from Operabase.com\nRecording of \"Mi chimano Mim\u00ec\" in German by Lotte Lehmann in MP3 format\nSan Diego OperaTalk! with Nick Reveles: La boh\u00e8me \nLibretto (in Italian) from OperaGlass\n  La boh\u00e8me \n\nCompositions by Giacomo Puccini\n1890s operas","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2}},"id":91105,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/La%20boh%C3%A8me","title":"La boh\u00e8me","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Events \n January 4 \u2013 Palace of Whitehall in London is destroyed by fire.\n June 19 \u2013 Volcano of Carguarazon erupts in the Andes and causes a rain of fish\n August 25 \u2013 Peter the Great arrives back to Moscow \u2013 general Patrick Gordon has already crushed the streltsy rebellion \u2013 341 rebels sentenced to be decapitated. Tradition holds that tsar Peter decapitated some of them himself\n September 5 \u2013 In an effort to move his people away from Asiatic customs, Tsar Peter I of Russia imposes a tax on beards; All men except priests and peasants, are required to pay a tax of one hundred rubles a year and the commoners had to pay one kopek each\n\n Whigs sponsor Captain Kidd of New York as a privateer against French shipping\n Darien Scheme \u2013 First Scottish settlers leave for an ill-fated colony in Panama\n Isaac Newton calculates the speed of sound\n Tani Jinzan, astronomer and calendar scholar, observes a fire destroy Tosa (now Kochi) in Japan at the same time as a Leonid Meteor storm, taking it as evidence to reinforce belief in the \"Theory of Areas\".\n Thomas Savery patents an early steam engine.\n A congress begins in Sremski Karlovci to discuss a treaty between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League.\n Humphrey Hody is appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford.\n Bucharest becomes capital of Wallachia (now part of Romania).\n Mombasa and Zanzibar are captured by Oman.\n George Louis (who would in 1714 become King George I of Great Britain) becomes Elector of Hanover.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":30084,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1698","title":"1698","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Homosexuality is a sexual orientation. A homosexual person is romantically or sexually attracted to people of their own gender. Men who are romantically or sexually attracted to other men are called gay. Women who are romantically or sexually attracted to other women can be called gay as well, but are usually called lesbians. People who are romantically or sexually attracted to men and women are called bisexual.\n\nTogether homosexual, bisexual, and transgender people make up the LGBT community, which stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender. It is difficult to say how many people are homosexual. Homosexuality is known to exist in all cultures and countries.\n\nOther titles for homosexuality\n\nDefinition \nOne may say that homosexuality is the term used for people that feel romantically or sexually attracted to their own sex, but other definitions also exist. When one views homosexuality as the term for people that feel romantically or sexually attracted to their own sex, more people are gay than when one might view homosexuality as only a term for people who do have sexual relationships with their own sex. Usually, the term is used to view all the people who are romantically or sexually attracted to their own sex, as well as those with such attractions who have not had a sexual relationship with their own sex yet. Nonetheless, the most visible form of homosexuality is the actual relationship. Most 'evidence' of homosexuality in ancient cultures comes from drawings of the men in an intimate relationship or sex, because it's the most obvious.\n\nThe word homosexual comes from the Ancient Greek word homo, meaning \"same\", and the Latin word for \"gender\". People in the LGBT community usually say \"gay\" instead of \"homosexual.\" Some people also use the term homophile (from Greek   (\"homos\", meaning the same) and  (\"philein\"; meaning to love). This term emphasizes romantic interest in the same sex, rather than sexual attraction.\n\nOther names \nThere are many different words to describe homosexual people. Some of these are used to insult homosexual people. However, the LGBT community sometimes uses these words to describe themselves because the word \"homosexual\" can sound too clinical. This is done to make the words less hurtful. Some words to describe homosexual men are gay and queer.  Words to describe homosexual women are lesbian and dyke. Lesbian is used most often. Dyke is used less often and is sometimes used to describe lesbians who are more masculine (act or dress more like men). However, \"queer\" and \"dyke\" are sometimes used against gay people as insults, so they can sometimes be offensive.\n\nHomosexual pride \n\nWhen homosexual people keep their sexual orientation a secret, they are said to be \"in the closet\". \"Out\" or \"out of the closet\" is a slang term that means a homosexual person is open about their sexual orientation. This means they do not hide the fact that they are homosexual. Some gay and lesbian people stay in the closet because of fear of what would happen or because they live in a place that is not safe for homosexual people.\n\nSometimes people who are 'out' also say they are 'proud'. \"Out\" means they are not hiding their sexual orientation. \"Proud\" means that they are pleased about it. \"Proud\" or \"Pride\" has a special meaning in the LGBT community. It means they are celebrating and being happy that they are homosexual. It is not 'pride' meaning that they have done something to be proud of, but 'pride' meaning the opposite of shame. Many cities have \"Pride Parades\". These used to be protest marches. Today, they are usually celebrations of the LGBT community. They usually occur in June, in memory of the 'Stonewall Riots' that happened in New York City in 1969. These riots happened because police harassed and arrested people for being homosexual. 'Stonewall' or the 'Stonewall Riots' are sometimes called the start of the LGBT rights movement.\n\nCauses \nThe causes of homosexuality and bisexuality are controversial (people do not agree on them). The causes of homosexuality are not all understood, but genetics and the effects of the prenatal environment and hormones (when a baby is growing in its mother) are thought to be causes. There is not much evidence that the social environment is a cause of homosexuality. Scientists also show that homosexuality happens not only in humans. Some animals (like penguins, chimpanzees, and dolphins) often show homosexuality, and some (rams) even for lifelong periods as is the case with humans.\n\nDoctors used to treat gay people as if they had mental illnesses. However, homosexuality is no longer called a disease by doctors in many countries. There are some religious and non-religious groups who still try to 'cure' homosexuality. This is sometimes called 'conversion therapy'. In therapies like this one, homosexual individuals have tried to become heterosexual and have even claimed they were changed, but most people do not believe it is possible.\n\nConversion therapy or reparative therapy aims to change people's sexual orientation from homosexual to heterosexual. It is condemned by medical and psychiatry groups such as the American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, Royal College of Psychiatrists, National Association of Social Workers, Royal College of Nursing, and the American Academy of Pediatrics. These scientific and educated groups are concerned that such therapy is a violation of the ethical principles of health care, and violates human rights.\n\nMany people believe that it is unfortunate to discuss causes of homosexuality and bisexuality without discussing causes of heterosexuality, too. Although it is easy to understand why heterosexuality exists (heterosexual sex produces babies), that does not explain how the brain develops to produce heterosexual people. Heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality all have causes, and some people believe that to discuss only the causes of homosexuality and bisexuality suggests that there is something wrong with people who have those orientations.\n\nRelationships \n\nGay people can fall in love and have lifelong relationships. In most countries, they cannot legally marry their partners. However, they still have relationships in the same way as heterosexual people.\n\nSome homosexual people have wedding ceremonies even though governments do not recognize or accept them. They may call their partner a spouse, wife, or husband despite the law.\n\nBut to them, the important part about marriage is not just the name. Married people get many benefits from being married. Depending on the country, these benefits can include paying less taxes, getting their spouse's insurance, inheriting property, social security benefits, having or adopting children together, emigrating to a spouse's country, being able to make choices for a sick spouse, or even being allowed to visit a sick spouse who is in a hospital.\n\nToday there are numerous countries that allow homosexual people to marry, including: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Scotland, Spain, South Africa, Sweden, Uruguay, the United States and Wales. The Netherlands was first in 2001. It is also legal in six Native American tribes.\n\nInstead of marriage, some countries or states offer homosexuals civil unions or domestic partnerships. This gives them some of the protections and benefits of marriage, but not all. Civil unions and domestic partnerships are sometimes seen by the LGBT community as being 'second class' (not as good as 'first class'). They do offer some benefits for gay and lesbian couples, but they also suggest that these couples are not as important or valid as heterosexual couples. Some people even say this is like the \"separate but equal\" rules that were used to segregate people by race in the United States. They believe that separate is never equal and homosexuals should not accept being second class citizens.\n\nReligion \nMany religions teach that homosexual sex is a sin. Such religions traditionally include Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Usually, it is only the act of sexual intercourse that is considered sinful and not natural. Not all believe the attraction, is sinful, just the actions in response to the desire.\n\nHowever, some denominations (different parts) of these religions and some eastern religions now accept homosexuality. There are several other religions that are accepting of homosexuality, particularly new religions. There are also some religions which are indifferent to homosexuality, such as Zoroastrianism and Jainism.\n\nProblems homosexuals face \n\nIn many countries, homosexual people are discriminated against. A homosexual person can be fired from a job because they are gay, even if they are a good worker. Homosexual people can be denied renting a home or being able to eat in a restaurant because of their sexual orientation.\n\nIn some countries, homosexual people can experience violence. For example, Islamic law is used in some places to kill homosexuals or place them in jail. Some groups believe over 4,000 homosexual people have been killed in Iran since 1979 because of their sexual orientation. In 2005, after fourteen months of prison and torture, two teenage boys were hanged in Iran for homosexuality.\n\nIn modern times, homosexuality has become more accepted in Western countries. Most western countries have laws that protect homosexuals from violence and discrimination.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, homosexuality used to be a crime. Oscar Wilde, the famous Irish writer was imprisoned for it, and as a result, it destroyed his reputation and career as a wit and playwright. Alan Turing, the man who helped the Allies in World War II by breaking the Enigma Code used by the Germans, was convicted of this crime and according to some speculations he ultimately killed himself over the effects of the attempt to cure his homosexuality.\n\nToday in the United Kingdom, homosexual people are safer. Homosexual sex between adults is not a crime. Gay and lesbian couples can marry. Gay people can be in the military.\n\nIn most of the world, homosexual people still do not have the same rights and freedoms that heterosexuals have.\n\nHomosexual behaviour in animals\n\nHomosexual behaviour has also been seen in animals. Homosexual, transgender and bisexual behaviour includes sex, courtship, affection, pair bonding, and parenting. Homosexual behaviour is widespread among animals. Bruce Bagemihl did research in 1999. It shows that homosexual behaviour has been observed in close to 1500 species, from primates to gut worms, and is well documented for 500 of them. The sexual behaviour of animals takes many different forms, even within the same species. The motivations for these behaviours are only partly known, mainly because the respecive species has not been fully studied yet. According to Bagemihl, \"the animal kingdom [does] it with much greater sexual diversity\u2014including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex\u2014than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept.\"\n\nRelated pages\n Heterosexuality\n Bisexuality\n Pansexuality\n Asexuality\n Antisexuality\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\nThere are national and international groups or organizations for the LGBT community. These organizations are often political. They fight for the rights and safety of homosexuals.\n\nSome of the more important political organizations are:\n The International Lesbian and Gay Association\n The Human Rights Campaign\n GLAAD, The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation\n Stonewall UK\n The International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission \n Egale Canada\n\nLGBT variations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":155,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":5,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":6,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":3}},"id":7692,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homosexuality","title":"Homosexuality","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\"Desservants\" was the name of a class of French parish priests.\n\nUnder the old regime, a priest who performed the parochial duties in a vacant parish, or where the parish priest was under censure of some kind was known as a desservant; he was the vicar, or \u00e9conome-cur\u00e9, whom the Council of Trent desired to be appointed in each vacant parish. \n\nAfter the Concordat of 1801, however, the name desservants was applied to a second class of parish priests who were named by the bishop without the sanction of the Government, but could also be removed at any time by the bishop. This institution owed its origin to custom rather than any law, though later on it was fully legalized. Article 9 of the new concordat decreed that \"the bishops are to make a new circumscription of the parishes in their dioceses, which will only go into effect after the consent of the Government is obtained\". Article 10 adds: \"bishops shall make the appointments to parishes; they shall choose only persons approved by the Government.\" Finally, art. 14 provides \"a suitable salary for bishops and parish priests\". \n\nThese clauses applied to only one kind of parish and parish priests; but the Organic Articles, added by the Government to the concordat, established parishes of a second order, succursal parishes (mission churches), whose titulars were not canonically parish priests (cur\u00e9s) and received no remuneration from the State. Organic Articles 31, 60, 61, 63 provide that \"there shall be at least one parish for every justice of the peace\", that \"the bishop in conjunction with the prefect shall regulate the number and extent of succursal parishes\"; that \"the officiating priests in succursal parishes shall be appointed by the bishop\"; that they shall also be removable by him; preference nevertheless should be given to ecclesiastics pensioned by the Assemblee Constituante. By degrees the succursal parishes increased and equalled in number the municipalities of France; gradually, also, the Government allowed these desservants a small salary. From an ecclesiastical point of view, they were parish priests except for the removability clause.\n\nThis condition of affairs, which the concordat had not anticipated, was advantageous to the Church, because it left the bishops free to appoint to most parishes without consulting the State; it was also of advantage to the episcopal administration, which would have been much hampered had all the parish priests been irremovable. It was not formally approved by Rome, however, until May, 1845, under Pope Gregory XVI (reply of the Congregation of the Council to the Bishop of Li\u00e8ge). The pope authorized the continuance of the existing situation until the Holy See decided otherwise. From various quarters, however, arose protests in favour of canonical irremovability of the desservants. In 1839 the Allignol brothers published a survey of the condition of the desservants. It was the cause of several meetings of the French bishops at Rome and finally of the aforesaid rescript of Gregory XVI. Later the Congregation of Bishops and Regulars reproved a similar work by the Abb\u00e9 Dagomer, \"R\u00e9habilitation du desservant\". Occasionally, some of the desservants refused to give up their places at the bishop's order, maintaining a common-law right of irremovability; but in this they were always unsuccessful. In this respect the ecclesiastical discipline of France had become fixed and accepted; nor was it modified by the Separation Law of 1905; except that some bishops ceased to use the terms succursale and desservant, replacing them by \"parish\" and \"parish priest\", both, however, long since in ordinary ecclesiastical use.\n\nReferences\n\nAttribution\n\nHistory of Catholicism in France","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":8,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":5,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":18953094,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Desservant","title":"Desservant","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bullets are small metal objects fired from guns. Many kinds of bullets are made from lead covered with copper. They are put into a package called a cartridge, which is put into a gun. The bullet is at the front of the cartridge (number 1 in the picture).  The bullet is pushed out of the gun by hot gases at a high pressure. A powder called gunpowder (number 3 in the picture) is put inside the case (number 2).  A small explosion from the primer (number 5 in the picture) lights the gunpowder. The gunpowder burns very fast. It makes hot gases. The hot gases are at a high pressure. The high pressure pushes the bullet out of the gun barrel at a high speed.  \n\nBullets are weapons.  Soldiers and police use them.  They are used for self-defense.  They are used for hunting animals for food or as a sport, but are also used for shooting targets. There are many kinds of bullets.  Each gun takes a certain size, or caliber, of bullet.  Rifles and handguns use different kinds and sometimes a gun uses more than one kind of bullet.\n\nAlthough the word \"bullet\" is often used for a cartridge round, a bullet is not a cartridge but rather a part of one.  A round of ammunition cartridge includes the bullet (which is the projectile), the case (which holds everything together), the propellant (which provides most of the energy to shoot it) and the primer (which ignites the propellant).\n\nDesign\n\nBullet designs have to solve two main problems. A bullet must fit tightly in the gun's bore (inside of the barrel). If it does not fit tightly, gas from the burning gunpowder leaks past the bullet and does not help push it out. The bullet must also fit tightly against the rifling (spiral grooves cut into the barrel), but not so tightly that it causes damage. Bullets must have this tight fit without causing too much friction.  Bullets must be made to a high standard. Poorly made bullets may not be accurate. Poorly made bullets can damage the gun or hurt the person using the gun. The way the bullet behaves in the barrel is called 'internal ballistics'.\n\nThe laws of physics can be used to understand how a bullet moves after it leaves the barrel.  The way the bullet behaves after it leaves the barrel is called 'external ballistics'. The main factors affecting the aerodynamics of a bullet in flight are the bullet's shape and the rotation from the rifling of the gun barrel. Spinning helps stabilize the bullet gyroscopically and aerodynamically (spinning keeps it on track). Any small differences in the shape of the bullet are mostly canceled as it spins. The first guns did not have rifling. With smoothbore firearms (no rifling), a round bullet was best because it was the same in any position. But these bullets were not very stable. They were also not very accurate. Still, the round shape of bullets did not change very much for hundreds of years.\n\nBullet design also affects what happens when a bullet hits an object. The way a bullet behaves when it hits a target is called 'terminal ballistics.' The make-up and density of the target material, the angle at which the bullet hits, and the speed and design of the bullet itself are all factors. Bullets are usually made to go into a target, change shape, and\/or break apart. For a given material and bullet, the speed of the bullet is the main factor determining what happens.\n\nMaking bullets go faster increases the kinetic energy even more. This effect is big, so people have tried (and succeeded) to make bullets that go faster and weigh less. Modern firearms take much lighter bullets and shoot them much faster than was the case in World War I. This makes the firearms better in two ways. The magazine (which holds the cartridges in the gun before they are fired) holds more of the smaller, lighter bullets. Also, the higher speed causes much more damage than the old-style bullets.\n\nBullet types\n\nRifle bullet\n Rifles are used for target shooting and killing. A rifle bullet can be described by its accuracy, penetration, shape, size, and mass (weight). There are many different kinds of rifle bullets.\n\nThe Full Metal Jacket (FMJ) is a type of bullet commonly used by the military. A lead center (core) is surrounded by a strong metal coating (jacket). This jacket is usually made of a copper alloy, but sometimes it is made of steel.  The FMJ does not spread out when it hits a target. It goes deep into its target and is a general-purpose bullet. The FMJ is not recommended for hunting. It is mostly for target shooting and military use.\n\nThe Jacketed Hollow Point (JHP) has a lead center (core) with lead showing at the tip.  It also has a strong metal coating (jacket). The center of the tip has a hole in it (hollow point).  This design makes the tip of the JHP quickly start to spread out (expand) when it hits a target. The hollow point bullet in a rifle can be as small as a pin. When the hollow point is this small, the bullet will go faster and still spread out when it hits a living target. In some hollow point rifle bullets, the front may spread out to two times as wide as the bullet was when it started. It is a good hunting bullet because the energy in the bullet is transferred to the target at a known depth.  The jacketed hollow point tends to be accurate and is sturdy.\n \nThe plastic tipped bullet is a hollow point bullet.  The hollow point is filled with a hard, pointed plastic tip. It is used because it can go further than the JHP and does not curve as much. The plastic tipped bullet also spreads out or breaks into pieces when it hits the target.\n\nA solid copper bullet is a bullet that has no lead core or other elements than copper. This bullet expands into a flower shape when it hits a target, because copper bullets are usually hollow point. The copper bullet contains no lead, so it is also better for the environment. In rifles, it is widely used for hunting and other sports.\n\nA frangible bullet will break into many pieces upon contact with any material harder than itself. This bullet is used for safety while shooting. It has little impact on the environment. It also makes the objects behind the intended target a little safer.\n\nHandgun bullet \n \nHandguns are mostly used for sport target shooting or self-defense. Police use the pistol because they can easily carry it and have it ready to use.\n\nPistol bullets have some of the same names as rifle bullets, such as full metal jacket (FMJ) or jacketed hollow point (JHP).  For example, there are hollow point pistol bullets that also spread out a lot when they hit a target. However, in a pistol bullet, the hollow point can be much larger.  The hollow point causes the pistol bullet to slow down faster due to air resistance.  However, a pistol bullet does not have to travel as far as a rifle bullet.  The hollow point in a pistol bullet can be almost as wide as the bullet. When a hollow point pistol bullet hits a target, it almost completely flattens itself.  A solid copper pistol bullet is usually hollow point, and is mainly used for self-defense and\/or target shooting.\n\nA flat nosed bullet is mostly used in handguns, although there are also some rifle bullets called flat nosed. The flat nose on a pistol bullet can be as wide as the bullet. The \"flat nose\" on a rifle bullet may be much smaller. The flat nosed bullet tends to have a low ballistic coefficient. This means that it slows down faster than pointed bullets. Flat nosed bullets are sometimes used to prevent the explosion of the next cartridge in a magazine when the gun recoils. Flat nosed bullets also spread out quickly when they hit a target.  This makes them useful for fighting at close range when the bullet should not hit what is behind the target.  After hitting the target, it becomes almost inside out.\n\nA frangible pistol bullet will break apart on contact. It is usually made of a copper jacket over pieces of either round or twisted lead pieces that are glued together. The glue breaks apart when the bullet hits the target. The pieces spread out. This creates a larger surface area.  This kind of bullet cannot go deep into a target.  It is safer to use when it is important not to hit anything on the other side of the target.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\nhttp:\/\/www.arizonagunlist.com\/ammunition_types.html \nhttp:\/\/www.midwayusa.com\/content\/legacy\/bullet_composition.htm \nhttp:\/\/www.rathcoombe.net\/sci-tech\/ballistics\/methods.html \n\nBallistics\nAmmunition","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":14191,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bullet","title":"Bullet","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The BBC Symphony Orchestra is the main orchestra of the British Broadcasting Corporation. It is one of the best orchestras in Britain.\n\nHistory \nThe orchestra started in 1930. Sir Adrian Boult was the main conductor until 1950, when Sir Malcolm Sargent took over until 1957. Since then there have been several conductors. Now the orchestra is conducted by Ji\u0159\u00ed B\u011blohl\u00e1vek.\n\nAs well as these principal conductors there have been others, including the famous Arturo Toscanini, who made a series of recordings with the orchestra in the Queen's Hall from 1937 to 1939.\n\nThe BBC often ask composers of today to write music for the BBC Symphony Orchestra. Composers whose new works they have performed include Sally Beamish, Harrison Birtwistle Elliott Carter, James MacMillan, John Tavener and Mark-Anthony Turnage. \n\nThe orchestra plays a big part in the BBC Proms, the season of concerts played every summer at the Royal Albert Hall. It plays on both the first and last nights of the prom season. It also plays several concerts in the Barbican during the year. They often make recordings in the BBC studios. They can often be seen on BBC Television. Sometimes they go on tour to other countries. They also play concerts for young people as part of an education programme.\n\nThere are other professional BBC orchestras and groups: the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra, the BBC National Orchestra of Wales, the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra, the BBC Concert Orchestra, the BBC Big Band and the BBC Singers. There are also two amateur choruses: the BBC Symphony Chorus and the BBC National Chorus of Wales.\n\nChief conductors of the BBC Symphony Orchestra \nAdrian Boult (1930-1950)\nMalcolm Sargent (1950-1957)\nRudolf Schwarz (1957-1963)\nAntal Dor\u00e1ti (1962-1966)\nColin Davis (1967-1971)\nPierre Boulez (1971-1975)\nRudolf Kempe (1976)\nGennady Rozhdestvensky (1978-1981)\nJohn Pritchard (1982-1989)\nAndrew Davis (1989-2000)\nLeonard Slatkin (2000-2004)\nJi\u0159\u00ed B\u011blohl\u00e1vek (2006-2013)\nSakari Oramo (2013-present)\n\nOther websites \n The \n\nBBC\nBritish orchestras","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":67291,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BBC%20Symphony%20Orchestra","title":"BBC Symphony Orchestra","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A carpenter is a person who works with wood. They can make cabinets, build houses, or do other things with wood.\n\nCarpenters usually make very good foremen (people who watch over a job) on larger jobs as they deal with so much of the project from ground up. Carpenters are always adding to their tools and always learning how to use the new tools, materials, and ways of working with wood.\n\nMany carpenters will choose to focus their skills in one of two broad ranging categories. Rough carpenters will focus on building things that need to be simple and structural. This includes framing for houses, or crates for shipping. Finish carpenters will focus on things that are detailed and artistic. For example, they can be furniture builders, cabinet makers or toy makers. Wood carvers are sometimes counted as carpenters.\n\nRelated pages \n Cabinet making\n\nReferences \n\nConstruction occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":151,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2}},"id":13256,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carpenter","title":"Carpenter","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Alchemy is the very old study and philosophy of how to change basic substances (such as metals) into other substances. It also studied how substances (and how they are changed into other substances) were related to magic and astrology. People who studied alchemy were called alchemists. Some things alchemists tried to do were change lead or mercury into gold, make the philosopher's stone, and make the \"elixir of life,\" which they thought could cure (make better) any disease and make someone young again.\n\nAlchemists believed that substances, mind, philosophies, religion, magic and astrology were related to each other. They tried to find connections between them. They tried to understand one by understanding the other. Some alchemists used metals (like gold or silver) to represent spiritual or occult ideas. People in many different countries studied alchemy.\n\nIn the 1600s and 1700s, people started to study only the properties of substances without trying to relate them to secret, old knowledge. They did experiments and wrote down what they discovered so other people could learn from them. One of the important people who did these experiments was Robert Boyle. People called the new study of substances chemistry.\n\nScientists have since discovered how to change one kind of element (the simplest kind of chemical substance) into another. In 1980, an American scientist named Glenn Seaborg discovered how to change a very tiny amount of bismuth into gold with a nuclear reactor. Making gold this way is much more difficult and expensive (costs a lot of money) than mining or recycling it.\n\nReferences\n\nAlchemy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":20794,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alchemy","title":"Alchemy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A lesbian is a homosexual woman. This means a woman who is sexually attracted to other women, and not to men. A woman who is sexually attracted to both women and men is bisexual or pansexual.\n\nThe word lesbian comes from Lesbos (), an island in Greece. An ancient poet, Sappho, lived on Lesbos. Sappho wrote mostly poems about love. Many of her love poems are written to women. So her name and the island where she lived make people think about women who love women. Sometimes lesbians are also called Sapphists from the name Sappho. Sapphic can be used as an umbrella term for love between women, regardless of their sexual or romantic orientation.\n\nLesbians and feminism\nLesbians were involved in the early feminist (a movement of women who want to be treated equally to men) movement. Feminism is the political and social movements that promote women's equality and rights. However, there was conflict between lesbians and straight (heterosexual) women in the feminist movement. In the 1960s and 1970s some straight (women who like men) feminists wanted the lesbians out of the women's rights movement. They wanted feminism to be accepted by society. They believed lesbians were less accepted by society and might hurt the feminist movement.\n\nEventually, the women's rights movement accepted its lesbian members. Now many important feminist leaders are out (out means that they make it known that they are lesbians) lesbians.\n\nLesbians as parents\nMany lesbian couples want to have children of their own. In order to raise children, they sometimes adopt. However some places do not allow homosexual couples to adopt children, so many of them want to be able to adopt children.\n\nSome lesbian couples also have their own biological children. To do this they may have artificial insemination. This is when sperm from a donor male is placed in a woman to make a pregnancy. Some lesbian women do this at home with a friend they choose to be the donor. However many may use sperm banks. These are medical businesses that match couples who need donor sperm with men who will donate. Sometimes this is done anonymously which means the couple does not know the donor. Sometimes this is done with the donor known and even chosen by the couple.\n\nLaw and religion\n\nUnlike gay sex between males, lesbian sex is not against the law in as many places. Some religions that condemn gay male sex say nothing about lesbian sex. Abrahamic religions usually see gay as well as lesbian relations as immoral. Saint Paul in Epistle to the Romans 1:26 describes lesbianism as 'unnatural' and 'shameful'. There are some religions, however, mostly new religious movements that accept lesbian relations.\n\nIn most parts of the world lesbian couples cannot marry. This means they do not have the legal benefits and protection of marriage. This can cause lesbians, and gay men, many problems. Pedophila committed by an adult lesbian upon an underage female may be a crime.\n\nRelated pages \n\n Homosexuality\n\nReferences\n\nLGBT variations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":10522,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lesbian","title":"Lesbian","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Comedy drama, also called dramedy, is a style of television and movies when there are similar amounts of both humor and seriousness.\n\nHistory\n\nTheatre\nTraditional theatre was separated from its earliest days into comedy and tragedy. Authors such as Anton Chekov and George Bernard Shaw famously blurred the line between comedy and drama.\n\nEarly television\nIn live theatre the difference between comedy and tragedy became less and less significant, in mass media, comedy and drama were clearly separated. Comedies, especially, were meant to only have jokes and not any serious content.\n\nBy the early 1960s, television had started to present half-hour long \"comedy\" series, or one hour long \"dramas.\" Half-hour series were mostly situation comedy or family comedy. One hour dramas could have detective series, westerns and science fiction.\n\nRecent drama-comedy on television\nA drama-comedy today is usually an hour-long dramatic series with funny jokes such as Moonlighting, Northern Exposure, Auf Wiedersehen, Pet, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Eureka, Life on Mars, House, Desperate Housewives, Charmed, Popular, Skins, Monk, Psych, Gilmore Girls, The O.C., Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip, Ally McBeal, Ugly Betty, Brothers & Sisters, Grey's Anatomy or ''Boston Legal\".\n\nOther websites\n Comedy-drama  at the All Movie Guide","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":93,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":82473,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comedy%20drama","title":"Comedy drama","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Popular culture is culture which interests the general masses of people. It is influenced and spread by mass media. People experience or learn popular culture by hearing popular music on the radio, watching television, playing video games, or reading popular books and magazines. Popular culture may affect all kinds of knowledge or thought, including art, religion, or language. \n\nPopular culture does not follow any one system of ideas, customs, philosophy, religion, or morality. Some of its forms include grammar, language, or pictures that are not accepted under a society's customs. For this reason a society or government may not approve of popular culture. If a government thinks that any form of it may harm people or cause society to change in a bad way, the government may ban it. This practice is known as censorship. In some countries popular culture is protected under freedom of speech or other rights.\n\nAmerican popular culture \nThe United States is an industrialized country (see industrialization) in which citizens use mass media. Its government protects language and cultures under freedom of speech. The U.S. has had periods of popular culture since the 20th century. For instance, after World War II a group of children known as Baby boomers experienced a sudden expansion of popular culture.\n\nRelated pages \n\n Folklore\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":159,"dup_dump_count":91,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":33767,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Popular%20culture","title":"Popular culture","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Theology is the study of one or more religions \n('Theo-' means God in Greek and '-logy' is study, which makes it 'God study' or 'study of God'). Somebody who studies theology is called a theologian. Books or ideas about theology are called theological.\n\nTheology may be studied for many reasons. Some people study theology to better understand their own religion, while other people study theology so that they can compare religions.\n\nThe word 'theology' was first used to describe the study of God in Christianity but some now use it to describe the study of religion generally, but not everyone agrees that it is right to do so. Some people use the words 'comparative theology' in reference to approaching theology within more than one religion at once.\n\nDuring the High Middle Ages, it was thought that theology was the highest subject learned in universities. Theology at that time was named \"The Queen of the Sciences\". There was a plan for young men to study easy subjects and then harder subjects. The easiest subjects were called the Trivium. The next harder subjects were called the Quadrivium. Finally, young men were expected to study theology. This meant that the other subjects existed primarily to help with theological thought.\n\nRelated pages \nChristian theology\n\nOther websites\n\nWhat is theology? theology.edu","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":185,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":5,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":4,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":2}},"id":2120,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theology","title":"Theology","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Computer data storage is the name for a number of components of a computer. The main purpose of these components is to store data. The central processing unit is then able to fetch and change the data. In most computers, there is a computer memory hierarchy: Memory that is \"closer\" to the CPU is usually faster to access, but it is also smaller; data that is stored in this kind of memory usually needs electrical power to keep the data.\n\nMemory that is farther away is usually slower to access, but also bigger.  Classical storage media of this kind of data include hard drives and USB flash drives.  Some media offer even more capacity, but accessing them is very slow. Examples for such media are tape drives. Modern CPUs have registers that can store data, they also often have several levels of cache.\n\nFinally, there is the main memory the CPU can access. These three are usually referred to as Primary data storage. Some computers also have a cache memory.\n\nSecondary storage is usually not directly accessible by the CPU, and data needs to be transferred to primary storage to be available. Secondary storage includes hard drives and non-volatile random-access memory. Tertiary storage is used for archival and backup; very often it is copied to secondary storage before use. Software is sometimes distributed by tertiary media such as magnetic tape and CD-ROM.\n\nComputing","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-18":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":409509,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer%20data%20storage","title":"Computer data storage","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Valentine's Day is a celebration that happens on February 14. It is the day of the year when lovers celebrate their love. This can be done by giving flowers, chocolates, Valentine's cards or just a nice gift.  Love notes can be given to one another.  These notes that people give out are also called valentines.   Some people pick one person and call them their \"Valentine\" as a gesture to show love and appreciation.\n\nSymbols of Valentine's Day are heart shapes, roses, and Cupid with his arrows.\n\nValentine's Day is named for the martyred Christian saint named Valentine. He was a bishop that performed marriages between forbidden couples.\n\nSince the 14th century, Valentine's pairs are formed in England. English emigrants then took the Valentine's custom to the United States. After  World War II, US soldiers brought this festival to Europe.\n\nLegend \nIn the third century A.D., Valentine was the bishop of Terni (Italy). He performed weddings for couples who were not allowed to get married. They may not have been allowed to get married because the parents did not agree with the connection or because the bridegroom was a soldier or a slave, so the marriage was forbidden. Valentine gave the married couple flowers from his garden. That's why flowers play a very important role on Valentine's Day. This did not please the emperor. On February 14, 269 AD, Valentine was beheaded because of his Christian faith.\n\nAn expansion of the legend combines the day of death of Valentine with the Roman festival Lupercalia. It was the festival of the great goddess Lupa, which is the feminine word for wolf. She was the Great She-Wolf who nursed the twin babies, Romulus and Remus, who later became the founders of Rome. During the annual ceremony, the temple priestesses (lupae) wrote their names on strips of papyrus. These were picked by young men. After the lottery, the youngsters walked through the city and got the blessings of the citizens. The martyr Valentine became the patron saint of the lovers. Still in the Middle Ages, as in France or in Belgium, people were chosen by the lottery to live a year with each other and people prayed to Saint Valentine to make love potions and charms.\n\nUnited States and Europe \nIn the 19th century, the custom of sending Valentine's Cards became very popular. The cards usually have pictures of hearts or flowers and contain some sort of poem, message, or code. Codes and simple messages give some people the courage to show their true feelings to the person they love. Today, some people still use mysterious codes to show their love. People can use newspapers to give a coded message to their loved one, giving other readers a view of the couples' intimacy with one another. Sometimes they will give each other chocolates.\n\nFamous for the popularity of the celebration is the folk song called \"Die Vogelhochzeit\" (\"The Birds' Wedding\").\n\nChina \n\nIn China, a holiday called Qi Xi is also called \"Chinese Valentine's Day\", especially by younger people. Qi Xi is traditionally held on the 7th day of the 7th month of the lunar calendar. In recent years, it has become more like Valentine's Day in other countries.\n\nReferences \n\nObservances\nFebruary events","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":19763,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valentine%27s%20Day","title":"Valentine's Day","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Taxonomy is a branch of biology. It is about the laws and principles of classifying living things. From one type of taxonomy, many classifications might be produced.\n\nClassification\nThe best-known kind of taxonomy is used for the classification of lifeforms (living and extinct). Each organism has a scientific name. This name is part of the biological classification of that species. The name is the same all over the world, so scientists from different places can understand each other. In addition, a species has a position in the tree of life. Thus the crow is Corvus corone, a member of the Corvidae family, and they are passerine birds. That is well agreed, but the classification of some groups is not agreed at present, and often several classifications are being discussed.\n\nLiving things are classified into three domains: bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. The highest rank in a domain is the kingdom. Each kingdom has many smaller groups in it, called phyla. Each phylum has more smaller groups in it, called classes. This pattern looks like branches on a tree with smaller branches growing from them. Each species is put into a group because of what it does, how and what it eats, special body parts, and so on. At the end of the pattern, the groups (genera) are very small. Then each species in the genus is given its own name.\n\nBinomial nomenclature \nWhen someone writes about a living thing and its formal scientific name, they write the genus and species name. This is known as binomial nomenclature, because it uses two names for each organism. The first is the genus name, and the second is the species in that genus. The scientific name of the domestic cat is Felis catus. Sometimes it is enough to write F. catus.\n\nThese are the major groups (ranks) used in taxonomy:\nKingdom --> Phylum --> Class --> Order --> Family --> Genus --> Species\n\nUsage of Latin \nWhen people started naming species, Latin was a language widely used in Europe. All species names are still written in Latin. This has some advantages. Since Latin is no longer spoken, it is unchanging, and is owned by no-one. It gets over the problem of every language having its own names for animals and plants.\n\nScientists used to write the official description of each new species in Latin. On 1 January 2012, the International Botanical Congress changed to allow English (as well as Latin) for describing new plant species. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature recommends choosing a language that is widely used, and that is used in the places where the species lives.\n\nCladism\nAn important modern approach to taxonomy is cladism. This approach is based on the branching (tree-like) course of evolution. Like traditional Linnaean classification, it uses traits to decide on the branches of the classification. It insists on groups being monophyletic. This has the effect that birds are not a class but a sub-group of dinosaurs. It also means the ranking system described above would be abolished.\n\nSo cladism has different principles of taxonomy, and produces a different kind of taxonomy. Decisions, where possible, are supported by DNA sequence analysis. Present-day biological classification is a mixture of the old Linnaean and the modern cladistic principles of taxonomy. In parts, it is changing rapidly. The classifications presented in Wikipedia at present are often a compromise between the two systems. The details are regularly discussed.\n\nTurmoil in taxonomy\nToday, there are many changes in the classification of living things. This turmoil in taxonomy has led to many alternative classifications. It is caused partly from the move from Linnaean to cladistic principles, and partly by the use of DNA sequence data in taxonomy. An example is: the way derived groups like birds should not be classified at the same level as the group they evolved from. Yet birds have traditionally been a class under the Linnaean system.\n\nThe turmoil sometimes results in differences between related pages. Pages may rely on different references and different authors' opinions as to the present best arrangement.\n\nThe following source is good on the differences between cladistic and taxonomic classification systems:\nGrant, Verne 2003. Incongruence between cladistic and taxonomic systems. American Journal of Botany. 90 (9) 1263-1270.\n\nRelated pages\n Cladistics\n Molecular clock\n Molecular evolution\n Sequence analysis\n Biological classification\n Military taxonomy\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n Taxonomy Citizendium","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":196,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":4,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":4,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":6,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":5,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1}},"id":849,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taxonomy","title":"Taxonomy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cotton is a soft, natural fiber that grows with the seeds of the cotton plant.  (Fiber is long and thin, like hair.)  After the cotton fiber is gathered from the plant, it can be spun into cotton thread. The cotton thread can then be made into cloth.  The cloth can be used to make clothes for people and many other things.  People often wear cotton clothing, especially in hot weather. Bandages are usually cotton.\n\nThere are different types of cotton plants.  Some cotton plants grow wild in tropical and subtropical areas of the world.  This is how cotton was discovered many years ago.  Most of the cotton gathered to make cloth comes from crops grown on cotton plantations.  Cotton is farmed in Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia, and the Americas.  Cotton soaks up to 24-27 of its own weight in water (very absorbent). All parts of cotton plants are useful.\n\nCotton is in the mallow family and produces delicate, lovely flowers.  Other members of the mallow family include hollyhocks and hibiscus, used to brighten gardens all over the world.  The cotton fiber forms around the seeds of the cotton plant. It helps carry the seeds long distances on the wind so the baby plant can grow up far away. Early humans realized that the soft, fluffy fibers might be suitable for textile use and began to breed the plant, selecting for fluffy, easily spun varieties.\n\nCotton is one of the oldest fibers under human cultivation, with traces of cotton over 7,000 years old recovered from archaeological sites. Cotton is also one of the most used natural fibers in existence today, with consumers everywhere wearing and using cotton for various purposes. The word \"cotton\" comes from the Arabic word \"qutn\".Millions of acres globally are devoted to the production of cotton, whether it be new world cotton, with longer, smoother fibers, or the shorter and coarser old world varieties.\n\nAfter harvesting, cotton must be combed to remove the seeds. This was a laborious process until the industrial revolution and invention of the cotton gin, which quickly separates the seeds from the fiber and combs them for spinning. While a single cotton fiber is not terribly strong, when multiple curling fibers are straightened and twisted together, they form a strong, smooth thread that can be knitted or woven, as well as dyed.\n\nOther websites \n Cotton -Citizendium \n\nBasic English 850 words\nFibers\nArabic words and phrases","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":10288,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cotton","title":"Cotton","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Menahem Zioni (Ziyyuni) ben Meir of Speyer (c. 1340 - c. 1410) was a German kabbalist of the middle of the 14th century.\n\nHe was the author of the kabbalistic commentary \u1e92iyyuni, from which he derives his name. He based his work upon Rashi and Na\u1e25manides, and especially upon the old kabbalistic literature of the geonic period. The \"\u1e92iyyuni\" is introduced by poems in alphabetic and acrostic order. The division Bereshit begins with a preface on the importance of the assumption of the creation of the world, and in support of this view the arguments of Maimonides are quoted at length. Short poems serve as transitions to the several parashiyyot, and in conclusion there is an acrostic poem, to which, in the second edition, another poem is added.\n\nThe verse of Zioni quoted by Leopold Dukes from a manuscript chrestomathy constitutes the last stanza of this final poem. The book is frequently quoted in the Yal\u1e33u\u1e6d Re'ubeni. It was printed by Vincentio Conti at Cremona in 1559, in rabbinic script, and after this edition was burned (in the same year) by marauding Spanish soldiers, it was reprinted there in the following year.\n\nMenahem is not to be identified with Menahem Zion b. Me\u00efr (as does Heidenheim), a payye\u1e6dan of the twelfth century well known under the name of \"Menahem b. Machir\".\n\nReferences \n\n Its bibliography:\nPh. Bloch, Die J\u00fcdische Mystik und Kabbala, in Winter and W\u00fcnsche, Die J\u00fcdische Litteratur, iii. 282;\nZunz, Z. G. p.\u00a0105;\nWolf, Bibl. Hebr. i. 774;\nM. Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1742.\n\nKabbalists\n14th-century German rabbis\n\n15th-century German rabbis\n\n1340 births\n1410 deaths\nYear of birth uncertain\nYear of death uncertain","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":129,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2021-39":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":6,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2}},"id":11316925,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Menachem%20Zioni","title":"Menachem Zioni","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dylan Mark Postl (born May 29, 1986) is an American midget professional wrestler. He is better known by his ring name Hornswoggle. Postl is best known for his time working for the WWE. He was the last WWE Cruiserweight Champion ever. Postl originally wrestled under the name of \"The World's Sexiest Midget\" Shortstack.\n\nCareer \nPrior to working on SmackDown!, Postl was best known for his work with NWA Wisconsin where he won its X Division Championship.\n\nWorld Wrestling Entertainment \nPostl signed with World Wrestling Entertainment in May 2007. He is the fourth wrestler from NWA Wisconsin to sign with WWE. The others were Daivari, Ken Kennedy and CM Punk.\n\nPostl first showed up as the leprechaun partner of the Irish wrestler Finlay on SmackDown! during the May 26 episode. After Finlay's victory over Paul Burchill, a little man (Postl) crawled out from under the ring and jumped on Burchill. Finlay pulled him off, only to slam him back down onto Burchill again. For the next few weeks the as-yet unnamed man continued to appear from under the ring after matches.\n\nEventually, SmackDown! commentator Michael Cole began calling him the Little Bastard. The name became popular and became his \"official\" name. Commentator JBL refused to call him \"Little Bastard\". JBL said, \"he might have parents\". He instead called him a leprechaun. This was confirmed in one edition of SmackDown! by Finlay.\n\nLittle Bastard soon became meaner. He started attacking during Finlay's matches even though it upset Finlay. Many times, Finlay either physically shoved Little Bastard back under the ring or was forced to tackle him before he could hit the person he was wrestling. At one point, Little Bastard attacked Finlay, biting Finlay when Finlay tried to stop him from attacking Gunner Scott.\n\nLittle Bastard was an important part of Finlay winning the United States Championship when he tossed him a shillelagh to knock out champion Lashley to win the match.\n\nOn February 23, his name was changed to Hornswoggle on WWE's website and all references to the name \"Little Bastard\" were removed. The name change became official on the March 2 episode of SmackDown!. Postl attacked JBL and Michael Cole. Afterwards, Finlay told Cole that Little Bastard's name is Hornswoggle. Despite this, Cole continues to occasionally refer to Hornswoggle as \"Little Bastard\".\n\nOn July 22, 2007 at The Great American Bash Hornswoggle won the WWE Cruiserweight Championship. The other people in the match and commentators did not know that he was a participant in the match until the pin and he was given the belt. This made him the first person with dwarfism to win a Championship in WWE history. Hornswoggle is both the lightest and the shortest wrestler to win the Cruiserweight Championship in WWE history. He is also the smallest wrestler to win any title in WWE.\n\nPostl was drafted to ECW on June 25, 2008 as part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft.\n\nChampionships and Accomplishments \n\n World Wrestling Entertainment\n WWE Cruiserweight Championship (1 time, last)\n\nNotes and references\n\nOther websites \n\n1986 births\nLiving people\nAmerican professional wrestlers\nFormer WWE wrestlers\nPeople with dwarfism\nSportspeople from Wisconsin","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":65366,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hornswoggle","title":"Hornswoggle","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Physical chemistry uses physics to study chemical systems.  It studies them at macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate levels.  It looks at concepts like motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics and dynamics.\n\nPhysical chemistry is not the same as chemical physics. Physical chemistry is mostly a macroscopic or supra-molecular science. The majority of physical chemistry concepts relate to bulk properties rather than to molecular\/atomic structure alone. These include chemical equilibrium and colloids.\n\nSome of the relationships that physical chemistry tries to resolve include the effects of:\nIntermolecular forces on the physical properties of materials (for example, plasticity, tensile strength, surface tension in liquids).\nReaction kinetics on the rate of a reaction.\nThe identity of ions on the electrical conductivity of materials.\nSurface chemistry and electrochemistry of membranes.\n\nHistory \n\nThe term \"physical chemistry\" was first used by Mikhail Lomonosov in 1752. He presented a lecture course with the title \"A Course in True Physical Chemistry\" (Russian: \u00ab\u041a\u0443\u0440\u0441 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0445\u0438\u043c\u0438\u0438\u00bb) to the students of Petersburg University. \n\nModern physical chemistry was developed in the 1860s to 1880s with work on chemical thermodynamics, electrolytes in solutions, chemical kinetics and other subjects. In 1876, Josiah Willard Gibbs wrote an article called, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances.  This paper introduced many of the main parts of physical chemistry, such as Gibbs energy, chemical potentials, Gibbs phase rule. Other important discoveries include Heike Kamerlingh Onnes' work on enthalpy and macromolecular processes. \n\nThe first scientific journal about physical chemistry was the German journal, Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Physikalische Chemie. It was founded in 1887 by Wilhelm Ostwald and Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff.   The two chemists and Svante August Arrhenius were the leading men in physical chemistry in the late 19th century and early 20th century. All three were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.\n\nImportant discoveries were made in the 20th century. These include applying statistical mechanics to chemical systems and Irving Langmuir's work on colloids and surface chemistry. In the 1930's, Linus Pauling and others applied quantum mechanics to develop quantum chemistry. Chemical theories have grown with new experimental discoveries. New forms of spectroscopy started in the 20th century including: infrared spectroscopy, microwave spectroscopy, EPR spectroscopy and NMR spectroscopy.\n\nPhysical chemistry also improved with discoveries in nuclear chemistry, especially in isotope separation. This happened around the time before and during World War II. Chemists discovered important facts in astrochemistry.\n\nJournals\nThese journals cover physical chemistry:\nZeitschrift f\u00fcr Physikalische Chemie (1887)\nJournal of Physical Chemistry A (from 1896 as Journal of Physical Chemistry, renamed in 1997)\nPhysical Chemistry Chemical Physics (from 1999, formerly Faraday Transactions with a history dating back to 1905)\nMacromolecular Chemistry and Physics (1947)\nAnnual Review of Physical Chemistry (1950)\nMolecular Physics (journal)|Molecular Physics (1957)\nJournal of Physical Organic Chemistry (1988)\nJournal of Physical Chemistry B (1997)\nChemPhysChem (2000)\nJournal of Physical Chemistry C (2007)\nJournal of Physical Chemistry Letters (from 2010, combined letters previously published in the separate journals)\n\nA historical journal that covered both chemistry and physics was Annales de chimie et de physique.  It started in 1789 and was published under the name given here from 1815\u20131914.\n\nBranches and related topics\n\nThermochemistry\nChemical kinetics\nQuantum chemistry\nElectrochemistry\nPhotochemistry\nSurface chemistry\nSolid-state chemistry\nSpectroscopy\nBiophysical chemistry\nMaterials science\nPhysical organic chemistry\nMicromeritics\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\nPhysical Chemistry   (Keith J. Laidler, John H. Meiser and Bryan C. Sanctuary)\nThe World of Physical Chemistry (Keith J. Laidler, 1993)\nPhysical Chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling (John W. Servos, 1996)\n100 Years of Physical Chemistry (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2004)\nPhysical Chemistry: neither Fish nor Fowl? (Joachim Schummer, The Autonomy of Chemistry, W\u00fcrzburg, K\u00f6nigshausen & Neumann, 1998, pp.\u00a0135\u2013148)\nCathedrals of Science  (Patrick Coffey, 2008)\nThe Cambridge History of Science: The modern physical and mathematical sciences (Mary Jo Nye, 2003)\n\nBranches of chemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":303023,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical%20chemistry","title":"Physical chemistry","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A patch is a piece of a flexible material used to repair an object that has a hole in it, to protect an object from damage even before it is damaged, or to decorate clothing or other fabric items.\n\nCloth patches\n\nFor repairs \nCloth patches are rectangles of cloth that are used to cover up holes in clothing and other fabric items. Patches are usually used on clothes and soft things like cushions, teddy bears and blankets. Patches are sewn on with a needle and thread or glued on using a hot iron.\n\nFor decoration \nMany types of uniforms use cloth patches that have embroidered words or images on them. For example, police officers' uniforms have patches that state the name of the police force. Military uniforms have patches that have the flag of the country embroidered on them and the military unit that the soldier is part of. Many uniforms for businesses have cloth patches with the name of the company and the company logo embroidered on them. \n\nAs well, many people wear patches on their regular clothing. Some patches are sold by tourist stores. These patches have the name of a region on them. Other patches worn by teenagers have the names and logos of rock bands on them. Motorcycle biker gang members, such as members of the Hells Angels  wear patches on their leather vests that state the name of their gang and the logo of the gang.\n\nLeather patches \nLeather patches are rectangles of leather that are used to cover up holes in clothing and other fabric items. Leather patches are usually used on heavy-duty work clothes, or on the elbows of jackets, or on the knees of pants. Leather patches are sewn on with a needle and thread.\n\nRubber patches \nRubber patches are rectangles, squares, or circular pieces of flat, thin rubber that are glued onto bicycle tire inner tubes, car tire inner tubes, and inflatable toys to repair holes.\n\nClothing","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"unknown":14,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":38276,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patch","title":"Patch","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Incheon (officially, Incheon Metropolitan City) is a major port city in South Korea and famous for Incheon International Airport.\n\nIncheon is 28\u00a0km from the nation's capital, Seoul. It is at 126\u00b0 37\u00b4 east longitude and 37\u00b0 28\u00b4 north latitude, the same latitude as San Francisco, Washington, Madrid, and Teheran. Incheon is the third largest city in South Korea, after Seoul and Busan and 2.6 million people live in Incheon (2009).\n\nThere are ten administrative districts in Incheon and it is divided into 8 wards (\"gu\") and 2 counties (\"gun\").\n\nIncheon Subway and Seoul Metropolitan Subway is linked (line number 1) and it takes approximately an hour from Incheon subway station to Seoul Station.\n\nHistory \nThe history of Incheon started from the Goguryeo Kingdom in 475 AD, under the reign of King Jangsu. Its original name was Michuhol and it changed several times and renamed to Incheon-gun in the 13th year of King Taejong's reign during Joseon period. In 1949, after Korea`s 1945 liberation, Incheon City reorganized.  It was finally renamed to Incheon Metropolitan City in 1995. \n\nDuring the Korean War, there was the battle of Incheon led by an American general of UN Douglas MacArthur and the battle resulted in a decisive victory. It was also a strategic reversal in favor of the United Nations(UN). In a show of gratitude to the American soldier, Koreans in the late 1950s erected the bronze statue of MacArthur in a central park at Incheon that overlooks the sea area through which his troops came ashore.\n\nCulture and Tourism\nIncheon is famous for 17th Asian Games,Incheon International Airport, Incheon Port, Songdo International City, Incheon Subway, and Munhak Worldcup Stadium are five major cites of Incheon.\n\nGanghwa-county\nGanghwa-county (Ganghwa Island) is famous for dolmens registered as one of the World Heritages by UNESCO.\nHwamunseok mats are Incheon's famous local products, a figured mat. The beauty of these hand-woven mats has made them one of the most famous specialty products of Ganghwa-gun, and one of the most beloved traditional Korean crafts.\n\nWolmido (Wolmi Island) \nWolmido was once a military base of Japanese Army during the Japanese colonial period and a outpost of the battle of Incheon. Nowadays, Wolmido is one of the most famous tourist spots near the Metropolitan area. Along the 1\u00a0km-long Wolmido Street of Culture, there are lots of beautiful cafes and restaurants. Wolmido is also famous for street performers, portrait artists and Wolmi Festival.\n\nIncheon Free Economic Zone \nTo become an international economic hub and a center of business and service industry of Asia, Incheon is developing free economic zone in the three regions of Songdo, Cheongra, and the island of Yeongjong. Incheon's Free Economic Zone, the first in Korea, was officially designated by the Korean government in August 2003 and it is planing to 2020.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\nIncheon Metropolitan City homepage\nIncheon International Airport\n\n \n5th-century establishments in Asia\nEstablishments in South Korea\n475 establishments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":274045,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incheon","title":"Incheon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Spain is divided in 17 parts called autonomous communities. Autonomous means that each of these autonomous communities has its own executive, legislative judicial powers. These are similar to, but not the same as, states in the United States of America, for example.\n\nSpain has fifty smaller parts called provinces. In 1978 these parts came together, making the autonomous communities. \nBefore then, some of these provinces were together but were broken. The groups that were together once before are called \"historic communities\": Catalonia, Basque Country, Galicia and Andalusia.\n\nThe Spanish language is the sole official language in every autonomous community but six, where Spanish is co-official with other languages, as follows:\n Catalonia: Catalan and Occitan\n Valencian Community: Catalan (also called Valencian there)\n Balearic Islands: Catalan\n Galicia: Galician\n Basque Country: Basque\n Navarre: Basque (only in the north and near the border with the Basque County)\n\nList of the autonomous communities, with their Capital city (the place where the government has its offices):\n\n Andalusia (its capital is Sevilla)\n Aragon (its capital is Zaragoza)\n Asturias (its capital is Oviedo)\n Balearic Islands (its capital is Palma de Mallorca)\n Basque Country (its capital is Vitoria)\n Canary Islands (they have two capitals - Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife)\n Cantabria (its capital is Santander)\n Castile-La Mancha (its capital is Toledo)\n Castile and Le\u00f3n (its capital is Valladolid)\n Catalonia (its capital is Barcelona)\n Extremadura (its capital is M\u00e9rida)\n Galicia (its capital is Santiago de Compostela)\n La Rioja (its capital is Logro\u00f1o)\n Community of Madrid (its capital is Madrid)\n Region of Murcia (its capital is Murcia)\n Navarre (its capital is Pamplona)\n Valencian Community (its capital is Valencia)\n\nSpain also has two cities on the north coast of Africa: Ceuta and Melilla. They are called \"autonomous cities\" and have simultaneously the majority of the power of an autonomous community and also power of provinces and power of municipalities.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":135,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":4,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":12,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autonomous%20communities%20of%20Spain","title":"Autonomous communities of Spain","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Russian: \u0412\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0301\u043c\u0438\u0440 \u0418\u043b\u044c\u0438\u0301\u0447 \u0423\u043b\u044c\u044f\u0301\u043d\u043e\u0432, IPA: vla'd\u02b2im\u02b2r ilj'it\u0282 ul'jan\u028cf), better known as Lenin (\u041b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043d)) (22 April 1870 - 21 January 1924) ek Russian revolutionary aur Bolshevik party ke leader rahaa. Uu Soviet Union ke pahil aleader rahaa. Soviet Union, Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) ke dusra naam hae. Lenin ke Leninism suruu kare khatir bhi jaana jaawe hae, jiske baad me Josif Stalin Marxism-Leninism naam diis rahaa.\n\nSchool me , Lenin  Latin aur Greek bhasa me achchhaa parrhat rahaa. 1887 me uske Kazan State University se nikal dewa gais rahaa kahe ki uu bahut radical rahaa aur Tsar ke virod me protest karis rahaa.  Wahii saal me  Lenin ke bhaiya, Alexander Ulyanov, ke  Alexander III kr hatya kare ke kosis me faansi pe charrhawa gais rahaa. Lenin apne se parrte rahaa aur 1891 me uske lawyer ke licence mila.\n\nSt. Petersburg me jab, Lenin wakiili ke parrhai karat rahaa tab uu Karl Marx aur Friedrich Engels ke bichar ke baare me jaanis. Kaahe ki Marxism ke Russia me allowed nai rahaa, Lenin ke arrest kar ke jahel me kar dewa gais rahaa aur iske baad Siberia bhej dewa gais rahaa. \n\nJuly 1898 me, jab uu Siberia me rahaa, tav uu ek socialist aurat, Nadezhda Krupskaya se saadi karis. 1899 me uu el book likhis, The Developm me rahaaent of Capitalism in Russia. 1900, Lenin ke Siberia se chhorr dewa gais rahaa.\n\nIske baad Lenin Europe bhar me ghumis aur ek Marxist newspaper,  Iskra ke chapis, Russian sabd jiske matlab English me \"spark\" hae. Uu Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) ke ek leader ban gais.\n\n1903 me, Lenin aur RSDLP ke duusra leader, Julius Martov ke biich me matbhed hoe gais, ii khatir ki Party ke kon rakam se organise karaa jaawe. Ii matbhed ke kaaran Party, dui gut (faction) me bat gais. Lenin maangat rahaa ek strict, centralised, aur disciplined model. Martov maangat rahaa ek kamtii strict, aur kamti centralised model. Martov ke gut waale ke Menshevik bola jaawat rahaa (jiske matlab hae \"uu jon ki kamti hae\"). Lenin ke gut waala logan ke Bolshevik bola jaawat rahaa ( jiske matlab hae \"uu jon ki jaada maange hae\").\n\nLenin, 1907 me Finland gais kaahe ki Marxists log khatir Finland, Russia se jaada surakchhit rahaa. Uu Europae bhar me ghumis aur dher socialist meeting aur ghatna me hissa liis rahaa. Ii time me uu London, Paris me dher jagha me rahaa, aur World War I ke time Geneva me. Larrai ke suruu ke time Second International ke ek barraa meeting, jisme Bolsheviks bhi rahin, broke down, kahe ki dher member Parties aapan des ke larrai me madat kare maangat rahin, aur ii idea Marxist idea of internationalism ke nai rahaa. Lenin aur Bolsheviks (jiske communists ke naamse bhi jaana jaawat rahaa) me se khaali kuchh log larrai ke virod karin Marxist kaaran se.\n\n1917 \n\nJab February Revolution ke baad me Nicholas II  Tsar nai rahaa, tab Lenin, Russia laut gais. Uu ek khaas Bolshevik leader banaa, aur public me April Theses ke announce karis jisme uu  Kerensky ke sarkar ke nawaa middle class ke mistake khatir accuse karis aur majuur logan se sarkar ke palte ke khatir Workers' Revolution kare ke batais. Lenin also talked about the mistakes of many members of the Bolshevik Central Committee (including Zinoviev, Kamenev and Stalin) who helped the government to continue to fight the war against Germany, against the wishes of the Leninists. \n\nDuring July 1917, when people said that Lenin had got money from the Germans; he was afraid and had to flee to Finland.\n\nIn October 1917, the Bolsheviks under Lenin and Trotsky headed the Petrograd Soviet and other Soviets all over Russia in a taking of power from Kerensky's Government, known as the October Revolution ended up in the making of the first Marxist Communist State in world history.\n \nOn November 8, 1917, Lenin was chosen Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars by the Russian Soviet Congress. This means that he was the leader of Russia. \n\nBecause he was shocked by the German invasion, he signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Russia lost a lot of land, but the Germans stopped the invasion.\n\nDuring the Russian Civil War, Lenin started war communism. But after the war, Lenin brought the New Economic Policy. Some private enterprise was allowed, but not much at all. Businessmen, known as nepmen, can own only light industry, not heavy.\n\nAfter Fanny Kaplan (opposition party august 30 1918) shot Lenin, he started having many strokes and never recovered. By May 1922, he was badly paralysed. After a stroke in March 1923, he could not speak or move. Lenin's fourth stroke killed him in January 1924. Just before the stroke Lenin wanted to get rid of Stalin, considering him dangerous to the soviet republic.\n\nThe city of St. Petersburg had been renamed by the Tsar to Petrograd in 1914, but was renamed Leningrad in Lenin's honour in 1924. But after the end of soviet socialism, in 1991, it was called St. Petersburg again. \n\nBefore Lenin died, he said he wished to be buried beside his mother.  When he died, the communists led by dictator stalin let the people of Russia come to look at him.  Because people kept coming, they decided not to bury him.  A building was built, in Red Square, Moscow, over Lenin's body, so that people could see him. Lenin's body was mummified (became mummy). It is called the Lenin mausoleum (a mausoleum is a building for dead people). It is a situated in Moscow, Russia, and many people still go there to see him. The body looks ok but it has deteriorated, years of preservation brought tissue wear.\n\nThe Russian orthodox churchs prefers burying him with his family, proposal was give to the government but no official reply has been received because his viewing brings in revenue to the russian government.\n\nDuusra panna \n\n Communism\n\nReferences \n\nRussia ke log\nSocialists\nMarxism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":5347,"url":"https:\/\/hif.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vladimir%20Lenin","title":"Vladimir Lenin","language":"hif"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Stolon is a term used often in botany. It describes a horizontal stem running across or just under the ground. A runner is a stolon which runs on the ground; a rhizome is the same thing, but running underground. Rhizome can be found in Ginger,Turmeric,Banana,Dryopteris\n\nPlants with stolons or stolon-like rhizomes are called stoloniferous. A stolon is a plant propagation strategy. At nodes, rootlets are put down and new stems are put up. All these plant forms are clones from a single genetic individual.\n\nPlant anatomy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1,"2024-26":3,"2024-18":1}},"id":221438,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stolon","title":"Stolon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority, privilege, and immunity recognized in common law (and sometimes in civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy) as belonging to the sovereign, and which have become widely vested in the government. It is the means by which some of the executive powers of government, possessed by and vested in a monarch with regard to the process of governance of the state, are carried out.\n\nEvolution \nIn most constitutional monarchies, prerogatives can be abolished by Parliament as the courts apply the constitutional near-absolute of the supremacy of Parliament. In the Commonwealth realms, this draws on the constitutional statutes at the time of the Glorious Revolution, when William III and Mary II were invited to take the throne.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, the remaining powers of the royal prerogative are devolved to the head of the government, which, for more than two centuries, has been the Prime Minister; the benefits, equally, such as ratification of treaties and mineral rights in all gold and silver ores, vest in (belong to) the government.\n\nIn Britain, prerogative powers were originally exercised by the monarch acting without an observed requirement for parliamentary consent (after its empowerment in certain matters following Magna Carta). Since the accession of the House of Hanover, these powers have been, with minor exceptions in economically unimportant sectors, exercised on the advice of the prime minister or the Cabinet, who are accountable to Parliament (and exclusively so, except in matters of the Royal Family) since at least the time of William IV.\n\nTypically, in liberal democracies that are constitutional monarchies as well as nation states, such as Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, the royal prerogative serves in practice as a prescribed ceremonial function of the state power.\n\nMinisterial exercise of the monarch's prerogatives\nToday, prerogative powers fall into two main categories:\n\nThose directly exercised by ministers without the approval of parliament, including, in some countries such as the UK, the powers to regulate the civil service, issue passports, and grant honours.\nThose exercised nominally by the monarch, \"on the advice of\" (that is, by constitutional convention, however so requested by) the prime minister and on the advice of the cabinet.\n\nSome key areas of government are carried out by the royal prerogative, but its usage is falling as functions are progressively made statutory.\n\nCommonwealth realms\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nIn the Kingdom of England (up to 1707), the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707\u20131800), and the United Kingdom (since 1801), the royal prerogative was, has been, and is one of the central features of the realm's governance.\n\nConstitutional theorist A. V. Dicey defines the scope of prerogative powers as:\n\nThe scope of the royal prerogative is difficult to determine due to the uncodified nature of the constitution. It is clear that the existence and extent of the power is a matter of the common law of England, making the courts the final arbiter of whether a particular type of prerogative exists or not. Nevertheless, certain prerogative powers have been widely acknowledged and accepted over time, while others have fallen out of use.\n\nThe royal prerogative is not constitutionally unlimited. In the Case of Proclamations (1611) during the reign of King James VI\/I, English common law courts judges emphatically asserted that they possessed the right to determine the limits of the royal prerogative. Since the Glorious Revolution in 1688, which brought co-monarchs King William III and Queen Mary II to power, this interpretation of there being a separate and distinct power of the judiciary has not been challenged by the Crown. It has been accepted that it is emphatically the province of the court(s) to say what the law is, or means. This is a crucial corollary and foundation to the concept of the judicial power; and its distinct and separate nature from the executive power possessed by the Crown itself, or its ministers.  In most cases, the Monarch exercises the prerogative powers only on the advice of the Government of the day, either directly or through the Privy Council.\n\nBritish dependencies\nGenerally, the Crown retains all the power of the state in an overseas territory (or 'dependent territory' from 1983 to 2002 or 'Crown colony' before that), even if in practice it is not directly exercised. Thus the royal prerogative is in theory an unlimited, arbitrary authority.  In British overseas territories however, each inhabited territory has a constitution by which the territory is governed locally.\n\nThe absoluteness of the royal prerogative in the colonies was however defeated in the case of Campbell v. Hall in 1774. This case decided that once a colony gained a representative assembly (or once the governor has been instructed to call one), the royal authority is limited to the familiar prerogatives; without the assembly's consent the Crown could not raise taxation nor change the law. Several of the colonies of the British West Indies thus became \"settled colonies\", and reverted to \"crown colony\" status only by Act of Parliament in the nineteenth century.\n\nIn August 2009, Michael Misick, first Premier of the Turks and Caicos Islands, a British Overseas Territory, resigned under charges of corruption and abuse of power.  In order to restore the rule of law, the UK government took direct control of the government of the territory, under an Order in Council of 18 March 2009, which suspended and amended parts of the Islands' constitution, and vacated all the offices of ministers and the House of Assembly. This action was not an exercise of the royal prerogative, as it was made under \"the West Indies Act 1962 and of all other powers enabling Her to do so\", but did vest wide discretionary legislative and executive powers in Her Majesty's governor, who as in all British Overseas Territories, acts on the instructions of the UK government, not the monarch. A new constitution was promulgated in October 2012 and the government was returned to full local administration after the November 2012 elections.\n\nIn the case of the Chagos Archipelago, in 2000, the High Court of Justice of England and Wales ruled that a local ordinance made by the Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory exiling the islanders was unlawful, a decision which was accepted by the British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook. That Order was legislation passed under authority given by the royal prerogative, not an exercise of the prerogative itself, and was overturned as being beyond the powers given. After this decision, the British government issued an Order in Council, a primary exercise of the royal prerogative, to achieve the same objective. This Order was also ruled unlawful by the High Court, a ruling upheld in the Court of Appeal.  However, on Wednesday, 22 October 2008, the government won its appeal in the House of Lords against the previous rulings. The House decided by a three-to-two majority that the Order in Council was a lawful exercise of authority. In their speeches, the Law Lords admitted the government of the day was morally wrong to force out some 2,000 residents of the Chagos Archipelago, a British Crown colony, to make way for a US air base in the 1960s. Nevertheless, the majority could not find legal fault in the Order.\n\nCanada\nIn Canada, the royal prerogative is, for the most part, the same as that in the United Kingdom, as constrained by constitutional convention, although its exercise is usually through the federal governor general in the Privy Council of Canada, or the provincial lieutenant governors in the provincial executive councils. The royal prerogative in Canada is largely set out in Part III of the Constitution Act, 1867, particularly section 9.\n\nAs foreign affairs are a matter of royal prerogative, the power to declare war and deploy the armed forces belongs to the Crown, though only in its federal Cabinet (the federal government), as outlined in sections 9 and 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867. Neither legislation nor any other type of parliamentary approval, beyond budgetary matters, is required for such actions, though the Cabinet has on occasion consulted parliament before engaging Canada or extending Canada's involvement in a conflict. Additionally, the federal Crown may ratify treaties.  Again, the endorsement of Parliament is not necessary for these agreements to have force in an international sense, but the federal Parliament and the provincial legislatures must pass statutes in order for them to have domestic effect, under the division of powers set out in sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution Act, 1867. Proposed treaties have also occasionally been presented to parliament for debate before ratification. Members of Parliament have tabled bills seeking to curtail the use of the royal prerogative in foreign affairs by legislating a greater role for parliament, as have Senate standing committees, from time to time, called for the same.\n\nThe issuance of passports also remains within the royal prerogative in Canada. The terms for the issuing of passports by the Minister of Foreign Affairs on behalf of the Crown are set out in the Canadian Passport Order, issued by the Governor General-in-Council. The Canadian government has used the royal prerogative on two occasions to deny a passport to a Canadian citizen, Abdurahman Khadr and Fateh Kamel. Lawsuits filed at the Federal Court, Federal Court of Appeal, and ultimately the Supreme Court of Canada did not find in favour of either Khadr, nor Kamel.\n\nThe royal prerogative in Canada extends also to the granting of honours, as explained by the Court of Appeal for Ontario in Black v. Chr\u00e9tien (regarding Conrad Black's entitlement to an appointment to the House of Lords while a Canadian citizen). Other royal prerogatives, such as the prerogative of mercy, also exist in the Canadian context, although largely supplanted for criminal matters by statutory provisions.\n\nOther Commonwealth realms\nIn the other Commonwealth realms, the royal prerogative can be or is specifically mandated to be exercised by the monarch's representative, the governor-general. In the case of Australia, the royal prerogative is vested specifically in the governor-general of Australia for military affairs, rather than the monarch, and is defined by the Constitution of Australia.\n\nThe constitution of a Commonwealth realm may also sharply limit the prerogative. In some cases, governmental acts which would normally require royal prerogative may be enacted through other means in the constitution, or through a legislative act in a Commonwealth realm.\n\nSpain\n\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978, Title II The Crown, Article 62, delineates the powers of the king, while Title IV Government and Administration, Article 99, defines the king's role in government. Title VI Judicial Power, Article 117, Articles 122 through 124, outlines the king's role in the country's independent judiciary. However, by constitutional convention established by Juan Carlos I, the king exercises his prerogatives having solicited government advice while maintaining a politically non-partisan and independent monarchy. Receiving government advice does not necessarily bind the monarch into executing the advice, except where prescribed by the constitution.\n\nSee also \n Divine right of kings\n Five Knights case\n Jura regalia\n King-in-Parliament\n Letters patent\n Prorogatio\n Reserve power\n Royal assent\n Royal charter\n Royal order\n Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom\n Statutory instrument\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n A. B. Keith, The King and the Imperial Crown (1936)\n Joseph Chitty, The Prerogatives of the Crown (monograph from 1820)\n Stanley de Smith and Rodney Brazier, Constitutional and Administrative Law\n Walter Bagehot, The English Constitution\n Blick, Andrew. 2014. \"Emergency powers and the withering of the Royal Prerogative.\" International Journal of Human Rights 18, no. 2: 195\u2013210.\n\nExternal links \n\nParliament Report on the powers of the Royal Prerogative\nTaming the Prerogative: Strengthening Ministerial Accountability to Parliament (Government Response)\nLecture by Canadian constitutional scholar Kent Roach on the royal prerogative and Omar Khadr\nPrerogativa Regis. Of the King's Prerogative (1322)\n\n \nSovereignty\nConstitutional law","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":191,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":4,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":5,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":5,"2018-47":4,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-09":6,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":7,"2014-15":7}},"id":30876385,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Royal%20prerogative","title":"Royal prerogative","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Choreography (dance-writing) is the art of making dances. It tells dancers how they should dance and move. The word has been used since the late 18th century to mean the art of composing dance.\n\nA person who does choreography is called a choreographer. A choreographer makes a dance based on music or a synopsis (a writing of what occurs in the dance). They may also act as trainers for professional dancers in ballet, stage shows and competitive ballroom dance. Their ideas may be recorded in dance notation, or on videos.\n\nChoreography is also used in other types of performances. In Ice skating and Ice dancing, the choreographer designs the moves the skates does. In theater, movies and television, a choreographer is used to design fight scenes. For example, Bob Anderson designed many of the sword fight scenes in the Lord of the Rings movies as well as some of the Star Wars movies. A person who does this type of choreography is usually called a fight choreographer.\n\nReferences \n\nDance","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":150,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":4529,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Choreography","title":"Choreography","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The bassoon is the lowest of the four main instruments of the woodwind family. Like the oboe, it has a double reed. The reed is attached to a curved metal mouthpiece called a \"crook\" or \"bocal\" which is joined to the main part of the instrument. This consists of two parts called 'bass joint' and 'wing joint' (or 'tenor joint'). These two are joined at the bottom by a U-shaped piece called the 'boot'. At the top of the instrument is the 'bell joint'. The instrument is quite heavy. Some players have a neckstrap around their neck to support the weight, but usually they use a seat strap that connects at the bottom of the boot and goes across the floor. The bassoonist, a person who plays a bassoon, then sits on that strap. The bassoon is held to the right side of the bassoonist and the top of the boot joint is usually level with the players hip. The bassoon, when played right, can sound very beautiful. The bassoon has one of the largest note ranges, going from low B flat to a high F on the top line of the treble clef. The bassoon can also play in tenor clef, but usually plays bass clef.\n\nSome bassoons have a white, ivory ring round the top of the bell joint. These are German bassoons (called 'Heckel'). French bassoons (called 'Buffet') do not have this ring, and also sound quite different to German bassoons. Bassoons have keys to help the player to cover all the holes, but these keys do not use the Boehm fingering system like the other woodwind instruments. German bassoons use a system called the Heckel system, and French bassoons use the Buffet system.\n\nThe Bassoon is usually seen as a comical instrument, however it provides a very important role in the orchestra. In fact, the Saxophone was invented to replace the Bassoon and Oboe, however, was rejected because it didn't sound the same in the orchestra.\n\nPlaying the bassoon \nTo play the bassoon, it is very important to have lots of breathing support. Like with the oboe, fast passages can be played using double tonguing (single tonguing is like saying \"tu-tu-tu-tu-tu\", double tonguing is like saying \"te-ke-te-ke-te-ke\"). In most music, the bassoon will spend a lot of time playing a bass line, perhaps the same notes as the cello or tuba. It can sometimes sound quite amusing when playing an \"um-cha-um-cha\" accompaniment like in the \"Dance of the Cygnets\" from Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake. It can sound very tuneful and sad as in the second movement of Rimsky Korsakov's Sheherazade. Listen to the opening of Stravinsky's Rite of Spring where it plays some quite high notes to fool people that it is the Cor anglais or the English Horn. Even a famous composer, Saint Sa\u00ebns, did not know what the instrument was. Prokofiev uses the bassoon for grandfather's tune in Peter and the Wolf. Also, to play the bassoon, a player needs big hands because the bassoon's keys and holes are quite wide.\n\nThe holes are drilled in at an angle so that the upper register is not overblown and produces an unpleasant sound. Whisper keys were also invented to prevent overblowing. The bassoon is known for its reedy sound. Its upper register is shrill and sometimes scary. Middle register could be used for lullabies because of its majestic and soothing tone. Its lower register is deep, dark, and could be used for scary movies and such.\n\nHistory and repertoire \nThe bassoon developed from a renaissance instrument called the curtal or dulcian. These were double reed instruments which often played with shawms. In the Baroque period the bassoon became popular as an instrument to play the bass line, perhaps playing the same as the cello. A man named Hotteterre made many parts of the modern bassoon. In the late Baroque period composers like Antonio Vivaldi wrote concertos for bassoon and orchestra. Some more famous bassoon concertos include one by Mozart, and in more recent times by Peter Maxwell Davies. The bassoon was a very important instrument in the orchestra. Mozart and Beethoven gave the bassoon important parts in the music.\n\nContrabassoon \nIn some pieces with a large orchestra a contrabassoon is used. This plays an octave lower than a bassoon, taking it right down to bottom B flat or C on the piano. Some contrabassoons are made to play a note lower, i.e. the very lowest note of the piano (A). One might expect to see the contrabassoon sticking up high above all the other instruments in the orchestra, but in fact the tube keeps doing U-turns, making four parallel rows of tubing. They are usually made with the bell pointing downwards. The weight is supported by a peg to the floor. The contrabassoon used to be shaped like a bassoon.\n\nThe contrabassoon adds richness to the sound of a full orchestra. Listen carefully for the contrabassoon in the hymn-like introduction to the last movement of Symphony no 1 by Brahms. It can be clearly heard, growling away, in the opening of the Piano Concerto for the Left Hand by Ravel.\n\nDouble reed instruments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":33005,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bassoon","title":"Bassoon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Scrievin is the airt o scartin merks ontae something whauras writin is the act o recordin information on a medium sae that it micht be read by ithers or at a later time. The tairm \"scrieve\" is defined be the Dictionar o the Scots Leid as \"To write, esp. to write easily and copiously\".\n\nA writer is ane wha uises written wirds in sindry styles an techniques tae communicate thair ideas. An author is narraely defined as the oreeginator o ony written wirk an can thus be describit as a writer (wi ony distinction primarily bein an implication that an author is a writer o ane or mair major wirks, such as beuks or plays).\n\nThe medium is for ordinar paper, tho ither permanent media, sic as claith an cley can be uised. Temporar media sic as televeesion an pictur screens can be uised for tae shaw writin an aw.\n\nWritin is aft duin uisin a haund tuil sic as a pincil, a pen, or a besom, but mair an mair, text is bein creatit by computer prenters unner the guidal o a computer application.\n\nHistory\nIn the earliest times, writin wis for ordinar a set o picturs, that stuid for wirds or ideas. The Egyptians uised this kind o method in thair upmak o hieroglyphs. Cheenae uises the same thocht the day, whaur a chairacter staunds for a thing raither nor a soond.\n\nIt is anerly in the hintmaist few hunder year that maist fowk haes been able tae write an tae read. Till than, eddication wis anerly for the walthy or feckfu, an acause ilka beuk haed tae be shapit by haund, thare war gey few beuks appen compeart tae the billions in the warld the day.\n\nSee forby \n Writin seestem\n Laitin alphabet\n\nWritin\nCommunication design\n\nay:Qillqa\nkk:\u0416\u0430\u0437\u0443\nqu:Qillqa","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":5,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":6,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":6,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":9177,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scrievin","title":"Scrievin","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384\u2013322 B.C.), though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.\n\nThe word comes from the Ancient Greek \u1f00\u03bd\u03ac\u03bb\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 (analusis, \"a breaking up\", from ana- \"up, throughout\" and lysis \"a loosening\").\n\nIn this context, Analysis is the opposite of synthesis, which is to bring ideas together.\n\nThe following concepts are closely related to this basic idea:\n Mathematical analysis is the name given to any branch of mathematics that looks at what functions are, how they behave, and what things can be done with them.\n Analytical chemistry looks at the qualities of substances, and their composition.\n\nSome definitions \nThe process of breaking up a concept, proposition, or fact into its simple or ultimate constituents. Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. 2nd ed, 1999, ed. Robert Audi.\nResolution into simpler elements by analysing. 2. (Maths) Use of algebra and calculus in problem-solving. Concise Oxford Dictionary. 1976, ed. J.B. Sykes.\nThe isolation of what is more elementary from what is more complex by whatever method. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. 1925, ed. James Mark Baldwin, Vol. I\nThe original Greek sense [was] a 'loosening up' or 'releasing'. Geometry assumes a proposition to be true and searches for another known truth from which the proposition may be deduced. Physical science resolves complex wholes into their elements. A Kant Dictionary, 1995, by Howard Caygill.\nThe process of breaking a concept down into more simple parts, so that its logical structure is displayed. Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. 1996, Simon Blackburn\nPhilosophical analysis is a method of inquiry in which one seeks to assess complex systems of thought by 'analysing' them into simpler elements whose relationships are thereby brought into focus. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 1998, entry under 'Conceptual Analysis' by Robert Hanna\n\nReferences\n\nPhilosophy\nResearch methods","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":4492,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analysis","title":"Analysis","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"William Butler Yeats (1865\u20131939) was an Irish poet, dramatist and mystic. He was born in Dublin, Ireland on 13 June 1865. He spent most of his time in Sligo and some time in London.\n\nYeats' early poetry drew heavily on myth and legend. His later work had more to do with contemporary issues. One of his famous poems is called \"Leda and the Swan\".\n\nWith Lady Gregory and others, he was one of the people who founded the Irish Literary Theatre and the Abbey Theatre.\n\nHe was also interested in Hermeticism and Theosophy. He was a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.\n\nYeats won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1923. He died in Menton, France.\n\nReferences \n\n1865 births\n1939 deaths\nIrish poets\nRoyal Society of Literature\nWriters from Dublin\nIrish Nobel Prize winners","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":83438,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William%20Butler%20Yeats","title":"William Butler Yeats","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sunnand\u00e6g is \u00fe\u01e3re \u01bfuce d\u00e6g bet\u01bf\u0113onan S\u00e6ternesd\u00e6ge and M\u014dnand\u00e6ge.  His nama is genumen of Sunne, \u00fe\u01e3m Seaxiscan Sunnes gyden, \u0113ac h\u0101tte S\u014dl be \u00fe\u01e3m Nor\u00femannum.\n\nSunnand\u00e6g is sometimes held to be the last day of the week (especially in modern Europe and South America), and sometimes the first day (a traditional view derived from ancient Jews and ancient Egyptians).\n\nIn orthodox Christian families and communities some activities are not done, e.g. working, doing something that requires somebody else to work such as buying goods or services (including the use of public transport),  driving a car, gardening, washing a car, etc. Exceptions which are allowed are making use of religious services, and, usually, using electricity, and urgent medical matters.\n\nIn \u00fe\u01e3m folcl\u0113o\u00f0e, \"\u00de\u00e6t cild geboren on Sunnand\u00e6ge is f\u00e6ger and \u01bf\u012bs and g\u014dd and g\u0101l\".\n\nIn ancient Jewish tradition S\u00e6ternesd\u00e6g is the sabbath.  M\u00e6nig ge\u00fe\u0113odu for\u00feolia\u00fe \u0101nl\u012belpigra \u01bforda for \"S\u00e6ternesd\u00e6ge\" and \"Sabate\".  Eastern Orthodox churches distinguish between the sabbath (S\u00e6ternesd\u00e6g) and the Lord's day (Sunnand\u00e6g). Roman Catholics put so little emphasis on that distinction that many among them follow -- at least in colloquial language -- the Protestant practice of calling Sunnand\u00e6g the sabbath.\n\n\u01e2nig m\u014dna\u00fe \u00fee onginn\u00fe on Sunnand\u00e6ge h\u00e6f\u00fe Fr\u012bged\u00e6g \u00feone 13an.\n\nSunnand\u00e6g is se \u014d\u00f0er d\u00e6g \u00fe\u00e6s \u01bfucende and is h\u0101ligd\u00e6g in landum of Christian tradition, se d\u00e6g \u00fe\u00e6t Cr\u012bstenfolc most commonly attend cirice.\n\nIn \u00fe\u01e3m Ge\u0101nl\u01e3htum Underr\u012bcum, professional football is usually played on Sunnand\u00e6g, although S\u00e6ternesd\u00e6g and M\u014dnand\u00e6g (via T\u012b\u01bfesniht F\u014dtball) also see a some professional games.  College f\u014dtball gelimp\u00fe usually on S\u00e6ternesd\u00e6ge, and high-school football tends to take place on Sunnand\u00e6g.  It is not uncommon for church attendance to shift on days when a late morning or early afternoon game is anticipated by a local community.\n\nManig Americisc feorrans\u0113ora nett\u01bfeorc and stations \u0113ac broadcast their political interview shows on Sunnand\u00e6g mornings.\n\nManig American newspapers publish a larger edition on Sunnand\u00e6ge, \u00fee oft includes color comic strips and a coupon section.\n\nS\u0113o \u0113ac \n H\u01e3\u01bfna laga\n Lo\u01bf Sunnand\u00e6g\n Passion Sunnand\u00e6g\n Palmsunnand\u00e6g\n Septuagesima\n \u00der\u012bnessunnand\u00e6g\n\nWucu","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":7743,"url":"https:\/\/ang.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sunnand%C3%A6g","title":"Sunnand\u00e6g","language":"ang"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Teen Choice Awards is an awards show presented annually by FOX. The program honors the year's biggest achievements in music, movies, sports, and television, as voted on by teens aged 12\u201319. The program usually features a high number of celebrities and musical performers. The winners are awarded with lifesize surfboards, to fit the summertime theme. The ceremony has also created spin-off teen awards on YouTube.\n\nStarting in 1999, the Teen Choice Awards were presented weeks prior to the televised event up through 2005. Since 2006, the program has been televised live.\n\nReferences\n\nFox Broadcasting Company\nEntertainment awards","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":117976,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Teen%20Choice%20Awards","title":"Teen Choice Awards","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Christian churches often send individuals, or small groups of people to a foreign country. These people should then convince the local population to convert to the Christian faith. Very often, this couples evangelisation with humanitarian work. The missionaries are priests as well and can administer sacraments, but sometimes they are laypeople. Today, missionary activity often means cooperating with the local church. As an example, the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Tanzania has sent missionaries to Mozambique.\n\nMissionary work is often criticized for the ways used. Examples are forced baptisms, proselytism, and that during colonial times, there were strong ties between colonialism and missionary work. Sometimes, there is the problem that the moral standards of the societies are very different from the moral standards of Christianity, missionary work will force different standards onto indigenous societies.\n\nChristian behavior and experience","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":144,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":4,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":287218,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christian%20mission","title":"Christian mission","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A priest or priestess is a person who  is allowed to do religious rites. Their office or position is the priesthood, a word which can also be used for such persons collectively. In most religions and cultures in history there have been priests, although they have a lot of different names, and follow different rules.\n\nIn Christianity \n\nA priest is a member of a church that has been told to look after his (spiritual) community. He is the head of a parish.\n\nCatholic priests are ordained (put in place) by the Pope (or in his absence: a bishop).\nOrthodox priests are ordained by the Patriarch\nAnglican priests are ordained by their bishop.\nMost Protestant groups do not ordain priests.\n\nTo become a Catholic priest, you are required to study Theology. The Orthodox and Protestant Churches also have laymen as clergy.\n\nCatholic priests are not allowed to marry meaning that they have to be celibate. Orthodox priests can be married, but they must not marry after they become a priest. Anglican priests can get married before or during the time they are a priest.\n\nThe Catholic Church does not allow women to become priests. However, some Anglican Churches allow women to be priests.\n\nHigher priests are called Bishops and Archbishops in the Anglican Church. John Sentamua and Rowan Williams are the archbishops of York and Canterbury. In some denominations only men can become priests.\n\nThe Orthodox Church has a higher priest called a Patriarch. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, like the Roman Catholic Church has a Pope, Pope Tawadras.\n\nProtestantism\nMany Protestant churches have ministers or pastors instead of priests.\n\nJapan\nIn Japan there are Buddhist priests and nuns, Shinto priests and priestesses (kannushi) as well as clergy in the Christian traditions.\n\nOther websites\n\n \nReligious occupations\nChristian religious occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":151,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":19070,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Priest","title":"Priest","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Labium (plural labia) is a Latin-derived term meaning \"Lip\". Labium and its derivatives (including labia, labial, labrum and labellum) are used to describe any lip-like structure, but in the English language, labium often specifically refers to parts of the vulva.\n\nA variant of the word, labellum (plural: labella), is used by people studying entomology and botany.\n\nReferences\n\nAnatomy of the female reproductive system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":155,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5}},"id":39612,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Labium","title":"Labium","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sukarno ( , ; born Koesno Sosrodihardjo, ; 6 June 1901\u00a0\u2013 21 June 1970) was an Indonesian statesman, orator, revolutionary, and nationalist who was the first president of Indonesia, serving from 1945 to 1967.\n\nSukarno was the leader of the Indonesian struggle for independence from the Dutch colonialists. He was a prominent leader of Indonesia's nationalist movement during the colonial period and spent over a decade under Dutch detention until released by the invading Japanese forces in World War II. Sukarno and his fellow nationalists collaborated to garner support for the Japanese war effort from the population, in exchange for Japanese aid in spreading nationalist ideas. Upon Japanese surrender, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945, and Sukarno was appointed president. He led the Indonesian resistance to Dutch re-colonisation efforts via diplomatic and military means until the Dutch recognition of Indonesian independence in 1949.\n\nAfter a chaotic period of parliamentary democracy, Sukarno established an autocratic system called \"Guided Democracy\" in 1959 that successfully ended the instability and rebellions which were threatening the survival of the diverse and fractious country. In the early 1960s Sukarno embarked on a series of aggressive foreign policies under the rubric of anti-imperialism and personally championed the Non-Aligned Movement. These developments led to increasing friction with the West and closer relations with the USSR. After the events surrounding the 30 September Movement of 1965, the military general Suharto largely took control of the country in a Western-backed military overthrow of the Sukarno-led government. This was followed by repression of real and perceived leftists, including executions of Communist party members and suspected sympathisers in several massacres with support from the CIA and British intelligence services, resulting in an estimated 500,000 to over 1,000,000 deaths. In 1967, Suharto officially assumed the presidency, replacing Sukarno, who remained under house arrest until his death in 1970.\n\nHis eldest daughter Megawati Sukarnoputri, who was born during her father's rule in 1947, later served as the fifth president of Indonesia from 2001 to 2004.\n\nName\nThe name Sukarno comes from the mythological chief hero of the Mahabharata, Karna. The spelling Soekarno, based on Dutch orthography, is still in frequent use, mainly because he signed his name in the old spelling. Sukarno himself insisted on a \"u\" in writing, not \"oe\", but said that he had been told in school to use the Dutch style, and that after 50 years, it was too difficult to change his signature, so still spelled his signature with \"oe\". Official Indonesian presidential decrees from the period 1947\u20131968, however, printed his name using the 1947 spelling. The Soekarno\u2013Hatta International Airport, which serves the area near Indonesia's capital, Jakarta, still uses the Dutch spelling.\n\nIndonesians also remember him as Bung Karno (Brother\/Comrade Karno) or Pak Karno (\"Mr. Karno\"). Like many Javanese people, he had only one name.\n\nHe is sometimes referred to in foreign accounts as \"Achmed Sukarno\", or some variation thereof. The fictitious first name may have been added by Western journalists confused over someone with just a single name, or by Indonesian supporters of independence to attract support from Muslim countries. A source from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs later revealed that \"Achmed\" (later, written as \"Ahmad\" or \"Ahmed\" by Arab states and other foreign state press) was coined by M. Zein Hassan, an Indonesian student at Al-Azhar University and later a member of the staff at the Ministry, to establish Soekarno's identity as a Muslim to the Egyptian press after a brief controversy at that time in Egypt alleging Sukarno's name was \"not Muslim enough\". After the use of the name \"Achmed\" began, Muslim and Arab states freely supported Sukarno. Thus, in correspondence with the Middle East, Sukarno always signed his name as \"Achmed Soekarno\".\n\nEarly life\n\nEarly life and education\n\nEarly life \n\nThe son of a Javanese primary school teacher, an aristocrat named Raden Soekemi Sosrodihardjo, and his Hindu Balinese wife from the Brahmin family named Ida Ayu Nyoman Rai from Buleleng, Sukarno was born in Surabaya in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), where his father had been sent following an application for a transfer to Java. He was originally named Kusno Sosrodihardjo. Following Javanese custom, he was renamed after surviving a childhood illness.\n\nEducation \nAfter graduating from a native primary school in 1912, he was sent to the Europeesche Lagere School (a Dutch primary school) in Mojokerto. Subsequently, in 1916, Sukarno went to a Hogere Burgerschool (a Dutch-type higher-level secondary school) in Surabaya, where he met Tjokroaminoto, a nationalist and founder of Sarekat Islam. In 1920, Sukarno married Tjokroaminoto's daughter Siti Oetari. In 1921, he began to study civil engineering (with a focus on architecture) at the Technische Hoogeschool te Bandoeng (Bandoeng Institute of Technology), where he obtained an Ingenieur degree (abbreviated as \"Ir.\", a Dutch-type engineer's degree) in 1926. During his study in Bandung, Sukarno became romantically involved with , the wife of Sanoesi, the owner of the boarding house where he lived as a student. Inggit was 13 years older than Sukarno. In March 1923, Sukarno divorced Siti Oetari to marry Inggit (who also divorced her husband Sanoesi). Sukarno later divorced Inggit and married Fatmawati.\n\nAtypically even among the country's small educated elite, Sukarno was fluent in several languages. In addition to the Javanese language of his childhood, he was a master of Sundanese, Balinese and Indonesian, and was especially strong in Dutch. He was also quite comfortable in German, English, French, Arabic, and Japanese, all of which were taught at his HBS. He was helped by his photographic memory and precocious mind.\n\nIn his studies, Sukarno was \"intensely modern\", both in architecture and in politics. He despised both the traditional Javanese feudalism, which he considered \"backward\" and to blame for the fall of the country under Dutch occupation and exploitation, and the imperialism practised by Western countries, which he termed as \"exploitation of humans by other humans\" (exploitation de l'homme par l'homme). He blamed this for the deep poverty and low levels of education of Indonesian people under the Dutch. To promote nationalistic pride amongst Indonesians, Sukarno interpreted these ideas in his dress, in his urban planning for the capital (eventually Jakarta), and in his socialist politics, though he did not extend his taste for modern art to pop music; he had Koes Bersaudara imprisoned for their allegedly decadent lyrics despite his reputation for womanising. For Sukarno, modernity was blind to race, neat and elegant in style, and anti-imperialist.\n\nArchitectural career\n\nSukarno & Anwari firm \nAfter graduation in 1926, Sukarno and his university friend Anwari established the architectural firm Sukarno & Anwari in Bandung, which provided planning and contractor services. Among Sukarno's architectural works are the renovated building of the Preanger Hotel (1929), where he acted as assistant to famous Dutch architect Charles Prosper Wolff Schoemaker. Sukarno also designed many private houses on today's Jalan Gatot Subroto, Jalan Palasari, and Jalan Dewi Sartika in Bandung. Later on, as president, Sukarno remained engaged in architecture, designing the Proclamation Monument and adjacent Gedung Pola in Jakarta; the Youth Monument (Tugu Muda) in Semarang; the Alun-alun Monument in Malang; the Heroes' Monument in Surabaya; and also the new city of Palangkaraya in Central Kalimantan.\n\nEarly independence struggle\n\nSukarno was first exposed to nationalist ideas while living under Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto. Later, while a student in Bandung, he immersed himself in European, American, nationalist, communist, and religious political philosophy, eventually developing his own political ideology of Indonesian-style socialist self-sufficiency. He began styling his ideas as Marhaenism, named after Marhaen, an Indonesian peasant he met in the southern Bandung area, who owned his little plot of land and worked on it himself, producing sufficient income to support his family. In university, Sukarno began organising a study club for Indonesian students, the Algemeene Studieclub, in opposition to the established student clubs dominated by Dutch students.\n\nInvolvement in the Indonesian National Party \n\nOn 4 July 1927, Sukarno with his friends from the Algemeene Studieclub established a pro-independence party, the Indonesian National Party (PNI), of which Sukarno was elected the first leader. The party advocated independence for Indonesia, and opposed imperialism and capitalism because it opined that both systems worsened the life of Indonesian people. The party also advocated secularism and unity amongst the many different ethnicities in the Dutch East Indies, to establish a united Indonesia. Sukarno also hoped that Japan would commence a war against the western powers and that Java could then gain its independence with Japan's aid. Coming soon after the disintegration of Sarekat Islam in the early 1920s and the crushing of the Indonesian Communist Party after its failed rebellion of 1926, the PNI began to attract a large number of followers, particularly among the new university-educated youths eager for broader freedoms and opportunities denied to them in the racist and constrictive political system of Dutch colonialism.\n\nArrest, trial, and imprisonment\n\nArrest and trial \n\nPNI activities came to the attention of the colonial government, and Sukarno's speeches and meetings were often infiltrated and disrupted by agents of the colonial secret police (Politieke Inlichtingendienst). Eventually, Sukarno and other key PNI leaders were arrested on 29 December 1929 by Dutch colonial authorities in a series of raids throughout Java. Sukarno himself was arrested while on a visit to Yogyakarta. During his trial at the Bandung Landraad courthouse from August to December 1930, Sukarno made a series of long political speeches attacking colonialism and imperialism, titled Indonesia Menggoegat (Indonesia Accuses).\n\nSentence and imprisonment \nIn December 1930, Sukarno was sentenced to four years in prison, which were served in Sukamiskin prison in Bandung. His speech, however, received extensive coverage by the press, and due to strong pressure from the liberal elements in both the Netherlands and the Dutch East Indies, Sukarno was released early on 31 December 1931. By this time, he had become a popular hero widely known throughout Indonesia.\n\nHowever, during his imprisonment, the PNI had been splintered by the oppression of colonial authorities and internal dissension. The original PNI was disbanded by the Dutch, and its former members formed two different parties; the Indonesia Party (Partindo) under Sukarno's associate Sartono who were promoting mass agitation, and the Indonesian Nationalist Education (New PNI) under Mohammad Hatta and Soetan Sjahrir, two nationalists who recently returned from studies in the Netherlands, and who were promoting a long-term strategy of providing modern education to the uneducated Indonesian populace to develop an intellectual elite able to offer effective resistance to Dutch rule. After attempting to reconcile the two parties to establish one united nationalist front, Sukarno chose to become the head of Partindo on 28 July 1932. Partindo had maintained its alignment with Sukarno's own strategy of immediate mass agitation, and Sukarno disagreed with Hatta's long-term cadre-based struggle. Hatta himself believed Indonesian independence would not occur within his lifetime, while Sukarno believed Hatta's strategy ignored the fact that politics can only make real changes through formation and utilisation of force (machtsvorming en machtsaanwending).\n\nDuring this period, to support himself and the party financially, Sukarno returned to architecture, opening the bureau of Soekarno & Roosseno with his university junior Roosseno. He also wrote articles for the party's newspaper, Fikiran Ra'jat (People's Mind). While based in Bandung, Sukarno travelled extensively throughout Java to establish contacts with other nationalists. His activities attracted further attention by the Dutch PID. In mid-1933, Sukarno published a series of writings titled Mentjapai Indonesia Merdeka (\"To Attain Independent Indonesia\"). For this writing, he was arrested by Dutch police while visiting fellow nationalist Mohammad Hoesni Thamrin in Jakarta on 1 August 1933.\n\nExile \nThis time, to prevent providing Sukarno with a platform to make political speeches, the hardline governor-general Jonkheer Bonifacius Cornelis de Jonge utilised his emergency powers to send Sukarno to internal exile without trial. In 1934, Sukarno was shipped, along with his family (including Inggit Garnasih), to the remote town of Ende, on the island of Flores. During his time in Flores, he utilised his limited freedom of movement to establish a children's theatre. Among its members was future politician Frans Seda. Due to an outbreak of malaria in Flores, the Dutch authorities decided to move Sukarno and his family to Bencoolen (now Bengkulu) on the western coast of Sumatra, in February 1938.\n\nIn Bengkulu, Sukarno became acquainted with Hassan Din, the local head of Muhammadiyah organisation, and he was allowed to teach religious teachings at a local school owned by the Muhammadiyah. One of his students was 15-year-old Fatmawati, daughter of Hassan Din. He became romantically involved with Fatmawati, which he justified by stating the inability of Inggit Garnasih to produce children during their almost 20-year marriage. Sukarno was still in Bengkulu exile when the Japanese invaded the archipelago in 1942.\n\nWorld War II and the Japanese occupation\n\nJapanese occupation\n\nBackground and invasion \n\nIn early 1929, during the Indonesian National Revival, Sukarno and fellow Indonesian nationalist leader Mohammad Hatta (later Vice President), first foresaw a Pacific War and the opportunity that a Japanese advance on Indonesia might present for the Indonesian independence cause. In February 1942, Imperial Japan invaded the Dutch East Indies quickly defeating Dutch forces who marched, bussed and trucked Sukarno and his entourage three hundred kilometres from Bengkulu to Padang, Sumatra. They intended keeping him prisoner and shipping him to Australia but abruptly abandoned him to save themselves upon the impending approach of Japanese forces on Padang.\n\nCooperation with the Japanese \n\nThe Japanese had their own files on Sukarno, and the Japanese commander in Sumatra approached him with respect, wanting to use him to organise and pacify the Indonesians. Sukarno, on the other hand, wanted to use the Japanese to gain independence for Indonesia: \"The Lord be praised, God showed me the way; in that valley of the Ngarai I said: Yes, Independent Indonesia can only be achieved with Dai Nippon...For the first time in all my life, I saw myself in the mirror of Asia.\" In July 1942, Sukarno was sent back to Jakarta, where he re-united with other nationalist leaders recently released by the Japanese, including Mohammad Hatta. There, he met the Japanese commander General Hitoshi Imamura, who asked Sukarno and other nationalists to galvanise support from Indonesian populace to aid the Japanese war effort.\n\nSukarno was willing to support the Japanese, in exchange for a platform for himself to spread nationalist ideas to the mass population. The Japanese, on the other hand, needed Indonesia's workforce and natural resources to help its war effort. The Japanese recruited millions of people, mainly from Java, to be forced labour called romusha in Japanese. They were forced to build railways, airfields, and other facilities for the Japanese within Indonesia and as far away as Burma. Additionally, the Japanese requisitioned rice and other food produced by Indonesian peasants to supply their troops, while forcing the peasantry to cultivate castor oil plants to be used as aviation fuel and lubricants.\n\nTo gain cooperation from Indonesian population and to prevent resistance to these measures, the Japanese put Sukarno as head of [3A Japanese propaganda movement|Tiga-A mass organisation movement]. In March 1943, the Japanese formed a new organisation called Poesat Tenaga Rakjat (POETERA\/Center of People's Power) under Sukarno, Hatta, Ki Hadjar Dewantara, and KH Mas Mansjoer. These organisations aimed to galvanise popular support for recruitment of romusha, to requisition of food products, and to promote pro-Japanese and anti-Western sentiments amongst Indonesians. Sukarno coined the term Amerika kita setrika, Inggris kita linggis (\"Let's iron America, and bludgeon the British\") to promote anti-Allied sentiments. In later years, Sukarno was lastingly ashamed of his role with the romusha. Additionally, food requisitioning by the Japanese caused widespread famine in Java, which killed more than one million people in 1944\u20131945. In his view, these were necessary sacrifices to be made to allow for the future independence of Indonesia. He also was involved with the formation of Defenders of the Homeland (Pembela Tanah Air; PETA) and Heiho (Indonesian volunteer army troops) via speeches broadcast on the Japanese radio and loudspeaker networks across Java and Sumatra. By mid-1945 these units numbered around two million and were preparing to defeat any Allied forces sent to re-take Java.\n\nIn the meantime, Sukarno eventually divorced Inggit, who refused to accept her husband's wish for polygamy. She was provided with a house in Bandung and a pension for the rest of her life. In 1943, he married Fatmawati. They lived in a house in Jalan Pegangsaan Timur No. 56, confiscated from its previous Dutch owners and presented to Sukarno by the Japanese. This house would later be the venue of the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence in 1945.\n\nOn 10 November 1943, Sukarno and Hatta were sent on a 17-day tour of Japan, where they were decorated by Emperor Hirohito and wined and dined in the house of Prime Minister Hideki Tojo in Tokyo. On 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister Kuniaki Koiso promised independence for Indonesia, although no date was set. This announcement was seen, according to the U.S. official history, as immense vindication for Sukarno's apparent collaboration with the Japanese. The U.S. at the time considered Sukarno one of the \"foremost collaborationist leaders\".\n\nInvestigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence \n\nOn 29 April 1945, when Philippines liberated by American forces, the Japanese allowed for the establishment of the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (Indonesian;Badan Penyelidik Usaha-Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan; BPUPK), a quasi-legislature consisting of 67 representatives from most ethnic groups in Indonesia. Sukarno was appointed as head of the BPUPK and was tasked to lead discussions to prepare the basis of a future Indonesian state. To provide a common and acceptable platform to unite the various squabbling factions in the BPUPK, Sukarno formulated his ideological thinking developed over the previous twenty years into five principles. On 1 June 1945, he introduced a set of five principles, known as pancasila, during the joint session of the BPUPK held in the former Volksraad Building (now called the Pancasila Building).\n\nPancasila, as presented by Sukarno during the BPUPK speech, consisted of five principles which Sukarno saw as commonly shared by all Indonesians:\n\n Nationalism, whereby a united Indonesian state would stretch from Sabang to Merauke, encompassing all former Dutch East Indies\n Internationalism, meaning Indonesia is to appreciate human rights and contribute to world peace, and should not fall into chauvinistic fascism such as displayed by Nazis with their belief in the racial superiority of Aryans\n Democracy, which Sukarno believed has always been in the blood of Indonesians through the practice of consensus-seeking (musyawarah untuk muafakat), an Indonesian-style democracy different from Western-style liberalism\n Social justice, a form of populist socialism in economics with Marxist-style opposition to free capitalism. Social justice also intended to provide an equal share of the economy to all Indonesians, as opposed to the complete economic domination by the Dutch and Chinese during the colonial period\n Belief in God, whereby all religions are treated equally and have religious freedom. Sukarno saw Indonesians as spiritual and religious people, but in essence tolerant towards different religious beliefs\n\nOn 22 June, the Islamic and nationalist elements of the BPUPK created a small committee of nine (Indonesian: Panitia Sembilan), which formulated Sukarno's ideas into the five-point Pancasila, in a document known as the Jakarta Charter:\n\n Belief in one and only Almighty God with obligation for Muslims to adhere to Islamic law (Indonesian: Ketuhanan dengan kewajiban menjalankan syariat Islambbagi para pemeluknya)\n Civilised and just humanity (Indonesian: Kemanusiaan yang adil dan berasab) \n Unity of Indonesia (Indonesian: Persatuan Indonesia)\n Democracy through inner wisdom and representative consensus-building (Indonesian: Kerakyatan yang dipimpin oleh hikmat kebijaksanaan dalam musyawarah perwakilan)\n Social justice for all Indonesians (Indonesian: Keadilan bagi seluruh rakyat Indonesia)\n\nDue to pressure from the Islamic element, the first principle mentioned the obligation for Muslims to practice Islamic law (sharia). However, the final Sila as contained in the 1945 Constitution which was put into effect on 18 August 1945, excluded the reference to Islamic law for the sake of national unity. The elimination of sharia was done by Mohammad Hatta based upon a request by Christian representative Alexander Andries Maramis, and after consultation with moderate Islamic representatives Teuku Mohammad Hassan, Kasman Singodimedjo, and Ki Bagoes Hadikoesoemo.\n\nPreparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence \nOn 7 August 1945, the Japanese allowed the formation of a smaller (Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence Panitia Persiapan kemerdekaan Indonesia; PPKI), a 21-person committee tasked with creating the specific governmental structure of the future Indonesian state. On 9 August, the top leaders of PPKI (Sukarno, Hatta, and KRT Radjiman Wediodiningrat), were summoned by Commander-in-Chief of Japan's Southern Expeditionary Forces, Field Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi, to Da Lat, 100\u00a0km from Saigon. Field Marshal Terauchi gave Sukarno the freedom to proceed with preparation for Indonesian independence, free of Japanese interference. After much wining and dining, Sukarno's entourage was flown back to Jakarta on 14 August. Unbeknownst to the guests, atomic bombs had been dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the Japanese were preparing for surrender.\n\nJapanese surrender \nThe following day, on 15 August, the Japanese declared their acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration terms and unconditionally surrendered to the Allies. On the afternoon of that day, Sukarno received this information from leaders of youth groups and members of PETA Chairul Saleh, Soekarni, and Wikana, who had been listening to Western radio broadcasts. They urged Sukarno to declare Indonesian independence immediately, while the Japanese were in confusion and before the arrival of Allied forces. Faced with this quick turn of events, Sukarno procrastinated. He feared bloodbath due to hostile response from the Japanese to such a move and was concerned with prospects of future Allied retribution.\n\nKidnapping \nAt early morning on 16 August, the three youth leaders, impatient with Sukarno's indecision, kidnapped him from his house and brought him to a small house in Rengasdengklok, Karawang, owned by a Chinese family and occupied by PETA. There they gained Sukarno's commitment to declare independence the next day. That night, the youths drove Sukarno back to the house of Admiral Tadashi Maeda, the Japanese naval liaison officer in the Menteng area of Jakarta, who sympathised with Indonesian independence. There, he and his assistant Sajoeti Melik prepared the text of the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence.\n\nIndonesian National Revolution\n\nProclamation of Indonesian Independence \n\nIn the early morning of 17 August 1945, Sukarno returned to his house at Jalan Pegangsaan Timur No. 56, where Mohammad Hatta joined him. Throughout the morning, impromptu leaflets printed by PETA and youth elements informed the population of the impending proclamation. Finally, at 10\u00a0am, Sukarno and Hatta stepped to the front porch, where Sukarno declared the independence of the Republic of Indonesia in front of a crowd of 500 people. This most historic of buildings was later ordered to be demolished by Sukarno himself, without any apparent reason.\n\nOn the following day, 18 August, the PPKI declared the basic governmental structure of the new Republic of Indonesia:\n\n Appointing Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta as president and vice-president and their cabinet.\n Putting into effect the 1945 Indonesian constitution, which by this time excluded any reference to Islamic law.\n Establishing a Central Indonesian National Committee (Komite Nasional Indonesia Poesat\/KNIP) to assist the president before an election of a parliament.\n\nSukarno's vision for the 1945 Indonesian constitution comprised the Pancasila (five principles). Sukarno's political philosophy was mainly a fusion of elements of Marxism, nationalism and Islam. This is reflected in a proposition of his version of Pancasila he proposed to the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK) in a speech on 1 June 1945.\n\nSukarno argued that all of the principles of the nation could be summarised in the phrase gotong royong. The Indonesian parliament, founded on the basis of this original (and subsequently revised) constitution, proved all but ungovernable. This was due to irreconcilable differences between various social, political, religious and ethnic factions.\n\nRevolution and Bersiap \n\nIn the days following the proclamation, the news of Indonesian independence was spread by radio, newspaper, leaflets, and word of mouth despite attempts by the Japanese soldiers to suppress the news. On 19 September, Sukarno addressed a crowd of one million people at the Ikada Field of Jakarta (now part of Merdeka Square) to commemorate one month of independence, indicating the strong level of popular support for the new Republic, at least on Java and Sumatra. In these two islands, the Sukarno government quickly established governmental control while the remaining Japanese mostly retreated to their barracks awaiting the arrival of Allied forces. This period was marked by constant attacks by armed groups on Europeans, Chinese, Christians, native aristocracy and anyone who were perceived to oppose Indonesian independence. The most serious cases were the Social Revolutions in Aceh and North Sumatra, where large numbers of Acehnese and Malay aristocrats were killed by Islamic groups (in Aceh) and communist-led mobs (in North Sumatra), and the \"Three Regions Affair\" in northwestern coast of Central Java where large numbers of Europeans, Chinese, and native aristocrats were butchered by mobs. These bloody incidents continued until late 1945 to early 1946, and begin to peter out as Republican authorities begin to exert and consolidate control.\n\nSukarno's government initially postponed the formation of a national army, for fear of antagonizing the Allied occupation forces and their doubt over whether they would have been able to form an adequate military apparatus to maintain control of seized territory. The members of various militia groups formed during Japanese occupation such as the disbanded PETA and Heiho, at that time were encouraged to join the BKR\u2014Badan Keamanan Rakjat (The People's Security Organization)\u2014itself a subordinate of the \"War Victims Assistance Organization\". It was only in October 1945 that the BKR was reformed into the TKR\u2014Tentara Keamanan Rakjat (The People's Security Army) in response to the increasing Allied and Dutch presence in Indonesia. The TKR armed themselves mostly by attacking Japanese troops and confiscating their weapons.\n\nDue to the sudden transfer of Java and Sumatra from General Douglas MacArthur's American-controlled Southwest Pacific Command to Lord Louis Mountbatten's British-controlled Southeast Asian Command, the first Allied soldiers (1st Battalion of Seaforth Highlanders) did not arrive in Jakarta until late September 1945. British forces began to occupy major Indonesian cities in October 1945. The commander of the British 23rd Division, Lieutenant General Sir Philip Christison, set up command in the former governor-general's palace in Jakarta. Christison stated that he intended to free all Allied prisoners-of-war and to allow the return of Indonesia to its pre-war status, as a colony of Netherlands. The Republican government were willing to cooperate with the release and repatriation of Allied civilians and military POWs, setting-up the Committee for the Repatriation of Japanese and Allied Prisoners of Wars and Internees (Panitia Oeroesan Pengangkoetan Djepang dan APWI\/POPDA) for this purpose. POPDA, in cooperation with the British, repatriated more than 70,000 Japanese and Allied POWs and internees by the end of 1946. However, due to the relative weakness of the military of the Republic of Indonesia, Sukarno sought independence by gaining international recognition for his new country rather than engage in battle with British and Dutch military forces.\n\nSukarno was aware that his history as a Japanese collaborator and his leadership in the Japanese-approved PUTERA during the occupation would make the Western countries distrustful of him. To help gain international recognition as well as to accommodate domestic demands for representation, Sukarno \"allowed\" the formation of a parliamentary system of government, whereby a prime minister controlled day-to-day affairs of the government, while Sukarno as president remained as a figurehead. The prime minister and his cabinet would be responsible to the Central Indonesian National Committee instead of the president. On 14 November 1945, Sukarno appointed Sutan Sjahrir as first prime minister; he was a European-educated politician who was never involved with the Japanese occupation authorities.\n\nIn late 1945 Dutch administrators who led the Dutch East Indies government-in-exile and soldiers who had fought the Japanese began to return under the name of Netherlands Indies Civil Administration (NICA), with the protection of the British. They were led by Hubertus Johannes van Mook, a colonial administrator who had evacuated to Brisbane, Australia. Dutch soldiers who had been POWs under the Japanese were released and rearmed. Shooting between these Dutch soldiers and police supporting the new Republican government soon developed. This soon escalated to armed conflict between the newly constituted Republican forces aided by a myriad of pro-independence mobs and the Dutch and British forces. On 10 November, a full-scale battle broke out in Surabaya between the 49th Infantry Brigade of the British Indian Army and Indonesian nationalist militias. The British-Indian force were supported by air and naval forces. Some 300 Indian soldiers were killed (including their commander Brigadier Aubertin Walter Sothern Mallaby), as were thousands of nationalist militiamen and other Indonesians. Shootouts broke out with alarming regularity in Jakarta, including an attempted assassination of Prime Minister Sjahrir by Dutch gunmen. To avoid this menace, Sukarno and majority of his government left for the safety of Yogyakarta on 4 January 1946. There, the Republican government received protection and full support from Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX. Yogyakarta would remain as the Republic's capital until the end of the war in 1949. Sjahrir remained in Jakarta to conduct negotiations with the British.\n\nThe initial series of battles in late 1945 and early 1946 left the British in control of major port cities on Java and Sumatra. During the Japanese occupation, the Outer Islands (excluding Java and Sumatra) were occupied by the Japanese Navy (Kaigun), who did not allow for political mobilisation of the islanders. Consequently, there was little Republican activity in these islands post-proclamation. Australian and Dutch forces were able to quickly take control of these islands without much fighting by the end of 1945 (excluding the resistance of I Gusti Ngurah Rai in Bali, the insurgency in South Sulawesi, and fighting in Hulu Sungai area of South Kalimantan). Meanwhile, the hinterland areas of Java and Sumatra remained under Republican control.\n\nEager to pull its soldiers out of Indonesia, the British allowed for large-scale infusion of Dutch forces into the country throughout 1946. By November 1946, all British soldiers had been withdrawn from Indonesia. They were replaced with more than 150,000 Dutch soldiers. The British sent Lord Archibald Clark Kerr, 1st Baron Inverchapel and Miles Lampson, 1st Baron Killearn to bring the Dutch and Indonesians to the negotiating table. The result of these negotiations was the Linggadjati Agreement signed in November 1946, where the Dutch acknowledged de facto Republican sovereignty over Java, Sumatra, and Madura. In exchange, the Republicans were willing to discuss a future Commonwealth-like United Kingdom of Netherlands and Indonesia.\n\nLinggadjati Agreement and Operation Product\n\nLinggadjati Agreement \n\nSukarno's decision to negotiate with the Dutch was met with strong opposition by various Indonesian factions. Tan Malaka, a communist politician, organised these groups into a united front called the Persatoean Perdjoangan (PP). PP offered a \"Minimum Program\" which called for complete independence, nationalisation of all foreign properties, and rejection of all negotiations until all foreign troops are withdrawn. These programmes received widespread popular support, including from armed forces commander General Sudirman. On 4 July 1946, military units linked with PP kidnapped Prime Minister Sjahrir who was visiting Yogyakarta. Sjahrir was leading the negotiation with the Dutch. Sukarno, after successfully influencing Sudirman, managed to secure the release of Sjahrir and the arrest of Tan Malaka and other PP leaders. Disapproval of Linggadjati terms within the KNIP led Sukarno to issue a decree doubling KNIP membership by including many pro-agreement appointed members. As a consequence, KNIP ratified the Linggadjati Agreement in March 1947.\n\nOperation Product \nOn 21 July 1947, the Linggadjati Agreement was broken by the Dutch, who launched Operatie Product, a massive military invasion into Republican-held territories. Although the newly reconstituted TNI was unable to offer significant military resistance, the blatant violation by the Dutch of an internationally brokered agreement outraged world opinion. International pressure forced the Dutch to halt their invasion force in August 1947. Sjahrir, who has been replaced as prime minister by Amir Sjarifuddin, flew to New York City to appeal Indonesian case in front of United Nations. UN Security Council issued a resolution calling for an immediate ceasefire and appointed a Good Offices Committee (GOC) to oversee the ceasefire. The GOC, based in Jakarta, consisted of delegations from Australia (led by Richard Kirby, chosen by Indonesia), Belgium (led by Paul van Zeeland, chosen by the Netherlands), and the United States (led by Frank Porter Graham, neutral).\n\nThe Republic was now under firm Dutch military stranglehold, with the Dutch military occupying West Java, and the northern coast of Central Java and East Java, along with the key productive areas of Sumatra. Additionally, the Dutch navy blockaded Republican areas from supplies of vital food, medicine, and weapons. As a consequence, Prime Minister Amir Sjarifuddin had little choice but to sign the Renville Agreement on 17 January 1948, which acknowledged Dutch control over areas taken during Operatie Product, while the Republicans pledged to withdraw all forces that remained on the other side of the ceasefire line (\"Van Mook Line\"). Meanwhile, the Dutch begin to organise puppet states in the areas under their occupation, to counter Republican influence utilising ethnic diversity of Indonesia.\n\nRenville agreement and Madiun affair \n\nThe signing of highly disadvantageous Renville Agreement caused even greater instability within the Republican political structure. In Dutch-occupied West Java, Darul Islam guerrillas under Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwirjo maintained their anti-Dutch resistance and repealed any loyalty to the Republic; they caused a bloody insurgency in West Java and other areas in the first decades of independence. Prime Minister Sjarifuddin, who signed the agreement, was forced to resign in January 1948 and was replaced by Mohammad Hatta. Hatta cabinet's policy of rationalising the armed forces by demobilising large numbers of armed groups that proliferated the Republican areas also caused severe disaffection. Leftist political elements, led by resurgent Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) under Musso took advantage of public disaffections by launching a rebellion in Madiun, East Java, on 18 September 1948. Bloody fighting continued during late-September until end of October 1948, when the last communist bands were defeated, and Musso shot dead. The communists had overestimated their potential to oppose the strong appeal of Sukarno amongst the population.\n\nOperatie Kraai and exile\n\nInvasion and exile \nOn 19 December 1948, to take advantage of the Republic's weak position following the communist rebellion, the Dutch launched Operatie Kraai, a second military invasion designed to crush the Republic once and for all. The invasion was initiated with an airborne assault on Republican capital Yogyakarta. Sukarno ordered the armed forces under Sudirman to launch a guerrilla campaign in the countryside, while he and other key leaders such as Hatta and Sjahrir allowed themselves to be taken prisoner by the Dutch. To ensure continuity of government, Sukarno sent a telegram to Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, providing him with the mandate to lead an Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PDRI), based on the unoccupied hinterlands of West Sumatra, a position he kept until Sukarno was released in June 1949. The Dutch sent Sukarno and other captured Republican leaders to captivity in Parapat, in Dutch-occupied part of North Sumatra and later to the island of Bangka.\n\nAftermath \n\nThe second Dutch invasion caused even more international outrage. The United States, impressed by Indonesia's ability to defeat the 1948 communist challenge without outside help, threatened to cut off Marshall Aid funds to the Netherlands if military operations in Indonesia continued. TNI did not disintegrate and continued to wage guerrilla resistance against the Dutch, most notably the assault on Dutch-held Yogyakarta led by Lieutenant-Colonel Suharto on 1 March 1949. Consequently, the Dutch were forced to sign the Roem\u2013Van Roijen Agreement on 7 May 1949. According to this treaty, the Dutch released the Republican leadership and returned the area surrounding Yogyakarta to Republican control in June 1949. This was followed by the Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference held in The Hague which led to the complete transfer of sovereignty by the Queen Juliana of the Netherlands to Indonesia, on 27 December 1949. On that day, Sukarno flew from Yogyakarta to Jakarta, making a triumphant speech at the steps of the governor-general's palace, immediately renamed the Merdeka Palace (\"Independence Palace\").\n\nPresident of the United States of Indonesia \n\nAt this time, as part of a compromise with the Dutch, Indonesia adopted a new federal constitution that made the country a federal state called the Republic of United States of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Serikat, RIS), consisting of the Republic of Indonesia whose borders were determined by the \"Van Mook Line\", along with the six states and nine autonomous territories created by the Dutch. During the first half of 1950, these states gradually dissolved themselves as the Dutch military that previously propped them up was withdrawn. In August 1950, with the last state \u2013 the State of East Indonesia \u2013 dissolving itself, Sukarno declared a Unitary Republic of Indonesia based on the newly formulated provisional constitution of 1950.\n\nLiberal democracy period (1950\u20131959) \nBoth the Federal Constitution of 1949 and the Provisional Constitution of 1950 were parliamentary in nature, where executive authority laid with the prime minister, and which\u2014on paper\u2014limited presidential power. However, even with his formally reduced role, he commanded a good deal of moral authority as Father of the Nation.\n\nInstability \n\nThe first years of parliamentary democracy proved to be very unstable for Indonesia. Cabinets fell in rapid succession due to the sharp differences between the various political parties within the newly appointed parliament (Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat\/DPR). There were severe disagreements concerning the future path of the Indonesian state, between nationalists who wanted a Secular state (led by Partai Nasional Indonesia first established by Sukarno), Islamists who wanted an Islamic state (led by the Masyumi Party), and communists who wanted a Communist state (led by the PKI, which only in 1951 again became allowed to operate). On the economic front, there was severe dissatisfaction with continuing economic domination by large Dutch corporations and the ethnic Chinese.\n\nDarul Islam rebels \nThe Darul Islam rebels under Kartosuwirjo in West Java refused to acknowledge Sukarno's authority and declared an NII (Negara Islam Indonesia \u2013 Islamic State of Indonesia) in August 1949. Rebellions in support of Darul Islam also broke out in South Sulawesi in 1951, and in Aceh in 1953. Meanwhile, pro-federalism members of the disbanded KNIL launched failed rebellion in Bandung (APRA rebellion of 1950), in Makassar in 1950, and Ambon (Republic of South Maluku revolt of 1950).\n\nDivision in the Military \nAdditionally, the military was torn by hostilities between officers originating from the colonial-era KNIL, who wished for a small and elite professional military, and the overwhelming majority of soldiers who started their careers in the Japanese-formed PETA, who were afraid of being discharged and were more known for nationalist-zeal over professionalism.\n\nOn 17 October 1952, the leaders of the former-KNIL faction, Army Chief Colonel Abdul Haris Nasution and Armed Forces Chief-of-Staff Tahi Bonar Simatupang mobilised their troops in a show of force. Protesting against attempts by the DPR to interfere in military business on behalf of the former PETA faction of the military, Nasution and Simatupang had their troops surround the Merdeka Palace and point their tank turrets at the building. Their demand for Sukarno was that the current DPR be dismissed. For this cause, Nasution and Simatupang also mobilised civilian protesters. Sukarno came out of the palace and convinced both the soldiers and the civilians to go home. Nasution and Simatupang were later dismissed. Nasution, however, would be re-appointed as Army Chief after reconciling with Sukarno in 1955.\n\n1955 legislative elections\n\nThe 1955 elections produced a new parliament and a constitutional assembly. The election results showed equal support for the antagonistic powers of the PNI, Masyumi, Nahdlatul Ulama, and PKI parties. With no faction controlling a clear majority, domestic political instability continued unabated. Talks in the Constitutional Assembly to write a new constitution met with deadlock over the issue of whether to include Islamic law.\n\nSukarno came to resent his figurehead position and the increasing disorder of the country's political life. Claiming that Western-style parliamentary democracy was unsuitable for Indonesia, he called for a system of \"guided democracy,\" which he claimed was based on indigenous principles of governance. Sukarno argued that at the village level, important questions were decided by lengthy deliberation designed to achieve a consensus, under the guidance of village elders. He believed it should be the model for the entire nation, with the president taking the role assumed by village elders. He proposed a government based not only on political parties but on \"functional groups\" composed of the nation's essential elements, which would together form a National Council, through which a national consensus could express itself under presidential guidance.\n\nVice President Mohammad Hatta was strongly opposed to Sukarno's guided democracy concept. Citing this and other irreconcilable differences, Hatta resigned from his position in December 1956. His retirement sent a shockwave across Indonesia, particularly among the non-Javanese, who viewed Hatta as their representative in a Javanese-dominated government.\n\nMilitary takeovers and martial law\n\nRegional military takeovers \nFrom December 1956 to January 1957, regional military commanders in the provinces of North, Central, and South Sumatra provinces took over local government control. They declared a series of military councils which were to run their respective areas and refused to accept orders from Jakarta. A similar regional military movement took control of North Sulawesi in March 1957. They demanded the elimination of communist influence in government, equal share in government revenues, and reinstatement of the former Sukarno-Hatta duumvirate.\n\nDeclaration of martial law \nFaced with this serious challenge to the unity of the republic, Sukarno declared martial law (Staat van Oorlog en Beleg) on 14 March 1957. He appointed a non-partisan prime minister Djuanda Kartawidjaja, while the military was in the hands of his loyal General Nasution. Nasution increasingly shared Sukarno's views on the negative impact of western democracy on Indonesia, and he saw a more significant role for the military in political life.\n\nAs a reconciliatory move, Sukarno invited the leaders of the regional councils to Jakarta on 10\u201314 September 1957, to attend a National Conference (Musjawarah Nasional), which failed to bring a solution to the crisis. On 30 November 1957, an assassination attempt was made on Sukarno by way of a grenade attack while he was visiting a school function in Cikini, Central Jakarta. Six children were killed, but Sukarno did not suffer any serious wounds. The perpetrators were members of the Darul Islam group, under the order of its leader Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwirjo.\n\nBy December 1957, Sukarno began to take serious steps to enforce his authority over the country. On that month, he nationalised 246 Dutch companies which had been dominating the Indonesian economy, most notably the Netherlands Trading Society, Royal Dutch Shell subsidiary Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij, Escomptobank, and the \"big five\" Dutch trading corporations (NV Borneo Sumatra Maatschappij \/ Borsumij, NV Internationale Crediet- en Handelsvereeneging \"Rotterdam\" \/ Internatio, NV Jacobson van den Berg & Co, NV Lindeteves-Stokvis, and NV Geo Wehry & Co), and expelled 40,000 Dutch citizens remaining in Indonesia while confiscating their properties, purportedly due to the failure by the Dutch government to continue negotiations on the fate of Netherlands New Guinea as was promised in the 1949 Round Table Conference. Sukarno's policy of economic nationalism was strengthened by the issuance Presidential Directive No. 10 of 1959, which banned commercial activities by foreign nationals in rural areas. This rule targeted ethnic Chinese, who dominated both the rural and urban retail economy, although at this time few of them had Indonesian citizenship. This policy resulted in massive relocation of the rural ethnic-Chinese population to urban areas, and approximately 100,000 chose to return to China.\n\nTo face the dissident regional commanders, Sukarno and Army Chief Nasution decided to take drastic steps following the failure of Musjawarah Nasional. By utilizing regional officers that remained loyal to Jakarta, Nasution organised a series of \"regional coups\" which ousted the dissident commanders in North Sumatra (Colonel Maludin Simbolon) and South Sumatra (Colonel Barlian) by December 1957. This returned government control over key cities of Medan and Palembang.\n\nIn February 1958, the remaining dissident commanders in Central Sumatra (Colonel Ahmad Hussein) and North Sulawesi (Colonel Ventje Sumual) declared the PRRI-Permesta Movement aimed at overthrowing the Jakarta government. They were joined by many civilian politicians from the Masyumi Party, such as Sjafruddin Prawiranegara who were opposed to the growing influence of communists. Due to their anti-communist rhetoric, the rebels received money, weapons, and manpower from the CIA in a campaign known as Archipelago. This support ended when Allen Lawrence Pope, an American pilot, was shot down after a bombing raid on government-held Ambon in April 1958. In April 1958, the central government responded by launching airborne and seaborne military invasions on Padang and Manado, the rebel capitals. By the end of 1958, the rebels had been militarily defeated, and the last remaining rebel guerrilla bands surrendered in August 1961.\n\nGuided Democracy period (1959\u20131966)\n\nThe impressive military victories over the PRRI-Permesta rebels and the popular nationalisation of Dutch companies left Sukarno in a firm position. On 5 July 1959, Sukarno reinstated the 1945 constitution by presidential decree. It established a presidential system which he believed would make it easier to implement the principles of guided democracy. He called the system Manifesto Politik or Manipol\u2014but it was actually government by decree. Sukarno envisioned an Indonesian-style socialist society,  adherent to the principle of USDEK:\n Undang-Undang Dasar '45 (Constitution of 1945)\n Sosialisme Indonesia (Indonesian socialism)\n Demokrasi Terpimpin (Guided Democracy)\n Ekonomi Terpimpin (Commanded Economy).\n Kepribadian Indonesia (Indonesia's Identity)\n\nIn March 1960, Sukarno disbanded parliament and replaced it with a new parliament where half the members were appointed by the president (Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat \u2013 Gotong Rojong \/ DPR-GR). In September 1960, he established a Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat Sementara\/MPRS) as the highest legislative authority according to the 1945 constitution. MPRS members consisted of members of DPR-GR and members of \"functional groups\" appointed by the president.\n\nWith the backing of the military, Sukarno disbanded the Islamic party Masyumi and Sutan Sjahrir's party PSI, accusing them of involvement with PRRI-Permesta affair. The military arrested and imprisoned many of Sukarno's political opponents, from socialist Sjahrir to Islamic politicians Mohammad Natsir and Hamka. Using martial law powers, the government closed down newspapers who were critical of Sukarno's policies.\n\nDuring this period, there were several assassination attempts on Sukarno's life. On 9 March 1960, Daniel Maukar, an Indonesian airforce lieutenant who sympathised with the Permesta rebellion, strafed the Merdeka Palace and Bogor Palace with his MiG-17 fighter jet, attempting to kill the president; he was not injured. In May 1962, Darul Islam agents shot at the president during Eid al-Adha prayers on the grounds of the palace. Sukarno again escaped injury.\n\nOn the security front, the military started a series of effective campaigns which ended the long-festering Darul Islam rebellion in West Java (1962), Aceh (1962), and South Sulawesi (1965). Kartosuwirjo, the leader of Darul Islam, was captured and executed in September 1962.\n\nTo counterbalance the power of the military, Sukarno started to rely on the support of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). In 1960, he declared his government to be based on Nasakom, a union of the three ideological strands present in Indonesian society: nasionalisme (nationalism), agama (religions), and komunisme (communism). Accordingly, Sukarno started admitting more communists into his government, while developing a strong relationship with the PKI chairman Dipa Nusantara Aidit.\n\nIn order to increase Indonesia's prestige, Sukarno supported and won the bid for the 1962 Asian Games held in Jakarta. Many sporting facilities such as the Senayan sports complex (including the 100,000-seat Bung Karno Stadium) were built to accommodate the games. There was political tension when the Indonesians refused the entry of delegations from Israel and Taiwan. After the International Olympic Committee imposed sanctions on Indonesia due to this exclusion policy, Sukarno retaliated by organising a \"non-imperialist\" competitor event to the Olympic Games, called the Games of New Emerging Forces (GANEFO). GANEFO was successfully held in Jakarta in November 1963 and was attended by 2,700 athletes from 51 countries.\n\nAs part of his prestige-building program, Sukarno ordered the construction of large monumental buildings such as National Monument (Monumen Nasional), Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta, CONEFO Building (now the Parliament Building), Hotel Indonesia, and the Sarinah shopping centre to transform Jakarta from a former colonial backwater to a modern city. The modern Jakarta boulevards of Jalan Thamrin, Jalan Sudirman, and Jalan Gatot Subroto were planned and constructed under Sukarno.\n\nForeign policy\n\nBandung conference \nOn the international front, Sukarno organised the Bandung Conference in 1955, with the goal of uniting the developing Asian and African countries into the Non-Aligned Movement to counter both the United States and the Soviet Union.\n\nCold War \n\nAs Sukarno's domestic authority was secured, he began to pay more attention to the world stage. He embarked on a series of aggressive and assertive policies based on anti-imperialism to increase Indonesia's international prestige. These anti-imperialist and anti-Western policies, often employing brinkmanship with other nations, were also designed to unite the diverse and fractious Indonesian people. In this, he was aided by his Foreign Minister Subandrio.\n\nAfter his first visit to Beijing in 1956, Sukarno began to strengthen his ties to the People's Republic of China and the communist bloc in general. He also began to accept increasing amounts of Soviet-bloc military aid. By the early 1960s, the Soviet bloc provided more aid to Indonesia than to any other non-communist country, while Soviet military aid to Indonesia was equalled only by its aid to Cuba. This substantial influx of communist aid prompted an increase in military aid from the Dwight Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy Administrations, which worried about a leftward drift should Sukarno rely too much on Soviet-bloc aid.\n\nSukarno was feted during his visit to the United States in 1956, where he addressed a joint session of the United States Congress. To date, it is the only time any Indonesian President has addressed a joint session of the U.S. Congress. Soon after his first visit to America, Sukarno visited the Soviet Union, where he received a more lavish welcome. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev paid a return visit to Jakarta and Bali in 1960, where he awarded Sukarno with the Lenin Peace Prize. To make amends for CIA involvement in the PRRI-Permesta rebellion, U.S. President Kennedy invited Sukarno to Washington, D.C., and provided Indonesia with billions of dollars in civilian and military aid.\n\nTo follow up on the successful 1955 Bandung Conference, Sukarno attempted to forge a new alliance called the \"New Emerging Forces\" (NEFO), as a counter to the Western superpowers dubbed the \"Old Established Forces\" (OLDEFO), whom he accused of spreading \"Neo-Colonialism and Imperialism\" (NEKOLIM). In 1961, Sukarno established another political alliance, called the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM, in Indonesia known as Gerakan Non-Blok, GNB) with Egypt's President Gamal Abdel Nasser, India's Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Yugoslavia's President Josip Broz Tito, and Ghana's President Kwame Nkrumah, in an action called The Initiative of Five (Sukarno, Nkrumah, Nasser, Tito, and Nehru). NAM was intended to provide political unity and influence for nations who wished to maintain independence from the American and Soviet superpower blocs, which were engaged in Cold War competition. Sukarno is still fondly remembered for his role in promoting the influence of newly independent countries. His name is used as a street name in Cairo, Egypt and Rabat, Morocco, and as a major square in Peshawar, Pakistan. In 1956, the University of Belgrade awarded him an honorary doctorate.\n\nPapua conflict \n\nIn 1960 Sukarno began an aggressive foreign policy to secure Indonesian territorial claims. In August of that year, he broke off diplomatic relations with the Netherlands over the continuing failure to commence talks on the future of Netherlands New Guinea, as was agreed at the Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference of 1949. In April 1961, the Dutch announced the formation of a Nieuw Guinea Raad, intending to create an independent Papuan state. Sukarno declared a state of military confrontation in his Tri Komando Rakjat (TRIKORA) speech in Yogyakarta, on 19 December 1961. He then directed military incursions into the half-island, which he referred to as West Irian. By the end of 1962, 3,000 Indonesian soldiers were present throughout West Irian\/West Papua.\n\nA naval battle erupted in January 1962 when four Indonesian torpedo boats were intercepted by Dutch ships and planes off the coast of Vlakke Hoek. One Indonesian boat was sunk, killing the Naval Deputy Chief-of-Staff Commodore Jos Sudarso. Meanwhile, the Kennedy Administration worried of a continuing Indonesian shift towards communism should the Dutch hold on to West Irian\/West Papua. In February 1962 U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy travelled to the Netherlands and informed the government that the United States would not support the Netherlands in an armed conflict with Indonesia. With Soviet armaments and advisors, Sukarno planned a large-scale air- and sea-borne invasion of the Dutch military headquarters of Biak for August 1962, called Operasi Djajawidjaja. It was to be led by Major-General Suharto, the future President of Indonesia. Before these plans could be realised, Indonesia and the Netherlands signed the New York Agreement in August 1962. The two countries agreed to implement the Bunker Plan (formulated by American diplomat Ellsworth Bunker), whereby the Dutch agreed to hand over West Irian\/West Papua to UNTEA on 1 October 1962. UNTEA transferred the territory to Indonesian authority in May 1963.\n\nKonfrontasi \n\nAfter securing control over West Irian\/West Papua, Sukarno then opposed the British-supported establishment of the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, claiming that it was a neo-colonial plot by the British to undermine Indonesia. Despite Sukarno's political overtures, which found some support when leftist political elements in British Borneo territories Sarawak and Brunei opposed the Federation plan and aligned themselves with Sukarno, Malaysia was established in September 1963. This was followed by the Indonesia\u2013Malaysia confrontation (Konfrontasi), proclaimed by Sukarno in his Dwi Komando Rakjat (DWIKORA) speech in Jakarta on 3 May 1964. Sukarno's proclaimed objective was not, as some alleged, to annex Sabah and Sarawak into Indonesia, but to establish a \"State of North Kalimantan\" under the control of the North Kalimantan Communist Party. From 1964 until early 1966, a limited number of Indonesian soldiers, civilians, and Malaysian communist guerrillas were sent into North Borneo and the Malay Peninsula. These forces fought against British and Commonwealth soldiers deployed to protect the nascent state of Malaysia. Indonesian agents also exploded several bombs in Singapore. Domestically, Sukarno fomented anti-British sentiment, and the British Embassy was burned down. In 1964, all British companies operating in the country, including Indonesian operations of the Chartered Bank and Unilever, were nationalised. The confrontation came to a climax during August 1964, when Sukarno authorised landings of Indonesian troops at Pontian and Labis on the Malaysian mainland, and all-out war seemed inevitable as tensions escalated. However, the situation calmed by mid-September at the culmination of the Sunda Straits Crisis, and after the disastrous Battle of Plaman Mapu in April 1965, Indonesian raids into Sarawak became fewer and weaker.\n\nIn 1964, Sukarno commenced an anti-American campaign, which was motivated by his shift towards the communist bloc and less friendly relations with the Lyndon Johnson administration. American interests and businesses in Indonesia were denounced by government officials and attacked by PKI-led mobs. American movies were banned, American books and Beatles albums were burned, and the Indonesian band Koes Plus was jailed for playing American-style rock and roll music. As a result, U.S. aid to Indonesia was halted, to which Sukarno made his famous remark \"Go to hell with your aid\". Sukarno withdrew Indonesia from the United Nations on 7 January 1965 when, with U.S. backing, Malaysia took a seat on the UN Security Council.\n\nConference of New Emerging Forces \nAs the NAM countries were becoming split into different factions, and as fewer countries were willing to support his anti-Western foreign policies, Sukarno began to abandon his non-alignment rhetoric. Sukarno formed a new alliance with China, North Korea, North Vietnam, and Cambodia which he called the \"Beijing-Pyongyang-Hanoi-Phnom Penh-Jakarta Axis\". After withdrawing Indonesia from the \"imperialist-dominated\" United Nations in January 1965, Sukarno sought to establish a competitor organisation to the UN called the Conference of New Emerging Forces (CONEFO) with support from the People's Republic of China, which at that time was not yet a member of United Nations. With the government heavily indebted to the Soviet Union, Indonesia became increasingly dependent on China for support. Sukarno spoke increasingly of a Beijing-Jakarta axis, which would be the core of a new anti-imperialist world organisation, the CONEFO.\n\nDomestic policy\n\nPresident for life and Cult of personality \n\nDomestically, Sukarno continued to consolidate his control. He was made president for life by the MPRS in 1963. His ideological writings on Manipol-USDEK and NASAKOM became mandatory subjects in Indonesian schools and universities, while his speeches were to be memorised and discussed by all students. All newspapers, the only radio station (RRI, government-run), and the only television station (TVRI, also government-run) were made into \"tools of the revolution\" and functioned to spread Sukarno's messages. Sukarno developed a personality cult, with the capital of newly acquired West Irian renamed to Sukarnapura and the highest peak in the country was renamed from Carstensz Pyramid to Puntjak Sukarno (Sukarno Peak).\n\nRise of the PKI \n\nDespite these appearances of unchallenged control, Sukarno's guided democracy stood on fragile grounds due to the inherent conflict between its two underlying support pillars, the military and the communists. The military, nationalists, and the Islamic groups were shocked by the rapid growth of the communist party under Sukarno's protection. They feared an imminent establishment of a communist state in Indonesia. By 1965, the PKI had three million members and were particularly strong in Central Java and Bali. The PKI had become the strongest party in Indonesia.\n\nThe military and nationalists were growing wary of Sukarno's close alliance with communist China, which they thought compromised Indonesia's sovereignty. Elements of the military disagreed with Sukarno's policy of confrontation with Malaysia, which in their view only benefited communists, and sent several officers (including future Armed Forces Chief Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani) to spread secret peace-feelers to the Malaysian government. The Islamic clerics, who were mostly landowners, felt threatened by PKI's land confiscation actions (aksi sepihak) in the countryside and by the communist campaign against the \"seven village devils\", a term used for landlords or better-off farmers (similar to the anti-kulak campaign in Stalinist era). Both groups harboured deep disdain for PKI in particular due to memories of the bloody 1948 communist rebellion.\n\nAs the mediator of the three groups under the NASAKOM system, Sukarno displayed greater sympathies to the communists. The PKI had been very careful to support all of Sukarno's policies. Meanwhile, Sukarno saw the PKI as the best-organised and ideologically solid party in Indonesia, and a useful conduit to gain more military and financial aid from Communist Bloc countries. Sukarno also sympathised with the communists' revolutionary ideals, which were similar to his own.\n\nTo weaken the influence of the military, Sukarno rescinded martial law (which gave wide-ranging powers to the military) in 1963. In September 1962, he \"promoted\" the powerful General Nasution to the less-influential position of Armed Forces Chief, while the influential position of Army Chief was given to Sukarno's loyalist Ahmad Yani. Meanwhile, the position of Air Force Chief was given to Omar Dhani, who was an open communist sympathiser. In May 1964, Sukarno banned activities of Manifesto Kebudajaan (Manikebu), an association of artists and writers which included prominent Indonesian writers such as Hans Bague Jassin and Wiratmo Soekito, who were also dismissed from their jobs. Manikebu was considered a rival by the communist writer's association Lembaga Kebudajaan Rakjat (Lekra), led by Pramoedya Ananta Toer. In December 1964, Sukarno disbanded the Badan Pendukung Soekarnoisme (BPS), the \"Association for Promoting Sukarnoism\", an organisation that seeks to oppose communism by invoking Sukarno's own Pancasila formulation. In January 1965, Sukarno, under pressure from the PKI, banned the Murba Party. Murba was a pro-Soviet Union party whose ideology was antagonistic to the PKI's pro-Chinese People's Republic view of Marxism.\n\nTensions between the military and communists increased in April 1965, when PKI chairman Aidit called for the formation of a \"fifth armed force\" consisting of armed peasants and labour. Sukarno approved this idea and publicly called for the immediate formation of such a force on 17 May 1965. However, Army Chief Ahmad Yani and Defence Minister Nasution procrastinated in implementing this idea, as this was tantamount to allowing the PKI to establish its own armed forces. Soon afterwards, on 29 May, the \"Gilchrist Letter\" appeared. The letter was supposedly written by the British ambassador Andrew Gilchrist to the Foreign Office in London, mentioning a joint American and British attempt on subversion in Indonesia with the help of \"local army friends\". This letter, produced by Subandrio, aroused Sukarno's fear of a military plot to overthrow him, a fear which he repeatedly mentioned during the next few months. The Czechoslovakian agent Ladislav Bittman who defected in 1968 claimed that his agency (StB) forged the letter on request from PKI via the Soviet Union, to smear anti-communist generals. On his independence day speech of 17 August 1965, Sukarno declared his intention to commit Indonesia to an anti-imperialist alliance with China and other communist regimes and warned the Army not to interfere. He also stated his support for the establishment of a \"fifth force\" of armed peasants and labour.\n\nEconomic decline\nWhile Sukarno devoted his energy to domestic and international politics, the economy of Indonesia was neglected and deteriorated rapidly. The government printed money to finance its military expenditures, resulting in hyperinflation exceeding 600% per annum in 1964\u20131965. Smuggling and the collapse of export plantation sectors deprived the government of much-needed foreign exchange income. Consequently, the government was unable to service massive foreign debts it had accumulated from both Western and Communist bloc countries.  Most of the government budget was spent on the military, resulting in deterioration of infrastructures such as roads, railways, ports, and other public facilities. Deteriorating transportation infrastructure and poor harvests caused food shortages in many places. The small industrial sector languished and only produced at 20% capacity due to lack of investment.\n\nSukarno himself was contemptuous of macroeconomics and was unable and unwilling to provide practical solutions to the poor economic condition of the country. Instead, he produced more ideological conceptions such as Trisakti: political sovereignty, economic self-sufficiency, and cultural independence. He advocated Indonesians \"standing on their own feet\" (Berdikari) and achieving economic self-sufficiency, free from foreign influence.\n\nTowards the end of his rule, Sukarno's lack of interest in economics created a distance between himself and the Indonesian people, who were suffering economically. His face had become bloated by disease, and his flamboyance and sexual conquests \u2013 which had once endeared him to the people \u2013 caused public criticism and turned support towards the army.\n\nRemoval from power, death and after\n\n30 September Movement\n\nKidnappings and murders \nOn the dawn of 1 October 1965, six of Indonesia's most senior army generals were kidnapped and murdered by a movement calling themselves the \"30 September Movement\" (G30S). Among those killed was Ahmad Yani, while Nasution narrowly escaped, but the movement kidnapped First Lieutenant Pierre Tendean, his adjutant, presumably mistaking him for General Nasution in the darkness.  The G30S consisted of members of the Presidential Guards, Brawidjaja Division, and Diponegoro Division, under the command of a Lieutenant-Colonel Untung bin Sjamsuri. The movement took control of the RRI radio station and Merdeka Square. They broadcast a statement declaring the kidnappings were meant to protect Sukarno from a coup attempt by CIA-influenced generals. Later, it broadcast news of the disbandment of Sukarno's cabinet, to be replaced by a \"Revolutionary Council\". In Central Java, soldiers associated with the G30S also seized control of Yogyakarta and Solo on 1\u20132 October, killing two colonels in the process.\n\nThe end of the movement \nMajor General Suharto, commander of the military's strategic reserve command, took control of the army the following morning. Suharto ordered troops to take over the RRI radio station and Merdeka Square itself. On the afternoon of that day, Suharto issued an ultimatum to the Halim Air Force Base, where the G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno (the reasons for his presence are unclear and were subject of claim and counter-claim), Air Marshal Omar Dhani, and PKI chairman Aidit had gathered. By the following day, it was clear that the incompetently organised and poorly coordinated coup had failed. Sukarno took up residence in the Bogor Palace, while Omar Dhani fled to East Java and Aidit to Central Java. By 2 October, Suharto's soldiers occupied Halim Air Force Base, after a short gunfight. Sukarno's obedience to Suharto's 1 October ultimatum to leave Halim is seen as changing all power relationships. Sukarno's fragile balance of power between the military, political Islam, communists, and nationalists that underlay his \"Guided Democracy\" was now collapsing. On 3 October, the corpses of the kidnapped generals were discovered near the Halim Air Force Base, and on 5 October they were buried in a public ceremony led by Suharto.\n\nAftermath of the movement \nIn early October 1965, a military propaganda campaign began to sweep the country, successfully convincing both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a Communist coup, and that the murders were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes since those who were shot were veteran military officers. PKI's denials of involvement had little effect. Following the discovery and public burial of the generals' corpses on 5 October, the army along with Islamic organisations Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama led a campaign to purge Indonesian society, government and armed forces of the communist party and other leftist organisations. Leading PKI members were immediately arrested, some summarily executed. Aidit was captured and killed in November 1965. The purge spread across the country with the worst massacres in Java and Bali. In some areas, the army organised civilian groups and local militias, in other areas communal vigilante action preceded the army. The most widely accepted estimates are that at least half a million were killed. It is thought that as many as 1.5\u00a0million were imprisoned at one stage or another.\n\nAs a result of the purge, one of Sukarno's three pillars of support, the Indonesian Communist Party, had been effectively eliminated by the other two, the military and political Islam. The killings and the failure of his tenuous \"revolution\" distressed Sukarno, and he tried unsuccessfully to protect the PKI by referring to the generals' killings as een rimpeltje in de oceaan (\"ripple in the sea of the revolution\"). He tried to maintain his influence appealing in a January 1966 broadcast for the country to follow him. Subandrio sought to create a Sukarnoist column (Barisan Sukarno), which was undermined by Suharto's pledge of loyalty to Sukarno and the concurrent instruction for all those loyal to Sukarno to announce their support for the army.\n\nTransition to the New Order \n\nOn 1 October 1965, Sukarno appointed General Pranoto Reksosamudro as Army Chief to replace the dead Ahmad Yani, but he was forced to give this position to Suharto two weeks later. In February 1966, Sukarno reshuffled his cabinet, sacking Nasution as Defence Minister and abolishing his position of armed forces chief of staff, but Nasution refused to step down. Beginning in January 1966, university students started demonstrating against Sukarno, demanding the disbandment of PKI and for the government to control spiralling inflation. In February 1966, student demonstrators in front of Merdeka Palace were shot at by Presidential Guards, killing the student Arief Rachman Hakim, who was quickly turned into a martyr by student demonstrators.\n\nSupersemar \n\nA meeting of Sukarno's full cabinet was held at the Merdeka Palace on 11 March 1966. As students were demonstrating against the administration, unidentified troops began to assemble outside. Sukarno, Subandrio and another minister immediately left the meeting and went to the Bogor Palace by helicopter. Three pro-Suharto generals (Basuki Rahmat, Amir Machmud, and Mohammad Jusuf) were dispatched to the Bogor palace, and they met with Sukarno who signed for them a Presidential Order known as Supersemar. Through the order, Sukarno assigned Suharto to \"take all measures considered necessary to guarantee security, calm and stability of the government and the revolution and to guarantee the personal safety and authority [of Sukarno]\". The authorship of the document, and whether Sukarno was forced to sign, perhaps even at gunpoint, is a point of historical debate. The effect of the order, however, was the transfer of most presidential authority to Suharto. After obtaining the Presidential Order, Suharto had the PKI declared illegal, and the party was abolished.  He also arrested many high-ranking officials that were loyal to Sukarno on the charge of being PKI members and\/or sympathisers, further reducing Sukarno's political power and influence.\n\nHouse arrest and death \n\nOn 22 June 1966, Sukarno made his Nawaksara speech in front of the MPRS, now purged of communist and pro-Sukarno elements, in an unsuccessful last-ditch attempt to defend himself and his guided democracy system. In August 1966, over Sukarno's objections, Indonesia ended its confrontation with Malaysia and rejoined the United Nations. Following another unsuccessful accountability speech (Nawaksara Addendum) on 10 January 1967, Sukarno relinquished his executive powers to Suharto on 20 February 1967, while remaining nominally as titular President. He was finally stripped of his president-for-life title by MPRS on 12 March 1967, in a session chaired by his former ally, Nasution. On the same day, the MPR named Suharto acting president. Sukarno was put under house arrest in Wisma Yaso (now the Satriamandala Museum), where his health deteriorated due to denial of adequate medical care. He died of kidney failure in Jakarta Army Hospital on 21 June 1970, at the age of 69. He was buried in Blitar, East Java, Indonesia.\n\nPersonal life\n\nFamily\n\nMarriages \n\nSukarno was of Javanese and Balinese descent. He married Siti Oetari in 1921, and divorced her in 1923 to marry , whom he divorced in about 1943 to marry Fatmawati. Before his marriage to Fatmawati, Sukarno was married to Nina, a German woman from Bengkulu, with whom he had a daughter, Rukmini, who was born in 1942. In 1954, Sukarno married Hartini, a 30-year-old widow from Salatiga, whom he met during a reception. Fatmawati was outraged by this fourth marriage and left Sukarno and their children, although they never officially divorced. In 1959, he was introduced to the then 19-year-old Japanese hostess Naoko Nemoto, whom he married in 1962 and renamed Ratna Dewi Sukarno. Sukarno also had four other spouses: Kartini Manoppo (1959\u201368); Haryati (1963\u201366); Yurike Sanger (1964\u201368); and Heldy Djafar (1966\u201369). Sukarno was known for his relationships with several women such as Gusti Nurul, Baby Huwae, Nurbani Yusuf, and Amelia De La Rama.\n\nChildren \nMegawati Sukarnoputri, who served as the fifth president of Indonesia, is his daughter by his wife Fatmawati. Her younger brother Guruh Sukarnoputra (born 1953) has inherited Sukarno's artistic bent and is a choreographer and songwriter, who made a movie Untukmu, Indonesiaku (For You, My Indonesia) about Indonesian culture. He is also a member of the Indonesian People's Representative Council for Megawati's Indonesian Democratic Party \u2013 Struggle. His siblings Guntur Sukarnoputra, Rachmawati Sukarnoputri and Sukmawati Sukarnoputri have all been active in politics. Sukarno had a daughter named Kartika by Dewi Sukarno. In 2006 Kartika Sukarno married Frits Seegers, the Netherlands-born chief executive officer of the Barclays Global Retail and Commercial Bank. Other children include Taufan and Bayu by his wife Hartini, and a son named Totok Suryawan Sukarnoputra (born 1967, in Germany), by his wife Kartini Manoppo.\n\nHonours\n\nSukarno was awarded twenty-six honorary doctorates from various international universities including Columbia University, the University of Michigan, the University of Berlin, the Al-Azhar University, the University of Belgrade, the Lomonosov University and many more, and also from domestic universities including Gadjah Mada University, the University of Indonesia, the Bandung Institute of Technology, Hasanuddin University, and Padjadjaran University. He was often referred to by the Indonesian government at the time as 'Dr. Ir. Sukarno', combined with his degree in civil engineering (Ir.) from Bandung Institute of Technology.\n\nNational honours\n:\n  Star of the Republic of Indonesia Adipurna (1st Class)\n  Star of Mahaputera Adipurna (1st Class)\n  The Sacred Star\n  Military Distinguished Service Star\n  Guerrilla Star\n  Star of Service Utama (1st Class)\n  National Police Meritorious Service Star Utama (1st Class)\n  Garuda Star\n  Armed Forces Eight Years' Service Star\n  Independence Freedom Fighters Medal\n\nForeign honours\n:\n Collar of the Order of the Supreme Sun\n: \n Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin\n:\n Medal of the Order of Australia\n: \n Grand Cross of the Order of the Condor of the Andes\n: \n Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross\n Bulgaria: \n Order of Georgi Dimitrov\n: \n Collar of the Order of the White Lion\n: \n Grand Cross 1st Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\n:\n Knight of the Order of the Golden Spur\n Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Pope Pius IX\n Recipient of the Benemerenti Medal\n:\n Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary\n: \n Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum\n:\n Grand Cordon of the Order of the Throne\n: \n Chief Commander of the Philippine Legion of Honor\n: \n Grand Cross of the Military Order of Saint James of the Sword\n: \n Supreme Companion of the Order of the Companions of O.R. Tambo\n: \n Order of Lenin\n Lenin Peace Prize\n: \n Knight Grand Cross (First Class) of the Order of Chula Chom Klao\n:\n Resistance Medal, 1st Class\n: \n Great Star of the Order of the Yugoslav Star\n\nWorks\n Nationalism, Islam and Marxism. Translated by Karel H. Warouw and Peter D. Weldon. Modern Indonesia Project, Ithaca, New York 1970. (On his political concept \"Nasakom\"; collected of articles, 1926).\n Indonesia vs Fasisme. Pen. Media Pressindo, Yogyakarta 2000. (Political analysis on indonesian nationalism versus fascism; collected of articles 1941).\n\nIn popular culture\n\nBooks\n Kuantar Ke Gerbang, an Indonesian novel by Ramadhan KH, tells the story of romantic relationship between Sukarno and Inggit Garnasih, his second wife.\n Sukarno \u2013 An Autobiography by Cindy Adams, (Bobbs-Merrill, 1965) : \"Autobiography\" written by an American writer with the cooperation of Sukarno. Translated into Indonesian by Abdul Bar Salim as Bung Karno: Penjambung Lidah Rakjat Indonesia (Gunung Agung, 1966)\n My Friend the Dictator by Cindy Adams, (Bobbs-Merrill, 1965): A contemporary account of the writing of the autobiography\n\nSongs\n A song titled \"Untuk Paduka Jang Mulia Presiden Sukarno\" (To His Excellency President Sukarno) was written in early 60s by Soetedjo and popularised by Lilis Suryani, a famous Indonesian female soloist. The lyrics are full with expression of praise and gratitude to the then President-for-life.\n\nMovies\n Filipino actor Mike Emperio portrayed Sukarno in the 1982 movie The Year of Living Dangerously directed by Peter Weir as adapted from a novel of same name written by Christopher Koch.\n Indonesian sociologist and writer Umar Kayam portrayed Sukarno in the two 1982 movies Pengkhianatan G 30 S\/PKI and Djakarta 66 directed by Arifin C. Noer.\n Indonesian actor Frans Tumbuan portrayed Sukarno in the 1997 movie Blanco, The Colour of Love (compacted from its original TV serial version, Api Cinta Antonio Blanco) about Spanish painter Antonio Blanco who settled and resided in Bali, Indonesia.\n Indonesian actor Soultan Saladin portrayed Sukarno in the 2005 movie Gie, directed by Riri Riza, about the life of student activist Soe Hok Gie.\n Indonesian actor Tio Pakusadewo is set to portray Sukarno in a planned movie 9 Reasons, telling the stories of nine women in the life of the founding father: Oetari (portrayed by Yuki Kato); Inggit Garnasih (Happy Salma); Fatmawati (Revalina Sayuthi Temat); Hartini (Lola Amaria); Haryati; Kartini Manoppo (Wulan Guritno); Ratna Sari Dewi (Mariana Renata); and Yurike Sanger (Isyana Sarasvati). Tio Pakusadewo also portrayed Sukarno's erstwhile colleague and eventual successor, Suharto, in another 2012 historical biopic, Habibie dan Ainun.\n Indonesian actor Ario Bayu portrayed Sukarno in the 2013 movie Soekarno: Indonesia Merdeka directed by Hanung Bramantyo, about his life from birth until Indonesian independence from Japanese occupation.\n Indonesian actor Baim Wong portrayed Sukarno in the 2013 movie Ketika Bung di Ende, focusing on time and life of Sukarno during his exile in Ende, Flores Island.\n Indonesian actor and TV-personality Dave Mahendra portrayed Sukarno in the 2015 movie , a biopic of Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto, an Indonesian nationalist who is often credited as mentor to many prominent figures in the nation's fight to independence, including Sukarno himself.\n Ario Bayu reprised his role as Soekarno at the beginning of the 2021 war film Kadet 1947, focusing on the Indonesian War of Independence.\n\nSee also\n\n Asian-African Conference\n History of Indonesia\n Withdrawal of Indonesia from UN\n Cold War in Asia#Indonesia\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n Bob Hering, 2001, Soekarno, architect of a nation, 1901\u20131970, KIT Publishers Amsterdam, , KITLV Leiden, \n Jones, Matthew. \"US relations with Indonesia, the Kennedy-Johnson transition, and the Vietnam connection, 1963\u20131965\". Diplomatic History 26.2 (2002): 249\u2013281. online\n Brands, H.W. \"The limits of Manipulation: How the United States didn't topple Koesno Sosrodihardjo\". Journal of American History 76.3 (1989): 785\u2013808. online\n Hughes, John (2002), The End of Sukarno \u2013 A Coup that Misfired: A Purge that Ran Wild, Archipelago Press, \n Oei Tjoe Tat, 1995, Memoar Oei Tjoe Tat: Pembantu Presiden Soekarno (The memoir of Oei Tjoe Tat, assistant to President Sukarno), Hasta Mitra,  (banned in Indonesia)\n Lambert J. Giebels, 1999, Soekarno. Nederlandsch onderdaan. Biografie 1901\u20131950. Biography part 1, Bert Bakker Amsterdam, \n Lambert J. Giebels, 2001, Soekarno. President, 1950\u20131970, Biography part 2, Bert Bakker Amsterdam,  geb.,  pbk.\n Lambert J. Giebels, 2005, De stille genocide: de fatale gebeurtenissen rond de val van de Indonesische president Soekarno, \n \n \n Panitia Nasional Penyelenggara Peringatan HUT Kemerdekaan RI ke-XXX (National Committee on 30th Indonesian Independence Anniversary), 1979, 30 Tahun Indonesia Merdeka (I: 1945\u20131949) (30 Years of Independent Indonesia (Part I:1945\u20131949)), Tira Pustaka, Jakarta\n\nExternal links\n\n WWW-VL WWW-VL History: Indonesia\u2014Extensive list of online reading on Sukarno\n The Official U.S. position on released CIA documents\n \n\n|-\n\n \n1901 births\n1970 deaths\nArticles containing video clips\nBalinese people\nBandung Institute of Technology alumni\nBPUPK\nCollars of the Order of the White Lion\nDeaths from kidney failure\nPolitical prisoners in the Netherlands\nGrand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\nHeads of government who were later imprisoned\nIndonesian collaborators with Imperial Japan\nIndonesian independence activists\nIndonesian Muslims\nIndonesian National Awakening\nIndonesian nationalists\nIndonesian revolutionaries\nIndonesian socialists\nIndonesian people who died in prison custody\nJavanese people\nLeaders ousted by a coup\nRecipients of the Lenin Peace Prize\nMembers of the Central Advisory Council\nMuslim socialists\nNational Heroes of Indonesia\nPeople from Blitar\nPeople from Surabaya\nPeople of the Indonesian National Revolution\nPoliticians from East Java\nPPKI\nPrisoners who died in Indonesian detention\nPresidents for life\nPresidents of Indonesia\nRecipients of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo\nRecipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 4th class\nSukarno family","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":247,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":5,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":7,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":5,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":4,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":6,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":7,"2017-04":6,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":3,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":8,"2014-41":7,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":13,"2014-15":11}},"id":217512,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sukarno","title":"Sukarno","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Creativity is the ability of a person or group to make something new and useful or valuable, or the process of making something new and useful or valuable. It happens in all areas of life - science, art, literature and music.\n\n As a personal ability it is very difficult to measure. The reason is that we don't understand the mental processes that help some people be more creative than others. Judging what is creative is also controversial. Some people say only things which are historically new are creative, while other people say that if it is new for the creator and the people around them, then it is also creativity.\n\nSome think that creativity is an important thing that makes humans different from apes. Others recognize that even apes, other primates, other mammals and some birds adapt to survive by being creative (for example - primates using tools). Liane Gabora believes that all culture comes from creativity, not imitation. Therefore, these people say, human science should focus on it (pay special attention to it): Ethics for example would focus on finding creative solutions to ethical dilemmas. Politics would focus on the political virtues that need some creativity. Imitation would not be the focus of education. Linguistics might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in grammar.\n\nIntellectual interests (recognized as intellectual rights or intellectual property in the law) are a way to reward creativity in law, but they do not always work very well. A good example is copyright which is supposed to pay writers and artists, but may only pay lawyers to make (imitative) arguments in court.\n\nCreativity is a central question in economics, where it is known as ingenuity (the ability to come up with new ideas) or individual capital - capacities that individuals have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already. This is separate from the instructional capital that might try to capture some of that in a patent or training system that helps others do what the individual leader or founder of the system can do. In urban economics there are various ways to measure creativity - the Bohemian Index and Gay Index are two attempts to do this accurately and predict the economic growth of cities based on creativity.\n\nRelated pages \nArt\nImagination\nInnovation\n\nHuman behavior","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":134,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Creativity","title":"Creativity","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A bird of prey (also called raptor) is a bird that mainly uses its claws (called talons) to seize prey. They have strong sharp, hooked beaks and claws and have sharp eyesight. \n\nThey are not classified into one natural family or group. The behaviour evolved many times in different groups. This is an illustration of convergent evolution.\n\nClassification by ancestry\n\nDaytime birds \nThose bird of prey that are active during the day (diurnal) are classified into five families in two orders. The orders are the Falconiformes and Accipitriformes.\n \n Accipitridae: hawks, eagles, buzzards, harriers, kites and Old World vultures\n Pandionidae: the osprey \n Sagittariidae: secretary-bird\n Falconidae: falcons, caracaras and forest falcons\n\nNighttime birds \nNocturnal birds of prey \u2013 the owls \u2013 are classified separately, as members of two families of the order Strigiformes.\n\nCommon names \n Eagles are large birds with long, broad wings and massive feet. Booted eagles have feathered legs and build large stick nests.\nOspreys are one species found worldwide. They specialize in catching fish. They also build large stick nests.\n Kites have long wings and weak legs. They spend much of their time soaring. They will take live vertebrates, but mostly feed on insects and carrion.\n Hawks are medium to large-sized birds of prey that usually belong to the genus Accipiter. They are mainly woodland birds that hunt by sudden dashes from a concealed perch. They usually have long tails for tight steering.\n Buzzards are raptors with a robust body and broad wings, or, alternatively, any bird of the genus Buteo (also commonly known as hawks in North America).\n Harriers are large, slender hawk-like birds with long tails and long thin legs. They hunt small vertebrates by sight, gliding and circling low over grasslands and marshes on their long broad wings.\nVultures are carrion-eating raptors of two different families. Members of both groups have heads either partly or fully devoid of feathers. The vultures are also regarded as birds of prey, although they may not be closely related to the other groups. The Eastern vultures and the western New World vultures are two groups which have evolved separately. Their similarities are due to convergent evolution.\nThe Accipitridae only occurs in the Eastern Hemisphere; and \nThe Cathartidae only occurs in the Western Hemisphere. \n Falcons are small to medium-sized birds of prey with long pointed wings. Unlike most other raptors, they belong to the Falconidae rather than the Accipitridae. Many are particularly swift flyers. Instead of building their own nests, falcons appropriate old nests of other birds, but sometimes they lay their eggs on cliff ledges or in tree hollows. Kestrels are the smallest birds in the group. Caracaras are a subgroup of the Falconidae unique to the New World, and most common in the tropics. \n Owls are variable-sized nocturnal hunting birds.  They fly soundlessly and have very acute senses of hearing and sight.\nStrigidae (typical owls)\nTytonidae (barn and bay owls)\n\nGallery\n\nOther websites \nExplore Birds of Prey  with The Peregrine Fund\nBirds of prey videos on the Internet Bird Collection\nHelydon Show Dogs and Birds of Prey\nBird of Prey Pictures\nGlobal Raptor Information Network\n\nBirds\nStrigiformes\nFalconiformes\nAccipitriformes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2024-30":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":68853,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bird%20of%20prey","title":"Bird of prey","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Aloys Karl Ohler was a German Catholic cleric and educationist.\n\nBiography\nHe was born at Mainz on 2 January 1817. He attended the gymnasium at Mainz, studied theology at Gie\u00dfen, and was ordained a Roman Catholic priest at Mainz on 14 August 1839. His first charge was that of chaplain at Seligenstadt. Like his colleague, Christoph Moufang, he was one of the founders and teachers of the Progymnasium of that city. He became spiritual director of St. Rochus Hospital at Mainz in 1845, and pastor at Abenheim near Worms in 1847.\n \nOn 21 June 1852, he was appointed director of the Hessian Catholic teachers' training college at Bensheim. During the fifteen years of his administration, encouraged by Bishop von Ketteler, Ohler laboured to infuse a better spirit into the Catholic teaching body of Hesse. On 8 April 1867, he was made a canon of the cathedral chapter of Mainz Cathedral, given charge of educational matters, and appointed lecturer in pedagogy and catechetics at the episcopal seminary - a position he held until the seminary was closed during the Kulturkampf in 1878. He died in Mainz on 24 August 1889.\n\nWritings\nOhler's chief work is \"Lehrbuch der Erziehung und des Unterrichtes\" (Mainz, 1861; 10th ed., 1884). The fundamental idea of the work is that the education of Catholic youth should be conducted on Catholic principles, Church and school co-operating harmoniously to this end. The work was intended for the use of the clergy as well as for teachers.\n \nOhler adapted from the Italian: \"Cajetanus maria von Bergamo, Ermahnungen im Beichtstuhle\" (5th ed., Mainz, 1886), \"Johannes Baptista Lambruschini, Der geistliche F\u00fchrer\" (Mainz, 1848; 12th ed., 1872), and an abridged edition of the latter, \"Der kleine geistliche F\u00fchrer\" (1851; 6th ed., 1861).\n\nSources\n \n\nClergy from Mainz\n1817 births\n1889 deaths\nGerman educational theorists","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":45,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2021-17":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":5,"2014-42":8,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":5,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2}},"id":6899093,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aloys%20Karl%20Ohler","title":"Aloys Karl Ohler","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An alkaloid is a chemical compounds that can be made naturally. They contain basic nitrogen atoms. The name comes from the word alkaline and was used to describe any alkaline containing nitrogen. Alkaloids are made by a large variety of organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be purified from basic substances by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms. Some alkaloids have a bitter taste.\n\nWell-known alkaloids \nAll of the following alkaloids are produced by flowering plants. They are one of the main ways plants reduce or avoid being eaten by herbivores.\n Cocaine, used as an anesthetic and a stimulant, is an illegal drug when it is not used medically.\n Caffeine, used as a stimulant, is used as something addictive in coffee or tea. In this case and the following, herbivores can eat the leaves but they get heart palpitations if they eat too many.\n Nicotine, used as a stimulant in cigarettes, can also be used to treat certain forms of epilepsy.\n Morphine is widely used to subdue severe pain. In a special slow-release form, it is sometimes used to help people get away drug addiction.\n Quinine, used to treat certain forms of malaria, is sometimes used to give food a bitter taste.\n Curare, the poison dart substance, is originally a plant product from  Strychnos toxifera, which is later concentrated in poison dart frogs.\n Strychnine and brucine are toxic alkaloids produced by Strychnos nux-vomica. This is a close relative of S. toxifera.\n\nReferences \n\nOrganonitrogen compounds\nBiochemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":133116,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alkaloid","title":"Alkaloid","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Champaign\u2013Urbana metropolitan area, also known as Champaign\u2013Urbana and Urbana\u2013Champaign as well as Chambana (colloquially), is a metropolitan area in east-central Illinois.  As defined by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), the metropolitan area has a population of 222,538 as of the 2020 U.S. Census, which ranks it as the 207th largest metropolitan statistical area in the U.S. The area is anchored by the principal cities of Champaign and Urbana, and is home to the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, the flagship campus of the University of Illinois system.\n\n the OMB defines the metropolitan area (officially designated the Champaign\u2013Urbana, IL MSA) to consist of Champaign County and Piatt County. Until 2018, Ford County was considered a part of the metropolitan area.\n\nJournalists frequently treat the metropolitan area as just one city. For example, in 1998, Newsweek included the Champaign\u2013Urbana Metropolitan Area in its list of the top ten tech cities outside of Silicon Valley. Champaign\u2013Urbana also ranked tenth as one of the top twenty-five green cities in the United States, in a 2007 survey made by Country Home magazine.\n\nUrban core development\nA number of major developments have significantly changed downtown Champaign since the beginning of the 21st century. Beginning in the 1990s, city government began to aggressively court development, including by investing millions of dollars in public funds into downtown improvements and by offering developers incentives, such as liquor licenses, to pursue projects in the area. The 9-story M2 on Neil project is such an example. The project began in 2007 by taking down the facade of the deteriorated Trevett-Mattis Banking Co. which previously occupied the building site. The facade was retained on the M2 building. Residents first began to lease space in the M2 in the winter of 2009. The M2 includes not just condos for residential occupation, but also retail and office space in its lower floors, a common trend in new developments in the urban core. Across the street, a 9-story Hyatt Place boutique hotel opened in the summer of 2014. In the Campustown area adjoining the University of Illinois, the new 24-story highrise apartment building 309 Green was ostensibly completed in the fall of 2007 but had partial occupancy at least through the fall of 2008. It is  tall, making it a full 3 stories higher than the older 21-story Tower at Third, the first contribution to the Urbana\u2013Champaign skyline. The Burnham 310 Project, at 18 stories, which is also taller (in overall height), was finished in the fall of 2008 and includes student luxury apartments and a County Market grocery store. Burnham 310 connects downtown Champaign to Campustown. In 2013\u201314, four other mixed-use buildings (apartments above commercial) have been built in Campustown, with heights of 26, 13, 8, and 5 stories. On the University of Illinois campus, Memorial Stadium has gone under major renovation, with construction of new stands, clubs, and luxury suites. Across Kirby Avenue, the Assembly Hall, first built in 1963 and renamed the State Farm Center as part of a major renovation begun in 2014, continues to be the home of Illinois basketball and has resumed hosting concerts and other performing arts after renovation was completed in late 2016. In the late 2000s, the restoration of the Champaign County Courthouse bell tower capped the expansion and renovation of Courthouse facilities and provided a striking focal point in downtown Urbana. These, among other developments, have given the Twin Cities a more urban feel.\n\nOutlying areas\n\nThe outlying parts of the metropolitan area differ from the suburban areas of many other metropolitan areas. Instead of a sprawling suburban skirt that encircles the urban area, the urban area abuts large swaths of farmland, with small to medium-sized villages that originated as farming communities. But, as the willingness of professionals to commute longer distances has increased in recent decades, new residential developments have arisen on their edges, dotting the surrounding landscape. Some of these villages are home to as many as 5,000 residents or more, but most are significantly smaller.\n\nMost of these outlying communities, such as Savoy, Mahomet, St. Joseph, Tolono, and arguably Rantoul and Monticello as well, are dependent on Champaign and Urbana for economic and infrastructure support. Predominantly, these cities and villages lie in Champaign County. These areas are populated to a substantial extent with commuters who work in Champaign or Urbana, but reside outside the two cities. Because higher paid professors, doctors and technology professionals who work for the University of Illinois Urbana\u2013Champaign, the many clinics and hospitals in town, or in the Research Park, are more likely to maintain cars for commuting longer distances and to afford owner-occupied single-family housing, these areas lacking in mass transit and high-density rental projects often have a higher median household income than Champaign or Urbana.\n\nIn addition to residential developments in the surrounding, formerly agricultural communities, residential neighborhoods are also growing up in unincorporated areas within a short radius of the city limits, while the cities themselves are also expanding to annex areas of new development. While the annexed areas benefit from municipal services, developments that are willing to forego city sewer systems, libraries and police protection can enjoy the lower tax rates the surrounding townships levy, as fewer services are provided. Areas currently under construction extend as far as around Rising Road west of I-57 and north and east of Willard Airport. Some of this land is in Champaign Township, while some has been annexed to either Champaign or Savoy. Additional land development is occurring north of I-74 in land annexed by both Champaign and Urbana. On the eastern side of the city of Urbana, new business developments such as a Meijer, a planned Menards, and a commercial center with many restaurants and services have broken ground, as well as more suburban housing.\n\nThe issue of land development is often hotly contested by local governments. In addition to arguments for and against development, the question of potential annexations, which remove property tax revenues from the surrounding townships while increasing the urban tax base (but also the demands on urban services) is a point of constant strife between the cities and the surrounding townships. On the other hand, the availability of higher-valued housing in areas belonging to the townships or surrounding villages, which is paid for by workers earning their money within the urban infrastructure also represents a movement of potential tax dollars from Champaign and Urbana to their dependent areas.\n\nTourism and recreation\n\nMuseums\nChampaign County Historical Museum.  Located in the Historic Cattle Bank built in 1858. Features exhibits on the history of the area and the midwest as a whole.\nMuseum of the Grand Prairie. Features historic exhibits on life in the early midwest.\nKrannert Art Museum. Art Museum featuring both modern and classical art. Many changing exhibits.\nOrpheum Children's Science Museum. A hands on science museum for children.\nSpurlock Museum. Over 46,000 artifacts on display focusing around human culture and history throughout the world. Features some of the largest exhibits on Native North American and South American history in the nation.\nMonticello Railway Museum. Railroad museum with exhibits focused on central Illinois. Main attraction is the operating tourist railroad.\n\nParks and recreation\nChampaign Park District features many parks, hiking trails, and biking trails in the city of Champaign.\nUrbana Park District includes exercise and biking trails, Crystal Lake, a sculpture park, and other public facilities in the city of Urbana.\nRobert Allerton Park a private estate donated to the university consisting of a large manor house (now a conference center), formal gardens, and natural woodlands and prairie. Open to the public.\n\nColleges and universities\nThe University of Illinois Urbana\u2013Champaign is located jointly in Urbana and Champaign and is the flagship campus for the University of Illinois system.\nParkland College is a community college located in Champaign.\n\nHealth\nThe Champaign-Urbana Metro area has two hospitals located less than a mile apart near University Avenue in Urbana. The Carle Foundation Hospital, and OSF Heart of Mary Medical Center, with a combined total of over 550 physicians. Both hospitals provide various specialized services, and Carle Hospital currently has a Level III Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, a Level I Trauma Center, and a medical helicopter service. Both hospitals have struggled to maintain their tax-exempt status with the State of Illinois.\n\nCarle Clinic Association was purchased by the Carle Foundation in 2010.  It was renamed Carle Foundation Physician Services, and it maintains several locations next to the hospital, as well as other locations within Champaign-Urbana and other East Central Illinois cities. Christie Clinic, another smaller multi-specialty group practice, is headquartered in downtown Champaign. They are largely affiliated with OSF, but not as closely linked as their Carle counterparts are.\n\nBoth hospitals and clinics are affiliated with the University of Illinois College of Medicine at Urbana, part of the larger University of Illinois College of Medicine, which has campuses in Chicago, Peoria, Rockford, and Urbana. The college has a teaching presence at both hospitals, although the facilities are somewhat more extensive at Carle Foundation Hospital.\n\nPiatt County, which is included in the Champaign-Urbana Metro Area, also has a hospital. Kirby Medical Center is a general medical and surgical facility located in Monticello. Both Carle Clinic and Christie Clinic have satellite facilities located at Kirby.\n\nArts and culture\n\nThe Champaign-Urbana Metropolitan Area is home to many theatres. The University is home to three theatre venues; Foellinger Auditorium, the State Farm Center and the Krannert Center for the Performing Arts. While the Assembly Hall is primarily a campus basketball and concert arena, the Krannert Center for the Performing Arts is considered to be one of the nation's top venues for performance and hosts over 400 performances annually. Built in 1969, the Krannert Center's facilities cover over four acres (16,000 m2) of land, and features four theatres and an amphitheatre.\n\nThe Historic Virginia Theatre in downtown Champaign is a public venue owned by the city of Champaign and administered by the Champaign Park District. It is best known for hosting Roger Ebert's Film Festival which occurs annually during the last week of April. The Virginia also features a variety of performances from community theatre with the Champaign Urbana Theatre Company, to post box-office showings of popular films, current artistic films, live musical performances (both orchestral and popular), and other types of shows. First commissioned in 1921, it originally served as a venue for both film and live performances, but became primarily a movie house in the 1950s. Occasional live events were held during the 1970s and 1980s, including a live production of \"Oh, Calcutta\" and performances by George Benson, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Missing Persons, and the Indigo Girls. GKC Corporation closed the Virginia as a movie house on February 13, 1992, with the final regular film being Steve Martin's \"Father of the Bride\". The theatre once again began holding regular live performances when it was leased to local gospel singer David Wyper in 1992. The Champaign-Urbana Theatre Company was formed to perform major musicals and opened their first season with \"The Music Man\" that June. Control passed to the Virginia Theatre group in 1996 and the theatre became a non-profit public venue. The Champaign Park District assumed control of the facilities in 2000. Its original Wurlitzer theatre pipe organ has been maintained by Warren York since 1988 and is still played regularly.\n\nThe Art Theater in downtown Champaign began as Champaign's first theatre devoted to movies, the Park, in 1913, and was a small venue showing films not normally playing at the box office. The theatre was the only single-screen movie theatre with daily operation as a movie theatre in Champaign-Urbana. The theater ceased operations on October 31 of 2019. The Virginia, which hosts Roger Ebert's Annual Overlooked Film Festival, is also single-screen, but only opens for special showings and events. Rapp and Rapp's 1914 Orpheum Theatre closed in the mid-1980s and now houses a children's science museum.\nParkland College in Champaign features a small theatre called the Parkland College Theatre and a planetarium called the William M. Staerkel Planetarium.\n\nThe area has originated a great deal of musical talent, including REO Speedwagon, Head East, Dan Fogelberg, and Alison Krauss, as well as HUM, Starcastle, Poster Children, Hardvark, The Moon Seven Times, Braid, AMASONG, Castor, National Skyline, Love Cup, Absinthe Blind, Headlights, American Football, and The Beauty Shop. Some lesser known artists like Alma Afrobeat Ensemble, Zirafa and Spinnerty, d-Lo, Bozak, Melodic Scribes, DJ Librarian, UC Hiphop, and Zmick are also worthy of note on simply a local scale. Champaign-Urbana is relatively well known for producing a rich array of emo, college rock, and black metal.\n\nOpening in 1990 in the heart of downtown Champaign, the Blind Pig Co on Taylor St was one of the first businesses to lead the renaissance of the formerly deserted downtown district. The Blind Pig catered to the budding music community, and indeed fostered many of the local bands. Live music was featured 5 nights a week, and grunge and indy rock bands like the Afghan Whigs, Smashing Pumpkins, Liz Phair, Pavement and Everclear performed there on numerous occasions. Blues legends like Luther Allison, Ronnie and Lonnie Brooks, Otis Clay and Robert Cotton were also featured, as were international acts like I.K. Dairo, Diblo Diballa, the Five Blind Boys, Malathini and the Mohatella Queens, and Tabuley Rochereau.\n\nThe Blind Pig closed as a music venue in 1998, but re-opened as a craft beer bar in 2004, and a microbrewery in 2009.\n\nThe cities now host Pygmalion Music Festival on an annual basis, presented by the Nicodemus Agency and Krannert Center for the Performing Arts. Past performers include Iron and Wine, The Books, Yacht, Rjd2, Yo La Tengo, Black Mountain, Asobi Seksu, Times New Viking, of Montreal, Danielson, Man Man, Okkervil River, Andrew Bird, Questlove, and more. The 2010 festival took place September 22\u201325.\n\nThe twin cities have a large number and variety of restaurants from long-standing breakfast and pizza traditions to newer, high-end dinner spots with \"Chicago-style\" aspirations. There is a wide representation of cuisines as well as many vegetarian and vegan choices. This has led to state-wide, mentioned on \"Best of Illinois\" lists, and regional recognition, receiving the Midwest Living magazine's 'Greatest Food Town' award in 2017\n\nMedia\nBesides many print outlets, commercial radio stations, and TV stations, Champaign-Urbana has several academic, homegrown and not-for-profit media outlets.\nWEFT 90.1 FM is a community radio station begun by a group of radio enthusiasts, artists, and community-minded individuals working together to realize the potential of bringing a variety of programming and people together behind one frequency. Since 1981, WEFT has broadcast music from around the world and East Central Illinois, news, and public affairs on shows hosted by an all-volunteer staff of air shifters. It also airs programming from national sources including Pacific.\nWRFU-LP is a low power community radio station owned and operated by Radio Free Urbana.  The station was built by hundreds of volunteers from the region and around the country in November 2005 at the ninth Prometheus Radio Project barnraising.  WRFU broadcasts music, news, public affairs, and political activism (usually left-leaning) to listeners at 104.5FM.\nIllini Media, located at 5th and Green in campustown, is home to the college's alternative radio station WPGU 107.1. The Illini Media Building is also home to the Daily Illini, the student-run daily newspaper, and Buzz Weekly which has quickly become a popular source for arts & entertainment news in the Champaign-Urbana area.\nSmile Politely, an online magazine focused on arts, entertainment and alternative news, opened in 2007 and is seen as the successor to previous print efforts like The Octopus, and The Hub Weekly.\n\nTransportation\nIn 2009, the Champaign-Urbana metropolitan statistical area (MSA) ranked as the fourth highest in the United States for percentage of commuters who walked to work (9 percent). In 2013, the Champaign-Urbana MSA ranked as the eleventh lowest in the United States for percentage of workers who commuted by private automobile (78.4 percent).  During the same year, 7.9 percent of Champaign area commuters walked to work.\n\nInterstate 74 runs east\u2013west through Champaign and Urbana. Interstate 57 runs north\u2013south through the west part of Champaign. Interstate 72 terminates at Champaign. U.S. Routes 45 and 150 pass through the cities as well, and Illinois Routes 10 and 130 originate in Champaign and Urbana, respectively.\n\nThe Champaign-Urbana area is served by the Champaign-Urbana Mass Transit District, which has its main interchange at Illinois Terminal.  While primarily serving Rantoul and Danville respectively, Champaign County Area Rural Transit System and Danville Mass Transit also provide connecting service to the Illinois Terminal. Illinois Terminal also provides service by Greyhound Lines, Burlington Trailways, and the Amtrak City of New Orleans, Illini and Saluki routes, making it a regional transportation hub.\n\nThe University of Illinois Willard Airport in Savoy on the south side of Champaign provides air service through American Eagle.\n\nSports\nWhile greater Champaign-Urbana does not feature any professional sports teams, the University of Illinois fields many teams which compete in the Big Ten Conference. Memorial Stadium and the State Farm Center (formerly the Assembly Hall) are both located in the south-east portion of Champaign. Memorial Stadium is a football arena where the Fighting Illini football team plays, and the State Farm Center is the home of the highly successful Fighting Illini basketball team.  The NFL's Chicago Bears played in Memorial Stadium for the 2002 season while Soldier Field was being modernized and refurbished.\n\nThe city of Champaign has been working with the Frontier League to create a privately owned professional baseball team. The team was scheduled to start playing in the 2009 baseball season, but was delayed in 2008 to the 2010 season at the earliest.  Since then however, there has been no development on the matter.\n\nThe University of Illinois hosted the 2013 NCAA Division I Men's and Women's Tennis Championships in May at the Kahn Outdoor Tennis Complex next to the Atkins Tennis Center and Eichelberger Field just south of Florida Avenue in Urbana. The Illini Men's Tennis team won the 2003 NCAA tennis championships and is highly ranked nationally.\n\nSince 2009, Champaign-Urbana has been the home of the Illinois Marathon.\n\nNotable people\n\nThe following people are from the Champaign\u2013Urbana Metropolitan Area or attended the University of Illinois Urbana\u2013Champaign:\n\nAmerican Football, rock group\nPhilip Anderson, Nobel Prize winner in Physics\nMarc Andreessen, software engineer; co-writer of the Internet browser Mosaic\nJohn Bardeen, two-time Nobel Prize winner in Physics\nBonnie Blair, Olympic speedskater\nEmily Blue, pop singer\nBraid, rock group\nDick Butkus, hall of fame NFL football player, played for U of I\nIris Chang, book author, historian\nRoger Ebert, film critic\nDave Eggers, writer\nJennie Garth, actress, director\nRed Grange, Illinois football RB, Chicago Bears RB, NFL Hall of Famer, #1 Big Ten Icon\nSteven Hager, founder of the Cannabis Cup, editor-in-chief of High Times magazine\nGeorge Halas, founder\/former owner of the Chicago Bears\nErika Harold, Miss America 2003\nHugh Hefner, founder of Playboy\nNick Holonyak Jr., inventor of the visible light-emitting diode\nHum, rock group\nMannie Jackson, owner of the Harlem Globetrotters\nRobert L. Johnson, founder of BET\nShahid Khan, CEO\/owner of Flex-N-Gate and owner of the Jacksonville Jaguars\nAlison Krauss, bluegrass singer\nJonathan Kuck, Olympic speed skater\nDon Laz, Olympic pole vault medalist\nAng Lee, filmmaker\nJimmy John Liautaud, owner of the sandwich chain Jimmy John's\nLudacris, rapper\nJack McDuff, jazz organist and organ trio bandleader\nTatyana McFadden, five-time US Paralympian winning 17 medals and 18 IPC World Championship medals\nTracey Meares, law professor\nNichole Millage, Paralympic volleyball player\nNick Offerman, actor, writer, humorist, carpenter\nNina Paley, cartoonist, illustrator, and blogger\nRon Popeil, infomercial inventor\nC.W. Post, breakfast cereal magnate\nRichard Powers, writer\nKatherine Reutter, Olympic speed skater\nBlake Schilb, an American professional basketball player\nDaniel B. Shapiro, former US Ambassador to Israel \nHamilton O. Smith, won Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1978\nREO Speedwagon, rock group\nStarcastle, progressive rock group\nSasha Velour, an American drag queen and winner of Rupaul's Drag Race in 2017\nDavid Ogden Stiers attended high school in Urbana (with Roger Ebert)\nThelma Strabel, novelist\nJames Tobin, won Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1981.\nDavid Foster Wallace, writer\nGeorge Will, political columnist\nStephen Wolfram, founder and CEO of Wolfram Research & Wolfram Alpha\nTimothy Zahn, Hugo-award-winning author attended U of I and began his writing career there\n\nTony Khan, All Elite Wrestling chairman and head booker\n\nNotes\n\nExternal links\n\n \n Champaign-Urbana LocalWiki\n University of Illinois Urbana\u2013Champaign\n Champaign-Urbana Community Fab Lab\n\n \nGeography of Champaign County, Illinois\nGeography of Ford County, Illinois\nGeography of Piatt County, Illinois\nMetropolitan areas of Illinois\nRegions of Illinois","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":185,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":8,"2015-11":6,"2015-06":5,"2014-10":8,"2013-48":6,"2013-20":4,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":4,"2016-07":6,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":6,"2015-14":6,"2014-52":7,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":7,"2014-35":9,"2014-23":14,"2014-15":2}},"id":577356,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Champaign%E2%80%93Urbana%20metropolitan%20area","title":"Champaign\u2013Urbana metropolitan area","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Combat, or fighting, is purposeful violent conflict between two or more persons, groups or organizations, often intended to establish dominance over the opponent. The term \"combat\" typically means armed conflict between military forces in war. The more general term \"fighting\" can mean any violent conflict, including boxing and wrestling matches. Combat violence can be unilateral, fighting means that there is at least a defensive reaction. But the terms are often used synonymously.\n\nWar","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":194,"dup_dump_count":93,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":5,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":5,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":46532,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Combat","title":"Combat","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Emmy Awards are United States television production awards which are given out each year. They are the television version of the Academy Awards. The first Emmy Awards were given out on January 25, 1949 at the Hollywood Athletic Club. Shirley Dinsdale was the very first person to be given an Emmy in the first awards ceremony.\n\nThree organizations give Emmy Awards:\n\n The Academy of Television Arts & Sciences gives the award for American prime time entertainment (not including sports).\n The National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences gives the award for daytime, sports, news, and documentary programming.\n The International Academy of Television Arts & Sciences gives the award for programming that is created outside the United States.\n\nThe best-known of the awards are the Primetime Awards (some of which are named \"Creative Arts Emmys\") and the Daytime Emmy Awards.\n\nThe Emmy Awards is a statuette of a woman with wings holding an atom. It was created by television engineer Louis McManus, using his wife as a model. The trophies are made by a company that has a manufacturing site at the El Dorado Correctional Facility, a prison in El Dorado, Kansas.\n\nOther websites\n Primetime Emmy Awards\n Daytime Emmy Awards\n International Emmy Awards \n Emmy Awards  at the Internet Movie Database","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":231,"dup_dump_count":98,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":5,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":5,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":6,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":9,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":7,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":4,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":18540,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emmy%20Award","title":"Emmy Award","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Amsterdam School (Dutch: Amsterdamse School) is a style of architecture that arose from 1910 through about 1930 in the Netherlands. The Amsterdam School movement is part of international Expressionist architecture, sometimes linked to German Brick Expressionism.\n\nBuildings of the Amsterdam School are characterized by brick construction with complicated masonry with a rounded or organic appearance, relatively traditional massing, and the integration of an elaborate scheme of building elements inside and out: decorative masonry, art glass, wrought ironwork, spires or \"ladder\" windows (with horizontal bars), and integrated architectural sculpture. The aim was to create a total architectural experience, interior and exterior.\n\nDifferent Modern Movements in the 1920s\nImbued with socialist ideals, the Amsterdam School style was often applied to working-class housing estates, local institutions and schools. For many Dutch towns Hendrik Berlage designed the new urban schemes, while the architects of the Amsterdam School were responsible for the buildings. With regard to the architectural style, Michel de Klerk had a different vision than Berlage. In the magazine \"Bouwkundig Weekblad 45\/1916\" Michel de Klerk criticized Berlage's recent buildings in the style of Dutch Traditionalism. In this context, the Stock Exchange by Berlage of 1905 can be seen as the starting point of Traditionalist architecture. From 1920 to 1930 different parallel  movements developed in the Netherlands:\n Traditionalism (Kropholler, partly Berlage) \n Expressionism (de Klerk, Kramer)\n De Stijl (Rietveld, Oud, van Doesburg with manifesto De Stijl\/1917 against the \"Modern Baroque\" of the Amsterdam School) \n Rationalism (van Eesteren, van Tijen, Merkelbach with manifesto De-8\/1927 against the Amsterdam School)\n Constructivism (Duiker, van der Vlugt)\n The specific Brick-Cubism by Dudok and Berlage.\n\nThe Expressionist architecture of the Amsterdam School was the most successful style of the 1920s. For many foreign architects, Amsterdam was the \"Mecca\" for new town extensions. But the Traditionalist movement lasted longer, until the 1950s, thanks to the so-called Delft School, represented by Martinus Granpr\u00e9 Moli\u00e8re at the Delft University of Technology. In the 1960s the Rationalist movement was dominant. In a well-known speech, the Dutch Rationalist, Willem van Tijen declared the Amsterdam School a warning example for architects (published in Forum 9\/1960-61). After the death of Piet Kramer in 1961, no architectural institution or museum was interested in his Expressionist work. For that reason, all his drawings, blueprints and models were burnt.\n\nOrigins of the Amsterdam School\nThe Amsterdam School had its origins in the office of architect Eduard Cuypers in Amsterdam. Although Cuypers was not a progressive architect himself, he gave his employees plenty of opportunity to develop. The three leaders of the Amsterdam School Michel de Klerk, Johan van der Mey and Piet Kramer all worked for Cuypers until about 1910. In 1905 Amsterdam was the first city to establish a building code, and the city hired Johan van der Mey afterwards, in the special position as \"Aesthetic Advisor\", to bring artistic unity and vision to its built environment.\n\nVan der Mey's major commission, the 1912 cooperative-commercial Scheepvaarthuis (Shipping House), is considered the starting point of the movement, and the three of them collaborated on that building. The most Amsterdam School buildings are found in this city. The movement and its followers played an important role in Berlage's overall plans for the expansion of Amsterdam.\n\nThe most important architects and virtuoso artists of the Amsterdam School were Michel de Klerk and Piet Kramer. Other members included Jan Gratama (who gave it its name), Berend Tobia Boeyinga, P. H. Endt, H. Th. Wijdeveld, J. F. Staal, C. J. Blaauw, and P. L. Marnette. The journal Wendingen (\"Windings\" or \"Changes\"), published between 1918 and 1931, was the magazine of the Amsterdam School movement.\n\nAfter De Klerk died in 1923, the style lost its importance. The De Bijenkorf Store in the Hague by Piet Kramer from 1926 is considered to be the last example of \"classic\" Amsterdam School Expressionism.\n\nThe influence of the Amsterdam School continued in the Dutch East Indies, where one of its leading proponents was the pioneering Indonesian architect Liem Bwan Tjie.\n\nInterior design\nThe Amsterdam School style spread beyond architecture to encompass interior design, with the result that items ranging from furniture and carpets to lamps and clocks were produced. Interest revived in the 1970s as well as at the beginning of the 21st century.\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\nWim de Wit, The Amsterdam School - Dutch Expressionist Architecture 1915-1930, The MIT Press, Cambridge Mass. 1983\nMaristella Casciato, The Amsterdam School, 010 Publishers, Rotterdam 1991\nJoseph Buch, A Century of Architecture in The Netherlands, NAI Publishers, Rotterdam 1995\nMartijn F. Le Coultre, Wendingen 1918-1932, V+K Publishing, Blaricum 2001 [Dutch edition]\nWendingen, Dutch architecture and art magazine. Expressionist architecture is the main theme: Amsterdam School (de Klerk, Kramer), Mendelsohn, Finsterlin, Feininger et al. Edited in Amsterdam and Santpoort, 1918\u20131932. Countermovement to the De Stijl movement in 1917.\n\nExternal links\n\n Archimon\n The Amsterdam School museum, located in Het Schip\n Amsterdamse School (in Dutch)\n Amsterdam School of architecture outline and pictures\n Guided tour + photographs\n\nBrick Expressionism\nDutch architectural styles\nBuildings and structures in Amsterdam\nBrick buildings and structures\nExpressionist architecture\nModernist architecture in the Netherlands\n20th-century architectural styles\nArticles containing video clips","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":1696565,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amsterdam%20School","title":"Amsterdam School","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Catacombs are man-made subterranean passageways for religious practice. Any chamber used as a burial place is a catacomb, although the word is most commonly associated with the Roman Empire.\n\nEtymology and history\nThe first place to be referred to as catacombs was the system of underground tombs between the 2nd and 3rd milestones of the Appian Way in Rome, where the bodies of the apostles Peter and Paul, among others, were said to have been buried. The name of that place in Late Latin was L.L. fem. nom. pl. n. catacumbas (sing. catacumba) a word of obscure origin, possibly deriving from a proper name or a derivation of the Greek phrase cata cumbas, \"near the quarries\". The word referred originally only to the Roman catacombs, but was extended by 1836 to refer to any subterranean receptacle of the dead, as in the 18th-century Paris catacombs. The ancient Christians carved the first catacombs from soft tufa rock. (ref)\" (World Book Encyclopedia, page 296)\n\nAll Roman catacombs were located outside city walls since it was illegal to bury a dead body within the city, providing \"a place\u2026where martyrs' tombs could be openly marked\" and commemorative services and feasts held safely on sacred days.\n\nAround the world\n\nCatacombs around the world include:\n\n Austria \u2013 Catacombs of St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna\n Czech Republic \u2013 Catacombs of Znojmo\n Bosnia and Herzegovina \u2013 Catacombs of Jajce\n Egypt \u2013 Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa (or Kom al Sukkfa, Shuqafa, etc.) in Alexandria\n United Kingdom  \u2013 Catacombs of London and others\n Finland \u2013 Catacombs of the Helsinki Orthodox cemetery at Hietaniemi cemetery\n France \u2013 Catacombs of Paris. Mine workings were used at end of the 18th century and had no religious purpose other than as an ossuary for storing the bones of cleared graveyards.\n Greece \u2013 Catacombs of Milos\n Italy \u2013 Catacombs of Rome; Catacombs of Naples; Capuchin catacombs of Palermo, Catacombs of Syracuse and others\n Malta \u2013 Catacombs of Malta\n Peru \u2013 Catacombs of Lima\n Philippines - Catacomb of Nagcarlan Underground Cemetery\nSpain \u2013 Catacombs of Sacromonte in Granada\n Serbia - Petrovaradin Fortress catacombs\n Tunisia - Catacombs of Sousse\n Ukraine \u2013 Odesa Catacombs\n United States - Old St. Patrick's Cathedral\nThere are also catacomb-like burial chambers in Anatolia, Turkey; in Sousse, North Africa; in Syracuse, Italy; Trier, Germany; Kyiv, Ukraine. Capuchin catacombs of Palermo, Sicily were used as late as the 1920s. Catacombs were available in some of the grander English cemeteries founded in the 19th Century, such as Sheffield General Cemetery (above ground) and West Norwood Cemetery (below ground). There are catacombs in Bulgaria near Aladzha Monastery and in Romania as medieval underground galleries in Bucharest. In Ukraine and Russia, catacomb (used in the local languages' plural katakomby) also refers to the network of abandoned caves and tunnels earlier used to mine stone, especially limestone.\n\nIn Italy, possible Catacombs are also located in Alezio, beside the Sanctuary of Santa Maria dell'Assunta, as well as the basement of .\n\nDecorations\nCatacombs, although most notable as underground passageways and cemeteries, also house many decorations. There are thousands of decorations in the centuries-old catacombs of Rome, catacombs of Paris, and other known, some of which include inscriptions, paintings, statues, ornaments, and other items placed in the graves over the years.\n\nMost of these decorations were used to identify, immortalize and show respect to the dead. Decorations in the catacombs of Rome were primarily decorated with images and words exalting Christ or depicting scenes from the Old and New Testaments of the Bible.\nMuch of the sculpture work and art, other than engravings on the walls or tombs, has been preserved in places such as the Museum of Saint John Lateran, Christian Museum of Berlin University, and the Vatican.\n\nThree representations of Christ as Orpheus charming animals with peaceful music have been found in the catacombs of Domatilla and St. Callista. Another figure was made of gilded glass and dates back to the fourth century, featuring Jesus with the world balanced in his hand and a scroll at his feet.\n\nInscriptions\nAlthough thousands of inscriptions were lost as time passed, many of those remaining indicate the social rank or job title of its inhabitants; however, most of the inscriptions simply indicate how loving a couple was, or the love of parents and such. A common and particularly interesting one found in Roman catacombs is the Ichthys, or \"Monogram of Christ\" which reads \u0399\u03a7\u0398\u03a5\u03a3, standing for \"Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior\".\n\nBacteria\nIn recent years unique strains of bacteria have been discovered that thrive in catacombs, inducing mineral efflorescence and decay. These include Kribbella sancticallisti, Kribbella catacumbae, and three types of non-thermophilic (low-temperature) Rubrobacter.\n\nSee also\nCemetery\nCrypt\n Ossuary\n\"The Cask of Amontillado\"\nUnderground city\nNecropolis\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n Blyton, Enid \"Five go to Smuggler's Top\" Hodder and Stroughton (1945)  \n \u00c9amonn \u00d3 Carrag\u00e1in, Carol L. Neuman de Vegvar Roma felix: formation and reflections of medieval Rome Ashgate (14 March 2008)  p.\u00a033 Roma Felix: Formation and Reflections of Medieval Rome\n Nicholson, Paul Thomas (2005) \"The sacred animal necropolis at North Saqqara: the cults and their catacombs\" In Salima Ikram (ed) Divine creatures: animal mummies in Ancient Egypt. American University in Cairo Press, 2005 pp.\u00a044\u201371.\n\nExternal links\n\nThe Catacombs of Saint Sebastian\nThe Catacombs of Naples\nThe Catacombs of Odesa\nThe Catacombs of Paris\nCatacombs\nThe Catacombs of Saint Callist\nSubterranean Britannica\nThe Catacombs of Lima, Peru\n\n \nCemeteries\nSubterranean buildings and structures","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":6,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3}},"id":64523,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Catacombs","title":"Catacombs","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Romulus and Remus were the legendary founders of Rome. In Roman mythology they were twin brothers, children of Rhea Silvia and the god Mars.\n\nBirth and youth \nRhea Silvia was the daughter of Numitor Silvius, king of Alba Longa, a legendary town founded by Ascanius, son of Aeneas, prince of Troy. When Numitor's brother Amulius became king by force, he made Rhea Silvia a Vestal Virgin, so she would not have children who could be kings instead of him. But the god Mars seduced her and she had the twins Romulus and Remus. Rhea Silvia was punished, and her sons were thrown into the Tiber, but were saved by the river god Tiberinus, who also saved Rhea Silvia and married her. Romulus and Remus were found by a she-wolf who suckled them. A woodpecker fed them. The brothers were later found by a shepherd, Faustulus, who raised them.\n\nThe founding of Rome \nOnce they were grown, Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome. However, the twins had an argument about where to start Rome. Romulus favored the Palatine Hill, but Remus favored the Aventine Hill. They decided to settle the disagreement by asking the gods. Each brother stood on his respective hill. Remus saw six birds fly overhead, and Romulus saw twelve. However, Remus countered that he had seen the birds first. Nonetheless, Romulus started to build a wall around his city. Then, Remus jumped over the wall as an insult to his brother. Angered, Romulus killed Remus. He regretted it, and took Remus to Amulius's palace, and buried him there.\n\nOther websites\n\nRoman mythology\nTwin people\nKings of Rome","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-06":1}},"id":14827,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Romulus%20and%20Remus","title":"Romulus and Remus","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u091c\u093e\u0932\u093e\u0935\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0936\u093e\u092b\u093f\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0930\u0923\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938\u093e\u0920\u0940 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0923\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0923\u0915 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940\n\n\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u093e\u0933\u0915   (\u0935\u0947\u092c \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u093e\u0933\u0915) \u0939\u093e \u090f\u0915 software application for retrieving, presenting, and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) and may be a web page, image, video, or other piece of content. Hyperlinks present in resources enable users to easily navigate their browsers to related resources.\n\nAlthough browsers are primarily intended to access the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access information provided by web servers in private networks or files in file systems.\n\n\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u093e\u0933\u0915 \u0906\u0939\u0947\u0924 \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0928\u0947\u091f \u090f\u0915\u094d\u0938\u092a\u094d\u0932\u094b\u0930\u0930, \u092b\u093e\u092f\u0930\u092b\u0949\u0915\u094d\u0938, \u0938\u092b\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u0917\u0941\u0917\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092e \u0935 \u0913\u092a\u0947\u0930\u093e.\n\n\u0907\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0938 \n\nThe history of the web browser dates back to the late 1980s, when a variety of technologies laid the foundation for the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, by Tim Berners-Lee in 1991. That browser brought together a variety of existing and new software and hardware technologies.\n\nThe introduction of the NCSA Mosaic web browser in 1993 \u2013 one of the first graphical web browsers \u2013 led to an explosion in web use. Marc Andreessen, the leader of the Mosaic team at NCSA, soon started his own company, named Netscape, and released the Mosaic-influenced Netscape Navigator in 1994, which quickly became the world's most popular browser, accounting for 90% of all web use at its peak (see usage share of web browsers).\n\n\u092e\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0938\u0949\u092b\u094d\u091f\u0928\u0947\u0939\u0940 \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0928\u0947\u091f \u090f\u0915\u094d\u0938\u092a\u094d\u0932\u094b\u0930\u0930 \u0939\u093e \u0935\u0947\u092c \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u093e\u0933\u0915 \u0967\u096f\u096f\u096b \u092e\u0927\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0922\u0932\u093e. (also heavily influenced by Mosaic), initiating the industry's first browser war. By bundling Internet Explorer with Windows, Microsoft was able to leverage its dominance in the operating system market to take over the web browser market; Internet Explorer usage share peaked at over 95% by 2002.\n\n\u0913\u092a\u0947\u0930\u093e \u0939\u093e \u0935\u0947\u092c \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u093e\u0933\u0915 \u0967\u096f\u096f\u096c \u092e\u0927\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0942 \u091d\u093e\u0932\u093e. although it has never achieved widespread use, having 2% browser usage share as of August 2009 according to Net Applications, it has a substantial share of the fast-growing mobile phone web browser market, being preinstalled on over 40 million phones. It is also available on several other embedded systems, including Nintendo's Wii video game console.\n\nIn 1998, Netscape launched what was to become the Mozilla Foundation in an attempt to produce a competitive browser using the open source software model. That browser would eventually evolve into Firefox, which developed a respectable following while still in the beta stage of development; shortly after the release of Firefox 1.0 in late 2004, Firefox (all versions) accounted for 7.4% of browser use. As of August 2009, Firefox has a 23% usage share.\n\nApple's Safari had its first beta release in January 2003; as of July 2009, it has a dominant share of Apple-based web browsing, accounting for just over 4% of the entire browser market. Its rendering engine, called WebKit, is also running in the standard browsers of several mobile phone platforms, including Google Android, Nokia S60 and Palm WebOS.\n\nThe most recent major entrant to the browser market is Google's WebKit-based Chrome, first released in September 2008.  As of August 2009, it has a 3% usage share.\n\nFunction \nThe primary purpose of a web browser is to bring information resources to the user. This process begins when the user inputs a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) , into the browser. The prefix of the URI determines how the URI will be interpreted. The most commonly used kind of URI starts with http: and identifies a resource to be retrieved over the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Many browsers also support a variety of other prefixes, such as https: for HTTPS, ftp: for the File Transfer Protocol, and file: for local files. Prefixes that the web browser cannot directly handle are often handed off to another application entirely. For example, mailto: URIs are usually passed to the user's default e-mail application, and news: URIs are passed to the user's default newsgroup reader.\n\nIn the case of http, https, file, and others, once the resource has been retrieved the web browser will display it. HTML is passed to the browser's layout engine to be transformed from markup to an interactive document. Aside from HTML, web browsers can generally display any kind of content that can be part of a web page. Most browsers can display images, audio, video, and XML files, and often have plug-ins to support Flash applications and Java applets. Upon encountering a file of an unsupported type or a file that is set up to be downloaded rather than displayed, the browser prompts the user to save the file to disk.\n\nInformation resources may contain hyperlinks to other information resources. Each link contains the URI of a resource to go to. When a link is clicked, the browser navigates to the resource indicated by the link's target URI, and the process of bringing content to the user begins again.\n\nFeatures \n\nAvailable web browsers range in features from minimal, text-based user interfaces with bare-bones support for HTML to rich user interfaces supporting a wide variety of file formats and protocols. Browsers which include additional components to support e-mail, Usenet news, and Internet Relay Chat (IRC), are sometimes referred to as \"Internet suites\" rather than merely \"web browsers\".\n\nAll major web browsers allow the user to open multiple information resources at the same time, either in different browser windows or in different tabs of the same window. Major browsers also include pop-up blockers to prevent unwanted windows from \"popping up\" without the user's consent.\n\nMost web browsers can display a list of web pages that the user has bookmarked so that the user can quickly return to them. Bookmarks are also called \"Favorites\" in Internet Explorer. In addition, all major web browsers have some form of built-in web feed aggregator. In Mozilla Firefox, web feeds are formatted as \"live bookmarks\" and behave like a folder of bookmarks corresponding to recent entries in the feed. In Opera, a more traditional feed reader is included which stores and displays the contents of the feed.\n\nFurthermore, most browsers can be extended via plug-ins, downloadable components that provide additional features.\n\nUser interface \nMost major web browsers have these user interface elements in common:\n Back and forward buttons to go back to the previous resource and forward again.\n A refresh or reload button to reload the current resource.\n A stop button to cancel loading the resource. In some browsers, the stop button is often merged with the reload button.\n A home button to return to the user's home page\n An address bar to input the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) of the desired resource and display it.\n A search bar to input terms into a search engine\n A status bar to display progress in loading the resource and also the URI of links when the cursor hovers over them, and page zooming capability.\n\nMajor browsers also possess incremental find features to search within a web page.\n\nPrivacy and security \u0906\u0923\u093f \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \nMost browsers support HTTP Secure and offer quick and easy ways to delete the web cache, cookies, and browsing history. For a comparison of the current security vulnerabilities of browsers, see comparison of web browsers.\n\nStandards support \nEarly web browsers supported only a very simple version of HTML. The rapid development of proprietary web browsers led to the development of non-standard dialects of HTML, leading to problems with interoperability. Modern web browsers support a combination of standards-based and de facto HTML and XHTML, which should be rendered in the same way by all browsers.\n\n\u0939\u0947\u0938\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e \u092a\u0939\u093e\n\n\u0932\u0947\u0916\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\n\n\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\/\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u091b\u091f\u093e\n\n\u0907\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u091c\u0940 \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940  \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\n\nReferences\n\n\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0941\u0935\u0947 \n\n\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u093e\u0933\u0915","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":167,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2013-20":1,"unknown":4,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-09":2,"2016-18":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2020-50":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":56006,"url":"https:\/\/mr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%20%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B3%E0%A4%95","title":"\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u093e\u0933\u0915","language":"mr"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The citron (Citrus medica) is a species of citrus fruit. It usually has a thick rind and small sections. Originally, the tree came from Southeast Asia. Today it is mainly grown in Sicily, Morocco, Crete, and Corsica, as well as Puerto Rico. The tree can grow to a size of about 3 metres. The fruit can grow to a size of about 25\u00a0cm in length, and about 4\u00a0kg in weight. The pulp of the fruit is hardly ever used. The rind is used. It is made into an additive for cooking. Jam can also be made from the rind. The rind is also used to make vegetable oil, which is used for perfumes.\n\nGenerally, it is eaten preserved or in bakery goods, such as fruitcakes. (The candied peel rather than the fruit is often used in cooking.) In some cultures, it is made into a fruity tea. Pliny the Elder states that in his time , the citron could only be grown in Media and Persia (HN xii.7). The Romans tried to transport it into the Roman Empire in tightly packed pots, but failed, according to Pliny. There is evidence, however, which shows it was cultivated in the Mediterranean during Pliny's lifetime. Zohary and Hopf believe this tree was first domesticated in India. They think that its wild forms, along with those of the mandarin and pomelo, were the original citrus species.\n\nThe citron has many names in different countries; one popular reference is Cedrat, which is the French name for the fruit. Theophrastus referred to the citron as the Persian or Median Apple, and the fruit later came to be known as the Citrus Apple. Pliny calls the tree the Assyrian, or the Median, \"apple\" (the generic Greco-Roman name for globose fruits). Other citrus crops were not introduced to the Mediterranean basin until Islamic times.\n\nIn many languages other than English, a normal lemon is called a \"citron\" and a Lime is called a \"limon\". Although the East Asian citrus fruit yuzu (also called yuja) is sometimes called a citron, it is actually a separate species, Citrus junos.\n\nCultivation and uses \nThe citron fruit is slow-growing. The citron tree is typically grown from cuttings that are two to four years old; the tree begins to bear fruit when it is around three years old. The fruit is oblong in shape, and sometimes as much as six inches in length. Its skin is thick, somewhat hard, fragrant, and covered with protuberances; the pulp is white and subacid. \n\nIn Pliny's time the fruit was never eaten (it began to be used in cooking by the early 2nd century), but its intense perfume was used, penetrating clothes to repel noxious insects (compare Citronella). \n\nIn Hebrew, the citron is known as the etrog (). It is one of the Four Species used during the holiday of Sukkot each fall. The role of the citron in that holiday was portrayed in the Israeli movie Ushpizin. Citrons that have been bred with lemon (in order to increase output per tree and make the tree less fragile) are not kosher for use as part of the Four Species.\n\nIn South Indian cuisine, especially Tamil cuisine, citron is widely used in pickles and preserves. In Tamil, the unripe fruit is referred to as 'narthangai', which is usually salted and dried to make a preserve. The tender leaves of the plant are often used in conjunction with chili powder and other spices to make a powder, called 'narthellai podi', literally translating to 'powder of citron leaves'. Both narthangai and narthellai podi are usually consumed with 'thayir sadam' (Curd Rice - Yogurt Rice).\n\nIn Korea, it is used to create a syrupy tea (called Yuja cha) where the slices of whole fruit are eaten with the sweet tea. The fruit is thinly sliced (peel, pith and pulp) and soaked or cooked in honey or sugar to create a chunky syrup. This syrupy candied fruit is mixed with hot water as a fragrant tea, where the fruit at the bottom of the cup is eaten as well. Often perserved in the syrup for the cold months, Yuja tea served as a source of fruit in winter. It is also popular in Taiwan, where it is known as \u67da\u5b50\u8336 (Youzi cha).\n[Note: The Korean Yuja is the same as the Japanese Yuzu \u67da\u5b50 and must be different from the citron being described in this article. The Japanese Yuzu = Citrus junos.]\n\nNotes\n\nRelated pages \nList of Citrus fruits\n\nOther websites \n Citrus medica used as a medicinal plant.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":60295,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Citron","title":"Citron","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"{{ExamplesSidebar|35%|\n I like blue skies and fluffy clouds.\n He is a nice man.\n It was a very 'cold day.\n My friend is very tall with brown eyes\n They are good people.}}\n\nAn adjective'' is a word that describes a noun or pronoun.  Nouns are words that name a place, a person, a thing, or an idea. An adjective is a word that gives more information about the noun that goes with it. It is a part of speech. \n\nOften, the adjective is before the noun it describes.  Sometimes an adjective is not followed by a noun:\n The sky is blue. The joke she told was so nice, I could not stop laughing all day.\n\n It is still an adjective, because we could have \"the blue sky\", \"the funny joke\", and \"the crazy man\". The adjective is still describing the noun though they are not side by side.\n There is a tall man.\nAn adjective is a word that gives instant information about a noun to make a clear picture of the noun in the mind of the reader and create a feeling  to the writer.\n\n Comparative and superlative \nSometimes there are different forms of the same adjective. If one joke makes a person laugh more than another joke, then that joke is funnier. This is called the comparative form.  The day that is colder than any other is the coldest day. This is the superlative form of \"cold\". Some adjectives need additional words when we want to compare them. For instance, one car may be cheaper than another, but the second car may be more reliable (we use \"more reliable\", instead of \"reliabler\"). Reliable means worthy of trust.\n\nThe rule is:\n\nFor short adjectives ending in a consonant like \"cold,\" \"black,\" or \"fast,\" one adds the suffix er to make a comparison of greater magnitude. Example: \"The North Pole is colder than Florida.\" The greatest possible comparison is made by adding the suffix est. Example: \"The North Pole is the coldest place on the Earth.\" For long adjectives like intelligent, conscientious, comprehensive, one uses the word more to make a comparison of greater magnitude. Example: \"Children are more intelligent than adults.\" \n\nA superlative makes the greatest possible comparison.  One uses the word most. Example: \"She is the most conscientious person I have ever known.\"\n\n Nouns as noun modifiers \n\nIn the English language, it is possible for a noun to modify (describe) another noun. Example: take the noun \"angel\" and the noun \"face.\" Put them together and the result is \"angel face.\" The first noun is acting as an adjective, because it is giving us information about the second noun.\n\n Adjectives and adverbs \nAdjectives are words we use to describe the noun.  Simple words like \"warm\" and \"fat\" are adjectives commonly used in writing.  One can make adverbs from some adjectives by adding the suffix ly'''.  Example: take the adjective \"beautiful,\" the adverb is beautifully. One can do it the other way around: take an adverb like \"presumably,\" the adjective is \"presumable\".  \"Presumable innocence\" means the accused is assumed to be innocent until proven guilty.\n\nThe adjective \"guilty\" becomes the adverb \"guiltily\" and vice versa (the opposite), the adverb \"guiltily\" becomes the adjective \"guilty.\"\n\n100 Adjectives used in Basic English \nable \u2022 acid \u2022 angry \u2022 automatic \u2022 beautiful \u2022 black \u2022 boiling \u2022 bright \u2022 broken \u2022 brown \u2022 cheap \u2022 chemical \u2022 chief \u2022 clean \u2022 clear \u2022 common \u2022 complex \u2022 conscious \u2022 cut \u2022 deep \u2022 dependent \u2022 early \u2022 elastic \u2022 electric \u2022 equal \u2022 fat \u2022 fertile \u2022 first \u2022 fixed \u2022 flat \u2022 free \u2022 frequent \u2022 full \u2022 general \u2022 good \u2022 great \u2022 gray \u2022 hanging \u2022 happy \u2022 hard \u2022 healthy \u2022 high \u2022 hollow \u2022 important \u2022 kind \u2022 like \u2022 living \u2022 long \u2022 male \u2022 married \u2022 material \u2022 medical \u2022 military \u2022 natural \u2022 necessary \u2022 new \u2022 normal \u2022 open \u2022 parallel \u2022 past \u2022 physical \u2022 political \u2022 poor \u2022 possible \u2022 present \u2022 private \u2022 probable \u2022 quick \u2022 quiet \u2022 ready \u2022 red \u2022 regular \u2022 responsible \u2022 right \u2022 round \u2022 same \u2022 second \u2022 separate \u2022 serious \u2022 sharp \u2022 smooth \u2022 sticky \u2022 stiff \u2022 straight \u2022 strong \u2022 sudden \u2022 sweet \u2022 tall \u2022 thick \u2022 tight \u2022 tired \u2022 true \u2022 violent  \u2022 warm \u2022 wet \u2022 wide \u2022 wise \u2022 yellow \u2022 young\n\nOther websites\n\nParts of speech","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":150,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":3318,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adjective","title":"Adjective","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ang Simbahang Katolikong Romano sa Pilipinas adunay kasaysayan sa kasi 500 ka tuig, ug kini ang ikaduhang labing karaan nga monoteistang tinuohan sa Pilipinas.\n\nAng Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines mao ang opisyal nga organisasyon sa episkopadong Katoliko sa Pilipinas ug ang Catechism for Filipino Catholics mao ang nasodnong katesismo sa nasod.\n\nBohol\n\nAng mga Paring Bol-anon o Bohol Clergy sa Ininggles mao ang hugpong sa mga pari sa simbahang Katoliko sa Bohol, sa Philippines.  Kasagaran naa sa mga parokya sa duha sa Diyoseses sa Bohol nga ang Diocese of Tagbilaran ug  Diocese of Talibon, samtang adunay ubay-ubay kanila nga gawas sa province, sama sa Manila, Mindanao, Canada, South America ug United States, isip obispo or pari.\n\nMga obispo\n\n Julio Cardinal Rosales, D.D. - first Bishop of Tagbilaran\n Most Rev. Manuel Mascari\u00f1as, D.D. \u2020 - second Bishop of Tagbilaran\n Most Rev. Onesimo Gordoncillo, STL, D.D.  - third bishop of Tagbilaran, now Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Capiz  \n Most Rev. Felix Zafra, D.D. \u2020 - former Bishop of the Diocese of Dipolog and fourth bishop of the Diocese of Tagbilaran\n Most Rev. Christian Noel, D.D.  - first Bishop of the Diocese of Talibon\n Most Rev. Leopoldo Tumulak, D.D.  - fifth Bishop of Tagbilaran\n Most Rev. Leonardo Medroso, JCD, D.D.  - sixth and current Bishop of the Diocese of Tagbilaran\n Most Rev. Jesus B. Tuquib, STD, D.D.  - Archbishop of Cagayan de Oro \n Most Rev. Mariano Garces Gaviola, JCD, D.D. \u2020 - former Archbishop of Lipa\n Most Rev. Miguel F. Cinches, S.V.D.,D.D.  - Bishop-Emeritus of Surigao \n Most Rev. Juan de Dios M. Pueblos, D.D.  - Bishop of the Diocese of Butuan   \n Most Rev. Alfredo Baquial, D.D. \u2020 - former Auxiliary Bishop of the Archdiocese of Davao \n Most Rev. Zacarias C. Jimenez, D.D.  - Bishop of the Diocese of Pagadian    \n Most Rev. Arturo M. Bastes, S.V.D.,D.D.  - Bishop of the Diocese of Sorsogon \n Most Rev. Romulo G. Valles, STL, D.D.  - Bishop of the Diocese of Kidapawan  Archbishop Jesus Toquib Of Cagayan\n Most Rev. Antonieto D. Cabajog, JCL, D.D.  - Bishop of the Diocese of Surigao    \n Most Rev. Crispin Barette Varquez D.D.- 14th Boholano Bishop - Bishop of Borongan\n Most Rev. Bernardito C. Auza, JCL, STD, D.D. - 15th  Boholano Bishop - Apostolic Nuncio to Haiti\n\nParing Bol-anon Tagbilaran (PB Tagbilaran)\n\n Msgr. Jeffrey Malanog, JCL - Vicar General Diocese of Tagbilaran\/Parish Priest St. Joseph Cathedral\n Msgr. Cirilo Darunday, Jr. - Parish Vicar Sta. Cruz Parish Dao District, Tagbilaran City \n Msgr. Jesus B. Ligason - Spiritual Director Pre-college Seminarians IHMS\n Msgr. Melquiades Agunod -Resident Priest \n Msgr. Gorgonio Zapatos\n Msgr. Felipe Digal Parish Vicar Immaculate Conception parish Baclayon, Bohol\n Fr. Jose Cecil Lobrigas - Chancellor\n Fr. Ronaldo Amora - Diocesan Oeconomus\n Fr. Ruel Pangan - Hospital Chaplain\n Msgr.Ranulfo F. Nazareno - Hospital Chaplain , Resident Priest Saint Vincent Ferrer Parish Calape \n Msgr.Margarito Gonzaga \n Fr. Avelino Onyot Parish Priest Bool, Baclayon\n Fr. Vicente Nunag III - Immaculate Conception Parish Baclayon, Bohol Parish Priest\n Fr. Feliciano Nalzaro - Parish Priest Immaculate Heart of Mary Parish Taloto\n Fr. Jose \"Joesum\" Sumampong - Parish Priest Our Lady of Good Voyage Parish\n Fr. Victor Bompat -  Assistant Hospital Chaplain\n Fr. Andres \"Andy\" Ayco -  Assistant Parish Priest, Tagbilaran City\n Fr. Danilo Maniwan - Parish Priest, Panglao, Bohol\n Fr. Valentino U. Pinlac, STL - Parish Priest, Dauis, Bohol\n Fr. Ruel Tumangday - parish Priest Cawayanan, Tubigon, Bohol\n Fr. Desiderio \"Kiking\" Magdoza - Parish Priest Cabilao, Island Loon, Bohol\n Fr. Belarmino \"Butch\" Palapar - Parish Priest Tiptip\n Fr. Bonifacio \"Boy\" Espeleta, Jr. - School Director Sacred Heart Academ\/ Assistant Parish Priest Loon, Bohol\n Fr. Fermin Bugtong - Parish Priest Our Lady of Good Voyage Parish De La Paz Cortes, Bohol\n Fr. Julius C. Lupot - Chaplain Mansasa\n Fr. Gerardo  \"Jingboy\" Saco - Parish Priest Our Lady of Lourdes Parish Kofc\n Fr. Marlon Lumanas - Parish Priest Corella, Bohol\n Fr. Reuben \"Daves\" Angcla - Parish Priest, Our Lady of Mount Carmel Parish, Balilihan, Bohol\n Fr. Alger Angcla - Loboc, Bohol\n Fr. Leonel Grado - Catagbacan, Loon, Bohol\n Fr. Renato Regis - Catagbacan, Loon, Bohol\n Fr. Patricio \"Pat\" Galon - Parish Priest \n Fr. Ranulfo \"Nol\" Docabo - Further Studies Europe\n Fr. Martin Lupiba, PhD - Rector, Immaculate Heart of Mary Seminary\n Fr. Crisolito Geangan - Procurator, Immaculate Heart of Mary Seminary\n Fr. Claverlito Migri\u00f1o- Prefect of Discipline, Immaculate Heart of Mary Seminary\n Fr. Absalon Florenosos-  Spiritual Director, Immaculate Heart of Mary Seminary\n Fr. Crisolito Geangan- Formation Director (Pre-college), Immaculate Heart of Mary Seminary\n Fr. Irvin Garsuta- Music Director, Immaculate Heart of Mary Seminary\n\nStudy Leave\nFr. Harold Parilla - Licentiate in Canon Law, Pontifical Gregorian University, Rome\nFr. Ni\u00f1o Maconrey Supremo - Licentiate in Canon Law, University of Santo Tomas, Manila\nFr. Milan Ted Torralba, PhL, JCL - MA in Cultural Heritage and Doctorate in Canon Law, University of Santo Tomas,Manila\n\n___\n\nParing Bol-anon Talibon (PB Talibon)1986-2009\n\nMOST REV. CHRISTIAN VICENTE F. NOEL, D.D. - Bishop of Talibon\n Msgr. Ignacio \"Inday\" Reyes, PhL, JCL, EV - Parish Priest (Cathedral of the Most Blessed Trinity, Talibon, Bohol)\n Fr. Mario Ombao - Parish Priest (Cabulao, Mabini)\n Fr. Antonio Tutor Jr. - Parish Priest (Bagacay, Talibon, Bohol) and Chancellor (Diocese of Talibon)\n Fr. Adolfo Dagohoy Jr. - Vice Chancellor (Diocese of Talibon)\n Fr. Chito Lozada - Social Action Director (Diocese of Talibon)\n Fr. Leonilo Lopena - Parish Priest (Trinidad, Bohol)\n Fr. Teotimo Ugpo - Parish Priest (Bien-unido, Bohol)\n Fr. Jonas Redulla - Director (Holy Child Academy, Bien-unido, Bohol)\n Fr. Presciano Boncales - Parish Priest (Ubay, Bohol)\n Fr. Ranulfo Bernaldez - Parish Priest (Carlos P Garcia-Pitogo, Bohol)\n Fr. Donald Boncales - Parish Priest (Biabas, Ubay, Bohol)\n Fr. Alfredo Amora Jr. - Parish Priest (San Pascual, Ubay, Bohol)\n Msgr. Julio Renegado, HP - Resident Priest (Mabini, Bohol)\n Fr. Jesus Frederick Camacho - Parish Priest (Mabini, Bohol)\n Fr. Reynaldo Omamalin - Parish Priest (La Union, Candijay, Bohol)\n Fr. Reynald Evangelista - Parish Priest ( Cogtong, Candijay, Bohol)\n Fr. Silvano Evangelista - Parish Priest (Candijay, Bohol)\n Fr. Victor Rubia - Parish Priest (La Hacienda, Alicia, Bohol)\n Fr. Jonathan Pacudan, JCL - Parish Priest (Anda, Boho)\n Fr. Gilbert A\u00f1ana - Parish Priest (Guindulman, Bohol)\n Fr. Gregorio Mendez - Parish Vicar (Guindulman, Bohol)\n Fr. Basilio Auxtero - Resident Priest (Candijay, Bohol)\n Fr. Eutiquio Boyles - Parish Priest (Alicia, Bohol)\n Fr. Guissepe Trabajo - Parish Priest (Duero, Bohol)\n Fr. Victor Alen Caresosa - Parish Vicar (Anda, Bohol)\n Fr. Paulito Amplayo - Parish Priest (Guinacot, Guindulman, Bohol)\n Fr. Asterio Felisilda - Quasi Parish Priest (Payao, Duero, Bohol)\n Msgr. Orencio Jubac, EV - Parish Priest (Jagna, Bohol)\n Fr. Rimar Mabanag - Director (Holy Child Academy, Ubay, Bohol) \n Fr. Eusebio Soliano - Parish Priest (Aguining, Pitogo, Bohol)\n Fr. Serelle Timoteo Reyes - Director (Virgen del Pilar Academy, Pilar, Bohol)\n Fr. Epifanio Gupita - Parish Priest (Lonoy, Jagna, Bohol)\n Fr. Carmelo Aguhar - Parish Vicar (Carmen, Bohol)\n Fr. Ariel Lantaca - Parish Priest (Abachanan, Sierra Bullones, Bohol)\n Fr. Alberto Makinano - Parish Priest (Sierra Bullones, Bohol)\n Fr. Nazario Tiempo Jr. - Priest Priest (Bugsoc, Sierra Bullones, Bohol)\n Fr. Cosme Damian Almedilla - Parish Priest (Pilar, Bohol)\n Fr. Dale Duallo - Parish Priest (Carmen, Bohol)\n Fr. Jose Perez - Quasi Parish Priest ( Nueva Vida Este, Carmen, Bohol)\n Fr. Raul Cuyag - Director (St. Paul Academy, Inabanga,Bohol)\n Fr. Jose Pompie Solana - Parish Priest ( Dagohoy, Bohol)\n Fr. Eutemio Espina - Parish Priest (San Miguel, Bohol)\n Fr. Joemarie Gavas - Parish Vicar( San Miguel, Bohol)\n Fr. Diosdado Ranara - Parish Priest (Mahayag, San Miguel, Bohol)\n Fr. Edu Deligero - Parish Priest (Danao, Bohol)\n Fr. Diozalde Cuyag - Parish Vicar (Talibon, Bohol)\n Fr. Felix Tabigue - Parish Priest (Inabanga, Bohol)\n Fr. Pablito Saludes - Parish Priest (Pasanan, Inabangga, Bohol)\n Fr. Joselito Eronico - Parish Priest (Bugtong Lubi, Inabanga, Bohol)\n Fr. Matias Gonzalez - Parish Priest (Buenavista, Bohol)\n Fr. Alexander Auxtero - Parish Priest (Getafe, Bohol)\n Fr. Avelino Plete - Parish Priest (San Agustin, Talibon, Bohol)\n Fr. Reynaldo Casenas - Santo Ni\u00f1o Institute (Getafe, Bohol)\n Fr. Paulo Perenio - Resident Priest (Inabangga, Bohol)\n Fr. Ursolo Aparicio - Resident Priest (Inabanga)\n Fr. Jan Ricarte Cristal - Parish Vicar (Jagna, Bohol)\n Fr. Ulysses \"Tata\" Dispo - Parish Vicar (Sierra Bullones, Bohol)\n Fr. Armand Bayron - Formator (IHMSeminary, Tagbilaran City)\n\nStudy Leave:\n Fr. Jonas Achacoso - Licentiate in Canon Law, University of Navarre, Spain\n Fr. Edward Karaan, STL, MA, JCL - Doctorate in Canon Law, University of Santo Tomas, Manila\n Fr. Jose Conrado Estafia, PhL, MA - Doctorate in Philosophy, University of Santo Tomas, Manila\n\nAbroad:\nArchbishop Bernardito \"Barni\" Auza, JCL, STD, DD - Apostolic Nuncio to Haiti\nFr. Bernard Ra\u00f1oa - Diocese of San Diego, California \nFr. Edwin Tutor - Diocese of San Diego, California\nFr. Jovencio Ricafort - Diocese of San Diego, California\nFr. Arnulfo Tadena - Diocese of San Diego, California\nFr. Arlou Buslon - Archdiocese of Newark, New Jersey\nFr. Cormac Lacre - Diocese of Sacramento, California\nFr. Geraldo \"Aldo\" Ra\u00f1in - Diocese of Sacramento, California\nFr. Sherwin Colaste - Diocese of Sacramento, California\nFr. Archelito Fernandez - Diocese of Tulsa, Oklahoma\nFr. Orencio Mumar - Diocese of Tulsa, Oklahoma\nFr. Nilo Nalugon - Diocese of San Angelo, Texas\nFr. Antonio Castro, STL - Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston, Texas\nFr. Cirino Bu\u00f1ao - Diocese of Rockville Centre, New York\nFr. Roland Pacudan - Diocese of Honolulu, Hawaii\nFr. Raymond Estillore - Arquidiocesis de Santiago, Chile \nFr. Deodoro Caga - Diocese of St. Catharines, Niagara Peninsula, Ontario, Canada\nFr. Pio Sombilon - Diocese of Grandfalls, Newfoundland, Canada\nFr. Julian Asucan - Diocese of Burlington, Vermont\nFr. Melquiades \"Melky\" Bayron - Diocese of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada\n\nMilitary Chaplains:\nFr. Sergio Surigao\nFr. Alfredo Macua\nFr. Manolo Mendez\n\nLuzon:\nFr. Simplicio Apalisok Jr.\nFr. Mark Estillore\nFr. Gumersindo Adlaon\nFr. Ondoy Evangelista\nFr. Dennis Salazar\n\nMindanao:\n Fr. Alberto Uy, STL - Professor, St. John Mary Vianney Seminary, Cagayan de Oro City\n Fr. Ramonito Hilot - Malaybalay, Bukidnon\n\nSOMEWHERE:\n         Fr. Manuel Barajan\n         Fr. Feliciano Bernales\n         Fr. Floro Hinacay\n         Fr. Rogelio Mendez\n         Fr. Abelardo Vallejos\n         Fr. Ondoy Rosales\n         Fr. King Va\u00f1o\n\nHEAVEN BOUND:\n                   + FR. AQUILINO ABRAU + FR. FEODOR AVENIDO + FR. GENEROSO BASTES + FR. ELPEDIO APARICIO +\n                   + FR. TEODORICO BAJAO + FR. FELIX CUBELO + FR. SIMPLICIO CAMACHO + FR. DOMINGO \"BOY\" BOISER +\n                   + MSGR. SATURNINO FELICITAS, HP + FR. JOSE MORATA\n\nP. s. Kon adunay nahikalimtan kana wala tuyoa sa nagsulat palihug ipuno lang ani....wa ko sugoa.....\nTagapaglayag sa Saktong Pag-ayo: }\nKalibutan:                       }\nMapa:                            }\nLetra:                           }\nRadio:                           }\nChannel:                         }si alias Rj or Lancekeeper or Santikeeper tinuod nga si(SANTIAGO ROSEQUE CUIZON III Born Linya:                           } January 01 1990 Alive) naa karon sa F.B Cabahug St, Ibabao Mandaue Longwin 6014\nTagabantay:                      }Naa sa Visayas usa ka Dakong Tagapag subay sa Kinatas-an sa party\nTagaturo:                        }New Generation na Born In New Savior.. SANTIAGO ROSEQUE CUIZON III \nTagapag-payo:                    }Taga Mandaue Cebu city sa Region VII PHILIPPINES PILIPINAS FILIPINO.\nTagaBantay Kalawakan dissasters,:} sa Burgos Alang-Alang  ST. Tresosas Gepanganak. 25 na siya karon.\n\nParing Bol-anon Manila (PB Manila)\n Fr. Elpidio \"Boy\" Biliran, Jr., parish priest, Manila\n Fr. Joseph Biliran, parish priest, Diocese of Novaliches, Quezon City\n Fr. Giovanni Biliran, Chaplain, Philippine Coast Guard (Manila)\n Fr. \"Tiloy\" Castino, Chaplain, Camp Crame, Quezon City\n Fr. Jude Besinga, Chaplain, Camp Crame, Quezon City\n Fr. Victor Emmanuel \"Bobot\" Clemen - Parish Priest, San Bartolome Parish, Novaliches Bayan, Diocese of Novaliches, Quezon City\n Fr. Simplicio \"Peon\" Apalisok, Jr. - former Parish Priest, Mount Carmel Parish, Project 6, Diocese of Cubao, Quezon City\n Fr. Emigdio \"Migs\" A. Paredes - Chaplain, Veterans Memorial Medical Center, Quezon City\n Fr. John Bosco Abellana - Parish Priest, Our Lady of Good Voyage, Camarin, Novaliches, Quezon City\n\nParing Bol-anon Mindanao (PB Mindanao)\n Msgr. Crisologo \"Cris\" B. Manongas - Vicar General, Archdiocese of Zamboanga \n Fr. Emmanuel \"Bobong\" Gonzaga - Parish Priest, Davao City\n Fr. Zenon Ampong - Parish Priest, Davao City\n Fr. Jovilo \"Jovil\" Bongay - Parish Priest, Panacan, Davao City\n Fr. Victor \"Bobot\" Gilay - Parish Priest, San Pedro Cathedral, Davao City\n Fr. Amado \"Ding\" Va\u00f1o -  Archdiocese of Zamboanga \n Fr. Michael \"Amai\" Gementiza - Archdiocese of Zamboanga \n\n Fr. Roger Apigo - Archdiocese of Zamboanga \n Fr. Sixto Vistal - Archdiocese of Zamboanga \n fr. Ramonito Hilot; Diocese of Pagadian\n\nParing Bol-anon USA and CANADA (PB USA & CANADA)\n\n Msgr. Floro Arcamo - Pastor, Star of the Sea Church , San Francisco, California\n Msgr. John Pernia - Retired, Archdiocese of San Francisco, California, USA\n Fr. Eugene D. Tungol - Pastor, Church of the Epiphany , San Francisco, California, USA; Chairman, Council of Priests, Archdiocese of San Francisco\n Fr. Manuel \"Boboy\" Curso - Pastor, Holy Angels Church , Colma, California, USA   \n Fr. Jovencio Ricafort - Pastor, Mater Dei Catholic Church , Chula Vista, California\n Fr. Clarito \"Boy\" Rara - Chaplain, Houston, Texas\n Fr. Bernard Ra\u00f1oa - Administrator of Sacred Heart Parish ,  Brawley, California \n Fr. Avelino \"Val\" Vale - Associate Pastor, St. Michael Church , Crowley, Louisiana \n Fr. Arnold Zamora - Star of the Sea Parish , San Francisco, California\n Fr. Gaudioso Zamora - Palm Beach, Florida\n Fr. Rex Roberto Familar - Orlando, Florida\n Fr. Blair Lope M. Sabaricos - Associate Pastor, Our Lady of the Sacred Heart Church, Church Point, Louisiana, USA \n Fr. Antonio Castro, - Pastor, St. Hyacinth Catholic Church ,  Archdiocese of Galveston - Houston, Texas\n Fr. Jos\u00e9 Roel Lungay - Pastor, St. Genevieve Church, Slidell, Louisiana\n Fr. Fernando \"Dodong\" Po - Parochial Vicar, Church of St. Elizabeth, Wyckoff, New Jersey\n Fr. Domingo Orimaco - Pastor, Our Lady of the Pillar Church , Half Moon Bay, California\n Fr. Alner Uy Nambatac - Associate Pastor St. Hilary of Poitiers Church , Mathews, Louisiana 70394\n Fr. Aurelio Luzon, Jr. - Associate Pastor Annunziata Parish , Houma, Louisiana 70363\n Fr. Edwin Tutor, Associate Pastor, St. Charles Parish, South San Diego, Imperial Beach, 990 Saturn Boulevard, San Diego, California 92154\n Fr. Roland Pacudan, composer of IHMS, We Love You, the IHMS alma mater song, is now based in Kailua, Hawaii, and assigned to the Our Lady of Perpetual Help parish and St. Anthony de Padua Parish .\n Fr. Joel Cantones - Pastor, St.John the Baptist Church , Edgard, Louisiana, USA\n Fr. Roque \"Khing\" Va\u00f1o - Pastor, San Diego, California, USA\n Fr. Robustiano Morgia - Associate Pastor, St. Maria Goretti Church, New Orleans, Louisiana; Chaplain of the Filipino Apostolate, Archdiocese of New Orleans\n Fr. Danilo Digal - Pastor, Our Lady of Prompt Succor, Chalmette, Louisiana, USA\n Fr. Robustiano Morgia - Associate Pastor, St. Maria Goretti Church, New Orleans, Louisiana\n Fr. Bernardito Getigan - Diocese of San Angelo, Texas, USA\n Fr. Nilo Nalugon - Diocese of San Angelo, Texas, USA\n Fr. Felix Cubelo \u2020 - Diocese of San Angelo, Texas, USA\n Fr. Floro Hinacay - Diocese of San Angelo, Texas, USA\n Fr. Jaime Parnada - USA\n Fr. Edito Amora - USA\n Fr. Silvano Amora - New Jersey, USA\n Fr. Cromwell Cabrisos - Orlando, Florida, USA\n Fr. Faron Calumba - Hartford, USA\n Fr. Rolando Caverte - San Francisco, California, USA\n Fr. Gabriel Mision - USA\n Fr. Rustico Centino - USA\n Fr. Malaquias Fuerzas - USA\n Fr. Joseph D. Lim - Chaplain, United States Air Force, Texas, USA\n Fr. Benito Manding - Pastor, Diocese of San Jose, California\n Fr. Florente Menda\u00f1a - USA\n Fr. Petronilo \"Jun\" Ligtas - USA\n Fr. Melchisedech \"Edick\" Monreal - USA\n Fr. Arecio Pesquira - USA\n Fr. Asiscio Podelino - Peterborough, Ontario, Canada\n Fr. Sabino \"Ado\" Rebosura, III - Morgan City, Louisiana USA\n Fr. Manuel Recera - Chicago, Illinois, USA\n Fr. Jonas Romea - USA\n Fr. Leoncio Santiago - Chicago, Illinois, USA\n Fr. TQ Solis, Jr. - Ocala, Florida, USA\n Fr. Vicente Tungol - Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada\n Fr. Vicente Valles - Peterborough, Ontario, Canada\n Fr. Marino Aguhar - Houston, Texas, USA\n Fr. Arturo Auza - Tampa, Florida, USA\n Fr. Nonoy Lugo - Dallas, Texas, USA\n Fr. Alexander Concon - Chicago, Illinois, USA\n Fr. Evencio Gallego - Stockton, California, USA\n Fr. Gabriel Mission - Los Angeles, California\n Fr. Hilario Soliva - New York City, New York, USA\n Fr. Cirino Dodong Bu\u00f1ao - [ Church of the Blessed Sacrament,Valley Stream, New York]\n Fr. Eugenio Solera - West Babylon, New York\n Fr. Jesus Camacho - USA\n Fr. Toribio Villacastin \u2020 - Flushing, New York, USA\n Fr. Edwin Ruano - Orlando, Florida, USA\n Fr. Virgilio Chagas \u2020 - New Jersey\n Fr. Jed Sumampong C.P. - Pastor St. Paul of the Cross Church, Atlanta, Georgia\n Fr. Jesus Besinga\n Fr. Justino \"Loloy\" Estoque, Jr.\n Fr. Jesus Labor - Novato, California\n Fr. Peter Balili- Hospital Chaplain, ARMC, CA,; also Graduate Student at the ULV, Los Angeles, CA\n Fr. Julian \"Ian\" Asucan - Diocese of Burlington, Vermont\n Fr. Arlou Buslon - Archdiocese of Newark, New Jersey\n Fr. Cormac Lacre - Diocese of Sacramento, California\n Fr. Sherwin Colaste - Diocese of Sacramento, Californiaa\n Fr. Geraldo \"Aldo\" Ra\u00f1in - Diocese of Sacramento, California\n Fr. Melquiades \"Melky\" Bayron - Diocese of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada\n Fr. Pio Sombilon - Diocese of Grandfalls, Newfoundland, Canada\n Fr. Deodoro \"Along\" Caga - Diocese of Grandfalls, Newfoundland, Canada\n\nSociety of the Divine Word\n Rev. Alphonse M. Mildner, SVD, first rector of IHMS (1950 - 1960); also founder of the Divine Word College of Laoag in 1946 \n Fr. Antonio \"Tony\" Pernia, SVD - Superior General of the 16th SVD General Chapter (6 years)\n Fr. Florante S. Camacho, SVD - former President, Holy Name University; President, Philippine Tarsier Foundation\n Fr. Ernesto Lagura, SVD - President, Holy Name University\n Fr. Valentino D. Darunday, SVD\n Fr. Emigdio Fabiosa, SVD \n Fr. Jingjong Rocha, SVD\nMsgr. Arturo Bastes, SVD  - Bishop of Romblon \n Fr. Joey Sepe, SVD\n Fr. Femio Sombrio, SVD\n Fr. Ezequiel Mahinay, SVD\n Fr. Martin Mandin, SVD\n Fr. Julius Glenn Lopez, US\n Fr. George Decasa, US\n Fr. Florencio Lagura, US\n Fr. Gil Espuelas, US\n Fr. Ramon Bolatete - Canada\n Fr. Gerardo Gudmalin\n Fr. Roger Bag-ao\n Fr. Giovanni Biliran\n Fr. Emmanuel Sarabia\n Fr. Eugene Docoy\n\nMga reperensya\n\nFr. Sammy Clarin, SVD\n\nTan-awa usab\nCatholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines\n\nMga sumpay sa gawas\nEpiscopal Commission for the Biblical Apostolate\nCBCP Monitor\n Paring Bol-anon Blogsite \n PBWWW Profile\n Bishops of the Philippines \n Retired Bishops of the Philippines \n Ecclesiastical Territories of the Philippines\n Paring Bol-anon Music \n Paring Bol-anon WWW\n Paring Bol-anon Music Station\n\nPilipinas\nKristyanismo sa Pilipinas","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":158,"dup_dump_count":46,"dup_details":{"2019-22":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":4,"2017-34":4,"2017-26":4,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":3,"2016-22":4,"2016-18":4,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":11,"2014-41":7,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":20122,"url":"https:\/\/ceb.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Simbahang%20Katoliko%20sa%20Pilipinas","title":"Simbahang Katoliko sa Pilipinas","language":"ceb"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Frequency is how often an event repeats itself over a set amount of time.\n\nIn physics, the frequency of a wave is the number of wave crests that pass a point in one second (a wave crest is the peak of the wave).\n\nHertz (symbol Hz) is the unit of frequency.\n\nThe relationship between frequency and wavelength is expressed by the formula: \n\nwhere v is speed and  (lambda) is wavelength. The formula for the frequency of light waves is  where the c is the speed of light.\n\nAll electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum but they travel at slower speeds when they travel through a medium that is not a vacuum. Other waves, such as sound waves, travel at much much lower speeds and can not travel through a vacuum.\n\nExamples of electromagnetic waves are: light waves, radio waves, infrared radiation, microwaves, and gamma waves.\n\nVisualizing electromagnetic waves \nDifferent types of electromagnetic waves have different frequencies.\n\nExample \n\nOne way to visualize this is if there were two trains traveling at the same speed, but the size of the train cars was smaller on one train than the other. If someone picked something that was not moving, like a signpost, and then counted how many train cars passed the sign post in one second for each train, they would know the frequency of cars passing in each train. The number and frequency of train cars passing the sign post would be different, because the train with smaller train cars would have more train cars passing the sign post in a second than the train with larger train cars. Knowing how many cars passed the sign post in one second, and knowing the speed of the train, one could figure out mathematically the size of each train car for each train.\n\nFor example, if the train was moving at 10 miles per second, and 10 train cars passed in one second, then each train car would be 1 mile long. If the other train was also moving at 10 miles per second and 20 train cars passed in one second, then one would know that each train car was 1\/2 of a mile long for that train. This example shows that knowing the frequency of an electromagnetic wave gives you the wavelength, since all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light so that c = v (lambda) where v is frequency and lambda is wavelength, and c is the speed of light. Therefore, another way of expressing frequency is to say frequency is c over lambda.\n\nReferences \n\nPhysical quantity\nBasic physics ideas\nWave physics\nMechanical vibrations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":18408,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frequency","title":"Frequency","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Nigerian (na Igbo: Onye Niageria) bu ndi si n'ala ma obu n'obodo Naigeria. Ndi Naijeria nwere otutu asusu; Hausa, Yoruba na Igbo.\n\nSkills and knowledge are the driving forces of economic growth and social development. Despite\nthe current high level of unemployment, harnessing Nigeria's young demography through\nappropriate skill development efforts provides an opportunity to achieve inclusion and productivity\nwithin the country. Large-scale skill development is the main policy thrust of the N-Power\nProgramme.\nN-Power is also linked to the Federal Government's policies in the economic, employment and\nsocial development arenas. N-Power addresses the challenge of youth unemployment by providing\na structure for large scale and relevant work skills acquisition and development while linking its\ncore and outcomes to fixing inadequate public services and stimulating the larger economy. The\nmodular programmes under N-Power will ensure that each participant will learn and practice most\nof what is necessary to find or create work. The N-Power Teacher Corp involves a massive\ndeployment of 500,000 trained graduates who will assist to improve the inadequacies in our\npublic services in education, health and civic education. Some of these graduates will also help in\nactualising Nigeria's economic and strategic aspirations of achieving food security and self-\nsufficiency.\nN-Power will also be a platform for diversifying the economy. N-Power is preparing young\nNigerians for a knowledge economy where, equipped with world-class skills and certification, they\nbecome innovators and movers in the domestic and global markets. Nigeria will have a pool of\nsoftware developers, hardware service professionals, animators, graphic artists, building services\nprofessionals, artisans and others. N-Power also focuses on providing our non-graduates with\nrelevant technical and business skills that enhance their work outlook and livelihood.\nIn sum, N-Power is segmented as follows:\nN-Power Teachers Corps- 500,000 graduates\nN-Power Knowledge \u2013 25,000 non-graduates\nN-Power Build- 75,000 non-graduates","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":55,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":5,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":7,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":6,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":4,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":6,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":2}},"id":7604,"url":"https:\/\/ig.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nigerian","title":"Nigerian","language":"ig"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Not to be confused with the king of Scotland Macbeth of Scotland\n\nMacbeth is a play by William Shakespeare. Shakespeare wrote three types of plays: histories, comedies and tragedies. Macbeth is his shortest tragedy. Shakespeare wrote it between 1603 and 1607, during the reign of King James I of England.\n\nIn the play, the characters of Macbeth, Macduff, and Duncan are roughly based on records of real people. Shakespeare read these records in Holinshed's Chronicles, a history book from 1587. However, the things that happen in the play are very different from what happened in real life.\n\nCharacters \n Duncan \u2013 King of Scotland\n Malcolm \u2013 Duncan's eldest son\n Donalbain \u2013 Duncan's youngest son\n Macbeth \u2013 A general in the army of King Duncan, Thane of Glamis, then Thane of Cawdor and later King of Scotland\n Lady Macbeth \u2013 Macbeth's wife, later Queen of Scotland\n Banquo \u2013 Macbeth's friend and fellow general in Duncan's army\n Fleance \u2013 Banquo's son\n Three Witches\n Macduff \u2013 Thane of Fife\n Lady Macduff \u2013 Macduff's wife\n Macduff's son\n Ross, Lennox, Angus, Menteith, Caithness \u2013 Thanes\n Seyward \u2013 General of the English forces\n Young Seyward \u2013 Seyward's son\n Seyton \u2013 Macbeth's servant\n Three Murderers\n Porter \u2013 in charge of the gate at Macbeth's castle\n English Doctor\n Scottish Doctor \u2013 Lady Macbeth's doctor\n Gentlewoman \u2013 Lady Macbeth's servant\n\nStory\n\nAct 1 \nThe first characters we see in the play are the three Witches. They talk to each other in a mysterious way, and agree to meet with Macbeth on the heath. This scene includes the famous line \"fair is foul, and foul is fair\", a subject which becomes a main part of the play.\n\nIn Act 1 Scene 2, there is a war going on. King Duncan is at a camp, listening to reports from the battlefield. An injured officer (some scripts say a captain, others a sergeant) is brought in. He saved Malcolm's life. The officer tells Duncan about the battle. He says that it was going badly, until Macbeth fought his way to the rebel leader Macdonald and disembowelled him. But as soon as that happened, the Norwegians, led by their king Sweno, also attacked. They were joined by a traitor, the Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth and Banquo fought bravely until they were defeated. Duncan is pleased by the news. He orders that the Thane of Cawdor be executed and his title given to Macbeth.\n\nIn I.iii, the Witches appear again. They talk about using their powers on humans, and it becomes clear that they have a lot of power, but they cannot kill people. Macbeth and Banquo are returning from the battlefield to Forres, and meet the witches. Banquo is amazed by the way the witches look, because they look like women but they have beards. Macbeth is not afraid and asks them what they are. They do not answer him, but greet him as the Thane of Glamis, the Thane of Cawdor and the future King. Macbeth is surprised, because he knows that he is not the Thane of Cawdor, and does not think he will ever become the King. Banquo asks the witches what his future will be like. They answer in riddles, saying that he will be \"lesser than Macbeth, and greater\", \"not so happy, yet much happier\", and that he will be the father to a line of kings. Then the witches disappear.\n\nRoss and Angus come to find Macbeth, and tell him that the King has given him the title of Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth is surprised and happy, but he starts thinking of ways to become king. This frightens him, because he thinks that the only way he can become king is to murder Duncan.\n\nIn I.iv, Macbeth and Banquo return to Forres and Duncan thanks them for their courage and hard work. He also says that his son Malcolm will be his heir. Macbeth realizes that he will have to get past both Duncan and Malcolm to become king. Duncan says he is going to Macbeth's castle for the night.\n\nIn I.v, Lady Macbeth is reading a letter from Macbeth that tells her about the witches and their prophecy. She is very excited, and starts planning to murder Duncan. A messenger tells her that Duncan will be staying at their castle that night. She calls on evil spirits to make her strong and evil so that she can murder Duncan. Macbeth comes in and she tells him of her plans.\n\nI.vi shows Duncan, Banquo, Donalbain, Malcolm, Macduff and some of the thanes entering Macbeth's castle. Duncan and Banquo agree that the castle is sweet and pleasant. Lady Macbeth enters and greets them.\n\nI.vii is the last scene in Act I. Macbeth is talking to himself about why it is wrong to kill the king. He knows that it is a bad thing to do, especially because he is the host and Duncan trusts him. Lady Macbeth enters and scolds him for being a coward and says that he is not brave enough to be a man. She works out how they are going to kill Duncan, and convinces Macbeth to do it.\n\nAct 2 \nAct II starts with Banquo and his son Fleance walking in a courtyard in Macbeth's castle. They meet Macbeth, who lies to Banquo and says that he has not thought about the witches' prophecy. When they leave, Macbeth sees a hallucination of a knife. He knows it is not real, but before his sight it changes and becomes covered in blood. He leaves to kill Duncan.\n\nLady Macbeth enters in scene ii. She has already made Duncan's guards drunk. Macbeth comes in with his hands covered in blood, carrying the knifes of the guards. He is very troubled. Lady Macbeth comforts him and tells him to wash his hands and cover the guards with blood, so it looks like they did it. But Macbeth is afraid, so Lady Macbeth does it instead.\n\nIn II.iii, the porter is very drunk. He pretends to be the porter of the gate of hell, and takes a long time to open the gate for Macduff and Lennox. Macbeth greets them. Macduff says that he is there to wake the king, and Macbeth leads him to the king's room. Macduff is shocked to see the king murdered on his bed. He runs out shouting and wakes everybody up. Macbeth pretends he did not know about the murder, as everyone comes to see what is happening. He admits that he killed the guards, and says that he did it because he was so angry that they killed Duncan. Lady Macbeth faints and they rush to help her. Malcolm and Donalbain think that somebody is lying. They know it is not safe for them to stay in Scotland, so they run away. Malcolm goes to England, and Donalbain to Ireland.\n\nScene iv is a talk between Ross and an old man. They talk about how strange the night was. Nature seems to have turned into a mess now that Duncan is dead. Macduff comes in and says that Macbeth is going to become king. He does not trust Macbeth, and is not going to the coronation.\n\nAct 3 \nBanquo is alone on stage at the start of Act III. He realizes that Macbeth has become everything the witches said he would become. He thinks that Macbeth did wrong to get the crown, but he does not want to say anything. He hopes that his son will also be king, as the witches said. Macbeth, Lady Macbeth, and the lords enter. Macbeth asks Banquo if he is going riding that afternoon, and if Fleance is going with him. Banquo says yes to both. Two men come to see Macbeth, and he goes to meet them. He is angry that he has risked everything to become king, but that Banquo's sons will be kings after him. The men are actually murderers.\nMacbeth tells them that Banquo is the reason they are unhappy and have bad lives, and orders them to kill Banquo and Fleance.\n\nMacbeth talks to Lady Macbeth in scene ii. He says that he has nightmares and cannot sleep. He is jealous of Duncan, because he is dead and does not need to worry anymore. Macbeth also says that he is worried about Banquo being alive, but he does not tell his wife about the murderers.\n\nIn III, the two murderers meet another one, also sent by Macbeth. They kill Banquo, but Fleance escapes.\n\nIn Scene iv Macbeth has a banquet with the nobles. The murderers come in and inform him of Banquo's death and Fleance's escape. He returns to the table where the nobles are eating, and looks for a seat. Even though there is one empty, he cannot see it. He has a vision of the murdered Banquo sitting in his seat, and becomes hysterical talking to the vision. Lady Macbeth explains it to the nobles as an illness, and asks them to leave as Macbeth becomes more and more upset.\n\nMany editors say that scene v of Act III, along with a song in IV.i, is not written by Shakespeare. This is because the writing is different to the way Shakespeare usually writes. It has a witch called Hecate in it, who is not previously mentioned in the play. She seems to be in charge of the other witches and is scolding them for dealing with Macbeth without informing her.\n\nIn the final scene, Lennox is talking to another lord. They find out that Macduff has gone to England to convince Malcolm to return and claim his throne, and to ask for the help of King Edward of England.\n\nAct 4 \nScene (i) starts with the witches, who are standing in a circle around their cauldron, throwing things in, like the tongue of a dog. Then suddenly Macbeth arrives and asks them to tell him some more prophecies. As the first prophecy they tell him to be careful of Macduff, Thane of Fife. As the second prophecy they say he can't be killed by anyone who was born of a woman and as the third prophecy the witches say if Birnam Wood stays at its current position Macbeth is okay but if the wood moves he will have problems. Macbeth is happy because he thinks that all of these things are impossible. He wants to know a fourth thing but suddenly the witches dance crazily and then run away.\nNext Lennox enters and tells Macbeth that Macduff has fled to England. Macbeth orders Macduff's castle to be seized.\n\nIn scene ii Macbeth's men arrive at Macduff's castle and kill Macduff\u00b4s family and everybody else in the castle.\n\nIn scene iii Macduff finds out what Macbeth did to his family. He is very sad and angry, so he decides to go back to Scotland with Malcolm and they plan to kill Macbeth.\n\nAct 5\nScene i takes place in Macbeth's castle. A doctor and a servant are talking about Lady Macbeth. They're talking about Lady Macbeth's sickness. She is sleepwalking and while she sleepwalks she says that she regrets having told her husband to kill Duncan and Banquo.\n\nIn scene ii Lennox and other Scottish thanes think that Macbeth is crazy and that he is killing too many people. Together they go to Malcolm and king Edward of England and tell them that they want to fight against Macbeth with the English army.\n\nScene iii takes place in Macbeth's castle. He is told that Malcolm and Macduff are coming with the English army and want to kill him. The doctor tells him that his wife is ill. She has become crazy and is sleepwalking.\n\nIn scene iv Malcolm, Macduff and the English army hide in Birnam Wood. They don't want to be seen, so they cut off some branches and cover themselves with them.\n\nIn scene V, the doctor comes to Macbeth and tells him that his wife is dead. Macbeth is depressed, and then he has a monologue about how meaningless life is. After that, a servant says that Birnam Wood is moving, but Macbeth doesn't believe him, so the servant shows him.\n\nIn scene VI, Macduff, Malcolm and the English army are planning to attack Macbeth.\n\nIn scene VII, Macbeth and an English Lord fight, and Macbeth says he cannot be killed by anyone born of a woman. Macbeth then kills him. Meanwhile, Macduff is looking for Macbeth.\n\nScene VIII shows the fight between Macduff and Macbeth, who says again that he cannot be killed by anyone born of a woman. Macduff replies that he was cut out of his mother's stomach (c-section). He then kills Macbeth. In the last scene Malcolm is declared king.\n\nPerformance \nMany actors think it is bad luck to say the word \"Macbeth\", and will not say the play's name. Instead, they call it \"The Scottish Play\". One theory about where this superstition came from is that the play deals with witchcraft.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages\nDaemonologie\nMacbeth - opera by Giuseppe Verdi\n\nPlays by William Shakespeare\nScotland in fiction\n1600s plays","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"unknown":13,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":4,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":27228,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Macbeth","title":"Macbeth","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Jeans are a type of pants made from heavy, strong cotton material (fabric) called denim. They were invented in the United States by Levi Strauss in 1872. In the late 1800s, jeans were worn by workers. Jeans are one of the most obvious symbols of American cultural influence in the world. They are worn in many countries around the world.\n\nIn the 1950s, jeans became a popular fashion for teenagers and young adults. In the 1950s, jeans were part of rockabilly fashion for teenagers. Now, jeans are a very popular type of pants. They are usually worn as casual fashion clothing. Jeans are made in many styles and colors.\n\nThe word \"jeans\" came from the French name of the city in Italy where a strong cotton fabric was made. The Italian city's name, Genoa, was spelled \"jene\" in Middle English and \"G\u00eanes\" in the French language.\n\nReferences \n\nTrousers and shorts","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":20560,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jeans","title":"Jeans","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A diagnosis is an accurate and precise account of the nature or cause of something. \n\nMedical diagnosis is the best-known field, but diagnosis can be applied to any subject. Whereas a doctor diagnoses what is wrong with a patient, a motor mechanic can diagnose the fault in a car. In all cases they replace a vague query, such as \"My car will not start\", with an exact analysis, such as \"It's out of petrol\". Notice the diagnosis is precise enough so the solution can be seen.\n\nThese ideas work even in more subtle cases. A boy brings an insect in a box to a natural history museum. He asks an expert \"What is this?\" The expert says \"You mean, apart from it being a beetle?\" When the boy nods, the expert looks at the insect under a magnifying glass, or a binocular microscope. Chances are, it is a common beetle, and the expert can give the boy quite a lot of information about it. \n\nBut if it is not known to the expert, a much longer study is needed. Large reference books will be consulted; trays of similar insects will be taken out of store to be compared. A full diagnosis needs at least the genus and species. If the species is unknown, the detailed work of description is needed for publication.\n\nRelated concepts \nMostly, in biological taxonomy, the adjective \"diagnostic\" is used for any distinctive trait which places the specimen in a precise category. For example, A single bone making up the lower jaw is diagnostic of a mammal.\n\n\"Diagnostics\" is the name given to procedures which spell out what to do to find the cause of a fault. This term is used a lot in computer systems.\n\nRelated pages\nSymptom\nMedicine\nCausality","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":147,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":5,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":5,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":289899,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diagnosis","title":"Diagnosis","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dina \u00e9l\u00e9ktronika, dioda nya\u00e9ta hiji kompon\u00e9n nu ngahalangan arah gerak pamawa muatan. Prinsip dasarna, dioda ngaliwatkeun arus listrik kana hiji arah, tapi ngahalangan \u00e9ta arus lamun arahna sabalikna. Ku kituna, dioda bisa dianggep minangka v\u00e9rsi \u00e9l\u00e9ktronikna tina kel\u00e9p pangec\u00e9kan. Sirkuit nu ngabutuhkeun aliran arus ngan saarah umumna pasti ngagunakeun hiji atawa leuwih dioda dina rancangan sirkuitna.\n\nDioda baheula mak\u00e9 kristal \"cat's whisker\" jeung parangkat solobong vakum (disebut thermionic valves dina basa Inggris). Kiwari lolobana dioda umumna dijieun tina bahan s\u00e9mikonduktor saperti silikon atawa germanium.\n\nSajarah \nDioda t\u00e9rmionik jeung padetan (solid state) diwangun sacara paral\u00e9l. Prinsip oprasi dioda t\u00e9rmionik kapanggih ku Frederick Guthrie taun 1873 . Prinsip oprasi dioda kristal kapanggih taun 1874 ku \u00e9lmuwan J\u00e9rman, Karl Ferdinand Braun  . \n\nThermionic diode principles were rediscovered by Thomas Edison on February 13, 1880 and he took out a patent in 1883 (), but developed the id\u00e9a no further. Braun patented the crystal rectifier in 1899 . The first radio receiver using a crystal diode was built around 1900 by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard. The first thermionic diode was patented in Britain by John Ambrose Fleming (scientific adviser to the Marconi Company and former Edison employee ) on November 16, 1904 ( in November 1905). Pickard received a patent for a silicon crystal detector on November 20, 1906  ().\n\nAt the time of their invention such devices were known as rectifiers. In 1919 William Henry Eccles coined the term diode from Greek roots; di m\u00e9ans 'two', and ode (from odos) m\u00e9ans 'path'.\n\nDiod t\u00e9rmionik atawa ngandung gas \n\nThermionic diodes are vacuum tube devices (also known as thermionic valves), which are arrangements of electrodes surrounded by a vacuum within a glass envelope, similar in app\u00e9arance to incandescent light bulbs.\n\nIn vacuum tube diodes, a current is passed through the cathode, a filament tr\u00e9ated with a mixture of barium and strontium oxides, which are oxides of alkaline earth metals. The current h\u00e9ats the filament, causing thermionic emission of electrons into the vacuum envelope. In forward operation, a surrounding metal electrode, called the anode, is positively charged, so that it electrostatically attracts the emitted electrons. \nHowever, electrons are not \u00e9asily rel\u00e9ased from the unh\u00e9ated anode surface when the voltage polarity is reversed and hence any reverse flow is a very tiny current.\n\nFor much of the 20th century vacuum tube diodes were used in analog signal applications, and as rectifiers in power supplies. Today, tube diodes are only used in niche applications, such as rectifiers in tube guitar and hi-fi amplifiers, and specialized high-voltage equipment.\n\nDioda s\u00e9mikonduktor \n\nDioda nu pangmod\u00e9renna dumasar kana hubungan p-n s\u00e9mikonduktor. Dina dioda p-n, arus konv\u00e9nsional bisa ngalir ti sisi tipe p (anoda) ka tipe n (katoda) tapi henteu bisa ngalir dina arah nu sabalikna. Tipe dioda s\u00e9mikonduktor lianna, dioda Schottky, diwangun tina hubungan antara logam jeung s\u00e9mikonduktor, tinimbang hubungan p-n-na.\n\nA semiconductor diode's current-voltage, or I-V, characteristic curve is ascribed to the behavior of the so-called depletion layer or depletion zone which exists at the p-n junction between the differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first cr\u00e9ated, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which the electrons \"recombine\". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, the hole vanishes and the electron is no longer mobile. Thus, two charge carriers have vanished. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.\n\nHowever, the depletion width cannot grow without limit. For \u00e9ach electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are cr\u00e9ated, an incr\u00e9asing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a 'built-in' potential across the depletion zone.\n\nIf an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator preventing a significant electric current. This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be 'turned on' as it has a forward bias.\n\nA diode's I-V characteristic can be approximated by two regions of operation. Below a certain difference in potential between the two l\u00e9ads, the depletion layer has significant width, and the diode can be thought of as an open (non-conductive) circuit. As the potential difference is incr\u00e9ased, at some stage the diode will become conductive and allow charges to flow, at which point it can be thought of as a connection with zero (or at l\u00e9ast very low) resistance. More precisely, the transfer function is logarithmic, but so sharp that it looks like a corner on a zoomed-out graph (see also signal processing).\n\nIn a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the voltage drop across a conducting diode is approximately 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types - Schottky diodes can be as low as 0.2 V and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be 1.4 V or more (Blue LEDs can be up to 4.0 V).\n\nReferring to the I-V characteristics image, in the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the \u00b5A range) for all reverse voltages up to a point called the p\u00e9ak-inverse-voltage (PIV). Beyond this point a process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes the device to be damaged along with a large incr\u00e9ase in current. For special purpose diodes like the avalanche or zener diodes, the concept of PIV is not applicable since they have a deliberate br\u00e9akdown beyond a known reverse current such that the reverse voltage is \"clamped\" to a known value (called the zener voltage or breakdown voltage). These devices however have a maximum limit to the current and power in the zener or avalanche region.\n\nPersamaan dioda Shockley \n\nThe Shockley ideal diode equation (named after William Bradford Shockley) is the I-V characteristic of an id\u00e9al diode in either forward or reverse bias (or no bias). It is derived with the assumption that the only processes giving rise to current in the diode are drift (due to electrical field), diffusion, and thermal recombination-generation. It also assumes that the recombination-generation (R-G) current in the depletion region is insignificant. This m\u00e9ans that the Shockley equation doesn't account for the processes involved in reverse br\u00e9akdown and photon-assisted R-G. Additionally, it doesn't describe the \"leveling off\" of the I-V curve at high forward bias due to internal resistance, nor does it explain the practical deviation from the id\u00e9al at very low forward bias due to R-G current in the depletion region.\n\n,\n\ndi mana \nI is the diode current, \nIS is a scale factor called the saturation current, \nVD is the voltage across the diode\nVT is the thermal voltage\nand n is the emission coefficient.\n\nThe emission coefficient n varies from about 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material and in many cases is assumed to be approximately equal to 1 (thus omitted). The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.2 mV at room temperature (approximately 25oC or 298K) and is a known constant. It is defined by:\n\n,\n\ndi mana\ne is the magnitude of charge on an electron (the elementary charge), \nk is Boltzmann's constant, \nT is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction.\n\nTipe-tipe dioda s\u00e9mikonduktor \n\n|- align = \"center\"\n| \n|width = \"25\"|\n| \n|width = \"25\"|\n| \n|width = \"25\"|\n| \n|- align = \"center\"\n| Diode\n|\n| Zener Diode\n|\n| Schottky Diode\n|\n| Tunnel Diode\n|- align = \"center\"\n| \n|width = \"25\"|\n| \n|width = \"25\"|\n| \n|width = \"25\"|\n| \n|- align = \"center\"\n| Light-Emitting Diode\n|\n| Photodiode\n|\n| Varicap\n|\n| SCR\n\nThere are several types of semiconductor junction diodes:\n Normal (p-n) diodes\n which operate as described above. Usually made of doped silicon or, more rarely, germanium. Before the development of modern silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used; its low efficiency gave it a much higher forward voltage drop (typically 1.4 - 1.7 V per \"cell,\" with multiple cells stacked to increase the peak inverse voltage rating in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than a silicon diode of the same current ratings would require.\n 'Gold doped' diodes\n As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which help a fast recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop . A typical example is the 1N914.\n Zener diodes \n (pronounced ) Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see below). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark). They are named for Dr. Clarence Melvin Zener of Southern Illinois University, inventor of the device.\n Avalanche diodes\n Diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field across the p-n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the 'mean free path' of the electrons, so there are collisions between them on the way out. The only practical difference is that the two types have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities. \n Transient voltage suppression (TVS) diodes\n These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from high-voltage transients. Their p-n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage.\n Photodiodes\n Semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation and therefore most are packaged in light blocking material. If they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, their photosensitivity can be utilized. Photodiodes can be used as solar cells, and in photometry. \n Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)\n In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the wavelength of the emitted photons: 1.2 V corresponds to red, 2.4 to violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs are monochromatic; 'white' LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator. \n Laser diodes\n When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication. \n Schottky diodes\n Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than a standard PN junction diode. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers although their reverse leakage current is generally much higher than non Schottky rectifiers. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down most normal diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than PN diodes and this contributes towards their high switching speed and their suitability in high speed circuits and RF devices such as mixers and detectors.\n Snap-off or 'step recovery' diodes\n The term 'step recovery' relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can therefore provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.\n Esaki or tunnel diodes\n these have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling, thus allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. These diodes are also the type most resistant to nuclear radiation.\n Gunn diodes\n these are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built.\n Peltier diodes\n are used as sensors, heat engines for thermoelectric cooling. Charge carriers absorb and emit their band gap energies as heat.There are other types of diodes, which all share the basic function of allowing electrical current to flow in only one direction, but with different methods of construction.\n Point-contact diodes\n These work the same as the junction semiconductor diodes described above, but its construction is simpler. A block of n-type semiconductor is built, and a conducting sharp-point contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with the semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region of p-type semiconductor near the contact. The long-popular 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog electronics. \n Cat's whisker or crystal diodes\n These are a type of point contact diode. The cat's whisker diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a lump of coal. The wire forms the anode and the crystal forms the cathode. Cat's whisker diodes were also called crystal diodes and found application in crystal radio receivers.\n Varicap or varactor diodes\n These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These were important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm up and lock. A PLL is faster than a FLL, but prone to integer harmonic locking (if one attempts to lock to a broadband signal). They also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator.\n PIN diodes\n A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type \/ intrinsic \/ n-type structure. They are used as radio frequency switches, similar to varactor diodes but with a more sudden change in capacitance. They are also used as large volume ionizing radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors. \n Current-limiting field-effect diodes\n These are actually a JFET with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the Zener diode; they allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, or current-regulating diodes.  ,  \n\nOther uses for semiconductor diodes include sensing temperature, and computing analog logarithms (see Operational amplifier applications#Logarithmic).\n\nParangkat nu patali \n Thyristor atawa silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)\n TRIAC\n Diac\n Transistor\n\nAplikasi\n\nD\u00e9modulasi radio \nThe first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is tr\u00e9ated in depth in the radio article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative p\u00e9aks of voltage, whose amplitude or 'envelope' is proportional to the original audio signal, but whose average value is zero. The diode (originally a crystal diode) rectifies the AM signal, l\u00e9aving a signal whose average amplitude is the desired audio signal. The average value is extracted using a simple filter and fed into an audio transducer, which generates sound.\n\nKonv\u00e9rsi power \nRectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC). Similarly, diodes are also used in Cockcroft-Walton voltage multipliers to convert AC into very high DC voltages.\n\nPeot\u00e9ksi voltase leuwih \nDiodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances, and become forward-biased (conducting) when the voltage rises above its normal value. For example, diodes are used in stepper motor and relay circuits to de-\u00e9n\u00e9rgize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power (see Diode types above).\n\nLawang logika \nDiodes can be combined with other components to construct AND and OR logic gates. This is referred to as diode logic.\n\nDet\u00e9ktor radiasi ionisasi \nIn addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation. In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionising radiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors.\nThis effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volts of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a h\u00e9avy particle, a fairly accurate m\u00e9asurement of the particle's energy can be made, simply by m\u00e9asuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrom\u00e9ter or etc.\nThese semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low l\u00e9akage current. They are often cooled by liquid nitrogen. For longer range (about a centimetre) particles they need a very large depletion depth and large ar\u00e9a. For short range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at l\u00e9ast one surface to be very thin. The back-bias voltages are n\u00e9ar br\u00e9akdown (around a thousand volts per centimetre). Germanium and silicon are common materials. Some of these detectors sense position as well as energy.\nThey have a finite life, especially when detecting h\u00e9avy particles, because of radiation damage. Silicon and germanium are quite different in their ability to convert gamma rays to electron showers.\n\nSemiconductor detectors for high energy particles are used in large numbers. Because of energy loss fluctuations, accurate m\u00e9asurement of the energy deposited is of less use.\n\n                                    Engr.Louriel R. Manatom\n\nNgukur hawa \nA diode can be used as a temperature m\u00e9asuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature. This temperature dependence follows from the Shockley id\u00e9al diode equation given above and is typically around 2.2mV per degree C.\n\nParangkat dikopel muatan \nDigital cameras and similar units use arrays of photo diodes, integrated with r\u00e9adout circuitry.\n\nTambahan \nDiodes may also be referred to as controlled rectifiers, abbreviated CR on printed wiring boards.\n\nFakta Menarik \nDioda dina kasus gelas transparan (kalebet versi SMD mod\u00e9ren) tiasa gaduh sensitipitas sp\u00e9sis pikeun lampu (ny\u00e9ta, alat \u00e9l\u00e9ktronik tiasa b\u00e9da dina hiji hal sareng tanpa kasus, dina lampu). Sirkuit radio amatir aya diod konvensional anu dianggo salaku fotodiod sareng bahkan og\u00e9 batr\u00e9 surya.\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n Pamod\u00e9lan dioda\n\nCatetan\n\nTumbu luar \n\n The Unusual Diode FAQ","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":8741,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dioda","title":"Dioda","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Lucca is a city in the Italian region of Tuscany. The city is on the river Serchio in a very fertile plain near the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Lucca.\n\nHistory \nLucca was founded by the Etruscans. It later became a Roman village in 180 BC. The Romans built an amphitheatre that is still seen in the Piazza dell'Anfiteatro. Lucca was an important city and fortress even in the 6th century, when Narses attacked it over and over again for several months in 553. During the 10th and 11th centuries, Lucca was the capital of the feudal territories of Tuscany, with more power about the Roman Emperor.\n\nAfter the death of Matilda of Tuscany, the city began an independent commune. For almost 500 years, Lucca remained an independent republic. There were many minor communes in the region between southern Liguria and northern Tuscany (which was filled by the Malaspina). Tuscany in this time was part of feudal Europe. Dante's Divine Comedy was written to remember the days spent in his exile in Lucca.\n\nIn 1273 and again in 1277, Lucca was ruled by a Guelph (captain of the people) named Luchetto Gattilusio. In 1314, after internal problems Uguccione della Faggiuola of Pisa make himself lord of Lucca. The people of the city made him leave two years later and condottiere gain the leadership. In 1325, in the battle of Altopascio, Lucca soldiers defeated Florence's Guelphs with the help of Castracani, a leader of the city in time of war. After they won, Castracani was named \"Duke of Lucca\" by Louis IV the Bavarian. Until the French Revolution in 1789, Lucca was independent from Venice and Genoa. It was a city controlled by democracy or sometimes by oligarchy.\n\nRepublic of Lucca \nLucca was the second largest Italian city-state (after Venice) with a republican constitution (\"comune\"). In 1805 Lucca was taken over by Napoleon, who put his sister Elisa Bonaparte Baciocchi in the place reserved for the \"Queen of Etruria\". The city became a part of Tuscany in 1847 and later a part of Italy.\n\nImportant monuments \n\nThe walls around the old town are intact as the city grew and became more modern. This is unusual for cities in the region. A famous place is the house where Puccini was born. The house is open to the public.\n\nThere are many churches in Lucca:\n Piazza dell'Anfiteatro\n Piazza Napoleone\n Piazza San Michele\n Duomo di San Martino (St Martin's Cathedral)\n Church of San Michele in Foro\n Basilica di San Frediano\n Church of San Giorgio in the locality of Brancoli, built in the late 12th century\n\nOther sights include:\n The ancient Roman amphitheatre\n The Ducal Palace (The original project was begun by Bartolomeo Ammannati in 1577-1582, and continued by Filippo Juvarra in the 18th century.)\n Torre delle ore (\"The Clock Tower\")\n Casa and Torre Guinigi\n Museo Nazionale Guinigi\n Museo e Pinacoteca Nazionale\n Orto Botanico Comunale di Lucca, a botanical garden dating from 1820\n Palazzo Pfanner\n\nCulture \nEvery year in Lucca there are two important festivals. The Lucca Summer Festival is a rock music festival. \"Lucca Comics and Games\" is the largest meeting about comics and games of Italy.\n\nTwin towns \n  Abingdon\n  Colmar\n  Golgolin\n  Schongau\n  Sint-Niklaas\n  Buenos Aires\n\nFamous People born in Lucca \n Pompeo Batoni, painter\n Luigi Boccherini, musician and composer\n Elisa Bonaparte, ruler of Lucca\n Castruccio Castracani, ruler of Lucca (1316-1328)\n Alfredo Catalani, composer\n Mario Cipollini, athlete\n Matteo Civitali, sculptor\n Saint Frediano\n Gemma Galgani, Saint\n Francesco Geminiani, musician and composer\n Gioseffo Guami, composer\n Pope Lucius III\n Felice Matteucci, engineer\n Leo Nomenelli Pro Football Hall of Famer\n Marcello Pera, politician\n Giacomo Puccini, composer\n Eros Riccio, chess player\n Marco Rossi, athlete\n Renato Salvatori, actor\n Rolando Ugolini, Goalkeeper\n Giuseppe Ungaretti, poet\n Antonio Vallisneri, scientist and physician\n Saint Zita\n\nOther websites \n\n Official site\n Tourist Site about Lucca\n\n \nCapital cities in Italy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":85775,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lucca","title":"Lucca","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Tudor dynasty was a series of kings and queens of England.  This line of rulers started in 1485 and lasted until 1603.\n\nThe dynasty started when Henry Tudor defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field.  This was the final stage of the Wars of the Roses and made him King Henry VII of England.  Arthur, Prince of Wales, was the oldest son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He married Catherine of Aragon. She was the daughter of Ferdinand II of Argon and Isabella I of Castle). Arthur died in 1502 and did not become King.\n\nHenry VIII \nWhen Henry VII died in 1509, Arthur's brother, Henry VIII married Catherine and became king. \n\nDuring her marriage to Henry VIII, Catherine had six children.  Only one of these children, Mary, survived.  When Catherine became too old to have any more children, Henry divorced her.  He then married a new wife, Anne Boleyn.   Henry and Boleyn also had a daughter, Elizabeth.  Anne Boleyn was executed in 1536. \n\nShortly after, Henry VIII married Jane Seymour of England.  She had one son, Edward VI of England, who would later become king himself at the age of 9.  Jane died in 1537.  Her death was caused by medical problems caused by Edward's birth. \n\nHenry married three other wives before his death in 1547. Edward, his only living son, became King after Henry died.\n\nIn 1553, Edward became ill. He created the \"Device for Succession.\". He said that his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, would be Queen after he died. Lady Jane was only queen for nine days. \n\nHenry's daughter, Mary I of England, was the next ruler of the Tudor dynasty. Mary was a strong believer in Catholicism. As Queen, Mary did many things against hundreds of Protestants. Because of all the executions while she was Queen, she was given the nickname \"Bloody Mary\", which is a name for a modern cocktail today.\n\nAfter Mary's death in 1558, her half-sister Elizabeth I of England became queen. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was a Protestant. Elizabeth never married or had children. Because she never married, Elizabeth is often called the \"Virgin Queen\".\n\nThe dynasty ended when Elizabeth died. She had not named a person to be ruler after her death. When she died, James I became King of England. He was the son of Elizabeth's cousin, Mary Stuart. This started the Stuart dynasty.\n\nReligion in England \nDuring the Tudor period, there were many changes in religion. Henry VIII was a Catholic. When the Pope said he could not divorce Catherine, Henry left Catholicism and named himself as head of the Church. The Church of England was now Protestant.  Edward VI was raised a Protestant. He closed all Catholic churches. Mary I was a strong Catholic and heavily influenced by her Spanish mother Catherine of Aragon. She closed the Protestant churches and burnt about 300 people for being Protestant. Those people were later called martyrs. Elizabeth was Protestant. When she became queen, the Anglican Church was started.\n\nRulers of the Tudor dynasty\nThis is a list of the rulers of the Tudor dynasty:\n Henry VII of England (1485-1509)\n Henry VIII of England (1509-1547)\n Edward VI of England (1547-1553)\n Lady Jane Grey (uncrowned) (1553) (deposed, died 1554)\n Mary I of England (1553-1558)\n Elizabeth I of England (1558-1603)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":20781,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tudor%20dynasty","title":"Tudor dynasty","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Morphogenesis (meaning the \"beginning of shape\"), is the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape. \n\nIt is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of cell growth and cellular differentiation. \n\nThe process controls the organized spatial distribution of cells during the embryonic development of an organism. Morphogenetic responses may be induced in organisms by hormones, by substances produced by other organisms, or by mechanical stresses induced by spatial patterning of the cells. Morphogenesis can take place in an embyro, a mature organism, in cell culture or inside tumor cell masses.\n\nDevelopmental biology\nCell biology\nPlant anatomy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":214752,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morphogenesis","title":"Morphogenesis","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Franks or the Frankish peoples were one of several west Germanic federations of tribes. It was formed out of Germanic tribes: Salians, Sicambri, Chamavi, Tencteri, Chattuarii, Bructeri, Usipetes, Ampsivarii, Chatti. Most of them lived at the northern borders of the Rhine.\n\nThey entered the late Roman Empire from the north and east river bank of the Rhine into modern northern Belgium and southern Netherlands. Later invasions conquered and established a lasting kingdom in an area which eventually covered most of modern-day France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and the western regions of Germany. When the pagan Frankish king Clovis became Christian in the late 5th century that was an important event in the history of Europe.\n\nModern scholars of the period of the migrations are in agreement that the Frankish confederacy emerged  at the beginning of the third century. A region in the northeast of the modern-day Netherlands \u2013 north of the erstwhile Roman border \u2013 still bears the name Salland, and may have received that name from the Salians, who formed the core of the Frankish sea raiders.\n\nFrankish Empire\n\nFrom their heartland, the Franks gradually conquered most of Roman Gaul north of the Loire valley and east of Visigothic Aquitaine. At first they helped defend the border as allies; for example, when a major invasion of mostly East Germanic tribes crossed the Rhine in 406, the Franks fought against these invaders. In the region of Paris, Roman control persisted until 486, a decade after the fall of the emperors of Ravenna, in part due to alliances with the Franks.\n\nMerovingians \n\nIn 451, A\u00ebtius called upon his Germanic allies on Roman soil to help fight off an invasion by Attila the Hun. The Salian Franks answered the call; the Ripuarian Franks fought on both sides as some of them lived outside the Empire. The Merovingians had governors who lead the Franks to war and had many governing responsibilities.\n\nCarolingians \n\nThe Carolingian kingship begins with the deposition of the last Merovingian king, and the accession in 751 of Pippin the Short, father of Charlemagne.\n\nPippin reigned as an elected king. While in later France the kingdom became hereditary, the kings of the later Holy Roman Empire proved unable to abolish the elective tradition and continued as elected rulers until the Empire's formal end in 1806.\n\nIn 768 Charlemagne (Charles the Great), a powerful, intelligent, and modestly literate figure who became a legend for the later history of both France and Germany. Charles restored an equal balance between emperor and pope.\n\nFrom 772 onwards, Charles conquered and eventually defeated the Saxons to incorporate their realm into the Frankish kingdom. \nThen (773\u2013774), he conquered the Lombards and thus could include northern Italy in his sphere of influence. He renewed the Vatican donation and the promise to the papacy of continued Frankish protection.\n\nCharles created a realm that reached from the Pyrenees in the southwest (actually, including an area in Northern Spain (Marca Hispanica) after 795) over almost all of today's France (except Brittany, which the Franks never conquered) eastwards to most of today's Germany, including northern Italy and today's Austria. \nOn Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charles as \"Emperor of the Romans\" in Rome. Though Charles preferred the title \"Emperor, king of the Franks and Lombards\", as he did not want to get in conflict with the Byzantine Empire, the Frankish Empire became the successor of the (Western) Roman Empire. Charles died on January 28, 814 in Aachen, where was buried.\n\nCharles had several sons, but only one survived him. This son, Louis the Pious, followed his father as the ruler of a united Empire. When Louis died in 840, the Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the Empire in three:\n\n Louis' eldest surviving son Lothair I became Emperor and ruler of the Central Franks. His three sons in turn divided this kingdom between them into Lotharingia, Burgundy and (Northern) Italy. These areas would later vanish as separate kingdoms.\n Louis' second son, Louis the German, became King of the East Franks. This area formed the kernel of the later Holy Roman Empire, the cradle of Germany.\n His third son Charles the Bald became King of the West Franks; this area became the foundation for the later France.\n\nRelated pages\n Holy Roman Empire\n\nNotes\n\nSources\nGeary, Patrick J. Before France and Germany: the Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. .\nJames, Edward. The Franks. (Peoples of Europe series) Basil Blackwell, 1988. .\n\nFranks","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"unknown":11}},"id":57830,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Franks","title":"Franks","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Karnak is the largest ancient religious site in the world. The complex of temples is near Luxor on the Nile in Egypt. Luxor is some 500 km south of Cairo. About thirty pharaohs contributed to the buildings. The site reached a size, complexity, and diversity not seen elsewhere. \n\nThe Karnak Temple Complex\u2014usually called Karnak\u2014is a vast group of ruined temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings. The largest and most important are the Great Temple of Amun, and a massive structure begun by Pharaoh Ramses II (ca. 1391\u20131351 BC). \n\nAn ancient sacred lake is part of the site as well. The area around Karnak was the ancient Egyptian Ipet-isut ('The Most Selected of Places'). It was the main place of worship of the eighteenth dynasty, part of the monumental city of Thebes.\n\nPrecinct of Amun-Re \n\nThis is the largest precinct of the temple complex, dedicated to Amun-Re (a form of Amun), the chief deity. There are several colossal statues including the figure of Pinedjem\u00a0I which is 10.5 meters tall. The sandstone for this temple, including all the columns, was transported from Gebel Silsila 100 miles south on the Nile river. It also has one of the largest obelisks weighing 328 tonnes and standing 29 meters tall.\n\nThe Great Hypostyle Hall \nThe Great Hypostyle Hall of Karnak, within the Karnak temple complex, in the Precinct of Amun-Re, is one of the most visited monuments of Ancient Egypt.\n\nThe hall covers an area of 50,000 sq ft (5,000 m2). The roof, now fallen, was supported by 134 columns in 16 rows; the 2 middle rows are higher than the others (being 33 feet (10 m) in circumference and 80 feet (24 m) high).\n\nThe hall was not begun by Horemheb, or Amenhotep III as earlier scholars had thought. It was built entirely by Seti I who covered the northern wing of the hall with inscriptions. Decoration of the southern wing was completed by Ramesses II. Ramesses changed Seti's names to his own along the main east-west axis of the Hall and part of the north-south processional route.\n\nThe three closed sites \nThe precinct of Amun-Re is the only part of Karnak which is open to the public. There are also three smaller precincts, which are not open:\nPrecinct of Mut. This was dedicated to the mother goddess, Mut, who was worshipped as the wife of Amun-Re. It has several smaller temples  and its own sacred lake, in a crescent shape. This temple has been ravaged, many portions having been used in other structures. It is not open to the public. Six hundred black granite statues were found in the courtyard to her temple. It may be the oldest portion of the site.\nPrecinct of Montu. This portion of the site is dedicated to the son of Mut and Amun-Re, Montu, the war-god. It is to the north of the Amun-Re complex, and is much smaller in size. It is not open to the public.\nTemple of  Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV).  This was destroyed after the death of its builder. Akhenaten attempted to overcome the powerful priesthood that had gained control over Egypt before his reign. The priesthood of that temple regained its power as soon as he died and destroyed many records of his life. The temple was so well demolished that its full extent and lay-out is unknown.\n\nReferences \n\nBuildings and structures in Ancient Egypt\nLuxor Governorate","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":251657,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karnak","title":"Karnak","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cosimo III de' Medici (14 August 1642 \u2013 31 October 1723) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1670 until his death in 1723, the sixth and penultimate from the House of Medici. He reigned from 1670 to 1723, and was the elder son of Grand Duke Ferdinando II. Cosimo's 53-year-long reign, the longest in Tuscan history, was marked by a series of laws that regulated prostitution and May celebrations. His reign also witnessed Tuscany's deterioration to previously unknown economic lows. In 1723, when Cosimo III died, he was succeeded by the younger of his two surviving children, Gian Gastone.\n\nHe married Marguerite Louise d'Orl\u00e9ans, a cousin of Louis\u00a0XIV. The marriage was solemnized by proxy in the King's Chapel at the Louvre, on Sunday, 17 April 1661. It was a marriage fraught with tribulation. Marguerite Louise eventually abandoned Tuscany for the Convent of Montmartre. Together, they had three children: Ferdinando in 1663, Anna Maria Luisa, Electress Palatine, in 1667, and Gian Gastone, the last Medicean ruler of Tuscany, in 1671.\n\nIn later life, he attempted to have Anna Maria Luisa recognised as the universal heiress of Tuscany, but Charles\u00a0VI, Holy Roman Emperor, would not allow it because Tuscany was an imperial fief, and he felt he alone could alter the Tuscan laws of succession. All Cosimo's efforts to salvage the plan foundered, and in 1737, upon the death of his younger child, Gian Gastone, Tuscany passed to the House of Lorraine.\n\nEarly life\n\nHeir to the throne\n\nCosimo de' Medici was born on 14 August 1642, the eldest surviving son of Vittoria della Rovere of Urbino, and Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. Their previous two children had died shortly after birth. Grand Duke Ferdinando wished to give his son the finest scientific education available, but the pious Grand Duchess Vittoria opposed. The latter got her way. Volunnio Bandinelli, a Sienese theologian, was appointed Cosimo's tutor. His character was analogous to the Grand Duchess's.\n\nAs a youth, Cosimo revelled in sports. His uncle Gian Carlo once wrote to another family member with \"news that should surprise you....The young prince [Cosimo] has killed a goose in mid-air.\" Cosimo, at the age of 11, killed five pigs with five shots. The Luchese Ambassador praised the young Cosimo to the skies. His successor, however, noticed a somewhat different person, whom he described as \"melancholy\". In his early youth, was in love with a certain Petrillo, a singer. Their romance was discovered when Ferdinando spontaneously hugged and kissed him in front of a tutor. Petrillo fled Florence, never to return. Ferdinando's father, Cosimo III knew of his homosexual nature and tried to force a marriage since he was the best possibility of heir. In 1687, he had a boyfriend in Venice, Cecchino, nicknamed de' Castris since he was castrated. \n\nBy 1659, Cosimo had ceased smiling in public. He frequently visited places of religious worship and surrounded himself with friars and priests, concerning Grand Duke Ferdinando. Cosimo's only sibling, Francesco Maria de' Medici, the fruit of his parents' brief reconciliation, was born the next year.\n\nMarriage\n\nMarguerite Louise d'Orl\u00e9ans, a granddaughter of Henry IV of France, was married to Cosimo by proxy on 17 April 1661 at the Palais du Louvre. She arrived in Tuscany on 12 June, disembarking at Livorno, and made her formal entry to Florence on 20 June to much pageantry. As a wedding gift, Grand Duke Ferdinando presented her with a pearl the \"size of a small pigeon's egg.\"\n\nThe marriage was unhappy from the start. A few nights following the formal entry, Marguerite Louise demanded the Tuscan crown jewels for her own personal use; Cosimo refused. The jewels that she did manage to extract from Cosimo were almost smuggled out of Tuscany by her attendants but for the efforts of Ferdinando's agents.\nMarguerite Louise's extravagances perturbed Ferdinando because the Tuscan exchequer was nearly bankrupt; it was so empty that when the Wars of Castro mercenaries were paid for, the state could no longer afford to pay interest on government bonds. Accordingly, the interest rate was lowered by 0.75%. The economy, too, was so decrepit that barter trade became prevalent in rural marketplaces. In August 1663 Marguerite Louise delivered a boy: Ferdinando. Two more children followed: Anna Maria Luisa in 1667 and Gian Gastone in 1671.\n\nFerdinando beseeched Louis XIV to do something about his daughter-in-law's behaviour; he sent the Comte de Saint-Mesme. Marguerite Louise wanted to return to France, and Saint-Mesme sympathised with this, as did much of the French court, so he left without finding a solution to the heir's domestic disharmony, incensing both Ferdinando and Louis XIV. She humiliated Cosimo at every chance she got: she insisted on employing French cooks, as she feared the Medici would poison her. In September 1664 Marguerite Louise abandoned her apartments in the Pitti, the grand ducal palace. Cosimo moved her into Villa Lapeggi. Here, she was watched by forty soldiers, and six courtiers, appointed by Cosimo, had to follow her everywhere. The next year she reconciled with the grand ducal family, and gave birth to Anna Maria Luisa, future Electress Palatine, in August 1667. The delicate rapprochement that existed between Marguerite Louise and the rest of the family collapsed after Anna Maria Luisa's birth, when Marguerite Louise caught smallpox and decided to blame Cosimo for all her problems.\n\nEuropean travels\n \n\nGrand Duke Ferdinando encouraged Cosimo to go on a European tour to distract him from Marguerite Louise's renewed hostility. On 28 October 1667 he arrived in Tyrol, where he was entertained by his aunt, Anna de' Medici, Archduchess of Further Austria. He took a barge down the Rhine to Amsterdam, where he was well received by the art community, meeting painter Rembrandt van Rijn. From Amsterdam, he travelled to Hamburg, where awaiting him was the Queen of Sweden. He reached Florence in May 1668. There he took in the paintor and architect Pier Maria Baldi as a chamberlain, who accompanied him through the rest of his travels through Europe. Another great personage that accompanied Cosimo was the italian philosopher and diplomat Lorenzo Magalotti, who proceded to document and describe their travels.\n\nThe excursion did Cosimo good. His health was better than ever, as was his self-esteem. His wife's unrelenting enmity towards him, however, undid the aforesaid progressions. Grand Duke Ferdinando, once again, feared for his health, so he sent him on a second tour in September 1668.\n\nWhen he went to Spain, the disabled King Carlos II, received him in a private interview. By January 1669, he had arrived in Portugal, being welcomed by the Court and Peter II, where he stayed until March, visiting several vilages and cities such as Lisbon, Set\u00fabal, Santar\u00e9m, Coimbra and Viana. Of the various monuments, convents and churches visited, it was the Monastery of Saint Denis of Odivelas that most aroused the curiosity of the Florentines due to the libertine lifestyle of the nuns living there. In Lisbon, Cosimo also had the opportunity to talk several times with the Jesuit Priest Ant\u00f2nio Vieira and to attend his famous masses. After leaving Caminha by sea they arrived at La Coru\u00f1a where they took another ship. At some point, the ship met an uncomfortable storm that made them land in Kinsale, Ireland. From there they went to England, where he met Charles II. Samuel Pepys described him as \"a very jolly and good comely man.\" Cosimo was amiably welcomed by the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, for his father's perceived protection of Galileo from the Inquisition. He met with scientists such as Robert Hooke, Henry Oldenburg, Isaac Newton, and Robert Boyle; Cosimo bought a machine, built by Samuel Morland. In London, he stayed at St. Albans House as a guest of the Earl of St Albans. \n\nOn the return, he travelled again through the Dutch Republic; this time he bought a self-portrait which Rembrandt had finished in the meantime. He visited Jan Swammerdam and his collection of insects. Passing Aachen, Cosimo visited Louis XIV and his mother-in-law, Marguerite of Lorraine, in Paris. He arrived back in Florence on 1 November 1669. His travels were described in a detailed journal by his travelling companion Lorenzo, Conte Magalotti (1637-1712).\n\nReign\n\nDeparture of Marguerite Louise\n\nFerdinando II died on 23 May 1670 of apoplexy and dropsy and was interred in the Basilica of San Lorenzo, the Medicean necropolis. At the time of his death, the population of the grand duchy was 720,594 souls; the streets were lined with grass and the buildings on the verge of collapse in Pisa, while Siena was virtually abandoned.\n\nGrand Duchess Marguerite Louise and Dowager Grand Duchess Vittoria vied with each other for power. The Dowager, after a protracted battle, triumphed: The Grand Duke assigned his mother the day-to-day administration of the state. Cosimo III commenced his reign with the utmost fervour, attempting to salvage the sinking exchequer and allowing his subjects to petition him for arbitration in disputes. The novelty soon wore off, however. Vittoria, Cosimo having lost his taste for administration, was further empowered by admission to the Grand Duke's Consulta (Privy Council). Marguerite Louise, deprived of any political influence, went about arranging Prince Ferdinando's education and arguing with Vittoria over precedence, which only further encamped Cosimo on his mother's side. In the midst of this, on the first anniversary of Ferdinando II's death, Gian Gastone was born to the grand ducal couple.\n\nMarguerite Louise feigned illness at the start of 1672: Louis XIV send Alliot le Vieux, Anne of Austria's personal physician, to tend to her. Dr. Alliot, unlike Saint-Mesme\u00ea, did not comply with Marguerite Louise's plot to be sent to France, ostensibly for the thermal waters to ameliorate her \"illness.\" In December she went on a pilgrimage to Villa di Pratolino\u2014she never returned. Marguerite Louise, instead of going back to Florence, chose to live in semi-retirement at Poggio a Caiano. The Grand Duke eventually consented, but feared she may abscond, so she was not allowed to go to leave without his permission and when she went riding she was to be escorted by four soldiers. All the doors and windows of the villa had to be secured, too. The saga between them continued until 26 December 1674, after all attempts at conciliation failed, a beleaguered Cosimo agreed to allow his wife to depart for the Convent of Montmartre, France. The contract signed that day renounced her rights as a Princess of the Blood and with them the dignity Royal Highness. Cosimo granted her a pension of 80,000 livres in compensation. She departed the next June, after stripping bare Poggio a Caiano of any valuables.\n\nPersecution of Jews and the Lorrainer succession\nWithout Marguerite Louise to occupy his attention, Cosimo turned to persecuting the Jewish population of Tuscany. Sexual intercourse between Jews and Christians was proscribed, and by a law promulgated on 1 July 1677, Christians could not work in establishments owned by Jews. If they did regardless, a fine of 50 crowns was incurred; if the person in question had insufficient funds, he was liable to be tortured on the rack; and if he was deemed unfit for torture, a four-month prison sentence was substituted. The antisemitic roster was supplemented by further declarations on 16 June 1679 and 12 December 1680 banning Jews from visiting Christian prostitutes and co-habitation, respectively.\n\nMeanwhile, in Lorraine, Charles V was without an heir and Marguerite-Louise, as the daughter of a Lorrainer princess, delegated the right to succeed to the duchy to her elder son, Ferdinando. Grand Duke Cosimo tried to get his son international recognition as heir-apparent, to no avail. Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, supported Cosimo's claim, not wanting to see Lorraine revert to France. The Treaties of Nijmegen, which concluded the Franco-Dutch War, did not rubber stamp Cosimo's ambitions, as he had wished. The Lorrainer question was concluded with the birth of a son to Charles V in 1679, ending Cosimo's dream of a Medici cadet branch, dreams which were to be revived in 1697 by Gian Gastone's marriage to an heiress.\n\n1679\u20131685\n\nCosimo kept himself apprised of his wife's conduct in France through the Tuscan emissary, Gondi. Marguerite Louise frequently requested more money from the Grand Duke, while he was scandalised by her behaviour: she took up with a groom named Gentilly. In January 1680 the Abbess of Montemarte asked Cosimo to pay for the construction of a reservoir, following a scandal at the convent: The Grand Duchess had placed her pet dog's basket in close proximity to the fire, and the basket burst into flames, but instead of trying to extinguish it, she urged her fellow nuns to flee for their lives. On previous occasions, she had explicitly stated that she would burn down the convent if the Abbess disagreed with her, too, making the Abbess view the accident as intentional. Cosimo, unable to do much else for fear of upsetting Louis XIV, reproached her in a series of letters. Another scandal erupted that summer, the Grand Duchess bathed nude, as was the custom, in a local river. Cosimo exploded with anger upon hearing of this. Louis XIV, tiring of Florence's petitions, retorted: \"Since Cosimo had consented to the retirement of his wife into France, he had virtually relinquished all right to interfere in her conduct.\" Following Louis XIV's rebuff, Cosimo fell grievously ill, only to be roused by Francesco Redi, his physician, who helped him reform his ways so illness would never strike him again. It was after this event that Cosimo finally stopped bothering with the Grand Duchess's life. In 1682 Cosimo III appointed his brother, Francesco Maria de' Medici, Governor of Siena.\n\nThe Holy Roman Emperor requested Cosimo's participation in the Great Turkish War. At first, he resisted, but then sent a consignment of munitions to Trieste, and offered to join the Holy League. They defeated the Turks at the Battle of Vienna in September 1683. To Cosimo's dismay, \"many scandals and disorders continued to occur in the matter of carnal intercourse between Jews and Christian women, and especially putting their children out to be suckled by Christian nurses.\" The Grand Duke, wishing to supplement the \"foe of heretics\" persona he acquired after Vienna, outlawed the practice of Jews using Christian wet nurses and declared that if a Christian father wished to have his half-Jewish child suckled by a Christian nurse he must first apply to the government for a permit in writing. In addition, public executions increased to six per day. Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury and a famed memorialist, visited this Florence in November 1685, of which he wrote that \"[Florence] is much sunk from what it was, for they do not reckon that there are fifty thousand souls in it; the other states, that were once great republic, such as Siena and Pisa, while they retained their liberty, are now shrunk almost into nothing...\"\n\nMarriage of the Grand Prince Ferdinando \n\nCosimo went about arranging a marriage for his elder son, Ferdinando, in 1686. He ushered him into the marriage as the other Tuscan princes, Francesco Maria de' Medici and Gian Gastone de' Medici, were sickly and unlikely to produce children. The main suitors were: Violante of Bavaria, a Bavarian princess, Isabel Luisa of Portugal (the heiress-apparent of Portugal), and the Elector Palatine's daughters.\n\nNegotiations with the Portuguese were intense, but stalled over certain clauses: Ferdinando and Isabel Luisa would live in Lisbon, Ferdinando would renounce his right to the Tuscan throne unless the Infanta's father, King Peter II, remarried and had male issue, and if Isabel Luisa became Queen of Portugal, and Cosimo III, Gian Gastone and Francesco Maria died without any male heirs, Tuscany would be annexed by Portugal. Ferdinando rejected it outright with the fullest support of Louis XIV, his great-uncle. Cosimo's eyes now fell upon Violante of Bavaria. Choosing her would strengthen ties between France\u2014where Violante's sister was the dauphine\u2014and Bavaria. There was only one obstacle in the way, Ferdinando II, Cosimo's father, impartially advised Violante's father, Ferdinand Maria, to invest a huge sum into a bank. Soon after the Elector deposited the sum, the bank collapsed. Ferdinand Maria still had sore feelings; Cosimo consented to the reduction of her dowry accordingly to reimburse the Elector. Ferdinando was unimpressed with his wife. Violante, however, electrified the Grand Duke. He wrote, \"I have never known, nor do I think the world can produce, a disposition so perfect...\"\n\nRoyal Highness\nDuke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy procured the style Royal Highness from Spain and the Holy Roman Empire in June 1689, infuriating Grand Duke Cosimo, who complained to Vienna that a duke was inferior status to a grand duke, and proclaimed it \"unjustly exalted...since the House of Savoy had not increased to the point of vying with kings, nor had the House of Medici diminished in splendour and possessions, so there was no reason for promoting one and degrading the other.\" Cosimo also played upon all the times Tuscany provided financial and military assistance to the Empire. The Emperor, anxious to avoid friction, suggested that Anna Maria Luisa should marry the Elector Palatine to compensate for the affront. The Elector Palatine, two years later, several months before his marriage to Anna Maria Luisa, went about acquiring the aforesaid style for Cosimo and his family, despite the fact that they had no claim to any kingdom. Henceforth, Cosimo was His Royal Highness The Most Serene Grand Duke of Tuscany.\n\n1691\u20131694\n\nLouis XIV was angered by Anna Maria Luisa's marriage to his sworn foe. Cosimo, after much coaxing, persuaded him otherwise. On 9 October 1691, France, England, Spain, and the United Provinces guaranteed the neutrality of the Tuscan port of Livorno. The Empire, meanwhile, was attempting to extract feudal dues from Cosimo, and ordering him to ally with Austria. The Grand Duke replied that if he did so France would send a naval fleet from Toulon to occupy his state; the Emperor reluctantly accepted this excuse. Tuscany was not alone in its feudal ties to the Empire: The rest of Italy was also bound to pay the Emperor, but at a much higher magnitude than Cosimo, who merely paid on his few undisputed Imperial fiefs.\n\nCosimo, not having much else to do, instituted more moral laws. Young men were not allowed to \"enter into houses to make love to girls, and let them dally at doors and windows, is a great incentive to rapes, abortions, and infanticides...\" If a man did not comply, he was liable to receive enormous fines. This coincided with a new wave of taxes that stagnated Tuscany's already declining economy. Harold Acton recounts that a bale of wool \"sent from Leghorn and Cortona had to pass through ten intermediate customs.\" The Grand Duke oversaw the establishment of the Office of Public Decency, whose goal was to regulate prostitution, also. Prostitutes were oft thrown into the Stinche, a jail for women of that profession, for years, with scant food, if they could not afford the fines levied on them by the Office of Public Decency. Evening permits and exemptions were available for those willing to pay six crowns per month.\n\nCosimo resurrected a law from the regency of his father which banned Students from attending college outside Tuscany, thus strengthening the Jesuits' hold on education. A contemporary wrote that not a single man in Florence could read or write Greek, a stark contrast to those of the old republic. In a letter dated 10 October 1691, Cosimo's personal secretary wrote, \"By the Serene Master's express command I must inform Your Excellencies that His Highness will allow no professor in his university at Pisa to read or teach, in public or in private, by writing or voice, the philosophy of Democritus, or of atoms, or any save that of Aristotle.\"\n\nFerdinando and Violante, despite being married for over five years, had not produced any offspring as of 1694. The Grand Duke responded by declaring special days of devotion, and erecting a \"fertility column\" in the Cavour district of Florence, an act which attracted popular ridicule. Ferdinando would not attend to Violante, instead lavishing his attentions on his favourite, a castrated Venetian, Cecchino de Castris. The same year, Dowager Grand Duchess Vittoria, who had once exercised a great deal of influence over Cosimo, died. Her allodial possessions, the Duchies of Montefeltro and Rovere, inherited from her grandfather, the last Duke of Urbino, were bestowed upon her younger son, Francesco Maria de' Medici.\n\nMarriage of Gian Gastone\nCosimo became perturbed by the question of the Tuscan Succession following the death of his mother. Ferdinando was lacking any children, as was Anna Maria Luisa. The latter, who was high in her father's estimation, put forward a German princess to marry Gian Gastone. The lady in question, Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe-Lauenburg, nominal heiress of the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg, was extremely wealthy. Cosimo once again dreamed of a Medici cadet branch in a foreign land. They were married on 2 July 1697. Gian Gastone and herself did not get along; he eventually abandoned her in 1708.\n\nDawn of the 18th century\n\nThe 17th century did not end well for the Grand Duke: he still had no grandchildren, France and Spain would not acknowledge his royal status and the Duke of Lorraine declared himself King of Jerusalem without any opposition. In May 1700 Cosimo embarked on a pilgrimage to Rome. Pope Innocent XII, after much persuasion, created Cosimo a Canon of Saint John in the Lateran, in order to allow him to view the Volto Santo, a cloth thought to have been used by Christ before his crucifixion. Delighted by his warm reception from the Roman people, Cosimo left Rome with a fragment of Saint Francis Xavier's bowels.\n\nCarlos II of Spain died in November 1700. His death, without any ostensible heir, brought about the War of the Spanish Succession, which involved all of the European powers. Tuscany, however, remained neutral. Cosimo recognised Philip, duc d'Anjou, as Carlos's successor, whose administration refused to sanction the Trattamento Reale reserved for the royal family. The Grand Duke, soon after the royal altercation, accepted the investiture of the nominal Spanish fief of Siena from Philip, thereby confirming his status as a Spanish vassal.\n\nGian Gastone was consuming money at a rapid pace in Bohemia, wracking up titanic debts. The Grand Duke, alarmed, sent the Marquis Rinnuci to scrutinise the Prince's debts. Rinnuci was abhorred to discover that Jan Josef, Count of Breuner and Archbishop of Prague, was among his creditors. In an attempt to salvage Gian Gastone from shipwreck, Rinnuci tried to coerce Anna Maria Franziska to return to Florence, where Gian Gastone longed to be. She blankly refused. Her confessor, hoping to keep her in Bohemia, regaled her with tales of the \"poisoned\" Eleanor of Toledo and Isabella Orsini, other Medici consorts.\n\nTuscan succession and later years\n\nCosimo's piety had not faded in the slightest since his youth. He visited the Florentine Convent of Saint Mark on a daily basis. A contemporary recounted that \"The Grand Duke knows all the monks of Saint Mark at least by sight...\" This, however, did not occupy all his efforts: He was still trying to coax Anna Maria Franziska to Florence, where he believed her caprices would cease. Additionally, in 1719, he claimed that God asked him to pledge the Grand Duchy to \"the governance and absolute dominion of the most glorious Saint Joseph\".\n\nLeopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, died in May 1705. His successor, Joseph I, took to government with a burst of ebullience. Following the Battle of Turin, a decisive Imperial victory, the Emperor sent an envoy to Florence to collect feudal dues, amounting to 300,000 doubloons, an exorbitant sum; and to force Cosimo to recognise the Archduke Charles as King of Spain. Fearing a Franco-Dutch invasion, Cosimo III refused to recognise Charles's title, but he did pay a fraction of the dues.\n\nThe Grand Prince Ferdinando was grievously ill with syphilis; he had become prematurely senile, not recognising anybody who came to see him. Cosimo despaired. He successfully requisitioned the assistance of Pope Clement XI with Anna Maria Franziska. He sent the Archbishop of Prague to reproach her. She cited the example of Marguerite-Louise, adding that the Pope did not bother himself to machinate a reconciliation. Cosimo wrote desperate missives to the Electress Palatine: \"I can tell you now, in case you are not informed, that we have no money in Florence...\" He added that \"two or three-quarters of my pension are fallen into arrears\".\n\nGian Gastone arrived in Tuscany, without his wife, in 1708. The Emperor, thinking it unlikely that any male heirs were to be born to the Medici, prepared to occupy Tuscany, under the pretext of Medici descent. He intimated that upon the Grand Prince's death the Tuscans would rebel against Cosimo's autocratic government. Cosimo, in an act of desperation, had Francesco Maria, the Medici family cardinal, renounce his religious vows and marry Eleanor of Gonzaga, the youngest child of the incumbent Duke of Guastalla. Two years later, Francesco Maria died, taking with him any hope of an heir.\n\nWithout any ostensible heir, Cosimo contemplated restoring the Republic of Florence. However, this presented many obstacles. Florence was nominally an Imperial fief, and Siena a Spanish one. The plan was about to be approved by the powers convened at Geertruidenberg when Cosimo abruptly added that if himself and his two sons predeceased the Electress Palatine she should succeed and the republic be re-instituted following her death. The proposal sank, and was ultimately put on hold following Emperor Joseph's death.\n\nCharles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, agreed to an audience with the Electress Palatine in December 1711. He concluded that the Electress's succession brought no quandary, but added that he must succeed her. Cosimo and herself were abhorred by his reply. Realising how unforthcoming he had been, Charles wrote to Florence agreeing to the project, mentioning but one clause: the Tuscan state must not be bequeathed to the enemies of the House of Austria. At the culmination of the War of the Spanish Succession, at the Treaties of Utrecht and Rattstatt, Cosimo did not vie for international assurances for the Electress's succession. An inaction he would later grow to lament.\n\nThe Grand Prince finally succumbed to syphilis on 30 October 1713. Cosimo deposited a succession bill in the Senate, Tuscany's nominal legislature, on 26 November. The bill promulgated that if Gian Gastone predeceased the Electress Palatine, she should ascend to all the states of the Grand Duchy. It was greeted with a standing ovation by the senators. Charles VI was furious. He retorted that the Grand Duchy was an Imperial fief, and that he alone had the prerogative to choose who would succeed.  Elisabeth Farnese, heiress to the Duchy of Parma and the second wife of Philip V of Spain, as a great-granddaughter of Margherita de' Medici, exercised a claim to Tuscany.\n\nIn May 1716, the Emperor assured the Electress and the Grand Duke that there was no insurmountable obstacle preventing her accession, but that Austria and Tuscany must soon reach an agreement regarding which royal house which was to succeed the Medici. As an incentive to accelerate Cosimo's reply, the Emperor hinted that Tuscany would reap territorial advancements. In June 1717 Cosimo declared his wish that the House of Este should succeed. Charles VI's promises never materialised. In 1718 he repudiated Cosimo's decision, declaring a union between Tuscany and Modena (the Este lands) unacceptable. On 4 April 1718 England, France and the Dutch Republic (and later Austria) selected Don Carlos of Spain, the eldest child of Elisabeth Farnese and Philip V of Spain, as the Tuscan heir. By 1722 the Electress was not even acknowledged as heiress, and Cosimo was reduced to a spectator at the conferences for Tuscany's future.\n\nJohann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine died in June 1717. Anna Maria Luisa returned home in October 1717, bringing with her vast treasures. Cosimo created his elder son's widow, Violante of Bavaria, Governess of Siena as to clearly define her precedence. That did not stop the two ladies from quarrelling, as was his intention. Cosimo discontinued hunting following an accident in January 1717. He accidentally shot, and killed, a man. He was so distraught, that he wished to be tried by the Knights of the Order of Saint Stephen. The state of the Grand Duchy reflected the decay of its ruler; in a 1718 military review, the army numbered less than 3000 men, some of whom were infirm, and aged 70. The navy composed of three galleys, and the crew 198. In September 1721, the Grand Duchess died; instead of willing her possessions to her children, as prescribed by the 1674 agreement; they went to the Princess of Epinoy.\n\nDeath and legacy\n\nOn 22 September 1723, the Grand Duke experienced a two-hour-long fit of trembling. His condition steadily deteriorated. Cosimo was attended by the Papal nuncio and the Archbishop of Pisa on his deathbed. The latter pronounced, \"that this Prince required little assistance in order to die well, for he had studied and cared for nothing else throughout the long course of his life, but to prepare himself for death\". On 25 October 1723, six days before his death, Grand Duke Cosimo disseminated a final proclamation commanding that Tuscany shall stay independent; Anna Maria Luisa shall succeed uninhibited to Tuscany after Gian Gastone; the Grand Duke reserves the right to choose his successor, but these stanzas were completely ignored. Six days later, on All Hallow's Eve, he died. He was interred in the Basilica of San Lorenzo, the Medici necropolis.\n\nCosimo III left Tuscany one of the poorest nations in Europe; the treasury empty and the people weary of religious bigotry, the state itself was reduced to a gaming chip in European affairs. Among his enduring edicts is the establishment of the Chianti wine region. Gian Gastone repealed Cosimo's Jewish persecution laws, and eased tariffs and customs. Cosimo's inability to uphold Tuscany's independence led to the succession of the House of Lorraine upon Gian Gastone's death in 1737.\n\nIssue\n\nCosimo III had three children with Marguerite Louise d'Orl\u00e9ans, a granddaughter of Henry IV of France:\n\nFerdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany (b.1663 d.1713) married Violante Beatrice of Bavaria, no issue;\nAnna Maria Luisa de' Medici, Electress Palatine (b.1667 d.1743) married Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine, no issue;\nGian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b.1671 d.1737) married Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe-Lauenburg, no issue.\n\nCosimo did not enjoy a harmonious relationship with his elder son, Ferdinando. They disagreed about Cosimo's bigoted ideology and his monthly allowance. Cosimo married him to a Bavarian princess, Violante Beatrice. This union was exceedingly discontent, and produced no offspring. Anna Maria Luisa was the Grand Duke's favourite child. She married Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine, and like her brother, had no issue. Gian Gastone, Cosimo's eventual successor, despised his father and his court. Anna Maria Luisa arranged for him to marry Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe-Lauenburg, a union that produced no children.\n\nHonours\n\nAncestors\n\nCitations\n\nBibliography\nActon, Harold: The Last Medici, Macmillan, London, 1980, \nStrathern, Paul: The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance, Vintage books, London, 2003, \nHale, J. R.: Florence and the Medici, Orion books, London, 1977, \nvan de Wetering, Ernst: Rembrandt: The Painter at Work, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, 1997 \nSetton, Kenneth M.: Western Hostility to Islam and Prophecies of Turkish Doom, Amer Philosophical Society, 1992,\n\nExternal links\n\n Timeline of the events of Cosimo III's reign by Google\n\n \n\n1642 births\n1723 deaths\nCosimo 3\nCosimo 3\nNobility from Florence\nCosimo 3\n17th-century Italian nobility\n18th-century Italian nobility\nItalian Roman Catholics\nBurials at San Lorenzo, Florence","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":180,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":8,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":5,"2013-48":5,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-05":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":5,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":7,"2016-36":6,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":6,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":5,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":9,"2014-15":4}},"id":1576137,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cosimo%20III%20de%27%20Medici%2C%20Grand%20Duke%20of%20Tuscany","title":"Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Pacific Northwest, also referred to as Cascadia, is a region on the west coast of North America. It refers to the northwestern corner of the United States and the southwestern part of Canada. The U.S. states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho and western Montana are in the southern part of the Pacific Northwest. The Canadian province of British Columbia and the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Alaska is in the northern part. The entire region is bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west.\n\nHistorically, the Pacific Northwest had been inhabited by Native Americans. Starting from about 15,000 years ago, Native Americans settled along the coastline and along the major rivers. From the 1500s to the 1700s, Europeans explored the region, beginning with the discovery of Oregon and Washington. In the early 1800s, the famous Lewis and Clark expedition arrived in Washington State. From the 19th century to present day, the region began to become settled. Today, the largest cities in the Northwest include Vancouver, Seattle and Portland.\n\nThe rugged mountains of the Northwest consist of the Coast Range, which is nearer the coast, and the Cascade Range. In northern Washington, the Cascade Range is called the North Cascades. In British Columbia, it is called the Canadian Cascades. The many rivers of the Northwest result from its wet climate - the mountains trap wet Pacific air, leaving little rain for inland states like Idaho. The rivers once supported large salmon runs, but large power dams have been built on many rivers.\n\nThe main language of the Pacific Northwest is English in the United States and Canada,  among the Native Americans Chinook Jargon is common. Among the many Asian immigrants, Chinese is being used more in the Northwest.\n\nGeography\n\nThe Pacific Northwest basically extends from southeastern Alaska to Northern California. Along this entire length, is a large mountain range, the Cascade Range, that forms the geographic spine of the Pacific Northwest. The highest mountain in the Northwest is Mount Rainier. Rainier is  high. Other notable mountains include Mount Shasta, at , and Mount Baker, at . East of the Cascades, there is the Columbia Plateau, a high area of land that stretches east to the Rocky Mountains in Idaho and Montana. In the west, the Coast Range borders the coast more closely. The Olympic Mountains are on the Olympic Peninsula, an extension of Washington State. Puget Sound is a large system of bays and straits in northwestern Washington and southeastern British Columbia.\n\nThe main rivers of the Pacific Northwest are the Fraser River, the Columbia River, and the Snake River. The Fraser River is mainly in British Columbia; it flows west to the Pacific Ocean near Vancouver. The Fraser drains most of the southern Canadian Cascades. The Columbia River begins in the Canadian Cascades and flows south, then turns west where it meets the Snake River. From there, it flows on to the ocean near Portland. The Snake River is mainly in inland Idaho. After a journey west from the Rocky Mountains, it meets the Columbia at Kennewick, Washington.\n\nOther rivers in the Northwest include the Finlay, the Skagit, the Umpqua, the Rogue, and the Klamath. The Finlay drains the northern Canadian Cascades and flows on to join the Mackenzie River, which flows through Canada to Hudson Bay. The Skagit also begins in the Canadian Cascades, and crosses into Washington; it turns west and flows into the sea north of Everett, Washington. The Umpqua River begins in the Southern Oregon Cascades, and flows west to the Pacific Ocean near Reedsport, Oregon. The Rogue parallels the Umpqua and dumps into the sea at Gold Beach, Oregon. The Klamath flows south from a valley in inland Oregon, then turns west through northern California, cutting through the Cascade Range to its mouth near Klamath, California.\n\nRelated pages\nCascade Volcanic Arc\n\nReferences\n\nRegions of Canada\nRegions of the United States","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":191816,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pacific%20Northwest","title":"Pacific Northwest","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Linear algebra is a branch of mathematics. It came from mathematicians trying to solve systems of linear equations. Vectors and matrices are used to solve these systems. The main objects of study currently are vector spaces and linear mappings between vector spaces. Linear algebra is useful in other branches of mathematics (e.g. differential equations and analytic geometry). It can also be applied to the real world in areas such as engineering, physics and economics.\n\nLinear algebra describes ways to solve and manipulate (rearrange) systems of linear equations.\n\nFor example, consider the following equations:\n\nThese two equations form a system of linear equations.\nIt is linear because none of the variables are raised to a power.\nThe graph of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line.\nThe solution to this system is:\n\nThis is because it makes all of the original equations valid, that is, the value on the left side of the equals sign is exactly the same as the value on the right side for both equations.\n\nLinear algebra uses a system of notation for describing system behavior, called a matrix. For the previous example, the coefficients of the equations can be stored in a coefficient matrix.\n\nRelated pages\n\n Abstract algebra\n Matrix analysis\n Matrix function\n Numerical linear algebra\n System of linear equations\n\nFurther reading\n Israel Gelfand (1998), Lectures on linear algebra, Courier Dover Publications.\n\nLinear algebra","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":459,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear%20algebra","title":"Linear algebra","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Phosphoric acid, also known as orthophosphoric acid, is a chemical compound. It is also an acid. Its chemical formula is H3PO4. It contains hydrogen and phosphate ions. Its official IUPAC name is trihydroxidooxidophosphorus.\n\nProperties\nPhosphoric acid is a white solid. It melts easily to make a viscous liquid. It tastes sour when diluted (mixed with a lot of water). It can be deprotonated three times. It is very strong, although not as much as the other acids like hydrochloric acid. It does not have any odor. It is corrosive when concentrated. Salts of phosphoric acid are called phosphates.\n\nPreparation\nPhosphoric acid can be made by dissolving phosphorus(V) oxide in water. This makes a very pure phosphoric acid that is good for food. A less pure form is made by reacting sulfuric acid with phosphate rock. This can be purified to make food-grade phosphoric acid if needed.\n\nUses\nIt is used to make sodas sour. It is also used when a nonreactive acid is needed. It can be used to make hydrogen halides, such as hydrogen chloride. Phosphoric acid is heated with a sodium halide to make the hydrogen halide and sodium phosphate. It is used to react with rust to make black iron(III) phosphate, which can be scraped off, leaving pure iron. It can be used to clean teeth. \n\nThere are many minor uses of phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid with a certain isotope of phosphorus is used for nuclear magnetic resonance. It is also used as an electrolyte in some fuel cells. It can be used as a flux. It can etch certain things in semiconductor making.\n\nSafety\nPhosphoric acid is one of the least toxic acids. When it is diluted, it just has a sour taste. When it is concentrated, it can corrode metals.\n\nRelated pages\nPhosphorous acid\nHypophosphorous acid\nPhosphorus compounds\n\nPhosphorus compounds","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":260524,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phosphoric%20acid","title":"Phosphoric acid","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"{{Infobox royalty\n|name = His Excellency  Napoleon III  The President of France\n|image = Napoleon III 1863.jpg\n|image_size = 233px\n|succession = Emperor of the French\n|reign = 2 December 1852 \u20134 September 1870\n|predecessor = Monarchy re-created  Louis Philippe I  \n|successor = Monarchy abolished  Louis Jules Trochu  {{small|as President of the Government of National Defense''}}\nAdolphe Thiers\n|reg-type = Cabinet Chiefs\n|regent = \n|succession1 = President of the French Republic\n|reign-type1 = In office\n|reign1 = 20 December 1848 \u20132 December 1852\n|predecessor1 = Republic re-created  Louis-Eug\u00e8ne Cavaignac  \n|successor1 = Republic abolished\n|reg-type1 = \n|regent1 = \n|spouse = Eug\u00e9nie de Montijo\n|issue = Louis Napol\u00e9on, Prince Imperial\n|full name = Charles Louis Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte\n|house = House of Bonaparte\n|father = Louis I of Holland\n|mother = Hortense de Beauharnais\n|birth_date = \n|birth_place = Paris, French Empire\n|death_date = \n|death_place = Chislehurst, England\n|burial_place = St Michael's Abbey, England\n| signature = 1855 signature of Napol\u00e9on III of France.jpg\n|religion = Roman Catholicism\n}}\nNapol\u00e9on III (20 April 1808 \u2013 9 January 1873), also known as Louis-Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte, was the first President of the French Republic and the last monarch of France. Made president by popular vote in 1848, Napoleon III ascended to the throne on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of his uncle, Napoleon I's, coronation. He ruled as Emperor of the French until September 1870, when he was captured in the Franco-Prussian War.\n\n Early life \nNapoleon III, generally known as \"Louis Napol\u00e9on\" before he became emperor, was the son of Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napol\u00e9on. His mother was Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter by the first marriage of Napoleon's wife Josephine de Beauharnais. Louis-Napol\u00e9on was a second son and a replacement child. His older brother, Napol\u00e9on Charles Bonaparte, died at age four. During Napoleon I's reign, Louis-Napol\u00e9on's parents had been made king and queen of a French puppet state, the Kingdom of Holland.  \n\nAfter Napoleon I's military defeats and deposition in 1815 and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France, all members of the Bonaparte dynasty were forced into exile. Louis Napoleon was quietly exiled to the United States of America, and spent four years in New York City. He also visited Central America. He secretly returned to France and attempted yet another coup in August 1840, sailing with some hired soldiers into Boulogne. In 1844, his uncle Joseph died, making him the direct heir apparent to the Bonaparte claim. Two years later, his father Louis died, making Louis-Napol\u00e9on the clear Bonapartist candidate to rule France. \n\nLouis-Napol\u00e9on lived within the borders of the United Kingdom until the revolution of February 1848 in France deposed Louis-Philippe I and established a Republic. He was now free to return to France, which he immediately did. \n\n Ruler of France \nIn 1848, he was elected President of France in a land slide victory. He won the election because of his popular name and French people hoped that he would return his uncle's glory. He used his rank as stepping stone to greater power. Finally in 1852, he crowned himself as Emperor Napoleon III and the Second French Empire was born. In 1856, Eugenie gave birth to a legitimate son and heir, Louis Napol\u00e9on, the Prince Imp\u00e9rial. \n\nOn 28 April 1855 Napoleon survived an attempted assassination. On 14 January 1858 Napoleon and his wife escaped another assassination attempt, plotted by Felice Orsini.\nUntil about 1861, Napoleon's regime exhibited decidedly authoritarian characteristics, using press censorship to prevent the spread of opposition, manipulating elections, and depriving the Parliament of the right to free debate or any real power. His foreign policy included support for Maximilian I of Mexico.\n\nA far more dangerous threat to Napoleon, however, was looming. France saw its dominance on the continent of Europe eroded by Prussia's crushing victory over Austria in the Austro-Prussian War in June\u2013August 1866. To prevent Prussia under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck becoming even more powerful, Napoleon began the Franco-Prussian War. This war proved disastrous, and was instrumental in giving birth to the German Empire, which would take France's place as the major land power on the continent of Europe. In the 1870 Battle of Sedan Prussian forces captured the Emperor. The forces of the Third Republic deposed his government in Paris two days later.\n\n Death \nNapoleon spent the last few years of his life in exile in England, with Eugenie and their only son. The family lived at Camden Place Chislehurst (then in Kent), where he died on 9 January 1873. He was haunted to the end by bitter regrets and by painful memories of the battle at which he lost everything.\n\nNapoleon was originally buried at St. Mary's, the Catholic Church in Chislehurst. However, after his son died in 1879 fighting in the British Army against the Zulus in South Africa, the bereaved Eugenie decided to build a monastery. The building would house monks driven out of France by the anti-religious laws of the Third Republic, and would provide a suitable resting place for her husband and son. \n\n Legacy \nAn important legacy of Napoleon III's reign was the rebuilding of Paris under the supervision of Georges-Eug\u00e8ne Haussmann. One purpose was reduce the ability of future revolutionaries to challenge the government by blocking the small, medieval streets of Paris with barricades. However, the main reason for the complete transformation of Paris was Napoleon III's desire to modernize Paris based on what he had seen of the modernizations of London during his exile there in the 1840s.\n\nTitles and styles\n 20 April 1808\u00a0\u2013 9 July 1810: His Imperial and Royal Highness Louis Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte, Prince of Holland\n 20 April 1808\u00a0\u2013 25 July 1846: His Imperial Highness Louis Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte, Prince Imperial of France\n 20 December 1848\u00a0\u2013 2 December 1852: His Excellency Louis Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte, President of the French Republic (\"fr: Le Prince-President\")\n 2 December 1852\u00a0\u2013 4 September 1870: His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the French\n 4 September 1870\u00a0\u2013 9 January 1873: His Imperial Majesty'' the former Emperor of the French\n\nReferences \n\n1808 births\n1873 deaths\nEmperors and empresses\nHouse of Bonaparte\nPoliticians from Paris\nPresidents of France\nFormer dictators\n19th-century French people","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-39":5,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2}},"id":120633,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Napol%C3%A9on%20III","title":"Napol\u00e9on III","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Rite of Spring (Le Sacre du Printemps) is a ballet in two parts. It was written for the 1913 Paris season of Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes company. \n\nThe music was written by Igor Stravinsky. The dances, which Stravinsky hated, were choreographed by Vaslav Nijinsky. The style of the dance was not in traditional ballet form, but as what Nijinsky imagined to be a primitive ritual. Stravinsky complained that Nijinsky had no understanding of the rudiments of music. The set and costumes were designed by Nicholas Roerich. \n\nThe ballet was first performed by Diaghilev's Ballets Russes at the Theatre du Champs-\u00c9lys\u00e9es in  Paris on 29 May 1913. The dress rehearsal met with approval from critics and invited guests, but the premiere was greeted with tumult and riot, only stilled by the performance of Marie Piltz as the sacrificial maiden. Subsequent performances were received with growing appreciation, but the ballet's great difficulties forced it to be presented only six times.\n\nThe ballet was revived in 1920 by the Ballets Russes, but the music had been performed in its entirety in concert before the revival. Nijinsky's dances had been forgotten so Leonide Massine (who had not seen the original performances) designed the dances anew. These met with Stravinsky's approval. In 1940, Walt Disney used the music to accompany a segment of the animated movie Fantasia. This segment depicted lumbering dinosaurs and smoldering volcanoes.\n\nStravinsky's music \nThe music lasts about 40 minutes, and is divided into two parts.  It has the subtitle \"Pictures from Pagan Russia\". Stravinsky had the idea of composing music which was about country people from old times in Russia who danced a fertility rite.  This means: a ceremony which is supposed to bring good luck to the next year's harvest. In this ancient Russian dance, one young girl is chosen to dance and dance until she dies. She is the sacrifice. She is sacrificed to the god of spring.\n\nHow Stravinsky wrote the score \nThe painter Nicholas Roerich talked with Stravinsky about the idea for this ballet in 1910. Stravinsky started writing down musical ideas while he was still working on his ballet The Firebird.  Then he worked on Petrushka. In 1912 he was able to concentrate on The Rite of Spring.  All these ballets were composed for Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes.\n\nFirst performance \nThe Rite of Spring was first performed by the Ballets Russes on 29 May 1913 at the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre des Champs-\u00c9lys\u00e9es in Paris. The conductor was Pierre Monteux. The audience were shocked at the primitive kind of dancing and the irregular rhythms and strange orchestral sounds and unusual chords.  Nijinsky's choreography was so different from classical ballet.  Nijinsky found it difficult to work with Stravinsky and difficult to work with the music.\n\nCarl Van Vechten described the scene as follows:\n\"A certain part of the audience was thrilled by what it considered to be a blasphemous attempt to destroy  music as an art, and, swept away with wrath, began very soon after the rise of the curtain, to make cat-calls and to offer audible suggestions as to how the performance should proceed. The orchestra played unheard, except occasionally when a slight lull occurred. The young man seated behind me in the box stood up during the course of the ballet to enable himself to see more clearly. The intense excitement under which he was labouring betrayed itself presently when he began to beat rhythmically on top of my head with his fists. My emotion was so great that I did not feel the blows for some time\".\nMarie Rambert heard someone in the gallery call out: \"Un docteur \u2026 un dentiste \u2026 deux docteurs\u2026\". The second performance (June 4) was fortunately less eventful and, according to Maurice Ravel, the entire work could actually be heard.\n\nThe complicated music and violent dance steps caused some to boo. They started to shout and whistle. They argued, and other people who liked it argued back. Then some people started to fight. In the end the police were called. Stravinksy was very upset and ran out of the theatre. The performance was a scandal, but this actually made people curious and soon the ballet became very famous. It was performed six times that season, and there were no more interruptions during the other performances.\n\nThemes \nThe Rite of Spring is divided into two parts, and each part has several sections:\n\nPart 1: The Adoration of the Earth\nIn the Introduction we hear the coming of spring.  A bassoon starts all by itself on a very high note.  Gradually other instruments join in until it sounds like the swarming of insects and other spring noises.\n\nIn The Auguries of Spring \u2013 Dances of the Young Girls we hear two chords played together, each chord is in a different key.  This chord which is in two keys at once is stamped out by the strings and eight horns.  A rocking tune is heard on the cor anglais.\n\nThis leads to The Game of Capture in which we hear a piccolo trumpet (a small kind of trumpet) play a quick, flutter-tongue melody.\n\n Round-dances of Spring is a country tune on high and low clarinets followed by a slow dance for strings and woodwinds.  The music is then repeated with immense loud intensity, soon followed by quiet flute trills.\n\n Games of the Rival Tribes uses timpani, low brass instruments and horns to describe the furious tribes.\n\n The Procession of the Sage is the entry of the wise man (the sage).  It builds into a big climax.\n\n Adoration of the Earth-The Sage is a short bit of very quiet music, leading to\n\n Dance of the Earth which leads Part One to a wild end.\n\nPart 2: The Sacrifice\n\nThe  Introduction  describes the night.  Lots of chords in several keys at once leads to a tune in the strings.\n\n Mysterious Circles of the Young Girls.  This is where one girl is chosen to die.  Six solo violas play the tune, an alto flute is heard.  Trumpets and horns with mutes interrupt the circling.  Then eleven heavy thumps on the strings and drums lead to\u2026\n\n Glorification of the Chosen One.  This is a big, exciting dance with noisy horns and timpani and bass drum.\n\n Evocation of the Ancestors.  The elders (the wise old men) arrive to majestic chords on wind and brass.\n\n Ritual Action of the Ancestors.  We hear quiet, ticking chords and a duet for cor anglais and alto flute.  Then trumpets and horns, and finally clarinets.\n\n Sacrificial Dance of the Chosen One.  The \"Chosen One\" dances herself to death.  The music is very energetic, with very irregular rhythms and time signatures which keep changing almost every bar.  The work ends in a huge climax.\n\nMusical characteristics \nStravinsky's music has many complex harmonies with dissonant sounds.  There are passages with polyrhythms (several rhythms at once) as well as polytonality (music in several keys at once).  The time signatures keep changing, and he often uses ostinati (repeated patterns).\n\nStravinsky wanted his music to describe the releasing of lots of energy.  Most composers would have done this by using a lot of percussion instruments.  However, although two players are needed for the timpani, there are not many other percussion instruments.  Instead, the whole orchestra becomes a kind of percussion instrument.  Also, the music often sounds like Russian folkmusic.\n\nInstrumentation \nThe Rite of Spring uses a very large orchestra with some unusual instruments. There are almost 100 people playing the piece.  Here is a list of the instruments used:\n\nwoodwinds: piccolo, 3 flutes (3rd doubling piccolo 2), alto flute, 4 oboes (4th doubling cor anglais 2), cor anglais, clarinet in E-flat and D, 3 clarinets in B-flat, A (3rd doubling bass clarinet 2), bass clarinet, 4 bassoons (4th doubling contrabassoon 2), contrabassoon\nbrass: 8 horns in F (7th and 8th doubling Wagner tubas in B-flat), trumpet in D, 4 trumpets in C (4th doubling bass trumpet in E-flat), 3 trombones, 2 tubas\npercussion: timpani (2 players, with a minimum of 5 drums including a piccolo timpano), bass drum, cymbals, tam-tam, crotales (antique cymbals) in A-flat and B-flat, triangle, tambourine, guiro\nstrings: violins i, ii (16), (14), violas (12), violoncellos (10), double basses (8)\n\nThe dance \n\nNijinsky's choreography was thought almost as shocking as the music. The idea is: a tribe sacrifices a young virgin each year in the Spring to please their gods, and make sure crops grow well. The dancers adopt a pigeon-toed stance (position); their moves are heavy. They move together in groups; their movements are like a ritual. They look like a primitive tribe performing a ritual. The ritual moves towards the sacrifice of the girl. The Rite of Spring is a link between classical ballet and modern dance.p395\n\nReconstruction of the ballet \nNijinsky's choreography has not been kept very well, but there have been efforts in recent years to reconstruct his performance, using costumes and set designs that look like the original ones from 1912. The Royal Ballet in London has a compact disc which discusses Bronislava Nijinska's directions for the dance in a modern (post WWII) production of the ballet.\n\nFantasia \nThe Rite of Spring became even more popular when Walt Disney used some of the music in his animated movie Fantasia in 1940.  It is used in the film to describe early life on planet earth with dinosaurs roaming about.\n\nReferences\n\n Robert, Grace. 1949. The Borzoi Book of Ballets. New York: Knopf. pp.\u00a025963.\n Igor Stravinsky \"The Rite of Spring\" - Malcolm Hayes 2003, printed in programme for BBC Promenade Concert 16 August 2004\n\nOther websites \nHewett, Ivan 2013. Did The Rite of Spring really spark a riot? BBC News Magazine. \n\nCompositions by Igor Stravinsky\nBallets Russes productions\nBallets choreographed by Nijinsky","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":201312,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The%20Rite%20of%20Spring","title":"The Rite of Spring","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op. 67 is a symphony by Ludwig van Beethoven. It is the fifth of his nine symphonies. It was written between 1804 and 1808. This symphony is one of the most popular and well-known works of classical music.\n\nThere are four movements: an opening sonata allegro, a slower andante, and a fast scherzo which leads straight in to the finale. \n\nThe symphony was first performed in Vienna's Theater an der Wien in 1808. His Sixth Symphony was also performed for the first time at the same concert. The Fifth Symphony soon became recognized as one of the most important musical works.\n\nThe music \nThe symphony begins with a four-note \"short-short-short-long\" motif which is heard twice (slightly lower the second time): \n()\n\n \n\nThe opening of the symphony is so famous that it has often been quoted. Other composers have used it in their compositions, e.g. Sergei Rachmaninoff in his song Fate. It has often been used in popular culture, from disco to rock and roll, and in film and television. During World War II, the BBC used the four-note motif to introduce its radio news broadcasts because \"short-short-short-long\" spells the letter \"V\" in Morse code. The \"V\" meant \"Victory\". It was played very quietly on a drum. People in Nazi occupied countries who wanted to hear the news listened in secret to the BBC news because it was more likely to be true.\n\nThe third movement of the symphony uses this rhythm sometimes as an accompaniment. \n\nWhen Beethoven wrote this symphony he was in his mid-thirties. He was becoming more and more deaf. He found this terribly hard to bear. He thought that he, of all people, should have perfect hearing. He felt very depressed, but he decided not to commit suicide, but to stay alive and write down all the music he had in his head. He wrote about this in a letter called the Heiligenstadt Testament.\n\nThe opening of the Fifth Symphony sounds very bold and heroic. The whole symphony sounds like a struggle which starts from those four notes. People have often said that those four notes represent fate knocking at the door. By the time we get to the last movement (the finale) the music has become major instead of minor. It sounds as if Beethoven has overcome his depression.\n\nThe fourth movement of this symphony is one of the first times a trombone or a piccolo is used in a symphony.\n\nSymphony 05","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":158,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":7}},"id":181499,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symphony%20No.%205%20%28Beethoven%29","title":"Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A ship is a large vehicle used to travel on water. It is bigger than a boat. Most are cargo ships, which carry most of the world's international trade. There are also many warships, passenger ships and other kinds for different purposes.\n\nWhen people talk about a ship, they often use the pronoun \"she\". For example: She was launched on 29 December 1878.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly ships \nThe first ships used oars or the wind (or both) to make them move.\n\nFrom about 4000 BC the Ancient Egyptians were making wooden sail boats. By 1200\u00a0BC the Phoenicians and Greeks had begun to make bigger sailing ships which were about 30 metres (100\u00a0feet) long and could carry 90180 tonnes of cargo. The Romans made even bigger ships which could carry up to 1,000 people and 1,000 tonnes of cargo. The 8th century saw the rise of the Vikings, who were famous for their \"longships\" and which were mainly used for raiding other countries, but also for trading. The longships had flat bottoms so they could move in shallow (not deep) rivers.\n\nAge of sail \nSailing ships were used for thousands of years, but they were very important from the Age of Discovery to the 19th century. The Chinese admiral Zheng He commanded a fleet of large 'treasure ships' on seven voyages all over Asia up to East-Africa in the early fifteenth century. The most successful and largest fleet in the 17th century was the Dutch fleet (see the Netherlands). For trade and transport the Dutch often used a particular kind of trading ship, called a flute (fluyt in Dutch). Transport of people and cargo on sailing ships became rare in the early 20th century.\n\nSome famous ships from this era include:\n Ni\u00f1a, Pinta, Santa Maria - Christopher Columbus' ships\n The Mayflower - The ship that carried the Pilgrims to Massachusetts\n Queen Anne's Revenge - The pirate Blackbeard's ship\n HMS Bounty - Captain Bligh's ship. Site of the most famous mutiny of all time\n USS Constitution - The most powerful ship in the early United States Navy\n HMS Victory - Admiral Horatio Nelson's flagship at the Battle of Trafalgar\n\nThe age of steam \nIn the 19th century, steamboats became commonplace.\n\nAt one time, the steamships Titanic, Olympic, and Britannic were the largest ships in the world, Titanic sank on her maiden voyage after hitting an iceberg, becoming one of the most famous shipwrecks of all time, the Olympic was Titanic 's nearly identical twin, and actually set sail before Titanic and was scrapped in the 1930s after a very successful career including her being a passenger liner and a warship in World War I. The Britannic was the largest of these three sister ships, and was supposed to be more grand and elegant than the Titanic, but before she set sail on her maiden voyage, WWI broke out and she was stripped of her elegant furniture and elaborate paneling and became a hospital ship. During her term as a hospital ship, she was sunk by either a mine or torpedo, no one knows for sure. The Titanic lies at the bottom of the North Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Nova Scotia, and the Britannic lies in the Aegean Sea, off the coast of the Island of Kea.\n\nModern ships \nAfter World War II ships with diesel engines became commonplace. Passenger airliners replaced passenger ships for long trips in the late 20th century. Cargo ships became much bigger. The main kinds are container ships for mostly manufactured goods, and bulk carriers including oil tankers.\n\nLargest ship \nThe world's largest ship is the Prelude, owned by Shell. It is being built on Geoje Island, South Korea. It is 488m long and has the internal capacity greater than the total volume of four large aircraft carriers. What it will do is collect natural gas off the coast of Australia, and liquify it. When liquified, the hydrocarbon takes up 600 times less space than its gas. Smaller tankers will take the liquid gas to its buyers. The ship will do liquifying and temporary storage, which is usually done on land. Shell believes this justifies the cost of the ship.\n\nThe shipping yard builds all kinds of structures for the oil industry. It employs 30,000 workers.\n\nSome names for parts of a ship \n\n Amidships - near the middle of the ship.\n Bow - the front of the ship.\n Stern - the back of the ship.\n Aft - in the direction of the stern.\n Astern - behind the ship.\n Starboard - the right side of the ship.\n Port - the left side of the ship.\n Bridge - the room in which the ship is controlled.\n Cabin - a room where a crew member lives.\n Decks - the floors.\n Galley - the kitchen.\n Hold - an area inside the ship used to carry goods.\n Hull - the main body of the ship.\n Keel - a beam running from stern to bow.\n Mast - a central pole on which sails are hung.\n Brig - Prison cells in the ship.\n\nSome types of ships \n\n Bulk carrier - very large ship used for carrying very heavy cargo.\n Catamaran - a ship with two hulls.\n Cruise ship - a large passenger ship that takes people on holiday or vacations.\n Ferry - a passenger ship which often carries vehicles as well as people.\n Supertanker - a very large ship usually used for carrying oil.\n Warship\n Aircraft carrier - a warship which carries aircraft\n Battleship - a large warship\n PT boat- a small warship\n Submarine - an underwater boat\n\nReferences \n\nBasic English 850 words\n \nNavigation","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":162,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2}},"id":5816,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ship","title":"Ship","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A file extension or filename extension is a suffix at the end of a filename. It is used to show the type of a computer file. This suggests what program can understand it. For example, MYWORDS.TXT is a plain text file and may be opened by a text editor. Filename extensions come after the name of the file, and many of them are three letters long. \n\nSome examples of common file extensions are:\n HASH are hash program files\n TXT files are plain text files\n BMP are bitmap picture files\n JPG are picture files in the JPEG format\n MP3 are music files in the MP3 format\n AAC are Advanced Audio Coding music files\n FLAC are Free Lossless Audio Codec\n ALAC are Apple Lossess Audio Codec\n WMA are Windows Media Audio sound files\n MPEG are motion picture encoded video files\n MKV are Mastroska Video Codec\n WMV are Windows Media Video files\n HTM or *HTML are Hyper Text Markup Language files such as web pages\n PHP are web server scripts which create web pages\n ODT are Open Document text files\n DOC are text documents in Microsoft Word format\n XLS are Microsoft Excel spreadsheet documents\n PPT are Microsoft Power Point presentation files\n EXE are Microsoft Windows executable program files\n DLL are Dynamic Link Libraries, a type of executable file, in MS Windows\n ZIP are Compressed files (Lempel Ziff algorithm in an archive)\n Z are Unix \/ Linux compressed files\n bz2 are bzip2 block compressed files (very good compression)\n jar are Java archive files\n JSP are Java server pages files\n java are Java source code files\n class are Java compiled source code files\n oc are Java run-time library files\n tar are Unix \/ Linux tape archive files\n sh are Unix \/ Linux shell script files\n awk are Unix C like pattern processing language source code files\n sed are Unix stream editor command files\n lex are Unix \/ Linux lexical analyzer C code generator specification files\n c are C programming language source files\n o are C programming language compiled (object) files\n cs are C# programming language files\n rb are Ruby programming language files\n pl are Perl or Prolog programming language files\n\nThere are many other commonly used file extensions.\n\nYou can change the program defaults so that the computer knows which program to open each type of file extension with.\n\nSoftware\nComputer file formats","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-22":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":34642,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File%20extension","title":"File extension","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Robert Brown   (21 December 1773 \u2013 10 June 1858) was a Scottish botanist and paleobotanist who made important contributions to botany largely through his pioneering use of the microscope. His contributions include one of the earliest detailed descriptions of the cell nucleus and cytoplasmic streaming; the observation of Brownian motion; early work on plant pollination and fertilisation, including being the first to recognise the fundamental difference between gymnosperms and angiosperms; and some of the earliest studies in palynology. He also made numerous contributions to plant taxonomy, notably erecting a number of plant families that are still accepted today; and numerous Australian plant genera and species, the fruit of his exploration of that continent with Matthew Flinders.\n\nEarly life\n\nRobert Brown \nwas born in Montrose on 21 December 1773, in a house that existed on the site where Montrose Library currently stands. He was the son of James Brown, a minister in the Scottish Episcopal Church with Jacobite convictions so strong that in 1788 he defied his church's decision to give allegiance to George III. His mother was Helen Brown n\u00e9e Taylor, the daughter of a Presbyterian minister. As a child Brown attended the local Grammar School (now called Montrose Academy), then Marischal College at Aberdeen, but withdrew in his fourth year when the family moved to Edinburgh in 1790. His father died late the following year. He had a friend namely Ishaan lanker who accompanied him with his various researchs.\n\nBrown enrolled to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh, but developed an interest in botany and ended up spending more of his time on the latter than the former. He attended the lectures of John Walker; made botanical expeditions into the Scottish Highlands, alone or with nurserymen such as George Don; and wrote out meticulous botanical descriptions of the plants he collected. He also began corresponding with and collecting for William Withering, one of the foremost British botanists of his day. Highlights for Brown during this period include his discovery of a new species of grass, Alopecurus alpinus, and his first botanical paper, \"The botanical history of Angus\", read to the Edinburgh Natural History Society in January 1792 but not published in print in Brown's lifetime.\n\nBrown dropped out of his medical course in 1793. Late in 1794 he enlisted in the Fifeshire Fencibles, and his regiment was posted to Ireland shortly after. In June 1795 he was appointed Surgeon's Mate. His regiment saw very little action and he had a good deal of leisure time, almost all of which he spent on botany. He was frustrated by his itinerant lifestyle, which prevented him from building his personal library and specimen collection as he would have liked, and cut him off from the most important herbaria and libraries.\n\nDuring this period Brown was especially interested in cryptogams, and these would be the subject of Brown's first, albeit unattributed, publication. Brown began a correspondence with James Dickson, and by 1796 was sending him specimens and descriptions of mosses. Dickson incorporated Brown's descriptions into his Fasciculi plantarum cryptogamicarum britanniae, with Brown's permission but without any attribution.\n\nBy 1800 Brown was firmly established amongst Irish botanists and was corresponding with a number of British and foreign botanists, including Withering, Dickson, James Edward Smith and Jos\u00e9 Correia da Serra. He had been nominated to the Linnean Society of London; had contributed to Dickson's Fasciculi; was acknowledged in a number of other works; and had had a species of algae, Conferva brownii (now Aegagropila linnaei) named after him by Lewis Weston Dillwyn. He had also begun experimenting with microscopy. However, as an army surgeon stationed in Ireland there seemed little prospect of him attracting the notice of those who could offer him a career in botany.\n\nTo Australia on the Investigator\nIn 1798 Brown heard that Mungo Park had withdrawn from a proposed expedition into the interior of New Holland (now Australia), leaving a vacancy for a naturalist. At Brown's request, Correia wrote to Sir Joseph Banks, suggesting Brown as a suitable replacement:  He was not selected, and the expedition did not end up going ahead as originally proposed, though George Caley was sent to New South Wales as a botanical collector for Banks. In 1800, however, Matthew Flinders put to Banks a proposal for an expedition that would answer the question whether New Holland was one island or several. Banks approved Flinders' proposal, and in December 1800 wrote to Brown offering him the position of naturalist to the expedition. Brown accepted immediately.\n\nPreparations\nBrown was told to expect to sail at the end of 1800, only a few weeks after being offered the position. A succession of delays meant the voyage did not get under way until July 1801. Brown spent much of the meantime preparing for the voyage by studying Banks' Australian plant specimens and copying out notes and descriptions for use on the voyage.\n\nThough Brown's brief was to collect scientific specimens of all sorts, he was told to give priority to plants, insects, and birds, and to treat other fields, such as geology, as secondary pursuits. In addition to Brown, the scientific staff comprised the renowned botanical illustrator Ferdinand Bauer; the gardener Peter Good, whose task was to collect live plants and viable seed for the use of Kew Gardens; the miner John Allen, appointed as mineralogist; the landscape artist William Westall; and the astronomer John Crosley, who would fall ill on the voyage out and leave the ship at the Cape of Good Hope, being belatedly replaced at Sydney by James Inman. Brown was given authority over Bauer and Good, both of whom were instructed to give any specimens they might collect to Brown, rather than forming separate collections. Both men would provide enthusiastic and hard-working companions for Brown, and thus Brown's specimen collections contain material collected by all three men.\n\nDesertas, Madeira and the Cape of Good Hope\nInvestigator sailed from London on 18 July. They made brief landfalls at Bugio Island (Desertas Islands) and Madeira, but Brown was disappointed to collect almost nothing of note from either site. They arrived at the Cape of Good Hope on 16 October, staying a little over two weeks, during which time Brown made extensive botanical expeditions and climbed Table Mountain at least twice. Many years later he would write to William Henry Harvey, who was considering emigrating there, that \"some of the pleasantest botanizing he ever had was on Devil's Mountain, near Cape Town, and he thought I could not pitch on a more delightful field of study.\" Amongst the plants collected at the Cape were two new species of Serruria (Proteaceae), S.\u00a0foeniculacea and S.\u00a0flagellaris.\n\nAustralia\n arrived in King George Sound in what is now Western Australia in December 1801. For three and a half years Brown did intensive botanic research in Australia, collecting about 3400 species, of which about 2000 were previously unknown.  A large part of this collection was lost when  was wrecked en route to England.\n\nBrown remained in Australia until May 1805. He then returned to Britain where he spent the next five years working on the material he had gathered.  He published numerous species descriptions; in Western Australia alone he is the author of nearly 1200 species. The list of major Australian genera that he named includes: Livistona, Triodia, Eriachne, Caladenia, Isolepis, Prasophyllum, Pterostylis, Patersonia, Conostylis, Thysanotus, Pityrodia, Hemigenia, Lechenaultia, Eremophila, Logania, Dryandra, Isopogon, Grevillea, Petrophile, Telopea, Leptomeria, Jacksonia, Leucopogon, Stenopetalum, Ptilotus, Sclerolaena and Rhagodia.\n\nSubsequent career\n\nIn early 1809 he read his paper called On the natural order of plants called Proteaceae to the Linnean Society of London. This was subsequently published in March 1810 as On the Proteaceae of Jussieu. It is significant for its contribution to the systematics of Proteaceae, and to the floristics of Australia, and also for its application of palynology to systematics. This work was extensively plagiarised by Richard Anthony Salisbury, who had memorised much of the Linnean reading and then inserted it in Joseph Knight's 1809 publication On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae.\n\nIn 1810, he published the results of his collecting in his famous Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen, the first systematic account of the Australian flora. Over half of New Zealand's orchid genera were first described in the work.  That year, he succeeded Jonas C. Dryander as Sir Joseph Banks' librarian, and on Banks' death in 1820 Brown inherited his library and herbarium. This was transferred to the British Museum in 1827, and Brown was appointed Keeper of the Banksian Botanical Collection.\n\nIn 1818 he published Observations, systematical and geographical, on the herbarium collected by Professor Christian Smith, in the vicinity of the Congo. In 1822, he was elected a Fellow of the Linnean Society and a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1827 he became correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, three years later he became associated member. When the institute became the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1851 Brown joined as foreign member. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1849.\n\nIn a paper read to the Linnean society in 1831 and published in 1833, Brown named the cell nucleus. The nucleus had been observed before, perhaps as early as 1682 by the Dutch microscopist Leeuwenhoek, and Franz Bauer had noted and drawn it as a regular feature of plant cells in 1802, but it was Brown who gave it the name it bears to this day (while giving credit to Bauer's drawings). Neither Bauer nor Brown thought the nucleus to be universal, and Brown thought it to be primarily confined to Monocotyledons.\n\nAfter the division of the Natural History Department of the British Museum into three sections in 1837, Robert Brown became the first Keeper of the Botanical Department, remaining so until his death. He was succeeded by John Joseph Bennett.\n\nHe served as president of the Linnean Society from 1849 to 1853.\n\nBrown died at 17 Dean Street, Soho Square in London, on 10 June 1858. He was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery in London.\n\nLegacy\nBrown's name is commemorated in the Australian herb genus Brunonia as well as numerous Australian species such as Eucalyptus brownii, Banksia brownii and the moss Brown's Tetrodontium Moss (Tetrodontium brownianum), a species which he discovered growing at Roslin near Edinburgh whilst still a student. The plant can still be found at the site of its discovery. Brown's River, south of Hobart, upon the banks of which he collected botanical samples, was named in his honour. In South Australia, Mount Brown and Point Brown (near Smoky Bay) were named for him by Flinders during the Investigator expedition. Mount Brown  in British Columbia, Canada was named for him by David Douglas.\n\nIn 1938 the London County Council commemorated Brown, as well as botanists Joseph Banks and David Don, and meetings of the Linnean Society, with a rectangular stone plaque at 32 Soho Square.\n\nA small New Zealand tree Pisonia brunoniana was named in recognition of him, and Cape Brown (Greenland) was named by William Scoresby (1789\u20131857) in 1822 in his honour.\n\nBrownian motion \nIn 1827, while examining grains of pollen of the plant Clarkia pulchella suspended in water under a microscope, Brown observed minute particles, now known to be amyloplasts (starch organelles) and spherosomes (lipid organelles), ejected from the pollen grains, executing a continuous jittery motion.  He then observed the same motion in particles of inorganic matter, enabling him to rule out the hypothesis that the effect was life-related.  Although Brown did not provide a theory to explain the motion, the phenomenon is now known as Brownian motion.\n\nIn recent years controversy arose over whether Brown's microscopes were sufficient to reveal phenomena of this order. Brown's discoveries were denied in a brief paper in 1991. Shortly thereafter, in an illustrated presentation, British microscopist Brian J. Ford presented to Inter Micro 1991 in Chicago a reprise of the demonstration using Brown's original microscope. His video sequences substantiated Brown's observations, suggesting Brown's microscope was sufficient to allow him to see motion.  Physicist Phil Pearle and colleagues presented a detailed discussion of Brown's original observations of particles from pollen of Clarkia pulchella undergoing Brownian motion, including the relevant history, botany, microscopy, and physics.\n\nPublications \nFor a list of Brown's publications, see Wikisource.\n\nFurther reading\n\nJoel Schwartz. Robert Brown and Mungo Park: Travels and Explorations in Natural History for the Royal Society. Cham Switzerland: Springer Nature, 2022.\n\nSee also \n Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen\n Brown's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia\n List of Australian plant species authored by Robert Brown\n European and American voyages of scientific exploration\n Character and description of Kingia\n Taxa named by Robert Brown\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading \n\n \n \n \n Mabberley, David (2002), 'Brown, Robert', in R. Aitken and M. Looker (eds), Oxford Companion to Australian Gardens, South Melbourne, Oxford University Press, pp.\u00a0108\u201310.\n Moore, D. T. and Groves, E.W . A catalogue of plants written by Robert Brown (1773\u20131858) in New South Wales: first impressions of the flora of the Sydney region. Archives of Natural History 24 (2): 281\u2013293 (June 1997).\n Munster, P., (2002), 'Robert Brown at Swan Bay', Australian Garden History, 14 (3), p.\u00a010.\n\nExternal links \n\n Classic papers by Robert Brown PDFs of several original papers by Robert Brown are available from this webpage.\n Robert Brown's Australian Botanical Specimens, 1801\u20131805 at the British Museum (BM) A comprehensive database.\n Robert Brown's work on orchids.\n Robert Brown on Ask.com\n \n\n \nBotanical collectors active in Australia\nBotanists active in Australia\n1773 births\n1858 deaths\nBritish pteridologists\nBritish taxonomists\nBryologists\nBotany in Western Australia\nPaleobotanists\nProbability theorists\nFellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences\nFellows of the Royal Society\nHonorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh\nMembers of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences\nMembers of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences\nCorresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences\nHonorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences\nPresidents of the Linnean Society of London\nRecipients of the Copley Medal\nRecipients of the Pour le M\u00e9rite (civil class)\nAlumni of the University of Aberdeen\nAlumni of the University of Edinburgh\nScottish curators\nScottish librarians\nScottish mycologists\nScottish naturalists\nScottish soldiers\nScottish surgeons\nPeople from Montrose, Angus\n19th-century Scottish botanists\n19th-century writers in Latin\nScottish writers in Latin\n18th-century Scottish medical doctors\nBurials at Kensal Green Cemetery","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":5,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":1}},"id":333483,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert%20Brown%20%28botanist%2C%20born%201773%29","title":"Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol and its predecessor, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), are cryptographic protocols that provide security and data integrity for communications over TCP\/IP networks such as the Internet. Several versions of the protocols are common in applications such as web browsing, electronic mail, Internet faxing, instant messaging and voice-over-IP (VoIP).\n\nDescription \nThe TLS protocol allows applications to communicate across a network in a way designed to prevent eavesdropping, tampering, and message forgery. TLS provides endpoint authentication and communications confidentiality over the Internet using cryptography. Most of the time, only the server is authenticated (i.e., its identity is ensured) while the client remains unauthenticated; this means that the end user (whether an individual or an application, such as a Web browser) can be sure with whom it is communicating. The next level of security is known as mutual authentication. Mutual authentication requires public key infrastructure (PKI) deployment to clients unless TLS-PSK or the Secure Remote Password (SRP) protocol are used, which provide strong mutual authentication without needing to deploy a PKI.\n\nUsage \nSSL and TLS have been widely used in several open source software projects. Programmers may use the OpenSSL, NSS, or GnuTLS libraries for SSL\/TLS functionality. Microsoft Windows includes a usage of SSL and TLS as part of its Secure Channel package. Delphi programmers may use a library called Indy.\n\nStandards \nThe current approved version is 1.2, which is specified in:\n RFC 5246: \"The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2\".\n\nThe current standard obsoletes these former versions:\n RFC 2246: \"The TLS Protocol Version 1.0\".\n RFC 4346: \"The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.1\".\n\nOther RFCs subsequently extended TLS, including:\n RFC 2595: \"Using TLS with IMAP, POP3 and ACAP\". Specifies an extension to the IMAP, POP3 and ACAP services that allow the server and client to use transport-layer security to provide private, authenticated communication over the Internet.\n RFC 2712: \"Addition of Kerberos Cipher Suites to Transport Layer Security (TLS)\". The 40-bit ciphersuites defined in this memo appear only for the purpose of documenting the fact that those ciphersuite codes have already been assigned.\n RFC 2817: \"Upgrading to TLS Within HTTP\/1.1\", explains how to use the Upgrade mechanism in HTTP\/1.1 to initiate Transport Layer Security (TLS) over an existing TCP connection. This allows unsecured and secured HTTP traffic to share the same well known port (in this case, http: at 80 rather than https: at 443).\n RFC 2818: \"HTTP Over TLS\", distinguishes secured traffic from insecure traffic by the use of a different 'server port'.\n RFC 3207: \"SMTP Service Extension for Secure SMTP over Transport Layer Security\". Specifies an extension to the SMTP service that allows an SMTP server and client to use transport-layer security to provide private, authenticated communication over the Internet.\n RFC 3268: \"AES Ciphersuites for TLS\". Adds Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) ciphersuites to the previously existing symmetric ciphers.\n RFC 3546: \"Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions\", adds a mechanism for negotiating protocol extensions during session initialisation and defines some extensions. Made obsolete by RFC 4366.\n RFC 3749: \"Transport Layer Security Protocol Compression Methods\", specifies the framework for compression methods and the DEFLATE compression method.\n RFC 3943: \"Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Compression Using Lempel-Ziv-Stac (LZS)\".\n RFC 4132: \"Addition of Camellia Cipher Suites to Transport Layer Security (TLS)\".\n RFC 4162: \"Addition of SEED Cipher Suites to Transport Layer Security (TLS)\".\n RFC 4217: \"Securing FTP with TLS\".\n RFC 4279: \"Pre-Shared Key Ciphersuites for Transport Layer Security (TLS)\", adds three sets of new ciphersuites for the TLS protocol to support authentication based on pre-shared keys.\n RFC 4347: \"Datagram Transport Layer Security\" specifies a TLS variant that works over datagram protocols (such as UDP).\n RFC 4366: \"Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions\" describes both a set of specific extensions, and a generic extension mechanism.\n RFC 4492: \"Elliptic Curve Cryptography  (ECC) Cipher Suites for Transport Layer Security (TLS)\".\n RFC 4507: \"Transport Layer Security (TLS) Session Resumption without Server-Side State\".\n RFC 4680: \"TLS Handshake Message for Supplemental Data\".\n RFC 4681: \"TLS User Mapping Extension\".\n RFC 4785: \"Pre-Shared Key (PSK) Ciphersuites with NULL Encryption for Transport Layer Security (TLS)\".\n\nRelated pages\n Certificate authority\n Public key certificate\n Extended Validation Certificate\n SSL acceleration\n Datagram Transport Layer Security\n Multiplexed Transport Layer Security\n X.509\n Virtual private network\n SEED\n Server gated cryptography\n\nSoftware \n OpenSSL: a free (and very popular) implementation (BSD license with some banter extensions)\n GnuTLS: a free LGPL licensed implementation\n JSSE: a Java implementation included in the Java Runtime Environment\n Network Security Services (NSS): FIPS 140 validated open source library\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n \n \n \n \n \n\nCryptography\nInternet standards\nInternet protocols","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":4,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":6,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":100312,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transport%20Layer%20Security","title":"Transport Layer Security","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts motion-based power (potential and kinetic energy) or fuel-based power (chemical energy) into electric power for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, wind turbines and even hand cranks. The first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was invented in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all the power for electrical grids.\n\nIn addition to electricity- and motion-based designs, photovoltaic and fuel cell powered generators use solar power and hydrogen-based fuels, respectively, to generate electrical output. \n\nThe reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators are very similar. Many motors can generate electricity from mechanical energy.\n\nTerminology\n\nElectromagnetic generators fall into one of two broad categories, dynamos and alternators.\n\n Dynamos generate pulsing direct current through the use of a commutator.\n Alternators generate alternating current.\n\nMechanically, a generator consists of a rotating part and a stationary part which together form a magnetic circuit:\n\nRotor: The rotating part of an electrical machine. \nStator: The stationary part of an electrical machine, which surrounds the rotor.\n\nOne of these parts generates a magnetic field, the other has a wire winding in which the changing field induces an electric current:\nField winding or field (permanent) magnets: The magnetic field-producing component of an electrical machine. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field coils or permanent magnets. Electrically-excited generators include an excitation system to produce the field flux. A generator using permanent magnets (PMs) is sometimes called a magneto, or a permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG).\nArmature: The power-producing component of an electrical machine.  In a generator, alternator, or dynamo, the armature windings generate the electric current, which provides power to an external circuit. \nThe armature can be on either the rotor or the stator, depending on the design, with the field coil or magnet on the other part.\n\nHistory\nBefore the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators were invented. They operated on electrostatic principles, by using moving electrically charged belts, plates and disks that carried charge to a high potential electrode. The charge was generated using either of two mechanisms: electrostatic induction or the triboelectric effect. Such generators generated very high voltage and low current. Because of their inefficiency and the difficulty of insulating machines that produced very high voltages, electrostatic generators had low power ratings, and were never used for generation of commercially significant quantities of electric power. Their only practical applications were to power early X-ray tubes, and later in some atomic particle accelerators.\n\nFaraday disk generator\n\nThe operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 1831\u20131832 by Michael Faraday. The principle, later called Faraday's law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux.\n\nHe also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk; a type of homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a small DC voltage.\n\nThis design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions of the disk that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the magnetic field. This counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires and induced waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction.\n\nAnother disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, more useful voltages. Since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became a basic feature of all subsequent generator designs.\n\nJedlik and the self-excitation phenomenon\nIndependently of Faraday, \u00c1nyos Jedlik started experimenting in 1827 with the electromagnetic rotating devices which he called electromagnetic self-rotors. In the prototype of the single-pole electric starter (finished between 1852 and 1854) both the stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic. It was also the discovery of the principle of dynamo self-excitation, which replaced permanent magnet designs. He also may have formulated the concept of the dynamo in 1861 (before Siemens and Wheatstone) but did not patent it as he thought he was not the first to realize this.\n\nDirect current generators\n\nA coil of wire rotating in a magnetic field produces a current which changes direction with each 180\u00b0 rotation, an alternating current (AC). However many early uses of electricity required direct current (DC). In the first practical electric generators, called dynamos, the AC was converted into DC with a commutator, a set of rotating switch contacts on the armature shaft. The commutator reversed the connection of the armature winding to the circuit every 180\u00b0 rotation of the shaft, creating a pulsing DC current. One of the first dynamos was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832.\n\nThe dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. \nThe Woolrich Electrical Generator of 1844, now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum, is the earliest electrical generator used in an industrial process. It was used by the firm of Elkingtons for commercial electroplating.\n\nThe modern dynamo, fit for use in industrial applications, was invented independently by Sir Charles Wheatstone, Werner von Siemens and Samuel Alfred Varley. Varley took out a patent on 24 December 1866, while Siemens and Wheatstone both announced their discoveries on 17 January 1867, the latter delivering a paper on his discovery to the Royal Society.\n\nThe \"dynamo-electric machine\" employed self-powering electromagnetic field coils rather than permanent magnets to create the stator field. Wheatstone's design was similar to Siemens', with the difference that in the Siemens design the stator electromagnets were in series with the rotor, but in Wheatstone's design they were in parallel. The use of electromagnets rather than permanent magnets greatly increased the power output of a dynamo and enabled high power generation for the first time. This invention led directly to the first major industrial uses of electricity. For example, in the 1870s Siemens used electromagnetic dynamos to power electric arc furnaces for the production of metals and other materials.\n\nThe dynamo machine that was developed consisted of a stationary structure, which provides the magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field. On larger machines the constant magnetic field is provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils.\n\nLarge power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the now nearly universal use of alternating current for power distribution. Before the adoption of AC, very large direct-current dynamos were the only means of power generation and distribution. AC has come to dominate due to the ability of AC to be easily transformed to and from very high voltages to permit low losses over large distances.\n\nSynchronous generators (alternating current generators) \n\nThrough a series of discoveries, the dynamo was succeeded by many later inventions, especially the AC alternator, which was capable of generating alternating current. It is commonly known to be the Synchronous Generators (SGs). The synchronous machines are directly connected to the grid and need to be properly synchronized during startup. Moreover, they are excited with special control to enhance the stability of the power system.\n\nAlternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from Michael Faraday's original discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current. Faraday himself built an early alternator. His machine was a \"rotating rectangle\", whose operation was heteropolar - each active conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite directions.\n\nLarge two-phase alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J.E.H. Gordon, in 1882. The first public demonstration of an \"alternator system\" was given by William Stanley, Jr., an employee of Westinghouse Electric in 1886.\n\nSebastian Ziani de Ferranti established Ferranti, Thompson and Ince in 1882, to market his Ferranti-Thompson Alternator, invented with the help of renowned physicist Lord Kelvin. His early alternators produced frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz. Ferranti went on to design the Deptford Power Station for the London Electric Supply Corporation in 1887 using an alternating current system. On its completion in 1891, it was the first truly modern power station, supplying high-voltage AC power that was then \"stepped down\" for consumer use on each street. This basic system remains in use today around the world.\n\nAfter 1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases. Later alternators were designed for varying alternating-current frequencies between sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric motors.\n\nSelf-excitation\n\nAs the requirements for larger scale power generation increased, a new limitation rose: the magnetic fields available from permanent magnets. Diverting a small amount of the power generated by the generator to an electromagnetic field coil allowed the generator to produce substantially more power. This concept was dubbed self-excitation.\n\nThe field coils are connected in series or parallel with the armature winding. When the generator first starts to turn, the small amount of remanent magnetism present in the iron core provides a magnetic field to get it started, generating a small current in the armature. This flows through the field coils, creating a larger magnetic field which generates a larger armature current. This \"bootstrap\" process continues until the magnetic field in the core levels off due to saturation and the generator reaches a steady state power output.\n\nVery large power station generators often utilize a separate smaller generator to excite the field coils of the larger. In the event of a severe widespread power outage where islanding of power stations has occurred, the stations may need to perform a black start to excite the fields of their largest generators, in order to restore customer power service.\n\nSpecialised types of generator\n\nDirect current (DC)\nA dynamo uses commutators to produce direct current. It is self-excited, i.e. its field electromagnets are powered by the machine's own output. Other types of DC generators use a separate source of direct current to energise their field magnets.\n\nHomopolar generator\n\nA homopolar generator is a DC electrical generator comprising an electrically conductive disc or cylinder rotating in a plane perpendicular to a uniform static magnetic field. A potential difference is created between the center of the disc and the rim (or ends of the cylinder), the electrical polarity depending on the direction of rotation and the orientation of the field.\n\nIt is also known as a unipolar generator, acyclic generator, disk dynamo, or Faraday disc. The voltage is typically low, on the order of a few volts in the case of small demonstration models, but large research generators can produce hundreds of volts, and some systems have multiple generators in series to produce an even larger voltage. They are unusual in that they can produce tremendous electric current, some more than a million amperes, because the homopolar generator can be made to have very low internal resistance.\n\nMagnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generator\n\nA magnetohydrodynamic generator directly extracts electric power from moving hot gases through a magnetic field, without the use of rotating electromagnetic machinery. MHD generators were originally developed because the output of a plasma MHD generator is a flame, well able to heat the boilers of a steam power plant. The first practical design was the AVCO Mk. 25, developed in 1965. The U.S. government funded substantial development, culminating in a 25 MW demonstration plant in 1987. In the Soviet Union from 1972 until the late 1980s, the MHD plant U 25 was in regular utility operation on the Moscow power system with a rating of 25 MW, the largest MHD plant rating in the world at that time. MHD generators operated as a topping cycle are currently (2007) less efficient than combined cycle gas turbines.\n\nAlternating current (AC)\n\nInduction generator\n\nInduction AC motors may be used as generators, turning mechanical energy into electric current. Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotor faster than the simultaneous speed, giving negative slip. A regular AC non-simultaneous motor usually can be used as a generator, without any changes to its parts. Induction generators are useful in applications like minihydro power plants, wind turbines, or in reducing high-pressure gas streams to lower pressure, because they can recover energy with relatively simple controls. They do not require another circuit to start working because the turning magnetic field is provided by induction from the one they have. They also do not require speed governor equipment as they inherently operate at the connected grid frequency.\n\nAn induction generator must be powered with a leading voltage; this is usually done by connection to an electrical grid, or by powering themselves with phase correcting capacitors.\n\nLinear electric generator\n\nIn the simplest form of linear electric generator, a sliding magnet moves back and forth through a solenoid - a copper wire or a coil. An alternating current is induced in the wire, or loops of wire, by Faraday's law of induction each time the magnet slides through. This type of generator is used in the Faraday flashlight. Larger linear electricity generators are used in wave power schemes.\n\nVariable-speed constant-frequency generators\nGrid-connected generators deliver power at a constant frequency. For generators of the synchronous or induction type, the primer mover speed turning the generator shaft must be at a particular speed (or narrow range of speed) to deliver power at the required utility frequency. Mechanical speed-regulating devices may waste a significant fraction of the input energy to maintain a required fixed frequency. \n\nWhere it is impractical or undesired to tightly regulate the speed of the prime mover, doubly fed electric machines may be used as generators. With the assistance of power electronic devices, these can regulate the output frequency to a desired value over a wider range of generator shaft speeds. Alternatively, a standard generator can be used with no attempt to regulate frequency, and the resulting power converted to the desired output frequency with a rectifier and converter combination. Allowing a wider range of prime mover speeds can improve the overall energy production of an installation, at the cost of more complex generators and controls. For example, where a wind turbine operating at fixed frequency might be required to spill energy at high wind speeds, a variable speed system can allow recovery of energy contained during periods of high wind speed.\n\nCommon use cases\n\nPower station\n\nA power station, also known as a power plant or powerhouse and sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an industrial facility that generates electricity. Most power stations contain one or more generators, or spinning machines converting mechanical power into three-phase electrical power. The relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor creates an electric current. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. Most power stations in the world burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas to generate electricity. Cleaner sources include nuclear power, and increasingly used renewables such as the sun, wind, waves and running water.\n\nVehicular generators\n\nRoadway vehicles\n\nMotor vehicles require electrical energy to power their instrumentation, keep the engine itself operating, and recharge their batteries. Until about the 1960s motor vehicles tended to use DC generators (dynamos) with electromechanical regulators. Following the historical trend above and for many of the same reasons, these have now been replaced by alternators with built-in rectifier circuits.\n\nBicycles\nBicycles require energy to power running lights and other equipment. There are two common kinds of generator in use on bicycles: bottle dynamos which engage the bicycle's tire on an as-needed basis, and hub dynamos which are directly attached to the bicycle's drive train. The name is conventional as these they are small permanent-magnet alternators, not self-excited DC machines as are dynamos. Some electric bicycles are capable of regenerative braking, where the drive motor is used as a generator to recover some energy during braking.\n\nSailboats\nSailing boats may use a water- or wind-powered generator to trickle-charge the batteries. A small propeller, wind turbine or turbine is connected to a low-power generator to supply currents at typical wind or cruising speeds.\n\nRecreational vehicles\nRecreational vehicles need an extra power supply to power their onboard accessories, including air conditioning units, and refrigerators. An RV power plug is connected to the electric generator to obtain a stable power supply.\n\nElectric scooters\nElectric scooters with regenerative braking have become popular all over the world. Engineers use kinetic energy recovery systems on the scooter to reduce energy consumption and increase its range up to 40-60% by simply recovering energy using the magnetic brake, which generates electric energy for further use. Modern vehicles reach speed up to 25\u201330\u00a0km\/h and can run up to 35\u201340\u00a0km.\n\nGenset\n\nAn engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine (prime mover) mounted together to form a single piece of self-contained equipment. The engines used are usually piston engines, but gas turbines can also be used, and there are even hybrid diesel-gas units, called dual-fuel units. Many different versions of engine-generators are available - ranging from very small portable petrol powered sets to large turbine installations. The primary advantage of engine-generators is the ability to independently supply electricity, allowing the units to serve as backup power sources.\n\nHuman powered electrical generators\n\nA generator can also be driven by human muscle power (for instance, in field radio station equipment).\n\nHuman powered electric generators are commercially available, and have been the project of some DIY enthusiasts. Typically operated by means of pedal power, a converted bicycle trainer, or a foot pump, such generators can be practically used to charge batteries, and in some cases are designed with an integral inverter. An average \"healthy human\" can produce a steady 75 watts (0.1 horsepower) for a full eight hour period, while a \"first class athlete\" can produce approximately 298 watts (0.4 horsepower) for a similar period, at the end of which an undetermined period of rest and recovery will be required. At 298 watts, the average \"healthy human\" becomes exhausted within 10 minutes. The net electrical power that can be produced will be less, due to the efficiency of the generator. Portable radio receivers with a crank are made to reduce battery purchase requirements, see clockwork radio. During the mid 20th century, pedal powered radios were used throughout the Australian outback, to provide schooling (School of the Air), medical and other needs in remote stations and towns.\n\nMechanical measurement\nA tachogenerator is an electromechanical device which produces an output voltage proportional to its shaft speed. It may be used for a speed indicator or in a feedback speed control system. Tachogenerators are frequently used to power tachometers to measure the speeds of electric motors, engines, and the equipment they power. Generators generate voltage roughly proportional to shaft speed. With precise construction and design, generators can be built to produce very precise voltages for certain ranges of shaft speeds.\n\nEquivalent circuit\n\nAn equivalent circuit of a generator and load is shown in the adjacent diagram. The generator is represented by an abstract generator consisting of an ideal voltage source and an internal impedance. The generator's  and  parameters can be determined by measuring the winding resistance (corrected to operating temperature), and measuring the open-circuit and loaded voltage for a defined current load.\n\nThis is the simplest model of a generator, further elements may need to be added for an accurate representation. In particular, inductance can be added to allow for the machine's windings and magnetic leakage flux, but a full representation can become much more complex than this.\n\nSee also\n\n Diesel generator\n Electricity generation\n Electric motor\n Engine-generator\n Faraday's law of induction\n Gas turbine\n Generation expansion planning\n Goodness factor\n Hydropower\n Steam generator (boiler)\n Steam generator (railroad)\n Steam turbine\n Superconducting electric machine\n Thermogenerator\n Thermal power station\n Tidal stream generator\n\nReferences\n\nEnglish inventions\n19th-century inventions","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":185,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":5,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":6,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":7,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":9}},"id":82330,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric%20generator","title":"Electric generator","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A proton is part of an atom. They are found in the nucleus of an atom along with neutrons. The periodic table groups atoms according to how many protons they have. A single atom of hydrogen (the lightest kind of atom) is made up of an electron moving around a proton. Most of the mass of this atom is in the proton, which is almost 2000 times heavier than the electron. Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of every other kind of atom. In any one element, the number of protons is always the same. An atom's atomic number is equal to the number of protons in that atom. \n\nProtons are made of quarks. A proton is believed to be made up of 3 quarks, two up quarks and one down quark. One down quark has a charge of -1\/3, and two up quarks have a charge of +2\/3 each. This adds to a charge of +1. A proton has a very small mass. The mass of the proton is about one atomic mass unit. The mass of the neutron is also about one atomic mass unit. The size of a proton is determined by the vibration of the quarks that are in it, and these quarks effectively form a cloud. This means that a proton is not so much a hard ball as an area that contains quarks.\n\nRelated pages\n Proton decay\n Neutron\n Electron\n Quarks\n\nReferences \n\nSubatomic particles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":157,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":4,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":3,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":9526,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proton","title":"Proton","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Leggings are several types of leg attire that have varied through the years. Modern usage from the 1960s onwards has come to refer to elastic close-fitting high-rise garments worn over the legs typically by women, such as leg warmers or tights. Usage from the 18th century refers to men's wear usually made of cloth or leather that is wrapped around the leg down to the ankle. In the 19th century, leggings usually referred to infants' leg clothing that were matched with a jacket, as well as leg-wrappings made of leather or wool and worn by soldiers and trappers. Leggings prominently returned to women's fashion in the 1960s, drawing from the form-fitting clothing of dancers. With the widespread adoption of the synthetic fibre Lycra and the rise in popularity of aerobics, leggings came to further prominence in the 1970s and 1980s, and eventually made their way into streetwear. Leggings are a part of the late 2010s into the 2020s athleisure fashion trend of wearing activewear outside sporting activities and in casual settings.\n\nHistory\n\nLeggings in various forms and under various names have been worn for warmth and protection by both men and women throughout the centuries. The separate hose worn by men in Europe from the 13th to 16th centuries (the Renaissance period) were a form of leggings, as are the trews of the Scottish Highlands. Separate leggings of buckskin leather were worn by some Native Americans. These were adopted by some Long Hunters, French fur trappers, and later by mountain men. They are the leatherstockings of James Fenimore Cooper's Leatherstocking Tales. The Buckskins were mostly a dull grey brain-tan, not the bright, glossy vegetable tanned leather commonly used today.\n\nCowboys wore leggings of buckskin to protect from chapping caused by riding, wear and tear to their pants, and bites from animals, such as snakes or insects in the scrub, such as ticks.\n\nIn many places, especially in colder countries such as Russia and Korea, men and women continued to wear wool leggings into modern times, often as an additional outer layer for warmth.\n\nThe linen pantalettes worn by girls and women under crinolines in the mid-19th century were also a form of leggings, and were originally two separate garments. Leggings became a part of fashion in the 1960s, as trousers similar to capri pants but tighter.\n\nMilitary use\n\nSince the late 19th century, soldiers of various nations, especially infantry, often wore leggings to protect their lower leg, to keep dirt, sand, and mud from entering their shoes, and to provide a measure of ankle support. At first, these were usually puttees\u2014strips of thick woolen cloth resembling a large bandage\u2014which were wrapped around the leg to support the ankle. They were usually held in place by a strap attached to the cloth. Later, puttees were replaced by some armies with canvas leggings fastened with buckles or buttons, usually secured at the bottom with an adjustable stirrup that passed under the sole of the shoe, just in front of the heel. The soldier placed the leggings around his calf with the buttoned side facing out and adjusted them and the strap to achieve a proper fit. Leggings typically extended to mid-calf and had a garter strap to hold them up and were secured with a tie just below the knee. Military leggings extended to the bottom of the knee and buttoned to the bottom button on the knee-breeches. They are sometimes confused with gaiters, which extend to the high ankle and are worn with full leg trousers.\n\nDuring World War II, United States Army foot soldiers were referred to as legs by paratroopers and other U.S. forces that did not wear the standard Army leggings issued with the field service shoe. Late in World War II, after experiments with general issue of high-top combat boots and jump boots for soldiers, leggings began to disappear from military service. In 1943, the United States Army modified their field service shoe by adding a taller leather upper that reached to the lower calf; secured by a combination of laces and buckles, the new design was designated the Type III Field Boot. However, the United States Marine Corps retained canvas leggings throughout the war, and used them in combat as late as the Korean War; Marines were referred to as Yellow Leg troops by North Korean and Chinese Communist forces.\n\nBy the 1960s, the old style of field shoe had given way to combat boots in most military forces, and leggings of any kind were obsolete. Leggings, usually bright white and often made of patent leather or buff are now worn primarily for ceremonial purposes.\n\nModern fashion\n\nLeggings in the form of skin-tight trousers, a tighter version of the capris ending at mid-calf or near ankle length, made their way into women's fashion in the 1960s, and were worn with a large belt or waistband and slip-on high heels or ballet flat\u2013styled shoes.\n\nLeggings made from a nylon-lycra blend (usually 90% nylon, 10% lycra) have long been worn during exercise. Nylon lycra leggings are often referred to as bicycle or running tights, and are shinier in appearance than those made from cotton. Some have racing stripes or reflective patterns to further distinguish them as athletic wear and provide extra safety. However, since the 1980s exercise-style leggings have also been worn for fashion and as street wear.\n\nLeggings made from cotton-lycra, or a cotton-polyester-lycra combination, are more typically worn for fashion, but are also worn as exercise wear. Cotton-lycra leggings are available in many colors, prints and designs; but black, navy and various shades of gray remain the most commonly worn.\n\nWearing black leggings under long, often diaphanous, skirts was part of a general fashion trend of wearing gym or dance clothes as street wear that evolved along with the fitness craze and under the influence of the movie Flashdance and the long-running Broadway show A Chorus Line. A more recent trend has been the wearing of black leggings with miniskirts.\n\nBy the early-1990s, leggings were actually outselling jeans in many parts of the United States. It was very common to see leggings worn with long oversized tee-shirts, oversized sweatshirts or oversized sweaters, slouch socks and Keds by girls from toddler to over college age. Fashion turned against leggings for a short time in the late 1990s and early 2000s.\n\nIn 2005, leggings made a \"comeback\" into fashion, particularly in indie culture, with capri-length leggings being worn with miniskirts and dresses with ballet flats or short length flat boots. Consequently, leggings are also now popular to wear with oversized, long sweaters, sweatshirts and tops denim miniskirts, plaid skirts, short dresses, short shorts and with socks worn over them. Leggings are also worn under athletic shorts i.e. Nike Tempo shorts especially in colder weather. Leggings also come in capri length and bike short length. The bike short length is popular under sports uniform shorts and under skirts and dresses as a fashionable item and to keep from showing too much.\n\nFor men\nAt the Marni Men's show during the Fall 2007 Fashion Week, outfits with leggings designed solely for men were introduced.\n\nMen's leggings, dubbed \"meggings\" (a portmanteau of the words \"men\" and \"leggings\") were presented as the latest fashion trend for men at spring\/summer 2011 fashion runways, supposed to be styled and layered beneath shorts and preferably with large, baggy, loose or long tops such as T-shirts.\n\nK-pop idols have been wearing male leggings under shorts as a fashion item since the 2010s.\n\nShiny leggings\n\nShiny leggings, sometimes called leather-look leggings, have a shiny, metallic (lam\u00e9), or wet-like appearance. They emerged as a popular fashion trend in the late-2000s (decade), particularly in 2008 as reported by Stylesignal and other trend forecasters. These leggings are most often a blend of nylon and spandex and come in a variety of colors, although most commonly in black, silver, or gold. These types of leggings are notable for their leather, or even latex appearance and are most often worn as evening or clubwear.\n\nShiny leggings were featured on fashion runways by many leading designers and were further popularized by celebrities such as Lauren Conrad, Kelly Clarkson and Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen. Popular makers of shiny leggings include Members Only and American Apparel.\n\nJeggings\n\n\"Jeggings\", a registered brand name of Sanko Group, are leggings made to look like skin-tight denim jeans.  Jeggings were brought on by the resurgence in style of skinny jeans in the late 2000s, when a higher demand for an even tighter style of pants came about. In 2011 \"Jeggings\" was entered into the twelfth edition of Concise Oxford English Dictionary.\n\nIn sports\n\nLeggings are sometimes worn during sports and other vigorous activities. Runners, dancers, and exercisers may wear them alone or with athletic shorts over them\u2014particularly in cold weather under a sports uniform, e.g. in soccer, with soccer shorts, shin guards and soccer socks over the leggings, under a cheerleading uniform with socks over the leggings, or field hockey players under their skirts with socks over the leggings. Leggings have even been worn by a hurling full back. Boys and men can also be seen wearing them under athletic shorts with socks over them when exercising or running track or cross country etc. Also, boys and men dancers wear leggings. Leggings and bike shorts are now accepted and allowed to be worn as part of a tennis outfit on various leagues and the professional WTA tour.\n\nIn school uniforms \n\nLeggings have become a part of many school uniforms. Many schools that have uniform requirements allow leggings as an option in cooler and colder weather as long as the required skirt or dress and required socks are worn over them.\n\nUse as outerwear\n\nThere has been societal debate about whether leggings are clothing on their own, which can be worn without covering, or are an accessory only to be worn with other items covering them, such as skirts, dresses or shorts.  In a 2016 poll of its readers Glamour magazine said that 61% of its readers thought that leggings should only be worn as an accessory, whereas an article that same year from Good Housekeeping concluded that \"...Leggings do, in fact, count as pants\u2014provided they are opaque enough that they don't show your underwear.\"\n\nThere have been a number of instances of people wearing leggings as pants who have been restricted or criticized for their actions. In 2013, schools in Sonoma County, California, banned students from wearing them as outerwear, as did a Massachusetts school in 2015. Schools in Oklahoma, Illinois, and North Carolina have enforced or suggested similar dress codes. A state legislator in Montana introduced a bill in 2015 intended to ban leggings and yoga pants.\n\nIn March 2017, three children flying on a company pass were barred from boarding a United Airlines flight by a gate agent who decided that their leggings were inappropriate.  United Airlines defended its position, while rival airline Delta stated via Twitter that leggings were welcome on its flights; United said in a statement that it does not bar regular female passengers from boarding if they are wearing leggings. Although some public figures, including actress Patricia Arquette and model and actress Chrissy Teigen, were critical of United's decision, a survey encompassing 1,800 travelers carried out by Airfarewatchdog found that 80% of their respondents backed the airline's decision to ban \"inappropriate clothing\", although the term was not defined in the poll.\n\nRestrictions on wearing leggings is sometimes linked to slut shaming or body shaming, with critics noting that \"...not being able to wear leggings because it's 'too distracting for boys' is giving us the impression we should be guilty for what guys do.\"\n\nGallery\n\nSee also\n Compression garment\n Stockings\n Tibialia\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\n1980s fashion\n1990s fashion\n2000s fashion\n2010s fashion\n2020s fashion\nAmerican fashion\nCanadian fashion\nDancewear\nHosiery\nHurling equipment\nSportswear\nUnited States Army uniforms\nWorld War II military equipment of the United States","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":187,"dup_dump_count":16,"dup_details":{"2021-49":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":2,"2019-04":28,"2018-51":6,"2018-47":25,"2018-43":10,"2018-39":27,"2018-34":11,"2018-30":21,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":32,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":13,"2017-34":1}},"id":1266636,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leggings","title":"Leggings","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A steam engine is an engine that uses steam from boiling water to make it move. The steam pushes on the engine parts to make them move. Steam engines can power many kinds of machines including vehicles and electric generators. \n\nSteam engines were used in mine pumps starting in the early 1700s century and were much improved by James Watt in the 1770s. They were very important during the industrial revolution where they replaced horses, windmills and watermills to work machines.\n\nThe first steam engines were piston engines. The steam pressure pushed on a piston which made it move along a cylinder and so they had a reciprocal (back-and-forth) motion. This could move a pump directly or work a crank to turn a wheel and work a machine. They operated at low pressure and had to be very big to make a lot of power.\n\nSteam engines were used in factories to work machines and in mines to move pumps. Later smaller engines were built that could move railway locomotives and steam boats.\n \nThe steam to power a steam engine is made in a boiler that heats water to make steam. In most places fire heats the boiler. Fuel for the fire may be wood, coal, or petroleum. Nuclear energy or solar energy may be used instead of fire. The steam coming out of the boiler applies the force on a piston. A valve sends the steam to one end of the piston, then the other, to make it move backwards and forwards. The moving piston pushes and pulls the piston rod, crosshead and connecting rod, to turn wheels or drive other machinery. The heavy spinning flywheel smooths out the power from the piston. The governor controls the speed of the engine.\n\nToday many steam engines are still at work. During the 20th century the pistons were replaced by turbines which spin like a windmill pushed by jets of steam. These turn faster with more energy efficiency than the original kinds of piston steam engines. They are used in power plants to operate generators which make electricity. Some ships are also powered by steam turbines. The boilers of steam turbines can be heated by many different types of fuel, even a nuclear reactor in some power stations and warships.\n\nRelated pages \nAeolipile\nSteam turbine\n\nMotors\nEngineering","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":3}},"id":31527,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steam%20engine","title":"Steam engine","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Spiders (class Arachnida, order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods. They have eight legs, and mouthparts (chelicerae) with fangs that inject venom. Most make silk. The spiders are seventh in number of species of all animal orders. About 48,000 spider species, and 120 families have been recorded by taxonomists. Over twenty different classifications have been proposed since 1900.p3 \n\nSpiders live on every continent except for Antarctica, and in nearly every habitat with the exceptions of air and sea. \nAlmost all spiders are predators, and most eat insects. They catch their prey in several ways. Some build a spider web, and some use a thread of silk that they throw at the insect. Some kinds of spiders hide in holes in the ground, then run out and grab an insect that walks by. Others will make web 'nets' to throw at passing insects. Or they go out and simply attack their prey. Some can jump quite well and hunt by sneaking close to an insect and then jumping on it.\n\nAnatomy \n\nSpiders have a two-part body, the front part (cephalothorax) and the abdomen. Unlike insects, spiders do not have antennae. The more advanced spiders have a centralized nervous system, with their ganglia fused into one mass in the cephalothorax. Unlike most arthropods, spiders have no extensor muscles in their limbs, and extend them by hydraulic pressure.\n\nSize range \nThe smallest of full-grown spiders can be less than 4\u00a0mm. (0.1 inch). The largest of spiders can have a body length of 10\u00a0cm. (4 inches) or more. The largest can weigh 150 grams (5.3\u00a0oz). The largest of spiders are the tarantulas and the huntsman spiders. Some huntsman spiders in South East Asia can have a leg span of around 250\u2013300\u00a0mm (9.8\u201311.8\u00a0in).\n\nSpider eyes and other senses \n\nMost spiders have four pairs of eyes on the top-front area of the body, arranged in patterns that vary from one family to another. The main eyes at the front are capable of forming images. Jumping spiders have visual acuity which is ten times better than that of dragonflies, which have by far the best vision among insects. The spiders do this by a telephoto-like series of lenses, a four-layered retina. They can swivel their eyes and put together images from different stages in the scan. The downside is that the scanning and integrating processes are relatively slow.\n\nSpiders and other arthropods have modified their cuticles into elaborate arrays of sensors. Various sensors, mostly bristles, respond to touch, from strong contact to very weak air currents. Chemical sensors provide equivalents of taste and smell. Spiders also have in the joints of their limbs sensors that detect forces and vibrations. In web-building spiders all these mechanical and chemical sensors are more important than the eyes. The eyes are more important to spiders that hunt actively. Like most arthropods, spiders lack balance sensors, and rely on their eyes to tell them which way is up.\n\nFangs \nThe fangs are hollow, like the needles used to give injections. Spiders use their fangs to inject toxins that kill the insects they will eat. Some kinds of spider venom attack the nervous systems of their prey, and other kinds of venom attack body tissues.\n\nBehavior\n\nWhat most spiders eat \n\nSpiders are predators, and eat insects and other arthropods (including other spiders). Most use venom from their fangs to kill their prey. It is rare for spiders to capture prey that are much larger than they are. It is also difficult for most spiders to capture prey that are very much smaller than they are. There are some spiders that form colonies. Spiders eat not only spiders of other species, but spiders of their own species. \n\nThe black widow spider got its name because the females sometimes eat the males that mate with them. This may also happen in other species. Each species of spider has its own way of communicating with other spiders they meet. Because of the danger of being eaten, in some species the males have special hooks on their front legs with which they hold the female while they mate. Others bring the female something to eat. There are a few species in which the male spiders construct their own little webs that are connected to the webs of the females. In these species, the male is so much smaller than the female that it would be difficult for her to actually capture the male.\n\nMost spiders have such poor vision that they will not even notice a dead insect. Jumping spiders are one exception to this rule. They have such good vision that they can find recently dead flies or other insects to eat.\n\nSome spiders are not predators \nSpiders are basically predators, but some have other food sources. The jumping spider Bagheera kiplingi gets over 90% of its food from fairly solid plant material produced by acacias as part of a beneficial relationship with a species of ant.\n\nYoung spiders of several families feed on plant nectar. Studies have shown that they do this for long periods. They also clean themselves regularly while feeding. These spiders also prefer sugar solutions to plain water, which shows that they are looking for nutrients. Many spiders are nocturnal, they are most active during the night. The extent of nectar consumption by spiders may therefore have been under-estimated. Nectar contains amino acids, lipids, vitamins and minerals in addition to sugars. Studies have shown that other spider species live longer when nectar is available. Feeding on nectar also avoids the risks of struggles with prey, and the costs of producing venom and digestive enzymes. Since nectar is a flowering plant production, its consumption by spiders came quite late in their evolution.\n\nVarious species are known to feed on dead arthropods (scavenging), web silk, and their own shed exoskeletons. Pollen caught in webs may also be eaten, and studies have shown that young spiders have a better chance of survival if they have the opportunity to eat pollen. In captivity, several spider species are also known to feed on bananas, marmalade, milk, egg yolk and sausages.\n\nMethods of catching prey\n\nWebs \nThe best-known method spiders use to capture prey is a sticky web. The placing of the web allows different spiders to trap different insects in the same area. Flat, horizontal webs allow them to trap insects that fly up from vegetation underneath, for example. Flat vertical nets allow them to trap insects in flight. The spiders that build webs usually do not see very well, but they are very sensitive to vibrations.\n\nUnderwater \nFemales of the water spider Argyroneta aquatica build underwater \"diving bell\" webs which they fill with air and use while eating their prey, molting, mating, and raising offspring. They live almost entirely within the bells, darting out to catch prey animals that touch the bell or the threads that anchor it. A few spiders use the surfaces of lakes and ponds as \"webs\", detecting trapped insects by the vibrations that these cause while struggling.\n\nBola casting \nNet-casting spiders weave only small webs but then manipulate them to trap prey. They stretch their webs and then release them when prey strike them. Those of the family Deinopidae weave even smaller webs, hold them outstretched between their first two pairs of legs, and lunge and push the webs as much as twice their own body length to trap prey, and this move may increase the webs' area by a factor of up to ten. Experiments have shown that Deinopis spinosus has two different techniques for trapping prey: backwards strikes to catch flying insects, whose vibrations it detects; and forward strikes to catch ground-walking prey that it sees. These two techniques have also been observed in other deinopids. Walking insects form most of the prey of most deinopids, but one population of Deinopis subrufus appears to live mainly on tipulid flies that they catch with the backwards strike.\n\nMature female bolas spiders of the genus Mastophora build \"webs\" that consist of only a single \"trapeze line\", which they patrol. They also construct a bolas made of a single thread, tipped with a large ball of very wet sticky silk. They emit chemicals that resemble the pheromones of moths, and then swing the bolas at the moths. They catch about the same weight of insects per night as web-weaving spiders of similar size. The spiders eat the bolas if they have not made a kill in about 30 minutes, rest for a while, and then make new bolas. Juveniles and adult males are much smaller and do not make bolas. Instead they release different pheromones that attract moth flies, and catch them with their front pairs of legs.\n\nUsing trapdoors \n\nThe primitive Liphistiidae, the \"trapdoor spiders\" (family Ctenizidae) and many tarantulas are ambush predators. They lurk in burrows, often closed by trapdoors and surrounded by networks of silk threads that alert these spiders to the presence of prey. Other ambush predators do without such aids, including many crab spiders. A few species that prey on bees, which see ultraviolet, can adjust their ultraviolet reflectance to match the flowers in which they are lurking. Wolf spiders, jumping spiders, fishing spiders and some crab spiders capture prey by chasing it, and rely mainly on vision to get their prey.\n\nCapturing insects without using webs\nNot all spiders use silk to net their prey. Instead, these spiders may capture insects by grabbing them and then biting them. Among these kinds of spiders the two best known are the wolf spiders and the jumping spiders.\n\nWolf spiders\n\nA wolf spider will usually wait until an insect comes near to it, and then rush at the insect, grab it using its front legs, and then bite the insect so that its venom can do its work.\n\nFemale wolf spiders lay their eggs on a pad of silk and then draw the edges together to create a round ball that they carry along with them wherever they go. They hold their egg balls to their tail ends by using their silk. When the eggs hatch, the little spiders will crawl onto the mother's back, and she will carry them along with her for days or weeks.\n\nWolf spiders are very good mothers and will strongly protect both their egg balls and their infants. When the time comes, the little spiders will leave the mother and each will go its own way.\n\nJumping spiders\n\nJumping spiders have very good eyes and can see well. They sneak as close to an insect as they can, and then they jump onto the insect and immediately bite it. Since they often hunt in trees, bushes, and on the sides of walls, if the jumping spider misses it may fall off. But they have a way to save themselves from harm. Before they jump they fasten their silk to the place where they have been standing, and as they jump they let out a silk safety line. So if they fall they will catch themselves when they reach the end of their silk safety line. Sometimes a jumping spider will catch an insect and then fall while still holding onto the insect. But the spider is still safe.\n\nJumping spiders make little silken \"tents\" for themselves to sleep in. When they lay eggs they keep them inside such a shelter. They do not take their eggs with them when they go out to hunt.\n\nFor all male spiders it is dangerous to seek a mate. The female spider may not realize that the male is a spider of her kind, so she may try to eat it. The jumping spiders not only have visual patterns that identify them to each other, but the male jumping spider will do a special dance when it approaches a female of the same species. That way, the female can recognize that it is a male of her species. She will generally forget about eating for long enough to mate with the visiting male spider.\n\nJumping spiders have such good eyes that they will usually watch any human who tries to watch them. Some species are very shy and will run away if the human gets too close. But some species, such as Phidippus audax (the audacious or brave jumping spider) and Platycryptus undatus, can become calm if the human comes close to them slowly. Sometimes they will jump onto one of your fingers and then jump from finger to finger and from hand to hand. They seem to want to explore.\n\nHunting other spiders \nSome jumping spiders of the genus Portia hunt other spiders in ways that seem intelligent, outflanking their victims or luring them from their webs. Laboratory studies show that Portias instinctive tactics are only starting points for a trial-and-error approach from which these spiders learn very quickly how to overcome new prey species. However, they seem to be relatively slow thinkers, which is not surprising as their brains are vastly smaller than those of mammalian predators.\n\n Disguising as ants \n\nAnt-mimicking spiders face several challenges: they generally develop slimmer abdomens and false \"waists\" to mimic the three distinct regions (tagmata) of an ant's body; they wave the first pair of legs in form to their heads to mimic antennae, which spiders lack, and to conceal the fact that they have eight legs rather than six. They have large color patches round one pair of eyes to disguise the fact that they generally have eight simple eyes, while ants have two compound eyes; they cover their bodies with reflective hairs to resemble the shiny bodies of ants. In some spider species males and females mimic different ant species, as female spiders are usually much larger than males.\n\nAnt-mimicking spiders also modify their behavior to resemble that of the target species of ant, for example many adopt a zig-zag pattern of movement, ant-mimicking jumping spiders avoid jumping, and spiders of the genus Synemosyna walk on the outer edges of leaves in the same way as Pseudomyrmex. Ant-mimicry in many spiders and other arthropods may be for protection from predators that hunt by sight, including birds, lizards and spiders. However several ant-mimicking spiders prey either on ants or on the ants \"livestock\" such as aphids. When at rest the ant-mimicking crab spider Amyciaea does not closely resemble Oecophylla, but while hunting it imitates the behavior of a dying ant to attract worker ants. After a kill some ant-mimicking spiders hold their victims between themselves and large groups of ants to avoid being attacked.\n\n Reproduction and life cycle \n\nSpiders reproduce sexually and fertilization is internal but indirect. In other words, the sperm is not inserted into the female's body by the male's genitals but by an intermediate stage. Unlike many land-living arthropods, male spiders do not produce ready-made spermatophores (packages of sperm). Instead, they spin small sperm webs on to which they ejaculate and then transfer the sperm to structures on the tips of their pedipalps. When a male detects signs of a female nearby he checks whether she is of the same species and whether she is ready to mate; for example in species that produce webs or 'safety ropes', the male can identify the species and sex of these objects by smell.\n\nSpiders generally use elaborate courtship rituals to prevent the large females from eating the small males before fertilization, except where the male is so much smaller that he is not worth eating. In some species males mate with newly molted females, which are too weak to be dangerous to the males.\n\nIn web-weaving species precise patterns of vibrations in the web are a major part of the rituals, while patterns of touches on the female's body are important in many spiders that hunt actively, and may 'hypnotize' the female. Gestures and dances by the male are important for jumping spiders, which have excellent eyesight. If courtship is successful, the male injects his sperm from the pedipalps into the female's genital opening on the underside of her abdomen. Female reproductive tracts vary. Some are simple tubes, but others have chambers where females store sperm, and release it when they are ready.\n\nMales do get eaten in some species. Males of the genus Tidarren cut off one of their palps, and enter adult life with one palp only. The palps are 20% of male's body mass in this species, and detaching one of the two improves mobility. In the Yemeni species Tidarren argo, the remaining palp is then torn off by the female. The separated palp remains attached to the female's opening for about four hours. In the meantime, the female feeds on the palpless male. In over 60% of cases the female of the Australian redback spider kills and eats the male after it inserts its second palp into the female's genital opening; in fact the males co-operate by trying to impale themselves on the females' fangs. Observation shows that most male redbacks never get an opportunity to mate, and the 'lucky' ones increase the likely number of offspring by ensuring that the females are well-fed. However males of most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. Some even live for a while in their mates' webs.p176\/212\n\nFemales lay up to 3,000 eggs in one or more silk egg sacs, which maintain a fairly constant humidity level. In some species the females die afterwards, but females of other species protect the sacs by attaching them to their webs, hiding them in nests, carrying them in the chelicerae or attaching them to the spinnerets and dragging them along.\n\n Development of young \nBaby spiders pass all their larval stages inside the egg and hatch as spiderlings, very small and sexually immature but similar in shape to adults. Some spiders care for their young, for example a wolf spider's brood cling to rough bristles on the mother's back, and females of some species respond to the \"begging\" behaviour of their young by giving them their prey, provided it is no longer struggling, or even regurgitate food.\n\nLike other arthropods, spiders have to moult to grow as their cuticle (\"skin\") cannot stretch. Most spiders live for only one to two years, although some tarantulas can live in captivity for over 20 years.p232\n\n Spiders and humans \nOf the 40,000 spiders, less than 12 are known to be dangerous to humans. Most of the time, being bitten by a spider is painful. Most spiders use venom to paralyse their prey; they kill it through eating, or through a bite. A few spiders have venoms that can be dangerous to weakened people and those allergic to it. Since 1927, 13 people have died, after a bite from a Atrax robustus spider from Australia.\n\nThe spider that kills the most people, the black widow and other spiders in the genus Latrodectus are around 1\u00a0cm. in body length. The Atrax and Phoneutria spiders, which are also capable of killing people, both average around 2.5\u00a0cm. or one inch, and even the Widow spiders are large enough to be easily noticed.\n\nEven relatively small spiders like Phidippus audax can give a painful bite if you hurt them, but spiders are very helpful to human beings because they control insects that eat our crops.\n\nBeing afraid of spiders is a very common phobia (fear). The widow spiders (black widows and other members of their genus) never willingly leave their webs, so usually people get bitten when they touch the spider by mistake.\n\n Gallery Click on a picture to see it larger:'''\n\n References \n\n Other websites \n\n Platnick N.I. 20013. The world spider catalog''. Hosted by the American Museum of Natural History, and edited by Peter Merrett and H. Don Cameron.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":175,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":4,"2020-50":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2}},"id":19903,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spider","title":"Spider","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Natural History Museum (NHM) is a museum in London. It is the largest natural history museum in Britain. It includes the nation's main collections of specimens of life, rocks and minerals. The museum employs scientific staff, conducts research, stores specimens, and manages the public galleries.\n\nThe NHM is one of the four large institutions on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, London. The others are the Science Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum and Imperial College London.\n\nHistory \nThe NHM was at first a department of the famous British Museum. When the present NHM building was opened in 1881, it was then called the British Museum (Natural History) or BMNH. Its head reported to the Director of the British Museum. Not until 1963 did the NHM become fully independent, with its own Board of Trustees, and not until 1992 was it permitted to use its present name.\n\nIn 1986, the museum absorbed the adjacent Geological Museum of the British Geological Survey, which is to just to the north of the NHM. The museum's galleries were completely rebuilt and relaunched in 1996 as The Earth Galleries, with the exhibitions in the Waterhouse building retitled The Life Galleries. The Natural History Museum's own Mineralogy displays remain largely unchanged as an example of the 19th-century display techniques of the Waterhouse building.\n\nThe newly developed Darwin Centre (named after Charles Darwin) is designed as a new home for the museum's collection of tens of millions of preserved specimens, and new work spaces for the museum's scientific staff. Built in two phases, with two new buildings adjacent to the main Waterhouse building, it is the most important new project in the museum's history.\n\nScientific work \nThe museum employs 300 scientific staff, and has huge collections of fossils, rocks and minerals, as well as the preserved specimens of present-day plants and animals. There are over 70 million specimens in the collections. Data bases of the collections are being developed.\n\nOther websites\n Natural History Museum official site\n\nReferences \n\nMuseums in London\nNational museums\nNatural history museums","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":204251,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural%20History%20Museum","title":"Natural History Museum","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Crucifixion is a way to execute (kill) someone, usually because they have committed a crime. It was used as a capital punishment by the government of Rome. A prisoner was beaten with whips, and made to carry their own cross. They were either tied or nailed to the cross. The Romans used different types of crosses: T-shaped, X-shaped, and sometimes just trees. It killed people by making them bleed, go into shock, and making it hard for them to breathe, eventually dying of suffocation. Some of the people would live for several days before dying. The Roman soldiers (which were like the police of that time) would often break the legs of the criminal to speed it up.\n\nJesus Christ\n\nThe most famous person to have been crucified was Jesus Christ, the Son of God according to the Christian religion. He was crucified along with two thieves. The cross later became a symbol of Christianity. Six of the twelve apostles of Jesus were also crucified later on, but most of them asked to be crucified in a different way from Jesus. For example, Andrew (who later became the patron saint of Scotland) was crucified on an X-shaped cross. In the year 337 AD, Emperor Constantine I abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire.\n\nReferences\n\nCapital punishment\nChristian symbols","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":50588,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crucifixion","title":"Crucifixion","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A church is a building that was constructed to allow people to meet to worship together. These people are usually Christians, or influenced by Christianity. Some other non-Christian religious groups also call their religious buildings churches, most notably Scientology.\n\nThe following description is about Roman Catholic churches, although some parts are the same in Episcopalian and Lutheran churches. Depending on the number of people that are in a community, the churches come in different sizes. Small churches are called chapels. The churches in a particular geographical area form a group called the diocese.  Each diocese has a cathedral.  In most cases, the cathedral is a very big church. Cathedrals are the seat of bishops.\n\nHistory of church buildings \n\n \n\nIn the early days of Christianity people met in private buildings. Church buildings are mentioned for the first time around the year 260 A.D. when the Emperor Galienus ordered an end of a persecution and to return the places of worship. In the third century we hear of large church buildings. We do not know, how these early buildings looked. Only in Dura-Europos (Syria) a building was discovered, which had been a private house modified for Christian services.\n\nAfter the death of the Roman emperor Constantine in 337 A.D. Christians were allowed to have buildings to worship in. These first churches were built on a similar plan to Roman basilicas. This plan was later used for the fine Gothic cathedrals and churches that were built at the end of the Middle Ages.\n\nThe parts of a church \n\nThere are several parts in the architecture of a church. Not all churches will have all these parts:\n\n The nave is the main part of the church where the congregation (the people who come to worship) sit. \n The aisles are the sides of the church which may run along the side of the nave.\n The transept, if there is one, is an area which crosses the nave near the top of the church. This makes the church shaped like a cross, which is a symbol of Jesus's death on a cross.\n The chancel leads up to the altar at the top of the church. The altar is in the sanctuary. The word \"sanctuary\" means \"sacred place\". People were not allowed to be arrested in the sanctuary, so they were safe. The altar is usually at the east end of the church. People in the church sit facing the altar. We say that the church \"faces east\".\n Churches will also have a tower or steeple, usually at the west end. If the church has a transept the tower may be above the centre of the transept.\n\nIn Roman Catholic churches there is always a stoup (bowl) of holy water near the entrance of the church. This tradition comes from the fact that Roman basilicas had a fountain for washing in front of the entrance. The font is a bowl where people (often babies) are baptized. This is also near the entrance of the church. This is a symbol of the fact that it is welcoming the people into the Christian church.\n\nTraditionally the nave has long benches for the congregation to sit on. These are called pews. Some churches may now have replaced their pews with chairs so that they can be moved about for different occasions. At the front of the nave is the pulpit where the priest preaches (these talks are called \"sermons\"). There is also a lectern (like a large music stand) from where the lessons (the Bible readings) are read.\n\nIf there are aisles along the side of the nave there will be pillars which hold up the roof. In large churches or cathedrals there may be a row of little arches along the top of these pillars. This is called the triforium. Over the triforium is the clerestory which is a row of windows high up in the church wall.\n\nThe chancel is the most holy part of the church, and this is why it is often separated from the nave by a screen which can be made of wood or stone, or occasionally iron. The congregation can see through the screen. On the top of the screen there may be a cross. This is called a rood (pronounce like \"rude\") screen. Priests used to climb up a staircase to the top of the rood screen to read the epistle and the gospel. Sometimes people sang from there.\n\nInside the chancel are the benches where the choir sit. These are called choir stalls. They are on both sides. The two sides of the choir sit facing one another. The choir members who sit on the left (north side) are called \"cantoris\" (the side where the \"cantor\" sits) and those on the right (south side) are called \"decani\" (the side where the deacon sits). In some large churches or cathedrals the seats for the priests tip up. The top of these seats, when they are tipped up, are called misericords (from the Latin word for \"mercy\"). This is because the priests or monks were able to lean against them when they got tired if they had to stand up for a long time.\n\nSometimes there are holes in the walls of the screen so that the congregation can see through. These are called squints. If there is a recess in the wall it is called an aumbry. It is a cupboard for communion wine and bread that have been consecrated by a priest.\n\nThe altar may be right at the east end of the church, but in larger churches or cathedrals it is often much farther forward. In that case the very east end is called an apse. Sometimes it is a separate chapel called the \"Lady Chapel\".\n\nChurches through the ages \n\nThe design of churches changed a lot during the course of history. Often churches were made bigger. When this happened there may be a mixture of architectural styles. These styles vary a lot in different countries.\n\nEnglish churches \n\nIn English churches there were several different periods of architecture:\n\n The Saxon period (700\u20131050) was a time when churches were very simple. The end of the church (end of the sanctuary) was often rounded. Hardly any are left now because they were mostly made of wood.\n The Norman period (1050\u20131190) came from the style called Romanesque which was popular in Europe. The arches had ornaments which were called \"mouldings\". The tops of the pillars looked like cushions, so they were called \"cushion capitals\". The windows were narrow and rounded at the top.\n Early English or Gothic architecture (1190\u20131280) was not as solid and heavy as Norman architecture. Towers were elegant and tall, like the tower of Salisbury Cathedral.\n The Decorated style of architecture (1280\u20131360)was popular at a time when the plague (Black Death) was raging and a third of the people in England died. For that reason, not so much building was done then. There were lots of stone carvings were made in churches at that time.\n The Perpendicular style (1360\u20131540) was very grand. It had lots of straight upward lines and fan vaulting. This can be seen in Westminster Abbey and King's College Chapel, Cambridge. Many churches that can be seen in England were built in this period.\n\nIn the 1600s, churches were built in a variety of styles. Often they copied some of the older styles. After the Great Fire of London many new churches were built by the architect Sir Christopher Wren. They were built in the classical style. Churches continued to be built in later centuries like this, but also the Gothic style continued to be used.\n\nModern churches often do not have the traditional cross-shape. It is difficult for the congregation to see and hear what is happening in the chancel. Modern churches bring the congregation, choir and priests in closer touch. An example is the round design for the Church of Christ the Cornerstone in Milton Keynes. Modern churches are often simpler but with a warmer character than the Gothic churches. Many have beautiful mosaic glass windows. Coventry Cathedral is a famous example of a modern church building.\n\nRelated pages\nCathedral\nChapel\nChoir (music)\n\nReferences \n\n Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, 1973\n\nOther websites \n\n Virtual Church","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":131,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-22":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":142,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Church%20%28building%29","title":"Church (building)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the main protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. TCP is part of the popular \"TCP\/IP\" combination used by the Internet. The Internet Protocol, or IP, makes sure data on the internet gets to the right place. Then TCP makes sure the data is put in the right order, and none of it is missing. TCP also helps to control traffic on the internet so it does not get overloaded. These protocols, which are kind of like languages that computers use, are designed so that any computer, and any program (such as a Web browser or e-mail client), can use them.\n\nImportance of TCP \nTCP makes it easier for computer programs to communicate with each other, typically over a computer network. When a program wants to send a lot of data, TCP is in charge of dividing the data, sending it through the network, and putting it back together correctly on a different computer. In the process, IP chooses which wires and \"intersections\" get used to send all the data pieces in the fastest way. It does this using packets.\n\nIf there are a lot of people using the network, it can get overloaded. Also sometimes weather, power outages, and other problems can make communication hard. Routers on the Internet use something called load balancing to try to fix some of these problems. But still, information can be delivered out of order, get lost, or even duplicated. TCP is designed to notice all of these problems and try to fix them. This can take a while, which is why the Internet sometimes seems slow. Once the TCP receiver has finally reassembled a perfect copy of the data originally transmitted, it passes that data to the computer program that asked for it. In this way, the program does not have to know about the network, and TCP does not have to know about the program's data.\n\nFurther reading \n W. Richard Stevens. TCP\/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols. \n W. Richard Stevens and Gary R. Wright. TCP\/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation. \n W. Richard Stevens. TCP\/IP Illustrated, Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP, and the UNIX Domain Protocols.\n\nOther websites \n Dissertation about TCP improvements in wired and wireless networks  (Dissertation)\n IANA Port Assignments\n John Kristoff's Overview of TCP (Fundamental concepts behind TCP and how it is used to transport data between two endpoints)\n RFC 675 - Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974 Version\n RFC 793 - TCP v4\n RFC 1122 - includes some error corrections for TCP\n RFC 1323 - TCP-Extensions\n RFC 1379 - Extending TCP for Transactions\u2014Concepts\n RFC 1948 - Defending Against Sequence Number Attacks\n RFC 2018 - TCP Selective Acknowledgment Options\n RFC 2581 - TCP Congestion Control\n RFC 2988 - Computing TCP's Retransmission Timer\n RFC 4614 - A Roadmap for TCP Specification Documents\n TCP, Transmission Control Protocol \n TCP EFSM diagram - A detailed description of TCP states. \n The basics of Transmission Control Protocol \n The Law of Leaky Abstractions by Joel Spolsky\n Checksum example\n\nComputer protocols","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":151618,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transmission%20Control%20Protocol","title":"Transmission Control Protocol","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Timpani (sometimes called kettle drums) are drums that are made out of large bowls that are usually made of copper shaped by craftsmen, which after being tuned, have a skin-like material stretched over the top. This material used to be a type of vellum or treated skin, but modern drums use a synthetic material. This top section is known as the \"drumhead\". \nTimpani is an Italian word. It is also a plural of the word timpano. However timpano is rarely used in informal English. More often, a timpano is referred to as a drum, a timpani, or simply a timp. Someone who plays a timpani is called a \"timpanist\".\n\nDifference from other drums\nTimpani are different from other drums because they are tuned to certain musical notes. A timpanist will often describe the drum as being \"in voice\" (or out of voice, as the case may be) when it is correctly tuned. To play it, it is hit with a special drumstick or \"timpani mallet\". Other drums that are used in orchestras and bands make a sound rather than a note, and are not tuned. A player normally sits with a group of two, three or four timpani around him, which is why the name timpani is in the plural.\n\nBrief history\nTimpani were originally used in official bands. They can still be seen in the bands of the modern official as in the Household Cavalry of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, in which the \"kettle drums\" (as they are called) are carried by large  drumhorses.(See picture below) In the 1700s timpani became popular in orchestral music, and can be heard in the music of Handel, Beethoven and other 19th century composers wrote music that needed the timpani. Nowadays all large orchestras have timpani, and some bands that play popular music use them as well.\n\nDifferent ways timpani can be made\n\nThe drumhead \nA timpani drumhead, also called a timpani head, can be made out of two different things. Some are made out of animal skin, like calfskin or goatskin. Other ones can be made out of thick plastic. Because plastic heads are hard to break and do not cost as much as animal skin heads, they are used more often than animal skin heads. However, a lot of professional players prefer skin heads because they think that skin heads make a better sound when they are hit. The drumhead is stretched over the bowl of the timpani and held on by screws for tuning the timpani.\n\nTuning the timpani \nThe screws that hold and tune the drumhead are called \"tension rods\". To tune the timpani, the \"tension rods\" can all be tightened or loosened. The timpani makes a higher sound if the tension rods are made tighter, and a lower sound if they are loosened. There are usually around seven tension rods on the timpani.\n\nMachine timpani \nTuning a timpani by turning every tension rod by itself can be very hard, so some timpani makers invented different ways to change the drum's pitch more quickly.\n\nChain timpani \nIn a chain timpani, the tension rods are all attached to a chain. This chain is hooked up to a lever, and when a player moves the lever back and forth, it tightens and loosens all the screws at the same time to change the pitch of the drum.\n\nPedal timpani \nA pedal timpani is a timpani that uses a pedal to change its pitch. It is the kind of timpani that is used the most today. A player can push on the pedal to make the timpani play higher notes, or let the pedal come back up to play lower notes. There are three different kinds of pedal timpani:\n In a ratchet clutch system a player must pull back a lever called a clutch to release the pedal. Once the pedal is in the spot where the player wants it, they must push the clutch forward with their foot again to lock it in place.\n A balanced action system uses a spring that is attached to the pedal, which keeps the pedal in one spot until it is moved by a player. Since the pedal is not held in one spot by a clutch in a balanced action system, some people call it a floating pedal because it looks like the pedal is not held on by anything and is floating.\n In a friction clutch system, the pedal is held in one spot by a clutch, and the clutch is attached to a pole. When a player releases the clutch, the pole moves up and down as the pedal is pushed up and down.\n\nTimpani mallets \n\nTimpani are played with a special kind of drumstick called timpani mallets. A player uses two mallets at a time when they play the drum. The two parts of the mallet are called the shaft and the head. The head is the part of the mallet that is shaped like a circle, and is the part that hits the timpani, and the shaft is the wooden part of the mallet that is held by a timpanist. A timpani mallet's head can be made out of many things, but is usually made out of a wood sphere that is covered with felt or a thin cloth. The shaft of the mallet is usually made out of wood, like hickory, cherry, or bamboo, but can also be made out of metal, like aluminum. Some timpani mallets do not have a felt head, and just have a wooden one. These mallets are sometimes used in classical and baroque music.\n\nIn the beginning of the 20th century, some mallets had shafts made out of whale bones and heads made out of sponges.\n\nTechniques \nWith a pedal timpani, a player can produce different sound effects using the pedals. Performing glissando on timpani demands switching the pedals. Glissando is generated by pressing the pedal during the vertebra. Furthermore it is possible to play glissando at any volume level up or down. For example, Alexander Rahbari, an outstanding Iranian-Austrian composer used glissando effect produced by switching timpani pedals in the opening of his piece, Persian Mysticism Around G, where the player moves from Bb up to C and then rolling down to G(see the timpani part on right below).\n\nRelated pages\n Drum\n Pedal (music)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n Timpani FAQ  by Dwight Thomas, Lead Timpanist, Omaha Symphony\n Video  of Stuart Marrs, chairman of the University of Maine music department, performing the March from Eight Pieces for Four Timpani\n\nDrums","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":73723,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timpani","title":"Timpani","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Black Sea is a sea in Eurasia between Europe, Caucasus, and Anatolia. Many rivers flow to the Black Sea, including the big rivers, the Don, Danube, Dniester and Dnieper.\n\nIt is connected to the Atlantic Ocean through the Bosphorus strait, the Sea of Marmara, the Dardanelles strait, the Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar. 90% of the sea has no oxygen. The water is saltwater but less salty than the ocean. During the last ice age, the Black Sea was a freshwater lake.\n\nHistory \nIn Greek mythology, the Argonauts traveled on the sea. Greeks set up colonies around the sea because it was important to trade for many countries in ancient history. The Gallipoli Campaign during World War I was a fight for access to the Black Sea. It was also important in World War II.\n\nGeology \nThe Black Sea sits on continental plates which have subsided. It is a geologic basin, and therefore is a genuine inland sea. Its maximum depth is about 2000 metres. The Black Sea is the world's largest basin where the deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water. The upper layers are generally cooler, less dense and less salty than the deeper waters, as they are fed by large river systems, whereas the deep waters come from the warm, salty waters of the Mediterranean. \nThe Crimean Peninsula divides this sea.  The Bosporus and Dardanelles connect the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.\n\nReferences \n\nBlack Sea","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":190037,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black%20Sea","title":"Black Sea","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Manusa (Homo sapiens) mangrupa hiji sp\u00e9si\u00e9s ti Kera Ged\u00e9 (Great Ape) jeung hiji-hijina sp\u00e9si\u00e9s nu salamet ti marga Homo. Sp\u00e9si\u00e9s ieu biasa og\u00e9 disebut jelema, jalma, kamanusaan, atawa umat manusa. Manusa punjul ku kapinteranna jeung kabisana ngagunakeun basa.\n\nAsal-usul \n\nArtikel utama: \u00c9volusi manusa\n\nDulur \u00e9volusion\u00e9r nu pangdeukeutna ka manusa nya\u00e9ta dua sp\u00e9si\u00e9s simpanse Pan troglodytes (\"common chimp\") jeung Pan paniscus (\"pygmy chimp\" atawa \"Bonobo\"), sarta ka nu darajat duduluranana leuwih handap hominoid s\u00e9j\u00e9nna kayaning orangutan jeung gorilla. Penting dicatet, y\u00e9n manusa ukur babagi hiji common ancestor jeung nu disarebut tadi, henteu diturunkeun sacara langsung ti maran\u00e9hna. Para ahli biologi geus ngabandingkeun runtuyan pasangan basa DNA antara manusa jeung simpanseu, sarta ngira-ngira  b\u00e9da g\u00e9n\u00e9tikna ukur 5%. Hasil ngira-ngira nunjukkeun y\u00e9n karuhun manusa misah ti simpanseu 5 jutaan taun ka tukang, sedengkeun ti gorilla watara 8 juta taun ka tukang. However, recent news reports of a hominid skull approximately 7 million y\u00e9ars old alr\u00e9ady showing a divergence from the ape lin\u00e9age strongly suggests an \u00e9arlier divergence. Some scientists argue that bonobos, chimpanzees and, possibly, gorillas should be lumped into the genus Homo, but this is currently a minority opinion.\n\nLoba golongan agamis anu kabeuratan jeung kontroversi ngeunaan tiori \u00e9volusi manusa ti hiji common ancestor jeung hominoid s\u00e9j\u00e9nna. Tempo kr\u00e9asionisme jeung pamanggih ti \u00e9volusi pikeun jihat sawangan nu patojaiyah.\n\nCiri fisik \n\nAwak manusa didadarkeun na kumpulan artikel anatomi manusa. Manusa mibanda loba pisan range of variability dina ciri pisik jeung karakter lainna.\n\nThe evolution of Homo sapiens is characterized by a number of important trends:\n expansion of the brain cavity and brain itself, which is typically about 1,400 cm\u00b3 in volume, well over twice that of a chimpanzee or gorilla.  Some physical anthropologists argue that a r\u00e9organization of the structure of the brain is more important than cranial expansion itself.  \n canine tooth reduction.\n bipedal locomotion\n descent of the larynx (which makes possible the production of the complex sound known as vocal language).\n\n \nHow these trends are related, in what ways they have been adaptive, and what their role is in the evolution of complex social organization and culture, are matters of ongoing debate among physical anthropologists.\n\nAlthough body size is highly heritable, it is also significantly influenced by environmental and cultural factors such as diet.  The m\u00e9an height of an American adult female is 162 cm (64 in) and the m\u00e9an weight is 62 kg (137 lb).  Males are typically larger: 175\u00a0cm (69\u00a0in) and 78 kilograms (172\u00a0lb). Humans vary substantially around these m\u00e9ans, and the m\u00e9ans themselves have varied depending on locality and historical factors.\n\nHuman children, typically weighing 3-4 kilograms (6-9 pounds) and 50-60 centimetres (20-24 inches) in height, are born after a nine-month gestation period. Helpless at birth, they continue to grow for some y\u00e9ars, typically r\u00e9aching sexual maturity at around 12\u201315 y\u00e9ars of age.  Boys continue growing for some time after this, often only r\u00e9aching their maximum height around the age of 18.\n\nHuman life expectancy at birth is approaching 80 y\u00e9ars in w\u00e9althy nations, with the assistance of science and technology.  The number of centenarians in the world was estimated  at about 50,000 in 2003.  The maximum human life span is thought to be about 120 y\u00e9ars.\n\nSee also human physical appearance.\n\nCiri m\u00e9ntal \n\nManusa nganggap man\u00e9hna salaku organisme pangpinterna di karajaan sato. Manusa mibanda nisbah otak nepika ka beurat awak pangbadagna ti sakab\u00e9h sato badag (lumba-lumba kadua; hiu pangluhurna di dunya lauk; sedengkeun octopus pangluhurna di dunya invertebrata). Najan ieu teu mangrupa ukuran absolut (inasmuch as a minimum brain-mass is necessary for certain \"housekeeping\" functions), nisbah massa otak ka massa awak m\u00e9mang m\u00e9r\u00e9 cicir\u00e9n nu had\u00e9 pikeun kapinteran r\u00e9latif (Carl Sagan, The Dragons of Eden, 38).\n\nKamampuhan manusa kana abstraksi teu paral\u00e9l na karajaan sato. Hasil-hasil uji geus nunjukkeun y\u00e9n simpanse d\u00e9wasa kurang leuwih mibanda kamampuhan abstraksi nu sarua jeung budak umur opat taun.\n\nPattern recognition is another ar\u00e9a for which human beings are mentally \nwell-suited.\n\nMikir, IQ, Memory, Invention, \u00c9lmu, Filosofi, Pangaweruh, Atikan,\nConsciousness\n\nCiri \u00e9mosional \n\n\u00c9mosi, Tresna, Cua, Bungah, jsb.\n\nCiri spiritual \n\nAgama miara y\u00e9n di sagigireun sifat fisik jeung m\u00e9ntalna, umat manusa og\u00e9 mibanda sifat spiritual; loba nu yakin y\u00e9n ayana sifat spiritual ieu nu ngab\u00e9dakeun umat manusa ti mahluk s\u00e9j\u00e9n. Sabalikna, kaom at\u00e9is yakin y\u00e9n manusa teu mibanda asp\u00e9k spiritual, antukna teu bina ti nu s\u00e9j\u00e9n.\n\nRoh, Conscience, Agama, Moralitas, Prayer, Worship, etc.\n\nHabitat \n\nHabitat asli nalika manusa ngalaman \u00e9volusi ny\u00e9ta di sabana Afrika (tempo Vagina gentium, Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness). T\u00e9hnologi nu n\u00e9pa sacara kultural geus ngajalanan manusa pikeun bum\u00e9n-bum\u00e9n di sadaya buana sarta nyaluyukeun man\u00e9h jeung sadaya iklim. Within the last few decades, humans have been able to temporarily inhabit Antarctica, the oc\u00e9an depths, and outer space, although permanent habitation of these three environments is not yet possible. Humans, with a population of about six billion, are one of the most numerous mammals on \u00e9arth.\n\nMost humans (61%) live in the Asian region. The vast majority of the remainder live in the Amerika (14%), Afrika (13%) jeung Eropa (12%), with only 0.3% in Australia. See list of countries by population and list of countries by population density.\n\nBeing primates, humans' original life style is hunting\/gathering, which is adapted to the savannah where they evolved. Other human life styles are nomadism (often linked to animal herding) and permanent settlements made possible by the development of agriculture. Humans have a gr\u00e9at capacity for altering their habitats by various methods, such as agriculture, irrigation, urban planning and construction, and activities accessory to those, such as transportation and manufacturing goods.\n\nPermanent human settlements are dependent on proximity to water and, depending on the lifestyle, other natural resources such as fertile land for growing crops and grazing livestock or, s\u00e9asonally by populations of prey. With the advent of large-scale trade and transportation infrastructure, immediate proximity to these resources has become less necessary, and in many places these factors are no longer the driving force behind growth and decline of population.\n\nPopulasi \n\nA sizable minority - around 2.5  of a total of 6.3 billion p\u00e9ople - live in urban surroundings.  Urbanisation is expected to rise drastically during the 21st century.  Problems for humans in cities include various forms of pollution, crime and poverty, especially in inner city and suburban slums.\n\nHumans living on Antarctica, under the oc\u00e9an, or in space are part of scientific, military, or industrial expeditions, and habitation of these environments is temporary.\n\nLife in space has thus far been temporary living, with up to ten humans in space at a given time (seven on the Space Shuttle, three on Mir) and currently around three in the International Space Station. This is a direct result of humans' vulnerability to ionizing radiation.  Prior to 1961, all humans were restricted to the \u00e9arth; Yuri Gagarin was the first human to travel into space.  At various periods between 1969 and 1974, up to two humans spent varying amounts of time on the Moon.  As of yet, residencies or human explorations on other planets have not come to be.\n\nNgabandingkeun Homo sapiens jeung sp\u00e9si\u00e9s s\u00e9j\u00e9n \n\nHumans often consider themselves to be the dominant species on Earth, and the most advanced in intelligence and ability to manage their environment. This belief is especially strong in Western culture, and is based in part on the Biblical Creation story in which Adam is explicitly given dominion over the \u00e9arth and all of its cr\u00e9atures.\n\nBiologists and scientists in general, though, do not consider \"dominant\" to be a useful term, because the adaptive value of any trait or complex of traits depends on the niche and is highly mutable.  From a scientific standpoint, Homo sapiens certainly is among the most generalized species on Earth.  Smaller and simpler animals such as bacteria and insects gr\u00e9atly surpass humans in population size and diversity of species, but few single species occupy as many diverse environments as humans. Many other species, for example, are adapted to specific environments, wher\u00e9as humans rely on the use of fire and on tools such as clothing and manufactured shelter, which are themselves often produced and used through complex social interactions.\n\nVarious attempts have been made to identify a single behavioral characteristic that distinguishes humans from all other animals, e.g. the ability to mak\u00e9 and use tools (building shelter, weaving fabrics for clothing); the ability to alter the environment; language; and the development of complex social relationships and structures.  Considered in isolation, however, these differences are not absolute, as ethologists have recorded such behaviors in many species.  Apes and even birds, for example, are known to \"fish\" for insects using blades of grass or twigs, and even to shape the tools for that purpose. For these r\u00e9asons, the id\u00e9a that making and using tools is a defining characteristic of humans is often considered outdated, though of course no other animal uses tools to the same degree or with the same flexibility as Homo sapiens.  Similarly, other animals often have methods of communication, but the degree to which humans cr\u00e9ate and use complex grammar and abstract concepts in language has not been seen in any other species.\n\nChomskian linguistics holds that a distinguishing f\u00e9ature of humans is that they are the only extant species with a language instinct - a genetic predisposition that produces a brain mechanism whose function is to acquire a language by observing those around us. Dolphins may also have this trait as they show dialect.\n\nSome anthropologists think that these r\u00e9adily observable characteristics (tool-making and language) are based on less \u00e9asily observable mental processes that might be unique among humans: the ability to think symbolically.  That is, humans can think abstractly about concepts and id\u00e9as.  They can question, use logic, understand mathematical concepts, and so on in ways gr\u00e9ater than other animals are known to do, although several species have demonstrated some abilities in these ar\u00e9as. In any case, the id\u00e9a that these abilities distinguish humans from other species is the basis of the name Homo sapiens, sometimes translated as \"Man the Thinker\". It should be noted, however, that the extinct species of the Homo genus (e.g. Homo neanderthalensis, Homo erectus) were also adept tool makers and there is some evidence that they may have had linguistic skills.\n\nWhile humans have all these characteristics, from the biological viewpoint the question \"What single characteristic distinguishes humans from all other animals?\" is an odd one: it is not a question that is usually asked of cats, dolphins, or song sparrows. Finding other species that shape tools or can use sign language may shed light on human evolution, but it doesn't erase the differences or similarities between humans and other species.\n\nKagiatan manusa \n\n Kahirupan\n Kaahlian\n Ngimpi, Sar\u00e9, Hudang\n Human communication\n Interpersonal communication\n Ngomong, Nguping\n Nulis & Maca\n Mikir, Pangaweruh\n Paripolah manusa\n Periode manusa\n\n\u00c9lmu ngeunaan manusa \n Antropologi\n Linguistik\n Psikologi\n Sosiologi\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n budak & orok\n peradaban\n \u00e9nvironmentalisme\n \u00c9volusi Homo sapiens\n biologi manusa\n kondisi manusa\n \u00e9kologi manusa\n karageman manusa\n humanoid\n lalaki & aw\u00e9w\u00e9\n\nRujukan \n Wikip\u00e9dia basa Inggris, disalin ping 20 Juli 2004.\n\nTumbu kaluar \n Hiji Sawangan ngeunaan Asal-usul Manusa Modern\n Tangkal Kahirupan \n\nHomo (taksa)\nManusa","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":173,"dup_dump_count":91,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":3,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":5,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":877,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manusa","title":"Manusa","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A veterinarian or a vet, is someone who gives animals Veterinary medicine or medical treatment. They are doctors for animals. There are many different types of veterinarians; some work with small animals, large farm animals, or wild animals. Veterinarians learn to treat all animals, but sometimes work with a specific type. Other veterinarians specialise in a particular type of medicine - for example, veterinary dermatologists work with animals with skin problems. Finally, some veterinarians do research on animal or human diseases.\n\nTo become a vet in North America, you must go to college for at least 2 or 3 years, and take several required classes, including many science classes. You then apply to veterinary school. If you are accepted, you are in veterinary school for 4 years, and then graduate with the degree Doctor of Veterinary Medicine. In the United States and Canada, you have to pass a test (called the NAVLE or North American Veterinary Licensing Exam) before you can practice as a veterinarian. In other countries such as Australia, veterinary schools are 5 years long and take students that have finished high school. In Iraq, veterinary schools are 5 years long and take students that have finished high schools.\n\nReferences \n\nVeterinary medicine\nScience occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":126170,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Veterinarian","title":"Veterinarian","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A pseudonym (soo-do-nim) or alias is a fake name a person uses instead of their real name. Many people use pseudonyms, including authors (pen names) and performers (stage names). People use pseudonyms for several different reasons: to hide identity, gender, and\/or race. People (such as rappers) also use pseudonyms to match their stage personality better. Pseudonyms can include stage names, screen names, ring names, pen names, nicknames, aliases, superhero identities and code names.\n\nPseudonym comes from the Greek word  (pseud\u1e53nymon), which means \"false name\".\n\nUse and examples of pseudonyms\nThere are three main types of pseudonyms: pen names, stage names and user-names. Pen names are used by authors, usually to hide identity. Many famous books, such as The Outsiders and A Series of Unfortunate Events, have been written by authors using a pseudonym. Daniel Handler wrote A Series of Unfortunate Events under the pseudonym Lemony Snicket both because he wanted to make the author a character in the story and because he wanted to hide his real name. When she published The Outsiders, Susan Eloise Hinton decided to use her initials, S. E., instead of her first and middle names, because she did not want readers to guess her gender. The Bront\u00eb sisters (Anne, Emily and Charlotte) used pseudonyms to hide the fact that they based many of their characters on their neighbors.\n\nMusicians, actors and performers also use pseudonyms, called stage names, both to hide their identity and to give themselves a \"cooler\" name. For example, rapper Sean Combs is currently known by Diddy, but used to call himself P Diddy and Puff Daddy. He says that he changed his name from P Diddy to Diddy because the name \"caused confusion and he wanted to 'simplify things'.\" \n\nMany people on the Internet use pseudonyms. There are many names for these pseudonyms, including user-names, user IDs and handles. These pseudonyms help people stay anonymous on the internet, and they also protect people from identity theft and phishing. When people log into an account on sites like Wikipedia, MySpace or Facebook, their user-name helps identify them without entering their real name. If people used their real name instead of a user-name, it would create confusion for two people with the same name. Usernames make this simple, because people create their own user-names. Also, if someone used their real name, it would make it easier for people to guess their passwords and for other people to find them in real life.\n\nSometimes criminals would use a pseudonym. For example, com man Jefferson R. Smith was also known as Soapy Smith.\n\nRelated pages\n Pen name \n Stage name\n Synonym\n Nickname\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2}},"id":15772,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pseudonym","title":"Pseudonym","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The article about certain properties of databases is at ACID\nSometimes acid is another name for the drug LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide)\n\nAn acid is a substance that can donate a hydrogen ion (H+) (generally speaking, this will be a proton) to another substance. Acids have a pH less than 7.0. \nA chemical can donate a proton if the hydrogen atom is attached to an electronegative atom like oxygen, nitrogen, or chlorine. Some acids are strong and others are weak. The weak acids hold on to some of their protons, while the strong acids let go of all of them. All acids will release hydrogen ions into solutions. The amount of ions that get released per molecule will determine if the acid is weak or strong.\u00a0Weak acids\u00a0are acids that partially release the hydrogen atoms that are attached. These acids, then, may lower pH by dissociation of hydrogen ions, but not completely. Weak acids generally have a pH value of 4-6 while strong acids have a pH value of 1 to 3.\n\nA base is an acid's \"chemical opposite.\" A base is a substance that will accept the acid's hydrogen atom. Bases are molecules that can  split apart in water and release hydroxide ions.\n\nHow acids work\nAcids and bases typically exist together in equilibrium. This means that within a sample of an acid, some molecules will give up their protons and others will accept them. Even water is a mixture of an acidic ion, H3O+ (called a hydronium ion) and a basic ion, OH- (called a hydroxide ion). When acids are diluted (mixed in water) they release H+ ions. These H ions cannot exist independently, so they combine with water to form Hydronium ion.  A hydronium ion will give up its proton to a hydroxide ion, forming two molecules of H2O, which is neutral. This reaction happens continuously in a sample of water, but overall the sample is neutral because there are equal amounts of hydronium and hydroxide in the sample. For most reactions, however, the acids and bases are not present in equal amounts, and this imbalance is what allows a chemical reaction to occur.\n\nEvery acid has a conjugate base formed by removing the acid's proton. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), for example, is an acid and its conjugate base is a chlorine anion, or Cl-. An acid and its conjugate base are opposite in strength. Since HCl is a strong acid, Cl- is a weak base.\n\nProperties \n\nAcids can have different strengths, some are more reactive than others. More reactive acids are often more dangerous.\n\nAcids can have a lot of different properties depending on their molecular structure. Most acids have the following properties:\n\n taste sour when they are eaten\n can sting the skin when they are touched\n can corrode (or eat away at) metals and skin\n can be used as a reactant during electrolysis due to the presence of mobile ions\n turn blue litmus paper red\n turn red or orange on universal indicator\n conduct electricity\nAcids can burn the skin, the severity of the burn depending on the type and concentration of the acid. These chemical burns require immediate medical attention.\n\nBecause acids donate hydrogen ions, all acids must have hydrogen in them.\n\nImportance \nAcids are important. Nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA contain the genetic code. These molecules determine many characteristics of an organism, they are passed from the parents to offspring. DNA contains the plans how to build proteins which are made of amino acids.\n\nFatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long chains of hydrocarbons and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, a micelle of hydrophobic fatty acid chains with polar, hydrophilic phosphate \"head\" groups.\n\nIn humans and many other animals, hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid secreted within the stomach. It can help hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides. It can also convert the inactive pro-enzyme, pepsinogen into the enzyme, pepsin. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce formic acid, and octopi produce a black acid called magneta.\n\nMost acids can be found in nature. Some of these include the following:\n Vinegar is probably one of the best known; it contains acetic acid, which gives it its well known flavor.\n Nitric acid, NHO3 is known since about the 13th century.\n Citric acids, C6H8O7 can be found in many kinds of fruit. They were probably discovered by Geber in the 8th century.\n Lactic acid, C3H6O3 was found by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1780. It can be found in sour milk products, such as Yogurt.\n Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 was probably discovered by Geber. Today it can be found in batteries.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages\n Alkali\n Folic acid\n\nBasic English 850 words\n \nChemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":160,"dup_dump_count":91,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":4442,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acid","title":"Acid","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A color space is a specific organization of colors. In combination with color profiling supported by various physical devices, it supports reproducible representations of colorwhether such representation entails an analog or a digital representation. A color space may be arbitrary, i.e. with physically realized colors assigned to a set of physical color swatches with corresponding assigned color names (including discrete numbers infor examplethe Pantone collection), or structured with mathematical rigor (as with the NCS System, Adobe RGB and sRGB). A \"color space\" is a useful conceptual tool for understanding the color capabilities of a particular device or digital file. When trying to reproduce color on another device, color spaces can show whether shadow\/highlight detail and color saturation can be retained, and by how much either will be compromised.\n\nA \"color model\" is an abstract mathematical model describing the way colors can be represented as tuples of numbers (e.g. triples in RGB or quadruples in CMYK); however, a color model with no associated mapping function to an absolute color space is a more or less arbitrary color system with no connection to any globally understood system of color interpretation. Adding a specific mapping function between a color model and a reference color space establishes within the reference color space a definite \"footprint\", known as a gamut, and for a given color model, this defines a color space. For example, Adobe RGB and sRGB are two different absolute color spaces, both based on the RGB color model. When defining a color space, the usual reference standard is the CIELAB or CIEXYZ color spaces, which were specifically designed to encompass all colors the average human can see.\n\nSince \"color space\" identifies a particular combination of the color model and the mapping function, the word is often used informally to identify a color model. However, even though identifying a color space automatically identifies the associated color model, this usage is incorrect in a strict sense. For example, although several specific color spaces are based on the RGB color model, there is no such thing as the singular RGB color space.\n\nHistory\n In 1802, Thomas Young postulated the existence of three types of photoreceptors (now known as cone cells) in the eye, each of which was sensitive to a particular range of visible light. Hermann von Helmholtz developed the Young\u2013Helmholtz theory further in 1850: that the three types of cone photoreceptors could be classified as short-preferring (blue), middle-preferring (green), and long-preferring (red), according to their response to the wavelengths of light striking the retina. The relative strengths of the signals detected by the three types of cones are interpreted by the brain as a visible color. But it's not clear that they thought of colors as being points in color space.\n\nThe color-space concept was likely due to Hermann Grassmann, who developed it in two stages. First, he developed the idea of vector space, which allowed the algebraic representation of geometric concepts in n-dimensional space. Fearnley-Sander (1979) describes Grassmann's foundation of linear algebra as follows:\n\nWith this conceptual background, in 1853, Grassmann published a theory of how colors mix; it and its three color laws are still taught, as Grassmann's law.\n\nExamples\n\nColors can be created in printing with color spaces based on the CMYK color model, using the subtractive primary colors of pigment (cyan, magenta, yellow, and black). To create a three-dimensional representation of a given color space, we can assign the amount of magenta color to the representation's X axis, the amount of cyan to its Y axis, and the amount of yellow to its Z axis. The resulting 3-D space provides a unique position for every possible color that can be created by combining those three pigments.\n\nColors can be created on computer monitors with color spaces based on the RGB color model, using the additive primary colors (red, green, and blue). A three-dimensional representation would assign each of the three colors to the X, Y, and Z axes. Colors generated on a given monitor will be limited by the reproduction medium, such as the phosphor (in a CRT monitor) or filters and backlight (LCD monitor).\n\nAnother way of creating colors on a monitor is with an HSL or HSV color model, based on hue, saturation, brightness (value\/lightness). With such a model, the variables are assigned to cylindrical coordinates.\n\nMany color spaces can be represented as three-dimensional values in this manner, but some have more, or fewer dimensions, and some, such as Pantone, cannot be represented in this way at all.\n\nConversion\n\nColor space conversion is the translation of the representation of a color from one basis to another. This typically occurs in the context of converting an image that is represented in one color space to another color space, the goal being to make the translated image look as similar as possible to the original.\n\nRGB density\n\nThe RGB color model is implemented in different ways, depending on the capabilities of the system used. The most common incarnation in general use  is the 24-bit implementation, with 8 bits, or 256 discrete levels of color per channel. Any color space based on such a 24-bit RGB model is thus limited to a range of 256\u00d7256\u00d7256 \u2248 16.7 million colors. Some implementations use 16 bits per component for 48 bits total, resulting in the same gamut with a larger number of distinct colors. This is especially important when working with wide-gamut color spaces (where most of the more common colors are located relatively close together), or when a large number of digital filtering algorithms are used consecutively. The same principle applies for any color space based on the same color model, but implemented at different bit depths.\n\nLists\n\nCIE 1931 XYZ color space was one of the first attempts to produce a color space based on measurements of human color perception (earlier efforts were by James Clerk Maxwell, K\u00f6nig & Dieterici, and Abney at Imperial College) and it is the basis for almost all other color spaces. The CIERGB color space is a linearly-related companion of CIE XYZ. Additional derivatives of CIE XYZ include the CIELUV, CIEUVW, and CIELAB.\n\nGeneric\n\nRGB uses additive color mixing, because it describes what kind of light needs to be emitted to produce a given color. RGB stores individual values for red, green and blue. RGBA is RGB with an additional channel, alpha, to indicate transparency. Common color spaces based on the RGB model include sRGB, Adobe RGB, ProPhoto RGB, scRGB, and CIE RGB.\n\nCMYK uses subtractive color mixing used in the printing process, because it describes what kind of inks need to be applied so the light reflected from the substrate and through the inks produces a given color. One starts with a white substrate (canvas, page, etc.), and uses ink to subtract color from white to create an image. CMYK stores ink values for cyan, magenta, yellow and black. There are many CMYK color spaces for different sets of inks, substrates, and press characteristics (which change the dot gain or transfer function for each ink and thus change the appearance).\n\nYIQ was formerly used in NTSC (North America, Japan and elsewhere) television broadcasts for historical reasons. This system stores a luma value roughly analogous to (and sometimes incorrectly identified as) luminance, along with two chroma values as approximate representations of the relative amounts of blue and red in the color. It is similar to the YUV scheme used in most video capture systems and in PAL (Australia, Europe, except France, which uses SECAM) television, except that the YIQ color space is rotated 33\u00b0 with respect to the YUV color space and the color axes are swapped. The YDbDr scheme used by SECAM television is rotated in another way. \n\nYPbPr is a scaled version of YUV. It is most commonly seen in its digital form, YCbCr, used widely in video and image compression schemes such as MPEG and JPEG.\n\nxvYCC is a new international digital video color space standard published by the IEC (IEC 61966-2-4). It is based on the ITU BT.601 and BT.709 standards but extends the gamut beyond the R\/G\/B primaries specified in those standards.\n\nHSV (hue, saturation, value), also known as HSB (hue, saturation, brightness) is often used by artists because it is often more natural to think about a color in terms of hue and saturation than in terms of additive or subtractive color components. HSV is a transformation of an RGB color space, and its components and colorimetry are relative to the RGB color space from which it was derived.\n\nHSL (hue, saturation, lightness\/luminance), also known as HLS or HSI (hue, saturation, intensity) is quite similar to HSV, with \"lightness\" replacing \"brightness\". The difference is that the brightness of a pure color is equal to the brightness of white, while the lightness of a pure color is equal to the lightness of a medium gray.\n\nCommercial\n\n Munsell color system\n Pantone Matching System (PMS)\n Natural Color System (NCS)\n\nSpecial-purpose\n\n The RG Chromaticity space is used in computer vision applications. It shows the color of light (red, yellow, green etc.), but not its intensity (dark, bright).\n The TSL color space (Tint, Saturation and Luminance) is used in face detection.\n\nObsolete\n\nEarly color spaces had two components. They largely ignored blue light because the added complexity of a 3-component process provided only a marginal increase in fidelity when compared to the jump from monochrome to 2-component color.\n\n RG for early Technicolor film\n RGK  for early color printing\n\nAbsolute color space\n\nIn color science, there are two meanings of the term absolute color space:\n A color space in which the perceptual difference between colors is directly related to distances between colors as represented by points in the color space, i.e. a uniform color space.\n A color space in which colors are unambiguous, that is, where the interpretations of colors in the space are colorimetrically defined without reference to external factors.\n\nIn this article, we concentrate on the second definition.\n\nCIEXYZ, sRGB, and ICtCp are examples of absolute color spaces, as opposed to a generic RGB color space.\n\nA non-absolute color space can be made absolute by defining its relationship to absolute colorimetric quantities. For instance, if the red, green, and blue colors in a monitor are measured exactly, together with other properties of the monitor, then RGB values on that monitor can be considered as absolute. The CIE 1976 L*, a*, b* color space is sometimes referred to as absolute, though it also needs a white point specification to make it so.\n\nA popular way to make a color space like RGB into an absolute color is to define an ICC profile, which contains the attributes of the RGB. This is not the only way to express an absolute color, but it is the standard in many industries. RGB colors defined by widely accepted profiles include sRGB and Adobe RGB. The process of adding an ICC profile to a graphic or document is sometimes called tagging or embedding; tagging, therefore, marks the absolute meaning of colors in that graphic or document.\n\nConversion errors\n\nA color in one absolute color space can be converted into another absolute color space, and back again, in general; however, some color spaces may have gamut limitations, and converting colors that lie outside that gamut will not produce correct results. There are also likely to be rounding errors, especially if the popular range of only 256 distinct values per component (8-bit color) is used.\n\nOne part of the definition of an absolute color space is the viewing conditions. The same color, viewed under different natural or artificial lighting conditions, will look different. Those involved professionally with color matching may use viewing rooms, lit by standardized lighting.\n\nOccasionally, there are precise rules for converting between non-absolute color spaces. For example, HSL and HSV spaces are defined as mappings of RGB. Both are non-absolute, but the conversion between them should maintain the same color. However, in general, converting between two non-absolute color spaces (for example, RGB to CMYK) or between absolute and non-absolute color spaces (for example, RGB to L*a*b*) is almost a meaningless concept.\n\nArbitrary spaces\nA different method of defining absolute color spaces is familiar to many consumers as the swatch card, used to select paint, fabrics, and the like. This is a way of agreeing a color between two parties. A more standardized method of defining absolute colors is the Pantone Matching System, a proprietary system that includes swatch cards and recipes that commercial printers can use to make inks that are a particular color.\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Color FAQ, Charles Poynton\n Color Science, Dan Bruton\n Color Spaces, Rolf G. Kuehni (October 2003)\n Colour spaces \u2013 perceptual, historical and applicational background, Marko Tkal\u010di\u010d (2003)\n Color formats for image and video processing \u2013 Color conversion between RGB, YUV, YCbCr and YPbPr.\n C library of SSE-optimised color format conversions.\n Konica Minolta Sensing: Precise Color Communication\n\n \nColor schemes\nImage processing\nPhotometry\n1853 introductions","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":191,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":4,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":5,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":5,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":4,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":6,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":6,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":7,"2015-14":6}},"id":21578485,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Color%20space","title":"Color space","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"BitTorrent is a peer-to-peer program, first developed in mid-2001 by Bram Cohen and BitTorrent, Inc., to use for uploading and downloading files under the BitTorrent protocol. In the protocol, a \"Tracker\" hosts information about any active computers which are trying to share data. Trackers are used to find other active computers, but do not store or share file data. Using the .torrent files, BitTorrent users can \"Leech\" (download) the files. Once a \"Leecher\" gets 100% of the file(s), they become a \"Seeder\" and helps \"Seed\" (upload) the files to other Leechers.\n\nBitTorrent was the first client written for the protocol. Before version 6.0, BitTorrent was written in Python, and was free software. The source code for versions up to and including 3.4.2 were distributed under the MIT license and versions 4.x and 5.x were released under the BitTorrent Open Source License, a modified version of the Jabber Open Source License. Since version 6.0, BitTorrent is a rebranded version of \u00b5Torrent. As a result, its source is closed.\n\nThe BitTorrent protocol now has many clients, for example :\n\nAzureus\nBitComet\nBitLord\nBitFlu\nBitTornado\nDeluge\nKTorrent\nLimeWire\nQTorrent\nRtorrent\nShareaza\nTransmission\n\u00b5Torrent\n\nRelated pages\nList of BitTorrent clients\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \nOfficial Website\n\nFile sharing\nSoftware","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":90303,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BitTorrent","title":"BitTorrent","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Tupolev Tu-95 (code-named Bear) was a heavy bomber plane first used in the Cold War. It was made by Tupolev. It was able to carry four powerful nuclear bombs, and in its later years it was used as a spy plane and an unmanned bomber.\n\nThe Tu-95 first flew in 1952, and was introduced in 1956. It was used a lot during the Cold War, this is because it could fly to far places. In fact, it could go more than 500 miles per hour, and has a range of 9,000 miles.  The plane is driven by a turboprop engine, which makes it fast. The plane's speed is also given by its wings, which are swept back to make it sleek.\n\nUnlike most new bombers, the Tu-95 has a turret in the tail. Right now, the Tu-95 is still in the Russian Air Force. There is also another version, called the Tu-142 that is in the Russian Navy. The Bear will be in militaries until the year 2040.\n\nReferences \n\nCold War\nSoviet military aircraft\nTupolev aircraft","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":57,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-43":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6}},"id":324330,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tupolev%20Tu-95","title":"Tupolev Tu-95","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sergei Pavlovich Diaghilev (also known as Serge), (Russia, 31 March 1872 \u2013 19 August 1929) was a Russian art critic, patron and ballet impresario. He formed a ballet company called Les Ballets Russes de Serge Diaghilev. Many  think it was the greatest ballet company of all time.\n\"Its success was so extraordinary, its ballets so revolutionary, and its artists so electrifying that its appearance in Paris before the First World War sparked an international ballet boom\".p47\n\nFor twenty years, between 1909 and 1929, they were the most famous ballet company in the world. Many of their ideas influenced art and music as well as dance. Diaghilev got some of the world's greatest painters to design sets for his productions, and some great composers, including Igor Stravinsky, to compose music for the ballets.\n\nHis dancers included the legendary Nijinsky and the Imperial prima ballerina Karsavina; also Pavlova, Danilova and Spessivtseva. His choreographers included Fokine, Nijinska, Massine and Balanchine; his composers included Stravinsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, Prokofiev, Ravel and Debussy; his set designers included Picasso, Cezanne, Matisse, Utrillo, Bakst  and Braque; Cocteau worked as an artist and wrote scenarios. The ballets created  and the performances changed the course of ballet history.\n\nDiaghilev's gift lay in spotting talent, and bringing great artists to work together. He also persuaded patrons to support the Ballets Russes. The production costs were enormous, and were not always covered by the ticket prices. The repertoire (list) of new ballets and new music grew, and the productions were not always successful. Diaghilev's company folded soon after his death, though many of the group worked together in new companies.\n\nDiaghilev was homosexual. He died of diabetes.\n\nReferences \n\nBallets Russes\nRussian businesspeople\nDeaths from diabetes\nRussian LGBT people\nGay men\n1872 births\n1929 deaths\nSet designers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":149,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":200549,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sergei%20Diaghilev","title":"Sergei Diaghilev","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A viola ( ) is a musical instrument that is similar to the violin and cello.  The viola sounds lower than a violin, but higher than a cello.  It has four strings: the C, G, D, and A strings. The highest string is the A string. The viola is played with a bow in the right hand.  Playing with the bow is called arco.  Sometimes the strings may be plucked (pizzicato).\n\nWhen people see the viola, sometimes they think it is a violin.  This is because the viola is only a little larger than a violin, and like the violin, the viola is held on the player's left shoulder.  It is also because the sound of the viola is only five notes lower than the sound of the violin. The biggest difference between the viola and the violin is the sound. The viola's lowest string is the \"C\" string and its highest string is the \"A\" string. So, to see whether a violin-like instrument is a violin or viola, one will need to pluck the thinnest string. The violin's lowest string is the \"G\" string and its highest string is the \"E\" string.  Even though the viola and violin can play many of the same notes, they each have a special sound quality.  Sometimes people describe the viola's sound as more \"dark\", \"earthy\", or \"mellow\" than the violin's sound.\n\nThe person that makes and repairs violas is called a luthier.The Viola is also known as the Cinderella of the orchestra, due to it being unfairly neglected when it comes to popularity to the public and choice of famous classical music. Lionel Tertis and William Primrose were the two famous violists that helped the viola become more respected in general and as a solo instrument.\n\nPeople who write music often use the viola for harmony notes. It is one of the instruments in a string quartet, along with two violins and a cello. The viola is found in chamber ensembles of string instruments only, and also in full symphony orchestras where strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion instruments play together. The viola can also be a solo instrument, but is mostly used in an orchestra. The viola comes in many sizes. The sizes are measured in inches, such as a 14-inch viola. The size of the viola is measured from the bottom to the neck of it (its body's length).\n\nString instruments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":29032,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Viola","title":"Viola","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Academic art, or academicism or academism, is a style of painting and sculpture produced under the influence of European academies of art, usually used of work produced in the 19th century, after the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. In this period the standards of the French  were very influential, combining elements of Neoclassicism and Romanticism, with Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres a key figure in the formation of the style in painting. Later painters who tried to continue the synthesis included William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Thomas Couture, and Hans Makart among many others. In this context it is often called \"academism\", \"academicism\", \"art pompier\" (pejoratively), and \"eclecticism\", and sometimes linked with \"historicism\" and \"syncretism.\" Academic art is closely related to Beaux-Arts architecture, which developed in the same place and holds to a similar classicizing ideal.\n\nAlthough production continued into the 20th century, the style had become vacuous, and was strongly rejected by the artists of set of new art movements, of which Impressionism was one of the first. By World War I it had fallen from favour almost completely with critics and buyers, returning somewhat to favour at the end of the 20th century.  \n\nAlthough smaller works such as portraits, landscapes and still-lifes were often produced (and often sold more easily), the movement and the contemporary public and critics most valued large history paintings showing moments from narratives that were very often taken from old or exotic areas of history, though less often the traditional religious narratives. Orientalist art was a major branch, with many specialist painters, as had scenes from classical antiquity and the Middle Ages.\n\nThe academies in history  \nThe first academy of art was founded in Florence in Italy by Cosimo I de' Medici, on 13 January 1563, under the influence of the architect Giorgio Vasari who called it the Accademia e Compagnia delle Arti del Disegno (Academy and Company for the Arts of Drawing) as it was divided in two different operative branches. While the company was a kind of corporation which every working artist in Tuscany could join, the academy comprised only the most eminent artistic personalities of Cosimo's court, and had the task of supervising the whole artistic production of the Medicean state. In this Medicean institution students learned the \"arti del disegno\" (a term coined by Vasari) and heard lectures on anatomy and geometry. Another academy, the Accademia di San Luca (named after the patron saint of painters, St. Luke), was founded about a decade later in Rome. The Accademia di San Luca served an educational function and was more concerned with art theory than the Florentine one. In 1582 Annibale Carracci opened his very influential Academy of Desiderosi in Bologna without official support; in some ways this was more like a traditional artist's workshop, but that he felt the need to label it as an \"academy\" demonstrates the attraction of the idea at the time.\n\nThe Accademia di San Luca later served as the model for the Acad\u00e9mie royale de peinture et de sculpture founded in France in 1648, and which later became the . The Acad\u00e9mie royale de peinture et de sculpture was founded in an effort to distinguish artists \"who were gentlemen practicing a liberal art\" from craftsmen, who were engaged in manual labor. This emphasis on the intellectual component of artmaking had a considerable impact on the subjects and styles of academic art.\n\nAfter the Acad\u00e9mie royale de peinture et de sculpture was reorganized in 1661 by Louis XIV whose aim was to control all the artistic activity in France, a controversy occurred among the members that dominated artistic attitudes for the rest of the century. This \"battle of styles\" was a conflict over whether Peter Paul Rubens or Nicolas Poussin was a suitable model to follow. Followers of Poussin, called \"poussinistes\", argued that line (disegno) should dominate art, because of its appeal to the intellect, while followers of Rubens, called \"rubenistes\", argued that color (colore) should dominate art, because of its appeal to emotion.\n\nThe debate was revived in the early 19th century, under the movements of Neoclassicism typified by the art of Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, and Romanticism typified by the artwork of Eug\u00e8ne Delacroix. Debates also occurred over whether it was better to learn art by looking at nature, or to learn by looking at the artistic masters of the past.\n\nAcademies using the French model formed throughout Europe, and imitated the teachings and styles of the French Acad\u00e9mie. In England, this was the Royal Academy. The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts founded in 1754, may be taken as a successful example in a smaller country, which achieved its aim of producing a national school and reducing the reliance on imported artists. The painters of the Danish Golden Age of roughly 1800-1850 were nearly all trained there, and many returned to teach and the history of the art of Denmark is much less marked by tension between academic art and other styles than is the case in other countries.\n\nWomen artists\n\nOne effect of the move to academies was to make training more difficult for women artists, who were excluded from most academies until the last half of the 19th century (1861 for the Royal Academy). This was partly because of concerns over the perceived impropriety presented by nudity. Special arrangements were sometimes made for female students until the 20th century.\n\nDevelopment of the academic style \nSince the onset of the Poussiniste-Rubeniste debate, many artists worked between the two styles. In the 19th century, in the revived form of the debate, the attention and the aims of the art world became to synthesize the line of Neoclassicism with the color of Romanticism. One artist after another was claimed by critics to have achieved the synthesis, among them Th\u00e9odore Chass\u00e9riau, Ary Scheffer, Francesco Hayez, Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps, and Thomas Couture. William-Adolphe Bouguereau, a later academic artist, commented that the trick to being a good painter is seeing \"color and line as the same thing.\"\nThomas Couture promoted the same idea in a book he authored on art method\u2014arguing that whenever one said a painting had better color or better line it was nonsense, because whenever color appeared brilliant it depended on line to convey it, and vice versa; and that color was really a way to talk about the \"value\" of form.\n\nAnother development during this period included adopting historical styles in order to show the era in history that the painting depicted, called historicism. This is best seen in the work of Baron Jan August Hendrik Leys, a later influence on James Tissot. It is also seen in the development of the Neo-Grec style. Historicism is also meant to refer to the belief and practice associated with academic art that one should incorporate and conciliate the innovations of different traditions of art from the past.\n\nThe art world also grew to give increasing focus on allegory in art. Theories of the importance of both line and color asserted that through these elements an artist exerts control over the medium to create psychological effects, in which themes, emotions, and ideas can be represented. As artists attempted to synthesize these theories in practice, the attention on the artwork as an allegorical or figurative vehicle was emphasized. It was held that the representations in painting and sculpture should evoke Platonic forms, or ideals, where behind ordinary depictions one would glimpse something abstract, some eternal truth. Hence, Keats' famous musing \"Beauty is truth, truth beauty.\" The paintings were desired to be an \"id\u00e9e\", a full and complete idea. Bouguereau is known to have said that he would not paint \"a war\", but would paint \"War.\" Many paintings by academic artists are simple nature allegories with titles like Dawn, Dusk, Seeing, and Tasting, where these ideas are personified by a single nude figure, composed in such a way as to bring out the essence of the idea.\n\nThe trend in art was also towards greater idealism, which is contrary to realism, in that the figures depicted were made simpler and more abstract\u2014idealized\u2014in order to be able to represent the ideals they stood in for. This would involve both generalizing forms seen in nature, and subordinating them to the unity and theme of the artwork.\n\nBecause history and mythology were considered as plays or dialectics of ideas, a fertile ground for important allegory, using themes from these subjects was considered the most serious form of painting. A hierarchy of genres, originally created in the 17th century, was valued, where history painting\u2014classical, religious, mythological, literary, and allegorical subjects\u2014was placed at the top, next genre painting, then portraiture, still-life, and landscape. History painting was also known as the \"grande genre.\" Paintings of Hans Makart are often larger than life historical dramas, and he combined this with a historicism in decoration to dominate the style of 19th century Vienna culture. Paul Delaroche is a typifying example of French history painting.\n\nAll of these trends were influenced by the theories of the philosopher Hegel, who held that history was a dialectic of competing ideas, which eventually resolved in synthesis.\n\nTowards the end of the 19th century, academic art had saturated European society. Exhibitions were held often, with the most popular exhibition being the Paris Salon and beginning in 1903, the Salon d'Automne. These salons were large scale events that attracted crowds of visitors, both native and foreign. As much a social affair as an artistic one, 50,000 people might visit on a single Sunday, and as many as 500,000 could see the exhibition during its two-month run. Thousands of pictures were displayed, hung from just below eye level all the way up to the ceiling in a manner now known as \"Salon style.\" A successful showing at the salon was a seal of approval for an artist, making his work saleable to the growing ranks of private collectors. Bouguereau, Alexandre Cabanel and Jean-L\u00e9on G\u00e9r\u00f4me were leading figures of this art world.\n\nDuring the reign of academic art, the paintings of the Rococo era, previously held in low favor, were revived to popularity, and themes often used in Rococo art such as Eros and Psyche were popular again. The academic art world also admired Raphael, for the ideality of his work, in fact preferring him over Michelangelo.\n\nAcademic art in Poland flourished under Jan Matejko, who established the Krak\u00f3w Academy of Fine Arts. Many of these works can be seen in the\nGallery of 19th-Century Polish Art at Sukiennice in Krak\u00f3w.\n\nAcademic art not only held influence in Western Europe and the United States, but also extended its influence to other countries. The artistic environment of Greece, for instance, was dominated by techniques from Western academies from the 17th century onward: this was first evident in the activities of the Ionian School, and later became especially pronounced with the dawn of the Munich School. This was also true for Latin American nations, which, because their revolutions were modeled on the French Revolution, sought to emulate French culture. An example of a Latin American academic artist is \u00c1ngel Z\u00e1rraga of Mexico.\n\nAcademic training \n\nYoung artists spent four years in rigorous training. In France, only students who passed an exam and carried a letter of reference from a noted professor of art were accepted at the academy's school, the . Drawings and paintings of the nude, called \"acad\u00e9mies\", were the basic building blocks of academic art and the procedure for learning to make them was clearly defined. First, students copied prints after classical sculptures, becoming familiar with the principles of contour, light, and shade. The copy was believed crucial to the academic education; from copying works of past artists one would assimilate their methods of art making. To advance to the next step, and every successive one, students presented drawings for evaluation.\n\nIf approved, they would then draw from plaster casts of famous classical sculptures. Only after acquiring these skills were artists permitted entrance to classes in which a live model posed. Painting was not taught at the \u00c9cole des Beaux-Arts until after 1863. To learn to paint with a brush, the student first had to demonstrate proficiency in drawing, which was considered the foundation of academic painting. Only then could the pupil join the studio of an academician and learn how to paint. Throughout the entire process, competitions with a predetermined subject and a specific allotted period of time measured each student's progress.\n\nThe most famous art competition for students was the Prix de Rome. The winner of the Prix de Rome was awarded a fellowship to study at the Acad\u00e9mie fran\u00e7aise's school at the Villa Medici in Rome for up to five years. To compete, an artist had to be of French nationality, male, under 30 years of age, and single. He had to have met the entrance requirements of the \u00c9cole and have the support of a well-known art teacher. The competition was grueling, involving several stages before the final one, in which 10 competitors were sequestered in studios for 72 days to paint their final history paintings. The winner was essentially assured a successful professional career.\n\nAs noted, a successful showing at the Salon was a seal of approval for an artist. Artists petitioned the hanging committee for optimal placement \"on the line\", or at eye level. After the exhibition opened, artists complained if their works were \"skyed\", or hung too high. The ultimate achievement for the professional artist was election to membership in the Acad\u00e9mie fran\u00e7aise and the right to be known as an academician.\n\nCriticism and legacy \n\nAcademic art was first criticized for its use of idealism, by Realist artists such as Gustave Courbet, as being based on idealistic clich\u00e9s and representing mythical and legendary motives while contemporary social concerns were being ignored. Another criticism by Realists was the \"false surface\" of paintings\u2014the objects depicted looked smooth, slick, and idealized\u2014showing no real texture. The Realist Th\u00e9odule Ribot worked against this by experimenting with rough, unfinished textures in his painting.\n\nStylistically, the Impressionists, who advocated quickly painting outdoors exactly what the eye sees and the hand puts down, criticized the finished and idealized painting style. Although academic painters began a painting by first making drawings and then painting oil sketches of their subject, the high polish they gave to their drawings seemed to the Impressionists tantamount to a lie. After the oil sketch, the artist would produce the final painting with the academic \"fini\", changing the painting to meet stylistic standards and attempting to idealize the images and add perfect detail. Similarly, perspective is constructed geometrically on a flat surface and is not really the product of sight; Impressionists disavowed the devotion to mechanical techniques.\n\nRealists and Impressionists also defied the placement of still-life and landscape at the bottom of the hierarchy of genres. Most Realists and Impressionists and others among the early avant-garde who rebelled against academism were originally students in academic ateliers. Claude Monet, Gustave Courbet, \u00c9douard Manet, and even Henri Matisse were students under academic artists.\n\nAs modern art and its avant-garde gained more power, academic art was further denigrated, and seen as sentimental, clich\u00e9d, conservative, non-innovative, bourgeois, and \"styleless.\" The French referred derisively to the style of academic art as L'art Pompier (pompier means \"fireman\") alluding to the paintings of Jacques-Louis David (who was held in esteem by the academy) which often depicted soldiers wearing fireman-like helmets. The paintings were called \"grandes machines\" which were said to have manufactured false emotion through contrivances and tricks.\n\nThis denigration of academic art reached its peak through the writings of art critic Clement Greenberg who stated that all academic art is \"kitsch.\" Other artists, such as the Symbolist painters and some of the Surrealists, were kinder to the tradition. As painters who sought to bring imaginary vistas to life, these artists were more willing to learn from a strongly representational tradition. Once the tradition had come to be looked on as old-fashioned, the allegorical nudes and theatrically posed figures struck some viewers as bizarre and dreamlike.\n\nWith the goals of Postmodernism in giving a fuller, more sociological and pluralistic account of history, academic art has been brought back into history books and discussion. Since the early 1990s, academic art has even experienced a limited resurgence through the Classical Realist atelier movement. Additionally, the art is gaining a broader appreciation by the public at large, and whereas academic paintings once would only fetch a few hundreds of dollars in auctions, some now fetch millions.\n\nMajor artists\n\nGallery\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Art and the Academy in the Nineteenth Century. (2000). Denis, Rafael Cardoso & Trodd, Colin (Eds). Rutgers University Press. \n L'Art-Pompier (1998). L\u00e9charny, Louis-Marie, Que sais-je? . Presses Universitaires de France. \n L'Art pompier: immagini, significati, presenze dell'altro Ottocento francese (1860\u20131890) . (1997). Luderin, Pierpaolo, Pocket library of studies in art, Olschki.\n\nExternal links \n \n\n \n19th century in art\nArt movements","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":222,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":7,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":7,"2019-35":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":5,"2019-18":9,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":4,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":5,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":7,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":9,"2014-15":6}},"id":380097,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academic%20art","title":"Academic art","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Arthur Schopenhauer (February 22, 1788 in Danzig \u2013 September 21, 1860 in Frankfurt am Main) was a German philosopher.\n\nHe was influenced by Kant, Plato and eastern teachings, especially Buddhism and the Upanishads.\n\nBeliefs\nSchopenhauer believed that the primary characteristic, or essence of all things - including human beings - is not intelligence, rationality or spirit, but will. By \"will\" he means a wanting and craving like that which we know in ourselves as our \"will.\" It is the source of immense amounts of suffering in the world. He also believed that a \"better consciousness\" could be attained by denying the fulfilment of our desires, taking time to think about who we really are and what we should do to avoid suffering - but also, in doing something few philosophers of his day spoke of: in making and looking at works of art, especially music, which he considered a way to escape from the world's pain and suffering.\n\nInfluence\nSchopenhauer was a huge influence on Richard Wagner, Friedrich Nietzsche, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Thomas Mann, Sigmund Freud, Leo Tolstoy, Carl Jung, Emil Cioran and many other important artists and thinkers of the 20th century.\n\nRelated pages\n Schopenhauer Society\n\nQuotes \n \"Every man takes the limits of his vision for the limits of the world.\"\n \"In general admittedly the Wise of all times have always said the same thing, and the fools, that is to say the vast majority of all times, have always done the opposite; and so it will remain in the future.\"\n \"To marry is to halve your rights and double your duties.\"\n \"The two foes of human happiness are pain and boredom.\"\n \"Talent hits a target no-one else can hit; genius hits targets no-one else can see.\"\n\n1788 births\n1860 deaths\n19th-century German philosophers\nContinental philosophers\nGerman atheists\nPeople from former German territories\nWriters from Gda\u0144sk","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":44695,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur%20Schopenhauer","title":"Arthur Schopenhauer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Symphonie fantastique is a symphony written by the French composer Hector Berlioz. It is one of the most famous Romantic works for orchestra. The official title of the piece is Episode de la Vie d'un Artiste (An Episode in the Life of an Artist), but it is always called by its subtitle Symphonie Fantastique which means Fantasy Symphony. The \"Fantasy\" refers to the story that is described by the music. (Fantasy Symphony is a better translation than Fantastic Symphony because fantastique is not like the modern meaning of the English word fantastic).\n\nThe symphony lasts about 45 minutes and is divided into 5 movements. Berlioz himself wrote down the story that the music describes, just as Beethoven had done with his Sixth Symphony. Berlioz's work is about a young artist. In the music the young artist is represented by a tune. This tune is often heard during the symphony. That is why it is called an \"id\u00e9e fixe\", which means a \"fixed idea\", i.e. an idea that keeps coming again and again. An id\u00e9e fixe is what Wagner would have called a leitmotif (a tune which is always used to describe a particular person or thing in a piece of music). The first performance took place at the Paris Conservatoire in December 1830. Berlioz made several changes to the music between 1831 and 1845.\n\nThe instruments used \nThe symphony is played by an orchestra consisting of 2 flutes (2nd doubling piccolo), 2 oboes (2nd doubling cor anglais), 2 clarinets (1st doubling E-flat clarinet), 4 bassoons, 4 French horns, 2 trumpets, 2 cornets, 3 trombones, 2 ophicleides (originally one ophicleide and one serpent), 2 pairs of timpani, snare drum, cymbals, bass drum, bells in C and G, 2 harps, and strings.\n\nThe story \nThe symphony is an example of programme music because it describes something apart from the music. In this case it describes a story. This is what the composer wrote:\n\nFirst movement:\nA young artist was deeply in love with a girl who did not love him. He felt so desperately sad that he tried to poison himself with opium. He did not take enough to kill him. It just made him fall into a deep sleep. In this sleep he imagined all sorts of things. His beloved came to him in a dream. She changes into a musical theme (the id\u00e9e fixe) which he just cannot forget. He imagines her love and his tender feelings for her.\n\nSecond movement:\nHe meets her at a ball. Everyone is dancing. He finds his beloved among the crowd.\n\nThird movement:\nIn the country he hears two shepherds who call to one another on their pipes. The trees sway gently in the wind. The young artist starts to feel happier. Then he sees his beloved again. He starts to worry that she may not want him any more. The shepherd music starts again, but it is only one of the shepherds playing. The sun sets. Far away a thunderstorm is heard.\n\nThe fourth movement:\nHe dreams that he has killed his beloved in a fit of anger. He is now being taken to the scaffold where he will have his head chopped off. A march is played as he is taken away. For a moment he thinks of his beloved again, then the axe falls and he is executed.\n\nThe fifth movement:\nThe artist is at the Witches' Sabbath. There are lots of ghosts and monsters around who have come to watch him being buried. His beloved is heard, but her tune now sounds horrible. She has come to the Sabbath. She joins the witches and they dance while the funeral music is heard.\n\nThe first movement: R\u00eaveries - Passions (Daydreams - Passions) \nThe first movement has a slow introduction. The tune heard on the violins is already nearly like the id\u00e9e fixe. The id\u00e9e fixe is heard in its full form when the music goes into the fast section. It is played by the violins and solo flute. The rhythm that the lower string instruments play underneath is very agitated. The form of the movement is not much like the traditional sonata form. Berlioz was more interested in the id\u00e9e fixe which keeps haunting the young artist all the way through.\n\nThe second movement: Un bal (A ball) \nThe ball (i.e. a party with dancing) is represented in the music by a lively waltz. The two harps make it sound very graceful. Twice the waltz is interrupted by the id\u00e9e fixe.\n\nThe third movement: Sc\u00e8ne aux champs (Scene in the country) \nThe two shepherds who are playing to one another are represented by a cor anglais (sitting in the orchestra) and an oboe which is played offstage so that it sounds distant. Then the main gentle countryside theme is heard on solo flute and violins. The id\u00e9e fixe returns in the middle of the movement. The sound of distant thunder at the end of the movement is played by four timpani.\n\nThe fourth movement: Marche au supplice (March to the scaffold) \nThe movement starts with timpani rumbling and horns starting up the march theme. Then the cellos and double basses start the march in its full form, soon taken over by the violins. Just before he is executed there is a short repetition of the id\u00e9e fixe on a solo clarinet, then the axe falls (a loud chord) and his head falls into the basket (one plucked note passed from the violins, through the violas, cellos and then double basses).\n\nThe fifth movement: Songe d'une nuit de sabbat (Dream of a witches' Sabbath) \nThe id\u00e9e fixe has now become a \"vulgar dance tune\", it is played on the E-flat clarinet. There are lots of effects, including ghostly col legno playing in the strings, the bubbling of the witches' cauldron played by the wind instruments. As the dance reaches a climax we hear the Dies Irae (Day of Judgement) melody together with the Ronde du Sabbat (Sabbath Round) which is a wild fugue.\n\nHarriet Smithson \nIn 1827 Berlioz went to a performance of Shakespeare's play Hamlet. It was played in English by a theatre group from England. Berlioz fell in love with Irish actress Harriet Smithson who played the part of Ophelia, He did not actually meet her, he just saw her acting on stage, but he sent her lots of love letters, but she left Paris without meeting him. He then wrote his Symphonie Fantastique. He then wrote the symphony to describe his love for her and his unhappiness because she was not interested in him. When Harriet heard the symphony two years after it was first performed, she realized that it was a symphony about her. She eventually met Berlioz and they were married on 3 October 1833. For several years the marriage was happy, although they did not speak one another's language. However, after nine years they separated.\n\nCompositions by Hector Berlioz\nBerlioz","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":57,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2022-40":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5}},"id":147630,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symphonie%20fantastique","title":"Symphonie fantastique","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Carnivorous plants are plants which get nutrients from trapping and eating animals. They are often called insectivorous plants, because they usually trap insects. Since they get some of their food from animals, carnivorous plants can grow in places where the soil is thin, or poor in nutrients. This is true for soils with little nitrogen, such as acidic bogs and rock outcrops. Charles Darwin wrote the first well-known book on carnivorous plants in 1875.\n\nThis ability of plants to catch animals is true carnivory. There are more than twelve genera in five families. These include about 625 species that attract and trap prey, produce digestive enzymes, and use their nutrients. In addition, there are more than 300 species in several genera that show some but not all of these characteristics. These are usually called protocarnivorous plants.\n\nTrapping mechanisms \nInsectivorous plants have leaves that are made like pitchers or bladders which catch insects. Today, five different ways of trapping are known:\nPitfall traps (pitcher plants) trap prey in a rolled leaf that has a pool of digestive enzymes or bacteria.\nFlypaper traps use sticky mucilage.\nSnap traps use rapid leaf movements.\nBladderworts suck in prey with a bladder that produces an internal vacuum.\nLobster-pot traps force prey to move towards a digestive organ with inward-pointing hairs.\n\nThese traps are all classified as active or passive. Triphyophyllum is a liana (a climber in tropical forests). It has three types of leaves. When needed, it puts out long leaves. These are passive 'flypapers' which hide mucus. The leaves of the plant do not grow or move as a response to moving prey. The Sundew Drosera, on the other hand, is an active flypaper. All species of Sundew are able to move their sticky tentacles in response to a contact. The tentacles are very sensitive and will bend toward the center of the leaf in order to bring the insect into contact with as many stalked glands as possible. According to Darwin, the touch of legs of a small gnat with a single tentacle is enough to cause this response. This helps the catch and digestion of prey.\n\nThe Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula, is one of a very small group of plants able to move fast. When an insect or spider crawls along the leaves and touches a hair, the trap closes only if a different hair is contacted within twenty seconds of the first touch. The two-touch trigger avoids wasting energy on objects with no food value.\n\nBorderline cases \nA carnivorous plant must attract, kill and digest prey. It must then also benefit from digesting the prey. In most cases, this will yield amino acids and ammonium ions. There are some cases, where plants catch the prey, but they do not digest it. Rather, they have a symbiosis with another organism, which feeds on the prey. One such case is the species of the sundew Roridula, which forms a symbiosis with the assassin bug. The bugs eat the trapped insects. The plant benefits from the nutrients in the bugs' faeces.\n\nEvolution \n\nFew fossil carnivorous plants have been found, and then usually as seed or pollen. Carnivorous plants are generally herbs, without wood or bark. True carnivoury has probably evolved independently at least six times. \nSome think all trap types have a similar basic structure\u2014the hairy leaf. Hairy leaves do catch and hold drops of rainwater, which helps bacterial growth. Insects land on the leaf, are caught by the surface tension of the water, and suffocate. Bacteria start to decay the insect, and release nutrients from the corpse. The plant then absorbs the nutrients through its leaves. This 'leaf feeding' can be found in many non-carnivorous plants. Plants that were better at holding water and insects therefore had a selective advantage. Rainwater can be retained by cupping the leaf, leading to pitfall traps. Alternatively, insects can be caught by making the leaf stickier, leading to flypaper traps.they eat only small insects.\n\nReferences \n\nFlowering plants","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-14":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":138093,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnivorous%20plant","title":"Carnivorous plant","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The dormouse (plural: dormice) is a rodent in the family Gliridae. Dormice live mainly in Europe, although some live in Africa and Asia. They are known for their long periods of hibernation. Only one species of dormouse normally lives in the British Isles, so there \"dormouse\" usually means the hazel dormouse, not the whole family of dormice.\n\nCharacteristics \nDormice are small rodents, with a body length of between , and weighing between . They are usually mouse-like in appearance, but they have furry tails instead of scaly tails. They are usually arboreal animals (living in trees). They move quickly and are good at climbing. Most species are nocturnal. Dormice have a very good sense of hearing. They make noises to each other with different sounds using their voices.\n\nDormice are omnivorous, usually eating fruits, berries, flowers, nuts and insects. Dormice are different to all other rodents because they do not have a cecum which is a part of the gut. Other animals use the cecum to ferment plants. Their teeth are like squirrels, but they often do not have premolars.\n\nDormice breed one or two times per year, having an average of four young after a gestation period of 21\u201332 days. Dormice can live for as long as five years. The young are born without hair and they cannot do anything for themselves. Their eyes do not open until about eighteen days after birth. They are usually ready to reproduce after the end of their first hibernation. Dormice live in small family groups. The area they live in depends on which species they are, and how much food is available.\n\nHibernation \nOne of the main characteristics of dormice that live in temperate zones is hibernation.  Dormice can hibernate six months out of the year, or even longer if the weather remains cold enough. They sometimes wake for a short amount of time so that they can eat food which they had previously stored nearby. During the summer, they store fat in their bodies, to give the dormouse the energy it needs to survive through the hibernation period.\n\nHibernation is where the name dormouse comes from. The Anglo-Norman word dormeus means \"sleepy (one)\"; the word was later changed to resemble the word \"mouse\". The sleepy behaviour of the Dormouse character in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland also shows this trait.\n\nRelationship with humans \nThe edible dormouse was thought to be a special food in ancient Rome. It was eaten as an appetizer or as a dessert. When it was eaten as a dessert, it would be dipped in honey and poppy seeds. The Romans had a special place to keep dormice which was called a glirarium. Dormice are still eaten in Slovenia, and apparently also by the Mafia.  Dormouse fat was used by the Elizabethans to induce sleep.\n\nEvolution \n\nThe earliest fossil evidence of dormice has been found in Europe from the early Eocene times. They were in Africa in the upper Miocene. Their appearance in Asia was not as long ago. Many types of extinct dormouse species have been found. During the Pleistocene, giant dormice the size of large rats (for example Leithia melitensis) lived on the islands of Malta and Sicily.\n\nClassification \nThe family consists of 34 living species, in three subfamilies and 10 genera (although not all scientists agree with this number):\n\nFamily: Gliridae\n Subfamily Graphiurinae\n Genus Graphiurus (African dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus angolensis, (Angolan African dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus christyi (Christy's dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus crassicaudatus (Jentink's dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus johnstoni (Johnston's African dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus kelleni (Kellen's dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus lorraineus (Lorrain dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus microtis (Small-eared dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus monardi (Monard's dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus murinus (Woodland dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus nagtglasii (Nagtglas's African dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus ocularis (Spectacled dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus platyops (Rock dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus rupicola (Stone dormouse)\n Species Graphiurus surdus (Silent dormouse)\n Subfamily Leithiinae\n Genus Chaetocauda\n Species Chaetocauda sichuanensis (Chinese dormouse)\n Genus Dryomys\n Species Dryomys laniger (Woolly dormouse)\n Species Dryomys niethammeri (Niethammer's forest dormouse)\n Species Dryomys nitedula (Forest dormouse)\n Genus Eliomys (Garden dormice)\n Species Eliomys melanurus (Asian garden dormouse)\n Species Eliomys munbyanus (Maghreb garden dormouse)\n Species Eliomys quercinus (Garden dormouse)\n Genus Hypnomys\u2020 (Balearic dormouse - extinct)\n Species Hypnomys morphaeus\u2020\n Species Hypnomys mahonensis\u2020\n Genus Muscardinus\n Species Muscardinus avellanarius (Hazel dormouse)\n Genus Myomimus (Mouse-tailed dormouse)\n Species Myomimus personatus (Masked mouse-tailed dormouse)\n Species Myomimus roachi (Roach's mouse-tailed dormouse)\n Species Myomimus setzeri (Setzer's mouse-tailed dormouse)\n Genus Selevinia\n Species Selevinia betpakdalaensis (Desert dormouse)\n Subfamily Glirinae\n Genus Glirulus\n Species Glirulus japonicus (Japanese dormouse)\n Genus Glis\n Species Glis glis (Edible dormouse)\n\nFossil species \nSubfamily Bransatoglirinae\n Genus Oligodyromys\n Genus Bransatoglis\n Species Bransatoglis adroveri Majorca, Early Oligocene\n Species Bransatoglis planus Eurasia, Early Oligocene\n\nReferences \n\nHolden M.E. 2005. Family Gliridae. pp.\u00a0819\u2013841 in Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. D.E. Wilson and D.M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.\n\nRelated pages \nHazel dormouse\n\nOther websites \nBBC Wales Nature: Dormouse article\nGlirarium.org \nFauna of Europe: Glis glis","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"unknown":7,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":221672,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dormouse","title":"Dormouse","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An audio engineer (or simply engineer for short) is a person who operates, and usually chooses and sets up recording equipment. The term applies mainly to a person who works in a recording studio but can also apply to people who do the same kind of work, in other places. An engineer may work with multitrack recordings or stereophonic remixes.\n\nAudio engineering deals with the recording and reproduction of sound through mechanical and electronic  means and is a part of audio science. The field draws on many disciplines, including electrical engineering, acoustics, and music. An audio engineer is closer to the creative and technical aspects of audio than an acoustical engineer.\n\nSome amateur (and a few professional) engineers are self-taught, and learn mostly by doing, or with the help of an instruction manual. Many engineers started in other studio jobs (such as running errands), and learned about recording as they became familiar with the studio where they worked. An engineer learns about the use and placement of microphones, how to operate and maintain an audio mixer, recording deck, sound effects, and other machines, and how to switch between live and recorded sounds, to make the best, and often the most unique, recording possible. A good engineer will strive to make recordings that are both of high technical quality, and also pleasing to hear.\n\nStarting wages may be small in recording studios, and many beginners work as unpaid volunteers. Experienced engineers, especially those who have worked on a hit record, may command a large wage. Some engineers are paid a salary, while others may earn hourly pay (sometimes based on the studio's rates), or be paid per session. Many go on to start their own recording studios, or maintain a private studio or mobile recording service. A few work only for a single recording artist, band, or producer.\n\nSeveral colleges and universities in the United States and other countries offer classes in recording, which may cover its history, its uses, and of course technique and technical knowledge. Some schools offer degree or diploma programs in Recording. Graduating such a program does not guarantee a person a studio job, but increases one's chances, and can provide better preparation for such a career.\n\nBesides studio work, some engineers have one or more specialties, such as making new digital versions of old recordings, as consultants to places that give concerts and live performances, and sometimes as expert witnesses in court trials, when sounds or a recording may be important to the outcome of a case.\n\nEquipment \nMicrophones\nMixing consoles\nSignal processors\nDigital audio workstations\nMusic sequencers\nSpeakers\nPreamplifiers\nAmplifiers\n\nRelated pages \nElectrical engineering\nRecord producer\n\nOther websites \nAudio Engineering Society\nAudio engineering formulas and calculators\nRecording engineer video interviews\nAudio Engineering online course  under Creative Commons Licence\n\nEntertainment occupations\nMusic industry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":35985,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Audio%20engineer","title":"Audio engineer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The weight of an object (or the weight of an amount of matter) is the measure of the intensity of the force imposed on this object by the local  gravitational field. Weight should not be confused with the related but quite different concept of mass. For small objects on Earth, the weight force is directed towards the center of the planet. For larger objects, such as the Moon orbiting around the Earth, the force is directed towards the center of mass of the combined system.\n\nIn common language, the weight of something is typically understood to be the value measured at or near the Earth's surface. Unfortunately the common terms used to describe the weight of an object are units of mass such as kilograms or pounds. For almost all of human history, weight has been measured on the surface of the Earth. Here, the weight is proportional to the mass. Objects which have the same mass have the same weight. An object with the twice the mass of another will also have twice the weight. As a consequence it is common practice to use the two words, mass and weight, as if they mean the same thing and to use kilograms and pounds as the units for both mass and weight. Using the same terms to describe and measure the two different properties has led to confusion between these two properties, mass and weight. Mass and weight are not the same thing.\n\nUnits of weight \nThe unit of weight in the International System of Units is the newton, which is represented by the symbol 'N'.\n\nOther units have been in use in the past but have been abandoned, such as the dyne (the unit of force in the old CGS system) or the kilogram-force, which is the force exerted on a \nkilogram of matter by a 'standard' Earth: a body with a mass of 1\u00a0kg has a weight of about 9.81 N at sea level.\n\nMeasuring weight \nThe weight of an object, or of an amount of matter, is typically measured with an instrument such as a spring scale. The scale includes a spring which provides a force to oppose the gravitational force on the object which is being weighed. The gravitational force pulls down, the spring pushes or pulls upwards. Typically, the scale has a readout which gives not the weight (which is a force) but rather the mass of the object. Spring scales are made with the assumption that they are being used on the surface of the Earth. If a spring scale was taken to the Moon it would give a misleading reading.\n\nA balance style weighing scale is a device that compares the weights of two object in the same gravitational field: it determines whether one object is heavier or lighter than the other.\n\nWeight is variable \nWeight is not an intrinsic property of matter because the local gravitational field that generates the force called weight is variable in space and time:\n Since the Earth's attraction decreases as the square of the distance to its center, the weight of an object is slightly smaller at high altitude (e.g., at the top of a mountain) than at sea level, or at the equator than at the poles (because the Earth is slightly bulging).\n An arbitrary object on Earth is also attracted by all other celestial bodies, such as the Moon, for instance. Hence, its weight will be less with the Moon overhead than with the Moon on the other side of the Earth.\n Weight is not defined exclusively to Earth: An astronaut weighs 6 times less on the surface of the Moon than on the surface of the Earth.\n Weightlessness is an apparent condition experienced by astronauts or satellites in orbit around a planet. In reality their weight (gravitational pull) is the force that keeps them in orbit. Objects in orbit travel with very high speed. For satellites orbiting 300 - 500 kilometres above the Earth this speed is about 27,000 kph. Without the gravitational pull of the Earth they would fly off in a straight line. The gravitational pull keeps them falling towards the planet. The combination of high sideways velocity and constant pull toward the centre of the Earth bends their path so they stay in orbit.\n\nRelated pages\n Difference between Weight and Mass\n Center of mass\n Gravity\n Density\n\nPhysical quantity\nBasic English 850 words\nBasic physics ideas","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":7956,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weight","title":"Weight","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying data across network boundaries. It establishes the Internet. In the past, IP did not provide the connectivity; It only specified how packets are supposed to be created. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) allowed this functionality. Since one could not perform its task without the other, they earned the name TCP\/IP to show how they depend on each other.\n\nThink of IP as something like the postal system. It allows you to address a package and drop it into the system, but there is no actual direct link between you and the recipient. Instead, there is a \"web\" of links interconnecting with each other. This is where IP and TCP come in. IP tells packets what their destination is and how to get there; TCP ensures a reliable connection, checking packets for errors, requesting a \"re-transmission\" if it detects one.\n\nFunction \nThe Internet Protocol gets information from a source computer to a destination computer. It sends this information in the form of packets.\n\nThere are two versions of the Internet Protocol currently in use: IPv4 and IPv6, with IPv4 being the version most used. IP also gives computers an IP address to identify each other, much like a typical physical address.\n\nIP is the primary protocol in the Internet Layer of the Internet Protocol Suite, which is a set of communications protocols consisting of seven abstraction layers (see OSI model),\n\nThe main purpose and task of IP is the delivery of datagrams from the source host (source computer) to the destination host (receiving computer) based on their addresses. To achieve this, IP includes methods and structures for putting tags (address information, which is part of metadata) within datagrams. The process of putting these tags on datagrams is called encapsulation. Think of the analogy of the postal system. IP is similar in that it allows a package (a datagram) to be addressed (encapsulation) and put into the system (the Internet) by the sender (source host). However, there is no direct link between sender and receiver. \n\nThe package (datagram) is almost always divided into pieces, but each piece contains the address of the receiver (destination host). Eventually, each piece arrives at the receiver, often by different routes and at different times. These routes and times are also determined by the Postal System, which is the IP. However, the Postal System (in the transport and application layers) puts all the pieces back together before delivery to the receiver (destination host).\n\nNote: IP is actually a connectionless protocol, meaning that the circuit to the receiver (destination host) does not need be set up before transmission (by the source host). Continuing the analogy, there does not need to be a direct connection between the physical return address on the letter\/package and the recipient address before the letter\/package is sent.\n\nOriginally, IP was a connectionless datagram service in a transmission control program created by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974. When format and rules were applied to allow connections, the connection-oriented Transmission Control Protocol was created. The two together form the Internet Protocol Suite, often referred to as TCP\/IP.\n\nInternet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) was the first major version of IP. This is the dominant protocol of the Internet. However, IPv6 is active and in use, and its deployment is increasing all over the world.\n\nAddressing and routing are the most complex aspects of IP. However, intelligence in the network is located at nodes (network interconnection points) in the form of routers which forward datagrams to the next known gateway on the route to the final destination. The routers use interior gateway protocols (IGPs) or external gateway protocols (EGPs) to help with making forwarding route decisions. Routes are determined by the routing prefix within the datagrams. The routing process can therefore become complex. But at the speed of light (or nearly so) the routing intelligence determines the best route, and the datagram pieces and datagram all eventually arrive at their destination\n\nIP Packets \nIP packets or datagram has two parts. The first part is the header, which is like a label on an envelope. The second part is the payload, which is like the letter inside an envelope. The header contains the source and destination IP addresses, and some extra information. This information is called metadata, and is about the packet itself. Putting data in a packet with a header is encapsulation.\n\nRouting \nEvery computer on a network does some kind of routing. Dedicated computers talk with each other to figure out where to send packets. These computers are called routers, and talk using routing protocols.\n\nAlong every hop in a packet's journey, a computer reads the header. The computer sees the destination IP address and figures out where to send the packet.\n\nReliability \nARPANET, the early ancestor of the internet, was designed to survive a nuclear war. If one computer was destroyed, communication between all the other computers would still work. Computer networks still follow this same design.\n\nComputers talking to each other handle the \"smart\" functions to simplify computer networks. The end nodes will check for errors instead of a central authority. Keeping the \"smart\" things on the end computers or nodes follows the end-to-end principle.\n\nThe Internet Protocol sends packets out without ensuring they arrive safely. This is best-effort delivery, and is unreliable. Packets could get messed up, lost, duplicated, or received out of order. Higher level protocols like the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensure packets are delivered correctly. IP is also connectionless, so it does not keep track of communications. It assumes that another protocol such as TCP will keep track of connections.\n\nInternet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) uses a checksum to check for errors in an IP header. Every checksum is unique to a source\/destination combination. A routing node generates a new checksum when it gets a packet. If the new checksum is different from the old one, the routing node knows the packet is bad and throws it out. IPv6 assumes another protocol will check for errors and leaves out the checksum. This is to improve performance.\n\nHistory \nIn 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers published a paper called \"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication\". The paper described a way for computers to talk to each other using Packet Switching. A big part of this idea was the \"Transmission Control Program\". The Transmission Control Program was too big, so it split into TCP and IP. This model is now called the DoD Internet Model and Internet Protocol Suite, or the TCP\/IP Model.\n\nVersions 0 to 3 of IP were experimental, and used between 1977 and 1979. Versions 2 and 3, and a draft of version 4, allowed an address length of up to 128 bits, but this was mistakenly reduced to 32 bits in the final version of IPv4. Versions 7-9 were prototypes of what eventually became IPv6.\n\nIPv4 addresses will run out, because the number of possible addresses is running out. To fix this, the IEEE made IPv6 which had even more addresses. While IPv4 has 4.3 Billion addresses, IPv6 has 340 undecillion of them. This means we will never run out of IPv6 addresses. IPv5 was reserved for the Internet Stream Protocol, which was only used experimentally.\n\nReferences\n\nInternet protocols","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":144,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":3,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":4,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":8,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":6,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":5,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3}},"id":17473,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet%20Protocol","title":"Internet Protocol","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An odor or odour is a volatilized chemical compound, usually at a very low concentration, which humans and other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction.\n\nOdors are also called smells, which can be used to describe both pleasant and unpleasant odors. The words fragrance, scent, or aroma are used mostly by the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and is sometimes used to refer to perfumes. On the other hand, the words stench, reek, and stink are used specifically to describe unpleasant odors.\n\nBasics \n\nOdor is a sensation caused by molecules dissolved in air.\nThe widest range of odors are made up of organic compounds although some inorganic substances, such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, are also odorants.\nThe perception of an odor effect is a two step process.\nFirst, there is the physiological part; the sense of the stimulus by receptors in the nose.\nAfter that the psychological part follows. The stimuli are processed by the region of the human brain which is responsible for smelling.\n\nBecause of this, an objective and analytical measure of odor is impossible.\nWhile odor feelings are very personal perceptions, individual reactions are related to gender, age, state of health and private affectations. Common odors that people are used to, such as their own body odor, are less noticeable to individuals than external or uncommon odors.\n\nFor most people, the process of smelling gives little information concerning the ingredients of a substance. It only offers information related to the emotional impact. However, experienced people, such as flavorists and perfumers can pick out individual chemicals in complex mixes through smell alone.\n\nOdor analysis \n\nThe concentrations of odorant in Germany are defined by the \"Olfaktometrie\" since the 1870s. In this connection it's about the standard method to define the sense barrier of odors on basis the thinner of concentrated odor loaded assays. Following parameters are defined: odor substance concentration, intensity of odor and hedonism assessment.\n\nPheromones \n\nPheromones are odors that are deliberately used for communication. A female moth may release a pheromone that can entice a male moth that is several kilometers away. Honeybee queens constantly release pheromones that regulate the activity of the hive. Workers can release such smells to call other bees into an appropriate cavity when a swarm moves in or to \"sound\" an alarm when the hive is threatened.\n\nIn mammals, some pathway of pheromones identification are in the vomeronasal organ and some in olfactory receptors.\n\nRelated pages\n Incense\n Olfaction\n\nOther websites \n Odors categorized by main chemical constituent and organized by odor class, percept, etc.\n\nChemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":162,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":7,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":6,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":59440,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Odor","title":"Odor","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The New Musical Express (better known as the NME) is an Indie and pop music magazine in the United Kingdom. It has been published every week since March 1952. It was the first British magazine to include a singles chart.\n\nHistory\nThe magazine's first issue was published on 7 March 1952. It was first published in a non-glossy tabloid format on standard newsprint.\n\n1960s\nDuring the 1960s, the magazine championed the new British groups emerging at the time. The Beatles and The Rolling Stones were frequently on the front cover a lot. These and other artists would also appeared at the NME Poll Winners Concert, an awards event that featured artists voted as most popular by the NME's readers. The concert also featured an awards ceremony where the poll winners would collect their awards.\n\nThe later part of the 1960s, the magazine began to report about psychedelia as well as the continuation of articles about British groups of the time.\n\n1970s\nIn early 1972, with the magazine on the verge of closure by its owners, But a new person became editor and the paper's coverage changed radically from an uncritical to something intended to be smarter, hipper, more cynical and funnier than any mainstream British music paper had previously been (an approach influenced mainly by writers).\n\nIn mid-1973, the paper was selling nearly 300,000 copies per week and was outselling its other weekly rivals, Disc, Record Mirror and Sounds.\n\nThe year 1976 saw Punk Rock arrive on the music scene and NME, like other \"specialist\" publications, was slow in reporting and covering this new music phenomenon. In an attempt to boost sales, the paper advertised for a pair of \"hip young gunslingers\" to join their editorial staff. This resulted in the recruitment of two journalists who made sure the magazine was completely up to date on this new music style. Bands who a few months previously had been criticising the NME were now eager to be included.\n\nThe magazine also became more openly political during the time of Punk. Its cover would sometimes feature youth-oriented issues rather than a musical act.\n\n1980s\nSales were dropping, and by 1985 NME had hit a rough patch and was in danger of closing again. During this period, the editors at the magazine were split between those who wanted to write about hip hop, a genre that was relatively new to the UK, and those who wanted to stick to rock music. Sales were apparently lower when photos of hip hop artists appeared on the front and this led to the paper suffering as the lack of direction became even more apparent to readers.\n\nThe late eighties and early nineties had a generally weak rock scene in the UK and the paper was forced into giving a high profile to long forgotten bands like Kingmaker and the Railway Children.\n\n1990s\nBy the end of 1990, although the magazine still supported new British bands, the paper was dominated by American bands, because that was what the music scene in general was about.\n\nAlthough the period from 1991 to 1993 was dominated by American bands like Nirvana, this did not mean that British bands were being ignored. The NME still covered the Indie scene a lot.\n\nBy 1992, some new British bands were beginning to appear. Suede were quickly hailed by the paper as an alternative to the heavy Grunge sound and hailed as the start of a new British music scene. Indie however was still the dominant force, but the rise of new British bands would become something the paper would focus more and more upon.\n\nIn April 1994 Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain was found dead, a story which affected not only his fans and readers of the NME, but would see a massive change in British music. Grunge was about to be replaced by Britpop BBC NEWS | Entertainment | Highlights from the Britpop year, a new form of music influenced by British music of the 1960s and British culture. The phrase was coined by NME after the band Blur released their album Parklife in the same month of Cobain's death. Britpop began to fill the musical and cultural void left after Cobain's death, and Blur's success, along with the rise of a new group from Manchester called Oasis saw Britpop gather popularity for the rest of 1994. By the end of the year Blur and Oasis were the two biggest bands in the UK and sales of the NME were increasing thanks to the Britpop effect.\n1995 saw the NME cover many of these new bands and saw many of these bands play the NME Stage at that years Glastonbury Festival where the magazine had been sponsoring the second stage at the festival since 1993.\n\n2000s\nThe new millennium saw the NME focus on new British bands such as Franz Ferdinand and the Kaiser Chiefs who emerged as \"indie music\" continued to grow in commercial success. This commercial success has led to bands such as the Arctic Monkeys being both successful in the extreme and being championed by the NME; a phenomenon not seen since Britpop.\n\nIn December 2005 accusations were made that the NME end of year poll had been edited for commercial and political reasons.NME defends album of year poll | UK news | The Guardian These criticisms were rebutted by McNicholas, who claimed that webzine Londonist.com had got hold of an early draft of the poll.\n\nIn 2006 NME won the CocaCola best magazine this century award.\n\nNME.COM\nIts first editor was Brendan Fitzgerald. Later Anthony Thornton redesigned the site, focusing on music news. The website was awarded Online Magazine Of The Year in 1999 and 2001 and Anthony Thornton was announced as Website Editor Of The Year on three occasions.\n\nIt was awarded 'Best Music Website' at the Record Of The Day awards in October 2005. In 2006 NME.COM celebrated with a party at London's KOKO featuring Leicester band Kasabian and was subsequently awarded the BT Digital Music Award for Best Music Magazine and the first 'Chairman's Award' from the Association of Online Publishers awarded by the Chairman, Simon Waldman.\n\nIn 2007 NME.COM was launched in the USA with additional staff and plans to launch its Breaking Bands contest and the NME Awards across the Atlantic.\n\nThe site now provides news, reviews, gig listings, and videos as well as featuring downloads, merchandising and message boards.\n\nThe website over the last year has shifted it focus to also include tabloid gossip alongside its traditional music news. With regular news articles entitled \"Daily Ligger\" and \"Tabloid Hell.\"\n\nIn 2007 NME.com had a free download from the Verve, and it was the first songs the Verve released since they got back together.\n\nMusic magazines\nCompanies of the United Kingdom\n1952 establishments in Europe\n1950s establishments in the United Kingdom\nBritish weekly magazines\nBritish record charts\nMedia in the United Kingdom\nPop music\nRock music","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5}},"id":86230,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New%20Musical%20Express","title":"New Musical Express","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Labors of Herakles is a series of tasks performed by the Greek hero Herakles () as a penance for a terrible crime he committed. These tasks required great strength and courage. For the most part, they involved killing fierce animals and horrible monsters. The Labors were said to have been devised by Hera, the goddess of marriage.  She hated Herakles because he was a bastard son of her husband Zeus. She hoped these tasks would kill him. Herakles however performed them with great success, and, in the process, became very famous. The Labors of Herakles probably had their origin in the religious and magical practices of prehistoric man. They are the subject of ancient and modern art.\n\nBackground \nMortals die, but gods live forever. Herakles was part mortal, part god. His father was the god Zeus and his mother was the mortal Alkmene. Zeus' wife Hera was the goddess of marriage. She hated Herakles because he was one of her husband's bastards. She tried many times to kill him, even when he was a baby. He lived in spite of Hera's persecution and hatred, and did many great deeds as a young man.\n\nHerakles married Megara, the daughter of a king. They became the parents of several children. Hera caused Herakles to go mad and to kill his family. The priestess of Delphi ordered Herakles to serve his cousin King Eurystheus of Tiryns as a penance for this crime. Eurystheus would present a series of tasks to Herakles. These tasks were said to have been designed by Hera herself in the hope that they would kill Herakles.\n\nLabors of Herakles \nThere is no definite order for the Labors. Most of the time, however, the order is: Nemean Lion, Lernean Hydra, Cerynitian Hind, Erymanthian Boar, Augean Stables, Stymphalian Birds, Cretan Bull, Mares of Diomedes, Girdle of Hippolyta, Cattle of Geryon, Apples of the Hesperides, and Kerberos. The order here is that of the sculptures called metopes on the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. These sculptures (made about 460\u2013450 BC) were placed high on the outside of the temple in a frieze. Their order was described by the ancient Greek geographer, Pausanias. Some of these metopes are used in this article to illustrate the Labors. The first group of six metopes are from the west end of the temple. The second group of six are from the east end. Some of the illustrations here are taken from Greek vase paintings. The Labors of Herakles became the subject of much ancient and modern art, and even movies like Hercules (1958) starring Steve Reeves and the Walt Disney animated movie Hercules (1997).\n\nLion of Nemea \n\nA large and dangerous lion was terrorizing the people and animals near the city of Nemea. Weapons of iron, bronze, or stone could not pierce the lion's thick hide (skin). Eurystheus ordered Herakles to kill and skin this lion.\n\nHerakles went to the region of Nemea and stayed with a poor man named Molorchos at Kleonai. Molorchos' son had been killed by this lion. Molorchos wanted to sacrifice his only ram to Herakles, but Herakles asked him to wait thirty days. If he did not return within thirty days, the ram was to be sacrificed to him as a hero. If he returned within thirty days, the ram was to be sacrificed to Zeus the Deliverer.\n\nHerakles found the lion outside its lair on Mount Tretos. His arrows and sword were useless against the beast. He hit the lion with his club and the animal went into his lair. Herakles blocked one of the two openings to the cavern with nets, then entered the cavern. He wrestled the lion and choked it to death. The lion bit off one of his fingers. He returned to Molorchos' hovel with the lion's carcass on his back. The two men sacrificed to Zeus.\n\nWhen Herakles presented the dead animal to Eurystheus, the king was disgusted. He ordered Herakles to leave such things outside the gates of Tiryns in the future. Eurystheus then put a large bronze jar underground. This was the place where he would hide whenever Herakles returned to the city with some trophy of his labours. Zeus put the lion among the stars as the constellation Leo.\n\nIn the future, Eurystheus would only communicate with Herakles through Kopreus, his dungman. Herakles skinned the lion with one of its own claws. He wore the skin as a kind of armor and the lion's skull as a helmet. Euripides wrote in his play Herakles:\"First he cleared the grove of Zeus of a lion, and put its skin upon his back, hiding his yellow hair in its fearful tawny gaping jaws.\"\n\nThe origin of the Nemean Lion is not certain. Some say he was the son of either Typhon or the Chimera and the dog Orthros. Some say the moon goddess Selene gave birth to the lion and let it fall to Earth near a two-mouthed cave at Nemea. She set it against the people because they had failed to properly observe her worship. Some say that Hera had Selene create the lion from sea foam and that Iris, the goddess of the rainbow, carried it to Nemea. Others say the lion was the son of the snake goddess Echidna and her son, the dog Orthos.  This would make the lion a brother to the Sphinx of Thebes.  Hera was said to have brought the lion from the eastern land of the Arimoi and to have released it near Nemea.\n\nHydra of Lerna \n\nThe Hydra (\"water-snake\") was a monster with many heads. She lived beneath a plane tree near the spring called Amymone. This spring was near the seaside city of Lerna. She was the offspring of Typhon and Echidna, and the sister of Kerebos. Hera raised the Hydra to torment Herakles. The Hydra had a dog-like body. Its breath was poisonous. The head in the middle of the monster was immortalit could not die. Eurystheus ordered Herakles to kill this monster. Herakles and his nephew Iolaos (the son of his brother Iphicles) drove to the swamp near Lerna in Herakles' war chariot. Iolaos was Heracles' charioteer and his lover.\n\nAthena told Herakles to force the monster from the swamp with fire arrows. He did, but the monster twisted itself about his feet. He beat the heads with his club, but crushing one head only caused others to erupt. A great crab crawled from the swamp to help the Hydra. It bit Herakles in the foot. He crushed its shell. Herakles called Iolaos for his help and cut the Hydra's heads off with his sword. Iolaos sealed the neck stumps with torches so other heads could not grow in their place.\n\nThe Hydra was at last killed. Herakles cut off the immortal head and buried it under a heavy stone in the road. He dipped his arrowheads in the Hydra's poisonous blood. They became deadly. Back in Tiryns, Eurystheus would not count this adventure as a Labor because Herakles had had his nephew's help. He added another Labor to the list. Hera set the crab in the sky as a constellation. The river Anigrus in Elis stank because the Hydra's poison was washed from the arrows Heracles used to kill the centaur Nessus in its waters.\n\nStymphalian Birds \n\nThe Stymphalian Birds were man-eating birds living on the shores of Lake Stymphalos in north-eastern Arcadia. The birds were sacred to Ares, the god of war. Their feces poisoned the land and crops would not grow. The birds attacked men with their bronze beaks and claws. They could rain down their sharp bronze feathers to kill men and their animals.\n\nHerakles failed to drive them off with his arrows. Athena gave him a set of metal castanets (or a rattle) made by the blacksmith of the gods, Hephaestus. Herakles climbed to a rocky place over the lake and made so much noise with the castanets that the birds flew as far as the Isle of Ares in the Black Sea. Herakles was able to kill many of them with his arrows as they flew away.\n\nSome say the birds were women. Artemis Stymphalia ruled the swamps about the lake. Her temple there had pictures of young girls with the feet of birds. These girls lured men to their deaths in the swamps. They were said to be the daughters of Stymphalos and Ornis. These two were killed by Herakles when they would not give him food, drink, and a place to rest.\n\nCretan Bull \n\nThe Cretan Bull rose from the sea. Poseidon, god of the sea, intended King Minos to sacrifice the bull, but it was so handsome that Minos kept it for himself. He sent it to mate with his cows, then sacrificed another bull to Poseidon. The god was angry and caused Minos' wife, Queen Pasipha\u00eb, to develop a sexual desire for the animal.\n\nShe mated with it and gave birth to a son. This son was the Minotaur, a monster with the head of a bull and the body of a man. The Cretan Bull went mad. Heracules captured it by throwing a rope about its head and about a leg. Some say he wrestled it, or stunned it with his club.\n\nMinos let Heracules take the bull to Greece. Eurystheus wanted to give the bull to Hera but she would not take it because Heracules had captured it. She let it go and it wandered about Greece. Theseus of Athens finally captured it and sacrificed it to Athena, or some say, Apollo. The bull had spent its days in Crete destroying crops and belching fire.\n\nHind of Artemis \n\nWhen Artemis, the goddess of the hunt, was a child, she saw five hinds (female deer) grazing near the Anaurus River in Thessaly. Each was as large as a bull, each had hooves of bronze, and all had antlers of gold.  She caught four of them, and used them to pull her chariot. The fifth escaped the goddess and lived on the Keryneian Hill in Arkadia. Hera planned to use this hind against Herakles someday.\n\nEurystheus ordered Herakles to catch this hind and bring it alive to Tiryns. The danger in this Labor lay in pursuing the hind through wild lands from which no hunter ever returned. Herakles hunted the hind for a year, chasing it through Istria and the Land of the Hyperboreans. The hind took refuge on Mount Artemision. Herakles let fly an arrow that pinned the hind's forelegs (front legs) together without drawing blood. He put the hind on his shoulders and took her back to Tiryns.\n\nArtemis and Apollo stopped Herakles on his way to Tiryns. On some vases, Apollo is seen trying to forcibly take the hind from Herakles.  Herakles however lay the blame for the theft on Eurystheus. Artemis accepted this plea and allowed him to pass. Some say Herakles used a net to capture the hind or captured her when she was asleep under a tree.\n\nGirdle of Hippolyte \n\nEurystheus' daughter Admete was a priestess of Hera. She wanted the Golden Girdle (belt) of Hippolyte, the Queen of the Amazons. This girdle had been a gift to Hippolyte from her father, Ares, the god of war. The Amazons were all related to Ares. They hated men and mated only to make more female warriors. Baby boys were killed or crippled. The lives of these women were devoted to war.\n\nHerakles and friends sailed to their land of Pontos on the Black Sea. The Amazons lived at the mouth of the Thermodon River. Hippolyte welcomed Herakles. She fell in love with his muscles and his great fame. She promised him the girdle as a love token. Hera disguised herself as an Amazon. She whispered among others that Herakles was going to kidnap the Queen. The Amazons charged Herakles' ship on horseback. Herakles killed Hippolyte, and took the girdle. Many Amazons were killed.\n\nSome say Hippolyte would not part with the girdle. Herakles threw her from her horse and threatened her with his club. She would not ask for mercy. Herakles killed her. Some say Hippolyte's sister Melanippe was taken prisoner. She was ransomed with the girdle. Some say Hippolyte herself was taken prisoner and ransomed with the girdle. Others say Theseus took Hippolyte prisoner and gave the girdle to Herakles. Herakles gave the girdle to Eurystheus, who gave it to Admete.\n\nErymanthian Boar \n\nA large and dangerous boar was living on Mount Erymanthos. Eurystheus ordered Herakles to catch this boar. On Mount Erymanthos, Herakles forced the boar from the wood with his shouts. He then drove the boar into deep snow and jumped on its back. He put the boar in chains, placed it on his shoulders, and took it to Eurystheus. The king was so scared he hid in his bronze jar. Herakles left the boar in the market square of Tiryns. He then joined the Argonauts on the Quest for the Golden Fleece.\n\nMount Erymanthos took its name from a son of Apollo. Aphrodite blinded him because he saw her taking a bath. Apollo was angry. He turned himself into a boar and killed her boyfriend Adonis.\n\nHorses of Diomedes \n\nEurystheus ordered Herakles to bring him the Horses of King Diomedes of Thrace. King Diomedes' horses were savage man-eaters, and were fed on the flesh of Diomedes' innocent guests. Herakles and his friends sailed to the coast of Thrace. Having found the stables of Diomedes, they killed the king's servants. They then put Diomedes before the horses. The animals tore him to pieces and ate him. The horses grew calm after feeding, and were led to the ship. Herakles sent them to Eurystheus.\n\nDiomedes was the son of Ares, the god of war, and the king of the Bistones, a Thracian tribe of warlike people. While travelling in connection with this Labor, Herakles visited King Admetos. His wife Alcestis had just died. Herakles wrestled Death for Alcestis and he won. Alcestis was returned to life. This event is the basis for Euripides' play Alcestis. Eurystheus dedicated the savage horses to Hera. They were said to have bred into the age of Alexander the Great.\n\nAnother story says Herakles captured the horses and drove them to his ship. Diomedes and his men chased the thieves. Herakles and his friends left the ship to fight the king and his men. The horses of Diomedes were left in the care of Abderos, Herakles' male lover. The horses ate him. Herakles built the city of Abdera in his memory. It was after this Labor that Herakles joined the Quest for the Golden Fleece. He dropped out of the search when his lover Hylas was lost on a strange island. Some say Herakles went on to Kolchis and rejoined the Quest. Others say he returned to Tiryns and the Labors.\n\nCattle of Geryon \n\nGeryon was a very strong giant with three bodies, six hands, and three heads. He was the King of Tartessus in Spain. He had wings, and the picture on his shield was an eagle. He lived on an island called Erytheia. This island was far to the west in Okeanos, the river that circles the Earth. At night, the Sun sailed upon this river in a Golden Cup.\n\nGeryon had large herds of cattle. They were watched over by Eurytion, Geryon's servant, and a huge two-headed dog named Orthrus, the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. King Eurystheus ordered Herakles to capture Geryon's cattle.\n\nHerakles crossed the Libyan desert. At the narrow channel that separates Europe and Africa, he built the Pillars of Herakles. The Sun was hot and Herakles threatened to shoot him with his bow and arrows. The Sun asked him not to do this. Herakles agreed. He borrowed the Sun's Golden Cup and sailed away in it. The Titan Oceanus tested Herakles' seamanship by causing violent waves. Herakles threatened to shoot Oceanus, too. Oceanus calmed the waves. Some say Herakles sailed in an urn and used his lion skin as a sail.\n\nOn Geryon's island, Herakles killed the two-headed dog Orthos and the servant Eurytion, who tried to help the dog. Herakles was driving the cattle to the Golden Cup when Geryon appeared, ready to fight. Herakles shot him down and sailed away with the cattle. Herakles had many adventures on his return to Greece. On the Greek coast, Hera sent gadflies to drive the herd of cattle far and wide. Herkales managed to round-up a few and these he presented to Eurystheus. He sacrificed them to Hera.\n\nApples of the Hesperides \n\nHera received golden apples as a gift when she married. She planted them in her garden far to the west near Mount Atlas. It was on this mountain that the Titan Atlas held the sky on his shoulders. He was being punished for having joined the other Titans in making war on Zeus. When Hera heard his daughters were stealing from the garden, she sent a one hundred-headed dragon called Ladon to the garden to protect the apples. Three nymphs called the Hesperides also guarded the apples.\n\nEurystheus wanted Herakles to bring him three golden apples. Herakles set off. The river god Nereus refused to give him directions and changed his shape again and again. Herakles tied him to a tree until he told the way. In the Caucasus, Herakles freed the Titan Prometheus, the fire-bringer, from his chains. Prometheus warned Herakles not to pick the apples himself, but to ask someone else to do it.\n\nHerakles asked Atlas to pick the apples. The Titan agreed, but only if Herakles would kill the dragon and then take the sky on his shoulders. Herakles killed the dragon and took the sky on his shoulders. Atlas picked the apples but refused to take the sky again. He liked being free. Herakles tricked him. He asked Atlas to take the sky\u00a0\u2014 only for a moment\u00a0\u2014 while he put a cushion on his shoulders. Atlas took the sky. Herakles took the apples and headed for Tiryns. Eurystheus did not know what to do with the apples. He gave them to Herakles. Athena returned the apples to the garden, because they did, after all, belong to the gods.\n\nKerberos \n\nEurystheus ordered Herakles to bring him Kerberos, a three-headed dog-like monster with a dragon's tail and a mane of poisonous snakes. It guarded the entrance to the Underworld. The three heads could see the past, present, and future. Some say they represented birth, youth, and old age. Kerberos allowed the dead to enter the Underworld, but anyone who tried to leave was eaten. Kerberos was the offspring of Echidna, a monster part woman\/part snake, and Typhon, a fire-breathing giant. Kerberos' brother was the two-headed dog Orthrus.\n\nHerakles' first step was to undergo the Mysteries of Eleusis. These rites would protect him in the land of the dead. They would also cleanse him of the massacre of the Centaurs. Athena and Hermes guided Herakles into the Underworld. He was ferried across the River Styx in Charon's boat. On the opposite shore, he met the Gorgon, Medusa. She was a harmless phantom and he passed her without trouble. He met Meleagros and offered to marry his sister, Deianeira. Eventually, he did. When Herakles asked Hades for Kerberos, Hades allowed him to take the monster, but only if he could do so without using his weapons. Herakles wrestled the monster and choked it. Once the monster had yielded, he led it away.\n\nAs they neared the Earth's surface, Kerberos tossed his three heads because he hated the sunlight. His spit flew in all directions. From that spit grew the poisonous plant, aconite. When Heracles arrived in Tiryns, Eurystheus was performing a sacrifice. The king gave the best cuts of meat to his relatives and only a slave's portion of meat to Herakles. Herakles was furious with this insult and killed Eurystheus' three sons. Eurystheus was terrified when presented with Kerberos and hid in his bronze jar. Herakles took Kerberos back to the Underworld. Another account says the monster escaped. This Labor is the twelfth and last Labor in some accounts.\n\nAugeian Stables \n\nKing Augeias of Elis lived on the west coast of the Peloponnese. He was a son of Helios, the sun god. It was said that the rays of the sun shone in his eyes. Augeias had many cattle. His animals were always healthy, and gave birth to many young.  His stables had not been cleaned in years and were thick with animal waste. The valleys were also full of waste. The smell of this waste poisoned the land. Eurystheus ordered Herakles to clean the stables in a day. He liked the thought of Herakles doing such dirty work.\n\nHerakles went to Elis. He did not tell Augeias that Eurystheus had ordered him to clean the stables.Instead, he made a bargain with Augeias. He promised to clean the stables if Augeias would give him some of his cattle. The bargain was made. Augeias' son Phyleos acted as witness. Herakles set to work. First, he made two holes in the stone foundation of the stables. Then he changed the paths of the Alpheios and Peneios Rivers. The rivers were made to flow through one hole and out the other. This is how the stables were washed clean.\n\nAugeias learned from Eurystheus' servant Copreus that Eurystheus had ordered Herakles to clean the stables. He would not respect the bargain he had made with Herakles. Herakles took the case to court. Phyleos was called to court and told the truth about the bargain. Augeias was so angry he drove his son and Herakles out of the land. Back in Tiryns, Eurystheus said that the Labor did not count because Herakles had made a bargain with Augeias. Eurystheus also thought that the river gods had really done the work.\n\nThis Labor was the last one presented in the frieze on the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. It was important to the Greeks because one day Herakles made war on Augeias and defeated him. Herakles then laid out the Olympian sanctuary in the land of King Augeias and started the Olympic Games. It was said that Menedemus of Elis gave Herakles advice on this Labor and that the hero had the help of his nephew Iolaos. While Augeias and Herakles were making their bargain, Phaeton, one of Augeias' twelve white bulls, charged Herakles. These white bulls guarded all the cattle against wild animals. Phaeton thought the hero was a lion. Herakles forced the bull to the Earth by twisting its horn. Herakles was going to get Augeias' daughter as part of the bargain, but he did not. This was given as one reason for making war later on Augeias. He was also going to become Augeias' slave if the work was not done in one day.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nMore reading \n \n\nHerakles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":351050,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The%20Labors%20of%20Herakles","title":"The Labors of Herakles","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Statistical inference  is the statistical process of drawing conclusions from data. \n\nExamples would be the randomness of the data, observational errors, sampling variation, and other issues.\n\nScope\nFor the most part, statistical inference makes statements about populations, using data drawn from the population of interest by some form of random sampling. The result is some kind of statistical proposition, such as:\n an estimate; i.e., a particular value that best approximates some parameter of interest\n a confidence interval. That is an interval from a dataset such that, under repeated sampling, the interval would contain the true parameter value with the probability at the stated confidence level\n a credible interval; i.e., a set of values containing, for example, 95% of samples would include the true value of the parameter. \n rejection of a hypothesis\n clustering or classifying data points into groups\n\nReferences \n\nStatistics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":208394,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference%20%28statistics%29","title":"Inference (statistics)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Fan fiction or fanfiction (also known as fanfic) is a name for fiction created by fans instead of the original author.\n\nFanfiction writers take fictional characters and settings from fictional (or sometimes historical) stories that were created by other people, and write original stories about them. People write fan fiction for many different book, television series, and movie fandoms.\n\nWhen fanfiction first began, it was often only published in fan magazines. Today fanfiction, like many fandom activities, can be usually found on the internet. This has created many fanfiction communities. People in these communities post their fanfiction and receive feedback (reviews) from other community members.\n\nThere is also fan art (also called fanart), which is often drawings or other visual art based on a fandom.\n\nRelated pages\nFandom\nFictional universe\n\nOther websites \n\nFanfiction.net\n\nFan fiction","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":60389,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fan%20fiction","title":"Fan fiction","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An airmie (or airmy), braidlie speakin, is the laund-based airmed forces o a soverein kintra. In hott kintras it is whyls cried a laund airmie ti distinguish it frae the \"air airmie\" (airforce) o that kintra. The mukkilest airmie at praisent is the Fowk's Liberation Airmie o Cheenae wi 2,250,000 kemps an 800,000 reser sodgers. A staundin airmie is an airmie componed o fou tym sodgers wha \"staund ower\" an dinna disbaund in tyms o peace, whilk is unalyk reser forces whilk anerlie activate in tyms o need, siclyk weir or a naitral disaster.\n\nSee an aw \nBreetish airmy\nIrish Airmy\n\n \nMilitar","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":8858,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Airmy","title":"Airmy","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ratification is the confirmation of a treaty.\n\nTreaties are signed by members of the government of a country.  Many treaties make a country do something, or change the law of the countries which agree to it.  Therefore some countries can only ratify a treaty if it is confirmed by the legislature of the country, or by a referendum (a vote of the people).\n\nThe founders solved this issue by dropping the Amendment requirements. \n\nIn the past treaties were signed by delegates chosen by the ruler of a country.  To make sure that the treaty was acceptable to the ruler the treaty would not take effect until it was ratified by the ruler.\n\nThe United States is only bound by a treaty if the Senate agrees.  So although President Woodrow Wilson signed the Treaty of Versailles which ended the First World War with Germany and set up the League of Nations the treaty never took effect for the USA because the US Senate never gave its \"advice and consent\" (agreed) to the treaty.  This is why there was a separate peace treaty between Germany and the USA\n\nIn the United Kingdom the government ratifies treaties, it does not need the agreement of the House of Commons.  However if the treaty is going to change the law then a separate act of parliament is needed.  For example before Britain entered the European Union in 1973 the European Communities Act had to be passed to  make the changes to the law that were needed.\n\nRelated pages \nSignature\nInternational law","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":83061,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ratification","title":"Ratification","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Poincar\u00e9 Conjecture is a question about spheres in mathematics. It is named after Henri Poincar\u00e9, the French mathematician and physicist who formulated it in 1904.\n\nThe sphere (also called the 2-sphere, as it is a 2-dimensional surface, although it is usually seen as inside a three dimensional space) has the property that any loop on it can be contracted to a point (if a rubber band is wrapped around the sphere, it is possible to slide it down to a point). Mathematicians say that the 2-sphere is simply connected. Other spaces do not have this property, for example the donut: a rubber band that goes around the whole donut once cannot be slid down to a point without it leaving the surface.\n\nMathematicians knew that this property was unique to the 2-sphere, in the sense that any other simply connected space that does not have edges and is small enough (in mathematician terms, that is compact) is in fact the 2-sphere. It is no longer true if we remove the idea of smallness however, as an infinitely large plane is also simply connected. Also, a regular disk (a circle and its interior) is simply connected, but it has an edge (the bounding circle).\n\nThe conjecture asks whether the same is true for the 3-sphere, which is an object living naturally in four dimensions. This question motivated much of modern mathematics, especially in the field of topology. The question was finally settled in 2002 by Grigori Perelman, a Russian mathematician, with methods from geometry, showing that it is indeed true. He was awarded a Fields Medal and the $1 million Millennium Prize for his work, both of which he declined.\n\nThe Poincar\u00e9 conjecture can also be extended to higher dimensions: this is the generalised Poincar\u00e9 conjecture. Surprisingly, it was easier to prove the fact for higher-dimensional spheres: In 1960, Smale proved it to be true for the 5-sphere, 6-sphere and higher. In 1982, Freedman proved that it was also true for the 4-sphere, for which he was awarded a Fields Medal.\n\nGeometry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":47,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":169214,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Poincar%C3%A9%20conjecture","title":"Poincar\u00e9 conjecture","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"SSI or social security income is a type of government check that is given to those in the United States with some type of disability. Those who are above age 65 are automatically qualified to receive SSI benefits. However, children who have a disability can also qualify for SSI benefits. In all cases with children, they can receive SSI until the age of 18 (when they finish school). Some children continue to receive SSI if their disability worsens, or if they continue to develop more disabilities. When a child reaches the age of 18, they are evaluated by a professional physiatrist. The physiatrist asks several questions ranging from their moods to how they are doing in their life. The evaluation also consists of several mental work problems that are based on decision-making. At the end of the evaluation, the physiatrist will determine if the child is still disabled or has more disabilities. \n\nThere has been mixed to negative commentaries by the general public who believe that SSI is a mere waste and should not exist. While others argue that if SSI is taken away, the elderly and children with disabilities would struggle with medical expenses and other lifetime economic issues. SSI is founded by the government. The money given to those with SSI are taken from taxes from those who work in the United States. SSI benefits include: insurance, automatic qualification for low income housing, free transportation to and from appointments and a monthly check that arrives on the first of every month.\n\nWebsites \nOfficial United States website for SSI\n\nIncome","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2021-04":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":323072,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social%20Security%20Income","title":"Social Security Income","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A fashion accessory is  a decorative item that supplements one's outfit. Items such as such as jewellery, gloves, handbags, hats, belts, scarves, watches, sunglasses, pins, stockings, bow ties, leggings, ties, suspenders, and tights.\n\nAccessories add color, style and class to an outfit, and create a certain look, but they may also have practical functions. Handbags are for carrying small necessary items, hats protect the face from weather, Laptops and mobile phones communicate, and gloves keep the hands warm. \n\nAccessories may be used to show religious or cultural affiliation: Crucifixes, Star of David, Islamic headscarves, skullcaps and turbans are common examples. Designer labels on accessories are perceived as an indicator of social status.\n\nAccessories are also available in the form of bracelets, necklaces, and earrings. \n\nAccessories","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":266029,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fashion%20accessory","title":"Fashion accessory","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Chirality is when an object is present in two forms which are mirror images of each other.\n\nThe two forms cannot be superimposed. Human hands are chiral. The left hand is a mirror image of the right hand. You cannot turn or move one of your hands to look exactly the same as the other. This is why you can not put a left handed glove on your right hand, or shake the right hand of a person using your left hand.\n\nIn chemistry \nIn chemistry, chirality refers to molecules. If a molecule is chiral it has two forms that are mirror images of each other but otherwise identical.\n\nChemists call these enantiomers or optical isomers. Because the difference between right and left hands is easy to understand, chemists call enantiomers either 'right-' or 'left-handed'. A mixture of equal amounts of the two enantiomers is called a racemic mixture.\n\nMolecular chirality is quite common. It is found in stereochemistry, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry, and biochemistry.\n\nThe symmetry of a molecule (or any other object) tells us whether it is chiral.  A molecule is achiral (not chiral) if it has an axis of symmetry.\n\nRacemic mixtures \nA racemic mixture is one which has equal amounts of left- and right-handed enantiomers of a chiral molecule.\n\nHomochiralism in biology \nMany biologically active molecules are chiral, including amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) and sugars. Most of these compounds are of the same chirality. Most amino acids are L (left-handed) and sugars are D. (right-handed). Proteins made of L amino acids, are known as left-handed proteins, whereas D amino acids produce right-handed proteins.\n\nThe origin of homochirality in the first place is much discussed. Most believe that the original origin of chiralities was purely random. They think if carbon-based life forms exist elsewhere in the universe, the chemistry might have different chirality. Other theories are possible.\n\nEnzymes, which are chiral, usually only work with one enantiomer of a chiral substrate. Imagine an enzyme as having a glove-like cavity that binds a substrate. If this glove is right-handed, then one enantiomer will fit inside and be bound, whereas the other enantiomer will have a poor fit and is unlikely to bind.\n\nIt was economical for life-forms to adopt one form or the other of each type of chiral compound. That way we do not need two enzymes for every chemical reaction which involves chirality.\n\nNotes \n\nStereochemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":133165,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chirality","title":"Chirality","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A programming language is a type of written language that tells computers what to do. Examples are: Python, Ruby, Java, JavaScript, C, C++, and C#. Programming languages are used to write computer programs and computer software. A programming language is like a set of commands that tell the computer how to do things.\n\nUsually, the programming language uses real words for some of the commands (e.g. \"if... then... else...\", \"and\", \"or\"), so that the language is easier for a human to understand. Like any normal language, many programming languages use punctuation. To make a program, a programmer writes commands in their chosen programming language and saves the commands to a text file. This text file is called source code. Some programming languages, such as Python and JavaScript, can be read by the computer right away. If not, the source code has to be compiled, which means that the computer translates the source code into another language (such as assembly language or machine language) that a computer can read, but which is much harder for a person to read.\n\nComputer programs must be written very carefully. If a programmer makes mistakes, then the program might then stop working, which is called \"crashing\". When a program has a problem because of how the code was written, this is called a \"bug\". A very small mistake can cause very serious bugs.\n\nTypes of programming languages \nThere are many types of programming languages. Most programming languages do not follow one type alone, so it is difficult to assign a type for each language. The examples of each type are given in each section below because they are the best well-known examples of that type.\n\nHigh-level vs. low-level \n\nHigh-level programming languages require less knowledge about the hardware compared to low-level programming languages. This is because high-level programming languages abstract away the hardware the program is running on. Many high-level languages require an interpreter to run the source code on the hardware in real time. On the other hand, low-level languages usually convert the whole source code to machine code before running, because the source code is so close to the hardware that it is easy to do so.\n\nDeclarative vs. Imperative programming \nDeclarative programming languages describe a \"problem\" but they usually do not say how the problem should be solved. The problem description uses logic, and \"solving\" the problem often looks like automatically proving a system of logical axioms. Examples for such programming languages are Prolog, XSLT, LISP and SQL.\n\nImperative programming languages describe a system of state changes. At the start, the program is in a certain state, and the computer is given steps to follow, in order to perform an action. Following the steps causes the program to \"change state\".\n\nIn general, declarative programming languages are safer and shorter. Imperative programming languages are more common, because they are easier to use.\n\nFunctional vs. Procedural \nFunctional programming looks at programming like a function in mathematics. The program receives input, together with some information, and uses this information to create output. It will not have a state in between, and it will also not change things that are not related to the computation.\n\nProcedural programs specify or describe sets of steps or state changes.\n\nStack-based \nStack-based languages look at some of the program's memory like a stack of cards. There are very few things that can be done with a stack. A data item can be put on the top of the stack. This operation is generally called \"push\". A data item can be removed from the top of the stack.  This is called a \"pop\".  You can look at the item at the top of the stack without removing it.  This is called a \"peek\".\n\nIf a program is written as \"push 5; push 3; add; pop;\" it will put 5 on the top of the stack, put 3 on top of the 5, add the top two values (3 + 5 = 8), replace the 3 and 5 with the 8, and print the top (8). Examples for programming languages that are stack-based are the languages Postscript and Forth.\n\nObject-oriented \n\nObject-oriented programming languages place data and functions that change data into a single unit. This unit is called an \"object\". Objects can interact with each other and change another object's data. This is usually called encapsulation or information hiding. Most modern programming languages are object-oriented, or at least allow this style of programming. Examples of this are Java, Python, Ruby, C++, C# and other C languages.\n\nFlow-oriented \nFlow-oriented programming sees programming as connecting different components. These components send messages back and forth. A single component can be part of different \"programs\", without the need to be changed internally.\n\nScientific computing \n\nSome of the languages above can be used for scientific computing. For example, C++ and Python are also used in this way. On the other hand, there are some languages that has scientific computing as their main purpose. The following are some examples:\n\n MATLAB - made by MathWorks\n GNU Octave, Scilab - open source versions of MATLAB\n R (programming language) - widely used in the field of statistics\n Wolfram Mathematica - made by Wolfram Research\n\nDocument creation \nLaTeX and SATySFi are programming languages which helps document creation.\n\nRules \nEvery programming language has rules about what it can and can not do. These include:\n\n Correct numbers (types of numbers, and how large or small the numbers can be)\n Words (reserved words, case-sensitivity)\n Limits on what the programming language can do\n\nMost languages have official standards that define the rules of how to write the source code. Some programming languages have two or more standards. This can happen when a new standard replaces an old one. For example, the Perl 5 standard replaced Perl 4 in 1993. It can happen because two people made two standards at the same time. For example, there are several standards for APL.\n\nObject-Oriented Programming \nObject-Oriented Programming (sometimes shortened to OOP) is a form of programming where all parts of the program are objects. Objects are pieces of memory with the same structure that can be used again and again. A bank account, bitmap, or hero from a video game could all be objects within a program. Objects are made up of properties (pieces of information the object stores) and methods which are things the object can do. A Dog object might have properties like height and hairColor. Its methods might include bark() and wagTail().\n\nAll objects are created from templates called classes. You can think of a class as a mold from which objects are made. The class defines all the properties and methods that its objects will have. Objects created from a class are called instances of the class. A class can extend another class, which means that it takes all the properties and methods of the class but can add its own.\n\nHere is an example of what a class might look like in a programming language:\n\nclass Dog extends Mammal {\n\n  \/\/ These are properties:\n  String breed = \"Collie\"\n  String type = \"Herding Dog\"\n\n  \/\/ These are methods\n  void wagTail() {\n    \/\/Do some wagging\n  }\n\n  void bark() {\n    \/\/ Do the barking here\n  }\n\n}\n\nNotice that the Dog class extends the Mammal class, so all dogs will have the properties of a mammal, like hairLength, and methods, like eat() or sleep().\n\nObject-oriented programming is used in many of today's most popular programming languages, such as Java, C#, Objective-C, C++, Python, Ruby, Javascript, and ActionScript.\n\nExamples\n\nExample of Visual Basic \nHere is a simple program written in Visual Basic (a language made by Microsoft):\n\n Dim Input\n Input = InputBox(\"How old are you?? - Code\")\n If Not IsNumeric(Input) Then\n   MsgBox & Input & \"That's not a number!\"\n ElseIf Input < 0 Then\n   MsgBox \"You cannot be less than zero years old!\"\n ElseIf Input > 100 Then\n   MsgBox \"That's old!\"\n Else\n   MsgBox \"You're \" & Input & \" years old.\"\n End If\n\nThis program asks the user his or her age and responds based on what the user typed. If the user typed something that is not a number, the program says so. If the user typed a number less than zero, the program says so. If the user says he or she is older than 100 years old, the program says \"That's old!\". If the user typed a correct age, the program says back to the user how old he or she is.\n\nExample of Python \nHere is a program that does the same thing as the program above, but in Python:\n\n try:\n     age = int(raw_input(\"How old are you? \"))\n except ValueError:\n     print (\"That's not a number!\")\n else:\n     if age < 0:\n         print (\"You cannot be less than zero years old!\")\n     elif age > 100:\n         print (\"That's old!\")\n     else:\n         print(\"You're %s years old.\" % age)\n\nExample of C# \nThe same thing as the program above, but in C#:\n\nusing System;\n\npublic class Hello\n{\n    public static void Main()\n    {\n        Console.WriteLine(\"What is your age?\");\n        int age;\n        if (!int.TryParse(Console.ReadLine(), out age))\n            Console.WriteLine(\"That's not a number!\");\n        else if (age < 0)\n            Console.WriteLine(\"You cannot be less than zero years old!\");\n        else if (age > 100)\n            Console.WriteLine(\"That's old!\");\n        else\n            Console.WriteLine(\"You're {0} years old.\", age);\n    }\n}\n\nExample of Haskell \nThe same thing again, but in Haskell:\n\nimport Text.Read\nmain = do\n  putStrLn \"What is your age?\"\n  input <- fmap readMaybe getLine\n  putStrLn $ case input of                   \n    Just age | age < 0 ->   \"You cannot be less than zero years old!\"\n             | age > 100 -> \"That's old!\"\n             | otherwise -> \"You're \" ++ show age ++ \" years old.\"\n    Nothing -> \"That's not a number!\"\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \n Algorithm\n Formal language\n List of programming languages\n Programmer\n Compiler\n Computer programming\n Programming paradigm\n Pseudocode","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":255,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":7,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":5,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":8,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":6,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":10,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":10,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":5,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":5}},"id":6362,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programming%20language","title":"Programming language","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Kamikaze (Japanese: \u795e\u98a8; literally: \"god-wind\"; usual translation: \"divine wind\") is a word of Japanese origin. It comes from the name the Japanese gave to a typhoon that destroyed the Mongol ships in the 13th century and saved the country from invasion. In Western culture, the word kamikaze is used to mean the suicide pilots of the Empire of Japan. Those pilots attacked the ships of the Allied Powers in the final years of World War II, during which they flew their planes into enemy ships. It has also come to mean other kinds of suicide attacks.\n\nMost people in Western culture believe the word kamikaze was the name used by the Japanese military for pilots, but that is not true. Their correct name was tokubetsu k\u014dgeki tai (\u7279\u5225\u653b\u6483\u968a), which literally means \"special attack team.\" This is usually abbreviated tokk\u014dtai (\u7279\u653b\u968a) in a shortened form. The suicide attacks made by Navy pilots were called shinp\u016b tokubetsu k\u014dgeki tai (\u795e\u98a8\u7279\u5225\u653b\u6483\u968a, \"divine wind special attack team\"). The American translators used a different style of pronunciation of the Japanese language by mistake, and read the word shinp\u016b (\"divine wind\") as kamikaze, as those Japanese characters can be read both ways. The name became so well known after the war that Japanese also started using it.\n\nHistory \n\nAfter the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the Japanese Navy and its Air force were defeated in several important battles, like Midway and the Philippine Sea.  They lost many ships (including nearly all the Japanese aircraft carriers), hundreds of fighter aircraft, and many of their best pilots.  The Japanese industry was small and very poor compared to the American industry.  For this reason, the United States replaced their lost ships and planes with better ones very quickly; but Japan could only make few, and of poor quality. During 1943-44, the Allied forces were moving towards Japan. At the Battle of the Philippine Sea, on June 19-20, 1944, the Japanese forces were pushed back to the Philippines.\n\nOn July 15, Saipan (in the Northern Mariana Islands) was captured by Allied forces.  The capture of Saipan made it possible for the United States Army Air Force to attack Japan itself, using B-29 Superfortress bombers.  After the fall of Saipan, the Japanese commanders knew that the Allies would try to capture the Philippines next. The Philippines were very important because they were located between the oil fields of Southeast Asia and Japan. If Japan lost control over the Philippines, they would have little fuel left for their ships. On October 17, the Allies started the attack on the Philippines in the Battle of Leyte Gulf.\n\nVice Admiral Takijiro Onishi was in charge of the Japanese Air Force in Manila. He understood that it was impossible to win the battle with so few aircraft and trained pilots. For this reason, he decided to form a suicide attack force, the Special Attack Unit. A group of 24 student pilots volunteered for the mission. The Special Attack force was organized into 4 groups, Unit Shikishima, Unit Yamato, Unit Asahi, and Unit Yamazakura. These names were taken from a patriotic poem (waka or tanka), written by the Japanese classical poet, Motoori Norinaga:  (\u6577\u5cf6\u306e \u5927\u548c\u5fc3\u3092 \u4eba\u554f\u306f\u3070 \u671d\u65e5\u306b\u5302\u3046 \u5c71\u685c\u82b1). The poem reads: \"Shikishima no Yamato-gokoro wo hito towaba, asahi ni niou yamazakura bana\n\nThe Japanese were defeated at the battle of Leyte Gulf, but the Special Attack force had great success. The first kamikaze attack took place on October 21, 1944, against the flagship of the Royal Australian Navy, HMAS Australia. 30 sailors died in the attack, including its Captain Emile Dechaineux, and many more were wounded. By October 26, 47 more Allied ships had been attacked. Most of them were badly damaged or sunk, like the United States aircraft carrier USS St. Lo.\n\nThis early success convinced the Japanese commanders to continue the kamikaze attacks. Many more pilots were recruited to act as kamikaze. Over the next few months, more than 2,000 planes made such attacks. When the Japanese stock of airplanes began to run low, new models of low quality were built for these missions. Some of them, like the Nakajima Ki-115 Tsurugi, were made mostly of wood and used stocks of older engines. The plane's landing gear was usually dropped by the pilot after takeoff so it could be used by other aircraft, because he would not be landing again. Similar suicide attack programs were planned, including rocket bombs with pilots (called Ohka) and submarine torpedoes (Kaiten).\n\nThe high point of kamikaze attacks came from April 6 to May 25, 1945 during the Battle of Okinawa, in Operation Kikusui (\"floating chrysanthemums\"). In that time, seven important waves of attacks took place, with more than 1,500 kamikaze planes. Because their training had been too short and their airplanes were poorly made, kamikaze pilots were easy targets for the experienced Allied pilots, who also had much better planes. But still, the kamikaze who escaped the anti-aircraft fire and the enemy fighter airplanes did great damage to the Allied fleet. The Allies won the battle, but they lost many ships and men because of kamikaze attacks. By the end of the battle, at least 21 American ships had been sunk by kamikazes. Some ships from other Allied navies were also sunk, and dozens more were damaged.\n\nHundreds of extra kamikaze planes were ready to defend Japan from invasion. However, with Japan's surrender on August 15 after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the declaration of war by the Soviet Union, they were never used again.\n\nEffects \nThe most important effect of the attacks was creating fear among the Allied troops. When the American ships went to the last battles, the crews were very afraid of kamikaze pilots. By the end of World War II, the Japanese Navy had sacrificed 2,525 kamikaze pilots, and the Air force had lost 1,387. The Japanese government said, the missions sank 81 ships and damaged 195. They also claimed that the kamikaze attacks were the cause of 80% of Allied deaths in the last years of the War.\n\nThe American sources claim that kamikaze sunk less ships than the Japanese say. But still, they agree that they did very important damage. According to a U.S. Air Force source, the kamikaze attackers sunk 34 Navy ships, damaged 368 others, killed 4,900 sailors, and wounded over 4,800. In a 2010 book, the historian Robin Rielly said that about 60 U.S. ships were sunk by kamikazes, and over 400 were damaged by them.\n\nKamikaze beliefs \n\nMany kamikaze pilots offered themselves as volunteers for the mission. They were usually very young, between 18 and 24 years old. Their belief was that dying when striking the enemies of Japan and the Emperor down was a very honorable death. This principle was traditional since the days of the samurai, and gave great importance to the sense of duty and obedience. This idea was called Giri (\"Obligation\"), and was part of the code of conduct of the Japanese warriors since the Middle Ages, the Bushido. Many young men sacrificed themselves by their free will because these beliefs and their love for the home land were the most important things for them. The tokk\u014dtai pilot's manual told pilots to never close their eyes. This was because if a pilot closed his eyes he would miss his target. In the final moments before the crash, the pilot was to shout \"Hissatsu!\" (\"Critical Strike!\") as loud as he could.\n\nHowever, many others did so because of social pressure. Not offering oneself as a volunteer was a sign of cowardice and dishonor. Several professional pilots who were ordered to do suicide attacks did it because of military obedience, not because of honor. One of the first kamikaze pilots, Lieutenant Yukio Seki, wrote after nearly being forced to volunteer:\nJapan's future is pale if it is forced to kill one of its best pilots. I am not going on this mission for the Emperor or for the Empire... I am going because I was ordered to.\n\nA special ceremony before going to combat usually took place. Pilots drank sake and ate a ball of rice. They were given medals, and a katana sword. They put on a headband with the rising sun, and a sennibari, a \"belt of a thousand stitches\" made by a thousand women, who made one stitch each. Many times, they took prayers written by their families with them. According to legend, young pilots on kamikaze missions many times flew southwest from Japan over the 922-metre (~3000\u00a0ft) Mount Kaimon. Suicide mission pilots looked over their shoulders to see this, and said farewell to their country. Another legend says that kamikaze pilots dropped flowers from the air, as they departed on their final missions. Some places, like the hills near Kikajima airport, are said to have beds of cornflower that bloom in early May from those days.\n\nSome important military men who survived the war criticized the kamikaze plan years after. Saburo Sakai, a war time ace pilot said:\n''A kamikaze is a surprise attack, according to our ancient war tactics. Surprise attacks will be successful the first time, maybe two or three times. But what fool would continue the same attacks for ten months? Emperor Hirohito must have realized it. He should have said \"Stop.\"\n\nRelated pages \n Mongol invasions of Japan\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n WW2DB: Kamikaze Doctrine. Chen, C. Peter. Accessed 2007-11-05.\n Kamikaze Images . Gordon, Bill. Accessed 30-08-2007.\n Kamikaze Footage . World War 2 Pictures in Color. Accessed 30-08-2007.\n An ex-kamikaze pilot creates a new world. Japan Visitor. Accessed 30-08-2007.\n Gyokusai . Antithesis Common Literary Magazine - Issue I, Autumn 2005. Jordan, Julie. Accessed 30-08-2007.\n The kamikaze pilot who chose life before empire. Times Online. Accessed 30-08-2007.\n Kaiten . Photos of the Kaiten Suicide Submarine at the NJ Naval Museum in Hackensack, New Jersey. Accessed 30-08-2007.\n Okinawa Suicide Boat. Photos of the Japanese Suicide Demolition Boat at the Battleship Cove Naval Museum in Fall River, Massachusetts. Accessed 30-08-2007.\n\n1940s in Japan\nWorld War II\nMilitary aviation","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"unknown":5}},"id":68838,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kamikaze","title":"Kamikaze","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Clothing in Ancient Greece was usually made out of big rectangular pieces of cloth. The cloth was sewn very little, or not at all. The cloth was then put around the body and held in place by belts, fibulae, or other fastenings. The cloth was made from linen or wool.\n\nTypes of clothing\n\nPeplos\n\nThe peplos (plural: peploi) was a garment worn by women of ancient Greece. The peplos was a large square piece of cloth. The cloth was then folded over to create a double layer, called apoptygma, in the upper part of the body. The cloth is then folded around the body, and fastened over each shoulder. \nThe ionic or laconic peplos was open on the side of the body, while the doric peplos was sewn shut like a tube. The peplos was worn in such a way that the opening was on the right side of the body. Usually a belt was worn over the peplos. The belt could be worn over or under the apoptygma. \n\nIn Greece, the peplos was mostly worn before the 5th century.\n\nChiton\n\nThe chiton was made from a large square piece of cloth. It was worn by both women and men.\n\nThe doric chiton was very simple. It was made with a large piece of cloth (usually wool). The cloth was folded and put around the body. It was fastened on the shoulders using brooches and then allowed to fall into folds. A belt, often called a gurdle, was worn around the waist to hold the dress in place.\n\nThe ionic chiton was sewn like a tube. The material, usually linen, was folded and sewn with holes left for the head and arms. A belt was also worn on the Ionic style to keep it in position and to make it fall into folds from the waist down.\n\nHimation\n\nThe himation (plural: himatia) was a big cloth that was used as a cloak. It was worn by both men and women. The himation was usually put from the back over the left shoulder; the other part of the himation was put under the right arm, and then around the front of the body. The himation was so long that it went down to the knees, or it could also be longer. \n\nThe himation was usually made from a lighter cloth, so that it was used as a cloak against warm weather.\n\nChlamys\nThe chlamys (plural: chlamydes) was a usually shorter cloak. It was a piece of cloth put over the left shoulder, and fastened over the right shoulder. The chlamys was typically worn by men or soldiers.\n\nWomen's clothing\nWomen in Ancient Greece wore long dresses and cloaks. They wore the peplos and chiton, and the himation.\n\nCosmetics and make-up\nCosmetics and make-up were not used in Ancient Greece. White lead was used to whiten the skin. White skin for women was seen as a sign of beauty. Juice made from alkanet roots was used to give the cheeks a rosy colour (like rouge). Eye shadow (probably made from ashes) was not used. Lipstick was not used. Perfumes were also important.\n\nMale clothing\nMen's clothing was even simpler than women's (if anything). The most important piece of clothing was a shorter version of the chiton, which was also belted at the waist. The top shoulder was often left bare if the man was exercising or doing hard work. The himation was also used, especially on long journeys. A long robe could also be worn with the right shoulder left uncovered. Men usually wore no clothes training for military reasons.They wore no clothes when exercising\n\nShoes\nAt home people went without shoes, but in the streets or when travelling they wore leather sandals. These were very simple and usually made to measure - the man or woman went to the cobbler's shop and put his foot on a piece of leather, and the sole was cut out round the foot. The sole was attached to the foot by leather thongs tied across the instep and round the ankle.\n\nOther websites\n\nClothing\nAncient Greece","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2021-43":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-16":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"unknown":2}},"id":88122,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clothing%20in%20Ancient%20Greece","title":"Clothing in Ancient Greece","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Brachiopods are a phylum of small marine shellfish, sometimes called lampshells. They are not common today, but in the Palaeozoic they were one of the most common types. They lived near the shore (littoral zone), but now they have been pushed into deeper water by competition from bivalve molluscs.\n\nAt their peak in the Palaeozoic era the brachiopods occupied a number of marine ecological niches. They were among the most abundant filter-feeders and reef-builders. Many sat on the sea floor, but some swam in the jet-propulsion style of scallops. Brachiopod fossils have been useful indicators of climate changes during the Paleozoic era. \n\nThey do look rather like bivalves, but their internal organisation is quite different. Their mostly calcium carbonate shells or \"valves\" have upper and lower surfaces, unlike the left and right arrangement in bivalve molluscs. Brachiopod valves are hinged at the rear end. The front can be opened for feeding or closed for protection. \n\nTwo major groups are recognized, articulate and inarticulate. Articulate brachiopods have toothed hinges and simple opening and closing muscles, while inarticulate brachiopods have untoothed hinges and a more complex system of muscles used to fit the two halves together. In a typical brachiopod a stalk-like pedicle goes from an opening in one of the valves (the pedicle valve). It attaches the animal to the seabed but clear of silt that would block the opening.\n\nBrachiopods have a huge fossil record going back to the Cambrian. They were much reduced by the two main extinction events, the P\/Tr and K\/T. Bivalve molluscs took over their inshore habitats in the Mesozoic, and since then the brachiopods have been confined to deeper water, except for a handful of species. There are about 100 to 350 species living; the fossil species number 12,000.\n\nLingula, one of the oldest genera of brachiopods, has survived from the earliest Ordovician to the present day. The various species look very similar, and the genus is a good example of a living fossil.\n\nBrachiopod classification is being debated by invertebrate palaeontologists.\n\nImage gallery\n\nReferences \n\n \nFossils","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":220442,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brachiopod","title":"Brachiopod","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with chemical elements and compounds, and how they work together and change. In other words, chemistry is the branch of science about fundamental properties of matter and chemical reactions. Chemistry is the study of the substances and their transformations (or change).\n\nHistory\nBefore 1600, people studied substances to figure out how to do things such as turn lead into gold, but no one managed to do that. This was called alchemy. After 1600, using the scientific method alchemists became chemists. Chemists separated the air into many parts and isolated the noble gases from it. They also processed special minerals from a mine in Sweden to get rare earth metals. Radioactivity was also discovered. 118 different elements have been found. Some are very common, like oxygen. Many are very rare and expensive, like platinum. Some cannot be found on earth and can only be made in labs, like rutherfordium.\n\nSince the 1920s, the increased understanding of physics has changed chemists' theories about chemical reactions. With smaller and faster computers, chemists have built better tools for analyzing substances. These tools have been sent to study chemicals on Mars. Police also use those tools to study evidence from crime scenes.\n\nTypes of chemistry\nThere are several types of chemistry. Analytical chemistry looks at which chemicals are in things. For example, looking at how much arsenic is in food. Organic chemistry looks at things that have carbon in them. For example, making acetylene. Inorganic chemistry looks at things that do not have carbon in them. One example is making an integrated circuit. Theoretical chemistry tries to explain chemical data with mathematics and computers.\n\nA large area of chemistry is polymer chemistry. This looks at plastics. One example is making nylon. Because plastics are made of carbon, polymer chemistry is part of organic chemistry. Another area is biochemistry. This looks at the chemistry of living things. An example would be seeing how arsenic poisons people. Biochemistry is also part of organic chemistry. There are many other small branches of chemistry.\n\nConcepts of chemistry\n\nBasic concepts\nThe basic unit of an element is called an atom. An atom is the smallest building block that you can cut an element into without the element breaking down (turning into a lighter element, for example through nuclear fission or radioactive decay). A chemical compound is a substance made up of two or more elements. In a compound, two or more atoms are joined to form a molecule. The tiniest speck of dust or drop of liquid, that one can see is made up of many millions or billions of these molecules. Mixtures are substances where chemicals are mixed but not reacted. An example would be mixing sand and salt. This can be undone again to produce salt and sand separately. Chemical compounds are changed by a chemical reaction. An example would be heating sodium bicarbonate, common baking soda. It will make water, carbon dioxide, and sodium carbonate. This reaction cannot be undone.\n\nOne very important concept in chemistry is that different atoms interact with one another in very specific proportions. For example, two hydrogen atoms interacting with one oxygen atom lead to the water molecule, H2O. This relationship is known as the \"Law of constant proportions\" and leads to the idea of \"stoichiometry\", a term that refers to the ratios of different atoms in chemical compounds. For example, in water, there are always exactly 2 hydrogen atoms to 1 oxygen atom. In carbon dioxide, there are exactly 2 oxygen atoms for 1 carbon atom. These relationships are described using chemical formulas such as H2O (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom) and CO2 (one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms).\n\nMole\nBecause atoms of different elements react with one another in very specific proportions but atoms of different elements have different weights, chemists often describe the number of different elements and compounds in terms of the number of \"moles\". A \"mole\" of any element contains the same number of atoms: 602,214,150,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. The atomic mass of an element can be used to see how much of the element makes a mole. For example, the atomic mass of copper is about 63.55. That means about 63.55 grams of copper metal has a mole of atoms. The atomic mass of chlorine is about 35.45. That means 35.45 grams of chlorine has a mole of atoms in it.\n\nMoles can be used to see how many molecules are in chemical compounds, too. Copper(II) chloride is an example. CuCl2 is its chemical formula. There is one copper atom (63.55) and two chlorine atoms (35.45 \u00b7 2 = 70.90). Add all the molar masses of the elements together to get the molar mass of the chemical compound (63.55 + 70.90 = 134.45). That means in 134.45 grams of copper(II) chloride, there is one mole of copper(II) chloride molecules. This concept is used to calculate how much chemicals are needed in a chemical reaction if no reactants (chemicals that are reacted) should be left. If too much reactant is used, there will be some reactants left in the chemical reaction.\n\nAcids and bases\nAcids and bases are common chemicals. Acids release H+ ions when in water, and bases release OH\u2212 ions when in water. Acids can react with bases. The H+ ion is taken from the acid by the base. This makes water, H2O. A salt is also made when an acid and a base react together. An example would be reacting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Hydrochloric acid releases H+ and Cl- ions in water. The base releases Na+ and OH- ions. The H+ and the OH- react to make water. There is a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) left. Sodium chloride is a salt.\n\nUsefulness\nChemistry is very useful in everyday life and makes up the foundation of many branches of science. Most objects are made by chemists (people who do chemistry). Chemists are constantly working to find new and useful substances. Chemists make new drugs and materials like paints that we use every day.\n\nSafety\n\nMany chemicals are harmless, but there are some chemicals that are dangerous. For example, mercury(II) chloride is very toxic. Chromates can cause cancer. Tin(II) chloride pollutes water easily. Hydrochloric acid can cause bad burns. Some chemicals like hydrogen can explode or catch fire. To stay safe, chemists experiment with chemicals in a chemical lab. They use special equipment and clothing to do reactions and keep the chemicals contained. The chemicals used in drugs and in things like bleach have been tested to make sure they are safe if used correctly.\n\nRelated pages \n\n Periodic table\n List of common elements\n Laboratory techniques\n Aerosol\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":161,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":4,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":5,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":108,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemistry","title":"Chemistry","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An officer is a person who holds a high rank in a uniformed organisation like the military or police. A military officer has a commission, a state document saying others must obey him. Some examples of officer ranks would include captains, majors, and lieutenants, but not sergeants, who are sometimes called non-commissioned officers, or NCOs. \n\nPeople who are in a position of importance in an organization or company may be a corporate officer, for example:\nThe Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of a company is the person in charge of that company.\nIn many organizations, the officers are the president, vice-president, secretary and treasurer. These people run the organization, keep track of what goes on at meetings and handle the money for the organization.\n\nRelated pages\nMilitary ranks\nChief executive officer\n\nMilitary ranks","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":51915,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Officer","title":"Officer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Japanese tea ceremony (called cha-no-yu, chado, or sado) is a special way of making green tea (matcha \u62b9\u8336).  It is called the Way of Tea. It is a Japanese cultural activity involving the ceremonial preparation and presentation of matcha, powdered tea. People who study the tea ceremony have to learn about different kinds of tea.  They also have to learn about kimono (Japanese clothes), flowers, and many other things. It takes much practice to learn the tea ceremony.\n\nHistory\nTea came to Japan from China in about 900 CE. Tea became very popular in Japan, and Japanese people started to grow tea in Japan.\n\nIn the 12th century, matcha (green tea powder), became popular. This tea comes from the same plant as black tea.  \n\nBy the 16th century, all people in Japan, rich people and poor people, liked drinking tea.  A man called Sen no Rikyu started teaching the ceremony.  Many years have passed, but people still make tea the same way that Sen no Rikyu taught. Many schools of Japanese tea ceremony exist now (omote-senke,  ura-senke, etc.), and each school teaches in a slightly different way.\n\nMaterials needed\nPeople need many different things for a tea ceremony:\n\nTea bowl (called chawan ).  In a tea ceremony, people drink tea out of bowls instead of cups.  Some bowls that people use are over 400 years old. \n\nTea scoop (called chashaku ).  A scoop is a kind of spoon.  Tea scoops are made from bamboo.  They are used to put tea into the tea bowl.  Large scoops are used to put tea into the tea caddy (see below).\n\nWhisk (called chasen ).  A whisk is like a brush made from wire.  People use it to mix tea.  Tea whisks are made from bamboo.  \n\nTea caddy (called natsume or cha-ire ).  A tea caddy is a special container that people put green tea powder in.  There are two kinds of tea caddies: natsume and cha-ire.  Natsume are short and have a flat lid and a round bottom.  They are made of wood. Sometimes natsume is called cha-ki. Cha-ire are tall and thin, and are made of ceramic.  Natsume and cha-ire are used in different ceremonies. Making weak tea (called usu-cha) needs natsume, and making strong tea (called koi-cha) needs cha-ire. \n\nNapkin (called fukusa ).  A fukusa is a special square cloth made out of silk.  It is used to symbolically purify the tea scoop and tea caddy.  \n\nLadle (called hishaku ).  The kind of ladle used is made of bamboo. There is a cup-like part attached to a long handle. \n\nWater jar (called mizusashi ).  Hot water in an iron pot is not fully after making tea, so a person who made tea must add water. A mizusashi holds water for it.\n\nWaste-water container (called kensui ).  When a tea bowl and a whisk are washed before and after making tea, the water used for washing is put in a kensui.\n\nIron pot (called kama ).  A kama holds hot water. During tea ceremony, water is kept on boiling with charcoal. \n\nTea (called matcha ). The tea used in the Japanese tea ceremony is pulverized green tea, which is made into a drink during the ceremony by putting some in the tea bowl, adding hot water, and mixing this with the whisk.\n\nTea ceremony\nPeople do the tea ceremony in a special tea room or a special building called a cha-shitsu. Most people wear kimonos.\n\nWhen people go into the tea room they take off their shoes and sit on special floor mat called a tatami.\n\nCha-shitsu often are very small. The guests (the people who go to the tea ceremony) sometimes eat food and drink special Japanese wine called sake.  Before they drink the matcha (green tea) they eat something sweet. \n\nThe host (the person who does the tea ceremony) symbolically purifies the tea bowl and the other tea things. Then he or she puts some green tea powder into the tea bowl. The host mixes the tea with hot water. He or she mixes it with a whisk. The guests drink tea from the bowl.\n\nWhen everyone has finished drinking tea, the host cleans everything and puts them away. Then the guests leave.\n\nA tea ceremony can take from about twenty minutes to about four hours.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages\n\nOther websites\nHomepage of \"Introduction: The Art of Tea\" in Urasenke Seattle\n\nEnglish books about the ceremony\nOkakura Kakuzo.  The Book of Tea.  Tokyo, Japan: Tuttle, 1977.\nTanaka, S. The Tea Ceremony. New York: Harmony Books, 1977.\nMorgan Pitelka, ed. Japanese Tea Culture: Art, History, and Practice. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.\nSadler, A.L. Cha-No-Yu: The Japanese Tea Ceremony. Tokyo: Tuttle, 1962.\nFreeman, Michael. New Zen: the tea-ceremony room in modern Japanese architecture. London, 8 Books, 2007\n\nJapanese tea ceremony","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":3479,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Japanese%20tea%20ceremony","title":"Japanese tea ceremony","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Wallace Line (or 'Wallace's Line') is a boundary that separates the ecozone of Asia and the Australasian ecozone. The transitional zone is sometimes called Wallacea.\n\nPlants and animals related to Asian species are found to the north-west. Australasian species are found mainly to the south-east, with some Asian species. The line is named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who noticed this clear dividing line during his travels through the East Indies in the 19th century. \n\nThe line runs through Indonesia, between Borneo and Sulawesi (Celebes); and through the Lombok Strait between Bali (in the west) and Lombok (in the east).  \n\nThe distance between Bali and Lombok is only about 35 kilometers. Surprisingly, the distributions of many bird species observe the line, because many birds do not cross even the smallest stretches of open ocean water. Some bats have distributions that cross the Wallace Line, but other mammals are generally limited to one side or the other; an exception is the Crab-eating Macaque. Other groups of plants and animals show differing patterns, but the overall pattern is striking and reasonably consistent.\n\nThe term 'Wallace's Line' was first used by Huxley in 1868.\n\nCause \nThe root cause of Wallace's line is that the ancient supercontinent Gondwana was separated entirely from other parts of the world after Pangaea broke up. Australasia and its smaller islands were part of Gondwana, and that is why their fauna is so different from that of south-east Asia. Wallace's line marks where part of the old Gondwana plate touches part of the old Laurasia plate.\n\nIce age \nDuring Quaternary ice age cold periods, when the ocean levels were up to 120 m lower, both Asia and Australia were joined with their respective islands. The deep water between those two large continental shelf areas was \u2014 for over 50 million years \u2014 a barrier that kept the flora and fauna of Australia separated from that of Asia. Wallacea consists of islands that were never recently connected by dry land to either of the continental land masses, and thus was populated by organisms capable of crossing the straits between islands. 'Weber's Line' runs through this area (rather to the east of centre), at the tipping point between dominance by species of Asian vs. species of Australian origin.\n\nRelated pages \nAlfred Russel Wallace\nBiogeography\nMalay Archipelago\n\nReferences \n\nEcozones\nPhysical geography","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":302671,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wallace%20Line","title":"Wallace Line","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A trackback allows one website to notify another about an update. It is one of four types of linkback methods for website authors to request notification when somebody links to one of their documents. This enables authors to keep track of who is linking to their articles. Some weblog software, such as SilverStripe, WordPress, Drupal, and Movable Type, supports automatic pingbacks where all the links in a published article can be pinged when the article is published.  The term is used colloquially for any kind of linkback.\n\nHistory\nThe TrackBack specification was created by Six Apart, which first implemented it in its  Movable Type blogging software in August 2002. The TrackBack has since been implemented in most other blogging tools. Six Apart started a working group in February 2006 to improve the Trackback protocol with the goal to eventually have it approved as an Internet standard by the IETF.  One notable blogging service that does not support trackback is Blogger.  Instead, Blogger provides \"backlinks\", which allow users to employ Google's search infrastructure to show links between blog entries.\n\nFunction\nA trackback is an acknowledgment. This acknowledgment is sent via a network signal (XML-RPC ping) from the originating site to the receiving site. The receptor often publishes a link back to the originator indicating its worthiness.  Trackback requires both sites to be trackback-enabled in order to establish this communication.\n\nTrackbacks are used primarily to facilitate communication between blogs; if a blogger writes a new entry commenting on, or referring to, an entry found at another blog, and both blogging tools support the TrackBack protocol, then the commenting blogger can notify the other blog with a \"TrackBack ping\"; the receiving blog will typically display summaries of, and links to, all the commenting entries below the original entry. This allows for conversations spanning several blogs that readers can easily follow.\n\nSoftware support\nBlogging software that supports the TrackBack protocol displays a \"TrackBack URL\" with every entry. This URL is used by the commenting blogger, whose software will send XML-formatted information about the new entry to this URL. Some blogging tools are able to discover these TrackBack URLs automatically, others require the commenting blogger to enter them manually.\n\nSpam\n\nSome individuals or companies have abused the TrackBack feature to insert spam links on some blogs.  This is similar to comment spam but avoids some of the safeguards designed to stop the latter practice.  As a result, TrackBack spam filters similar to those implemented against comment spam now exist in many weblog publishing systems. Many blogs have stopped using trackbacks because dealing with spam became too much of a burden.\n\nSee also\n\n Linkback, the suite of protocols that allows websites to manually and automatically link to one another\n Pingback, a similar protocol less prone to spam\n Webmention, an alternate implementation of the pingback protocol that avoids the complexities of xmlrpc.\n Refback, another similar protocol\n Referer, identifies the address of the webpage of the resource which links to it\n Search engine optimization\n Sping, short for \"spam ping\"\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Trackback specification 1.2, date 2004-08-01\n\nBlogging\nDrupal\nWordPress","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":46,"dup_details":{"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-22":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":6,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":6}},"id":461973,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trackback","title":"Trackback","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Folk music is music that represents the tradition or culture of the area\/place\/state. It is traditional music that people learn by listening to other people playing it and then copying them. We say that the tradition is \"orally transmitted\" or \"handed down orally\", meaning that the music is not written down but taught by speaking (\"oral\" means \"belonging to the mouth\"). Every country has its own traditional music. Folk song is part of folk music. A folksinger is a person who sings folk songs.\n\nThere are three categories of Folk Music -\n\n Folk Singing \n Folk Dance \n Folk instruments\n\nIn the 1960s a new type of music was started by Bob Dylan who mixed traditional folk song with rock and roll. This music is sometimes called \"folk rock\" . \n\nFolk music is music for everybody to play and listen to. In this way it is different from classical music which is mainly developed by professional musicians for a smaller group of people. Folk music is part of a popular culture, although the term \"popular music\" or \"pop music\" today refers to a kind of music which people can hear through television, radio and other means of recording.\n\nIn many parts of the world nearly all music is folk music. The term \"folk music\" is usually used for European and American music which is part of an oral tradition. Folk music as an oral tradition, is much less important than before, in part because of new technology (radio, television etc, and recordings of music ). Folk tunes are now often written down, and they have influenced other kinds of music, so that the differences between various types of music are harder to see.\n\nThe traditional origins\n\nIn older times folk music was part of \"communal recreation\". This means that small communities such as villages or families would relax by playing and singing music together. People would often make up a new song or new piece of music, or make changes to music that they already knew. In this way music was always changing. People would get musical ideas from other groups nearby. This is why folk music from neighbouring countries often sound similar.\n\nBallads were a popular kind of folk music. These were folk songs which told a story (they were \"narrative\"). Sometimes they had a refrain after each verse so that everybody could join in. Ballads told stories of love, myths or folklore. This is how stories were handed down from one generation to another.\n\nInstrumental folk music was used for dancing. Some of the instruments may have been very simple, such as a pair of sticks, rattle or a simple drum. Other instruments may include fiddle (the folk word for \"violin\"), bagpipes, harp, zither, or various wind instruments, depending on the time of history and the country.\n\nSome singing was polyphonic, i.e. there were two or more parts (voices). Very often two voices would sing in parallel (going up and down together). In countries such as Russia persons sings in three or four parts, e.g. in the tradition of \"podgolosnaya\" (\"underneath the voice\"). In countries such as Britain this polyphonic tradition did not exist. Folk songs there were sung by one singer, unaccompanied.\n\nFolk music used different scales. These are called modes. The Ionian mode (like our major scale) was the most common in Western Europe. In some parts of Eastern Europe modes with several semitones were used, but for the most part, half steps were avoided. This results is the tunes being described as tetratonic (four notes per octave) or pentatonic (five notes per octave).\n\nFolk music also includes simple children's songs and lullabies.\n\nFolk music was sung by people as they worked. In the early days of European immigration in America the pioneers sang as they travelled, cowboys sang as they worked, slaves sang in the cottonfields.\n\nInfluence on classical music\n\nIn the 18th century folk music started to have an influence on classical music (or \"art music\"). People from the higher classes started to be interested in folk music because they were conscious of being part of a tradition. Composers such as Mozart and Schubert wrote folk dances for orchestras or small groups of instruments.\n\nFolk music was used by many composers in the Romantic period. Gustav Mahler used folk song in a lot of his music. In the early twentieth century some composers travelled around collecting folk music which was being played or sung by people in the country. They often used some of these ideas in their music. Bartok did this in Hungary as well as in Bulgaria and in the United States, and people such as Cecil Sharp and the composer Ralph Vaughan Williams collected folk music in England. In the United States the influence of jazz on classical music is all part of the story of folk music.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":160,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":24302,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Folk%20music","title":"Folk music","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Australian rules football is a sport created in Australia. It is the national sport and is the most popular sport in Australia. The main league of Australian rules football is the Australian Football League.\n\nHistory\n\nIn 1858, Tom Wills, a former student of the Rugby school and Cambridge College, created a set of football rules that were like a cross between rugby, soccer and Gaelic football. He made up the game for cricketers to keep in shape during the off-season (winter). Wills had help in making up the game from other people like his cousin H.C.A. Harrison, and W.J. Hammersly and J.B. Thompson.\n\nWills grew up with Indigenous Australians.  He spoke the language of the people who lived near him and played with the children.  It has been suggested that Australian Rules Football is based in part on Marn Grook, an Aboriginal game with some similar rules to Australian Rules Football. Because the indigenous people Wills played with as a child would have played Marn Grook, Wills would have been influenced by this game when creating the rules for Australian Rules Football.\n\nThe Melbourne Football Club was founded on 14 May 1859; the Melbourne Football Club is one of the oldest surviving football clubs in the world.  A game of football was played between Scotch College and Melbourne Grammar School. It was played over three days on an oval next to the present day Melbourne Cricket Ground, and the two schools have played an annual game ever since.  This game became known as Melbourne Rules Football, one of many local varieties of football that existed at that time, another notable one being Sheffield Rules Football. Then following its decision to not join either the association rules (1863) or rugby rules (1871), it became known as Victorian Rules, although it closely resembled the two former rule sets. Then in the 1880s as rugby and association rules began to diverge in a much greater way, Victorian Rules which resembled the 1850s type of football that both rugby and the association had based their rules on remained much the same except for moving to oval fields from rectangular fields and eventually introducing more posts.  After the sport became popular in other states, people started calling it \"Australian Rules\".\n\nThe Victorian Football League ( VFL ) was created in 1896. The next year, the first official games were played. The first clubs were Carlton, Collingwood, Essendon, Fitzroy, Geelong, Melbourne, St Kilda, and South Melbourne. In 1908, Richmond and University joined. University left after the 1914 season. In 1925, Footscray, Hawthorn and North Melbourne joined the VFL.\n\nYears later other teams joined in: \nWest Coast Eagles (joined in 1987)\nBrisbane Bears (1987)\nAdelaide Crows (1991)\nFremantle Dockers (1995)\nPort Adelaide (1997)\nBrisbane Lions (1997, when the Brisbane Bears and Fitzroy Lions merged).\nGold Coast Suns (2011) \nGreater Western Sydney Giants (2012)\n\nIn 1990 the Victorian Football League was changed to the Australian Football League (AFL). Footscray changed its name to the Western Bulldogs in 1997. North Melbourne changed its name to the Kangaroos in 1999, but changed back in 2008.\n\nAbout\nFootball is the most popular sport in Australia, with crowd attendances of 50-80,000 people common to normal home and away matches and capacity crowds of 100,000 people at the home of football the MCG during the finals and special matches.  The record crowd still remains at 121,696, who watched that most history-making of all Grand Finals in 1970, between Carlton and Collingwood, where Carlton came from a 44-point deficit at half-time to win the game by implementing an entirely new system of play, handballing out of the backline, which changed the game forever, and marked the beginnings of the transition of the game from one of a 'territorial' base to 'possession football'.\n\nThere are 16 teams in the AFL . Each team has 22 players during game day with team lists of 40-45 players.During the game, each team has 18 players on the field, consisting of 6 forwards, 3 centres, 6 backmen, and 3 followers. The 4 remaining players are reserves three of which can be interchanged with any other player in the team as often as the coach wants. The forth can replace a player but the replaced player can not come back on to the field of play.\n\nEvery game consists of 4 quarters, being 20 minutes and overtime (stoppage time, time-keepers acting upon central umpire signals to determine how long). After every quarter the teams swap direction. The quarter is started when the umpire blows his whistle and bounces the ball in the middle of the field (similar to a basketball \"tip\")and opposing players try to tap or punch the ball to their team-mates.\n \nThe idea of the game is to kick more goals than the other team. At each end of the field are 4 poles. Players score points by kicking the ball between the poles. A goal is a kick between the centermost posts. It is worth 6 points. A Behind (worth 1 point) is a kick that goes between the outer posts. Players can bounce the ball and hit it with their hand (handball it) to other players .  If a player catches a ball after the ball has been kicked in the air by another player, then this is a \"mark\" and the player cannot be tackled until he plays on.\n\nIt is the only \"football\" code where the major score can ONLY be scored with the foot.\n\nIn other countries\n\nAustralian rules football was introduced by expats into many countries around the world. It is also the national sport of Nauru. There is also an Australian Football International Cup held every four years.\n\nPresent teams \nClubs competing in the Australian Football League.\n\nIndividual major awards\n\nBrownlow Medal (best and fairest )\nColeman Medal (most goals )\nAFL Rising Star (best young player)\nLeigh Matthews Trophy (most valuable player voted by the players )\nNorm Smith Medal (best player in Grand Final)\nMichael Tuck (best player in pre -season Grand Final) (now defunct)\nAFL Mark of the Year (award for best mark in season)\nAFL Goal of the Year (award for best goal in season)\nAll Australian Team (team made up of the best players from all clubs )\nClub Best and Fairest Awards (best player in a club)\n\nReferences\n\nAustralian Football League","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":22689,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australian%20rules%20football","title":"Australian rules football","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A pigment is something that is added to something else to give it color. Natural pigments can come from just about anything. Pigments can be made from animals, plants, rocks and minerals or even the ground itself, for example clay plus salts. Pigments can also be created by people.\n\nAn example of a pigment is ultramarine. It is a powder found in nature. It adds a blue color to paints and dyes.\n\nThe first synthetic dye was aniline. Aniline is an organic chemical compound produced in two stages from benzene. It gives a mauve color which was much used for dyeing clothes in the 19th century. It was invented in 1856 by  William Henry Perkin. Apparently, it gave a brilliant fuchsia color when first applied, but fades rapidly to mauve.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":52033,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pigment","title":"Pigment","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Orbit is also a word for an eye socket.\n\nAn orbit is the path that an object takes in space when it goes around a star, a planet, or a moon. It can also be used as a verb. For instance: \"The earth orbits around the Sun.\" The word 'revolves' has the same meaning, but 'rotates' is the spin of the object.\n\nMany years ago, people thought that the Sun orbits in a circle around the Earth. Every morning the Sun came up in the East and went down in the West. It just seemed to make sense that it was going around the Earth. But now, thanks to people like Copernicus and Galileo Galilei, we know that the Sun is the center of the Solar System, and the Earth orbits around it.  Isaac Newton discovered that gravity controls the orbit of the planets and moons.  Since a satellite is an object in space that revolves around another object, the Earth is a satellite of the Sun, just like the moon is a satellite of the Earth. The Sun has lots of satellites orbiting around it, like the planets, and asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. The Earth just has one natural satellite (the Moon), but there are many artificial satellites orbiting the earth.\n\nWhen people first began to think about orbits, they thought that all orbits had to be perfect circles, and they thought that the circle was a \"perfect\" shape. Copernicus and Galileo, for example, thought so. But when people began to study the motions of planets carefully, they saw that the planets were not moving in perfect circles. \n\nIn a planetary system, planets, dwarf planets, asteroids and other minor planets, comets, and space debris orbit the system's barycenter in elliptical orbits.\n\nOrbital period \nAn orbital period is the time that it takes for one object - that is, satellite - to orbit around another object. For instance, the Earth's orbital period is one year: 365.25 days. (The extra \".25\" is why we have a leap day once every four years).\n\nThe Moon takes 27 days (29.53 days as seen from Earth) to go around the Earth and also to rotate around its own axis. This is why only one side always faces the Earth and the \"dark side of the Moon\" faces away (it is called dark because we cannot see it, though all sides of the moon get light). One lunar year and one lunar day take the same amount of time.\n\nElliptical and eccentric orbits \nJohannes Kepler (lived 15711630) wrote mathematical \"laws of planetary motion\", which gave a good idea of the movements of the planets because he found that the orbits of the planets in our Solar System are not really circles, but are really ellipses (a shape like a \"flattened circle\"). That is why orbits are described as elliptical. \n\nThe more elliptical an orbit is, the more eccentric the orbit is. This is called orbital eccentricity. Other numbers that describe an elliptical orbit include semi-major axis and orbital inclination.\n\nIsaac Newton (lived 1642\u20131727) used his own ideas about gravity to show why Kepler's laws worked the way they did. Joseph-Louis Lagrange further advanced the study of orbital mechanics, using Newton's theory to predict perturbations which change the shapes of orbits.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"unknown":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":6251,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Orbit","title":"Orbit","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Eisriesenwelt (German for \"World of the Ice Giants\") is a natural limestone and ice cave located in Werfen, Austria, about 40\u00a0km south of Salzburg.  The cave is inside the Hochkogel mountain in the Tennengebirge section of the Alps.  It is the largest ice cave in the world, extending more than 42\u00a0km and visited by about 200,000 tourists every year.\n\nGeology \n\nThe Tennengebirge mountains were formed during the late Tertiary period, during the W\u00fcrm glaciation period of the Pleistocene. The mountain range, one of the massifs in the Austrian Alps, is the largest karst plateau in the Salzburger Alps, and the Eisriesenwelt is located at the rim of this plateau. Although the cave has a length of 42\u00a0km, only the first kilometer, the area that tourists are allowed to visit, is covered in ice. The rest of the cave is formed of limestone.\n\nEisriesenwelt was formed by the Salzach river, which eroded passageways into the mountain.  The ice formations in the cave were formed by thawing snow which drained into the cave and froze during winter.\n\nSince the entrance to the caves is open year-round, chilly winter winds blow into the cave and freeze the snow inside. In summer, a cold wind from inside the cave blows toward the entrance and prevents the formations from melting.\n\nHistory \nThe first official discovery of Eisriesenwelt was by Anton Posselt, a natural scientist from Salzburg, in 1879, though he only explored the first two hundred meters of the cave. Before his discovery, the cave was known only to locals, who, believing that it was an entrance to Hell, refused to explore it. In 1880, Posselt published his findings in a mountaineering magazine, but the report was quickly forgotten.\n\n, a speleologist from Salzburg, was one of the few people who remembered Posselt's discovery. He led several expeditions into the caves beginning in 1912, which were soon followed by other explorers. Von M\u00f6rk was killed in World War I in 1914, and an urn containing his ashes is inside a niche in the cave. In 1920, a cabin for the explorers, Forscherh\u00fctte, was built and the first routes up the mountain were established. Tourists began to arrive soon after, attracted by the cave's sudden popularity. Later another cabin, the Dr. Oedl House, and paths from Werfen and Tenneck were constructed.\n\nIn 1955 a cable car was built, shortening the 90-minute climb to 3 minutes. Today the Eisriesenwelt cave is owned by the , which has leased it to the Salzburg Association of Cave Exploration since 1928. The Forest Commission still receives a percentage of the entrance fees.\n\nVisiting \n\nThe cave is open from May 1 to October 26 every year.  Its operating hours are 9:00\u00a0a.m. to 4:30\u00a0p.m. in July and August and 9:00\u00a0a.m. to 3:30\u00a0p.m. in May\/June and September\/October.  Temperatures inside the cave are usually below freezing, and warm clothing is recommended. Photography is not permitted once visitors are inside the cave.\n\nThe tour begins at the entrance to the cave, and continues inwards to Posselt Hall, a large room with a stalagmite called Posselt Tower in the centre. Past the Posselt Tower, one encounters an ashen cross on the wall of the cave, marking the farthest point of exploration of Anton Posselt. From there one can see the Great Ice Embankment, a massive formation that rises to a height of 25 metres and represents the area of greatest ice growth. Next is Hymir's Castle, named after a giant in Norse mythology. Here stalactites create a formation called Frigga's Veil, or the Ice Organ.\n\nNext on the tour is the Alexander von M\u00f6rk Cathedral, one of the largest rooms in the cave and the final resting place of von M\u00f6rk's ashes. The final stop on the tour is the Ice Palace, a kilometre into the cave and 400 metres underground. From here, visitors must turn around and walk back through the caves to reach the entrance.  The round-trip tour through the cave takes around one hour and 15 minutes.\n\nGallery\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n \n Travel guide\n Cave information\n Tourist's description of visiting the cave\n Description of Tennengebirge geology\n\nLimestone caves\nCaves of Austria\nIce caves\nShow caves in Austria\nLandforms of Salzburg (state)\nTourist attractions in Salzburg (state)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":4,"2018-30":5,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":4,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":5,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-22":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":2174437,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eisriesenwelt","title":"Eisriesenwelt","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Reading and Leeds Festivals are two yearly music festivals. They take place in Reading and Leeds in the United Kingdom. They are run by Festival Republic (itself owned by Live Nation and MCD). The festivals take place one at a time on the Friday, Saturday and Sunday. They take place on the August of bank holiday weekend. They share the same bill. Between 1998 and 2007, the two festivals were known as the \"Carling Weekend\", until parting ways with their sponsor Carling in November 2007.\n\nOther websites\n\nMusic festivals in England","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":3,"2024-30":1,"2017-13":2,"2024-26":1,"2023-23":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":234535,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reading%20and%20Leeds%20Festivals","title":"Reading and Leeds Festivals","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"(Latin: ) was a hypothetical continent first posited in antiquity and which appeared on maps between the 15th and 18th centuries. Its existence was not based on any survey or direct observation, but rather on the idea that continental land in the Northern Hemisphere should be balanced by land in the Southern Hemisphere. This theory of balancing land has been documented as early as the 5th century on maps by Macrobius, who uses the term  on his maps.\n\nNames\nOther names for the hypothetical continent have included Terra Australis Ignota, Terra Australis Incognita (\"the unknown land of the south\") or Terra Australis Nondum Cognita (\"the southern land not yet known\"). Other names were Brasiliae Australis (\"the southern Brazil\"), and Magellanica (\"the land of Magellan\"). Matthias Ringmann called it the Ora antarctica (antarctic land) in 1505, and Franciscus Monachus called it the Australis or\u0119 (Austral country). In Medieval times it was known as the Antipodes.\n\nChange of name\nDuring the eighteenth century, today's Australia was not conflated with Terra Australis, as it sometimes was in the twentieth century. Captain Cook and his contemporaries knew that the sixth continent (today's Australia), which they called New Holland, was entirely separate from the imagined (but still undiscovered) seventh continent (today's Antarctica).\n\nIn the nineteenth century, the colonial authorities in Sydney re-allocated the name Australia to New Holland and its centuries-old Dutch name eventually disappeared. Meanwhile, having lost its name of Australia, the south polar continent was nameless for decades  until Antarctica was coined in the 1890s.\n\nIn the early 1800s, British explorer Matthew Flinders popularized the naming of Australia after Terra Australis, giving his rationale that there was \"no probability\" of finding any significant land mass anywhere more south than Australia.  The continent that would come to be named Antarctica would be explored decades after Flinders' 1814 book on Australia, which he had titled A Voyage to Terra Australis, and after his naming switch had gained popularity.\n\nHistory\n\nOrigins\n\nPtolemy (2nd century AD) believed that the Indian Ocean was enclosed on the south by land, and that the lands of the Northern Hemisphere should be balanced by land in the south. Marcus Tullius Cicero used the term cingulus australis (\"southern zone\") in referring to the Antipodes in Somnium Scipionis (\"Dream of Scipio\"). The land (terra in Latin) in this zone was the Terra Australis.\n\nLegends of Terra Australis Incognitaan \"unknown land of the South\"date back to Roman times and before, and were commonplace in medieval geography, although not based on any documented knowledge of the continent. Ptolemy's maps, which became well known in Europe during the Renaissance, did not actually depict such a continent, but they did show an Africa which had no southern oceanic boundary (and which therefore might extend all the way to the South Pole), and also raised the possibility that the Indian Ocean was entirely enclosed by land. Christian thinkers did not discount the idea that there might be land beyond the southern seas, but the issue of whether it could be inhabited was controversial.\n\nThe first depiction of Terra Australis on a globe was probably on Johannes Sch\u00f6ner's lost 1523 globe on which Oronce Fine is thought to have based his 1531 double cordiform (heart-shaped) map of the world. On this landmass he wrote \"recently discovered but not yet completely explored\". The body of water beyond the tip of South America is called the \"Mare Magellanicum\", one of the first uses of navigator Ferdinand Magellan's name in such a context.\n\nSch\u00f6ner called the continent Brasiliae Australis in his 1533 tract, Opusculum geographicum. In it, he explained: Brasilia Australis is an immense region toward Antarcticum, newly discovered but not yet fully surveyed, which extends as far as Melacha and somewhat beyond. The inhabitants of this region lead good, honest lives and are not Anthropophagi [cannibals] like other barbarian nations; they have no letters, nor do they have kings, but they venerate their elders and offer them obedience; they give the name Thomas to their children [after St Thomas the Apostle]; close to this region lies the great island of Zanzibar at 102.00 degrees and 27.30 degrees South.\n\nMapping the southern continent\n\nMedieval period \n\nDuring medieval times Terra Australis was known by a different name, that being the Antipodes. First widely introduced to medieval western Europe by Isidore of Seville in his famous book the Etymologiae, the idea gained popularity across Europe, and most scholars did not question its existence, instead debating if it was habitable for other humans. It would later be included on some zonal Mappa mundi and intrigue medieval scholars for centuries.\n\n16th century\n\nExplorers of the Age of Discovery, from the late 15th century on, proved that Africa was almost entirely surrounded by sea, and that the Indian Ocean was accessible from both west and east.  These discoveries reduced the area where the continent could be found; however, many cartographers held to Aristotle's opinion. Scientists such as Gerardus Mercator (1569) and Alexander Dalrymple as late as 1767 argued for its existence, with such arguments as that there should be a large landmass in the south as a counterweight to the known landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere. As new lands were discovered, they were often assumed to be parts of the hypothetical continent.\n\nThe German cosmographer and mathematician Johannes Sch\u00f6ner (1477\u20131547) constructed a terrestrial globe in 1515, based on the world map and globe made by Martin Waldseem\u00fcller and his colleagues at St. Di\u00e9 in Lorraine in 1507. Where Sch\u00f6ner departs most conspicuously from Waldseem\u00fcller is in his globe's depiction of an Antarctic continent, called by him Brasilie Regio. His continent is based, however tenuously, on the report of an actual voyage: that of the Portuguese merchants Nuno Manuel and Crist\u00f3v\u00e3o de Haro to the River Plate, and related in the Newe Zeytung auss Presillg Landt (\"New Tidings from the Land of Brazil\") published in Augsburg in 1514. The Zeytung described the Portuguese voyagers passing through a strait between the southernmost point of America, or Brazil, and a land to the south west, referred to as vndtere Presill (or Brasilia inferior).\n\nThis supposed \"strait\" was in fact the Rio de la Plata (or the San Matias Gulf). By \"vndtere Presill\", the Zeytung meant that part of Brazil in the lower latitudes, but Sch\u00f6ner mistook it to mean the land on the southern side of the \"strait\", in higher latitudes, and so gave to it the opposite meaning. On this slender foundation he constructed his circum-Antarctic continent to which, for the reasons that he does not explain, he gave an annular, or ring shape. In an accompanying explanatory treatise, Luculentissima quaedam terrae totius descriptio (\"A Most Lucid Description of All Lands\"), he explained:The Portuguese, thus, sailed around this region, the Brasilie Regio, and discovered the passage very similar to that of our Europe (where we reside) and situated laterally between east and west. From one side the land on the other is visible; and the cape of this region about  away, much as if one were sailing eastward through the Straits of Gibraltar or Seville and Barbary or Morocco in Africa, as our Globe shows toward the Antarctic Pole. Further, the distance is only moderate from this Region of Brazil to Malacca, where St. Thomas was crowned with martyrdom.\n\nOn this scrap of information, united with the concept of the Antipodes inherited from Graeco-Roman antiquity, Sch\u00f6ner constructed his representation of the southern continent. His strait served as inspiration for Ferdinand Magellan's expedition to reach the Moluccas by a westward route.\n\nHe took Magellan's discovery of Tierra del Fuego in 1520 as further confirmation of its existence, and on his globes of 1523 and 1533 he described it as terra australis recenter inventa sed nondum plene cognita (\"Terra Australis, recently discovered but not yet fully known\"). It was taken up by his followers, the French cosmographer Oronce Fine in his world map of 1531, and the Flemish cartographers Gerardus Mercator in 1538 and Abraham Ortelius in 1570. Sch\u00f6ner's concepts influenced the Dieppe school of mapmakers, notably in their representation of Jave la Grande.\n\nIn 1539, the King of Spain, Charles V, created the Governorate of Terra Australis  granted to Pedro Sancho de la Hoz, who in 1540 transferred the title to the conqueror Pedro de Valdivia and later was incorporated to Chile.\n\nTerra Australis was depicted on the mid-16th-century Dieppe maps, where its coastline appeared just south of the islands of the East Indies; it was often elaborately charted, with a wealth of fictitious detail. There was much interest in Terra Australis among Norman and Breton merchants at that time. In 1566 and 1570, Francisque and Andr\u00e9 d'Albaigne presented Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France, with projects for establishing relations with the Austral lands. Although the Admiral gave favourable consideration to these initiatives, they came to nought when Coligny was killed in 1572.\n\nGerardus Mercator believed in the existence of a large Southern continent on the basis of cosmographic reasoning, set out in the abstract of his Atlas or Cosmographic Studies in Five Books, as related by his biographer, Walter Ghim, who said that even though Mercator was not ignorant that the Austral continent still lay hidden and unknown, he believed it could be \"demonstrated and proved by solid reasons and arguments to yield in its geometric proportions, size and weight, and importance to neither of the other two, nor possibly to be lesser or smaller, otherwise the constitution of the world could not hold together at its centre\".\n\nThe Flemish geographer and cartographer, Cornelius Wytfliet, wrote concerning the Terra Australis in his 1597 book, Descriptionis Ptolemaicae Augmentum: \nThe terra Australis is therefore the southernmost of all other lands, directly beneath the antarctic circle; extending beyond the tropic of Capricorn to the West, it ends almost at the equator itself, and separated by a narrow strait lies on the East opposite to New Guinea, only known so far by a few shores because after one voyage and another that route has been given up and unless sailors are forced and driven by stress of winds it is seldom visited. The terra Australis begins at two or three degrees below the equator and it is said by some to be of such magnitude that if at any time it is fully discovered they think it will be the fifth part of the world.\n\nAdjoining Guinea on the right are the numerous and vast Solomon Islands which lately became famous by the voyage of Alvarus Mendanius.\n\nJuan Fernandez, sailing from Chile in 1576, claimed he had discovered the Southern Continent. The Polus Antarcticus map of 1641 by Henricus Hondius, bears the inscription: \"Insulas esse a Nova Guinea usque ad Fretum Magellanicum affirmat Hernandus Galego, qui ad eas explorandas missus fuit a Rege Hispaniae Anno 1576 (Hernando Gallego, who in the year 1576 was sent by the King of Spain to explore them, affirms that there are islands from New Guinea up to the Strait of Magellan)\".\n\n17th century\nLu\u00eds Vaz de Torres, a Spanish navigator who commanded the San Pedro y San Pablo, the San Pedrico and the tender or yacht, Los Tres Reyes Magos during the 1605\u20131606 expedition led by Pedro Fernandes de Queiros in quest of the Southern Continent, proved the existence of a passage south of New Guinea, now known as Torres Strait. Commenting on this in 1622, the Dutch cartographer and publisher of Queiros' eighth memorial, Hessel Gerritsz, noted on his Map of the Pacific Ocean: \"Those who sailed with the yacht of Pedro Fernando de Quiros in the neighbourhood of New Guinea to 10 degrees westward through many islands and shoals and over  for as many as 40 days, estimated that Nova Guinea does not extend beyond 10 degrees to the south; if this be so, then the land from 9 to 14 degrees would be a separate land\".\n\nPedro Fernandes de Queir\u00f3s, another Portuguese navigator sailing for the Spanish Crown, saw a large island south of New Guinea in 1606, which he named La Austrialia del Espiritu Santo. He represented this to the King of Spain as the Terra Australis incognita. In his 10th Memorial (1610), Queir\u00f3s said: \"New Guinea is the top end of the Austral Land of which I treat [discuss], and that people, and customs, with all the rest referred to, resemble them\".\n\nDutch father and son Isaac and Jacob Le Maire established the Australische Compagnie (Australian Company) in 1615 to trade with Terra Australis, which they called \"Australia\".\n\nThe Dutch expedition to Valdivia of 1643 intended to round Cape Horn sailing through Le Maire Strait but strong winds made it instead drift south and east. The small fleet led by Hendrik Brouwer managed to enter the Pacific ocean sailing south of the island disproving earlier beliefs that it was part of Terra Australis.\n\nThe cartographic depictions of the southern continent in the 16th and early 17th centuries, as might be expected for a concept based on such abundant conjecture and minimal data, varied wildly from map to map; in general, the continent shrank as potential locations were reinterpreted.  At its largest, the continent included Tierra del Fuego, separated from South America by a small strait; New Guinea; and what would come to be called Australia.  In Ortelius's atlas Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, published in 1570, Terra Australis extends north of the Tropic of Capricorn in the Pacific Ocean.\n\nAs long as it appeared on maps at all, the continent minimally included the unexplored lands around the South Pole, but generally much larger than the real Antarctica, spreading far north\u00a0\u2013 especially in the Pacific Ocean. New Zealand, first seen by the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642, was regarded by some as a part of the continent.\n\n18th century\nAlexander Dalrymple, the Examiner of Sea Journals for the English East India Company, whilst translating some Spanish documents captured in the Philippines in 1762, found de Torres's testimony.  This discovery led Dalrymple to publish the Historical Collection of the Several Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean in 1770\u20131771. Dalrymple presented a beguiling tableau of the Terra Australis, or Southern Continent:\nThe number of inhabitants in the Southern Continent is probably more than 50 millions, considering the extent, from the eastern part discovered by Juan Fernandez, to the western coast seen by Tasman, is about 100 deg. of longitude, which in the latitude of 40 deg. amounts to 4596 geographic, or 5323 stature miles [8567\u00a0km]. This is a greater extent than the whole civilized part of Asia, from Turkey to the eastern extremity of China. There is at present no trade from Europe thither, though the scraps from this table would be sufficient to maintain the power, dominion, and sovereignty of Britain, by employing all its manufacturers and ships. Whoever considers the Peruvian empire, where arts and industry flourished under one of the wisest systems of government, which was founded by a stranger, must have very sanguine expectations of the southern continent, from whence it is more than probable Mango Capac, the first Inca, was derived, and must be convinced that the country, from whence Mango Capac introduced the comforts of civilized life, cannot fail of amply rewarding the fortunate people who shall bestow letters instead of quippos (quipus), and iron in place of more awkward substitutes.\nDalrymple's claim of the existence of an unknown continent aroused widespread interest and prompted the British government in 1769 to order James Cook in HM Bark Endeavour to seek out the Southern Continent to the South and West of Tahiti, discovered in June 1767 by Samuel Wallis in  and named by him King George Island. The London press reported in June 1768 that two ships would be sent to the newly discovered island and from there to \"attempt the Discovery of the Southern Continent\". A subsequent press report stated: \"We are informed, that the Island which Captain Wallis has discovered in the South-Sea, and named George's Land, is about fifteen hundred Leagues to the Westward and to Leeward of the Coast of Peru, and about five-and-thirty Leagues in circumference; that its principal and almost sole national Advantage is, its Situation for exploring the Terra Incognita of the Southern Hemisphere. The Endeavour, a North-Country Cat, is purchased by the Government, and commanded by a Lieutenant of the Navy; she is fitting out at Deptford for the South-Sea, thought to be intended for the newly-discovered Island\". The aims of the expedition were revealed in days following: \"To-morrow morning Mr. Banks, Dr. Solano [sic], with Mr. Green, the Astronomer, will set out for Deal, to embark on board the Endeavour, Capt. Cook, for the South Seas, under the direction of the Royal Society, to observe the Transit of Venus next summer, and to make discoveries to the South and West of Cape Horn\". The London Gazetteer was more explicit when it reported on 18 August 1768: \"The gentlemen, who are to sail in a few days for George's Land, the new discovered island in the Pacific ocean, with an intention to observe the Transit of Venus, are likewise, we are credibly informed, to attempt some new discoveries in that vast unknown tract, above the latitude 40\". The results of this first voyage of James Cook in respect of the quest for the Southern Continent were summed up by Cook himself. He wrote in his Journal on 31 March 1770 that the Endeavour voyage \"must be allowed to have set aside the most, if not all, the Arguments and proofs that have been advanced by different Authors to prove that there must be a Southern Continent; I mean to the Northward of 40 degrees South, for what may lie to the Southward of that Latitude I know not\".\n\nThe second voyage of James Cook aboard  explored the South Pacific for the landmass between 1772 and 1775 whilst also testing Larcum Kendall's K1 chronometer as a method for measuring longitude.\n\nDecline of the idea\n\nOver the centuries the idea of Terra Australis gradually lost its hold. In 1616, Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten's rounding of Cape Horn proved that Tierra del Fuego was a relatively small island, while in 1642 Abel Tasman's first Pacific voyage proved that Australia was not part of the mythical southern continent. Much later, James Cook circumnavigated and charted New Zealand in 1770, showing that even it could not be part of a large continent. On his second voyage he circumnavigated the globe at a very high southern latitude, at some places even crossing the Antarctic Circle, showing that any possible southern continent must lie well within the cold polar areas. There could be no extension into regions with a temperate climate, as had been thought before. In 1814, Matthew Flinders published the book A Voyage to Terra Australis. Flinders had concluded that the Terra Australis as hypothesized by Aristotle and Ptolemy did not exist, so he wanted the name applied to what he saw as the next best thing: \"Australia\", replacing the former name for the continent, New Holland. He wrote:There is no probability, that any other detached body of land, of nearly equal extent, will ever be found in a more southern latitude; the name Terra Australis will, therefore, remain descriptive of the geographical importance of this country, and of its situation on the globe: it has antiquity to recommend it; and, having no reference to either of the two claiming nations, appears to be less objectionable than any other which could have been selected.\n...with the accompanying note at the bottom of the page:Had I permitted myself any innovation upon the original term, it would have been to convert it into AUSTRALIA; as being more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the earth.\n\nWith the discovery of Antarctica his conclusion would soon be revealed as a mistake, but by that time the name had stuck.\n\nThe Province of Beach\n\nA land feature known as the \"Province of Beach\" or \"Boeach\" \u2013 from the Latin Provincia bo\u00ebach \u2013 appears to have resulted from mistranscriptions of a name in Marco Polo's Il Milione (Book III). Polo described his journey by sea from China to India by way of Champa (provincia ciamba; modern southern Vietnam),  Java Major, Locach (modern Lop Buri),   and Sumatra (Java Minor). In Cantonese, Lavo (an early name of Lop Buri) was pronounced \"Lo-huk\" \u7f85\u659b  and Locach was Marco Polo's transcription of this name. According to Polo, Locach was a kingdom where gold was \"so plentiful that no one who did not see it could believe it\". Polo's narrative describes the route southward from Champa toward Sumatra, but by a slip of the pen the name \"Java\" (which Polo did not himself visit) was substituted for \"Champa\" as the point of departure, thereby mis-locating Sumatra  and Locach south of Java (rather than Champa). Consequently, some geographers believed that Sumatra and Locach were near, or extensions of, Terra Australis.\n\nIn the German cursive script, Locach and Boeach look similar. A feature known as the \"Province of Beach\" or \"Boeach\" \u2013 from the Latin Provincia bo\u00ebach \u2013 appears on European maps as early as the 15th century. On a map of the world published in Florence in 1489 by Henricus Martellus, the Latin name provincia bo\u00ebach is given to a southern neighbour of Champa. In a 1532 edition of Marco Polo's Travels, Locach was changed to Bo\u00ebach, later shortened to Beach.\n\nBy the mid-16th century, according to Henry Yule, the editor of a modern (1921) edition of Polo's Travels, some geographers and cartographers followed the error in older editions of Polo that \"placed ... the land of \"Boeach\" (or Locac)\" south-east of Java and \"introduced in their maps a continent in that situation\". Gerard Mercator did just that on his 1541 globe,  placing Beach provincia aurifera (\"Beach the gold-bearing province\") in the northernmost part of the Terra Australis in accordance with the faulty text of Marco Polo's Travels. The landmass of Beach remained in this location on Mercator's world map of 1569, with the amplified description, quoting Marco Polo, Beach provincia aurifera quam pauci ex alienis regionibus adeunt propter gentis inhumanitatem (\"Beach the gold-bearing province, wither few go from other countries because of the inhumanity of its people\") with Lucach regnum shown somewhat to its south west. Following Mercator, Abraham Ortelius also showed BEACH and LVCACH in these locations on his world map of 1571.\n\nThe 1596 map by Jan Huygen van Linschoten showed BEACH and LOCACH, projecting from the map's southern edge as the northernmost parts of the Terra Australis long hypothesized by Europeans. An encounter by the Dutch vessel Eendracht, commanded by Dirk Hartog, with Shark Bay, Western Australia in 1616, appeared to confirm that land existed where the maps showed Beach; Hartog named the wider  landmass Eendrachtsland, after his ship. In August 1642, the Council of the Dutch East India Company \u2013 evidently still relying on Linschoten's map \u2013 despatched Abel Tasman and Frans Jacobszoon Visscher on a voyage of exploration, of which one of the objects was to obtain knowledge of \"all the totally unknown provinces of Beach\".\n\nIn fiction\n\nThe unexplored southern continent was a frequent subject of fantastic fiction in the 17th and 18th centuries in the imaginary voyages genre. Among the works which dealt with imaginary visits to the continent (which at the time was still believed to be real) were:\n  (1605), a satirical work by Joseph Hall, Bishop of Norwich;\n The Isle of Pines (1668) by the English politician Henry Neville;\n  (1676) by Gabriel de Foigny;\n  (1675) by the French Huguenot writer Denis Vairasse d'Allais.\n  (, incorrectly dated 1710) by Simon Tyssot de Patot;\n : The Fortunate Shipwreck, or a description of New Athens in Terra Australis incognita (1720) by the English dramatist Thomas Killigrew;\n Relation d'un voyage du Pole Arctique, au Pole Antarctique par le centre du monde (1721), anonymous;\n Relation du royaume des F\u00e9liciens (1727) by the Marquis de Lassay;\n Viaggi di Enrico Wanton alle Terre incognite Australi (1749) by Zaccaria Seriman;\n Voyage de Robertson, aux Terres Australes, traduit sur le manuscrit anglois (1767), anonymous;\n La d\u00e9couverte australe par un homme-volant (1781) by Restif de la Bretonne;\n The idea of Terra Australis was also used by Terry Pratchett in his Discworld series of novels (1983\u20132014) where the World is balanced by the strange and little-known Counterweight Continent.\n\nSee also\n Early world maps\n Governorate of Terra Australis\n History of Antarctica\n Spanish colonization attempt of the Strait of Magellan\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n \n \n L. Ivanov and N. Ivanova. Terra Australis. In: The World of Antarctica. Generis Publishing, 2022. pp.\u00a065\u201368. \n\nCartographic errors\nEuropean exploration of Australia\nHistory of Australia (1788\u20131850)\nHistory of Antarctica\nLatin words and phrases\nMaritime folklore\nTheoretical continents\nArticles containing video clips","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":57,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":7,"2014-15":2}},"id":46760,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Terra%20Australis","title":"Terra Australis","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Philippe d'Orl\u00e9ans, Duke of Orl\u00e9ans (Louis Philippe Joseph; 13 April 1747 \u2013 6 November 1793) commonly known as Philippe, was a member of the  House of Orl\u00e9ans. He actively supported the French Revolution and adopted the name Philippe \u00c9galit\u00e9, but was still guillotined during the Reign of Terror. His son Louis Philippe became King of the French after the July Revolution of 1830.  He held the rank of prince of the blood.\n\nBiography\nLouis Philippe was the son of Louis Philippe d'Orl\u00e9ans, Duke of Chartres, and Louise Henriette de Bourbon and was born at the Ch\u00e2teau de Saint Cloud.\n\nDuke of Orl\u00e9ans\nIn November 1785, upon his father's death, Philippe, the new Duke of Orl\u00e9ans, became the head of the House of Orl\u00e9ans. This was one of the wealthiest families of France, and Premier Prince du Sang, addressed as Monsieur le Prince, the most important person of the kingdom after the king's immediate family. He was next in line to the throne should the main Bourbon line die out.\n\nMarriage\nOn 6 June 1769, Louis Philippe married Louise Marie Ad\u00e9la\u00efde de Bourbon at the Chapel of the Palace of Versailles. Louise Marie Ad\u00e9la\u00efde brought to the already wealthy House of Orl\u00e9ans a considerable dowry of six million livres, an annual income of 240,000 livres (later increased to 400,000 livres), as well as lands, titles, residences and furniture. They had five children:\n\n Louis Philippe d'Orl\u00e9ans (later King Louis Philippe I of the French) (6 October 1773 \u2013 26 August 1850) married Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily.\n Antoine Philippe d'Orl\u00e9ans, Duke of Montpelier (3 July 1775 \u2013 18 May 1807) died unmarried.\n Ad\u00e9la\u00efde d'Orl\u00e9ans, later made a \"Princess of Orl\u00e9ans\" (23 August 1777 \u2013 31 December 1847) died unmarried.\n Fran\u00e7oise d'Orl\u00e9ans (twin sister of Ad\u00e9la\u00efde) (1777\u20131782) died young.\n Louis Charles d'Orl\u00e9ans, Count of Beaujolais (17 October 1779 \u2013 30 May 1808) died unmarried.\n\nDuring the first few months of their marriage, the couple appeared devoted to each other, but the duke went back to the life of \"libertinage\" he had led before his marriage. During the summer of 1772, a few months after his wife had given birth to a stillborn daughter, Philippe began a secret relationship with one of her ladies-in-waiting, St\u00e9phanie F\u00e9licit\u00e9 Ducrest de St-Albin, Countess of Genlis. Stephanie was the niece of Madame de Montesson his fathers second wife.\n\nMilitary service\nIn 1778, Philippe served in the squadron of the Count of Orvilliers. He was present in the Battle of Ushant, a naval battle against the British during the American War of Independence on 27 July 1778. He was removed from the navy due in part to the queen's hatred of him and also to his own incompetence and alleged cowardice. As compensation, he was given the honorary post of colonel-general of hussars.\n\nRevolutionary Politics\n\nThe part Philippe d'Orl\u00e9ans played during the summer of 1789 is one of the most debated points in the history of the French Revolution. The royal court said he was at the bottom of every popular movement, and saw the \"gold of Orl\u00e9ans\" as the cause of the R\u00e9veillon riot and the storming of the Bastille. This was like the subsequent belief held by the Jacobins that everything opposing them relied on the \"gold of Pitt the Younger\"). His hatred of Marie Antoinette, his previous disgrace at court, and his liberalism (alongside his friendship with Duport and Choderlos de Laclos), all seem to point towards his involvement. The Duke is also said to have deliberately withheld grain from the people of Paris, being a direct cause of the 5 October \"March on Versailles\". The Duke is also thought to have lied about where he was when the Palace at Versailles was stormed in the early hours of the morning on the 6th of October. He said he was at the General Assembly in Paris, yet several witness (including the Marquise de la Tour du Pin) saw him lead the bloodthirsty mob to a staircase leading to the Queen's bedroom, protected by Swiss Guard. The mob cried \"Long live our King d'Orl\u00e9ans\" during the raid.\n\nThe Marquis de La Fayette, apparently jealous of Philippe's popularity, persuaded the king to send the duke to Britain on a mission, where he remained in England from October 1789 to July 1790. On 7 July 1790, he took his seat in the National Constituent Assembly. On 2 October, both he and Honor\u00e9 Mirabeau were declared by the Assembly entirely free of any involvement in the events of 5\u20136 October 1789.\n\nCitoyen \u00c9galit\u00e9\nPhilippe d'Orl\u00e9ans tried to keep himself distant from the political world, but he was still suspect to the King and subject to pressures from his supporters to replace Louis XVI. His lack of political aspirations could be proven by noting that he did not attempt to obtain any leading position after the King's flight to Varennes in June 1791. In fact, Louis Philippe attempted to reconcile with the King in January 1792, but was rejected, and refused to aid the King any further. In an attempt to show his support of democratic and Enlightenment philosophies, he changed his name to Philippe Citoyen Egalit\u00e9, meaning equality.\n\nThis is clearly why Philippe now has his head hanging on a wall in the palace in France.\n\nIn the summer of 1792, he was present for a short time with the Army of the North, together with his two sons, the Duke of Chartres, future King of the French, and the Duke of Montpensier, but had returned to Paris before the insurrection of 10 August.\n\nDuring the Grand Terror\nAfter the fall of the monarchy, Philippe risked his own life by saving suspects of the revolutionary regime. At the request of Grace Elliott, he saved the life of Louis Ren\u00e9 Quentin de Richebourg de Champcenetz, the governor of the Tuileries Palace, who was his personal enemy. He accepted the title Citoyen \u00c9galit\u00e9 given to him by the Commune.  He was elected 20th and last deputy for Paris to the National Convention, where he again made no notable contribution other than voting in the king's trial. He voted in support of the death sentence for Louis XVI. Many citizens of Paris saw this as an attempt by Philippe to overthrow the crown and take power himself.  They believed that not only was the Palais-Royal the center for revolutionary and philosophical debates, but that it was also his ground for recruiting and financing riots and rebellious activity.\n\nAs a member of the House of Bourbon, Louis Philippe was shortlisted for a trial, and effectively tried and guillotined in the space of one day on 6 November 1793. Accounts of his time in prison and execution mention his exceptional courage.\n\nPhilippe d'Orl\u00e9ans was buried in the Madeleine cemetery (closed in 1794), in Paris, where Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette and hundreds executed on the Place de la R\u00e9volution during the Terror had been buried.  His remains have never never found.\n\nTitles and styles\n13 April 1747 \u2013 4 February 1752: His Most Serene Highness the Duke of Montpensier (Monseigneur le duc de Montpensier)\n4 February 1752 \u2013 18 November 1785: His Most Serene Highness the Duke of Chartres (Monseigneur le duc de Chartres)\n18 November 1785 \u2013 6 November 1793: His Most Serene Highness the Duke of Orl\u00e9ans (Monseigneur le duc d'Orl\u00e9ans)\n\nReferences\n\n1747 births\n1793 deaths\nPeople from Saint-Cloud\nHouse of Orl\u00e9ans\nDukes and Duchesses of Chartres\nDukes and Duchesses of Orl\u00e9ans\nDukes and Duchesses of Nemours\nDukes and Duchesses of Montpensier\nDukes and Duchesses of Valois","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":274817,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philippe%20%C3%89galit%C3%A9","title":"Philippe \u00c9galit\u00e9","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The swift is a bird in the family Apodidae. It is in the order Apodiformes with treeswifts and hummingbirds. The swift is very good at flying. It spends all of its time in the air.\n\nThe scientific name for the swift (apus) comes from the Ancient Greek word \u03b1\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, apous which means \"without feet\". This is because swifts have very small, weak feet. Swifts use their feet to hold on to vertical places (for example, the wall of a house, or a cliff). Swifts do not want to land on the ground. It is often thought that if they land on ground, they cannot fly up again, but that is not true. They can take off but with difficulty.\n\nDescription \nSwifts are small birds. They can fly very well and very fast. Some swifts can fly at 514m per second. If a swift needs to fly very fast, it can fly at 60m per second for a short amount of time. When catching insects, they fly in a series of swoops, changing direction rapidly as they pursue the prey. \n\nSwifts have long, curved wings. The wings are in the shape of a sickle or boomerang. They have a forked tail. This means it looks like a V shape. \n\nSwifts can be seen all over the world. They like to live in warmer places and they migrate every year. For example, Swifts fly to Europe in the spring and summer. When it gets cold at the start of autumn, the Swifts fly to Africa where it is warmer.\n\nNests \n\nSwifts make their nests in a corner between two walls. For example, near the roof of a house, or in an area between rocks in a cave. They use mud and saliva (spit) to make a cup-shaped nest. \n\nThere are some swifts which only use saliva to make their nests. These swifts are in the genus Aerodramus. In Asia, people take the nests and use them to make bird's nest soup. This soup is very popular in China.\n\nApodiformes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":4,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6}},"id":227379,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swift","title":"Swift","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bryozoans, also known as the Polyzoa, Ectoprocta or moss animals, are a phylum of small aquatic animals living in colonies. The colonies usually have a skeleton of calcium carbonate. Bryozoans have a long fossil history, starting in the Ordovician. In their life-style they resemble the polyps which form coral. They generally like warm, tropical waters but live all over the world. There are about 5,000 living species, and 15,000 fossil species are known. \n\nThe colonies are formed by tiny (~0.2mm) members called zooids. They secrete tubes, usually of lime (CaCO3), sometimes of chitin, an organic compound. The zooids in a colony are all clones, produced by asexual reproduction. Despite this, most species produce different morphs: zooids with different functions. \n\nAll bryozoa have a lophophore. This is a ring of ten tentacles surrounding the mouth, each tentacle covered with cilia. When feeding, the zooid extends the lophophore outwards; when resting it is withdrawn into the mouth to protect it from predators.\n\nAnatomy & physiology\n\nBryozoan skeletons grow in a variety of shapes and patterns: mound-shaped, lacy fans, branching twigs, and even corkscrew-shaped. Their skeletons have many tiny openings. Each opening is the home of zooid. They have a body with a U-shaped gut, opening at the mouth and at the anus. They feed with their lophophore. The tentacles of the bryozoans are ciliated. The beating of the cilia creates a current of water which drives food (mainly phytoplankton) towards the mouth. In some groups, notably some ctenostomes, a gizzard may be formed.  \n\nBryozoans do not have a respiratory, or a blood system, because their small size allows diffusion of gases and nutrients. However, they do have a simple nervous system, and muscles, which together can quickly take the zooid down into its shelter.\n\nOne species of bryozoan, Bugula neritina, is of interest as a source of chemicals, bryostatins, which are under investigation as anti-cancer agents.\n\nReproduction & development  \nBryozoans can reproduce both sexually and asexually. All Bryozoans, as far as is known, are hermaphrodite (meaning they are both male and female).\n\nAll members of a colony are clones: they are genetically identical, produced by asexual reproduction. This occurs by budding off new zooids from the first zooid. So the colony grows; this is the way a colony expands in size. If a piece of a bryozoan colony breaks off, the piece can continue to grow and will form a new colony.\n\nAll zooids in a colony are linked by strands of epithelial cells. The individual members of a colony, the zooids, are in some species generalised: they feed, and they can reproduce on occasion. But in most species the zooids are specialised to diffent functions. In this case the feeding zooids are called autozooids, and the non-feeding members are called heterozooids. Functions done by heterozooids include sexual reproduction, protection, locomotion, plumbing, structural support. The functions of some heterozooids is still unknown. The commonest function is that eggs are developed in brooding chambers (ovicells) on female or hermaphrodite heterozooids. There are variations in the details: sometimes a little complex of heterozooids produce larvae in a cooperative effort.p4\n\nAnother way to describe the bryozoa which develop heterozooids is to say they are polymorphic. This term is used in biology to describe the way a genetically unified population develops into clearly distinct forms. The polymorphism is usually controlled by genetic switching mechanisms, but in bryozoa there is little knowledge of their genetics.\n\nEcology \n\nMost species of Bryozoan live in marine environments. There are about 50 species which inhabit freshwater. In their aquatic habitats, bryozoans live on all types of hard substrates: sand grains, rocks, shells, wood, blades of kelp, pipes and ships may be heavily encrusted with bryozoans. Some bryozoan colonies, however, do not grow on solid substrates, but form colonies on sediment. While some species live at depths of 8,200\u00a0m, most bryozoans live in much shallower water. Most bryozoans are sessile and immobile, but a few colonies are able to creep about, and a few species of non-colonial bryozoans live and move about in the spaces between sand grains. One remarkable species makes its living while floating in the Southern Ocean. Several bryozoan species live in the Midwestern United States, especially in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky which was once a part of a large ocean, the Western Interior Seaway.\n\nTheir diet consists of small microorganisms, including diatoms and other unicellular algae. In turn, bryozoans are preyed on by grazing organisms such as sea urchins and fish. \n\nBryozoans are almost entirely colony-forming animals. Many millions of individuals can form one colony. The colonies range from millimeters to meters in size, but the individuals that make up the colonies are tiny, usually less than a millimeter long. In each colony, different individuals have different functions. Some individuals gather up the food for the colony (autozooids), others depend on them (heterozooids). Some individuals are devoted to strengthening the colony (kenozooids), and still others to cleaning the colony (vibracula). There is only a single known solitary species, Monobryozoon ambulans, which does not form colonies.\n\nFossils\n\nFossil bryozoans first appear in the early Ordovician and had a huge adaptive radiation. They were abundant throughout the Palaeozoic era: they were one of the most dominant groups of Palaeozoic fossils. They were major components of seabed communities and, like modern-day bryozoans, played an important role in sediment stabilization and binding. They were food sources for many other benthic organisms. During the Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian) 354 to 323 million years ago, bryozoans were so common that their broken skeletons form entire limestone beds. \n\nAfter a crash at the Permian\/Triassic boundary, when almost all species went extinct, bryozoans recovered in the later Mesozoic to become as successful as before. The bryozoan fossil record has more than 15,000 species. \n\nMost fossil bryozoans have mineralized skeletons. The skeletons of individual zooids vary from tubular to box-shaped and contain a terminal aperture from which the lophophore is protruded to feed. No pores are present in the great majority of Ordovician bryozoans, but skeletal evidence shows that epithelia were continuous from one zooid to the next.\n\nOne of the most important events during bryozoan evolution was the acquisition of a calcareous skeleton and the mechanism of tentacle protrusion. The rigidity of the outer body walls gave protection against predators, a greater degree of zooid connection, and the evolution of massive colony forms.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\nIndex to Bryozoa Bryozoa Home Page, was at RMIT; now bryozoa.net\nOther Bryozoan WWW Resources\nInternational Bryozoology Association official website\nBryozoan Introduction\nGordon Ramel The Phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa) (recommended)\nBryozoans  in the Connecticut River\n\nInvertebrates\nAnimal phyla","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":55237,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bryozoa","title":"Bryozoa","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Heinrich Friedrich F\u00fcger (8 December 1751, in Heilbronn \u2013 5 November 1818, in Vienna) was a German classicist portrait and historical painter.\n\nBiography\nF\u00fcger was a pupil of Nicolas Guibal in Stuttgart and of Adam Friedrich Oeser in Leipzig.  Afterward, he traveled and spent some time in Rome and Naples, where he painted frescoes in the Palazzo Caserta.  On his return to Vienna he was appointed court painter, professor, and vice-director of the Academy, and in 1806 director of the Belvedere Gallery.\n\nAmong his historical paintings are: The Farewell of Coriolanus (Czernin Gallery, Vienna), Allegory on the Peace of Vienna (1801), The Death of Germanicus (1789), The Assassination of Caesar, and Bathsheba (Budapest Gallery). Among his portraits are those of the Emperor Joseph II, the Grand Duchess Elizabeth Wilhelmine of W\u00fcrttemberg, Queen Caroline of Naples, and Horatio Nelson, who sat for him in Vienna in 1800 (National Portrait Gallery, London).  He painted in the classic style of Louis David and Anton Raphael Mengs and was inclined to be theatrical.\n\nF\u00fcger was also a teacher; among his pupils was Gustav Philipp Zwinger, and Franciszek Ksawery Lampi.\n\nSelected paintings\n\nSee also\n List of German painters\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nAttribution:\n\n18th-century German painters\n18th-century German male artists\nGerman male painters\n19th-century German painters\n19th-century German male artists\n1751 births\n1818 deaths\nPeople from Heilbronn\nAcademic staff of the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":39,"dup_details":{"2024-30":6,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":6,"2024-18":14,"2024-10":6,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":9,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":12,"2023-06":8,"2022-49":5,"2022-40":5,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1}},"id":7632974,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heinrich%20F%C3%BCger","title":"Heinrich F\u00fcger","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Congo River (also known as Zaire River) is the largest river in Africa. Its overall length of 4,700 km (2,922 miles) makes it the second longest in Africa (after the Nile). The river and its tributaries flow through the second largest rain forest area in the world, second only to the Amazon Rainforest in South America.\n\nThe river also has the second-largest flow in the world, behind the Amazon, and the second-largest watershed of any river, again trailing the Amazon. Its watershed is a little larger than that of the Mississippi River. Because large parts of the river basin sit north and south of the equator, its flow is steady, as there is always at least one river having a rainy season.\nThe Congo gets its name from the old Kingdom of Kongo which was at the mouth of the river. The Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo, both countries sitting along the river's banks, are named after it. From 1971 to 1997, the Democratic Republic of the Congo was called Zaire and its government called the river the Zaire River.\n\nThe sources of the Congo are in the Highlands and mountains of the East African Rift, as well as Lake Tanganyika and Lake Mweru, which feed the Lualaba River.  This then becomes the Congo below Boyoma Falls.  The Chambeshi River in Zambia is usually taken as the source of the Congo because of the accepted practice worldwide of using the longest tributary, as with the Nile River.\n\nThe Congo flows mostly west from Kisangani just below the falls, then slowly bends southwest, passing by Mbandaka, joining with the Ubangi River, and running into the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Kinshasa (formerly L\u00e9opoldville) and Brazzaville are on opposite sides of the river at the Pool, where the river narrows and falls through a few cataracts in deep canyons (collectively known as the Livingstone Falls), running by Matadi and Boma, and into the sea at the small town of Muanda.\n\nHistory of exploration \nThe mouth of the Congo was visited by Europeans in 1482, by the Portuguese Diogo C\u00e3o, and in 1817, by a British exploration under James Kingston Tuckey that went up the river as far as Isangila. Henry Morton Stanley was the first European to travel along the whole river.\n\nEconomic importance \nAlthough the Livingstone Falls stop ships coming in from the sea, almost all of the Congo is navigable in parts, especially between Kinshasa and Kisangani. Railways cross the three major falls that interrupt navigation, and much of the trade of central Africa passes along the river. Goods include copper, palm oil, sugar, coffee, and cotton. The river can also be valuable for hydroelectric power, and Inga Dams below Pool Malebo have been built.\n\nIn February of 2005, South Africa's state owned power company, Eskom, said that they had a proposal to increase the amount of electric power that the Inga can make through improvements and the building of a new hydroelectric dam. The project would bring the highest output of the dam to 40 GW, twice that of China's Three Gorges Dam.\n\nGeological history \nIn the Mesozoic period before the continental drift opened the South Atlantic Ocean, the Congo was the upper part of a river about 12,000 km (7,500 miles) long that flowed west across the parts of Gondwanaland, now called Africa and South America.\n\nTributaries \nListed from down a river, to up a river:\n Inkisi\n Nzadi\n Nsele (south side of Pool Malebo)\n Bombo\n Kasai (between Fimi and Congo, known as Kwa)\n Fimi\n Lukenie\n Kwango\n Sankuru\n Likouala\n Sangha\n Ubangi\n Giri\n Uele\n Mbomou\n Luvua\n Luapula\n\nLiterature \nThe Congo River was the location the novel Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad.\n\nReferences\n\nSome reading \n Tim Butcher: Blood River - A Journey To Africa's Broken Heart, 2007. \n H. Winternitz, East Along the Equator: A Journey up the Congo and into Zaire (1987)\n\nOther websites \n Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law  See Congo (or Za\u00efre) River. Peace Palace Library\n Information and a map of the Congo's watershed \n Map of the Congo River basin at Water Resources eAtlas \n\nRivers of Angola\nRivers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo\nRivers of the Republic of the Congo","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":90432,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Congo%20River","title":"Congo River","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In computer networking, network address translation (NAT) is a technique of modifying the network address information in the IP packet headers while transferring the packet across a traffic routing device; such a technique remaps a given address space into another address space. This allows multiple computers to share a single public IPv4 address, which has become necessary because there are not enough IPv4 addresses for every computer in the world.\n\nToday, NAT is used to hide networks (called network masquerading) or to hide IP (called IP masquerading). Masquerading is the mechanism that hides an entire address space, usually consisting of private network addresses (RFC 1918), behind a single IP address usually in the public domain address space. \n\nThe NAT mechanism is implemented inside a routing device that keeps track of the state of the network connections. The NAT device may also implement a firewall. The router uses translation tables to map the \"hidden\" addresses into a single address and then rewrites the outgoing IP packets on exit from the router so that they appear to originate from the router. In the reverse communications path, responses to the outgoing packets are mapped back to the originating IP address using the reverse of the rules (\"state\") stored in the translation tables. The outgoing IP packets establish the device translation tables.\n\nThe translation table rules established in the above way are cleared after a short period without new traffic refreshing their state. However, most NAT devices today allow the network administrator to configure translation tables' entries for permanent use. This feature is often referred to as \"static NAT\" or port forwarding and allows traffic originating in the 'outside' network to reach selected hosts in the masqueraded network.\n\nCarrier-grade NAT, also called large-scale NAT, is NAT done by the Internet service provider (ISP). This is used when the ISP has more customers than IP addresses. This is commonly used by cellular service providers on 3G and 4G networks, but it is not (yet) common on landline DSL or cable connections. The CIDR address block 184.108.40.206\/10 is reserved for carrier-grade NAT, although many ISPs improperly use RFC 1918 private addresses, which are 10.0.0.0\/8, 172.16.0.0\/12, and 192.168.0.0\/16.\n\nNAT is used only in IPv4. It is not necessary in IPv6, because IPv6 has enough addresses for every computer in the world to have a global address.\n\nRelated pages\n Internet protocol suite\n Communications protocol\n\nReferences \n\n \nInternet","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":136281,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network%20address%20translation","title":"Network address translation","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In computing, a video card, graphics card or graphics accelerator is a special circuit board that controls what is shown on a computer monitor and calculates 3D images and graphics.\n\nA video card can be used to display a two-dimensional (2D) image like a desktop, or a three-dimensional (3D) image like a computer game. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) programs are often used by architects, engineers and designers to create 3D models on their computers. If a computer has a very fast video card, the user can create very detailed 3D models.\n\nMost computers have a basic video and graphics capabilities built-in to the computer's motherboard.  These \"integrated\" video chips are not as fast as in separate or \"discrete\" video cards. Normally, they are fast enough for basic computer use and old or simple computer games on lower graphic settings. If a computer user wants faster and\/or more detailed graphics, a video card can be installed.\n\nHardware \nVideo cards have their own processor (called a Graphics Processing Unit or GPU).  The GPU is distinct from the main computer processor (called the Central Processing Unit or CPU).  The CPU's job is to process the calculations needed to make the computer function.  The GPU's job is to handle graphics calculations.  3D graphics calculations take a lot of CPU power, so having a video card to handle the graphics calculations lets the CPU work on other things like running computer programs.\n\nVideo cards also have their own memory, separate from the main computer memory. It is usually much faster than main computer memory, too.  This helps the GPU do its graphics calculations even faster. Most video cards also can make one computer use more than one computer monitor at one time.  Graphics manufacturers Nvidia and AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) have special technologies that allow two identical cards to be linked together in a single computer for much faster performance. Nvidia calls their technology SLI and AMD calls their technology CrossFire. Some modern graphics cards can even process physics calculations to create even more realistic-looking 3D worlds.\n\nVideo cards typically connect to a motherboard using the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), the Advanced Graphics Port (AGP) or the Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCI Express or PCI-E). PCI-E is the newest and fastest connection; which nearly all modern video cards and motherboards have this connection. Before PCI-E was used, AGP was the standard connection for video cards. Before AGP, video cards were designed for PCI (sometimes called \"regular\" PCI).\n\nHistory\nIn early computing years, graphics processing was very basic and could be done by the CPU along with all the other processing. However, as computer games advanced and started using 3D graphics, the CPU had too much to do and CPU-makers could not keep up on making them faster.  Eventually, video cards, with their own GPU, were invented to solve this problem.  This lets the CPU do more of its own work since it does not have to spend any time on advanced graphics calculations; it can simply pass these calculations off to the GPU to be done.\n\nThe first video cards connected to the motherboard via the ISA connection.  The first popular non-IBM video cards were manufactured by a company called Hercules Computer Technology, Inc. Throughout the years, the importance of video cards has grown. As they evolved, a new connection standard was developed called Advanced Graphics Port (AGP). This was the first motherboard connection designed exclusively for video cards. It was much faster at transferring information between the video card and the rest of the computer. Eventually, the AGP connection became outdated, and a new connection, called PCI Express (PCI-E), became the standard for video cards. Most video cards manufactured today use PCI-E to connect to the motherboard.\n\nGraphics cards","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":140,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":5,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":99079,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Video%20card","title":"Video card","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In cooking, a sauce is a liquid mixture added to another food for flavour. Sauces are not normally eaten by themselves; they add flavour, moisture, and visual appeal to another dish. Sauces are an essential element in cuisines all over the world.\n\nThe main sauces of French cuisine are built on a basis of roux, which is just flour and the liquid part of butter. Examples from Italian cuisine are the egg, cheese and ham sauce called Carbonara; the ground meat sauce called bolognese, and the herbs and garlic sauce called pesto.\n\nBottled sauces can be poured over food when it is served. An example would be the tomato-based sauce that is usually poured over spaghetti. Gravy is a brown sauce served with meat.\n\nSauce is a French word taken from the Latin salsus, meaning salted. Possibly the oldest sauce recorded is garum, the fish sauce used by the Romans.\n\nSauces need a liquid component, but some sauces (for example, pico de gallo salsa or chutney) may contain more solid elements than liquid.\n\nSauces may be used for savoury dishes or for desserts. They can be prepared and served cold, like mayonnaise, prepared cold but served lukewarm like pesto, or can be cooked like bechamel and served warm or again cooked and served cold like apple sauce.\n\nSome sauces are commercial products like Worcestershire sauce, HP sauce, soy sauce or ketchup. In French cuisine they are freshly prepared by the chef. Sauces for salads are called salad dressing. A cook who specializes in making sauces is a saucier.\n\nFrench cuisine\n\nSauces in French cuisine date back to the Middle Ages. There were hundreds of sauces in the culinary repertoire, and were a major defining characteristic of French cooking of the 19th and 20th centuries, until nouvelle cuisine.\n\nIn the 19th century, the chef Antonin Car\u00eame classified sauces into four families, each of which was based on a mother sauce (Also called grandes sauces). Car\u00eame's four mother sauces were:\n B\u00e9chamel, based on milk, thickened with a white roux.\n Espagnole, based on brown stock (usually veal), thickened with a brown roux.\n Velout\u00e9, based on a white stock, thickened with a blonde roux.\n Allemande, based on velout\u00e9 sauce, is thickened with egg yolks and heavy cream.\n\nIn the early 20th century, the chef Auguste Escoffier updated this classification to five mother sauces. They are:\n Sauce B\u00e9chamel, Milk based sauce, thickened with a white roux.\n Sauce Velout\u00e9, White stock based sauce, thickened with a roux or a liaison.\n Sauce Tomate, Tomato based sauce, thickened with a roux.\n Sauce Espagnole, Roasted veal stock based sauce, thickened with a brown roux.\n Sauce Hollandaise, an emulsion of egg yolk, butter and lemon juice or vinegar. B\u00e9arnaise sauce (sauce b\u00e9arnaise) is a \"child\" of hollandaise, meaning it is a variation on the theme.\n\nA sauce which is based on one of the mother sauces is sometimes called a small sauce, minor sauce, or secondary sauce. Most sauces commonly used in classical cuisine are small sauces, or derivatives of one of the above-mentioned mother sauces.\n\nMother sauces are not commonly served as they are; instead they are augmented with additional ingredients to make small (derivative) sauces. For example, Bechamel can be made into Mornay by the addition of Gruy\u00e8re or any cheese one may like, and Espagnole becomes Bordelaise with the addition and reduction of red wine, shallots, and poached beef marrow.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":19928,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sauce","title":"Sauce","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A natural satellite in astronomy is a smaller body which moves around a larger body. The smaller body is held in orbit by gravitation. The term is used for moons which go around planets, and it is also used for small galaxies which orbit larger galaxies.\n\nBodies which orbit planets are called moons. They vary in size. The Earth has only one moon. Some other planets have many moons, and some have none. When people write just \"the moon\", they are usually talking about the moon of the Earth. Earth's moon is written with a capital letter, Moon. The Latin word for the moon is luna, which is why the adjective used to talk about the moon is \"lunar\". For example, lunar eclipse.\n\nAnything that goes around a planet is called a satellite. Moons are natural satellites. People also use rockets to send machines into orbit around the Earth. These machines are called artificial (man-made) satellites.\n\nEarth's moon\n\nMoons do not make their own light. We can see the Earth's moon because it acts like a mirror, and reflects the light of the Sun.  The same half of the moon faces toward Earth at all times, no matter where it moves. This effect is called tidal locking. But different parts of the moon are lit up by the Sun, so it looks different at different times of the month. This change as seen from Earth is called the phases of the moon, or lunar phases.\n\nA moon's cycle is the time the moon takes to change from looking very bright and round to looking very small and thin, and then back to bright and round again. In the case of the Earth's moon, this is about four weeks. It does this about 13 times in one year. The moon's cycle is about 28 days, a bit shorter than a calendar month.\n\nThe Apollo 11 mission helped Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first people to walk on the Moon. They did this on July 20, 1969.\n\nOrbits\nThe orbit of a moon or other satellite is affected by two forces: gravity, and the centripetal force.\nFor example, the Earth's moon is kept in orbit by the gravitational pull from the Earth. This is also the way the Earth is attracted to the Sun, and stays in its orbit. The orbit of the Earth's moon actually causes the tides and waves on Earth.\n\nMoons of moons\n\nNo moons that belong to moons have been found. In most cases, the tidal effects of the main body would make such a system unstable.\n\nHowever, calculations completed after the recent finding  of a possible ring system around Saturn's moon Rhea show that Rhean orbits would be stable. The rings are thought to be narrow, something that is known with shepherd moons.\n\nAsteroid moons\nThe finding of 243 Ida's moon Dactyl in the early 1990s was the proof that some asteroids have moons; indeed, 87 Sylvia has two. Some, such as 90 Antiope, are double asteroids with two same-sized parts.\n\nMoons of the Solar System\nThe biggest moons in the Solar System (those bigger than about 3000\u00a0km across) are Earth's moon, Jupiter's Galilean moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto), Saturn's moon Titan, and Neptune's captured moon Triton.\n\nThe following is a table grouping the moons of the solar system by diameter. The column on the right has some notable planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, and Trans-Neptunian Objects for comparing.  It is normal for moons to be named after people from mythology.\n\nPlanets that have moons\nPlanets in our Solar System that have moon(s):\n Earth, 1 moon\n Mars, 2 moons\n Jupiter, 92 moons\n Saturn, 83 moons\n Uranus, 27 moons\n Neptune, 14 moons\n\nDwarf planets that have moons\n Orcus, 1 moon\n Pluto, 5 moons\n Haumea, 2 moons\n Quaoar, 1 moon\n Makemake, 1 moon\n Gonggong, 1 moon\n Eris, 1 moon\n\nPlanets not known to have moons\nPlanets in our Solar System that do not have moons:\n Mercury\n Venus\n Ceres\n Sedna\n\nGalaxies \nGalaxies are found in groups called galaxy clusters which are also held together by gravitation. Our own Milky Way is the second largest galaxy in our Local Group (the largest is Andromeda). Many smaller galaxies and star clusters are also held in the Local Group, outside the two main galaxies. They are all in orbits round one of the centres of gravity. That means most of them move round either Andromeda or the Milky Way. so it seems natural for astronomers to use the term 'satellite' for these as well.\n\nOur Local Group is itself part of an even larger group, the Virgo Supercluster. There are other, even larger, groups of galaxies: see the Great Wall for an example.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":202,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":4,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3}},"id":2900,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural%20satellite","title":"Natural satellite","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, the era covers the history of Indigenous cultures until significant influence by Europeans. This may have occurred decades or even centuries after Columbus for certain cultures.\n\nMany pre-Columbian civilizations were marked by permanent settlements, cities, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, major earthworks, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first permanent European colonies (\u2013early 17th centuries), and are known only through archaeological investigations and oral history. Other civilizations were contemporary with the colonial period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their written records. Because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as pagan, men like Diego de Landa burned them, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few hidden documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge.\n\nMany Indigenous peoples in the Americas continue traditional practices while evolving and adapting to the modern world.\n\nThe alternative terms precontact, pre-colonial, or prehistoric Americas are also used; in Hispanic America, the usual term is pre-Hispanic; in Brazil, the term used is pre-Cabraline.\n\nHistoriography\nBefore the development of archaeology in the 19th century, historians of the pre-Columbian period mainly interpreted the records of the European conquerors and the accounts of early European travelers and antiquaries. It was not until the nineteenth century that the work of people such as John Lloyd Stephens, Eduard Seler, and Alfred Maudslay, and institutions such as the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of Harvard University, led to the reconsideration and criticism of the early European sources. Now, the scholarly study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific and multidisciplinary methodologies.\n\nGenetics\n\nThe haplogroup most commonly associated with Indigenous genetics is Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA). Researchers have found genetic evidence that the Q1a3a haplogroup has been in South America since at least 18,000 BC. Y-DNA, like mtDNA, differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This has the effect that the historical pattern of mutations can easily be studied. The pattern indicates Indigenous peoples experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes: first with the initial peopling of the Americas and second with European colonization of the Americas. The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous populations.\n\nHuman settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from the Bering Sea coastline, with an initial 20,000-year layover on Beringia for the founding population. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicate that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region. The Na-Den\u00e9, Inuit, and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q-M242 (Y-DNA) mutations, however, and are distinct from other Indigenous peoples with various mtDNA mutations. This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later populations.\n\nSettlement of the Americas\n\nAsian nomadic Paleo-Indians are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge (Beringia), now the Bering Strait, and possibly along the coast. Genetic evidence found in Indigenous peoples' maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. After crossing the land bridge, they moved southward along the Pacific coast and through an interior ice-free corridor. Throughout millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout the rest of North and South America.\n\nExactly when the first people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago. However, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago. The chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the Americas occurring no earlier than 14,000\u201317,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at a much earlier date, possibly 50,000\u201340,000 years ago or earlier.\n\nArtifacts have been found in both North and South America which have been dated to 14,000 years ago, and accordingly humans have been proposed to have reached Cape Horn at the southern tip of South America by this time. In that case, the Inuit would have arrived separately and at a much later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago, moving across the ice from Siberia into Alaska.\n\nNorth America\n\nLithic and Archaic periods\n\nThe North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded during the Lithic stage. It finally stabilized about 10,000 years ago; climatic conditions were then very similar to today's. Within this time frame, roughly about the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified.\n\nLithic stage and early Archaic period\nThe unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The Paleo-Indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family. These groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon and ancient bison. Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools, including distinctive projectile points and knives, as well as less distinctive butchering and hide-scraping implements.\n\nThe vastness of the North American continent, and the variety of its climates, ecology, vegetation, fauna, and landforms, led ancient peoples to coalesce into many distinct linguistic and cultural groups. This is reflected in the oral histories of the indigenous peoples, described by a wide range of traditional creation stories which often say that a given people have been living in a certain territory since the creation of the world.\n\nThroughout thousands of years, paleo-Indian people domesticated, bred, and cultivated many plant species, including crops that now constitute 50\u201360% of worldwide agriculture. In general, Arctic, Subarctic, and coastal peoples continued to live as hunters and gatherers, while agriculture was adopted in more temperate and sheltered regions, permitting a dramatic rise in population.\n\nMiddle Archaic period\nAfter the migration or migrations, it was several thousand years before the first complex societies arose, the earliest emerging about seven to eight thousand years ago. As early as 6500 BCE, people in the Lower Mississippi Valley at the Monte Sano site were building complex earthwork mounds, probably for religious purposes. This is the earliest dated of numerous mound complexes found in present-day Louisiana, Mississippi, and Florida. Since the late twentieth century, archeologists have explored and dated these sites. They have found that they were built by hunter-gatherer societies, whose people occupied the sites on a seasonal basis, and who had not yet developed ceramics. Watson Brake, a large complex of eleven platform mounds, was constructed beginning in 3400 BCE and added to over 500 years. This has changed earlier assumptions that complex construction arose only after societies had adopted agriculture, and become sedentary, with stratified hierarchy and usually ceramics. These ancient people had organized to build complex mound projects under a different social structure.\n\nLate Archaic period\n\nUntil the accurate dating of Watson Brake and similar sites, the oldest mound complex was thought to be Poverty Point, also located in the Lower Mississippi Valley. Built about 1500 BCE, it is the centerpiece of a culture extending over 100 sites on both sides of the Mississippi. The Poverty Point site has earthworks in the form of six concentric half-circles, divided by radial aisles, together with some mounds. The entire complex is nearly a mile across.\n\nMound building was continued by succeeding cultures, who built numerous sites in the middle Mississippi and Ohio River valleys as well, adding effigy mounds, conical and ridge mounds, and other shapes.\n\nWoodland period\n\nThe Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures lasted from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. The term was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures. The Adena culture and the ensuing Hopewell tradition during this period built monumental earthwork architecture and established continent-spanning trade and exchange networks.\n\nThis period is considered a developmental stage without any massive changes in a short period but instead has a continuous development in stone and bone tools, leatherworking, textile manufacture, tool production, cultivation, and shelter construction. Some Woodland people continued to use spears and atlatls until the end of the period when they were replaced by bows and arrows.\n\nMississippian culture\n\nThe Mississippian culture was spread across the Southeast and Midwest from the Atlantic coast to the edge of the plains, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Upper Midwest, although most intensively in the area along the Mississippi River and Ohio River. One of the distinguishing features of this culture was the construction of complexes of large earthen mounds and grand plazas, continuing the mound-building traditions of earlier cultures. They grew maize and other crops intensively, participated in an extensive trade network, and had a complex stratified society. The Mississippians first appeared around 1000 CE, following and developing out of the less agriculturally intensive and less centralized Woodland period. The largest urban site of these people, Cahokia\u2014located near modern East St. Louis, Illinois\u2014may have reached a population of over 20,000. Other chiefdoms were constructed throughout the Southeast, and its trade networks reached to the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico. At its peak, between the 12th and 13th centuries, Cahokia was the most populous city in North America. (Larger cities did exist in Mesoamerica and South America.) Monks Mound, the major ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric Americas. The culture reached its peak in about 1200\u20131400 CE, and in most places, it seems to have been in decline before the arrival of Europeans.\n\nMany Mississippian peoples were encountered by the expedition of Hernando de Soto in the 1540s, mostly with disastrous results for both sides. Unlike the Spanish expeditions in Mesoamerica, which conquered vast empires with relatively few men, the de Soto expedition wandered the American Southeast for four years, becoming more bedraggled, losing more men and equipment, and eventually arriving in Mexico as a fraction of its original size. The local people fared much worse though, as the fatalities of diseases introduced by the expedition devastated the populations and produced much social disruption. By the time Europeans returned a hundred years later, nearly all of the Mississippian groups had vanished, and vast swaths of their territory were virtually uninhabited.\n\nAncestral Puebloans \n\nThe Ancestral Puebloans thrived in what is now the Four Corners region in the United States. It is commonly suggested that the culture of the Ancestral Puebloans emerged during the Early Basketmaker II Era during the 12th century BCE. The Ancestral Puebloans were a complex Oasisamerican society that constructed kivas, multi-story houses, and apartment blocks made from stone and adobe, such as the Cliff Palace of Mesa Verde National Park in Colorado and the Great Houses in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. The Puebloans also constructed a road system that stretched from Chaco Canyon to Kutz Canyon in the San Juan Basin. The Ancestral Puebloans are also known as \"Anasazi\", though the term is controversial, as the present-day Pueblo peoples consider the term to be derogatory, due to the word tracing its origins to a Navajo word meaning \"ancestor enemies\".\n\nHohokam \n\nThe Hohokam thrived in the Sonoran desert in what is now the U.S. state of Arizona and the Mexican state of Sonora. The Hohokam were responsible for the construction of a series of irrigation canals that led to the successful establishment of Phoenix, Arizona via the Salt River Project. The Hohokam also established complex settlements such as Snaketown, which served as an important commercial trading center. After 1375 CE, Hohokam society collapsed and the people abandoned their settlements, likely due to drought.\n\nMogollon \n\nThe Mogollon resided in the present-day states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas as well as Sonora and Chihuahua. Like most other cultures in Oasisamerica, the Mogollon constructed sophisticated kivas and cliff dwellings. In the village of Paquim\u00e9, the Mogollon are revealed to have housed pens for scarlet macaws, which were introduced from Mesoamerica through trade.\n\nSinagua \n\nThe Sinagua were hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists who lived in central Arizona. Like the Hohokam, they constructed kivas and great houses as well as ballcourts. Several of the Sinagua ruins include Montezuma Castle, Wupatki, and Tuzigoot.\n\nSalado \n\nThe Salado resided in the Tonto Basin in southeastern Arizona from 1150 CE to the 15th century. Archaeological evidence suggests that they traded with far-away cultures, as evidenced by the presence of seashells from the Gulf of California and macaw feathers from Mexico. Most of the cliff dwellings constructed by the Salado are primarily located in Tonto National Monument.\n\nIroquois \n\nThe Iroquois League of Nations or \"People of the Long House\" was a politically advanced, democratic society, which is thought by some historians to have influenced the United States Constitution, with the Senate passing a resolution to this effect in 1988. Other historians have contested this interpretation and believe the impact was minimal or did not exist, pointing to numerous differences between the two systems and the ample precedents for the constitution in European political thought.\n\nCalusa \n\nThe Calusa were a complex paramountcy\/kingdom that resided in southern Florida. Instead of agriculture, the Calusa economy relied on abundant fishing. According to Spanish sources, the \"king's house\" at Mound Key was large enough to house 2,000 people. The Calusa ultimately collapsed into extinction at around 1750 after succumbing to diseases introduced by the Spanish colonists.\n\nWichita \n\nThe Wichita people were a loose confederation that consisted of sedentary agriculturalists and hunter-gatherers who resided in the eastern Great Plains. They lived in permanent settlements and even established a city called Etzanoa, which had a population of 20,000 people. The city was eventually abandoned around the 18th century after it was encountered by Spanish conquistadors Jusepe Gutierrez and Juan de O\u00f1ate.\n\nHistoric tribes\nWhen the Europeans arrived, Indigenous peoples of North America had a wide range of lifeways from sedentary, agrarian societies to semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer societies. Many formed new tribes or confederations in response to European colonization. These are often classified by cultural regions, loosely based on geography. These can include the following:\n Arctic, including Aleut, Inuit, and Yupik peoples\n Subarctic\n Northeastern Woodlands\n Southeastern Woodlands\n Great Plains\n Great Basin\n Northwest Plateau\n Northwest Coast\n California\n Southwest\n\nNumerous pre-Columbian societies were sedentary, such as the Tlingit, Haida, Chumash, Mandan, Hidatsa, and others, and some established large settlements, even cities, such as Cahokia, in what is now Illinois.\n\nMesoamerica\n\nMesoamerica is the region extending from central Mexico south to the northwestern border of Costa Rica that gave rise to a group of stratified, culturally related agrarian civilizations spanning an approximately 3,000-year period before the visits to the Caribbean by Christopher Columbus. Mesoamerican is the adjective generally used to refer to that group of pre-Columbian cultures. This refers to an environmental area occupied by an assortment of ancient cultures that shared religious beliefs, art, architecture, and technology in the Americas for more than three thousand years. Between 2000 and 300 BCE, complex cultures began to form in Mesoamerica. Some matured into advanced pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Olmec, Teotihuacan, Mayas, Zapotecs, Mixtecs, Huastecs, Purepecha, Toltecs, and Mexica\/Aztecs. The Mexica civilization is also known as the Aztec Triple Alliance since they were three smaller kingdoms loosely united together.\n\nThese Indigenous civilizations are credited with many inventions: building pyramid temples, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, writing, highly accurate calendars, fine arts, intensive agriculture, engineering, an abacus calculator, and complex theology. They also invented the wheel, but it was used solely as a toy. In addition, they used native copper, silver, and gold for metalworking.\n\nArchaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern Mexico (especially in the state of Nuevo Le\u00f3n) demonstrate an early propensity for counting. Their number system was base 20 and included zero. These early count markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore the influence that astronomical activities had upon Mesoamerican people before the arrival of Europeans. Many of the later Mesoamerican civilizations carefully built their cities and ceremonial centers according to specific astronomical events.\n\nThe biggest Mesoamerican cities, such as Teotihuacan, Tenochtitlan, and Cholula, were among the largest in the world. These cities grew as centers of commerce, ideas, ceremonies, and theology, and they radiated influence outwards onto neighboring cultures in central Mexico.\n\nWhile many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and prestige, Mesoamerica can be said to have had five major civilizations: the Olmecs, Teotihuacan, the Toltecs, the Mexica, and the Mayas. These civilizations (except for the politically fragmented Maya) extended their reach across Mesoamerica\u2014and beyond\u2014like no others. They consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and theology. Other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these civilizations over 4,000 years. Many made war with them, but almost all peoples found themselves within one of their spheres of influence.\n\nRegional communications in ancient Mesoamerica have been the subject of considerable research. There is evidence of trade routes starting as far north as the Mexico Central Plateau, and going down to the Pacific coast. These trade routes and cultural contacts then went on as far as Central America. These networks operated with various interruptions from pre-Olmec times and up to the Late Classical Period (600\u2013900 CE).\n\nOlmec civilization\n\nThe earliest known civilization in Mesoamerica is the Olmec. This civilization established the cultural blueprint by which all succeeding indigenous civilizations would follow in Mexico. Pre-Olmec civilization began with the production of pottery in abundance, around 2300 BCE in the Grijalva River delta. Between 1600 and 1500 BCE, the Olmec civilization had begun, with the consolidation of power at their capital, a site today known as San Lorenzo Tenochtitl\u00e1n near the coast in southeast Veracruz. The Olmec influence extended across Mexico, into Central America, and along the Gulf of Mexico. They transformed many peoples' thinking toward a new way of government, pyramid temples, writing, astronomy, art, mathematics, economics, and religion. Their achievements paved the way for the Maya civilization and the civilizations in central Mexico.\n\nTeotihuacan civilization\n\nThe decline of the Olmec resulted in a power vacuum in Mexico. Emerging from that vacuum was Teotihuacan, first settled in 300 BCE. By 150 CE, Teotihuacan had risen to become the first true metropolis of what is now called North America. Teotihuacan established a new economic and political order never before seen in Mexico. Its influence stretched across Mexico into Central America, founding new dynasties in the Maya cities of Tikal, Copan, and Kaminaljuy\u00fa. Teotihuacan's influence over the Maya civilization cannot be overstated: it transformed political power, artistic depictions, and the nature of economics. Within the city of Teotihuacan was a diverse and cosmopolitan population. Most of the regional ethnicities of Mexico were represented in the city, such as Zapotecs from the Oaxaca region. They lived in apartment communities where they worked their trades and contributed to the city's economic and cultural prowess. Teotihuacan's economic pull impacted areas in northern Mexico as well. It was a city whose monumental architecture reflected a monumental new era in Mexican civilization, declining in political power about 650 CE\u2014but lasting in cultural influence for the better part of a millennium, to around 950 CE.\n\nMaya civilization\n\nContemporary Teotihuacan's greatness was that of the Maya civilization. The period between 250 CE and 650 CE was a time of intense flourishing of Maya civilized accomplishments. While the many Maya city-states never achieved political unity on the order of the central Mexican civilizations, they exerted tremendous intellectual influence upon Mexico and Central America. The Maya built some of the most elaborate cities on the continent and made innovations in mathematics, astronomy, and calendrics. The Maya also developed the only true writing system native to the Americas using pictographs and syllabic elements in the form of texts and codices inscribed on stone, pottery, wood, or perishable books made from bark paper.\n\nHuastec civilization \n\nThe Huastecs were a Maya ethnic group that migrated northwards to the Gulf Coast of Mexico. The Huastecs are considered to be distinct from the Maya civilization, as they separated from the main Maya branch at around 2000 BC and did not possess the Maya script. Other accounts also suggest that the Huastecs migrated as a result of the Classic Maya collapse around the year 900 AD.\n\nZapotec civilization \n\nThe Zapotecs were a civilization that thrived in the Oaxaca Valley from the late 6th century BC until their downfall at the hands of the Spanish conquistadors. The city of Monte Alb\u00e1n was an important religious center for the Zapotecs and served as the capital of the empire from 700 BCE to 700 CE. The Zapotecs resisted the expansion of the Aztecs until they were subjugated in 1502 under Aztec emperor Ahuitzotl. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, the Zapotecs resisted Spanish rule until King Cosijopii I surrendered in 1563.\n\nMixtec civilization \n\nLike the Zapotecs, the Mixtecs thrived in the Oaxaca Valley. The Mixtecs consisted of separate independent kingdoms and city-states, rather than a single unified empire. The Mixtecs would eventually be conquered by the Aztecs until the Spanish conquest. The Mixtecs saw the Spanish conquest as an opportunity for liberation and established agreements with the conquistadors that allowed them to preserve their cultural traditions, though relatively few sections resisted Spanish rule.\n\nTotonac civilization \n\nThe Totonac civilization was concentrated in the present-day states of Veracruz and Puebla. The Totonacs were responsible for the establishment of cities, such as El Taj\u00edn as important commercial trading centers. The Totonacs would later assist in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire as an opportunity to liberate themselves from Aztec military imperialism.\n\nToltec civilization \n\nThe Toltec civilization was established in the 8th century CE. The Toltec Empire expanded its political borders to as far south as the Yucat\u00e1n peninsula, including the Maya city of Chichen Itza. The Toltecs established vast trading relations with other Mesoamerican civilizations in Central America and the Puebloans in present-day New Mexico. During the Post-Classic era, the Toltecs suffered a subsequent collapse in the early 12th century, due to famine and civil war. The Toltec civilization was so influential to the point where many groups such as the Aztecs claimed to be descended from.\n\nAztec\/Mexica\/Triple Alliance civilization\n\nWith the decline of the Toltec civilization came political fragmentation in the Valley of Mexico. Into this new political game of contenders to the Toltec throne stepped outsiders: the Mexica. They were also a desert people, one of seven groups who formerly called themselves \"Azteca\", in memory of Aztl\u00e1n, but they changed their name after years of migrating. Since they were not from the Valley of Mexico, they were initially seen as crude and unrefined in the ways of the Nahua civilization. Through political maneuvers and ferocious martial skills, they managed to rule Mexico as the head of the 'Triple Alliance' which included two other Aztec cities, Tetxcoco and Tlacopan.\n\nLatecomers to Mexico's central plateau, the Mexica thought of themselves, nevertheless, as heirs of the civilizations that had preceded them. For them, arts, sculpture, architecture, engraving, feather-mosaic work, and the calendar, were bequest from the former inhabitants of Tula, the Toltecs.\n\nThe Mexica-Aztecs were the rulers of much of central Mexico by about 1400 (while Yaquis, Coras, and Apaches commanded sizable regions of northern desert), having subjugated most of the other regional states by the 1470s. At their peak, the Valley of Mexico where the Aztec Empire presided, saw a population growth that included nearly 1 million people during the late Aztec period (1350\u20131519).\n\nTheir capital, Tenochtitlan, is the site of modern-day Mexico City. At its peak, it was one of the largest cities in the world with population estimates of 200,000\u2013300,000. The market established there was the largest ever seen by the conquistadores on arrival.\n\nTarascan\/Purepecha civilization\n\nInitially, the lands that would someday comprise the lands of the powerful Tarascan Empire were inhabited by several independent communities. Around 1300, however, the first Cazonci, Tariacuri, united these communities and built them into one of the most advanced civilizations in Mesoamerica. Their capital at Tzintzuntzan was just one of the many cities\u2014there were ninety more under its control. The Tarascan Empire was among the largest in Central America, so it is no surprise that they routinely came into conflict with the neighboring Aztec Empire. Out of all the civilizations in its area, the Tarascan Empire was the most prominent in metallurgy, harnessing copper, silver, and gold to create items such as tools, decorations, and even weapons and armor. Bronze was also used. The great victories over the Aztecs by the Tarascans cannot be understated. Nearly every war they fought in resulted in a Tarascan victory. Because the Tarascan Empire had little links to the former Toltec Empire, they were also quite independent in culture from their neighbors. The Aztecs, Tlaxcaltec, Olmec, Mixtec, Maya, and others were very similar to each other, however. This is because they were all directly preceded by the Toltecs, and they therefore shared almost identical cultures. The Tarascans, however, possessed a unique religion, as well as other things.\n\nTlaxcala republic \n\nTlaxcala was a Nahua republic and confederation in central Mexico. The Tlaxcalans fiercely resisted Aztec expansion during the Flower Wars ever since the Aztecs expelled them from Lake Texcoco. The Tlaxcalans would later ally with the Spanish conquistadors under Hern\u00e1n Cort\u00e9s as an opportunity to liberate them from the Aztecs and managed to successfully conquer the Aztecs with the help of the conquistadors. The Spaniards would reward the Tlaxcalans for preserving their culture and for their assistance in defeating the Aztecs. The Tlaxcalans would once again assist to the Spaniards during the Mixt\u00f3n War and the conquest of Guatemala.\n\nCuzcatlan \n\nCuzcatlan was a Pipil confederacy of kingdoms and city-states located in present-day El Salvador. According to legend, Cuzcatlan was established by Toltec migrants during the Classic Maya collapse in approximately 1200 AD. During the Spanish conquest of El Salvador, Cuzcatlan was forced to surrender to conquistador Pedro de Alvarado in 1528.\n\nLenca \n\nThe Lenca people were composed of several distinct multilingual confederations and city-states in present-day El Salvador and Honduras. Cities such as Yarumela were important commercial centers for the Lenca. During the Spanish conquest, several Lenca leaders such as Lempira resisted conversion to Christianity, while others converted peacefully.\n\nNicarao \n\nAn offshoot of the Pipil people from El Salvador, the Nicarao people were a tribal confederation that flourished in present-day Nicaragua. The migration of the Nicarao is theorized to have led to the fall of the city of Teotihuacan and the Toltec city of Tula. The Nicarao civilization was disestablished during the Spanish conquest of Nicaragua in 1522.\n\nNicoya kingdom \n\nThe Nicoya kingdom was an elective monarchy that thrived in the Nicoya peninsula in Costa Rica. It existed from 800 CE until THE Spanish arrival in the 16th century.\n\nSouth America \n\nBy the first millennium, South America's vast rainforests, mountains, plains, and coasts were the home of millions of people. Estimates vary, but 30\u201350 million are often given, and 100 million by some estimates. Some groups formed permanent settlements. Among those groups were Chibcha-speaking peoples (\"Muisca\" or \"Muysca\"), Valdivia, Quimbaya, Calima, Marajoara culture, and the Tairona. The Muisca of Colombia, postdating the Herrera Period, Valdivia of Ecuador, the Quechuas, and the Aymara of Peru and Bolivia were the four most important sedentary Amerindian groups in South America. Since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, Brazil, supporting Spanish accounts of complex and ancient Amazonian civilizations, such as Kuhikugu.\n\nThe theory of pre-Columbian contact across the South Pacific Ocean between South America and Polynesia has received support from several lines of evidence, although solid confirmation remains elusive. A diffusion by human agents has been put forward to explain the pre-Columbian presence in Oceania of several cultivated plant species native to South America, such as the bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) or sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). Direct archaeological evidence for such pre-Columbian contacts and transport has not emerged. Similarities noted in the names of edible roots in Maori and Ecuadorian languages (\"kumari\") and Melanesian and Chilean (\"gaddu\") have been inconclusive.\n\nA 2007 paper published in PNAS put forward DNA and archaeological evidence that domesticated chickens had been introduced into South America via Polynesia by late pre-Columbian times. These findings were challenged by a later study published in the same journal, that cast doubt on the dating calibration used and presented alternative mtDNA analyses that disagreed with a Polynesian genetic origin. The origin and dating remain an open issue. Whether or not early Polynesian\u2013American exchanges occurred, no compelling human-genetic, archaeological, cultural, or linguistic legacy of such contact has turned up.\n\nNorte Chico civilization\n\nOn the north-central coast of present-day Peru, Norte Chico or Caral (as known in Peru) was a civilization that emerged around 3000 BCE (contemporary with urbanism's rise in Mesopotamia). It had a cluster of large-scale urban settlements of which the Sacred City of Caral, in the Supe Valley, is one of the largest and best-studied sites. The civilization did not know machinery or pottery but still managed to develop trade, especially cotton and dehydrated fish. It was a hierarchical society that managed its ecosystems and had intercultural exchange. Its economy was heavily dependent on agriculture and fishing on the nearby coast. It is considered one of the cradles of civilization in the world and Caral is the oldest known civilization in the Americas.\n\nValdivia culture\n\nThe Valdivia culture was concentrated on the coast of Ecuador. Their existence was recently discovered by archeological findings. Their culture is among the oldest found in the Americas, spanning from 3500 to 1800 BCE. The Valdivia lived in a community of houses built in a circle or oval around a central plaza. They were sedentary people who lived off farming and fishing, though occasionally they hunted for deer. From the remains that have been found, scholars have determined that Valdivians cultivated maize, kidney beans, squash, cassava, chili peppers, and cotton plants, the last of which was used to make clothing. Valdivian pottery initially was rough and practical, but it became showy, delicate, and big over time. They generally used red and gray colors, and the polished dark red pottery is characteristic of the Valdivia period. In its ceramics and stone works, the Valdivia culture shows a progression from the most simple to much more complicated works.\n\nCa\u00f1ari people\n\nThe Ca\u00f1ari were the indigenous natives of today's Ecuadorian provinces of Ca\u00f1ar and Azuay. They were an elaborate civilization with advanced architecture and complex religious beliefs. The Inca destroyed and burned most of their remains. The Ca\u00f1ari's old city was replaced twice, first by the Incan city of Tumebamba and later on the same site by the colonial city of Cuenca. The city was also believed to be the site of El Dorado, the city of gold from the mythology of Colombia.\n\nThe Ca\u00f1ari were most notable for having repelled the Incan invasion with fierce resistance for many years until they fell to Tupac Yupanqui. Many of their descendants are still present in Ca\u00f1ar. The majority did not mix with the colonists or become Mestizos.\n\nChav\u00edn civilization\n\nThe Chav\u00edn, a Peruvian preliterate civilization, established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BCE, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chav\u00edn in modern Peru at an elevation of . The Chav\u00edn civilization spanned from 900 to 300 BCE.\n\nMuisca confederation \n\nThe Chibcha-speaking communities were the most numerous, the most territorially extended and the most socio-economically developed of the pre-Hispanic Colombians. By the 8th century, the indigenous people had established their civilization in the northern Andes. At one point, the Chibchas occupied part of what is now Panama, and the high plains of the Eastern Sierra of Colombia.\n\nThe areas that they occupied in Colombia were the present-day Departments of Santander (North and South), Boyac\u00e1, and Cundinamarca. This is where the first farms and industries were developed. It is also where the independence movement originated. They are currently the richest areas in Colombia. The Chibcha developed the most populous zone between the Maya region and the Inca Empire. Next to the Quechua of Peru and the Aymara in Bolivia, the Chibcha of the eastern and north-eastern Highlands of Colombia developed the most notable culture among the sedentary Indigenous peoples in South America.\n\nIn the Colombian Andes, the Chibcha comprised several tribes who spoke similar languages (Chibcha). They included the following: the Muisca, Guane, Lache, Cof\u00e1n, and Chitareros.\n\nTairona confederation \n\nThe Tairona civilization thrived in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range in northern Colombia. Studies suggest that the civilization thrived from the 1st century CE until the Spanish arrival in the 16th century. The descendants of the Tairona, such as the Kogi were one of the few indigenous groups in the Americas to have escaped full colonial conquest and retain a majority of their indigenous cultures.\n\nMoche civilization\n\nThe Moche thrived on the north coast of Peru from about 100 to 800 CE. The heritage of the Moche is seen in their elaborate burials. Some were recently excavated by UCLA's Christopher B. Donnan in association with the National Geographic Society.\n\nAs skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people. They traded with distant peoples such as the Maya. What has been learned about the Moche is based on the study of their ceramic pottery; the carvings reveal details of their daily lives. The Larco Museum of Lima, Peru, has an extensive collection of such ceramics. They show that the people practiced human sacrifice, had blood-drinking rituals and that their religion incorporated non-procreative sexual practices (such as fellatio).\n\nWari Empire \n\nThe Wari Empire was located in the western portion of Peru and existed from the 6th century to the 11th century. Wari, as the former capital city was called, is located 11 km (6.8 mi) northeast of the city of Ayacucho. This city was the center of a civilization that covered much of the highlands and coast of Peru. The best-preserved remnants, besides the Wari Ruins, are the recently discovered Northern Wari ruins near the city of Chiclayo, and Cerro Baul in Moquegua. Also well-known are the Wari ruins of Pikillaqta (\"Flea Town\"), a short distance southeast of the Cusco en route to Lake Titicaca.\n\nTiwanaku Empire\n\nThe Tiwanaku empire was based in western Bolivia and extended into present-day Peru and Chile from 300 to 1000. Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important South American civilizations before the birth of the Inca Empire in Peru; it was the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five hundred years. The ruins of the ancient city state are near the south-eastern shore of Lake Titicaca in Tiwanaku Municipality, Ingavi Province, La Paz Department, about  west of La Paz.\n\nInca Empire\n\nHolding their capital at the great cougar-shaped city of Cusco, Peru, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantinsuyu, or \"the land of the four regions\", in Quechua, the Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 40,000-kilometer road system. Cities were built with precise stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful brain surgery in the Inca civilization.\n\nAymara kingdoms \n\nThe Aymara kingdoms consisted of a confederation of separate diarchies that lasted from 1151 after the fall of Tiwanaku until 1477 when they were conquered by the Inca Empire. The Aymara kingdoms were primarily located in the Altiplano in Bolivia as well as some parts of Peru and Chile.\n\nArawaks and Caribs\nArcheologists have discovered evidence of the earliest known inhabitants of the Venezuelan area in the form of leaf-shaped flake tools, together with chopping and plano\u2013convex scraping implements exposed on the high riverine terraces of the Pedregal River in western Venezuela. Late Pleistocene hunting artifacts, including spear tips, come from a similar site in northwestern Venezuela known as El Jobo. According to radiocarbon dating, these date from 13,000 to 7000 BCE.\n\nTaima-Taima, yellow Muaco, and El Jobo in Falc\u00f3n are some of the sites that have yielded archeological material from these times. These groups co-existed with megafauna like megatherium, glyptodonts, and toxodonts.\n\nArchaeologists identify a Meso-Indian period from 7000\u20135000 CE to 1000 CE In this period, hunters and gatherers of megafauna started to turn to other food sources and established the first tribal structures.\n\nBeginning around 1000 CE archaeologists speak of the Neo-Indian period, which ends with the European Conquest and Colony period.\n\nIt is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish Conquest; it may have been around a million people, in addition to today's peoples included groups such as the Arawaks, Caribs, and Timoto-cuicas. The number was much reduced after the Conquest, mainly through the spread of new diseases from Europe. There were two main north-south axes of the pre-Columbian population, producing maize in the west and manioc in the east. Large parts of the Llanos plains were cultivated through a combination of slash-and-burn and permanent settled agriculture. The indigenous peoples of Venezuela had already encountered crude oils and asphalts that seeped up through the ground to the surface.  Known to the locals as mene, the thick, black liquid was primarily used for medicinal purposes, as an illumination source, and for the caulking of canoes.\n\nIn the 16th century when Spanish colonization began in Venezuelan territory, the population of several indigenous peoples such as the Mariches (descendants of the Caribes) declined.\n\nDiaguita confederation \n\nThe Diaguita consisted of several distinct chiefdoms across the Argentine Northwest. The Diaguita culture emerged around 1000 CE after the replacement of the Las \u00c1nimas complex. The Diaguita resisted Spanish colonialism during the Calchaqu\u00ed Wars until they were forced to surrender and submit to Spanish rule in 1667.\n\nTa\u00edno \n\nThe Ta\u00edno people were fragmented into numerous chiefdoms across the Greater Antilles, the Lucayan Archipelago, and the northern Lesser Antilles. The Ta\u00edno were the first pre-Columbian people to encounter Christopher Columbus during his voyage in 1492. The Ta\u00edno would later be subject to slavery by the Spanish colonists under the encomienda system until they were deemed virtually extinct in 1565.\n\nHuetar kingdoms \n\nThe Huetar people were a major ethnic group that lived in Costa Rica. The Huetar were composed of several independent kingdoms, such as the western kingdom ruled by Garabito and the eastern kingdom ruled by El Guarco and Correque. After their annexation into Spanish administration, the descendants of the Huetar currently reside in the Quitirris\u00ed reserve.\n\nMarajoara culture \n\nThe Marajoara culture flourished on Maraj\u00f3 Island at the mouth of the Amazon River in northern Brazil between 800 to 1400 CE. The Marajoara consisted of a complex society that built mounds and constructed sophisticated settlements. The indigenous people of the area adopted methods of large-scale agriculture through the use of terra preta, which would support complex chiefdoms. Studies suggest that the civilization housed around 100,000 inhabitants.\n\nKuhikugu \n\nLocated in the Xingu Indigenous Park in Brazil, Kuhikugu consisted of an urban complex that housed around 50,000 inhabitants and 20 settlements. The civilization was likely established by the ancestors of the Kuikuro people. The people also constructed roads, bridges, and trenches for defensive purposes and were purported to be farmers, as evidenced by the fields of cassava and the use of terra preta. Like most other Amazonian civilizations, the disappearance of Kuhikugu was largely attributed to Old World diseases introduced by European colonists.\n\nCambeba\n\nAlso known as the Omagua, Umana, and Kambeba, the Cambeba are an indigenous people in Brazil's Amazon basin. The Cambeba were a populous, organized society in the late pre-Columbian era whose population suffered a steep decline in the early years of the Columbian Exchange. The Spanish explorer Francisco de Orellana traversed the Amazon River during the 16th century and reported densely populated regions running hundreds of kilometers along the river. These populations left no lasting monuments, possibly because they used local wood as their construction material as stone was not locally available. While it is possible Orellana may have exaggerated the level of development among the Amazonians, their semi-nomadic descendants have the odd distinction among tribal indigenous societies of a hereditary, yet landless, aristocracy. Archaeological evidence has revealed the continued presence of semi-domesticated orchards, as well as vast areas of land enriched with terra preta. Both of these discoveries, along with Cambeba ceramics discovered within the same archaeological levels suggest that a large and organized civilization existed in the area.\n\nAgricultural development\n\nEarly inhabitants of the Americas developed agriculture, developing and breeding maize (corn) from ears  in length to the current size that is familiar today. Potatoes, tomatoes, tomatillos (a husked green tomato), pumpkins, chili peppers, squash, beans, pineapple, sweet potatoes, the grains quinoa and amaranth, cocoa beans, vanilla, onion, peanuts, strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, blackberries, papaya, and avocados were among other plants grown by natives. Over two-thirds of all types of food crops grown worldwide are native to the Americas.\n\nEarly Indigenous peoples began using fire in a widespread manner. Intentional burning of vegetation was taken up to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forest understories, thereby making travel easier and facilitating the growth of herbs and berry-producing plants that were important for both food and medicines. This created the pre-Columbian savannas of North America.\n\nWhile not as widespread as in Afro-Eurasia, indigenous Americans did have livestock. Domesticated turkeys were common in Mesoamerica and some regions of North America; they were valued for their meat, feathers, and, possibly, eggs. There is documentation of Mesoamericans utilizing hairless dogs, especially the Xoloitzcuintle breed, for their meat. Andean societies had llamas and alpacas for meat and wool, as well as for beasts of burden. Guinea pigs were raised for meat in the Andes. Iguanas and a range of wild animals, such as deer and pecari, were another source of meat in Mexico, Central, and northern South America.\n\nBy the 15th century, maize had been transmitted from Mexico and was being farmed in the Mississippi embayment, as far as the East Coast of the United States, and as far north as southern Canada. Potatoes were used by the Inca, and chocolate was used by the Aztecs.\n\nSee also\n\n 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus by Charles C. Mann\n Before the Revolution, 2013 book by Daniel K. Richter\n List of pre-Columbian cultures\n Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America\n Periodization of pre-Columbian Peru\n Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas\n Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories\n Pre-Columbian history of Brazil\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n published on July 5, 2019, Quartz\nCollection: \"Pre-Columbian Central and South America\" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art\nAncient American art at the Denver Art Museum\nArt of the Americas at the Cleveland Museum of Art\n\n \n \nHistorical eras","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":157,"dup_dump_count":51,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":6,"2021-21":5,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":6,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":10,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":5,"2019-26":6,"2019-22":5,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":5,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":8,"2018-47":4,"2018-43":6,"2018-34":4,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3}},"id":90001,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pre-Columbian%20era","title":"Pre-Columbian era","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Freedom of speech is the right to state one's opinions and ideas without being stopped or punished. Sometimes this is also called Freedom of expression. Freedom of speech is thought to also include freedom of the press and Freedom of information. However, new laws are usually needed to allow information to be used easily.\nMost people think freedom of speech is necessary for a democratic government. In countries without free speech, people might be afraid to say what they think. Then, the government does not know what the people want. If the government does not know what they want, it cannot respond to their wants. Without free speech, the government does not have to worry as much about doing what the people want. Some people say this is why some governments do not allow free speech: they do not want to be criticised, or they fear there would be revolution if everyone knew everything that was happening in the country.\n\nA well-known liberal thinker, John Stuart Mill, believed that freedom of speech is important because the society that people live in has a right to hear people's ideas. It's not just important because everyone should have a right to express him or herself.\n\nFew countries with \"free speech\" let everything be said. For example, the United States Supreme Court said that it was against the law to shout \"fire\" in a crowded theater if there is no fire, because this might cause people to panic. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights also says that it is not okay to cause national, racial or religious hatred. Also, some countries have laws against hate speech.\n\nAs Tocqueville pointed out, people may be hesitant to speak freely not because of fear of government punishment but because of social pressures.  When an individual announces an unpopular opinion, he or she may face the disdain of their community or even be subjected to violent reactions.  While this type of suppression of speech is even more difficult to prevent than government suppression is, there are questions about whether it truly falls within the ambit of freedom of speech, which is typically regarded as a legal right to be exercised against the government, or immunity from governmental action.\n\nRelated pages\n Free Speech Flag\n Civil and political rights\n\nReferences\n\nHuman rights\nFreedom\nLibertarianism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2}},"id":3711,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freedom%20of%20speech","title":"Freedom of speech","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A reflecting telescope (also called a reflector) is a telescope that uses a single or a combination of curved mirrors that reflect light and form an image. The reflecting telescope was invented in the 17th century by Isaac Newton as an alternative to the refracting telescope which, at that time, was a design that suffered from severe chromatic aberration. Although reflecting telescopes produce other types of optical aberrations, it is a design that allows for very large diameter objectives. Almost all of the major telescopes used in astronomy research are reflectors. Many variant forms are in use and some employ extra optical elements to improve image quality or place the image in a mechanically advantageous position. Since reflecting telescopes use mirrors, the design is sometimes referred to as a catoptric telescope.\n\nFrom the time of Newton to the 1800s, the mirror itself was made of metalusually speculum metal. This type included Newton's first designs and the largest telescope of the 19th century, the Leviathan of Parsonstown with a  wide metal mirror. In the 19th century a new method using a block of glass coated with very thin layer of silver began to become more popular by the turn of the century. Common telescopes which led to the Crossley and Harvard reflecting telescopes, which helped establish a better reputation for reflecting telescopes as the metal mirror designs were noted for their drawbacks. Chiefly the metal mirrors only reflected about  of the light and the metal would tarnish. After multiple polishings and tarnishings, the mirror could lose its precise figuring needed.\n\nReflecting telescopes became extraordinarily popular for astronomy and many famous telescopes, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, and popular amateur models use this design. In addition, the reflection telescope principle was applied to other electromagnetic wavelengths, and for example, X-ray telescopes also use the reflection principle to make image-forming optics.\n\nHistory\n\nThe idea that curved mirrors behave like lenses dates back at least to Alhazen's 11th century treatise on optics, works that had been widely disseminated in Latin translations in early modern Europe. Soon after the invention of the refracting telescope, Galileo, Giovanni Francesco Sagredo, and others, spurred on by their knowledge of the principles of curved mirrors, discussed the idea of building a telescope using a mirror as the image forming objective. There were reports that the Bolognese Cesare Caravaggi had constructed one around 1626 and the Italian professor Niccol\u00f2 Zucchi, in a later work, wrote that he had experimented with a concave bronze mirror in 1616, but said it did not produce a satisfactory image. The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors, primarily reduction of spherical aberration with no chromatic aberration, led to many proposed designs for reflecting telescopes. The most notable being James Gregory, who published an innovative design for a 'reflecting' telescope in 1663. It would be ten years (1673), before the experimental scientist Robert Hooke was able to build this type of telescope, which became known as the Gregorian telescope.\n\nFive years after Gregory designed his telescope and five years before Hooke built the first such Gregorian telescope, Isaac Newton in 1668 built his own reflecting telescope, which is generally acknowledged as the first reflecting telescope. It used a spherically ground metal primary mirror and a small diagonal mirror in an optical configuration that has come to be known as the Newtonian telescope.\n\nDespite the theoretical advantages of the reflector design, the difficulty of construction and the poor performance of the speculum metal mirrors being used at the time meant it took over 100 years for them to become popular. Many of the advances in reflecting telescopes included the perfection of parabolic mirror fabrication in the 18th century, silver coated glass mirrors in the 19th century (built by L\u00e9on Foucault in 1858), long-lasting aluminum coatings in the 20th century, segmented mirrors to allow larger diameters, and active optics to compensate for gravitational deformation. A mid-20th century innovation was catadioptric telescopes such as the Schmidt camera, which use both a spherical mirror and a lens (called a corrector plate) as primary optical elements, mainly used for wide-field imaging without spherical aberration.\n\nThe late 20th century has seen the development of adaptive optics and lucky imaging to overcome the problems of seeing, and reflecting telescopes are ubiquitous on space telescopes and many types of spacecraft imaging devices.\n\nTechnical considerations\n\nA curved primary mirror is the reflector telescope's basic optical element that creates an image at the focal plane. The distance from the mirror to the focal plane is called the focal length. Film or a digital sensor may be located here to record the image, or a secondary mirror may be added to modify the optical characteristics and\/or redirect the light to film, digital sensors, or an eyepiece for visual observation.\n\nThe primary mirror in most modern telescopes is composed of a solid glass cylinder whose front surface has been ground to a spherical or parabolic shape. A thin layer of aluminum is vacuum deposited onto the mirror, forming a highly reflective first surface mirror.\n\nSome telescopes use primary mirrors which are made differently. Molten glass is rotated to make its surface paraboloidal, and is kept rotating while it cools and solidifies. (See Rotating furnace.) The resulting mirror shape approximates a desired paraboloid shape that requires minimal grinding and polishing to reach the exact figure needed.\n\nOptical errors\nReflecting telescopes, just like any other optical system, do not produce \"perfect\" images. The need to image objects at distances up to infinity, view them at different wavelengths of light, along with the requirement to have some way to view the image the primary mirror produces, means there is always some compromise in a reflecting telescope's optical design.\n\nBecause the primary mirror focuses light to a common point in front of its own reflecting surface almost all reflecting telescope designs have a secondary mirror, film holder, or detector near that focal point partially obstructing the light from reaching the primary mirror. Not only does this cause some reduction in the amount of light the system collects, it also causes a loss in contrast in the image due to diffraction effects of the obstruction as well as diffraction spikes caused by most secondary support structures.\n\nThe use of mirrors avoids chromatic aberration but they produce other types of aberrations. A simple spherical mirror cannot bring light from a distant object to a common focus since the reflection of light rays striking the mirror near its edge do not converge with those that reflect from nearer the center of the mirror, a defect called spherical aberration. To avoid this problem most reflecting telescopes use parabolic shaped mirrors, a shape that can focus all the light to a common focus. Parabolic mirrors work well with objects near the center of the image they produce, (light traveling parallel to the mirror's optical axis), but towards the edge of that same field of view they suffer from off axis aberrations:\n\n Coma \u2013 an aberration where point sources (stars) at the center of the image are focused to a point but typically appears as \"comet-like\" radial smudges that get worse towards the edges of the image.\n Field curvature \u2013 The best image plane is in general curved, which may not correspond to the detector's shape and leads to a focus error across the field. It is sometimes corrected by a field flattening lens.\n Astigmatism \u2013 an azimuthal variation of focus around the aperture causing point source images off-axis to appear elliptical. Astigmatism is not usually a problem in a narrow field of view, but in a wide field image it gets rapidly worse and varies quadratically with field angle.\n Distortion \u2013 Distortion does not affect image quality (sharpness) but does affect object shapes. It is sometimes corrected by image processing.\n\nThere are reflecting telescope designs that use modified mirror surfaces (such as the Ritchey\u2013Chr\u00e9tien telescope) or some form of correcting lens (such as catadioptric telescopes) that correct some of these aberrations.\n\nUse in astronomical research\n\nNearly all large research-grade astronomical telescopes are reflectors. There are several reasons for this:\n Reflectors work in a wider spectrum of light since certain wavelengths are absorbed when passing through glass elements like those found in a refractor or in a catadioptric telescope.\n In a lens the entire volume of material has to be free of imperfection and inhomogeneities, whereas in a mirror, only one surface has to be perfectly polished.\n Light of different wavelengths travels through a medium other than vacuum at different speeds. This causes chromatic aberration. Reducing this to acceptable levels usually involves a combination of two or three aperture sized lenses (see achromat and apochromat for more details). The cost of such systems therefore scales significantly with aperture size. An image obtained from a mirror does not suffer from chromatic aberration to begin with, and the cost of the mirror scales much more modestly with its size.\n There are structural problems involved in manufacturing and manipulating large-aperture lenses. Since a lens can only be held in place by its edge, the center of a large lens will sag due to gravity, distorting the image it produces. The largest practical lens size in a refracting telescope is around 1 meter. In contrast, a mirror can be supported by the whole side opposite its reflecting face, allowing for reflecting telescope designs that can overcome gravitational sag. The largest reflector designs currently exceed 10 meters in diameter.\n\nReflecting telescope designs\n\nGregorian\n\nThe Gregorian telescope, described by Scottish astronomer and mathematician James Gregory in his 1663 book Optica Promota, employs a concave secondary mirror that reflects the image back through a hole in the primary mirror. This produces an upright image, useful for terrestrial observations. Some small spotting scopes are still built this way. There are several large modern telescopes that use a Gregorian configuration such as the Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope, the Magellan telescopes, the Large Binocular Telescope, and the Giant Magellan Telescope.\n\nNewtonian\n\nThe Newtonian telescope was the first successful reflecting telescope, completed by Isaac Newton in 1668. It usually has a paraboloid primary mirror but at focal ratios of about f\/10 or longer a spherical primary mirror can be sufficient for high visual resolution. A flat secondary mirror reflects the light to a focal plane at the side of the top of the telescope tube. It is one of the simplest and least expensive designs for a given size of primary, and is popular with amateur telescope makers as a home-build project.\n\nThe Cassegrain design and its variations\n\nThe Cassegrain telescope (sometimes called the \"Classic Cassegrain\") was first published in a 1672 design attributed to Laurent Cassegrain. It has a parabolic primary mirror, and a hyperbolic secondary mirror that reflects the light back down through a hole in the primary. The folding and diverging effect of the secondary mirror creates a telescope with a long focal length while having a short tube length.\n\nRitchey\u2013Chr\u00e9tien\n\nThe Ritchey\u2013Chr\u00e9tien telescope, invented by George Willis Ritchey and Henri Chr\u00e9tien in the early 1910s, is a specialized Cassegrain reflector which has two hyperbolic mirrors (instead of a parabolic primary). It is free of coma and spherical aberration at a nearly flat focal plane if the primary and secondary curvature are properly figured, making it well suited for wide field and photographic observations. Almost every professional reflector telescope in the world is of the Ritchey\u2013Chr\u00e9tien design.\n\nThree-mirror anastigmat\n\nIncluding a third curved mirror allows correction of the remaining distortion, astigmatism, from the Ritchey\u2013Chr\u00e9tien design. This allows much larger fields of view.\n\nDall\u2013Kirkham\n\nThe Dall\u2013Kirkham Cassegrain telescope's design was created by Horace Dall in 1928 and took on the name in an article published in Scientific American in 1930 following discussion between amateur astronomer Allan Kirkham and Albert G. Ingalls, the magazine editor at the time. It uses a concave elliptical primary mirror and a convex spherical secondary. While this system is easier to grind than a classic Cassegrain or Ritchey\u2013Chr\u00e9tien system, it does not correct for off-axis coma. Field curvature is actually less than a classical Cassegrain. Because this is less noticeable at longer focal ratios, Dall\u2013Kirkhams are seldom faster than f\/15.\n\nOff-axis designs\n\nThere are several designs that try to avoid obstructing the incoming light by eliminating the secondary or moving any secondary element off the primary mirror's optical axis, commonly called off-axis optical systems.\n\nHerschelian \n\nThe Herschelian reflector is named after William Herschel, who used this design to build very large telescopes including the 40-foot telescope in 1789. In the Herschelian reflector the primary mirror is tilted so the observer's head does not block the incoming light. Although this introduces geometrical aberrations, Herschel employed this design to avoid the use of a Newtonian secondary mirror since the speculum metal mirrors of that time tarnished quickly and could only achieve 60% reflectivity.\n\nSchiefspiegler\n\nA variant of the Cassegrain, the Schiefspiegler telescope (\"skewed\" or \"oblique reflector\") uses tilted mirrors to avoid the secondary mirror casting a shadow on the primary. However, while eliminating diffraction patterns this leads to an increase in coma and astigmatism. These defects become manageable at large focal ratios \u2014 most Schiefspieglers use f\/15 or longer, which tends to restrict useful observation to the Moon and planets. \nA number of variations are common, with varying numbers of mirrors of different types. The Kutter (named after its inventor Anton Kutter) style uses a single concave primary, a convex secondary and a plano-convex lens between the secondary mirror and the focal plane, when needed (this is the case of the catadioptric Schiefspiegler). \nOne variation of a multi-schiefspiegler uses a concave primary, convex secondary and a parabolic tertiary. One of the interesting aspects of some Schiefspieglers is that one of the mirrors can be involved in the light path twice \u2014 each light path reflects along a different meridional path.\n\nStevick-Paul\n\nStevick-Paul telescopes are off-axis versions of Paul 3-mirror systems with an added flat diagonal mirror. \nA convex secondary mirror is placed just to the side of the light entering the telescope, and positioned afocally so as to send parallel light on to the tertiary.\nThe concave tertiary mirror is positioned exactly twice as far to the side of the entering beam as was the convex secondary, and its own radius of curvature distant from the secondary. Because the tertiary mirror receives parallel light from the secondary, it forms an image at its focus.\nThe focal plane lies within the system of mirrors, but is accessible to the eye with the inclusion of a flat diagonal.\nThe Stevick-Paul configuration results in all optical aberrations totaling zero to the third-order, except for the Petzval surface which is gently curved.\n\nYolo\n\nThe Yolo was developed by Arthur S. Leonard in the mid-1960s. Like the Schiefspiegler, it is an unobstructed, tilted reflector telescope. The original Yolo consists of a primary and secondary concave mirror, with the same curvature, and the same tilt to the main axis. Most Yolos use toroidal reflectors. The Yolo design eliminates coma, but leaves significant astigmatism, which is reduced by deformation of the secondary mirror by some form of warping harness, or alternatively, polishing a toroidal figure into the secondary.\nLike Schiefspieglers, many Yolo variations have been pursued. The needed amount of toroidal shape \ncan be transferred entirely or partially to the primary mirror. In large focal ratios optical assemblies, both primary and secondary mirror can be left spherical and a spectacle correcting lens is added between the secondary mirror and the focal plane (catadioptric Yolo). The addition of a convex, long focus tertiary mirror leads to Leonard's Solano configuration. The Solano telescope doesn't contain any toric surfaces.\n\nLiquid-mirror telescopes\n\nOne design of telescope uses a rotating mirror consisting of a liquid metal in a tray that is spun at constant speed. As the tray spins, the liquid forms a paraboloidal surface of essentially unlimited size. This allows making very big telescope mirrors (over 6 metres), but they are limited to use by zenith telescopes.\n\nFocal planes\n\nPrime focus \n\nIn a prime focus design no secondary optics are used, the image is accessed at the focal point of the primary mirror. At the focal point is some type of structure for holding a film plate or electronic detector. In the past, in very large telescopes, an observer would sit inside the telescope in an \"observing cage\" to directly view the image or operate a camera. Nowadays CCD cameras allow for remote operation of the telescope from almost anywhere in the world. The space available at prime focus is severely limited by the need to avoid obstructing the incoming light.\n\nRadio telescopes often have a prime focus design. The mirror is replaced by a metal surface for reflecting radio waves, and the observer is an antenna.\n\nCassegrain focus \n\nFor telescopes built to the Cassegrain design or other related designs, the image is formed behind the primary mirror, at the focal point of the secondary mirror. An observer views through the rear of the telescope, or a camera or other instrument is mounted on the rear. Cassegrain focus is commonly used for amateur telescopes or smaller research telescopes. However, for large telescopes with correspondingly large instruments, an instrument at Cassegrain focus must move with the telescope as it slews; this places additional requirements on the strength of the instrument support structure, and potentially limits the movement of the telescope in order to avoid collision with obstacles such as walls or equipment inside the observatory.\n\nNasmyth and coud\u00e9 focus\n\nNasmyth\n\nThe Nasmyth design is similar to the Cassegrain except the light is not directed through a hole in the primary mirror; instead, a third mirror reflects the light to the side of the telescope to allow for the mounting of heavy instruments. This is a very common design in large research telescopes.\n\nCoud\u00e9\n\nAdding further optics to a Nasmyth-style telescope to deliver the light (usually through the declination axis) to a fixed focus point that does not move as the telescope is reoriented gives a coud\u00e9 focus (from the French word for elbow). The coud\u00e9 focus gives a narrower field of view than a Nasmyth focus and is used with very heavy instruments that do not need a wide field of view. One such application is high-resolution spectrographs that have large collimating mirrors (ideally with the same diameter as the telescope's primary mirror) and very long focal lengths. Such instruments could not withstand being moved, and adding mirrors to the light path to form a coud\u00e9 train, diverting the light to a fixed position to such an instrument housed on or below the observing floor (and usually built as an unmoving integral part of the observatory building) was the only option. The 60-inch Hale telescope (1.5 m), Hooker Telescope, 200-inch Hale Telescope, Shane Telescope, and Harlan J. Smith Telescope all were built with coud\u00e9 foci instrumentation. The development of echelle spectrometers allowed high-resolution spectroscopy with a much more compact instrument, one which can sometimes be successfully mounted on the Cassegrain focus. Since inexpensive and adequately stable computer-controlled alt-az telescope mounts were developed in the 1980s, the Nasmyth design has generally supplanted the coud\u00e9 focus for large telescopes.\n\nFibre-fed spectrographs\n\nFor instruments requiring very high stability, or that are very large and cumbersome, it is desirable to mount the instrument on a rigid structure, rather than moving it with the telescope. Whilst transmission of the full field of view would require a standard coud\u00e9 focus, spectroscopy typically involves the measurement of only a few discrete objects, such as stars or galaxies. It is therefore feasible to collect light from these objects with optical fibers at the telescope, placing the instrument at an arbitrary distance from the telescope. Examples of fiber-fed spectrographs include the planet-hunting spectrographs HARPS or ESPRESSO.\n\nAdditionally, the flexibility of optical fibers allow light to be collected from any focal plane; for example, the HARPS spectrograph utilises the Cassegrain focus of the ESO 3.6 m Telescope, whilst the Prime Focus Spectrograph is connected to the prime focus of the Subaru telescope.\n\nSee also \nCatadioptric telescopes\nHoneycomb mirror\nList of largest optical reflecting telescopes\nList of largest optical telescopes historically\nList of telescope types\nMirror support cell\nPLate OPtimizer\nRefracting telescope\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Who was James Gregory? Reflecting Telescopes, Explore, National Museums Scotland \n\n \nTelescope types\n1663 introductions\n1663 in science\n17th-century inventions","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":161,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":5,"2019-09":4,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":7,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":5,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":5,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":4,"2017-26":7,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":2}},"id":266861,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reflecting%20telescope","title":"Reflecting telescope","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A body is the physical material of a person or organism. It is only used for organisms which are in one part or whole. There are organisms which change from single cells to whole organisms: for example, slime moulds. For them the term 'body' would mean the multicellular stage. Other uses:\nPlant body\nCell body: here it may be used for cells like neurons which have long axons (nerve fibres). The cell body is the part with the nucleus in it.\n\nThe body of a dead person is also called a corpse or cadaver. The dead bodies of vertebrate animals and insects are sometimes called carcasses.\n\nThe human body has a head, neck, torso, two arms, two legs and the genitals of the groin, which differ between males and females.\n\nThe study of the body is anatomy.                                                                                                                                                                                            \n\nThe study of the workings of the body is physiology.\n\nHere are the names of the body parts of a woman and a man. \n\nThe word body is sometimes used in other ways.  For example, a lake is a body of water. The laws on a topic are a \"body of law\".\n\nRelated pages \n Human body\n\nBody parts\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":4361,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Body","title":"Body","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Elihu Vedder (26 February 183629 January 1923) was an American symbolist painter, book illustrator and poet from New York City. He is best known for his fifty-five illustrations for Edward FitzGerald's translation of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (deluxe edition, published by Houghton Mifflin).\n\nBiography\n\nElihu Vedder was born on 26 February 1836 in New York City, the son of Dr. Elihu Vedder Sr. and Elizabeth Vedder.\nHis parents were cousins. His father, a dentist, decided to try his luck in Cuba, and this had a profound impact on Elihu Jr.'s childhood.\nThe remainder of his childhood was spent between his maternal grandfather Alexander Vedder's house in Schenectady and a boarding school. His mother supported his goals to be an artist while his father reluctantly assented, convinced that his son should try a different occupation. His brother, Dr. Alexander Madison Vedder, was a Navy surgeon who witnessed the transformation of Japan into a modern culture while he was stationed there.\n\nVedder trained in New York City with Tompkins H. Matteson, then in Paris with Fran\u00e7ois-\u00c9douard Picot. \nFinally, he completed his studies in Italy - where he was strongly influenced not only by Italian Renaissance work but also by the modern Macchiaioli painters and the living Italian landscape.\nHe first visited Italy from 1858 until 1860, becoming deeply emotionally attached to fellow painter Giovanni Costa. \nTheir idyllic trips through the Italian countryside were cut short because Vedder's father cut off his financial allowance.\n\nPenniless, Vedder returned to the United States during the American Civil War and made a small living undertaking commercial illustrations. He was involved in the bohemian 'Pfaff's' coffee house group and painted some of his most memorable paintings notable for their visionary nature, romantic imagery and often Oriental influences. Paintings of this time include The Roc's Egg, The Fisherman and the Genii, and one of his most famous works, Lair of the Sea Serpent. In the United States, Vedder sought out and befriended Walt Whitman, Herman Melville and William Morris Hunt. Vedder became a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1865. At the end of the Civil War, Vedder left America to live in Italy.\n\nHe married Caroline Rosekrans on 13 July 1869 in Glen Falls, New York. \nElihu Vedder and his wife had four children, only two of whom survived. His daughter Anita Herriman Vedder played a vital role in handling the business of her father, who was notorious for his general aloofness towards details. Elihu's son Enoch Rosekrans Vedder was a promising architect who married jewelry designer Angela Reston. Enoch died while visiting his parents in Italy on 2 April 1916. Elihu had a home in Rome and - after the financial success of his 1884 Rubaiyat work - on the Isle of Capri, then a haven for male aesthetes.\n\nVedder visited England many times, and was influenced by the Pre-Raphaelites, and was a friend of Simeon Solomon. He was also influenced by the work of English and Irish mystics such as William Blake and William Butler Yeats. In 1890 Vedder helped establish the In Arte Libertas group in Italy.\n\nTiffany commissioned him to design glassware, mosaics and statuettes for the company. He decorated the hallway of the Reading Room of the Washington Library of Congress, and his mural paintings can still be seen there.\n\nVedder occasionally returned to the United States, but lived only in Italy from 1906 until his death on 29 January 1923. He is buried in the Protestant Cemetery, Rome. There are no known living descendants of Elihu Vedder as both surviving children died without issue.\n\nExhibitions\nIn 2008, the Smithsonian American Art Museum organized an exhibition of Vedder's Rubaiyat illustrations that toured several museums, including the Phoenix Art Museum.\n\nGallery\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n www.ElihuVedder.org 80 works online at Elihu Vedder virtual Gallery\n Artcyclopedia: Elihu Vedder Online\n Smithsonian Archives of American Art: The Elihu Vedder Papers\n\n1836 births\n1923 deaths\n19th-century American painters\n20th-century American painters\n20th-century American male artists\nAmerican muralists\nAmerican male painters\nBurials in the Protestant Cemetery, Rome\nOrientalist painters\nPainters from New York City\nSymbolist painters\n19th-century American male artists\nPre-Raphaelite painters\nPre-Raphaelite illustrators","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":203,"dup_dump_count":26,"dup_details":{"2024-30":18,"2024-26":14,"2024-22":12,"2024-18":35,"2024-10":7,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":9,"2023-40":19,"2023-23":16,"2023-14":28,"2023-06":8,"2022-49":12,"2022-40":5,"2022-33":4,"2021-43":3,"2020-34":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-26":1}},"id":1965843,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elihu%20Vedder","title":"Elihu Vedder","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A forward (or striker) is a football player who is the closest to the other team's goal. The forwards are the players that are known to score the most goals.\n\nCoaches usually send a forward that scores all the goals (the centre forward) and sends another forward that makes the assists (second striker).\n\nThe attackers are normally the last part of the formation numbers, for example:\n\n 4-3-3 is the formation. This formation shows that there are four defenders, three midfielders and three attackers.\n 4-4-2 is the formation. This formation shows that there are four defenders, four midfielders and two attackers.\n 3-4-3 is the formation. This formation shows that there are three defenders, four midfielders and three attackers.\n\nFamous strikers \nGerman Bundesliga:\nGerd M\u00fcller: 365 goals\nKlaus Fischer: 265 goals\nJupp Heynckes: 220 goals\nPremier League:\n Alan Shearer: 260 goals\n Andrew Cole: 187 goals\n Thierry Henry: 174 goals\nLa Liga (Spain):\nHugo S\u00e1nchez: 234 goals\n Ra\u00fal: 228 goals\n Ligue 1 (France):\n Carlos Bianchi: 179 goals\nFIFA World Cup\nMiroslav Klose (Germany): 16 goals\nRonaldo (Brazil): 15 goals\nGerd M\u00fcller (Germany): 14 goals\nUEFA Champions League\nRa\u00fal: 71 goals\nRuud van Nistelrooy: 60 goals\nAndriy Shevchenko: 59 goals\nThierry Henry: 51 goals\nAlfredo Di St\u00e9fano: 49 goals\n\nFootball (soccer) terminology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":135,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":6,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":7,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":4,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1}},"id":116468,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forward","title":"Forward","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A religion is a set of beliefs about the origin, nature, and purpose of existence, usually including a belief in supernatural entities, such as deities or spirits that have power in the natural world. Religious practices include the rituals and devotions directed at the supernatural. Often religions believe in the spiritual nature of humans. There are many different religions, denominations or sects, each with a different set of beliefs. Some beliefs are also concerned with the moral behavior of humans.\n\nReligious beliefs \nEach religion has different ideas about these things. Each religion also has a \"moral code\" which is a set of beliefs about how humans should act. Each religion usually has their own type of \"devotions\" when people worship or pray. They often have rituals (special things that are always done in the same way) for certain times of the year or certain times of a person's life. Other words that are used for religion are \"faith\" and \"belief system\". Altogether, followers of religion can be known as 'believers', or 'the faithful'. Few people follow more than one religion at a time.\n\nThe largest religions are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Sikhism, Judaism and Jainism. There are many other religions. People who do not believe in any gods are called atheists. People who say that there is no evidence are called agnostics.\n\nGod \n\nIn many religions, one of the main beliefs is that there is a \"deity\" (or god) who is a great creator spirit. In many religions, there is just one deity that the people believe in. In other religions, there are many deities who each have different roles in the universe. In many religions, there are other types of spirits. These may include angels, devils and other such things which can be both good and bad.\n\nGiving honour to God, the gods or the spirits is an important part of most religions. While this may often be done privately, it is also often done with gatherings of people and rituals. These rituals are often based on old traditions, and may have been done in almost the same way for hundreds, or even thousands of years.\n\nHuman spirit \nAnother main belief is that humans have a \"soul\" or spirit which lives on after their body has died. The person's spirit is on a journey through life that continues after death. Most religions believe that what a person does during their lifetime will affect what happens to their spirit in the afterlife. Many religions teach that a good person's spirit can reach a special place of peace and happiness such as Heaven or Nirvana, and that a bad person's spirit can travel to a place of pain and suffering such as Hell. Still other religions believe in reincarnation - that instead of going either to Heaven or Hell, spirits of the dead return to earth in a new body.\n\nMorality \n\"Morals\" are the way a human behaves to other humans. Most religions make rules about human morals. The rules of how people should act to each other are different in different religions.\n\nFor some religions, following a \"path\" of goodness, truth and duty is very important. This is called Tao in China. In the teachings of Judaism, people were told to \"love your neighbour as yourself\". In the teachings of Jesus, people were told to think of every single person as their \"neighbour\" and treat them with love.\n\nNot every religion teaches people to be kind to all other people. In many religions, it has been common for people to believe that they have to act kindly only to some people and not to others. In some religions, people believed that they could please a god by killing or sacrificing another person.\n\nTraditions\n\nTeaching \nA religion is passed on from one person to another through teachings and stories (which are often called \"myths\") which may be written down like the Bible, or told from memory like the Dreamtime stories of Australian Aboriginal people. In many religions, there are people who take the role of \"priest\" and spend their lives teaching others about the religion. There are also people who take the role of \"pastor\" and spend their life caring for other people. A person may be both a priest and a pastor. They are called by different names in different religions.\n\nSymbols \nSymbols are used to remind people of their religious beliefs. They are also used or worn as a sign to other people that the person belongs to a particular religion. A symbol might be something that is drawn or written, it might be a piece of clothing or jewellery, it might be a sign that a person makes with their body, or it might be a building or monument or artwork. Picture symbols for different religions are shown in the box in the introduction to this article.\n\nWitness and conversion \nIn many religions, it is thought important that people should show other people that they are following a particular religion. This might be done in a general way by wearing a symbol or a type of clothing. Many people believe that it is important to tell other people about their religion, so that they can believe as well. This is called \"witnessing\".\n\nThere are many ways to witness. A young person might simply say to their friends \"I do not use drugs or get drunk because of my religion\". This is a witness. A person may tell their classmates, workmates and friends about their beliefs. A person might go to other people's houses and talk about their beliefs, or invite the people to join in the rituals of the religion, such as going to church or to a religious festival. A person might have printed material such as books or leaflets that they give to other people to read. A person might travel to a different country to teach, to work in a health service or to help people in some other way. (People who do this are called \"missionaries\".) These are different ways that people witness to their religion.\n\nWhen a person hears a witness and decides that they will join the religion, this is called a \"conversion\". Usually a person decides to join a religion because they like what they have read or been told, and they believe that they are hearing the truth. They join the religion because they choose. However, throughout history there have been many times when people have been forced to join a religion by violence and threats. This is still happening today.\n\nIn most countries of the world, people are free to belong to whatever religion they choose. This is generally thought of as a basic human right. However, there are parts of the world where it is illegal (against the law) to witness to any religion except the one accepted by the government of the country. People who belong to other religions may be threatened, put in jail or murdered.\n\nRitual \nRituals are an important part of the tradition of many religions. In many religions, it is the tradition for people to meet for a celebration on one day in every week. There are also major celebrations that may be held only at certain times of the year, for example, on the birthday of a person who is honoured in that religion. Some religions have celebrations for different seasons of the year, or when the sun or moon is in a certain part of the sky.\n\nIn nearly every religion, the important stages of a person's life have a religious celebration. Birth, naming, reaching an age to think for oneself, reaching adulthood, marriage, childbirth, sickness and death are all celebrated by some religions. Having a celebration or special traditions when a person dies is very common.\n\nIt is the traditions that are about death that give the earliest evidence of religious beliefs. Scientists have discovered that 120,000 years ago, Neanderthal people started burying their dead. Early Homo sapiens put tools and other things into graves with the bodies, as if they could use them in the afterlife. From 40,000 years ago, many of the objects in graves are small artworks. Scientists believe that these objects were put there for religious reasons.\n\nGroups and institutions \nAn institution is one name for an organization. Many religions have organizations that manage the way that people who follow the religion are to act. The organization might employ religious leaders, educate people into the ideas of the religion, manage money, own buildings and make rules. Many religions have sub-groups which are called denominations. In Islam, for example, there is Ahmadiyya, Sunnism, Shi'ism and Sufism.\n\nBuildings \n\nMost religions have special buildings where people meet. They are often called temples. In Judaism, they are called synagogues. In Christianity, they are called churches. In Islam, they are called mosques. In Buddhism there are pagodas, temples and monasteries. In Hinduism they are called Mandirs. People often try to make their religious building as beautiful as possible. Some religious buildings are great works of architecture.\n\nArt and music \nPeople often make artworks that are about their religion, or that are used in religious celebration, or are put in a religious building. Religious art comes in all shapes and sizes, from tiny pieces of jewellery to huge statues and paintings. Artworks often give important clues to historians about different ancient religions that are not well understood.\n\nMusic is often important in religious celebrations. Singing, chanting and playing musical instruments are often part of regular religious gatherings of people. Special music is often used on special occasions. Many famous composers have written religious music. The words of songs that are 3,000 years old are used every day in Christian churches and Jewish synagogues.\n\nRelated pages \n Freedom of religion\n List of religions\n Philosophy of religion\n Religious denomination\n Secular religion\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\n Chopra, R.M., \"A Study of Religions\", 2015, Anuradha Prakashan, New Delhi,\n\nOther websites \n Religion Facts\n Religion on the BBC website\n\n \n \nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":286,"dup_dump_count":94,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":5,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":5,"2017-13":4,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":5,"2022-49":6,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":5,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":6,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":5,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":5,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":5,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":5,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":5,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":5,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":4,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4}},"id":653,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Religion","title":"Religion","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A lake (from Latin: lacus) is a large body of water (larger and deeper than a pond) within a body of land. As a lake is separated from the ocean, it is not a sea. Some lakes are very big, and people in the past sometimes called them seas. Lakes do not flow like rivers, but many have rivers flowing into and out of them.\n\nMost lakes on the surface of the Earth are fresh water and most are in the Northern Hemisphere. More than 60% of the lakes of the world are in Canada. Finland is known as The Land of the Thousand Lakes (there are 187,888 lakes in Finland, of which 60,000 are large).\n\nMany lakes are man-made reservoirs built to produce electricity, for recreation, or to use the water for irrigation or industry, or in houses.\n\nIf there are not rivers flowing out of the lake (see Endorheic basin), or they are few and small, the lake loses water only by evaporation or because the water flows through the soil pores. Where the water evaporates rapidly and the soil around the lake has a high salt level, as in very dry places, the water of the lake has a high concentration of salt and the lake is called a salt lake. Examples of salt lakes are the Great Salt Lake, the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, and the Dead Sea.\n\nLargest lakes by continent \n\n Africa - Lake Victoria, also the second largest freshwater lake on Earth. It is one of the Great Lakes of Africa.\n Antarctica - Lake Vostok.\n Asia - Lake Baikal is the largest lake that is completely in Asia. The Caspian Sea, the largest lake on Earth, is on the Europe-Asia border (an artificial border) and so both continents share this lake.\n Australia - Lake Eyre, that most of the time is without water; it takes water when it rains a lot.\n Europe - Lake Ladoga, followed by Lake Onega, both in northwestern Russia.\n North America - Lake Superior.\n South America - Lake Maracaibo but it is like a bay because it has a wide opening to sea. The largest freshwater lake of South America is Lake Titicaca, which is also the highest body of water on Earth at 3,821 m (12,507 ft) above sea level where boats can travel.\n\nNotable lakes \n The largest lake in the world by area is the Caspian Sea, with 394,299 km\u00b2. The largest freshwater lake by area is Lake Superior (82,414 km\u00b2), part of the Great Lakes.\n The longest freshwater lake is Lake Tanganyika, with a length of about 660 km. Lake Baikal is the second longest (about 630 km from tip to tip).\n The deepest lake is Lake Baikal in Siberia, with a bottom at 1,637 m (5,371 ft). Lake Tanganyika (1,470 m) is the second deepest lake.\n The highest lake of the world is a small lake (pond) without a name on Ojos del Salado at 6,390 m (20,965 ft). But the highest navigable lake is Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia at 3,812 m (12,507 ft).\n The lowest lake of the world is the Dead Sea, bordering Israel and Jordan at 418 m (1,371 ft) below sea level. It is also one of the lakes with highest salt concentration.\n Lake Enriquillo in Dominican Republic is the only saltwater lake in the world where crocodiles live.\n\nRelated pages\n List of lakes\n Salt lake\n\nReferences \n\n \nBiomes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":206,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":7,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":3}},"id":4031,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lake","title":"Lake","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Crystallography is the study of the arrangement of atoms in solids that are mostly in three dimensional pattern. \n\nBefore the development of X-ray crystallography, the study of crystals was based on their geometry. This involves measuring the angles of crystal faces, and establishing the symmetry of the crystal in question.\n\nX-ray diffraction \nCrystal structure is now found by analysis of the diffraction patterns of a sample targeted by a beam of some type.\n\nThe technique was jointly invented by Sir William Bragg (1862\u20131942) and his son Sir Lawrence Bragg (1890\u20131971), who jointly won the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1915. Lawrence Bragg was the youngest to become a Nobel Laureate. He was the Director of the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University, when the discovery of the structure of DNA was made by James D. Watson and Francis Crick in February 1953. \n\nX-rays are most commonly used, but for some purposes electrons or neutrons are used. Because of the different forms of interaction, the three types of radiation are suitable for different crystallographic studies.\n\nTechnique \nSome materials studied using crystallography, proteins for example, do not always occur naturally as crystals. Normally such molecules are placed in solution and allowed to crystallize over days, weeks, or months.\n\nOnce a crystal is obtained, data can be collected using a beam of radiation. Although X-ray equipment is commonplace, crystallography often uses special synchrotron light sources to make X-rays. They produce purer and more complete patterns. Synchrotron sources also have a much higher intensity of X-ray beams, so data collection takes a fraction of the time normally necessary at weaker sources. \n\nProducing an image from a diffraction pattern requires sophisticated mathematics.\n\nThe mathematical methods for the analysis of diffraction data only apply to patterns, which in turn result only when waves diffract from orderly arrays. Hence crystallography applies for the most part only to crystals, or to molecules which can be got to crystallize. \n\nIn spite of this, a certain amount of molecular information can be deduced from the patterns that are generated by fibres and powders. For example, the double-helical structure of DNA was deduced from an X-ray diffraction pattern that had been got from a fibrous sample.\n\nElectron diffraction \n\nElectron crystallography is a method to determine the arrangement of atoms in solids using a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The method was invented by Aaron Klug, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this, and his studies on virus structures and transfer RNA, in 1982.\n\nThe first electron crystallographic protein structure to achieve atomic resolution was bacteriorhodopsin in 1990.\n\nExamples\n\nCrystallography in materials engineering \n\nCrystallography is a tool that is often employed in materials science. The understanding of crystal structures is needed to understand crystallographic defects. \n\nA number of other physical properties are linked to crystallography. For example, the minerals in clay form small, flat, platelike structures. Clay can be easily deformed because the platelike particles can slip along each other in the plane of the plates, yet remain strongly connected in the direction perpendicular to the plates. Such mechanisms can be studied by crystallographic texture measurements.\n\nCrystallography includes the symmetry patterns which can be formed by atoms in a crystal.\n\nBiology \nX-ray crystallography was the primary method for determining the 3-D molecular structure of biological macromolecules. The most important of these are enzymes, and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. In fact, the double helix structure of DNA was worked out from crystallographic data. \n\nThe first crystal structure of a macromolecule was solved in 1958  The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a freely accessible repository for the structures of proteins and other biological macromolecules. Computer programs can be used to help visualize biological molecular structures.\n\nX-ray crystallography has now given way to electron crystallography for macromolecules which do not form large 3-D crystals.\n\nReferences \n\nTechnology\nBranches of chemistry\nMolecular biology\nSubfields of physics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":289991,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crystallography","title":"Crystallography","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A zombie is a mythical dead person who has returned to life as a walking corpse. Mythical things that have been \"re-animated\" are called undead, or the living dead. The zombie myth came from the Caribbean.\n\nVoodoo zombies  \nIn Haiti people believe that Voodoo sorcerers or 'bokor' can bring dead people back to life, making a zombie. The zombie is under the control of the sorcerer because zombies have no free will. It's believed a zombie is a trapped human soul. If a sorcerer can catch the trapped soul, the sorcerer becomes more powerful.\n\nStudies on Haitian zombies \nWade Davis wrote about zombies in two books, The Serpent and the Rainbow (1985) and Passage of Darkness: The Ethnobiology of the Haitian Zombie (1988). Davis went to Haiti in 1982 and wrote about how a living person can be turned into a zombie by two special powders being rubbed into a wound. The first powder brings a 'deathlike' state because of a certain poison in it, called tetrodotoxin (the same deadly poison found in the Japanese blowfish). At just the right amount, it can make a person almost die, but not quite. The second powder puts the person in a zombie-like state where they seem to have no free will of their own.\n\nMany people outside Haiti do not believe what Davis wrote about, but in Haiti, lots of people believe in the \"zombie drugs\".\n\nZombies in history\n\nAncient civilizations \nIn Mesopotamian mythology, Ishtar, the goddess of love and fertility once said in anger:\n\"Father give me the Bull of Heaven,\nSo he can kill Gilgamesh in his delling.\nIf you do not give me the Bull of Heaven,\nI will knock down the Gates of the Netherworld,\nI will smash the doorposts, and leave the doors flat down,\nand will let the dead go up to eat the living!\nAnd the dead will outnumber the living!\"\n\nMiddle Ages\nIn the Middle Ages, many people believed that the souls of the dead could come back as ghosts and haunt the living, often because of a crime that the living person had committed. Sometimes, the ghost could actually take on a physical shape and touch or attack things or people.\n\nZombies in fiction \n\nZombies can walk, think (in some cases), and attack living persons. Most zombies eat the brains of living humans. In zombies, the heart, lungs, and a small part of their brain still work. They may react to their environment, but they do not have consciousness. Zombies can use their skeleton and muscles to move. The skin is rotten. Its hair and nails are falling off. Zombies are usually covered in blood. They often have open wounds and are dressed in ripped clothes.\n\nZombies appear a lot in horror and fantasy films. Normally, the zombie is a mindless, clumsy corpse which eats human flesh. Zombies can not be called cannibals because they do not eat each other, only living humans. The first zombie stories appeared in the 1600s. Since that time, zombies have appeared in lots of books and films. They have become more popular in modern media, such as Capcom's Resident Evil series and AMC's The Walking Dead.\n\nCharacteristics \nIn zombie movies, zombies are almost always:\n Mobile (able to move) but technically dead, without a heartbeat or other vital signs\n In a decaying (rotting) state, with discolored skin and eyes\n Non-communicative (groaning and howling instead of speaking)\n Unemotional, with no mercy toward victims\n Hungry for human flesh (zombies usually ignore animals)\n Clumsy and violent\n Vulnerable to destruction of the brain (which kills them).\n Unaffected by injuries, even normally fatal ones, as long as the brain isn't damaged badly.\n Contagious: a person that is bitten by a zombie will become a zombie\n Extremely persistent\n\nRelated pages \n List of zombie movies\n Ghost\n Ghoul stories\n\nMonsters\nSuperstitions","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1}},"id":18453,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zombie","title":"Zombie","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Gospel of Luke is a book of the Bible. Like the other gospels, the Gospel of Luke tells the stories of the life and teachings of Jesus. It is the third and longest book of the New Testament and comes after the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Mark. The gospel is believed to be written by Luke, who was a friend of the Apostle Paul. \n\nLuke was a doctor. He wrote his gospel for a man he calls 'most excellent Theophilus' (1:3). Luke wrote another book which is fifth in the New Testament, the Acts of the Apostles which tells what Jesus' disciples did after his rise back to Heaven.\n\nUnlike the gospel writers Matthew, Mark and John, Luke was probably not Jewish but was Greek. He wrote the gospel mainly for non-Jewish people, (who were called Gentile by the Jews). Luke wrote to prove that Jesus is the Son of God. Luke's gospel contains many similar stories of Jesus. He tells more about the Virgin birth of Jesus than the other gospel writers.\n\nRelated pages\n\n Jesus \n Bible \n Christianity \n Christmas\n Emmaus\n\n3\nNew Testament books","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":100102,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gospel%20of%20Luke","title":"Gospel of Luke","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u0935\u093f\u0932\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 (November 10, 1697 \u2013 October 26,1764) was a major English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic and editorial cartoonist who has been credited with pioneering western sequential art.  His work ranged from excellent realistic portraiture to comic strip-like series of pictures called \"modern moral subjects\".  Much of his work, though at times vicious, poked fun at contemporary politics and customs. Illustrations in such style are often referred to as Hogarthian.\n\nLife\n\nThe son of a poor school teacher and textbook writer, William Hogarth was born at Bartholomew Close in London on November 10, 1697. In his youth he was apprenticed to the engraver Ellis Gamble in Leicester Fields, where he learned to engrave trade cards and similar products. Young William also took a lively interest in the street life of the metropolis and the London fairs, and amused himself by sketching the characters he saw.  Around the same time, his father, who had opened an unsuccessful Latin-speaking coffee house at St John's Gate, was imprisoned for debt in Fleet Prison for five years. Hogarth never talked about the fact. By April 1720 he was an engraver in his own right, at first engraving coats of arms, shop bills, and designing plates for booksellers. \n\nIn 1727, he was hired by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, to prepare a design for the Element of Earth. Morris, however, heard that he was \"an engraver, and no painter\", and consequently declined the work when completed.  Hogarth accordingly sued him for the money in the Westminster Court, where the case was decided in his favour on May 28, 1728.\n\nOn March 23, 1729 he was married to Jane Thornhill, daughter of artist Sir James Thornhill.\n\nIn 1757 he was appointed Serjeant Painter to the King. \n\nHogarth died in London on October 26, 1764 and was buried at St. Nicholas's Churchyard, Chiswick Mall, Chiswick, London. His friend the actor David Garrick wrote the inscription on his tombstone.\n\nWorks\n\nEarly works \n\nEarly satirical works included an Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme (c.1721), about the disastrous stock market crash of 1720 known as the South Sea Bubble, in which many English people lost a great deal of money. In the bottom left corner, he shows Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish figures gambling, while in the middle there is a huge machine, like a merry-go-round, which people are boarding. At the top is a goat, written below which is \"Who'l Ride\" and this shows the stupidity of people in following the crowd in buying stock in The South Sea Company, which spent more time issuing stock than anything else. The people are scattered around the picture with a real sense of disorder, which represented the confusion. The progress of the well dressed people towards the ride in the middle shows how foolish some people could be, which is not entirely their own fault.\n\nOther early works include The Lottery (1724); The Mystery of Masonry brought to Light by the Gormogons (1724);  A Just View of the British Stage (1724); some book illustrations; and the small print, Masquerades and Operas (1724). The latter is a satire on contemporary follies, such as the masquerades of the Swiss impresario John James Heidegger, the popular Italian opera singers, John Rich's pantomimes at Lincoln's Inn Fields, and last not least, the exaggerated popularity of Lord Burlington's prot\u00e9g\u00e9, the architect and painter William Kent. He continued that theme in 1727, with the Large Masquerade Ticket. In 1726 Hogarth prepared twelve large engravings for Samuel Butler's Hudibras. These he himself valued highly, and are among his best book illustrations.\n\nIn the following years he turned his attention to the production of small \"conversation pieces\" (i.e., groups in oil of full-length portraits from 12 to 15 in. high). Among his efforts in oil between 1728 and 1732 were The Fountaine Family (c.1730), The Assembly at Wanstead House, The House of Commons examining Bambridge, and several pictures of the chief actors in John Gay's popular The Beggar's Opera.\n\nOne of his masterpieces of this period is the depiction of an amateur performance of John Dryden's The Indian Emperor, or The Conquest of Mexico (1732\u20131735) at the home of John Conduitt, master of the mint, in St George's Street, Hanover Square. \n\nHogarth's other works in the 1730s include A Midnight Modern Conversation (1733), Southwark Fair (1733),  The Sleeping Congregation (1736), Before and After (1736), Scholars at a Lecture (1736), The Company of Undertakers (Consultation of Quacks) (1736), The Distrest Poet (1736), The Four Times of the Day (1738), and Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn (1738).  He may also have printed Burlington Gate (1731), evoked by Alexander Pope's Epistle to Lord Burlington, and defending Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great offence, and was suppressed (some modern authorities, however, no longer attribute this to Hogarth).\n\nMoralizing art\n\nHarlot's and Rake's Progresses \n\nIn 1731, he completed the earliest of the series of moral works which first gave him recognition as a great and original genius. This was A Harlot's Progress, first as paintings, (now lost), and then published as engravings. In its six scenes, the miserable fate of a country girl who began a prostitution career in town is traced out remorselessly from its starting point, the meeting of a bawd, to its shameful and degraded end, the whore's death of venereal disease and the following merciless funeral ceremony. The series was an immediate success, and was followed in 1735 by the sequel A Rake's Progress showing in eight pictures the reckless life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant, who wastes all his money on luxurious living, whoring, and gambling, and ultimately finishes his life in Bedlam. The original paintings of A Harlot's Progress were destroyed in the fire at Fonthill Abbey in 1755; A Rake's Progress is displayed in the gallery room at Sir John Soane's Museum, London.\n\nMarriage \u00e0-la-mode \n\nIn 1743\u20131745 Hogarth painted the six pictures of Marriage \u00e0-la-mode (National Gallery, London), a pointed skewering of upper class 18th century society. This moralistic warning shows the miserable tragedy of an ill-considered marriage for money. This is regarded by many as his finest project, certainly the best example of his serially-planned story cycles.\n\nMarital ethics were the topic of much debate in 18th century Britain. Frequent marriages of convenience and their attendant unhappiness came in for particular criticism, with a variety of authors taking the view that love was a much sounder basis for marriage. Hogarth here painted a satire \u2013 a genre that by definition has a moral point to convey \u2013 of a conventional marriage within the English upper class. All the paintings were engraved and the series achieved wide circulation in print form. The series, which are set in a Classical interior, shows the story of the fashionable marriage of the son of bankrupt Earl Squanderfield to the daughter of a wealthy but miserly city merchant, starting with the signing of a marriage contract at the Earl's mansion and ending with the murder of the son by his wife's lover and the suicide of the daughter after her lover is hanged at Tyburn for murdering her husband.\n\nIndustry and Idleness \n \nIn the twelve prints of Industry and Idleness (1747) Hogarth shows the progression in the lives of two apprentices, one who is dedicated and hard working, the other idle which leads to crime and his execution. This shows the work ethic of Protestant England, where those who work hard get rewarded, such as the industrious apprentice who becomes Sheriff (plate 8), Alderman (plate 10), and finally the Lord Mayor of London in the last plate in the series. The idle apprentice, who begins with being \"at play in the church yard\" (plate 3), holes up \"in a Garrett with a Common Prostitute\" after turning highwayman (plate 7) and \"executed at Tyburn\" (plate 11). The idle apprentice is sent to the gallows by the industrious apprentice himself.\n\nBeer Street and Gin Lane \n\nLater important prints include his pictorial warning of the unpleasant consequences of alcoholism in Beer Street and Gin Lane (1751) Hogarth engraved Beer Street to show a happy city drinking the 'good' beverage of English beer, versus Gin Lane which showed the effects of drinking gin which, as a harder liquor, caused more problems for society. People are shown as healthy, happy and prosperous in Beer Street, while in Gin Lane they are scrawny, lazy and careless. The woman at the front of Gin Lane who lets her baby fall to its death, echoes the tale of Judith Dufour who strangled her baby so she could sell its clothes for gin money. The prints were published in support of what would become the Gin Act 1751.\n\nHogarth's friend, the magistrate Henry Fielding, may have enlisted Hogarth to help with propaganda for a Gin Act: Beer Street and Gin Lane were issued shortly after his work An Enquiry into the Causes of the Late Increase of Robbers, and Related Writings and addressed the same issues.\n\nThe Four Stages of Cruelty \nOther prints were his outcry against inhumanity in The Four Stages of Cruelty (1751); a series which Hogarth intended to show some of the terrible habits of criminals. In the first picture there are scenes of torture of dogs, cats and other animals. In the second it shows one of the characters from the first painting, Tom Nero, has now become a coach driver, and his cruelty to his horse caused it to break its leg. In the third painting Tom is shown as a murderer, with the woman he killed lying on the ground, while in the fourth, titled Reward of Cruelty, the murderer is shown being dissected by scientists after his execution. Hogarth is thus using the series to say what will happen to people who carry on in this manner. This shows what crimes people were concerned with in this time, the method of execution, and the dissection reflects upon the 1752 Act of Parliament which had just being passed allowing for the dissection of executed criminals who had been convicted for murder. It shows his reaction against the cruel treatment of animals which he saw around him, that he wished could be stopped.\n\nPortraits \n\nHogarth was also a popular portrait painter. In 1746 he painted actor David Garrick as Richard III, for which he was paid \u00a3200, \"which was more,\" he wrote, \"than any English artist ever received for a single portrait.\" In the same year a sketch of Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat, afterwards beheaded on Tower Hill, had an exceptional success. Hogarth's truthful, vivid full-length portrait of his friend, the philanthropic Captain Coram (1740; formerly Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now Foundling Museum), and his unfinished oil sketch of The Shrimp Girl (National Gallery, London) may be called masterpieces of British painting.\n\nHistorical subjects \nDuring a long period of his life, Hogarth tried to achieve the status of history painter, but had no great success in this field.\n\nBiblical scenes \n\nExamples of his history pictures are The Pool of Bethesda and The Good Samaritan, executed in 1736\u20131737 for St Bartholomew's Hospital; Moses brought before Pharaoh's Daughter, painted for the Foundling Hospital (1747, formerly at the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now in the Foundling Museum); Paul before Felix (1748) at Lincoln's Inn; and his altarpiece for St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol (1756).\n\nThe Gate of Calais \n\nThe Gate of Calais (1748; now in Tate Britain) was produced soon after his return from a visit to France. Horace Walpole wrote that Hogarth had run a great risk to go there since the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, he went to France, and was so imprudent as to be taking a sketch of the drawbridge at Calais. He was seized and carried to the governor, where he was forced to prove his vocation by producing several caricatures of the French; particularly a scene of the shore, with an immense piece of beef landing for the lion d'argent, the English inn at Calais, and several hungry friars following it. They were much diverted with his drawings, and dismissed him.\nBack home, he immediately executed a painting of the subject in which he unkindly represented his enemies, the Frenchmen, as cringing, emaciated and superstitious people, while an enormous sirloin of beef arrives, destined for the English inn as a symbol of British prosperity and superiority. He claimed to have painted himself into the picture in the corner, with the solder running him in.\n\nOther later works \n\nNotable Hogarth engravings in the 1740s includeThe Enraged Musician (1741), the six prints of Marriage \u00e0-la-mode (1745; executed by French artists under Hogarth's inspection), and The Stage Coach or The Country Inn Yard (1747).\n\nIn 1745 Hogarth painted a self-portrait with his pug dog (now also in Tate Britain), which shows him as a learned artist supported by volumes of Shakespeare, Milton and Swift.  In 1749, he represented the somewhat disorderly English troops on their March of the Guards to Finchley (formerly Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now Foundling Museum).\n\nOthers were his ingenious Satire on False Perspective (1753); his satire on canvassing in his Election series (1755\u20131758; now in Sir John Soane's Museum); his ridicule of the English passion for cockfighting in The Cockpit (1759); his attack on Methodism in Credulity, Superstition, and Fanaticism (1762); his political anti-war satire in The Times, plate I (1762); and his pessimistic view of all things in Tailpiece, or The Bathos (1764).\n\nWriting\nHogarth also wrote and published his ideas of artistic design in his book The Analysis of Beauty (1753). In it, he professes to define the principles of beauty and grace which he, a real child of Rococo, saw realized in serpentine lines (the Line of Beauty).\n\nAnalysis\n\nPainter and engraver of modern moral subjects \nHogarth lived in an age when artwork became increasingly commercialized and viewed in shop windows, taverns and public buildings and sold in printshops. Old hierarchies broke down, and new forms began to flourish: the ballad opera, the bourgeois tragedy, and especially, a new form of fiction called the novel with which authors such as Henry Fielding had great success. Therefore, by that time, Hogarth hit on a new idea: \"painting and engraving modern moral subjects ... to treat my subjects as a dramatic writer; my picture was my stage\", as he himself remarked in his manuscript notes. \n\nHe drew from the highly moralizing Protestant tradition of Dutch genre painting, and the very vigorous satirical traditions of the English broadsheet and other types of popular print. In England the fine arts had little comedy in them before Hogarth. His prints were expensive, and remained so until early nineteenth-century reprints brought them to a wider audience.\n\nParodic borrowings from the Old Masters \n\nWhen analyzing the work of the artist as a whole, Ronald Paulson, the modern authority on Hogarth, sees an accomplished parodist at work, and a subversive. He says, \"In A Harlot's Progress, every single plate but one is based on D\u00fcrer's images of the story of the Virgin and the story of the Passion.\" In other works, he parodies Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper. According to Paulson, Hogarth is subverting the religious establishment and the orthodox belief in an immanent God who intervenes in the lives of people and produces miracles. Indeed, Hogarth was a Deist, a believer in a God who created the universe but takes no direct hand in the lives of his creations. Thus, as a \"comic history painter\", he often poked fun at the old-fashioned, \"beaten\" subjects of religious art in his paintings and prints. Hogarth also rejected Lord Shaftesbury's then current ideal of the classical Greek male in favor of the living, breathing female. He said, \"Who but a bigot, even to the antiques, will say that he has not seen faces and necks, hands and arms in living women, that even the Grecian Venus doth but coarsely imitate.\"\n\nInfluence and Reputation \nHis satirical engravings are often considered an important ancestor of the comic strip.\n\nHogarth's work were a direct influence on John Collier, who was known as the \"Lancashire Hogarth\".\n\nHogarth's paintings and prints have provided the subject matter for several other works. For example, Igor Stravinsky's opera The Rake's Progress, with libretto  by W. H. Auden, was inspired by Hogarth's series of paintings of that title. Russell Banks's short story, \"Indisposed,\" is a fictional account of Hogarth's infidelity as told from the viewpoint of his long-suffering wife, Jane.\n\nHogarth's House in Chiswick, West London, is now a museum (free entry); it abuts one of London's best known road junctions \u2013 the Hogarth Roundabout.\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography \n\n Fort, Bernadette, and Angela Rosenthal, The Other Hogarth: Aesthetics of Difference. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2003.\n Peter Quennell, Hogarth's Progress (London, New York 1955)\n Frederick Antal, Hogarth and His Place in European Art (London 1962)\n David Bindman, Hogarth (London 1981)\n Ronald Paulson, Hogarth's Graphic Works (3rd edn, London 1989)\n Ronald Paulson, Hogarth, 3 vols. (New Brunswick 1991-93)\n Jenny Uglow, Hogarth: A Life and a World (London 1997)\n Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Og\u00e9e and Peter Wagner, eds., William Hogarth: Theater and the Theater of Life (Los Angeles, 1997)\n Sean Shesgreen, Hogarth 101 Prints. New York: Dover, 1973.\n Sean Shesgreen, Hogarth and the Times-of-the-Day Tradition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1983 \n Hans-Peter Wagner, William Hogarth: Das graphische Werk (Saarbr\u00fccken, 1998) \n David Bindman, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Og\u00e9e and Peter Wagner, eds. Hogarth: Representing Nature's Machines (Manchester, 2001)\n Christine Riding and Mark Hallet, \"Hogarth\" (Tate Publishing, London, 2006)\n Robin Simon, Hogarth, France and British Art: The rise of the arts in eighteenth-century Britain (London, 2007)\n\n\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0938\u0901\nEnglish school of painting\n\u092c\u0947\u0932\u093e\u092f\u0924\u0940 \u092a\u0947\u0923\u094d\u091f\u0930\u0924\u0947\u0917\u0941 \u0927\u0932\u0903\n\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u091f\u093f\u0936 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u091f\n\u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092f\u093e \u091b\u0947\u0902\nFalse perspective (Hogarth)\n\n\u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u0930\u0940\n\n\u092a\u093f\u0928\u0947\u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092a\u0942\n\n William Hogarth Archives (130 images from the collection of the University of Wales, Lampeter)\n William Hogarth and 18th-Century Print Culture\n The Site for Research on William Hogarth\n Print series in detail\n 'Hogarth's London', lecture by Robin Simon at Gresham College, 8th October 2007 (available for download as MP3, MP4 or text files)\n Museumsportal Schleswig-Holstein\n Hogarth exhibition at Tate Britain (7 Feb - 29 April 2007)\n \"The Analysis of Beauty\" tribute by Disinformation\n Location of Hogarth's grave on Google Maps\nHogarth's The Rake's Progress and other of his works\n\nEnglish artists\nEnglish painters\nEnglish caricaturists\nBritish caricaturists\nEnglish cartoonists\nEnglish engravers\nEnglish illustrators\nEnglish printmakers\nFellows of the Royal Society of Arts\nPeople from London\n\u0967\u096c\u096f\u096d\u092f\u094d \u092c\u0941\u0917\u0941\n\u0967\u096d\u096c\u096a\u092f\u094d \u092e\u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\n\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940, \u0936\u0940\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0935 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-20":1}},"id":299,"url":"https:\/\/new.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%20%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5","title":"\u0935\u093f\u0932\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925","language":"new"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A political party is an organized group of people or bodies who seek to capture political power through an election in order to run the affairs of a country. It often puts forward candidates for public office. In a democracy, leaders must \"run for office\" in an election. In a dictatorship, there is generally only one party allowed, that can approve a new leader without non-members having a choice.\n\nAbout \nA political party is similar to a faction, and can be the same thing. In some systems, members of one party in the legislature are all expected to vote the same way. The laws written by the party or faction with the majority of votes become adopted by the country, so this means whatever party is elected to over half the seats, gets to run the government. The next largest party is often called the \"opposition\". Sometimes when there are more than two parties with seats, no one party has over half of the seats. Then two or more parties might join to form what is called a \"coalition\".\n\nSome parties are formed around a single issue or interest group. Others form policies to address all matters of government, known as a \"platform\".\n\nMany political parties have a set of ideas and beliefs (called its \"ideology\"). People often describe these ideologies using words such as \"conservative\" and \"liberal\".\n\nCommon ideologies include environmentalism, socialism (ranging from social democracy to Marxism and Communism), conservatism, democracy, liberalism, and nationalism.\n\nThe law \n\nPolitical parties can be against the law in some places. When some parties get a lot of power, they can make all other political parties illegal. For example, the Nazi Party did this in Germany, and the Communist Party did it in several countries. Some countries make extreme-right parties illegal (such as Vlaams Blok in Belgium). At other times, countries have outlawed far-left parties. For example, West Germany banned the Communist Party in 1956.\n\nA handful of countries like China, North Korea and Cuba still have one-party dictatorships. In a few other dictatorships, such as Saudi Arabia, all political parties are banned and there is no parliament at all.\n\nImportance in all big democracies \n\nIn all big democratic countries, parties are very important. But there are a few very small countries, such as the island of Jersey, where most politicians do not belong to any party and where parties do not matter much.\n\nIn some democracies, there are only two big political parties. For example, in the United States, there is the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. Some other parties exist but are very small and do not hold seats in Congress.\n\nIn other countries there are larger numbers of parties. In the German federal Parliament (or Bundestag), six parties have seats. In the United Kingdom, there are two big parties, one medium-sized party, and many small ones.\n\nParties in each country \n\n List of political parties in Australia\n List of political parties in Canada\n List of political parties in France\n List of political parties in Germany\n List of political parties in Malaysia\n List of political parties in New Zealand\n List of political parties in Pakistan\n List of political parties in the United Kingdom\n List of political parties in the United States","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":181,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":4,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":606,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Political%20party","title":"Political party","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Charles Antoine Lemaire (1 November 1800, in Paris \u2013 22 June 1871, in Paris), was a French botanist and botanical author, noted for his publications on Cactaceae.\n\nEducation\nBorn the son of Antoine Charles Lemaire and Marie Jeanne Davio, he had an excellent early education, and acquired the reputation of being an outstanding scholar. He studied at the University of Paris and was appointed as Professor of Classical Literature there. At some stage his botanical interest was sparked and developed by his association with M. Neumann, horticulturist at the Museum of Natural History.\n\nCareer\nHe worked for some time as an assistant to M. Mathieu, at a nursery in Paris, building up a collection of Cactaceae, a group to which he would devote almost all of his life. In 1835, M. Cousin, a Parisian publisher, started a gardening journal and requested that he be its editor. For a number of years, he remained editor of Jardin Fleuriste and L'Horticulteur Universel, contributing greatly to the content. During this period his principal artist was Jean-Christophe Heyland (1792-1866). In 1845 Lemaire moved to Ghent as editor of the journal Flore des Serres et des Jardins de l'Europe, started by Louis van Houtte. In 1854 he turned to editing L'Illustration Horticole, also in Ghent and owned by Ambroise Verschaffelt, and stayed there until 1870 when he returned to Paris where he died in June 1871.\n\nIn addition to his enormous contributions to the journals he edited, Lemaire also published numerous papers on the Cactaceae and succulents. Some of these are Cactearum aliquot novarum (1838); Cactearum genera nova speciesque novae (1839); Iconographie descriptive des Cact\u00e9es (1841\u20131847); and Les plantes grasses (1869). One of the notable genera he named was Schlumbergera which contains the well-known Christmas Cactus. He never published a major work on the Cactaceae, despite having collected all the material and a wealth of experience. He always lived in semi-poverty and never attracted the attention of a wealthy sponsor.  \u00c9douard Andr\u00e9 (1840\u20131911), who succeeded him as editor of L'Illustration Horticole, felt that \"Posterity will esteem M. Lemaire more highly than did his contemporaries.\"\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n\nBotanists with author abbreviations\nFrench botanical writers\n1800 births\n1871 deaths\nFrench male non-fiction writers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":228,"dup_dump_count":21,"dup_details":{"2024-30":27,"2024-26":21,"2024-22":15,"2024-18":21,"2024-10":6,"2023-50":16,"2023-40":15,"2023-23":15,"2023-14":21,"2023-06":5,"2022-49":6,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":5,"2022-21":7,"2022-05":7,"2021-49":9,"2021-43":8,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":7,"2021-25":6,"2021-21":5}},"id":15961617,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles%20Antoine%20Lemaire","title":"Charles Antoine Lemaire","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An emoticon () is a written symbol, often as 2 or 3 punctuation characters, that stands for the writer's mood or facial expression. Some examples are: a smile \":-)\" or wink \";-)\" or frown \":(\" or dog nose \":O\" or le meme arrow \">\" (see many other examples in text below). Emoticons are often used to tell a reader about the general tone of a statement, and can change or improve the reading of plain writing. Over the years, many kinds of emoticons have been created, and now there are hundreds of known emoticons. The word \"emoticon\" is a blend of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon. In web forums,  instant messengers and online games, text emoticons are often automatically replaced with small pictures, which came to be called emoticons as well. Certain complex character combinations can only be accomplished in a double-byte language, giving rise to very complex forms, sometimes known by their romanized Japanese name of kaomoji.\n\nThe use of emoticons can be traced back to the 19th century, and they were commonly used in casual or humorous writing. In 1912, a smiling mouth (or snigger point) was shown in typewriter text as \"\\___\/!\". Digital forms of emoticons on the Internet were written in an email during 1982.\n\nHistory\n\nAntecedents\n\nIn April 1857, the National Telegraphic Review and Operators Guide wrote about the use of the number 73 in Morse code to mean \"love and kisses\" (later changed to \"best regards\"). A few years later, Dodge's Manual talked about a new way to show \"love and kisses\", the number 88.\n\nA New York Times transcript of an 1862 speech given by Abraham Lincoln contains \";)\" (now known as a winky-face). There is some debate as to whether it is a typo, a legitimate form of punctuation, or an emoticon.\n\nTypographical emoticons were published in 1881 by the U.S. satirical magazine Puck. In 1912, Ambrose Bierce created something called a \"snigger point\". \"It is written thus \\___\/! and presents a smiling mouth.\"\n\nEmoticons had already come into use in sci-fi fandom in the 1940s, although there seems to have been a lapse in cultural continuity between the communities.\n\nIn 1963 the \"smiley face\", a yellow button with two black dots representing eyes and an upturned thick curve representing a mouth, was created by freelance artist Harvey Ball. This smiley probably inspired many later emoticons; the most basic picture that shows this is in fact a small yellow smiley face.\n\nIn a New York Times interview in April 1969, Alden Whitman asked writer Vladimir Nabokov: \"How do you rank yourself among writers (living) and of the immediate past?\"  Nabokov answered: \"I often think there should exist a special typographical sign for a smile \u2013 some sort of concave mark, a supine round bracket, which I would now like to trace in reply to your question.\"\n\nPre-1980 emoticons\nAs early early as 1973 or earlier, teletype machine users used \"emoticons\" to express themselves. Teletypes were limited to the keys of a standard typewriter keyboard plus a few special characters. Teletype operators developed a sort of shorthand to communicate among themselves. These shorthand notations became the foundation of \"emoticons\" as video terminals began to replace teletypes in general use.\n\nBy the early 1970s, people on the PLATO System were using emoticons. They had many of the advantages of later character-based emoticons because they could be used anywhere that you could type text. They also had many of the advantages of later graphical emoticons because they used character overstriking which created graphical images.\n\nSeveral Internet websites \u2013such as BT's Connected Earth\u2013 assert that Kevin Mackenzie proposed -) as a joke-marker in April 1979, on the  MsgGroup ARPANET mailing list. The idea was to indicate tongue-in-cheek, with the hyphen represented a tongue, not a nose:\n\n15-Apr-79 12:05:26-PST,1142;000000000000\nMail-from: MIT-MC rcvd at 12-Apr-79 1740-PST\nDate: 12 APR 1979 1736-PST\nFrom: MACKENZIE at USC-ECL\nSubject: MSGGROUP#1015  METHICS and the Fast Draw(cont'd)\nTo:   ~drxal-had at OFFICE-1\ncc:   msggroup at MIT-MC, malasky at PARC-MAXC\n   \nIn regard to your message a few days ago concerning the loss\nof meaning in this medium:\n    \nI am new here, and thus hesitate to comment, but I too have\nsuffered from the lack of tone, gestures, facial expressions\netc. May I suggest the beginning of a solution? Perhaps we could\nextend the set of punctuation we use, i.e:\n\nIf I wish to indicate that a particular sentence is meant\nwith tongue-in-cheek, I would write it so:\n    \n         \"Of course you know I agree with all the current\n         administration's policies -).\"\n    \n         The \"-)\" indicates tongue-in-cheek.\n    \nThis idea is not mine, but stolen from a Reader's Digest article\nI read long ago on a completely different subject. I'm sure there\nare many other, better ways to improve our punctuation.\n    \nAny comments?\n    \nKevin\n\nOthers used :-) for tongue-in-cheek, with the colon representing teeth. Also used was -:) to indicate sticking out your tongue, in derision or anger. Although similar to a sideways smiling face, the intended interpretation was different and this does not appear to have inspired the later smileys.\n\nIn the late sixties, the APL programming language and timesharing environment, with its rich character set with backspace and overstrike capability provided a fruitful arena for interactive and creative symbol invention. Union-backspace-dieresis (\u222a\u0308) was a recognised and upright smiley in the early seventies.\n\nCreation of :-) and :-(\nThe first person documented to have used the emoticons :-) and :-(, with a specific suggestion that they be used to express emotion, was Scott Fahlman in the U.S. at Carnegie Mellon University; the text of his original proposal, posted to the Carnegie Mellon University computer science general board on 19 September 1982 (11:44), was thought to have been lost, but was recovered twenty years later by Jeff Baird from old backup tapes.\n\n19-Sep-82 11:44    Scott E  Fahlman             :-)\nFrom: Scott E  Fahlman <Fahlman at Cmu-20c>\n \nI propose that the following character sequence for joke markers:\n        \n:-)\n       \nRead it sideways.  Actually, it is probably more economical to mark\nthings that are NOT jokes, given current trends.  For this, use\n        \n:-(\n\nWithin a few months, it had spread to the ARPANET (the early Internet) and \nUsenet.  Many variations on the theme were immediately suggested by Scott and others.\n\nGraphical  replacement\nIn web forums, instant messengers and online games, text emoticons are often automatically replaced with small corresponding images, which also came to be called \"Emoticons.\" Similarly, in some versions of Microsoft Word, the Auto Correct feature replaces basic smileys such as :-) and :-( with a single smiley-like character. Originally, these image emoticons were fairly simple and replaced only the most straightforward and common character sequences, but over time they became so complex that the more specialized emoticons are often input using a menu or popup windows, sometimes listing hundreds of items. Emoticons have also expanded beyond simple cartoon facial expressions to a variety of still or moving images. Some of these graphical emoticons do not actually represent faces or emotions; for example, an \"emoticon\" showing a guitar might be used to represent music. Further, some instant messaging software is designed to play a sound upon receiving certain emoticons.\n\nMany applications use text codes, which become replaced with a graphical emoticon. For example, :dance: or (dance) could be replaced with a graphical dancing emoticon. A web-forum software package which performed this transformation was Proxicom Forum, developed in 1996.\n\nAn August 2004 issue of the Risks Digest (comp.risks on USENET) pointed out a problem with such features which are not under the sender's control:\nIt's hard to know in advance what character-strings will be parsed into what kind of unintended image. A colleague was discussing his 401(k) plan with his boss, who happens to be female, via instant messaging. He discovered, to his horror, that the boss's instant-messaging client was rendering the \"(k)\" as a big pair of red smoochy lips.\n\nMany sites use GIF or PNG graphic files, because of their transparency and small file size capabilities. Files can be created using a raster graphics editor. Many emoticon artists design their emoticons pixel by pixel. Some emoticons are made in vector format, such as SVG, and automatically processed using a graphics library. This allows SVG files to be automatically rendered as a GIF or PNG file, which is compatible with most browsers, which SVG is not.\n\nWestern style\nTraditionally, the emoticon in Western style is written from left to right, the way one reads and writes in most Western cultures. Thus, most commonly, emoticons have the eyes on the left, followed by the nose and mouth. To more easily recognize them, tilt your head toward your left shoulder (or occasionally toward your right shoulder if the \"top\" of the emoticon is toward the right).\n\nCommon western examples\n\nThe most basic emoticons are relatively consistent in form, but each of them can also be transformed by being rotated (making them tiny ambigrams), with or a without hyphen (nose).\nThere are also some possible variations to emoticons to get new definitions, like changing a character to express a new feeling, or slightly change the mood of the emoticon. For example, :( equals sad and :(( equals very sad or weeping. A :\"> blush can be expressed as :\"u blushing for you or a surprised blush, o\/\/\/o . Others include wink ;) a grin :D smug :-> and tongue out :P for disgust or simply just to stick the tongue out for silliness, such as when blowing a raspberry. An often used combination is also <3 for a heart, and <\/3 for a broken heart. A cute and sometimes gamine smile can be expressed like this: :3\n\nVariation\n\nAn equal sign is often used for the eyes in place of the colon, without changing the meaning of the emoticon. In these instances, the hyphen is almost always either omitted or, occasionally, replaced with an 'o' as in =O) . In most circles it has become acceptable to omit the hyphen, whether a colon or an equal sign is used for the eyes, e.g. :) . In some areas of usage, people prefer the larger, more traditional emoticon :-) . In general, similar-looking characters are commonly substituted for one another: for instance, o, O, and 0 can all be used interchangeably, sometimes for subtly different effect. In some cases, one type of character may look better in a certain font and therefore be preferred over another.\n\nSome variants are also more common in certain countries because of reasons like keyboard layouts, for example the smiley =) is common in Scandinavia where the keys for = and ) are placed right beside each other. Also, sometimes, the user can replace the brackets used for the mouth with other, similar shapes, such as ] and [ instead of ) and ( .\n\nDiacritical marks are sometimes used. An O or U with an umlaut, \u00d6, \u00dc can be seen as an emoticon, as the upright version of :O (meaning that one is surprised) and :D (meaning that one is very happy). nwn (Meaning one is super happy).\n\nAsian style\nUsers from East Asia popularized a style of emoticons that can be understood without tilting one's head to the left. This style arose on ASCII NET of Japan in 1986. Similar looking emoticons were used by Byte Information Exchange (BIX) around the same time.\n\nThese emoticons are usually found in a format similar to (*_*). The asterisks indicate the eyes; the central character, commonly an underscore, the mouth; and the parentheses, the outline of the face. Two separate studies, in 2007 at Hokkaido University and in 2009 at Glasgow University, showed that Japanese and other East Asians read facial expressions by looking mainly at the eyes, and the researchers noted that this is reflected in East Asian emoticons which put emphasis on the eyes, compared to Western emoticons which emote mainly with the mouth.\n\nDifferent emotions such as (\")(-_-)(\"), are expressed by changing the character representing the eyes, for example ' T ' can be used to express crying or sadness (T_T). The emphasis on the eyes is reflected in the common usage of emoticons that use only the eyes, e.g. ^^. Looks of stress are represented by the likes of (x_x) while (-_-;) is a generic emote for nervousness, the semicolon indicating sweat that occurs during anxiety. Repeating the \/\/\/ mark (\/\/\/) can indicate embarrassment by symbolizing blushing. Characters like hyphens or periods can replace the underscore; the period is often used for a smaller, \"cuter\" mouth or to represent a nose, e.g. (^.^). Alternatively, the mouth\/nose can be left out entirely, e.g. (^^). The parentheses also can often be replaced with braces, e.g. {^_^}. Many times, the parentheses are left out completely, e.g. ^^, >.<, o_O, O.O, <.<;, though this is more likely in Western culture. A quotation mark \", apostrophe ', or semicolon ; can be added to the emoticon to imply apprehension or embarrassment, in the same way that a sweat drop is used in anime.\n\nMicrosoft IME 2002 (Japanese) or later supports the use of both forms of emoticons by enabling Microsoft IME Spoken Language Dictionary. In IME 2007, it was moved to Emoticons dictionary.\n\nFurther variations of emoticons may be produced by using Combining characters, e.g. \u033c\u2302\u033a\u035b\u1d16\u0332\u033f\u1d25\u0332\u033f\u1d16\u033a\u035b\u2302\u033c and \u0669(\u0361\u0e4f\u032f\u0361\u0e4f)\u06f6 .\n\nCommon eastern examples\n\nAll of these can be used also with [ ] instead of ( ), or without the parentheses at all in some of the cases\n\nKorean Style\nIn South Korea, emoticons using Korean Hangul letters have been getting popular lately as well. Korean styles of face emoticons are similar to those of Japan's, but they contain Korean jamos (letters) instead of other characters. There are countless number of emoticons that can be formed with such combinations of Korean jamos, but popular choices include letter \u3145 or \u3142 as the mouth\/nose component and \u3147,\u314e,\u314d for the eyes. For example: \u3147\u3145\u3147, \u3147\u3142\u3147, -\u3145-, \u3161\u3161, \u31616\u3161. Faces such as '\u3145', \"\u3145\", '\u3142','\u3147', using quotation marks \" and apostrophes ' are also commonly used combinations. Vowel jamos such as \u315c,\u3160 can be used in substitute to T, when depicting a crying face. Example: \/\/\u3145\/\/, \u315c_\u315c, \u3160_\u3160. Sometimes the underscore is omitted, and the two letters can be mixed together, as in \u315c_\u3160, \u3161^\u315c, \u315c\u3147\u3161 . Also, semicolons are used a lot in Korean emoticons. Example: \u3161\u3161;;;;, \u3147\u3145\u3147;;;, \u3142\u3147\u3142;, \u314e\u3147\u314e;;;;.\n-_-\nSingle or multiple ; (Semicolons) are often used together with faces depicting embarrassment, for an added effect. Also, other characters may be added to indicate hands, similar to the Japanese emoticons; but usually they are only attached on the right. Example: -\u3145-a (scratching one's head), '\u3145'b (Thumbs up), '\u3145'\u3157 (The finger)\n\nIn some cases, like \u314e_\u314e, the emoticon can mean an emotion even when it is not depicting a face of any specific emotion. Letters \u314e and \u314b are widely used in Korean internet as a sign of laughter (similar to the usage of \"w\" in Japanese Web)for example \u314b\u3147\u314b, \u314e\u3147\u314e, \u314b\u3145\u314b, \u314b-\u314b, \u314e_\u314e; and so the emoticons using those letters as the eye component can be interpreted as a laughing face.\n\nAlso, \u3147\u3148\u3134 is a Korean version of Orz - although OTL is used more often- depicting a man kneeling down.\n\nWestern use of East Asian style\nEnglish-language anime forums adopted those emoticons that could be used with the standard ASCII characters available on western keyboards. Because of this, they are often called \"anime style\" emoticons in the English-speaking Internet. They have since seen use in more mainstream venues, including online gaming, instant-messaging, and other non-anime related forums. Emoticons such as <(^.^)>,<(^_^<),<(o_o<),<( -'.'- )>,<('.'-^),(.\u3145.), which include the parentheses, mouth or nose, and arms (especially those represented by the inequality signs < or >) also are often referred to as \"Kirbies\" in reference to their likeness to Nintendo's video game character, Kirby.  The parentheses are usually dropped when used in the English language context, and the underscore of the mouth may be extended as an intensifier, e.g. ^__^ for very happy.  People also use >< or : ). Usually on MSN, people use O.O or : ( \"Screw you\" is represented by a smiley showing middle finger(s) .!._(\u00d2_\u00f3)_.!..\n\nMixture of Western and East Asian style\nExposure to both Western and East Asian style emoticons or emoji through web blogs, instant messaging, and forums featuring a blend of Western and Asian pop culture, has given rise to emoticons that have an upright viewing format. The parentheses are similarly dropped in the English language context and the emoticons only use alphanumeric characters and the most commonly used English punctuation marks. Emoticons such as -O-, -3-, -w-, '_', ;_;, T_T, :>, and .V., are used to convey mixed emotions that are more difficult to convey with traditional emoticons. Characters are sometimes added to emoticons to convey an anime or manga-styled sweat drop, for example: ^_^' or !>_<! or ^3^' or v3v; as well as: <@>_<@>;; ;O; and *u*\nThe equal sign can also be used for closed, anime looking eyes, for example: =0=, =3=, =w=, =A=\n\nThere are also more faces along those lines like >o<; using the ; as a sweat mark, and the \"o\" as a mouth, and the inequality signs as the eyes, it shows stress, or slight confusion. The amount of emoticons that can be made are limitless, and all have their own meaning.\n\nIn Brazil, sometimes combining character (accent) are added to emoticons to represent eyebrows, like: \u00f2_\u00f3 or \u00f3_\u00f2 or \u00f5_o or \u00f9_u or o_\u00d4. They can also replace (or add) \"=\" or \":\" by \">\", example: >D or >=D or >P or >:P or >3 or >:3.\n\n2channel style\nThe Japanese language is usually encoded using double-byte character codes. As a result, there is a bigger variety of characters that can be used in emoticons, many of which cannot be reproduced in ASCII. Most kaomoji contain Cyrillic and other foreign letters to create even more complicated expressions analogous to ASCII art's level of complexity. To type such emoticons, the input editor that is used to type Japanese on a user's system has a dictionary of emoticons, after which the user simply types the Japanese word (or something close to it) that represents the desired emoticon to convert the input into such complicated emoticons. Such expressions are known as Shift JIS art.\n\nUsers of 2channel in particular have developed a wide variety of unique emoticons using obscure characters. Some have taken on a life of their own and become characters in their own right, like Mona.\n\nPosture emoticons\n\nOrz\nOrz (also seen as Or2, on_, OTZ, OTL, STO, JTO, _no, _\u5182\u25cb, \u56e7rz, O7Z, _|7O, Sto, and Jto) is a Japanese emoticon representing a kneeling or bowing person, with the \"o\" being the head, the \"r\" being the arms and part of the body, and the \"z\" being part of the body and the legs. This stick figure represents failure and despair. It is also commonly used for representing a great admiration (sometimes with an overtone of sarcasm) for someone else's view or action.\n\nIt was first used in late 2002 at the forum on Techside, Japanese personal website. At the \"Techside FAQ Forum\" (TECHSIDE\u6559\u3048\u3066\u541bBBS(\u6559\u3048\u3066BBS) ), a poster asked about a cable cover, typing \"_| \u0304|\u25cb\" to show a cable and its cover. Others commented that it looked like a kneeling person, and the symbol became popular. These comments were soon deleted as they were considered off-topic. However, one of the first corresponding reactions can be found on the thread on , on December 23, 2002. By 2005, Orz spawned a subculture: blogs have been devoted to the emoticon, and URL shortening services have been named after it. In Taiwan, Orz is associated with the phrase \"nice guy\"\u2013that is, the concept of males being rejected for a date by girls they are pursuing with a phrase like \"You are a nice guy.\"\n\nOrz should not be confused with m(_\u00a0_)m, which means an apology.\n\nMultimedia variations\nA portmanteau of emotion and sound, an emotisound is a brief sound transmitted and played back during the viewing of a message, typically an IM message or e-mail message. The sound is intended to communicate an emotional subtext. Many instant messaging clients automatically trigger sound effects in response to specific emoticons.\n\nSome services, such as MuzIcons, combine emoticons and Adobe Flash music player in a widget.\n\nIn 2004, The Trillian chat application introduced an feature called \"emotiblips\", which allows Trillian users to stream files to their instant message recipients \"as the voice and video equivalent of an emoticon\".\n\nIn 2007, MTV and Paramount Home Entertainment promoted the \"emoticlip\" as a form of viral marketing for the second season of the show The Hills. The emoticlips were twelve short snippets of dialogue from the show, uploaded to YouTube, which the advertisers hoped would be distributed between web users as a way of expressing feelings in a similar manner to emoticons. The emoticlip concept is credited to the Bradley & Montgomery advertising firm, which hopes they would be widely adopted as \"greeting cards that just happen to be selling something\".\n\nIn 2008 an emotion-sequence animation tool, called FunIcons was created. The Adobe Flash and Java-based application allows users to create a short animation. Users can then email or save their own animations to use them on similar social utility applications.\n\nEmoticons and intellectual property rights\n\nIn 2000 Despair, Inc. obtained a U.S. trademark registration for the \"frowny\" emoticon :-( when used on \"greeting cards, posters and art prints.\" In 2001, they issued a satirical press release, announcing that they would sue Internet users who typed the frowny; the joke backfired and the company received a storm of protest when its mock release was posted at technology news website Slashdot.  They subsequently issued another press release a month later in response to the reaction their claim had generated.\n\nA number of patent applications have been filed on inventions that assist in communicating with emoticons.  A few of these have issued as US patents. U.S. patent 6987991, for example, discloses a method developed in 2001 to send emoticons over a cell phone using a drop down menu.  The stated advantage over the prior art was that the user saved on the number of keystrokes though this may not address the obviousness criteria.\n\nIn Finland, the emoticons :-), =), =(, :) and :( were trademarked in 2006 for use with various products and services. The emoticon :-) was also filed in 2006 and registered in 2008 as a European Community Trademark (CTM).\n\nIn 2008, Russian entrepreneur Oleg Teterin claimed to have been granted the trademark on the ;-) emoticon. A license would not \"cost that much - tens of thousands of dollars\" for companies, but would be free of charge for individuals.\n\nIn 2010 in the United Kingdom, the British chocolate company Meltwater Chocolate filed a trademark application for a series of two marks :D and :-D in class 30, covering chocolate and confectionery.\n\nRelated pages\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\n \n Wolf, Alecia. 2000. \"Emotional Expression Online: Gender Differences in Emoticon Use.\" CyberPsychology & Behavior 3: 827-833.\n\nOther websites\n\nExamples\n\n List of AOL messenger emoticons\n List of Gmail chat emoticons \n List of MSN messenger emoticons \n List of Yahoo messenger emoticons \n List of deviantART community emoticons \n A community effort to categorize and distribute emoticons\n\nJapanese emoticons\n 2-byte Japanese emoticons\n Anikaos Japanese Anime emoticons list \n Article - A Guide to Anime Emoticons  - Western usage of kaomoji\n Koto Phone in Japan - Flickr set - Example of default kaomoji on Japanese cell phone\n List of Microsoft Office Input Method Editor emoticons \n\nInternet culture\nInternet slang\nSymbols","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":133,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":3,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"unknown":19}},"id":264055,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emoticon","title":"Emoticon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Kennelly\u2013Heaviside layer, also known as the E-region, is part of the ionosphere.  It is a region which is between 90\u00a0km and 150\u00a0km from the earth's surface.  It is named after the American engineer  Arthur Edwin Kennelly and the British scientist Oliver Heaviside.  These two scientists both predicted that this area existed, although it was not until some years later that it was proved.\n\nIn the Kennelly-Heaviside layer neutral molecules are split into electrons and positively charged molecules.  Radio waves can be bounced off this region so that long-distance radio messages can be sent over long distances around the curved surface of the earth.  This was why Marconi had been able to send radio messages across the Atlantic in 1902, although it was not understood at the time.\n\nReferences\nThe New Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica vol 4, 15th edition, 1986, \n\nRadio\nLayers of Earth's atmosphere\n\nru:\u0418\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0430#\u0421\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u0415","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":320699,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kennelly-Heaviside%20layer","title":"Kennelly-Heaviside layer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"B\u00e9ntang t\u00e9h hartina raga plasma di luar angkasa nu ngahasilkeun \u00e9nergi tina fusi inti. Teu kawas plan\u00e9t, nu cahyana mangrupa pantulan, b\u00e9ntang mah mencarkeun cahya t\u00e9h alatan panasna anu kacida. Sacara ilmiah, b\u00e9ntang didefinisikeun salaku bal plasma self-gravitating dina kasatimbangan hidrostatik, nu ngahasilkeun \u00e9nergina sorangan tina pros\u00e9s fusi inti. B\u00e9ntang 'leutik' samod\u00e9l Panonpo\u00e9 umumna boga permukaan anu kaciri polos jeung boga starspots anu leutik. B\u00e9ntang nu leuwih badag (raksasa) boga starspot anu leuwih ged\u00e9 jeung leuwih jelas. Salian ti \u00e9ta permukaanana nunjukkeun stellar limb-darkening anu leuwih kuat (stellar limb-darkening t\u00e9h caangna b\u00e9ntang beuki ka gigir kaciri beuki poek). Stellar astronomy nya\u00e9ta studi bentang-bentang.\n\nkab\u00e9h b\u00e9ntang (kacuali Panonpo\u00e9) kaciri ku panon manusa jiga titik cahya di langit peuting, anu kelap-kelip lantaran efek atmosfer planet bumi. Teleskop Interferometer dibutuhkeun pikeun ngahasilkeun gambar-gambar objek-objek eta. Panonpo\u00e9 kaasup b\u00e9ntang og\u00e9, ngan lantaran deukeut pisan jarakna jadina kaciri jiga piringan, jeung nyadiakeun cahaya panonpo\u00e9.\n\nB\u00e9ntang-b\u00e9ntang di alam semesta t\u00e9h nyebarna teu rata, nanging biasana mah ngarumpul jadi galaksi-galaksi. Hiji galaksi biasana dibentuk ku ratusan milyar milyar b\u00e9ntang. Mayoritas b\u00e9ntang silih iket alatan gravitasi jeung b\u00e9ntang s\u00e9j\u00e9n, ngabentuk bintang kembar. Sedengkeun kumpulan b\u00e9ntang-b\u00e9ntang anu leuwih loba disebut klaster b\u00e9ntang.\n\nAstronom ngira-ngira paling saeutik aya 70 sextillion (7\u00d71022) b\u00e9ntang di alam semesta . Hartina aya 70 000 000 000 000 000 000 000, atawa 230 milyar kali leuwih loba batan 300 milyar di galaksi urang sorangan (galaksi Bima Sakti).\n\nLolobana bentang t\u00e9h umurna antara samilyar nepi ka 10 milyar taun. Sababaraha bentang umurna bisa nepi ka 13.7 milyar taun, nya\u00e9ta umur alam semesta nu ka ukur. (Tingal Big Bang theory jeung stellar evolution.) They range in size from the tiny neutron stars (which are actually d\u00e9ad stars) no bigger than a city, to supergiants like the North Star (Polaris) and Betelgeuse, in the Orion constellation, which have a diam\u00e9ter about 1,000 times larger than the Sun \u2014about 1.6 terametres. However, these have a much lower density than the Sun.\n\nOne of the most massive stars known is \u03b7 Carinae, with 100\u2013150 times as much mass as the Sun. Recent work by Donald Figer, an astronomer at the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, Maryland, suggests that 150 solar masses is the upper limit of stars in the current \u00e9ra of the universe. He used the Hubble Space Telescope to observe about a thousand stars in the Arches cluster, a massive young star cluster n\u00e9ar the core of the Milky Way, and found no stars over that limit despite a statistical expectation that there should be several. The r\u00e9ason for this limit is not precisely known, but the Eddington limit is part of the answer. The very first stars to form after the Big Bang may have been larger, up to 300 solar masses or more, due to the complete absence of elements h\u00e9avier than lithium in their composition. This generation of supermassive star is long extinct, however, and currently only th\u00e9oretical.\n\nWith a mass only 93 times that of Jupiter, AB Doradus C, a companion to AB Doradus A, is the smallest known star undergoing nucl\u00e9ar fusion in its core. Smaller bodies are brown dwarfs, which occupy a poorly-defined grey ar\u00e9a between stars and gas giants. The minimum mass a star can have is estimated to be in the vicinity of 75 Jupiters.\n\nThe energy produced by stars radiates into space as electromagnetic radiation, as a str\u00e9am of neutrinos from the star's core, and as a str\u00e9am of particles from the star's outer layers (its stellar wind). The p\u00e9ak frequency of the light depends on the temperature of the outer layers of the star. Besides the emitted visible light, the ultraviolet and infrared components are typically significant. The apparent brightness of a star is measured by its apparent magnitude.\n\nThe n\u00e9arest star to the \u00e9arth, apart from the Sun, is Proxima Centauri, which is 39.9 trillion kilom\u00e9ters, or 4.2 light years away (light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 y\u00e9ars to r\u00e9ach \u00e9arth). Travelling at the orbit speed of the Space Shuttle (5 miles per second\u2014almost 30,000 kilom\u00e9ters per hour), it would take about 150,000 y\u00e9ars to get there. Distances like this are typical inside galactic discs, where the Sun and \u00e9arth are located. Stars can be much closer to \u00e9ach other in the centres of galaxies and globular clusters, or much further apart in galactic halos.\n\nStar formation and evolution \nStar formation occurs in molecular clouds, large regions of high density in the interstellar medium (though still less dense than the inside of an \u00e9arthly vacuum chamber). Star formation begins with gravitational instability inside those clouds, often triggered by shockwaves from supernovae or collision of two galaxies (as in a starburst galaxy). High mass stars powerfully illuminate the clouds from which they formed. One example of such a nebula is the Orion Nebula.\n\nStars spend about 90% of their lifetime fusing hydrogen to produce helium in high-temperature and high-pressure r\u00e9actions n\u00e9ar the core. Such stars are said to be on the main sequence.\n\nSmall stars (called red dwarfs) burn their fuel very slowly and last tens to hundreds of billions of y\u00e9ars. At the end of their lives, they simply become dimmer and dimmer, fading into black dwarfs. However, since the lifespan of such stars is gr\u00e9ater than the current age of the universe (13.6 billion y\u00e9ars), no black dwarfs exist yet.\n\nAs most stars exhaust their supply of hydrogen, their outer layers expand and cool to form a red giant. In about 5 billion y\u00e9ars, when the Sun is a red giant, it will be so large that it will consume both Mercury and Venus. Eventually the core is compressed enough to start helium fusion, and the star h\u00e9ats up and contracts. Larger stars will also fuse h\u00e9avier elements, all the way to iron, which is the end point of the process. Since iron nuclei are more tightly bound than any h\u00e9avier nuclei, they cannot be fused to rel\u00e9ase energy. Likewise, since they are more tightly bound than all lighter nuclei, energy cannot be rel\u00e9ased by fission. In old, very massive stars, a large core of inert iron will accumulate in the center of the star.\n\nAn average-size star will then shed its outer layers as a planetary nebula. The core that remains will be a tiny ball of degenerate matter not massive enough for further fusion to take place, supported only by degeneracy pressure, called a white dwarf. These too will fade into black dwarfs over very long stretches of time.\n\nIn larger stars, fusion continues until an iron core accumulates that is too large to be supported by electron degeneracy pressure. This core will suddenly collapse as its electrons are driven into its protons, forming neutrons and neutrinos in a burst of inverse beta decay. The shockwave formed by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to explode in a supernova. Supernovae are so bright that they may briefly outshine the star's entire home galaxy. When they occur within the Milky Way, supernovae have historically been observed by naked-eye observers as \"new stars\" where none existed before. Eventually, most of the matter in a star is blown away by the explosion (forming nebulae such as the Crab Nebula) and what remains will be a neutron star (sometimes a pulsar or X-ray burster) or, in the case of the largest stars, a black hole.\n\nThe blown-off outer layers of dying stars include h\u00e9avy elements which may be recycled during new star formation. These h\u00e9avy elements allow the formation of rocky planets. The outflow from supernovae and the stellar wind of large stars play an important part in shaping the interstellar medium.\n\nStellar evolution explains how stars are cr\u00e9ated and die in gr\u00e9ater detail.\n\nStar classification \n\nThere are different classifications of stars ranging from type W which are very large and bright, to M which is often just large enough to start ignition of the hydrogen. Some of the more common classifications are O, B, A, F, G, K, M, and can perhaps be more \u00e9asily rememb\u00e9r\u00e9d using the mnemonic \"Oh, Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me\" (variant: change \"girl\" to \"guy\"), invented by Annie Jump Cannon (1863-1941). There are many other mnemonics for star classification; the most frequent addition tacks \"Right Now, Sweetheart\" for the red dwarf sub-types R, N and S. The new types L and T have also been recently appended to the end of the OBAFGKM sequence to classify the coldest low-mass stars and brown dwarfs, prompting such additions as \"Lovingly Tonight\" to the mnemonic.\n\n\u00e9ach letter has 9 subclassifications. Our Sun is a G2, which is very n\u00e9ar the middle in terms of quantities observed. Most stars fall into the main sequence which is a description of stars based on their absolute magnitude and spectral type. The Sun is taken as the prototypical star (not because it is special in any way, but because it is the closest and most studied star we have), and most characteristics of other stars are usually given in solar units. \nFor example, the mass of the Sun is\n\nMSun = 1.9891\u00d71030 kg\n\nThe masses of other stars can be given in terms of MSun.\n\nNaming of stars \n\nMost stars are identified only by catalogue numbers; only a few have names as such. \nThe names are either traditional names (mostly from Arabic), Flamsteed designations, or Bayer designations. The only body which has been recognized by the scientific community as having competence to name stars or other celestial bodies is the International Astronomical Union (IAU). A number of private companies (e.g. the \"International Star Registry\") purport to sell names to stars; however, these names are not recognized by the scientific community, nor used by them, and many in the astronomy community view these organizations as frauds preying on p\u00e9ople ignorant of how stars are in fact named.\n\nSee star designations for more information on how stars are named. For a list of traditional names, see the list of stars by constellation.\n\nNuclear fusion reaction pathways \n\nA variety of different nucl\u00e9ar fusion r\u00e9actions take place inside the cores of stars, depending upon their mass and composition (see Stellar nucleosynthesis).\n\nStars begin as a cloud of mostly hydrogen with about 25% helium and h\u00e9avier elements in smaller quantities. In the Sun, with a 107 K core, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton-proton chain:\n\n41H \u2192 22H + 2e+ + 2\u03bde (4.0 MeV + 1.0 MeV)\n21H + 22H \u2192 23He + 2\u03b3 (5.5 MeV)\n23He \u2192 4He + 21H (12.9 MeV)\n\nThese r\u00e9actions result in the overall r\u00e9action:\n\n41H \u2192 4He + 2e+ + 2\u03b3 + 2\u03bde (26.7 MeV)\n\nIn more massive stars, helium is produced in a cycle of r\u00e9actions catalyzed by carbon, the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle.\n\nIn stars with cores at 108 K and masses between 0.5 and 10 solar masses, helium can be transformed into carbon in the triple-alpha process:\n\n4He + 4He + 92 keV \u2192 8*Be\n4He + 8*Be + 67 keV \u2192 12*C\n12*C \u2192 12C + \u03b3 + 7.4 MeV\n\nFor an overall r\u00e9action of:\n\n34He \u2192 12C + \u03b3 + 7.2 MeV\n\nMitologi \nAs well as certain constellations and the Sun itself, stars as a whole have their own mythology. They were thought to be the souls of the d\u00e9ad, or gods\/goddesses.\n\nRujukan \n Cliff Pickover (2001). The Stars of Heaven. Oxford University Press\n John Gribbin & Mary Gribbin (2001). Stardust: Supernovae and Life \u2014 The Cosmic Connection. Yale University Press.\n\nBaca og\u00e9 \n Liang hideung\n Konst\u00e9lasi b\u00e9ntang\n Uy Scuti\n\nTumbu kaluar \n Images of starspots on the surface of Betelgeuse\n Find out what is known about any given star by entering its name or position\n Star Classification\n\nB\u00e9ntang\nAstronomi\nSumber cahaya","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":3549,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/B%C3%A9ntang","title":"B\u00e9ntang","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A skeleton is the hard structure that protects the internal organs of a living thing. Skeletons can be inside the body or outside the body. In mammals, which include humans, the skeleton is made of bones. All the bones, when they are joined together, make the \"skeletal system\" of a body. The skeletal system or \"skeleton\" is under the skin, the muscle and the tissue of the body. The skeleton supports the skin, muscle and tissue, and all the organs that are inside the body. The skeleton protects important internal organs like the brain, heart and lungs. If humans did not have a skeleton then the body would be flat as the skeleton gives the body its frame.\n\n Creatures that have skeletons inside their bodies are mammals, birds, reptiles and fish. A skeleton that is on the inside is called an endoskeleton.\n\n Some creatures, called arthropods, have skeletons outside their bodies. These are insects (like ants and bees), arachnids (spiders and scorpions), and crustaceans (sea creatures like crabs and lobsters). These creatures all have skeletons made of hard plates or shells. This kind of skeleton is called an exoskeleton \nA new born baby has 300 bones, but as they grow up to become an adult, their bones join together and the number lowers to 206 bones.\n\nHuman skeleton \n\n \n\nThe important parts of a human body are the head, the spine, the chest, the abdomen, the arms and hands, and the legs and feet.\n\nBones of the head \nThe head bones all together are called the skull. \n The skull is made of a group of curved bones fitted together like a ball, which protects the brain, the eyes and the inside parts of the ears. The bones of this part of the head, together, are called the cranium. \n The skull has a top jaw, and a bottom jaw, with teeth in them. The jaws are called the \"upper\" and \"lower\" mandibles. The \"lower mandible\" is moved by strong muscles so that the teeth can bite and chew food. \n There are several other small bones which make up the face. There are also several small bones in the front and side of the neck. \n The smallest bones in the body are three tiny bones inside the ear, which vibrate to help a person hear sounds.\n\nBones of the spine \nThe spine supports the head, the chest and the structure that carries the arms. It is made of small bones called vertebrae. The spine, all together, is called the spinal column. It is not straight, but has curves that help to support the body, and help the person to move and bend. One bone is a \"vertebra\". More than one are \"vertebrae\".\nThe \"vertebrae\" have different names, depending on the part of the body they are joined to. \n The neck vertebrae are called cervical vertebrae. (ser-vick-al ver-ta-bray)\n The chest vertebrae are called thoracic vertebrae. (thor-assic vert-ta-bray) \n The vertebrae of the \"lower back\" are called the lumbar vertebrae. \n The next vertebrae are joined together in a triangular shape called the sacrum. The hip bones are attached to the sacrum and support it. \n At the bottom of the \"sacrum\" are some little tail-bones. They are called the coccyx. On many animals the \"coccyxal vertebrae\" are long, making a tail that the animal can move, but on humans, apes and some other creatures, they are very short.\n\nBones of the pelvis \nThis part of the body is made of the sacrum and the two pelvic bones which are joined to it on either side. The pelvic bones are carried by the leg bones, and they support the \"spinal column\". Each pelvic bone has a strong structure for the leg bone to fit into, so that a person can stand, walk, run and jump. Each pelvic bone spreads into a large flat plate which supports the person's \"internal organs\". The pelvis of a woman spreads into a wider shape than a man's, so that when the woman is pregnant, the baby is supported by the pelvis, until it is ready to be born. At the bottom of the pelvis is a large opening, big enough for a baby to pass through.\n\nBones of the chest \nThe chest is called the thorax, and the vertebrae that are part of it are the thoracic vertebrae. The thorax is made up of long flat curved bones called ribs. At the back, the ribs are joined to the vertebrae. At the front, most of the ribs are joined to the sternum, which is often called the \"breast bone\". All together, the \"thorax\" protects the heart, lungs and stomach. \n\nAt the top of the \"thorax\" is the shoulder girdle. This is made of two thin horizontal bones at the front, joined to the \"sternum\". These two bones are called the clavicles or \"collar bones\". At the back of the \"thorax\" are two flat triangular-shaped bones called the scapulae, or \"shoulder blades\". The \"clavicles\" and \"scapulae\" come together on each side to make \"shoulders\". The bones of the arms fit into sockets (cup-like holes) in the \"scapulae\".\n\nBones of the limbs \nArms and legs both have a thicker bone at the top and two thinner bones at the bottom. They both have a rotating joint at the top, and a hinge joint in the middle. The hands and feet have lots of bones and are joined to the arms and legs by small bones with sliding parts.\n\nBones of the arms \n The upper bone is the humerus,  so when people bang their elbow, they often say that they bumped their \"funny bone\". \n The bone that sticks out at the elbow and runs down the outside of the arm is the ulna. \n The bone that is on the thumb-side is called the radius. Near the elbow, it is joined to the \"ulna\" in a way that allows it to rotate. The \"radius\" and the \"ulna\" can twist around each other, allowing a person to turn their hand. \n The small bones of the wrist are called carpals, and the bones inside the hand are called metacarpals. \n The finger bones are the phalanges.\n\nBones of the legs \n The upper bone of the leg, which is the longest bone in the body, is called the femur. \n The bone at the back of the leg is called the tibia, or \"shin bone\". It makes the inside ankle bone. \n The thinner bone at the side of the leg is called the fibula. It makes the outside ankle bone. \n The small bones that join the foot to the leg bones and allow it to move are called the tarsals. The bones inside the foot are the metatarsals. \n The toe bones are called phalanges, like the finger bones. \n The leg has another bone. At the front of the joint where the \"tibia\" meets the \"femur\" is a small round bone like a little shield, to protect the joint. It is called the patella.\n\nSkeletons in culture\n\nSkeletons as symbols \nA skeleton, or just a skull, has often been used as a symbol for death and poison. \n Skeletons and skulls can be seen carved on many tombs, from ancient times to the 20th century. \n Skeletons or skulls are often seen in medieval and Renaissance paintings or stained glass windows, reminding people that life is short. \n Skeletons or skulls were often used as a sign to frighten people. Skeletons would be left hanging in public places, such as cross-roads or bridges to remind the people of a town that they would be punished by death if they broke the law. \n Skeletons or skulls were a symbol used by pirates.\n\nSkeletons in popular culture \n\nSkeletons, particularly living skeletons, have often been used in horror stories and comedies.\n There are stories where skeletons rise from the dead. Things that come back to life are called undead. In these stories, most skeletons are controlled by a person who brings them back to life. These people are called necromancers. A necromancer uses magic to make the skeleton move and act upon his\/her will.\n\nBones","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":133,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":17184,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skeleton","title":"Skeleton","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A fertilizer is a chemical that helps plants to grow. It is used to replace the mineral salts taken by plants or removed\/washed away by rain.\n\nCommon fertilizers:\n\n Ammonia\n Manure (Animal waste) which was the first fertilizer.\n Compost\n Urea\n\nThe important things in fertilizer are:\n Nitrogen (N)\n Phosphorus (P)\n Potash (K)\n\nWhen fertilizers are offered for sale, the percentage of N, P, and K must be written on the bags or boxes, but for historcal reasons, P is shown as %P2O5 and K is shown as %K2O.\n\nE.g.:9-23-30 which means:    9% N, 23%P2O5 and 30%K2O.\n\nIn Australia the pecent of elemental sulfur must also be shown.\nIn the UK, the elemental composition (in percentages) may also be shown alongside the mandatory  traditional system, provided the numbers are put inside square brackets.\n\nLeafy plants need lots of N.  Flowering plants need lots of P and K.\n\nA soil test can tell how much N, P, and K is needed.\n\nRelated pages\nFarming","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":3515,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fertilizer","title":"Fertilizer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A buisiness is a wey o organeesin wark, whaur ane or mair fowk offers tae sell gear or service tae ither fowk, for mair siller than it costs them tae mak or provide it. The differ gies siller tae pey the boss an his chiels, an likely tae keep a warkshop an ony byordinar gear needit. The nummer o fowk that works for a buisiness can be juist the ane, sic as in a baurber shop in a smaw toun, or as mony as hunders o thoosans o fowk aw ower the warld, sic as in a company that dreels for ile.\n\nSome buisinesses dinna need a fixed place lik an office or a shop. A jyner or an electreecian that works for themsels maistlins taks awthing thay need for wark wi them, an fishermen that bides at sea wark oot o thair boats.\n\nBuisiness, athoot an airticle, maistlins refers tae the current state o the ae buisiness or various buisinesses: \"Buisiness is guid.\"","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":4767,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business","title":"Business","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"First lieutenant is a military rank in many armed forces. They are considered commissioned officers and in some militaries an appointment.\n\nThe rank of lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations. In the majority of cases it is common for it to be sub-divided into a senior (first lieutenant) and junior (second lieutenant) rank. In navies it may relate to a particular post rather than a rank.\n\nU.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Air Force\nIn the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, a first lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer. It is just above the rank of second lieutenant and just below the rank of captain. It is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant (junior grade) in the other uniformed services.\n\nU.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard\nIn the U.S. Navy and Coast Guard, first lieutenant is a position title, instead of a rank. It is held by the officer in command of the deck department. On smaller ships, the first lieutenant holds the rank of lieutenant, junior grade or ensign. On larger vessels, the position is held by a lieutenant or, in the case of extremely large warships such as aircraft carriers, a lieutenant commander or even commander. However, on submarines, where the deck department may only have a few junior sailors, the first lieutenant may be a senior enlisted member, such as a first-class petty officer or chief petty officer.\n\nReferences\n\nMilitary ranks","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"unknown":15,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2024-26":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":377843,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First%20Lieutenant","title":"First Lieutenant","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Aprilia RSV Mille is a sport motorcycle manufactured by Aprilia from 1998 to 2003. It was offered in three versions, RSV Mille,  RSV Mille R, and RSV Mille SP.\n\nThe first RSV Mille (ME) was made from 1998 to 2000, the updated RSV Mille (RP) from 2001 to 2002 and the last update was made in 2003.\n\nWith a 998 cc 60-degree V-twin engine built by the Austrian company Rotax, the RSV Mille was the first large displacement motorcycle made by Aprilia that up to then had made up to 250cc engines.  This same engine was used unmodified in the Tuono and in slightly modified form in the SL1000 Falco.\n\nThe Mille featured a type of slipper clutch, which worked by using a vacuum on a closed throttle from the inlet manifold to give the effect of slipper clutch, but only on a closed throttle.\n\nModel History\nThe first changes were made in 2001 when the fairing was restyled, adding wind deflectors to improve airflow. The fuel tank was changed to a plastic item (with a reduction in capacity), and the rear shock on both the standard and the 'R' models was revised.\n\nIn 2002, the front brake calipers were changed to Brembo Monobloc 4 pad calipers - each piston having a separate pad gave an increase in braking performance and feel.\n\nIn 2003, the gear ratios were changed to give a slightly closer ratio gearbox, the exhaust system was changed and the tail piece and front mudguard were redesigned.\n\nFrom 2004, the Mille was replaced by the RSV-R and RSV-R Factory.\n\nRSV Mille R\nThe RSV Mille R is a lighter, higher spec. version of the standard Mille, introduced in 1999. It features \u00d6hlins suspension, an \u00d6hlins steering damper, forged aluminum wheels, carbon fibre front mudguard and a shorter subframe for one person use only (no passenger seat).\n\nRSV Mille SP\nThe SP stands for Sport Production and this version was made as a homologation special for the Superbike World Championship. Only 150 motorcycles, the minimum requirement to homologate the model for Superbike World Championship, were manufactured in 1999. It uses a special short-stroke version of the 60-degree V-twin engine, developed in collaboration with Cosworth.\n\nReplicas\nIn 2002, Aprilia produced 300 limited edition RSV Mille R Haga Replica. The motorcycle has the same livery as the bike used by Noriyuki Haga at the Superbike World Championship and came with a circuit kit, which included a full Akrapovic titanium exhaust system and an Eprom injection unit.\n\nIn 2003, an RSV Mille R Edwards Replica with a livery inspired by the Aprilia RS Cube MotoGP motorcycle ridden by Colin Edwards. as with the Haga replica, the motorcycle came with a circuit kit, which included Akrapovic exhausts, a more pressurised airbox, an Eprom injection unit and 57\u00a0mm (instead of 51\u00a0mm) throttle bodies\n\nExternal links\n Official website\n\nReferences\n\nRSV Mille\nSport bikes\nMotorcycles introduced in 1998\nMotorcycles powered by V engines","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":802,"dup_dump_count":24,"dup_details":{"2023-06":20,"2022-49":13,"2022-40":6,"2022-33":11,"2022-27":17,"2022-21":19,"2022-05":56,"2021-49":75,"2021-43":91,"2021-39":50,"2021-31":35,"2021-25":19,"2021-21":34,"2021-17":16,"2021-10":27,"2021-04":52,"2020-50":47,"2020-45":70,"2020-40":22,"2020-34":7,"2020-29":24,"2020-24":39,"2020-16":49,"2017-13":3}},"id":2895132,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aprilia%20RSV%20Mille","title":"Aprilia RSV Mille","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Shetland (or the Shetland Islands) is an archipelago, the furthest out part of Scotland in the United Kingdom.\n \nThe islands are between the Faroe Islands and the Orkney Islands. They are about 50 miles to the northeast of the Orkney Islands. They are about 100 islands in the group. People live on 16 of them.\n\nThe islands form part of the boundary between the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the North Sea to the east.\n\nThe largest islands of the group are Mainland, Yell, Unst, Fetlar, Whalsay, and Bressay. In general, the climate of the group is subarctic, and rather bleak. \n \nThey used to be called Hjaltland or Zetland. Today, the islands are part of Scotland. The administrative centre is Lerwick.\n\nThe economy of the islands is largely based on agriculture. The sheep are known for their fine wool. Other well-known exports are the Shetland ponies and Shetland Sheepdog.\n\nIn 1969 crude oil was discovered near the islands, leading to an alternative source of income for them.\n\nHistory\n\nScandinavian colonisation\n\nBy the end of the 9th century the Norsemen shifted from plundering to invasion, mainly due to the overpopulation of Scandinavia in comparison to resources and arable land available there.\n\nShetland was colonised by Norsemen in the 9th century. The fate of the native population is unknown. The colonisers established their laws and language. That language evolved into the West Nordic language Norn, which survived into the 19th century.\n\nAfter Harald Finehair took control of all Norway, many of his opponents fled, some to Orkney and Shetland. From the Northern Isles they continued to raid Scotland and Norway, prompting Harald H\u00e5rfagre to raise a large fleet which he sailed to the islands. In about 875 he and his forces took control of Shetland and Orkney. Ragnvald, Earl of M\u00f8re received Orkney and Shetland as an earldom from the king as reparation for his son's being killed in battle in Scotland. Ragnvald gave the earldom to his brother Sigurd the Mighty.\n\nShetland was Christianised in the 10th century. In the Treaty of Perth in 1266 the Norwegian king surrendered his furthest British islands to Scotland. They included the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man. In return, the Scots recognised Norwegian sovereignty over Orkney and Shetland. The islands did not become Scottish until the 15th century, and were  ratified by an Act of Parliament in 1669.\n\nHanseatic League \nFor three centuries the Shetlanders sold their fish (salted cod) through the German Hanseatic League, a trading organisation. This arrangement lasted from 1400 to 1700 AD.\n\nWorld War II \nIn WWII Shetland was active in covert operations against the Germans in Norway. The 'Shetland Bus' (fishing vessels) sailed in covert operations between Norway and Shetland. They carried intelligence agents, refugees, instructors for the resistance, and military supplies. Many people on the run from the Germans, and much important information on German activity in Norway, were brought back to the Allies this way.\n\nOil \nIn the early 1970s, oil and gas were found off Shetland. The East Shetland Basin is one of the largest petroleum sedimentary basins in Europe. Sullom Voe terminal opened in 1978 and is the largest oil export harbour in the United Kingdom with a volume of 25 million tons per year.\n\nPrehistory \nFirm geological evidence shows that at around 6100 BC a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slides hit Shetland, as well as the rest of the east coast of Scotland, and may have washed over some of the Shetland Islands completely.\n\nShetland has been populated since at least 3400 BC. The early people subsisted on cattle-farming and agriculture. During the Bronze Age, around 2000 BC, the climate cooled and the population moved to the coast. During the Iron Age, many stone fortresses were erected, some ruins of which remain today.\n\nDue to the practice of building in stone on the virtually tree-less islands, Shetland is extremely rich in physical remains of all these periods, though Shetland is less rich in material remains than Orkney.\n\nThe artifacts of all the eras of Shetland's past can be studied at the newly built (2007) Shetland Museum in Lerwick.\n\nReferences \n\n \nCounties of Scotland\nScottish Council Areas\nArchipelagos","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":41142,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shetland","title":"Shetland","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The scissor-tailed flycatcher (Tyrannus forficatus), also known as the Texas bird-of-paradise and swallow-tailed flycatcher, is a type of bird that lives in North America, in the United States and Mexico. It eats insects.  It is grey on top and light grey underneath with pink on the sides.  The wings are dark and it has a long black tail.  It is named \"scissor-tailed\" because its tail looks like a pair of scissors.  The tail is shorter when it is young, and the bird is not as colorful.\n\nThe scissor-tailed flycatcher is closely related to the kingbirds. It is also the state bird of Oklahoma. The common name is derived from its former Latin name-Muscivoria forficata, meaning \"flying\"-\"scissors\" and \"to devour.\"  In Oklahoma, scissortails can be found on open prairies, along tree-lined roads, and along roadsides perched on fences, limbs and in isolated trees.  They consume a great number of grasshoppers, crickets, spiders, and other ground-dwelling insects  making them economically important and popular with farmers and ranchers.\n\nSoon after the birds arrive in the state, the males begin their famous \"sky dance,\" a popular site along roadsides during spring and early summer. After climbing about 100 feet in the air, the male makes a series of V-shaped flights, then plunges down in an erratic zigzag course often somersaulting  while uttering a rolling, cackling call.  The performance has been described as \"an aerial ballet of incomparable grace.\" Nesting usually takes place in an isolated tree 7\u201330 feet  above ground. Often two broods of 4-6 each are raised during the summer.\n\nScissor-tailed flycatchers are easily identified by their long scissor-like tail, which may reach nine inches in length.  During flight the bird opens its tail like a pair of scissors and folds or closes the \"scissors\" when perching. The nape of its neck and its back are pearl gray, and the breast is white. Wings are sooty black with a touch of scarlet at the shoulders. The principal threat to scissortails is poaching.  A great number of birds have been killed by poachers who wanted only the bird's tail.\n\nBirds of North America\nTyranni\nSymbols of Oklahoma","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":139,"dup_dump_count":56,"dup_details":{"2022-05":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-35":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":9,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1}},"id":109979,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scissor-tailed%20flycatcher","title":"Scissor-tailed flycatcher","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Cathar faith was a version of Christianity. They were usually considered Gnostics. The word 'Cathar' comes the Greek word katharos meaning 'unpolluted' (from Tobias Churton, The Gnostics) or  \"the pure ones\".\n\nPrinciples \nThe Cathars believed that the world had been made by a bad god.  They believed that this bad god had taken them from the good god and put them in the world, but inside their bodies there was a spirit, and that spirit needed to return to the good god.  They were famous for a belief in a form of reincarnation and believed that when someone died the bad god would put that person's spirit in a new body. They believed this cycle of coming back to life could be escaped by a ritual cleansing.  They were opposed to the doctrine of sin.  \n\nWomen were prominent in the faith.  They were pacifists.  They didn't eat anything that was made from other animals, including meat and cows milk. The only exception to this was fish. Fish was OK to eat because they believed fishes were not alive but just things that were sometimes produced from dirt and water.\n\nThey preached tolerance of other faiths.  They rejected the usual Christian rules of marriage and only believed in the New Testament.  An earlier 10th-century Bulgarian heresy, Bogomilism and also Manichaeism started some of these trends.\n\nLanguage \nThey used a bible in the language people spoke. Many other Christians used a Bible in Latin. Latin was spoken only by the priests.\n\nProblems \nIn 1145, open challenge to Catholic dominance began.  In about 1165, the first Cathars said that the Church was \"full of ravening (starving) wolves and hypocrites\" and \"worshipping the wrong God\", right in front of the most powerful Catholics. In 1166, the Council of Oxford in England wiped out the English Cathars.  It was also suppressed in Northern France.  In 1167, Cathar bishops met to discuss organizing a counter Church - in the South of France, the Languedoc nobles protected it, and many noble women became \"Perfects\".  Parish clergy had low morale, or confidence.\n\nReactions \nThe Catholic Church was against Catharism, seeing it as a heresy.\n\nIn the South of France there was tremendous religious fervor, and an economy that was starting to grow, and a social class of  merchants and  peasants was starting to grow.  Peasants owned their own land.  Meanwhile, in other parts of Europe, peasants were forced to give up their land to nobles and become serfs or slaves - the system of feudalism.  There was a strong central absolute monarchy that did not exist in the South of France.  The burghers and bankers had more power in this looser system.  R. I. Moore is a historian who believes that it was desire to crush this system and take over the land that drove the attack.\n\nHowever, there was real cultural and religious difference to cause problems:  Troubadors, who combined some of the traditions of the Bards of the Celts, and Jews, were both part of the multicultural society in the South of France.  Their influences were not appreciated by local or Roman Church figures.  The 12th century Roman Catholic Monks were founding their monasteries outside the towns, drawing the best people there.\n\nResults \nThe Cathars thus had little competition.  The Cathar \"Perfects\", the so-called Good Men or Good Women, lived restrained lives and spread their faith in towns - where the Catholics in general did not have their best agents.  Also, Cathars preached that only these Good leaders had to follow the regimens their whole lives - lay people could repent only on their deathbeds.  Many 20th century Christian sects have similar beliefs.\n\nThe Albigensian Crusade\n\nMethods \nThe Pope ordered a crusade against the Cathars in southern France. He said any crusader who answered the call would be given the same rewards as a crusader who went to the Holy Land. This was an absolution of all sin.\n\nIn the Launguedoc, on the 22nd of July 1209, a force of about 30,000 Crusaders arrived at the walls of Beziers bearing the cross pattee to mislead and create ease among the Cathars, thinking they were friend, not foe, and  demanded that about 200 Cathars be surrendered.  The people of the town who were mostly Catholic, said that rather than turn over their friends and family, \"we would rather be flayed alive.\"  \n\nA mistake by the defenders of Beziers let thousands of attackers in. Arnauld Amaury made the famous quote \"Kill them all, God knows his own\"  on being asked how to tell who were Cathars during the assault. Everyone in the town was killed, some while taking refuge in the church.  It is guessed that 20,000 were killed, many of whom were Catholics and not Cathars at all.  The crusade became known as the Albigensian crusade after the town of Albi.  It was to wipe out the Cathars almost entirely over forty or so years.  The Crusaders wanted to go home, but were ordered by the Pope to continue until the whole South of France was controlled and all Cathars were dead. In 1210, they attacked the fortress at Minerv and built \"the first great bonfire of heretics\" - beginning the practice of burning at the stake that would continue in the Inquisition of the Counter-Reformation. It is interesting to note that at the siege of Montsegur when the fires were lit the Cathars ran down the hill and threw themselves on, as their beliefs were very strong.\n\nResult\nCatharism disappeared from the northern Italian cities after the 1260s, pressured by the Inquisition. The last known Cathar perfectus in the Languedoc, Guillaume B\u00e9libaste, was killed in 1321.\n\nOther websites \n http:\/\/dannyreviews.com\/h\/Cathars.html\n http:\/\/gnosistraditions.faithweb.com\/mont.html\n http:\/\/www.fordham.edu\/halsall\/source\/gui-cathars.html\n http:\/\/philtar.ucsm.ac.uk\/encyclopedia\/christ\/west\/cathar.html \n http:\/\/pages.britishlibrary.net\/forrester-roberts\/cathars.html \n Cathar Center in Barcelona: Books, spirituality, exhibition \n\nGnosticism\nNontrinitarianism\nChristianity of the Middle Ages","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":167,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":135,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Catharism","title":"Catharism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A role-playing game (also called an RPG) is a game in which one plays the role of one or several characters (people), either verbally (traditional RPGS), in a computer or video game, or alone (gamebooks). Often the characters gain experience (EXP) during the game, which makes them stronger.\n\nTraditional RPGs \n\nA traditional role-playing game, or tabletop role-playing game, is a form of role-playing game (RPG) in which each person playing the game will make-believe that he or she is a character in the game. A person playing the game will tell the action of his or her character, and a system of rules will tell whether the action can be done or not.  The game will happen in a made-up world that is controlled by another person playing the game, called a gamemaster (GM). The gamemaster tells the game's story to the players, tells them where they are in the game world, and plays the part of all the Non-Player Characters (NPCs) and monsters that the players meet. \n\nThe gamemaster will also give quests or tasks for the characters to complete. Characters usually have things about them that limit their actions, such as strength or speed, and as the character completes the quests, he or she is awarded experience points which can be used to make the character better.\n\nMost tabletop RPGs use dice rolls when a player tries to do something hard in the game (Like attacking a monster, or jumping over a gap). This means that there is luck in the game, as well as skill. Most games have a system of bonuses so that they can succeed more often.\n\nA short example:\n\nGM: \"You enter a small room. It is wet and smells bad. You hear water dripping from somewhere. You see a small, shaking pile of gray jelly in the middle of the room.\"\nPlayer: \"I touch the pile with the tip of my sword.\"\nGM: \"The jelly starts to move up your sword.\"\nPlayer: \"I drop my sword.\"\nGM: \"The jelly starts to eat your sword, but you are safe.\"\n\nGood GMs balance challenges and rewards, giving the players the chance to recover from mistakes, but at the same time providing consequences for the player's actions. One example of this type of RPG is Dungeons & Dragons\n\nComputer and video game RPGs\n\nGraphical\nThere are also computer and videogame RPGs, where the player controls one or more characters. A good example is the Final Fantasy series of games. Just like the pre-computer RPGs, the characters in the games level up when they get EXP. They also usually contain a main quest which cannot be completed without completing smaller side quests. These computer RPGs are easier to play because they only need one person, but they also lack the freedom of the older games, where new quests can be made up whenever you want. MMORPGs (Massively-Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game), are computer games where many players meet online in one large game world, and go on quests together. Some examples of these games are World of Warcraft, Everquest, or Runescape.\n\nText-Based \n\nText Based RPGs are not too different from Traditional RPGs, generally based on the Dungeons and Dragons game. However some Text Based RPGs are not for combat, but are for socializing and meeting others.\nWith many Text Based RPGs you need a client, a program to send what you say to the server, which can be located in another country. Many clients are basic and display text in one colour, but there are others that use colours, enhancing the readability of the contents.\n\nLive action role-playing game (LARP) \nIn LARP, the people play their characters themselves, much like a play. They act out the things their character does, dress like their character, and often talk in the way their character would.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":144,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":5,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":6,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":8518,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Role-playing%20game","title":"Role-playing game","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cape Horn (; ) is a cape. It was named for the city of Hoorn in the Netherlands. It is the southernmost land area of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago of southern Chile. Many people see Cape Horn as the southern tip of South America. Cape Horn is the most southerly of the great capes. The Drake Passage is directly to the south of it. For many years, it was a major milestone on the clipper route by which sailing ships carried trade around the world. The waters around the cape are very dangerous because of strong winds, large waves, and icebergs. These reasons have made it notorious as a sailors' graveyard.\n\nToday, the Panama Canal has greatly reduced the need for cargo ships to travel via the Horn. However, sailing around the Horn is widely regarded as one of the major challenges in yachting, and a number of recreational sailors continue to sail this route, sometimes as part of a circumnavigation of the globe. Several prominent ocean yacht races, notably the Vend\u00e9e Globe, sail around the world via the Horn, and speed records for round-the-world sailing follow the same route.\n\nMagallanes Region\u200e\nCapes\nPeninsulas","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":34553,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cape%20Horn","title":"Cape Horn","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In music, the dynamics in the  piece is the variation in loudness between notes or phrases. \n\nIn written music the dynamics are shown by letters which stand for Italian words for the dynamic levels. They are listed in the table below. Notice that \"piano\", as a dynamic level, is pronounced the Italian way (\"pi-AH-no\").\n\nUse more than two ps or fs to show that the music is very, very quiet, or very, very loud. Tchaikovsky sometimes used five ps or fs, though only up to three are normally found in sheet music.\n\nDynamic levels are not something that can be measured exactly. Exactly how loud mp should be depends on several things: what is happening in the music, the instrument, the size of the room in which the music is being played etc. The important thing is that dynamic levels should be correct in relation to one another.\n\nSome composers are very precise about writing the dynamics they want. Others leave a lot to the performer to decide. Historically, composers several centuries ago, such as Bach, only wrote occasional dynamic marks. Even Mozart only wrote a few, mostly p and f. By the 19th century composers were writing dynamics in much more detail in their music.\n\n \nSometimes accents are shown by marks similar to dynamic marks. Sforzando means a strong, sudden accent and is abbreviated as sf, sfz or fz. The notation sfzp (or sfp) means a sforzando followed immediately by piano\n\nThe terms crescendo, and diminuendo (or sometimes decrescendo), mean a gradual getting louder or quieter. They can also be shown by signs known as \"hairpins\". A hairpin opening out is a crescendo, one which closes is a diminuendo.\n\nFor a quick change in dynamics, molto cresc. and molto dim. are often used (molto means a lot). For slow changes poco a poco cresc. and poco a poco dim. are used (poco a poco means little by little, i.e. very gradually.)\n\nMusical notation","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2023-50":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":59919,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamics%20%28music%29","title":"Dynamics (music)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Poetry is a kynd o airt form an a kynd o leeteratur. \n\nPoetry uises the qualities o wirds, in sindry weys, for tae be airtistic.\n different lenth an soond (o wirds)\n(Poetry can be as short, as a puckle wirds, or as lang as a beuk (an epic). \n meanins (o wirds)\n (Poetry haes) different uises o tone. \n\n Thare are mony \"poetic forms\" (forms o poetry).\nSome o thaim are : Sonnet, Haiku , Ballad, Stev , Ode, Free verse, Blank verse, thematic, limerick an nursery rhymes.\n\nA man or wumman wha scrieves poetry is cawed a \"Makar\".\nPoetry can be uised for tae descrive (comparin, talkin aboot, or pitten ower emotion) mony things. It can mak sense or be haivers, it can rhyme or no. It can hae mony shapes an sizes; it can be serious, or it can be funny. \n\n\"Tae say something poetically\" means tae gie information in an airtistic wey.\n\nPoetry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":10486,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Poetry","title":"Poetry","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An arrangement of a musical composition is a reworking of a piece of music so that it can be played by a different instrument or combination of instruments from the original.  For example, a song written for one voice with piano accompaniment might be arranged so that it can be sung in parts by a choir, or a piece for violin might be arranged so that it can be played on a clarinet instead.  The person who does the arrangement may be the composer themself, or it may be someone else.\n\nIn music history, composers often published their compositions, saying that the music could be played or sung by various instruments.  For example, when English composers published madrigals in the late 16th century they often stated that they could be sung by singers or played on viols (\"apt for voices as for viols\").  In the Classical music period a composer might publish a sonata, stating that it could be played on the violin or flute or recorder.  This helped to sell more copies, because violinists, flautists and recorder players might all want to buy the music.  In a sense this is not really an arrangement, because no changes have been made to the music.\n\nHowever, when violin or cello music is arranged so that it can be played on a viola, some changes may be necessary as the viola may be playing in a different key, or some chords may be more awkward the way they were originally written.  This is an arrangement.\n\nA popular piece such as The Flight of the Bumble Bee by Rimsky-Korsakov can be played by almost any melodic instrument: violin, xylophone, tuba etc.  These are all arrangements.\n\nWhen a piece for choir and orchestra is printed for choir members to use, the orchestral part is printed on two staves so that it can be played on a piano for rehearsals.  This is another kind of arrangement.\n\nIn music history, many composers have made arrangements of music composed by others.  They did this in order to learn about musical composition, as well as in order to be able to play it on another instrument.  For example, Johann Sebastian Bach made arrangements of four concertos by Vivaldi so that they could be played on the organ.\n\nArrangements are often made by people who play instruments that have not had much music written for them.  People who play the viola, guitar, tuba etc. often arrange other music so that they have a larger repertoire (more music to play).\n\nSometimes composers have made changes to the orchestration of works for orchestra written by others.  They may have done this because instruments had changed since the music was written, or simply because they thought they could do it better.  For example, Mozart made an arrangement of Handels  Messiah , adding instruments such as clarinets which Handel would not have known.  Rimsky-Korsakov made arrangements of the operas by Musorgsky thinking that he was improving them.\n\nArrangements are sometimes made because a player has some disability.  Cyril Smith, a pianist who only had one arm, played piano duets with his wife Phyllis Sellick.  They arranged piano duets so that they could be played by three hands.\n\nSometimes arrangements are made of well-known classical pieces in which the music is \"jazzed up\" or made to sound more popular for movie or theatre performances.  Sometimes  musicians think this is not a good thing.  Sometimes small vocal groups such as the Swingle Singers make lighthearted versions of works by Bach and others.\n\nReferences\nNew Groves Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; London 1980; \n\nMusical terminology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":218679,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arrangement%20%28music%29","title":"Arrangement (music)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Christian VII of Denmark (29 January 1749 \u2013 13 March 1808)  was the King of Denmark and Norway from 1766 to 1808, and the duke of Schleswig and Holstein. He was the son of King Frederick V of Denmark and Louise of Great Britain.\n\nEarly life\nHe lost his mother at the age of three. His stepmother, Juliana Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenb\u00fcttel, did not take an interest in him, and preferred her own son, Frederik. Christian suffered from epileptic seizures. His educator, Count Detlev of Reventlow, educated him very severely, locking him up in dark chambers for hours at times. Starting at an early age, Christian showed signs of mental illness. At age 17, he was married to his cousin, Caroline Matilda of Great Britain. Caroline Matilde bore a son, the future King Frederick VI of Denmark.\n\nCourt life\nWhen he became king, his cabinet ruled, much like in his father's time. The cabinet was led by Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff. When he toured Europe, he met Johann Friedrich Struensee, a medical doctor, who was influenced by the ideas of Enlightenment. Struensee soon gained influence at the court. Struensee initiated a number of liberal reforms. He also became the lover of queen Louise, who Christan neglected. In the year 1771, Princess Louise Auguste of Denmark was born. People think that Struensee was probably her father. Struensee was executed on 28 April 1772 outside the gates of Copenhagen. The queen was banned from the court. One of the last decrees of Struensee was to create the town of Christiansfeld, where people from the Moravian Church found shelter.\n\nAfter the execution, Ove H\u00f8egh-Guldberg led the kingdom, supported by Queen Juliane and her son. Many of Struensee's reforms were undone. Andreas Peter Bernstorff stepped down in 1780. In the year 1784, Christian's son Frederick took power, reigning in the place of his father. Frederick was influenced by Enligtenment, and made a number of reforms; for example, the abolition of serfdom. Ernst Heinrich von Schimmelmann was made minister of finances. Together with Christian Ditlev Reventlow they boosted trade. Von Bernstorff returned to power in 1784, and was a strong supporter of the neutrality of Denmark. There was an economic boom.\n\nDeath\nChristian VII died in 1808 as a result of a stroke.\n\nKings and Queens of Denmark\nDukes and duchesses\n1749 births\n1808 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":332633,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christian%20VII%20of%20Denmark","title":"Christian VII of Denmark","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"For the computer software named Paint, see Microsoft Paint\nPaint is the general term for liquid that is used to add colour to the surface of an object by covering it with a pigmented (coloured) coating.  As a verb, painting means \"applying paint\" (putting paint onto something). Someone who paints is called a painter.\n\nPaint is made from a coloured pigment which is usually a powder. The powder is made from different chemicals. Some of the pigments come straight from natural things like clay. The pigment must be made wet by mixing it with something that will make it stick onto the surface and not come off easily. The wet stuff is called the \"medium\" or \"vehicle\". Water-based paints are mixed with water. Other paints are mixed with oils or chemicals of different sorts. Most painters buy paint that is already mixed. House-painters use paint already mixed in large cans. Artists buy paint in tubes. Some artists buy dry pigment and mix it for themselves.\n\nThe paint is usually put onto the surface with a paint brush. Paint brushes are used by painters of all sorts. House painters also use rollers and spray-guns to put on paint. A modern invention is paint in a pressurized can which can be sprayed on. Some modern artists also use spray paint. Factory paint shops have machines which spray paint onto objects. Cars are usually painted in this way.\n\nPaint must be allowed to dry. Some paints such as watercolour, dries in a few minutes. Other paints, such as artist's oil paint, can take days or even weeks to dry. Most other types of paints fit between these two. Many types of paint are best if they are put on in several layers. The painter must first prepare the surface so it is smooth, clean and dry. The first layer of paint is often an \"undercoat\" or \"ground\" which is smooth and sticks very well. The coloured paints are put on over the top. A house-painter who is using oil paint on a wooden window frame might used three layers of paint to give very good protection from the weather. Other types of modern house paint only need one layer, particularly on the inside. Artists using oil paint and tempera often use many layers to get just the right effect.\n\nUses of paint \n\nPaint has four important uses.\n\nProtection \nPaint is used to protect all sorts of buildings and structures from the effects of water and sun. Wooden buildings such as houses are usually painted because a coat of paint prevents water seeping into the wood and making it rot. The paint also helps to prevent the wood from drying out in the hot sun.\n\nMetal structures and objects of all sorts are painted to stop them from rusting. A very large steel structure such as a bridge must have a team of painters who keep the paint in good condition all the time.\n\nDecoration \nPaint is used to decorate all sorts of objects. Since pre-historic times, people have painted the inside walls of their houses to make them look attractive. Painting and decorating the exterior (outside) and interior (inside) of houses is an important industry in many countries. There are many types and colours of paint to chose from.\n\nAll sorts of other objects are painted to make them attractive. This includes furniture, toys, tools and utensils, and street fittings. Sometimes things made of wood such as furniture are painted in decorative patterns. In some countries, many people enjoy decorating furniture and other small things like trays and boxes. This is one form of what is often called Folk Art. In other countries such as Japan, painting furniture is a very skilled profession and an antique piece of decorated furniture is very valuable. \nOther people enjoy the hobby of painting small objects such as model planes or soldiers.\n\nArt \n \nPaintings are pictures that are done in paint. Many different types of paint are used for paintings. They include tempera, oil paint, gouache, watercolours and acrylic paints. The paintings are usually done on board, canvas or paper. Many other famous paintings are done on the walls and ceilings of buildings, such as the Sistine Chapel ceiling which was painted by Michelangelo.\n\nMany artists are famous for their painted pictures. Old, beautiful and famous paintings are very valuable and are sometimes sold for millions of dollars. Famous painters include Giotto, Leonardo da Vinci, Titian and Rembrandt.\n\nInformation \nPaint is a very good way to give important information to people, using painted signs. Painted signs include lane markings on the road, street signs of all sorts, advertising signs and warning signs.\n\nRelated pages\n Tempera \n Oil paint\n Oil painting \n Watercolour\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n History of Paint \n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":26365,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paint","title":"Paint","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Catholicism is the traditions and beliefs of Catholic Churches. It refers to their theology, liturgy, morals and spirituality. The term usually refers to churches, both western and eastern, that are in full communion with the Holy See.\n\nIn 2012, there were more than 1.1 billion Catholics worldwide. This makes up more than 17% of the world population.\n\nThe word \"Catholicism\" comes from the Greek word catholikismos (). This means \"universal\".\n\nCharacteristics\n\nThe word \"Catholicism\" refers to so many things, including its religious beliefs (called theologies and \"doctrines\"), and its form of religious worship (called liturgies).  The word also refers to Catholic religious beliefs about ethics (things that are right and wrong). It also refers to the ways that members of the Catholic religion live and practice their religion.\n\nMany people use the word Catholicism to talk about religious beliefs of the Catholic Church, whose leader is called the \"Bishop of Rome\" and often called the \"Pope\". The Catholic Church is based in the Vatican City, a small independent country in the city of Rome, Italy. Sometimes the word also refers to beliefs of other Christian churches, including the Eastern Orthodox Churches, who have many beliefs similar to the Catholic Church, but do not believe the Bishop of Rome is their leader.\n\nThe word Catholicism is often used to tell the difference between the beliefs of Catholic Christians and the beliefs of others called Protestant Christians. Catholic and Orthodox churches use church leaders, called bishops, to determine beliefs. Protestants, however, often use each member's own understanding of the Bible to determine beliefs. Protestants use guidelines from the 16th-century Protestant Reformation to understand the Bible. It is the world's second largest religious denomination after Sunnism.\n\nWhere the word Catholic came from\nThe oldest document that uses the name \"Catholic Church\" is a letter written by a man named Ignatius. Ignatius lived in the ancient city of Antioch. In the year 107, Ignatius wrote a letter addressed to the Christian community in the ancient city of Smyrna. In this letter, Ignatius encouraged the Christian Community to be loyal to their leader, the Bishop. Ignatius wrote:\n\n\"Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude of the people also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church.\"\n\nGroups who call themselves \"Catholic\" \nMany different denominations (groups) of Christians call themselves \"catholic\". Often these groups have special beliefs about their leaders, called bishops. They believe Jesus of Nazareth (whom Christians believe is the Son of God) appointed the first bishops, who appointed future bishops, who eventually appointed each community's current bishops. This appointing of leaders is called \"Apostolic Succession\".\n\nThe groups that use the term \"Catholic\" to talk about themselves are the:\n\n Catholic Church, which is also called the Roman Catholic Church.\n Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox\n Old Catholic, Anglican, and some Lutheran and other groups\n Communities that believe they lost their \"Apostolic Succession\", but asked a different community to \"ordain\" new leaders for them. (\"Ordain\" or consecrate\" is a word for the ceremony that makes a bishop or new religious leader.)\n\nNot all communities believe that other communities use the term \"catholic\" properly. Also, not all communities believe that the other communities have apostolic succession either. For example, the Catholic Church believes that the Eastern Orthodox have apostolic succession. However, the Catholic Church does not believe that the Anglicans or Lutherans have it.\n\nEastern Orthodox have similar beliefs about Anglicans and Lutherans. Not all Eastern Orthodox believe that the Catholic Church has apostolic succession. Different members of the Eastern Orthodox churches have different opinions.\n\nHowever, the Anglicans and Lutherans generally believe that all Christians are part of the \"catholic\" church. These groups have a very different understanding of the term \"Catholic\".\n\nHistory\n\nHow it was started \nCatholicism was started as a result of Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish man whom Christians believe is the Son of God, a Christian belief known as the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). Catholics believe Jesus to be a descendant of David, a Jewish king from a long time ago. Jesus was crucified by the Romans in the year 33 AD. Catholics believe Jesus rose from the dead, and spoke to his followers, called the twelve Apostles. They also believe that Jesus rose into Heaven, and then sent the Holy Spirit to guide his followers at an event known as Pentecost.\n\nOne of his followers, the apostle named Saint Peter, was appointed leader by Jesus and later became recognized as the first Pope, or Bishop of Rome, soon after that he was captured and was martyred in Rome. Catholics believe that Saint Peter was given the \"keys of the Kingdom of Heaven,\" meaning that Jesus made him and the apostles in charge of forgiving sins. Catholics believe that Saint Peter passed the Apostolic Power (the ability to ordain priests and consecrate the Eucharist), given to him by Christ, to the Popes, who continue to pass the power through the papacy to this day. At the current time, the pope is Pope Francis, who is the leader of the Catholic Church. The word pope comes from the Latin word for \"father.\"\n\nIn 325, the First Council of Nicaea agreed on how to organize the church. The council agreed the Church had five patriarchs (patriarch was the highest type of church leader). The five leaders were the archbishops of Rome (the Pope), Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, and Jerusalem. The Patriarch of Rome was honored as \"first among equals.\"\n\nQuarrels within the church \nIn time, several groups split off from the Catholic Church because of differing opinions of theology. This caused breaks from the Church called schisms. Most schisms happened because people had different beliefs about what is true.\n\nIn 451, a church division happened when all the church leaders meeting at the Church Council in the city of Chalcedon excommunicated (cut off) three leaders, because they held to monophysitism and would not accept the view that Jesus had two natures (fully divine and fully human). These three were the bishops of Egypt, Syria, and Armenia. Of course, these three bishops did not accept being excommunicated either, so the churches under them are still known today as Oriental Orthodox Churches.\n\nIn 1054, an Eastern part of the Catholic Church severed itself, in the East-West Schism. The church in Western Europe which followed the Pope, became known as the Roman Catholic Church. The churches in the rest of the world, which did not think that the Pope should lead all Christians, became known as the Orthodox Church. \"Orthodox\" means \"correct belief;\" as they believe that they have kept the teachings of the early church, and the Roman Catholics have not.\n\nThe next big secession was the Protestant Reformation. Protestants resisted the valid central authority of the Church in Rome and rejected many practices, beliefs and disciplines. The Reformation started in Germany, where Martin Luther sent his demands for change to the Church. Because of politics in Europe, many nations supported Luther. The Lutheran Church was started. Later the Calvinist or Presbyterian Church started.\n\nIn England, King Henry VIII started the Anglican church. He wanted to divorce his first wife; but the Pope wouldn't allow it, as the marriage was valid. At first, the church of King Henry VIII, the Church of England, was very similar to the Catholic Church. The major difference was that the king was head of the church, instead of the Pope. Later, under his son, Edward VI, the Anglican Church became more reformed or Protestant. Anglicans, and several other Protestant denominations, still believe they are reformed Catholics. Puritanism arose among Anglicans who thought the reforms didn't go far enough.\n\nAfter the Reformation, many other Churches began because of disagreements over beliefs and practices of earlier Protestant doctrine. According to the 2010 U.S. Religious Congregations and Membership Study, this accounts for most of the Protestant denominations in the United States. There are about 314,000 of these. Two examples of these Protestant (or Reformed) churches are Methodist and Baptist.\n\nReligious Beliefs\n\nThe same aspects of Catholic and other Christians \n The Ten Commandments\n The belief that God knows everything, that God has unlimited power, and that everything God does is good\n The belief that Jesus Christ died for the sins of the world, rose again, and one day \"will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead.\"\n The importance of worshipping God.\n The infallibility of the bible\n\nWhat is different from Eastern Orthodox Christians \n The supremacy of the Bishop of Rome (also known as the pope)\n the Filioque clause (Nicene creed)\n\nWhat is different from mainstream Protestants \n Catholics believe in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist (this is called Transubstantiation).\n Catholics believe God forgives mortal sins through the sacrament of reconciliation (confession), which is performed through a priest, while most Protestants do not believe in the sacrament.\n Catholics hold to the authority of Scripture and Tradition, which the teaching authority of the Church Magisterium (the bishops in communion with the Pope) comes from, while most Protestants believe in Sola Scriptura (the Bible alone)\n Catholics believe that papal authority (in very specific, solemn occasions called \"ex Cathedra\"), the Bible, and the conclusions of ecumenical councils are infallible, while most Protestants believe in an infallible Bible but not an infallible Pope. Papal infallibility has been declared twice in the history of the Catholic Church. Once to state that Mary was conceived without sin and another to state that Mary was assumed into heaven body and soul.\n Catholics hold to a larger 72 book bible canon, while Protestants typically hold to 66 books.\n Catholics venerate saints, especially the Virgin Mary (Mother of God). \"Venerating saints\" means that Catholics give special honor to saints (people in heaven) because they believe that saints can pray for them directly to God. Many Protestants do not, because they regard \"venerating saints\" as \"worshiping saints\". Because they believe that only God should be worshiped, they do not venerate. Many Protestants also simply do not believe that any veneration is necessary.\n Catholics have an elaborate mariology, while most Protestants do not.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Catholicism -Citizendium","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":243,"dup_dump_count":96,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":5,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":6,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":4,"2019-22":5,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":4,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":5,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":7160,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Catholicism","title":"Catholicism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Maui is the second largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States.\nIt has a population of just over 100,000 and is 727 square miles (1883\u00a0km\u00b2) in size. Maui is part of Maui County, Hawaii. The larger (or better known) towns include Kahului, Wailuku, Lahaina, Hana, and Wailea. Main industries are agriculture and tourism.\n\nMaui was named for the demi-god Maui. In Hawaiian legend, he raised all the islands from the sea. Maui is also known as the \"Valley Isle\" for the large fertile isthmus (narrow land connection) between two volcanoes.\n\nGeography\nMaui is a volcanic doublet: an island formed from two volcanic mountains that are joined. The older volcano, Mauna Kahalawai, is much older and has been very worn down. In common talk it is called the West Maui Mountain. The larger volcano, Haleakala, rises above 10,000 feet (3,050 m). The last eruption of Haleakala happened over 200 years ago, and this lava flow can be seen between Ahihi Bay and La Perouse Bay on the southeast shore.\n\nPlaces\nOther places on Maui popular with visitors include:\n \u012a'ao Valley.\n Haleakala crater\n Road to H\u0101na\n Wai'\u0101napanapa\n\nGolf courses on Maui include:\n Grand Waikapu Country Club\n Ka'anapali Golf Course\n Kapalua Golf Club\n Makena Golf Club\n Maui Country Club\n Pukalani Country Club\n Sandalwood Country Club\n Silversword Golf Course\n Wai'ehu Municipal Golf Course\n Wailea Golf Club\n\nIslands of Hawaii","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":477,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maui","title":"Maui","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A bellows is something that blows air into a small opening in order to make something work. The bellows will have a kind of sack which has air in it. When the sack is squeezed the air is pushed out. Bellows can be quite small and operated by hand, for example for stoking a fire in an open fireplace. They can also be very large, such as bellows that produce air for a large pipe organ to be played. Such bellows used to be pumped by hand (sometimes by several people), but nowadays electricity is used. Bellows are used by blacksmiths or metalworkers for smelting and welding. They are also used in small musical instruments such as bagpipes, accordions and concertinas. The harmonium has bellows which the player operates by pumping with the his feet.\n\nTools","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":91067,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bellows","title":"Bellows","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The heart is an organ found in every vertebrate. It is a very strong muscle. It is on the left side of the body in humans and is about the size of a fist. It pumps blood throughout the body. It has regular contractions, or when the heart squeezes the blood out into other parts of the body. \n\nCardiac and cardio both mean \"about the heart\", so if something has the prefix cardio or cardiac, it has something to do with the heart.\n\nMyocardium means the heart muscle: 'myo' is from the Greek word for muscle - 'mys', cardium is from the Greek word for heart - 'kardia'.\n\nStructure \nThe human heart has four chambers or closed spaces. Some animals have only two or three chambers.\n\nIn humans, the four chambers are two atria and two ventricles. Atria is talking about two chambers; atrium is talking about one chamber. There is a right atrium and right ventricle. These get blood that comes to the heart. They pump this blood to the lungs. In the lungs blood picks up oxygen and drops carbon dioxide. Blood from the lungs goes to the left atrium and ventricle. The left atrium and ventricle send the blood out to the body. The left ventricle works six times harder than the right ventricle because it carries oxygenated blood. \n\nBlood is carried in blood vessels. These are arteries and veins. Blood going to the heart is carried in veins. Blood going away from the heart is carried in arteries. The main artery going out of the right ventricle is the pulmonary artery. (Pulmonary means about lungs.) The main artery going out of the left ventricle is the aorta.\n\nThe veins going into the right atrium are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. These bring blood from the body to the right heart. The veins going into the left atrium are the pulmonary veins. These bring blood from the lungs to the left heart.\n\nWhen the blood goes from the atria to the ventricles it goes through heart valves. When blood goes out of the ventricles it goes through valves. The valves make sure that blood only goes one way in or out.\n\nThe four valves of the heart are:\n Atria to ventricle valves\n Tricuspid valve \u2013 blood goes from right atrium to right ventricle\n Mitral valve \u2013 blood goes from left atrium to left ventricle\n Ventricles to arteries\n Pulmonic valve \u2013 blood goes out of the right ventricle to the lungs (through the pulmonic artery)\n Aortic valve \u2013 blood goes out of the left ventricle to the body (through the aorta)\n\nThe heart has three layers. The outer covering is the pericardium. This is a tough sack that surrounds the heart. The middle layer is the myocardium. This is the heart muscle. The inner layer is the endocardium. This is the thin smooth lining of the chambers of the heart.\n\nCardiac cycle \n\nA heart beat is when the heart muscle contracts. This means the heart pushes in and this makes the chambers smaller. This pushes blood out of the heart and into the blood vessels. After the heart contracts and pushes in, the muscle relaxes or stops pushing in. The chambers get bigger and blood coming back to the heart fills them.\n\nWhen the heart muscle contracts (pushes in) it is called systole. When the heart muscle relaxes (stops pushing in), this is called diastole. Both atria do systole together. Both ventricles do systole together. But the atria do systole before the ventricles. Even though the atrial systole comes before ventricular systole, all four chambers do diastole at the same time. This is called cardiac diastole\n\nThe order is: atrial systole \u2192 ventricular systole \u2192 cardiac diastole. When this happens one time, it is called a cardiac cycle.\n\nHeart's pacemaker \nSystole (when the heart squeezes) happens because the muscle cells of the heart gets smaller in size. When they get smaller we also say they contract. Electricity going through the heart makes the cells contract. The electricity starts in the sino-atrial node (acronym SA Node) The SA Node is a group of cells called pacemaker cells in the right atria. These cells start an electrical impulse. This electrical impulse sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract. This motion is called 'atrial systole'. Once electrical impulse goes through the atrio-ventricular node (AV Node). The AV Node makes the impulse slow down. Slowing down makes the electrical impulses get to the ventricles later. That is what makes the ventricular systole occur after atrial systole, and lets all the blood leave the atria before ventricle contracts (meaning squeeze). \n\nAfter the electrical impulse goes through the AV Node, the electrical impulse will go through the conduction system of the ventricle. Conduction means heat or electricity traveling through something. This brings the electrical impulse to the ventricles. The first part of the conduction system is the bundle of His. His is named for the doctor (Wilhelm His, Jr) who discovered it. Bundle means strings or wires grouped together in parallel. Once the bundle (meaning a group of strings or wires going in parallel directions) goes through the ventricle muscle, it divides into two bundle branches, the left bundle branch and the right bundle branch. The left bundle branch travels to the left ventricle and the right bundle branch travels to the right ventricle. At the end of the bundle branches, the electrical impulse goes into the ventricular muscle through the Purkinje Fibers. This is what makes ventricle contraction take place and makes ventricular systole.\n\nThe order is:\nSino-Atrial Node \u2192 Atria (systole) \u2192 Atrio-Ventricular Node \u2192 Bundle of His \u2192 Bundle branches \u2192 Purkinje Fibers \u2192 Ventricles (systole)\n\nECG \nECG is an acronym for ElectroCardioGram. It is also written EKG for ElectroKardioGram in German. The ECG shows what the electricity in the heart is doing. An ECG is done by putting electrodes on a person's skin. The electrodes see the electricity going through the heart. This is written on paper by a machine. This writing on the paper is the ECG.\n\nDoctors learn about the person's heart by looking at the ECG. The ECG shows some diseases of the heart like heart attacks or problems with the rhythm of the heart (how the electricity goes through the heart's conduction system.)\n\nThe ECG shows atrial systole. This is called a P-wave. Then ventricular systole happens. This is called the QRS or QRS-complex. It is called a complex because there are three different waves in it. The Q-wave, R-wave, and S-wave. Then the ECG shows ventricular diastole. This is called the T-wave. Atrial diastole happens then too. But it is not seen separate from ventricular diastole.\n\nThe PR-Interval is the space between atrial systole (P) and ventricular systole (QRS). The QT-Interval is from when the QRS starts to when the T ends. The ST-segment is the space between the QRS and T.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\nSymptoms of heart disease\nWhat is the heart? - NIH\nThe gross physiology of the cardiovascular system (2nd Ed., 2012) \u2013 Robert M. Anderson, M.D. (CC-BY-NC)\nAtlas of human cardiac anatomy\n\" healthy heart  \" Blog\nBasic English 850 words\n \nAnatomy of the cardiovascular system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":199,"dup_dump_count":94,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":4,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":5,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":4,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":13432,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heart","title":"Heart","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Grapes, otherwise known as berries, are the fruit of a woody grape vine. Grapes can be eaten raw, or used for making wine, juice, and jelly\/jam. Grapes come in different colours; red, purple, white, and green are some examples. Today, grapes can be seedless, by using machines to pit the fruit. Wild grapevines are often considered a nuisance weed, as they cover other plants with their usually rather aggressive growth.\n\nRaisins are the dried fruit of the grapevine, and the name actually comes from the French word for \"grape.\"\n\nSince the early 21st century in the United States and other countries, and the global functional food industry, there has been a fast-growing recognition of red grapes for their popularity, nutrient content and antioxidant qualities. This has given them commercial status as a \"superfruit\".\n\nThe leaves of the grapevine itself are considered edible (eatable). They are used to make dolmades.\n\nGrapevines are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species.\n\nDistribution \n\nAccording to the \"Food and Agriculture Organization\" (FAO), almost 76,000 square kilometres of the world is used to grow grapes. About 71% of grapes are used for wine. 27% are used as fresh fruit, and 2% are used as dried fruit. A part of grape production goes to making grape juice to be used as a sweetener for fruits canned \"with no added sugar\" and \"100% natural\". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year. \n\nThe following list of top wine-producers shows the areas used to grow grapes for wine making, although of course country size is a limiting factor, as well as the economic demand for their product.\n\n Spain \u2013 11,750\u00a0km\u00b2\n France \u2013 8,640\u00a0km\u00b2\n Italy \u2013 8,270\u00a0km\u00b2\n Turkey \u2013 8,120\u00a0km\u00b2\n United States \u2013 4,150\u00a0km\u00b2\n Iran \u2013 2,860\u00a0km\u00b2\n Romania \u2013 2,480\u00a0km\u00b2\n Portugal \u2013 2,160\u00a0km\u00b2\n Argentina \u2013 2,080\u00a0km\u00b2\n Australia \u2013 1,642\u00a0km\u00b2\n\nComparing diets among western countries, researchers have found that although the French usually eat more animal fat than other countries, the number of cases of heart disease remains low in France. Many scientists think this is because the French drink more red wine than other countries. Something in the grape helps lower the amount of cholesterol in the body. This helps prevent clogging of the arteries. Doctors do not recommend drinking a lot of red wine, but three or four glasses a week is good and encouraged.\n\nGrapes of all colors offer benefits. Red wine offers health benefits that are not found in white wine. This is because many of the good nutrients are found in the skins of the grapes, and only red wine is fermented with the skins.\n\nWhite grapes \nWhite grapes are derived from the green grape by evolution. Changes in two genes turn off creation of anthocyanin. Anthocyanin is what makes red grapes the color green.\n\nRaisins, currants, and sultanas \nA raisin is any dried grape. A currant is a dried Zante grape. The name is a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape). A sultana was originally a raisin made from a specific type of grape of Turkish origin. The word is now used for raisins made from common North American grapes and chemically treated to resemble the traditional sultana.\n\nNote that, while raisin is a French loanword, the word in French means the fresh fruit. Grappe (Where the English word grape comes from) means the bunch (as in une grappe de raisin).\n\nNote also that currant has also come to mean to the blackcurrant and redcurrant. These two berries completely unrelated to grapes.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \nThe Fox and the Grapes\n\nOther websites \n\n Integrated Taxonomic Information System entry for Grape family \n How To Grow Grapes \u2013 Article on how to grow grapes\n Area under vine (pdf)\n Wild Grapes \n 300 Grape Varieties for Wine \n Wine Wiki \n\nFruits\nVitaceae\nNational symbols of Turkey","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":133,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-18":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-17":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":15731,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grape","title":"Grape","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Peace is a time without any fights or wars. In a larger sense, peace (or peacefulness) can mean a state of harmony, quiet or calm that is not disturbed by anything at all, like a still pond with no ripples.\n\nMany people and organizations want peace. One organization that was set up to bring peace among the nations and try to make war a thing of the past was the League of Nations after World War I.  When it did not stop World War II, it was replaced by the United Nations which tries to make the world peaceful. This means that if any member is attacked or invaded by another country without attacking that country first, the other members will come to help the country that was attacked first. This idea was used by the United Nations to defend both South Korea and Kuwait when they were attacked.\n\nMartin Luther King, Jr. wrote in a letter he sent from the Birmingham jail that, \"True peace is not merely the absence of tension: it is the presence of justice.\" In other words, Real peace is more than just problems being gone: there must be fairness to have peace.\n\nAlfred Nobel created an annual award, the Nobel Peace Prize, for the person who had done the most to bring peace to the world.\n\nReligious beliefs and peace \n\nBuddhists think that peace can be gotten once all suffering ends.To get rid of suffering and get this peace, many try to follow a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths\n\nJews and Christians believe that true peace comes from a personal relationship with God. Jesus Christ (also called the \"Prince of Peace\" in the Book of Isaiah) said: \"Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid.\" ()\n\nMuslims follow Prophet Muhammad who teaches them that peace is the glue that holds communities together and sustains the world.\n\nInner peace \n\nInner peace (or peace of mind) refers to a state of being mentally and spiritually at peace, with enough knowledge and understanding to keep oneself strong in the face of stress. Being \"at peace\" is considered by many to be healthy and the opposite of being stressed or anxious. Peace of mind is generally associated with bliss and happiness.\n\nPeace of mind, serenity, and calmness are descriptions of a disposition free from the effects of stress. In some cultures, inner peace is considered a state of consciousness or enlightenment that may be cultivated by various forms of training, such as prayer, meditation, Tai chi chuan or yoga, for example. Many spiritual practices refer to this peace as an experience of knowing oneself.\n\nMovements and activism\n\nPeace movement \n\nA movement that seeks to get ideals such as the ending of a particular war, minimize inter-human violence in a particular place or type of situation, often linked to the goal of achieving world peace. Means to achieve these ends usually include advocacy of pacifism, non-violent resistance, conscientious objector, diplomacy, boycotts, moral purchasing, supporting anti-war political candidates, demonstrations, and lobbying to create legislation on human rights or of international law.\n\nTheories on peace \nMany different theories of \"peace\" exist in the world of peace studies, which involves the study of conflict transformation. The definition of \"peace\" can vary with religion, culture, or subject of study.\n\nPeace is a state of balance and understanding in yourself and between others, where respect is gained by the acceptance of differences, tolerance persists, conflicts are resolved through dialog, people's rights are respected and their voices are heard, and everyone is at their highest point of serenity without social tension.\n\nRelated pages \nAnti-war movement\nCeasefire\nPacifism\nPeace makers\nPeace treaty\nWorld peace\n\n \nBasic English 850 words\nSociety","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":143,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":4,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":648,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peace","title":"Peace","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Johnny Cash (born J. R. Cash; February 26, 1932 - September 12, 2003) wis an American sangster-sangwriter. He is ane o the maist weel-kent an maist influential muisickers o the 20t century.\n\nBairnheid an Early Life \n\nJohnny Cash wis born J.R. Cash in Kingsland, Arkansas, tae Ray an Carrie (n\u00e9e Rivers) Cash, an raised in Dyess, Arkansas. It is thocht that he wis gien the name J.R. acause his paurents coudna gree whit tae cry him, anely the initials. Houaniver, whan he jynt the Unitit States Air Force, they wadna accept J.R., so he chynged it tae John R. Cash.\n\nHe wis ane o sieven bairns: Jack, Joanne Cash Yates, Louise Garrett, Reba Hancock, Roy, and Tommy. Bi the time he wis five, he wis awreadies wirkin in the cotton fields on his faimlies ferm. In 1944, Johnny's brither, wha he wis gey close tae, wis killt in an amshach in a mill whaur he wirkit. Cash aft spake o feelin guiltfu ower the incident, as Jack wis meant tae gae fishin wi Cash that day but insistit on gaun tae wirk, as the faimlie needit the siller.\n\nAs a young lad, he leart guitar, an stairtit tae scrieve sangs. He wis influenced bi gospel muisic. In schuil, he e'en singit on the local radio station. Cash listit in the Unitit States Air Force, serrin as a morse code decoder on Roushie transmissions in Germany. Efter he wis honourably discharged in 1954, he gaed back tae Texas. Durin basic trainin he met Vivian Liberto, wha he mairit whan he gat back fae Germany in 1954. They haed fower dochters Rosanne (born May 24, 1955), Kathy (born April 16, 1956), Cindy (born July 29, 1958), and Tara (born August 24, 1961).\n\nCareer\n\nEarly Career \nCash an Vivian flittit tae Memphis, Tennessee in 1954, whaur he stairtit a baun wi Luther Perkins an Marshall Grant. Thay decidit tae audition for Sam Phillips o Sun Records, but he wisna impressed wi thair gospel muisic, thiknin he coudna sell gospel onymair. Cash wan ower Phillips wi mair sangs that war mair kintra. His first sangs \"Hey Porter\" an \"Cry Cry Cry\" war met wi complowsible success.\n\nHis neist sang, \"Folsom Prison Blues\", makkit the kintra muisic chairt Tap 5, an \"I Walk The Line\" becam a kintra muisic nummer 1 an made the pop chairts Tap 20. He lea'd Sun Records an jynt Columbia Records, an became ane o thair maist successfu airtists.\n\nIn the early 60s, he tourt wi the Carter Familie, whaur he met June Carter, wha he wuid gae on tae mairy.\n\nEemage \n\nIn the early 60s, he stairtit drinkin a heap an becam addictit tae amphetamines an barbiturates. E'en tho his addiction war gaun oot on guidal, he still haed muisickal success, wi ane o his maist weel-kent sangs, \"Ring of Fire\", bein released durin this time.In 1965, his truck caucht fire, causin a forest fire that brunt hunders o acres o Los Padres Natinal Forest, California, killin 49 o the forests 53 endangert condors but Cash didna care, an the govrenment sued him for $82,001. Altho Cash haed an ootlaw eemage, he niver gaed tae preeson. Houaniver, he did spend a nicht in jyle on sieven occasions, for misdemeanours. His addiction tae drogs wis at it's warst at this pynt. Whilk led tae a divorce fae his wife. Houaniver in 1968, Cash quat uisin drogs, efter a spiritual epiphany in Nickajack Cove. He haed gaed intae the cove tae commit suicide unner the influence o drogs. He gaed deep intae the cove tryin tae tyne hissel, but he passt oot. Whan he woke up he chynged his mynd, an managed tae git oot o the cove bi follaein a faint licht an a breeze. The Carter faimlie muived him intae thair hame tae help him bate his addiction. He proponed tae June Carter onstage in London, Ontario, an thay gat mairit a week efter. He than rediskivert his Christian faith.\n\nThe Man in Black \n\nIn the late 60s, he stairtit tae perform in preesons. These led tae a couple o gey successfu albums \"Johhny Cash at Folsom Prison\" an \"Johnny Cash at San Quentin\". This included the single \"A Boy Named Sue\", a sang that raucht nummer 1 on the kintra chairts an nummer 2 on the pop chairts. He pleyed at a Swadish preeson an aw. Fae 1969 tae 1971 he haed his ain T.V. shaw, The Johnny Cash Show, wi guests like Bob Dylan, Ray Charles an Kris Kristofferson. By the early 70s, he wis weel-kent for performin aw in black, an wis kent as The Man in Black, e'en releasin a sang o the same name. He becam pals wi ilka Preses o the Unitit States, stairtin wi Richard Nixon, but he wis closest tae Jimmy Carter. His first autobiography, Man in Black, wis published in 1975 an selt 1.3 million copies.\n\nLater Career \n\nDurin the 80s he wis inductit intae the Kintra Muisic Haw o Fame, but didna hae muckle success wi his muisic. Hounaiver in the 90s he wis signed by American Recordings, a record label maist weel-kent for rap an rock. It wis wi thaim he recordit the album \"American Recordings\" in 1994. It wis a muckle hit, an wan a Grammy for Best Contemporar Folk Album. He gat a gey guid reception at Glastonbury Festival in 1994, whilk he said wis ane o the heichlichts o his career. He scrieved anither autobiography, Cash: The Autobiography, an aw. In 1997 he wis diagnosed wi Shy-Drager Syndrome. The albums American III: Solitary Man (2000) and American IV: The Man Comes Around (2002) conteened Cash's response tae his unweelness in the furm o sangs o a mair sombre tone nor the first twa American albums. Thay war ruised by critics an war gey faur-ben. His wife, June, dee'd on May 15, 2003, at the age o sieventy-ane. Johnny Cash dee'd less nor fower month after his wife, on September 12, 2003, while hospitalised at Baptist Hospital in Nashville, Tennessee. He wis birriet neist tae his wife in Hendersonville Memory Gardens naurhaund his hame in Hendersonville, Tennessee.\n\n \n1932 births\n2003 daiths\n20t-century American sangsters\n21st-century American sangsters\nMale actors frae Arkansas\nAmerican autobiografers\nAmerican bass-baritones\nAmerican country guitarists\nAmerican country sangster-sangwriters\nAmerican folk guitarists\nAmerican folk sangsters\nAmerican male film actors\nAmerican male sangster-sangwriters\nAmerican male televeesion actors\nAmerican male vyce actors\nAmerican fowk o Inglis strynd\nAmerican fowk o Scots strynd\nAmerican performers o Christian muisic\nAmerican Christians\nAmerican Christian writers\nAmerican acoustic guitarists\nAmerican male guitarists\nBuirials in Tennessee\nCash\u2013Carter faimily\nCharly Records airtists\nColumbia Records airtists\nCountry Music Hall of Fame inductees\nCountry muisickers frae Arkansas\nDaiths frae diabetes\nDisease-relatit daiths in Tennessee\nGrammy Legend Awaird winners\nGrammy Lifetime Achievement Awaird winners\nGrand Ole Opry members\nGuitarists frae Arkansas\nGuitarists frae Tennessee\nKennedy Center honourees\nMembers o the Country Music Association\nMuisickers frae Nashville, Tennessee\nNative Americans' richts activists\nFowk frae Arkansas\nFowk frae Cleveland Coonty, Arkansas\nFowk frae Hendersonville, Tennessee\nRock and roll muisickers\nAmerican rockabilly muisickers\nSouthern gospel performers\nSun Records airtists\nThe Highwaymen (country supergroup) members\nUnitit States Air Force airmen\n20t-century American guitarists\n20t-century American male actors","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":8806,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johnny%20Cash","title":"Johnny Cash","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Minoan civilization was a civilization on Crete called after Minos. It began in the Bronze Age between 3000 and 2700 BC. It lasted until about 1450 BC. The Minoan civilization is famous for its sea trading and well-planned cities. The Minoans had an agricultural system which relied mainly on olives and grapes. Their religion worshipped mostly goddesses. The Minoan civilization was later replaced by the Mycenaean culture.\n\nMinoan Architecture \n\nCretans built palaces during their architecture era. In a non-royal palace there were many small rooms with cooler places to sit, because Crete got very hot in the summer. Palaces were used for many things. They were used as government centers, storerooms, stores, and administrative offices. Most palaces were very big. The Cretans might have gotten the money to create these palaces from working for the Egyptians. The royal palace was very different. Everyone had toilets, baths, and running water. The ones for the king and queen were very fancy. Their palace was fancy also. The architecture era was ended by a great fire. This era went from 2000 B.C. to 1450 B.C. Then they were no more\n\nFurther reading\n\nhttp:\/\/www.historyforkids.org\/learn\/greeks\/history\/minoans.htm \nhttp:\/\/photo.pds.org:5005\/student\/article?id=ar028740\nMinoan civilization -Academic Kids\n\nMinoan culture","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2024-30":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1}},"id":67777,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Minoan%20civilization","title":"Minoan civilization","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A minister-president (German: Ministerpr\u00e4sident) is the head of government in a number of European countries or subnational governments, who presides over the council of ministers. The title is similar to Prime Minister, First Minister, and President of the Council.\n\nThe German word means \"president of the ministers\"; \"Ministers' President\" would be a more accurate translation. \n\nThis person is the equivalent of a state premier in Australia, a provincial premier in Canada, or the Governor of a state in the USA.\n\nEach year one of the ministers-president, or one of the senior Mayors of the city states of Berlin, Hamburg and Bremen, is the President of the Bundesrat. Because Germany does not have a vice president, The President of the Bundesrat will act as the Federal President if the Federal President dies or is out of the country.\n\nGovernment occupations\nTitles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":51,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5}},"id":65850,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Minister-president","title":"Minister-president","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Skene's glands (also called lesser vestibular glands or paraurethral glands) are glands in the upper wall of the vagina. They empty into the urethra. Their location is known as the Gr\u00e4fenberg spot. In males, their homologue is the prostate gland.\n\nThe glands are named after the person who described them first, Alexander Skene. He was a physician.\n\nAnatomy of the female reproductive system\nGlands","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":63,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":33802,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skene%27s%20gland","title":"Skene's gland","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Idomeneo is an opera seria with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The libretto (words) are in Italian and were written by Giambattista Varesco. He based it on  a French text by Antoine Danchet. In 1780 Mozart and Varesco were asked by the Elector of Bavaria to write an opera for a court carnival. \n\nIdomeneo  was first performed in Munich on 29 January 1781.  Mozart was only 24 years old.  It was the first of his great operas.\n\nMozart wrote three different types of opera:  Idomeneo is an opera seria (serious opera).  These were written in Italian, and are about serious, dramatic stories, often stories from Ancient Greece or Rome.  La Clemenza di Tito  is also an opera seria.  Don Giovanni  is an example of a mixture of comic and serious opera, while The Magic Flute  is a German opera in the Singspiel tradition.\n\nIdomeneo  has traditional recitatives and arias. The choruses, marches, and ballets were very much like French opera tradition.  Mozart was inspired by the operas of Gluck.\n\nThe story of the opera\n\nAct 1 \nThe story, based on an Ancient Greek story,  takes place on the Island of Crete, shortly after the Trojan War. Ilia is the daughter of the Trojan King Priam who has lost the war.  Ilia has been taken to Crete.  She loves Prince Idamante, son of the Cretan King Idomeneo, but does not want to tell him about her love for him. Idamante is kind and frees the Trojan prisoners. He tells Ilia that it is not his fault that their fathers were enemies. The Trojans and Cretans (people from Crete) both welcome the return of peace, but Electra, daughter of the Greek King Agamemnon is jealous of Ilia.  She is annoyed that Idamante had been kind and let the prisoners free.  Arbace, the king's trusted friend, brings news that Idomeneo has been drowned at sea while returning to Crete from Troy. Electra, worried that Ilia, a Trojan, soon will be Queen of Crete, feels the furies of Hades tormenting her.\n\nIdomeneo is not lost at sea, but instead is saved by Neptune (god of the sea) and is washed up on a Cretan beach. There he remembers the promise he made to Neptune: he had promised to sacrifice (kill for the Gods) the first creature he should meet, whether it be a human or an animal.  The first person he meets is his own son, Idamante.  Because the two have not seen each other for a long time, they do not recognize one another at first. When Idomeneo finally realizes it is his own son he must kill, he tells Idamante to go away and never see him again.  Idamante does not understand why his father is saying this.  He is terribly upset, but runs off.  The Cretan soldiers get off Idomeneo's ship and are met by their wives, and all praise Neptune.\n\nAct 2 \nAt the king's palace, Idomeneo asks Arbace what he should do, because he has disobeyed the god.  Arbace says that Neptune would be happy if another victim could be sacrificed so long as Idamante is sent into exile (to another country). Idomeneo tells his son to take Electra to her home, Argos.  Idomeneo's kind words to Ilia make her say very kindly that, because she has lost everything, he will be her father and Crete will be her country. As she leaves, Idomeneo realizes that sending Idamante into exile has made Ilia unhappy. Electra is happy about going to Argos with Idamante.\n\nAt the port of Sidon, Idomeneo says goodbye to his son and tells him to rule like a good king.  Before the ship can sail, however, a storm breaks out, and a sea serpent appears. It is a messenger from Neptune, who is angry with Idomeneo.  Idomeneo offers his life to the god.\n\nAct 3 \nIn the royal garden, Ilia asks the gentle winds to carry her love to Idamante.  Idamante says he must go to fight the serpent. When he says he would like to die because Ilia does not love him.  This makes Ilia tell him that she loves him. They are surprised by Electra and Idomeneo. When Idamante asks his father why he sends him away, Idomeneo cannot tell him the truth. Ilia asks Electra for some kindness, but Elektra is madly jealous of Ilia now, and she wants revenge. Arbace comes with news that the people, led by the High Priest of Neptune, are shouting that they want Idomeneo.  The High Priest tells the king that Neptune's monster is destroying things, and asks Idomeneo to say the name of the person whose sacrifice is demanded by the god. When the king says that his own son is the victim, the people are horrified. \n\nOutside the temple, the king and High Priest join with Neptune's priests to pray that the god will be kind and merciful. Arbace brings news that Idamante has killed the monster. Idomeneo is now worried that Neptune will want even more revenge.  Idamante enters in sacrificial robes, saying he understands his father's terrible worries and he is ready to die., Idomeneo says a tragic goodbye to his own son and is about to kill him, when Ilia steps forward and offers to die instead.   Neptune now changes his mind.  We hear his voice saying that if Idomeneo gives up being king and lets Idamante and Ilia rule as king and queen, he will forgive. Everyone is happy except Electra, who wants to die.  Idomeneo says that Idamante and his bride are the new rulers. The people call upon the god of love and marriage to bless the royal pair and bring peace.\n\nCompositions by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\n1780s operas\n1781","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":118993,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Idomeneo","title":"Idomeneo","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In mammals, the lymphatic system is a network of thin vessels that branch, like blood vessels, into tissues throughout the body. It is part of the immune system. It is a one-way system which carries cells and fluid back to the blood system.\n \nLymphatic vessels carry lymph, a colorless, watery fluid, and white blood cells. It comes from interstitial fluid in the tissues which is squeezed out of the blood vessels. The lymphatic system transports infection-fighting cells called lymphocytes, and is involved in the removal of foreign matter and cell debris by phagocytes. A second function is to transport fats from the small intestine to the blood. \n\nLymphatic fluid gathers from the tissues and enters the valved lymphatic ducts. These valves make sure the lymph flows the right way. On its way back to the blood system, the lymph passes through glands called lymph nodes, in places like the back of the neck, the armpits and the groin. Lymph nodes swell in the region of an infected body part. This acts to keep the infection from spreading. It prevents or reduces the pathogens getting into the general blood circulation and reaching other parts of the body.\n\nLymph ends up back in the blood system. In mammals under normal conditions, most of the lymph is returned to the blood stream through lymph-vein communications at the base of the neck. Some vertebrates have more complex lymphatic systems. Amphibians for example have multiple \"lymph hearts\" to control the flow of lymph.\n\nReferences \n\nPhysiology\nImmunology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":54954,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lymphatic%20system","title":"Lymphatic system","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Henry Purcell (born in Westminster, ; died in Westminster, 21 November 1695) was an English composer. Many musicians think he is the greatest English composer of all time. Although he only lived until he was 36, he wrote a large amount of music. His compositions include church music, instrumental music, music for the theatre, even popular drinking songs. He wrote the first English opera. He lived in the time called the Baroque period. He liked Italian and French music, and combined those styles to make something that was typically English.\n\nHis life\n\nEarly years \nWe do not know very much about Purcell's childhood. His mother's name was Elizabeth. In 1664, Henry Purcell senior died and the widow took her children to live with her brother in law, Thomas Purcell, who was very kind to them. Thomas Purcell was a gentleman of the Chapel Royal which meant that he sang in the king's choir. Soon Henry was singing in the Chapel Royal. This was the best musical training a boy could have in England. His teachers were Captain Henry Cooke, and then Pelham Humfrey. Henry sang in the choir until his voice broke in 1673. He was then given the job of looking after the king's musical instruments. \n\nPurcell may have been composing already when he was nine. We know that he wrote an ode for the King's birthday in 1670. When Humfrey died Purcell studied with the famous composer John Blow. He went to Westminster School. In 1676 he was made organist at Westminster Abbey. He started writing music for the theatre. He also wrote church music, including an anthem for a singer called John Gostling who had a very good, deep bass voice. Purcell wrote several anthems for him during his life. One is called \"They that go down to the sea in ships\". It goes down to a low D.\n\nLater career \nIn 1680, Blow, who had been made organist of Westminster Abbey in 1669, resigned so that the 22-years-old Purcell could have his job. Purcell then spent the next six years just writing sacred (religious) music. Later he went back to writing music for the theatre, including the first English opera Dido and Aeneas.\n\nIn 1682 Purcell became organist of the Chapel Royal. He did this job as well as being organist at Westminster Abbey. His first printed composition, Twelve Sonatas, was published in 1683. Music printing was expensive in those days, so it was unusual to have something printed. He continued to write music including odes to the king and royal family. In 1685, he wrote two of his finest anthems, \"I was glad\" and \"My heart is inditing\", for the coronation of King James II.\n\nIn 1687 he wrote more theatre music. Sometimes this music was for masques (a kind of ballet with some singing as well), sometimes it was music for tragedies, e.g. plays by Dryden. In 1691, he wrote King Arthur, also written by Dryden. In 1692, he composed songs and music for The Fairy-Queen (an adaptation of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream). Purcell's music for this was lost for many years, and was rediscovered and published in 1901. In these works the characters in the plays do not sing, they speak their lines.\n\nPurcell's Te Deum and Jubilate was written for Saint Cecilia's Day, 1693, the first English Te Deum ever composed with orchestral accompaniment. He composed an anthem and two elegies for Queen Mary II's funeral.\n\nDeath \nHe was very famous when he died in 1695, possibly from tuberculosis. His wife and two of his six children survived him. \n\nPurcell is buried next to the organ in Westminster Abbey. His epitaph reads, \"Here lyes Henry Purcell Esq., who left this life and is gone to that blessed place where only his harmony can be exceeded.\"\n\nHis music \n\nPurcell wrote a lot of music for the theatre. He was born one year before the time known in England as the \"Restoration\". Before the Restoration Oliver Cromwell had been ruling England for nearly 20 years. Most music had been banned. People were therefore very glad to be able to make music again, and they wanted lots of songs and instrumental music in their plays. Opera, however, was not wanted. In Europe opera was very popular in countries such as Italy, Germany and France, but it did not become popular in England until Handel came to England in 1709 and introduced Italian opera.\n\nDido and Aeneas is an exception because it is a real opera: everything is sung, and the words are in English. It was written for a performance at a girls' school. It is quite short, lasting just one hour. It contains the famous lament When I am laid in earth sung by Dido.\n\nPurcell wrote a very large amount of music for the church. This includes anthems and service settings. Although he was an organist he wrote very little for organ. He wrote chamber music, including some very beautiful fantasias for viols.\n\nInfluence \n\nAlthough Purcell was recognized as a great composer at the time he did not have much influence on other composers after his death. He was the last in a line of great English musicians in the 16th and 17th centuries. After his death English music was not as important as it had been. In the 18th century the music heard in England was largely imported from the continent, e.g. Italian opera. \n\nMuch later, in the 20th century, English composers were often inspired by Purcell's music. Benjamin Britten wrote a piece called The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra which is based on a tune from Purcell's Abdelazer. The aria \"I know a bank\" from Britten's opera A Midsummer Night's Dream is inspired by Purcell's aria \"Sweeter than Roses\". Sir Michael Tippett loved Purcell's harmonies and rhythms and they influenced him in his compositions.\n\nEnglish composers\nBaroque composers\n1659 births\n1695 deaths\nPeople buried in Westminster Abbey\nGentlemen of the Chapel Royal","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":4,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":28808,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Henry%20Purcell","title":"Henry Purcell","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dette er en liste over byene i England. Tradisjonelt skal byene i blant annet England bli utnevnt av en britisk monark. Men siden 1974 kan alle verdslige sogn utnevne seg selv som en by.\n\nDe st\u00f8rre byene i England er merket med uthevet skrift.\n\nA\nAbingdon, Accrington, Acton, Adlington, Alcester, Aldeburgh, Aldershot, Aldridge, Alford, Alfreton, Allendale, Alnwick, Alsager, Alston, Alton, Altrincham, Amble, Amersham, Amesbury, Ampthill, Andover, Appleby-in-Westmorland, Arlesey, Arundel, Ashbourne, Ashburton, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Ashford, Ashington, Ashton-in-Makerfield, Ashton-under-Lyne, Askern, Aspatria, Atherstone, Attleborough, Axbridge, Axminster, Aylesbury, Aylsham\n\nB\nBacup, Bakewell, Baldock, Banbury, Barking, Barnard Castle, Barnet, Barnoldswick, Barnsley, Barnstaple, Barrow-in-Furness, Barton-upon-Humber, Basildon, Basingstoke, Bath, Batley, Battle, Bawtry, Beaconsfield, Beaminster, Bebington, Beccles, Bedale, Bedford, Bedlington, Bedworth, Beeston, Belper, Bentham, Berkhamsted, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Beverley, Bewdley, Bexhill-on-Sea, Bicester, Biddulph, Bideford, Biggleswade, Billericay, Bilston, Bingham, Bingley, Birkenhead, Birmingham, Bishop Auckland, Bishop's Castle, Bishop's Stortford, Bishops Waltham, Blackburn, Blackheath, Blackpool, Blandford Forum, Bletchley, Bloxwich, Blyth, Bodmin, Bognor Regis, Bollington, Bolsover, Bolton, Bootle, Borehamwood, Boroughbridge, Boston, Bottesford, Bourne, Bournemouth, Brackley, Bracknell, Bradford, Bradford on Avon, Brading, Bradley Stoke, Bradninch, Braintree, Brentford, Brentwood, Bridgnorth, Bridgwater, Bridlington, Bridport, Brierley, Brierley Hill, Brigg, Brighouse, Brightlingsea, Brighton & Hove, Bristol, Brixham, Broadstairs, Bromley, Bromsgrove, Bromyard, Broseley, Brownhills, Buckfastleigh, Buckingham, Bude, Budleigh Salterton, Bungay, Buntingford, Burford, Burgess Hill, Burnham-on-Crouch, Burnham-on-Sea, Burnley, Burntwood, Burton Latimer, Burton upon Trent, Bury, Bury St Edmunds, Buxton\n\nC\nCaistor, Calne, Camberley, Camborne, Cambridge, Camelford, Cannock, Canterbury, Carlisle, Carnforth, Carterton, Castle Cary, Castleford, Chadderton, Chagford, Chard, Charlbury, Chatham, Chatteris, Chelmsford, Cheltenham, Chesham, Cheshunt, Chester, Chesterfield, Chester-le-Street, Chichester, Chippenham, Chipping Campden, Chipping Norton, Chipping Ongar, Chipping Sodbury, Chorley, Christchurch, Church Stretton, Cinderford, Cirencester, Clacton-on-Sea, Cleator Moor, Cleckheaton, Cleethorpes, Cleobury Mortimer, Clevedon, Clitheroe, Clun, Coalville, Cockermouth, Coggeshall, Colchester, Coleford, Coleshill, Colne, Congleton, Conisbrough, Consett, Corbridge, Corby, Corsham, Cotgrave, Coventry, Cowes, Cramlington, Cranbrook, Craven Arms, Crawley, Crayford, Crediton, Crewe, Crewkerne, Cromer, Crook, Crowborough, Crowle, Crowthorne, Croydon, Cuckfield, Cullompton\n\nD\nDagenham, Dalton-in-Furness, Darlaston, Darley Dale, Darlington, Dartford, Dartmouth, Darwen, Daventry, Dawley, Dawlish, Deal, Denton, Derby, Dereham, Desborough,  Devizes, Dewsbury, Didcot, Dinnington, Diss, Doncaster, Dorchester, Dorking,  Dover, Downham Market, Driffield, Dronfield, Droitwich Spa, Droylsden, Dudley, Dukinfield, Dunstable, Durham, Dursley\n\nE\nEaling, Earley, Easingwold, Eastbourne, East Grinstead, East Ham, Eastleigh, Eastwood, Edenbridge, Egham, Egremont, Ellesmere, Ellesmere Port, Ely, Enfield, Epping, Epsom, Epworth, Erith, Esher, Eston, Eton, Evesham, Exeter, Exmouth, Eye\n\nF\nFailsworth, Fairford, Fakenham, Falmouth, Fareham, Faringdon, Farnborough, Farnham, Farnworth, Faversham, Featherstone, Felixstowe, Fenny Stratford, Ferndown, Ferryhill, Filey, Filton, Fleet, Fleetwood, Flitwick, Folkestone, Fordingbridge, Fordwich,  Fowey, Framlingham, Frinton-on-Sea, Frodsham, Frome\n\nG\nGainsborough, Garstang, Gateshead, Gillingham, Dorset, Gillingham, Medway, Glastonbury, Glossop, Gloucester, Godalming, Godmanchester, Goole, Gosport, Grange-over-Sands, Grantham, Gravesend, Grays, Great Dunmow, Great Torrington, Great Yarmouth, Grimsby, Guildford, Guisborough\n\nH\nHackney, Hadleigh, Hailsham, Halesowen, Halesworth, Halewood, Halifax, Halstead, Haltwhistle, Hammersmith, Harlow, Harpenden, Harrogate, Harrow, Hartlepool, Harwich, Haslemere, Hastings, Hatfield, Havant, Haverhill, Hawes, Haxby, Hayle, Haywards Heath, Heanor, Heathfield, Hebden Bridge, Heckmondwike, Hedon, Helmsley, Helston, Hemel Hempstead, Hemsworth, Henley-in-Arden, Henley-on-Thames, Hendon, Hereford, Herne Bay, Hertford, Hessle, Heswall, Hetton-le-Hole, Hexham, Heywood, Higham Ferrers, Highbridge, Highworth, High Wycombe, Hinckley, Hitchin, Hoddesdon, Holmfirth, Holsworthy, Honiton, Horley, Horncastle,  Hornsea, Horsforth, Horsham, Horwich, Houghton-le-Spring, Hounslow, Hove, Howden, Hoylake, Hucknall, Huddersfield, Hugh Town, Hungerford, Hunstanton, Huntingdon, Hyde, Hythe, Hampshire, Hythe, Kent\n\nI\nIlford, Ilfracombe, Ilkeston, Ilkley, Ilminster, Immingham, Ipswich, Irthlingborough, Ivybridge\n\nJ\nJarrow\n\nK\nKeighley, Kempston, Kendal, Kenilworth, Kesgrave, Keswick, Kettering, Keynsham, Kidderminster, Kidsgrove, Killingworth, Kimberley, Kingsbridge, King's Lynn, Kingston-upon-Hull, Kingston upon Thames, Kington, Kirkby, Kirkby-In-Ashfield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Kirkby Stephen, Kirkham, Kirton-in-Lindsey, Knaresborough, Knottingley, Knutsford\n\nL\nLancaster, Launceston, Leatherhead, Leamington Spa, Lechlade, Ledbury, Leeds, Leek, Leicester, Leigh, Leighton Buzzard, Leigh-on-Sea, Leiston, Leominster, Letchworth, Lewes, Lewisham, Leyburn, Leyland, Leyton, Lichfield, Lincoln, Linton Liskeard, Littlehampton, Liverpool, Loftus, London, Long Eaton, Longridge, Looe, Lostwithiel, Loughborough, Loughton, Louth, Lowestoft, Ludlow, Luton, Lutterworth, Lydd, Lydney, Lyme Regis, Lymington, Lynton, Lytchett Minster, Lytham St Annes\n\nM\nMablethorpe, Macclesfield, Madeley, Maghull, Maidenhead, Maidstone, Maldon, Malmesbury, Maltby, Malton, Malvern, Manchester, Manningtree, Mansfield, March, Margate, Market Deeping, Market Drayton, Market Harborough, Market Rasen, Market Warsop, Market Weighton, Marlborough, Marlow, Maryport, Matlock, Melksham, Melton Mowbray, Mexborough, Middleham, Middlesbrough, Middleton, Middlewich, Midhurst, Midsomer Norton, Millom, Milton Keynes, Minehead, Mirfield, Morecambe, Moretonhampstead, Moreton-in-Marsh, Morley, Morpeth, Mossley, Much Wenlock\n\nN\nNailsea, Nailsworth, Nantwich, Needham Market, Neston, Newark-on-Trent, Newbiggin-by-the-Sea, Newbury, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Newent, Newhaven, Newmarket, New Mills, New Milton, Newport, Isle of Wight, Newport, Shropshire, Newport Pagnell, Newquay, New Romney, Newton Abbot, Newton Aycliffe, Newton-le-Willows, Normanton, Northallerton, Northam, Northampton, Northleach, North Petherton, North Shields, North Walsham, Northwich, Norton Radstock, Norton-on-Derwent, Norwich, Nottingham, Nuneaton\n\nO\nOakengates, Oakham, Okehampton, Oldbury, Oldham, Ollerton, Olney, Ormskirk, Orpington, Ossett, Oswaldtwistle, Oswestry, Otley, Ottery St Mary, Oundle, Oxford\n\nP\nPaddock Wood, Padstow, Paignton, Painswick, Peacehaven, Penistone, Penrith, Penryn, Penzance, Pershore, Peterborough, Peterlee, Petersfield, Petworth, Pickering, Plymouth, Pocklington, Pontefract, Polegate, Poole, Portishead, Portslade, Portsmouth, Potters Bar, Potton, Poulton-le-Fylde, Prescot, Preston, Princes Risborough, Prudhoe, Pudsey\n\nQ\nQueenborough\n\nR\nRamsbottom, Ramsgate, Raunds, Rawtenstall, Rayleigh, Reading, Redcar, Redditch, Redhill, Redruth, Reeth, Reigate, Retford, Richmond upon Thames, Richmond (Yorkshire), Rickmansworth, Ringwood, Ripley, Ripon, Robin Hood's Bay, Rochdale, Rochester, Rochford, Romford, Romsey, Ross-on-Wye, Rothbury, Rotherham, Rothwell, Rowley Regis, Royston, Royton, Rugby, Rugeley, Runcorn, Rushden, Ryde, Rye\n\nS\nSaffron Walden, St. Albans, St. Austell, St. Blazey, St. Columb Major, St. Helens, St. Ives (Cambridgeshire), St. Ives (Cornwall), St. Neots, Salcombe, Sale, Salford, Salisbury, Saltash, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Sandbach, Sandhurst, Sandown, Sandwich, Sandy, Sawbridgeworth, Saxmundham, Scarborough, Scunthorpe, Seaford, Seaton, Sedbergh, Sedgefield, Sedgley, Selby, Selsey, Settle, Sevenoaks, Shaftesbury, Shanklin, Shaw and Crompton, Sheerness, Sheffield, Shefford, Shepshed, Shepton Mallet, Sherborne, Sheringham, Shifnal, Shildon, Shipley, Shipston-on-Stour, Shoreham-by-Sea, Shrewsbury, Sidmouth, Silsden, Sittingbourne, Skegness, Skelmersdale, Skipton, Sleaford, Slough, Smethwick, Snaith, Snodland, Soham, Solihull, Somerton, Southall, Southam, Southampton, Southborough, South Elmsall, Southend-on-Sea,  South Kirkby & Moorthorpe, South Molton, Southport, South Shields, Southwell, Southwold, South Woodham Ferrers, Sowerby Bridge, Spalding, Spennymoor, Spilsby, Stafford, Staines, Stainforth, Stalybridge, Stamford, Stanley, Stapleford, Staveley, Stevenage, Stockport, Stocksbridge, Stockton-on-Tees, Stoke-on-Trent, Stokesley, Stone, Stony Stratford, Stourbridge, Stourport-on-Severn, Stowmarket, Stow-on-the-Wold, Stratford-upon-Avon, Streatham, Stretford, Strood, Stroud, Sudbury, Sunderland, Sutton, Sutton Coldfield, Sutton-in-Ashfield, Swadlincote, Swaffham, Swanage, Swanley, Swindon, Swinton\n\nT\nTadcaster, Tadley, Tamworth, Taunton, Tavistock, Teignmouth, Telford, Tenbury Wells, Tenterden, Tetbury, Tewkesbury, Thame, Thatcham, Thaxted, Thetford, Thirsk, Thornaby, Thornbury, Thorne, Thrapston,  Tickhill, Tilbury, Tipton, Tiverton, Todmorden, Tonbridge, Torpoint, Torquay, Totnes, Tottenham, Tottington, Totton and Eling, Towcester, Tring, Trowbridge, Truro, Tunbridge Wells, Twickenham\n\nU\nUckfield, Ulverston, Uppingham, Upton-upon-Severn, Uttoxeter, Uxbridge\n\nV\nVentnor, Verwood\n\nW\nWadebridge, Wadhurst, Wakefield, Wallasey, Wallingford, Walmer, Walsall, Waltham Abbey, Waltham Cross, Walthamstow, Walton-on-Thames, Walton-on-the-Naze, Wandsworth, Wantage, Ware, Wareham, Warminster, Warrington, Warwick, Washington, Watchet, Waterlooville, Watford, Wath-upon-Dearne, Watton, Wavertree, Wednesbury, Wednesfield, Wellingborough, Wellington (Somerset), Wellington (Shropshire), Wells, Wells-next-the-Sea, Welwyn Garden City, Wem, Wendover, West Bromwich, Westbury, Westerham, West Ham, Westhoughton, West Mersea, Westminster, Weston-super-Mare, Wetherby, Weybridge, Weymouth, Whaley Bridge, Whiston, Whitby, Whitchurch, Whitehaven, Whitley Bay, Whitnash, Whitstable, Whitworth, Wickford, Widnes, Wigan, Wigston, Willenhall, Wimbledon, Wimborne Minster, Wincanton, Winchcombe, Winchelsea, Winchester, Windermere, Windsor, Winsford, Winslow, Wisbech, Witham, Withernsea, Witney, Wivenhoe, Woburn, Woking, Wokingham, Wolverhampton, Wombwell, Woodbridge, Woodstock, Wooler, Woolwich, Wootton Bassett,  Worcester, Workington, Worksop, Worthing, Wotton-under-Edge, Wymondham\n\nY\nYarm, Yarmouth, Yate, Yateley, Yeadon, Yeovil, York\n\n \nEngland","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":49,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2024-26":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"unknown":34,"2023-50":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-04":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1}},"id":395847,"url":"https:\/\/no.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liste%20over%20byer%20i%20England","title":"Liste over byer i England","language":"no"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u0915\u0938 \u0935\u093e \u092b\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0924 \u0916\u0928\u093f\u091c \u0915\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u091f\u091c\u094d\u200c\u092f\u093e \u091b\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0921\u093e, \u0938\u0947\u0921\u093f\u092e\u0947\u0928\u094d\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092a\u094d\u091f\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0932\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0916\u0964  \u0925\u0941\u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924 chert\u092f\u093e \u092d\u0947\u0930\u093e\u0907\u091f\u0940\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0941\u092a\u092f\u094d \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092f\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0903\u0917\u0941 \u0926\u0941\u0964 \u0925\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0941\u092a\u092f\u094d \u0938\u0947\u0926\u093f\u092e\u0947\u0928\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940 \u0932\u094b\u0901\u0939(\u0926\u0938\u0941: \u091a\u0915 \u0935 \u0932\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094b\u0928)\u092f\u094d \u0928\u094b\u0926\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0932 \u0935 \u0927\u0940\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0941\u092a\u092f\u094d \u0926\u092f\u093e\u091a\u094d\u0935\u0928\u093f\u0964  \u0925\u0903\u0917\u0941 \u0927\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0928\u0947 \u092b\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0915\u0925\u0902 \u0917\u093e\u0922\u093e \u0939\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0935\u093e \u0930\u0902\u0917, \u0939\u093e\u0915\u0941\u0917\u0941, \u0935\u093e\u0902\u0917\u0941, \u0924\u0941\u092f\u0941 \u0935\u093e \u0938\u093f\u0902 \u0930\u0902\u0917\u092f\u094d \u0916\u093e \u0935\u093e \u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0925\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0917\u0941 \u0930\u0941\u092a\u092f\u094d \u0926\u092f\u093e\u091a\u094d\u0935\u0928\u093f\u0964 \u0925\u0941\u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0927\u0940\u092f\u093e \u092a\u093f\u0928\u0947\u092f\u093e \u091b\u0917\u0942 \u0938\u093e\u0932\u0941\u0917\u0941 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0902\u0917 \u092d\u0924\u093f\u091a\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0907 \u0935 \u0906\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0935 \u091b\u093e\u0917\u0941 \u091c\u0941\u0907\u0964 \u092a\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0932\u094b\u091c\u0940\u092f\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0915\u0925\u0902, \"flint\" refers specifically to the form of chert which occurs in chalk or marly limestone. Similarly, \"common chert\" (sometimes referred to simply as \"chert\") occurs in limestone.\n\n\u092b\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0924 \u0917\u0925\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u092f\u093e \u0926\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0907 \u0927\u093e\u0907\u0917\u0941 \u0916\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u0915\u094d\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0902\u0932\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0915 \u092e\u0925\u0941\u0928\u093f, \u0924\u0930 \u0925\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0926\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u092e\u094d\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0938\u094d\u0926 \u0938\u0947\u0926\u093f\u092e\u0947\u0928\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940 \u0932\u094b\u0901\u0939\u092f\u094d \u0926\u093e\u092f\u093e\u091c\u0947\u0928\u0947\u0938\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092c\u093f\u0932\u092f\u094d \u091c\u0942\u0907\u0917\u0941 \u0930\u0938\u093e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u0902 \u0926\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0948 \u0927\u0948\u0917\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0926\u0941\u0964 One hypothesis is that a gelatinous material fills cavities in the sediment, such as holes bored by crustaceans or molluscs and that this becomes silicified. This theory certainly explains the complex shapes of flint nodules that are found. The source of dissolved silica in the porous media could arise from the spicules of silicious sponges.\n\n\u091b\u094d\u092f\u094d\u200c\u0932\u093e\n\n\u091c\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092d\u0903\n\n\u092b\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0924\u092f\u093e\u0924 \u0932\u094b\u0901\u0939 \u092f\u0941\u0917\u092f\u094d \u092b\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092d\u0903 \u0926\u092f\u0947\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u091b\u094d\u092f\u0932\u093e\u0924\u0932\u0964 \u0925\u094d\u0935 \u0932\u094b\u0901\u0939\u092f\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0917\u0941 \u0932\u094b\u0901\u0939\u0902 \u091b\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0932\u0942\u0917\u0941, \u0927\u093e\u0903 \u0926\u0942\u0917\u0941 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0926\u092f\u094d \u0924\u091b\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u0947 \u091b\u093f\u0902\u0917\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0902 \u0925\u0941\u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092d\u0903 \u0935 \u0932\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u0903\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0941\u092a\u092f\u094d \u091b\u094d\u092f\u0932\u093e\u0939\u0932\u0964\n\n\u0905\u092c\u093f\u0932\u092f\u094d\u200c\u092f\u093e \u092f\u0941\u0930\u094b\u092a\u092f\u094d \u0926\u0915\u0932\u092f\u094d \u092c\u093e\u0902\u0932\u093e\u0903\u0917\u0941 \u092d\u0903 \u092c\u0947\u0932\u094d\u091c\u093f\u092f\u092e\u092f\u094d ), \u0907\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0936 \u091a\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u0932\u092f\u094d, \u092a\u094b\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u094d\u0926\u092f\u094d \u0906\u0926\u093f \u0925\u093e\u0938\u092f\u094d \u0932\u0942\u0917\u0941 \u0926\u0941\u0964 \u092b\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0924\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0916\u0928\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0932\u093f\u0925\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u0941\u0917 \u0928\u093f\u0938\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u0942\u0917\u0941 \u091c\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0932\u093f\u0925\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u0941\u0917\u092f\u094d \u0925\u0941\u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091b\u094d\u092f\u0932\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u091c\u0942\u0917\u0941 \u0916\u0928\u0947\u0926\u0941\u0964\n\n\u092e\u093f\nWhen struck against steel, flint will produce sparks, which when directed onto tinder can be used to start a fire.  This occurs when the hard flint knocks off a particle of the steel, which is heated by the impact, and then burns with oxygen from the atmosphere. This method is popular in woodcraft and among campers who want to have an 'authentic' experience.  The components are also part of many survival kits, such as those issued by many military units, because they have the ability to work while wet, have a very long shelf-life, and will last a very long time in an extended survival situation (unlike matches or a lighter which not only need to be specially design to be able to light when wet, but which would be exhausted sooner than a flint-and-steel fire starter in a longer-duration survival scenario).  Striking a lump of flint against a piece of steel to make fire is not particularly easy or convenient (although it is much easier than other primitive fire-making methods such as using a bow and drill, and requires little practice to employ).  Matches and lighters are a much quicker and more convenient way of starting a fire, but have the disadvantages of being unable to function when wet (except for special designs) and of being more limited (than flint and steel) in the number of times that they can be used before exhausting their fuel supply.\n\nEven so, many lighters still use a variant of the ancient technology as the ignition source for their primary fuel, due to the ease with which those materials generate a sufficiently hot spark.  Ferrocerium now replaces the steel and has been miniaturized and integrated into such lighters. The ferrocerium used in these lighters, while sometimes called \"flint\", has the opposite role than the flint in true flint-and-steel. Ferrocerium is much softer than modern steel and can be scraped with knife with minimal damage to the knife. In lighters, a small steel wheel is turned by the user rotating it with the thumb, creating a high-temperature spark, which ignites the lighters' primary fuel source (which is either present, such as in liquid fuel lighters, or which is also released by the same thumb motion, such as in butane-gas lighters), which then produces a small flame that burns until extinguished.  Common examples include the disposable Bic lighter and the reusable Zippo lighter.  The small ferrocerium cylinder in Zippo's spark producing mechanism is eventually consumed, and Zippo and other companies (e.g., Ronson) sell replacements that are marketed as \"flints,\" even though they are ferrocerium.  Such mechanisms are more popular in liquid fuel lighters than in butane-gas lighters, which more commonly have a piezoelectric ignition system.\n\nA later major use was to create the spark that would ignite the powder that would fire a ball or bullet from a flintlock firearm. While the military use of a flintlock declined after the British military generally applied the percussion cap on their muskets in 1842, it is still popular to use the flintlock as a hunting rifle during special muzzleloader seasons or general rifle seasons in several states in the US.\n\n\u092d\u0935\u0928\nFlint, knapped or unknapped, has been used since antiquity (for example at the Late Roman fort of Burgh Castle in Norfolk) up to the present day as a material for building stone walls, using lime mortar, and often combined with other available stone or brick rubble.  It was most common in parts of southern England, where no good building stone was available locally, and brick-making not widespread until the later Middle Ages.  It is especially associated with East Anglia, but also used in chalky areas stretching through Sussex, Surrey and Kent to Somerset   Flint was used in the construction of many churches houses and other buildings, for example the large stronghold of Framlingham Castle.  Many different decorative effects have been achieved by using different types of knapping or arrangement and combinations with stone (flushwork), especially in the 15th and early 16th centuries.\n\n\u0938\u0947\u0930\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0938\nFlint pebbles are used as the media in ball mills to grind glazes and other raw materials for the ceramics industry. The pebbles are hand-selected for colour, with those showing a reddish tint, indicating the presence of iron, being discarded. The remaining blue-grey stones have a low content of chromophoric oxides and so should impart lesser amounts of colouring contaminants.\n\nIn the UK, flint pebbles were traditionally an important raw material for clay-based ceramic bodies.  After calcination to remove organic impurities and induce certain physical reactions, and milling to fine particle size, flint was added as a filler to pottery bodies. However, flint is no longer used and has been replaced by quartz as is used in other countries.  Because of this historical use, the word \"flint\" is used by US potters to refer to siliceous materials which are not flint.\n\n\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0938\u0901\n\nChert\nEolith\nObsidian\nGrimes Graves, a prehistoric flint mine in Norfolk, England\n\n\u092a\u093f\u0928\u0947\u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092a\u0942\n Flintsource.net European Artefacts - detailed site\n Flint mine in South Moravia 9,400 yrs old\n Flint Architecture of East Anglia Book by Stephen Hart\n\n\u0932\u093f\u0927\u0902\u0938\u093e\n\nSedimentary rocks\nLithics\nQuartz varieties\nFirelighting\nSymbols of Ohio\nBuilding stone\n\u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":2}},"id":2112,"url":"https:\/\/new.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8","title":"\u0915\u0938","language":"new"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"[[File:Hercules fighting the Centaurs.jpg|thumb|260px|Hercules fighting the Centaurs, engraving by Sebald Beham]]\nEngraving is putting a design onto a hard, flat surface, by carving into it. The result may be a decorative piece in itself, as when silver, gold or steel are engraved, or may provide a printing plate of copper or another metal, for printing images on paper which are also called engravings. Engraving was an important method in history of making images on paper, both in artistic ways, such as making a decorative print, and also for printing books and magazines. It has long been replaced by photography in its commercial uses and, is nowadays much less common in printmaking, where it has been almost completely replaced by etching and other techniques.\n\nThe engraving process\n\nEngravers use a steel tool called a burin to cut the picture or pattern into the surface, mostly a copper plate. Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that give different line types when used. The burin gives us a line that is unique because of its steady appearance and smooth edges. The angle tint tool has a slightly curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines on them, used to do work on larger areas. Flat gravers are used for doing work on letters, as well as most musical instrument engraving work. Round gravers are commonly used on silver as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel. \n\nHistory and usage\nIn ancient history, the only engraving that could be made were the shallow grooves found in some jewellery after 1000 B.C. \n\nIn the European Middle Ages goldsmiths used engraving to decorate metal. It is thought that they began to print impressions of their designs to record them. From this grew the engraving of copper printing plates to make artistic images on paper in Germany in the 1430s. The first and greatest period of engraving was from about 1470 to 1530, with such masters as Martin Schongauer, Albrecht D\u00fcrer, and Lucas van Leiden. \n\nThereafter engraving tended to lose popularity to etching, which was a much easier technique for an artist to learn. By the nineteenth century, most engraving was for commercial picture-making. \n\nBefore the invention of photography, engraving was used to reproduce other forms of art, for example paintings. Engravings continued to be common in newspapers and many books into the early 20th century, because they were cheap to use in printing.\n\n When two sets of parallel line hatchings crossed each other for higher density, the pattern was known as cross-hatching. Claude Mellan is well known for his technique of using lines of different thicknesses. One example is his Sudarium of Saint Veronica, an engraving of the face of Jesus from a single spiralling line that starts at the tip Jesus's nose (pictured).\n\nModern engraving\nBecause of the high level of detail that can be done by a master engraver, faking engraved designs is almost impossible, and modern banknotes are almost always engraved, as are plates for printing money, checks, bonds and other papers that should not be faked. Engraving is so fine that a normal printer can not make the detail of hand engraved images properly. In the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing, more than one engraver will work on the same printing plate, making it nearly impossible for any person to duplicate all the engraving on almost any banknote or document. \n\nMany classic postage stamps were engraved, although the practice is now mostly confined to particular countries, or used when a more \"elegant\" design is desired and a limited amount of different colours is acceptable.\n\nEngraving machines such as the K500 or K6 by Hell Gravure Systems use a diamond \"pen\" to cut cells. Each cell creates one printing dot later in the process. A K6 can have up to 18 engraving heads each cutting 8,000 cells per second to an accuracy of 0.1\u00a0\u00b5m and below. They are of course fully computer controlled and the whole process of cylinder making is fully automatic.\n\nThe engraving process with diamonds is state of the art since the 1960s. \n\nNow, laser engraving machines are being made and even today the mechanical cutting has proven its strength in economical terms and quality. More than 4,000 engravers make about 8 million printing cylinders worldwide per year.\n\nBiblical references\n\nThe earliest allusion to engraving in the Bible may be the reference to Judah's seal ring. (Genesis 38:18), followed by (Exodus 39.30). Engraving was commonly done with pointed tools of iron or even with diamond points. (Jeremiah 17:1). \n\nEach of the two onyx stones on the shoulder pieces of the high priest's ephod was engraved with the names of six different tribes of Israel, and each of the 12 precious stones that adorned his breastpiece was engraved with the name of one of the tribes. The holy sign of dedication, the shining gold plate on the high priest's turban, was engraved with the words: \"Holiness belongs to Jehovah.\" Bezalel, along with Oholiab, was qualified to do this specialized engraving work as well as to train others.\u2014Ex 35:30-35; 28:9-12; 39:6-14, 30.\n\n References \n A. M. Hind (1923, repr. 1963). History of Engraving and Etching. Dover.\n A. Gross (1970). Etching, Engraving, and Intaglio Printing. G. Duplessis (1989). Wonders of Engraving.''\n\nOther websites \n Engraving from the Metropolitan Museum of Art Timeline of Art History\n Blog on Old Master Engravings and Etchings\n\nPrintmaking","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":4,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":69735,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engraving","title":"Engraving","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Svante August Arrhenius (19 February 1859 \u2013 2 October 1927) was a Nobel Prize-winning Swedish scientist who made discoveries in physics, chemistry and earth science.\n\nOriginally he was a physicist, but he won the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and was a founder of physical chemistry.\n\nLater in life, he turned to other scientific problems. He was the first person to predict that emissions of carbon dioxide, from the burning of fossil fuels, would cause global warming.\n\nEarly work \nHis early work was on the conductivity of electrolytes. In 1884, based on this work, he submitted a 150-page essay on electrolytic conductivity to University of Uppsala for his doctorate. It did not impress the professors, and he received a low-class degree. Later, extensions of this work would earn him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.\n\nThe most important idea in the thesis was his explanation that neither pure salts nor pure water is a conductor, but solutions of salts in water are.\n\nArrhenius' explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt splits up into charged particles (which Michael Faraday had given the name ions many years earlier). Faraday's belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis; Arrhenius' idea was that, even in the absence of an electric current, solutions of salts contained ions. He proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions.\n\nIn an extension of his ionic scientific theory Arrhenius proposed definitions for acids and bases, in 1884. He believed that acids were substances which produce hydrogen ions in a solution and that bases were substances which produce hydroxide ions in a solution.\n\nThe Nobel Prize \nAbout 1900, Arrhenius became involved in setting up the Nobel Institutes and the Nobel Prizes. For the rest of his life, he would be a member of the Nobel Committee on Physics and a member of the Nobel Committee on Chemistry.\n\nHe used his positions to arrange prizes for his friends (Jacobus van't Hoff, Wilhelm Ostwald, Theodore Richards) and to attempt to deny them to his enemies (Paul Ehrlich, Walther Nernst). In 1903 he became the first Swedish persn to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.\n\nLater work \nAfter he had made his name, he turned to other scientific questions.\n\nPhysiology \nIn 1904 he delivered (at the University of California) several lectures, to try and show the application of the methods of physical chemistry to the study of the theory of toxins and antitoxins, and which were published in 1907 under the title Immunochemistry.\n\nEarth and planetary sciences \nHe also turned his attention to geology (the origin of ice ages), astronomy, physical cosmology, and astrophysics, accounting for the birth of the solar system by interstellar collision.\nHe considered radiation pressure as accounting for comets, the solar corona, the aurora borealis, and zodiacal light.\n\nHe thought life might have been carried from planet to planet by the transport of spores. This idea is now known as panspermia.\n\nGreenhouse effect\nArrhenius thought of a theory to explain the ice ages, and in 1896 he was the first scientist to think that changes in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere could make a big change to the surface temperature through the greenhouse effect. He was influenced by the work of others, including Joseph Fourier. Arrhenius used infrared observations of the moon to work out the absorption of infrared radiation by atmospheric CO2 and water vapour.\nIn its original form, Arrhenius' greenhouse law reads as follows:\n\"If the quantity of carbonic acid increases in geometric progression, the augmentation of the temperature will increase nearly in arithmetic progression\".\nThis simplified expression is still used today:\n\u0394F = \u03b1 ln(C\/)\n\nHis book Worlds in the making (1908) was directed at a general audience. He suggested that the human emission of CO2 would be strong enough to stop the world from entering a new ice age, and that a warmer Earth would be needed to feed the rapidly increasing population:\n \"To a certain extent the temperature of the earth's surface... is [related to] the atmosphere surrounding it, and particularly by the permeability of the latter for the rays of heat\". (p46)\n \"[The] theory has been styled the hot-house theory, because they thought that the atmosphere acted after the manner of the glass panes of hot-houses.\" (p51)\n \"If the quantity of carbonic acid in the air should sink to one-half its present percentage, the temperature would fall by about 4\u00b0; a diminution to one-quarter would reduce the temperature by 8\u00b0. On the other hand, any doubling of the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air would raise the temperature of the earth's surface by 4\u00b0; and if the carbon dioxide were increased fourfold, the temperature would rise by 8\u00b0\". (p53)\n \"Although the sea, by absorbing carbonic acid, acts as a regulator of huge capacity, which takes up about five-sixths of the produced carbonic acid, we yet recognize that the slight percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere may by the advances of industry be changed to a noticeable degree in the course of a few centuries\". (p54)\n \"By the influence of the increasing carbonic acid in the atmosphere, we may hope to enjoy ages with more equable and better climates, especially as regards the colder regions of the earth, ages when the earth will bring forth much more abundant crops than at present, for the benefit of rapidly propagating mankind\". (p63)\n\nHe was the first person to predict that emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels and other combustion processes would cause global warming. Arrhenius clearly believed that a warmer world would be a positive change. Nevertheless, until about 1960, most scientists dismissed the greenhouse effect because they thought it was very unlikely to happen. Milutin Milankovitch had presented a mechanism for ice ages: it used cyclical changes in the orbit of the Earth (Milankovitch cycles). Nowadays, the accepted explanation is that orbital forcing sets the timing for ice ages with CO2 acting as amplifying feedback.\n\nHuman affairs \nHe thought of the idea of a universal language (one language that would be spoken by everybody), proposing a modification of the English language.\n\nArrhenius was one of several leading Swedish scientists who helped create The State Institute for Racial Biology in 1922. This was a eugenics-influenced idea. It had originally been proposed as a Nobel Institute. Arrhenius was a member of the institute's board, as he had been in The Swedish Society for Racial Hygiene (Eugenics), founded in 1909.\n\nReferences \n\nNobel Prize in Chemistry winners\nSwedish Nobel Prize winners\nSwedish physicists\nSwedish chemists\nForeign Members of the Royal Society\n1859 births\n1927 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":155,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-21":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"unknown":21}},"id":291829,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Svante%20Arrhenius","title":"Svante Arrhenius","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Live It Up! was a Canadian lifestyle, entertainment and consumer awareness television program, which aired nationally on CTV from 1978 to 1990. Reruns of the show aired on talktv until January 2005.\n\nThe program's hosts included Jack McGaw, Alan Edmonds, Mary Lou Finlay, Liz Grogan, Dianne Buckner and Sharon Seto.   Live It Up! featured a mix of serious consumer-affairs topics and lighter consumer topics, mostly delivered in a tongue-in-cheek style. Regular segments included the Watchdog (played by Ron Carlyle, a man whose face is never shown while testing different brands of a product), \"What bugs you?\" (concerned consumers talk about problems with household products, and those involved in those products explain why those problems occur and\/or mentions how they are improving them; segments began and end with a person (Miss Judy) in a bug costume flying around, saying \"What bugs you?\" in a high-pitched voice), \"The Legal Beagle\" with lawyer, Jonathan Rudin explaining unusual Canadian laws in humorous sketches performed by the Live It Up Players (notably Tracie Tighe and Art Szoczi) and \"The Great Canadian Joke-Off\" (a nationwide search to find the funniest joke in Canada, with each segment ending with an annoyed monkey). Segments were mainly filmed at first, but moved permanently to videotape in 1987.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\n1970s Canadian television news shows\nCTV Television Network original programming\n1978 Canadian television series debuts\n1990 Canadian television series endings\n1980s Canadian television news shows\nTelevision series by Bell Media\n1990s Canadian television news shows","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":16,"dup_details":{"2015-27":2,"2015-22":9,"2015-14":8,"2014-52":8,"2014-49":8,"2014-42":11,"2014-41":14,"2014-35":10,"2014-23":13,"2014-15":6,"2015-18":10,"2015-11":9,"2015-06":9,"2014-10":10,"2013-48":6,"2013-20":4}},"id":193250,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Live%20It%20Up%21%20%28TV%20series%29","title":"Live It Up! (TV series)","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The performing arts are those forms of art in which individual people perform separately or together. The artist's own body, face, and presence is needed for the performance.\n\nPerforming arts differ from the plastic arts, which use materials such as clay, metal or paint which can be moulded or transformed. A plastic art produces some physical art object. The term 'performing arts' first appeared in the English language in the year 1711.\n\nTypes of performing arts\nPerforming arts include the dance, music, opera, drama, magic, oratory and circus arts.\n\nArtists who participate in performing arts in front of an audience are called performers, including actors, comedians, dancers, magicians, musicians, and singers. Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields, such as songwriting and stagecraft.\n\nPerformers often adapt their appearance, such as with costumes and stage makeup, etc.\n\nThere is also a specialized form of fine art in which the artists perform their work live to an audience. This is called performance art. Most performance art also involves some form of plastic art, perhaps in the creation of props. Dance was often referred to as a plastic art during the Modern dance era.\n\nMusic\n\nMusic focuses on three career paths, music performance, music education, and musicology (theory, history, etc.). Students learn to play musical instrument, but also study music theory, musicology, history of music and musical composition. In the arts tradition, music is also used to broaden skills of non-musicians by teaching skills such as concentration and listening.\n\nDrama\n\nDrama (Greek 'to do', 'seeing place') is the branch of the performing arts concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience. It uses speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle\u2014indeed any one or more elements of the other performing arts. In addition to the standard narrative dialogue style of plays, theatre takes such forms as musicals, opera, ballet, illusion, mime, Indian dance, kabuki, mummers' plays, stand-up comedy, pantomime, and non-conventional or arthouse theatre.\n\nDance\n\nDance (from Old French dancier) generally refers to human movement either used as a form of expression or in a social, spiritual or performance setting.\n\n'Dance' is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (bee dance, mating dance), motion in inanimate objects (the leaves danced in the wind), and certain music genres.\n\nChoreography is the art of making dances, and the person who does this is called a choreographer.\n\nThe definition of what is dance depends on society, and ranges from  folk dance to codified, virtuoso techniques such as ballet. In sports, rhythmic gymnastics, figure skating, ice dancing and synchronized swimming are dance disciplines. Some martial arts have dance-like moves.\n\nHistory of Western performing arts\n\nStarting in the 6th century BC, the first recorded performing art began in Ancient Greece, ushered in by the tragic poets such as Aeschylus and Sophocles. These poets wrote plays which, in some cases, incorporated dance (see Euripides). Aristophanes is noted for his satyrical comedies (5th century BC).\n\nBy the 6th century AD, the Western performing arts died out as the Dark Ages began. Between the 9th century and 14th century, performing art in the West was limited to religious historical enactments and morality plays, organized by the Church in celebration of holy days and other important events.\n\n \nNon-verbal communication","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":255689,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Performing%20arts","title":"Performing arts","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Modernism was a cultural movement of the late 19th century to the mid-20th century. It was a philosophy and it was also an art movement. It changed art, literature, music, architecture and drama.\n\nModernism rejected tradition. It was interested in new ways of doing old things. Also, there was a belief that science and technology could change the world for the better. The details differ greatly, and the term covers some movements which are somewhat contradictory.\n\nArt \nModern art replaced classical art. It included abstract art, cubism, pop art, minimalism, and Dadaism. It affected sculpture quite strongly, though at the beginning sculptors like Rodin and Epstein made both traditional and modernist works. Henry Moore is one of the most famous modernist sculptors.\n\nTypical modernist painters were Picasso, Braque, Matisse, Kandinsky and Mondrian.\n\nMusic \nComposers such as Stravinsky, George Antheil and Schoenberg are modernists. Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring (Le Sacre du Printemps) is a landmark work.\n\nDance \nBallets such as The Rite of Spring and Les Noces (The Wedding) mark the arrival of modernism into this traditional dance form. Modern dance outside of ballet started with Isadora Duncan, Loie Fuller and Ruth St. Denis.\n\nLiterature \nJames Joyce's Ulysses is the classic example of modernism in the novel. Ulysses (1922) has been called \"a demonstration and summation of the entire Modernist movement\". Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis (1915), The Trial (1925) and T.S. Eliot's poem The Waste Land (1922) are also prime examples. Looking back, it is clear that: Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment (1866) had a great influence on other writers.\n\nThe arrival of magic realism is part of modernism. The novels and short stories of Mikhail Bulgakov such as Diabolidad and The Master and Margarita are examples.\n\nArchitecture \n\nModernism in architecture is found in the work of Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius the founder of Bauhaus, and Mies van der Rohe. Le Corbusier's famous remark \"A building is a machine for living in\" shows how different his thinking was to architects of the 19th century. The skyscraper, such as Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New York (1956\u20131958), became the archetypal modernist building.\n\nCriticism \nA criticism of the modern movement is that it does not value tradition, and goes in for change for the sake of change. What modernists want most is freedom of expression, or, perhaps, freedom of experimentation. This is why many modern paintings avoid making visual copies of real things. In modernist literature, an author may leave out plots or narrative or characterization in books.\n\nThese experiments were not random. They drew on the ideas of their day: mass media, science and technology, Marxism, Freudian psychology, and so on. There was a general search for new materials, new methods and new ideas. There was often a rejection of elitism, and a love of populism and popular culture.\n\nAnother criticism was of the connection between modernism and socialism. Certainly many modernists were also socialists. In the early days of socialism it seemed to offer hope of a new future without the baggage of the past. This also explains their rejection of tradition.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \nAvant-garde\nModernist literature\nModernist music\nPostmodernism\n\nArt movements\nArchitectural styles\nLiterature\nPhilosophical movements and positions","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2}},"id":183830,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modernism","title":"Modernism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Jean-Jacques Rousseau, (28 June 1712 \u2013 2 July 1778) was a famous French-speaking philosopher. He was born in Geneva, Switzerland and always described himself as being Genevan.\n\nEarly life \nRousseau lived in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment. His political ideology influenced the French Revolution and aided the development of nationalism and socialist theories.\n\nCareer \nRousseau was also a composer, writing numerous books about music theory. Rousseau authored Confessions, an autobiography, one of the first of its kind. Many later philosophers were influenced by him. He wrote a novel Julie, ou la nouvelle H\u00e9lo\u00efse, which was a best-seller and influenced 19th century writers of romanticism.\n\nRousseau believed that men were born good and innocent, and that corruption and sadness happened because of life experiences and experiences in society.  He believed that if society were gone, man would be happy and pure once again.\n\nRousseau is most famous for his social contract ideology, which is often compared to the social contract of John Locke. This ideology is stated in Rousseau's book, The Social Contract.\n\nReferences \n\n1712 births\n1778 deaths\nClassical era composers\nSwiss composers\nMusic theorists\n18th-century philosophers\nWriters from Geneva","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":120,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2021-43":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":47128,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jean-Jacques%20Rousseau","title":"Jean-Jacques Rousseau","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0941\u0902 \u0927\u093e\u0903\u0917\u0941 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0917\u0941 \u0915\u0941\u0902 \u091b\u094d\u092f\u0932\u093e \u0915\u0941\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0903\u0917\u0941, \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0916\u094d\u092f\u0903 \u0916\u0964 \u0925\u094d\u0935 \u091b\u0917\u0941 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094b\u0932\u093f\u0917\u0928 \u0916\u0903\u0964 \u0925\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u094b\u0932\u093f\u0917\u0928\u092f\u094d \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0917\u0941 \u092d\u0930\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0917\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0907\u0921 \u0935 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0917\u0941 \u0915\u094b\u0923 \u0926\u0948\u0964\n\n\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \n\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0941\u0902\u092f\u093e \u0932\u094d\u0939\u093e \u0915\u0925\u0902 \u0925\u0941\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0969\u0917\u0941 \u092d\u093e\u092f\u092f\u094d \u092c\u093e\u092f\u094d \u091b\u093f\u0902\n \u0938\u092e\u092c\u093e\u0939\u0942  \n \u0938\u092e\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092c\u093e\u0939\u0942 \n \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u092c\u093e\u0939\u0942 \n\n\u0915\u094b\u0923\u092f\u093e\u0917\u0941 \u0915\u0925\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092d\u0942\u091c\u092f\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0917\u0941 \u092d\u093e\u0917\u092f\u094d \u092c\u093e\u092f\u094d \u091b\u093f\u0902-\n \u0930\u093e\u0907\u091f \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923 \n \u0905\u092c\u094d\u091f\u094d\u092f\u0941\u091c \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923 .\n \u090f\u0915\u094d\u092f\u0941\u091f \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923 .\n\n\u0938\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u0902\u0924\u0903 \n\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923\u092f\u093e\u0917\u0941 \u091b\u0941\u0902 \u0916\u0902\u0924\u0947\u0924 \u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0921\u0928\u0902 \u0935\u0947\u0915\u092f\u093e\u0917\u0941 \u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0921\u092f\u093e\u0917\u0941 \u090f\u0932\u0947\u092e\u0947\u0928\u094d\u091f\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092b\u0942\u092f\u0941 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0967-\u096a\u092f\u094d \u0925\u094d\u092f\u0902-\u092e\u0925\u094d\u092f\u0902 \u0969\u0966\u0966 \u0907 \u092a\u0942\u092f\u094d \u091a\u094d\u0935\u092f\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0917\u0941 \u0926\u0941\u0964\n\nA triangle is a polygon and a 2-simplex (see polytope). All triangles are two-dimensional.\n\nTwo triangles are said to be similar if and only if the angles of one are equal to the corresponding angles of the other. In this case, the lengths of their corresponding sides are proportional. This occurs for example when two triangles share an angle and the sides opposite to that angle are parallel.\n\nUsing right triangles and the concept of similarity, the trigonometric functions sine and cosine can be defined. These are functions of an angle which are investigated in trigonometry.\n\nIn the remainder we will consider a triangle with vertices A, B and C, angles \u03b1, \u03b2 and \u03b3 and sides a, b and c. The side a is opposite to the vertex A and angle \u03b1 and analogously for the other sides.\n\nIn Euclidean geometry, the sum of the internal angles \u03b1 + \u03b2 + \u03b3 is equal to two right angles (180\u00b0 or \u03c0 radians). This allows determination of the third angle of any triangle as soon as two angles are known.\n\nA central theorem is the Pythagorean theorem stating that in any right triangle, the area of the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides. If side C is the hypotenuse, we can write this as\n\nThis means that knowing the lengths of two sides of a right triangle is enough to calculate the length of the third\u2014something unique to right triangles.\nThe Pythagorean theorem can be generalized to the law of cosines:\n\nwhich is valid for all triangles, even if \u03b3 is not a right angle. \nThe law of cosines can be used to compute the side lengths and angles of a triangle as soon as all three sides or two sides and an enclosed angle are known.\n\n\u0938\u093e\u0907\u0928\u092f\u0941 \u0932\u0903 \u0915\u0925\u0902 :\n\nwhere d is the diameter of the circumcircle (the circle which passes through all three points of the triangle). The law of sines can be used to compute the side lengths for a triangle as soon as two angles and one side are known. If two sides and an unenclosed angle is known, the law of sines may also be used; however, in this case there may be zero, one or two solutions.\n\nThere are two special right triangles that appear commonly in geometry. The so-called \"45-45-90 triangle\" has angles with those angle measures and the ratio of its sides is : . The \"30-60-90 triangle\" has sides in the ratio of .\n\nPoints, lines and circles associated with a triangle \nThere are hundreds of different constructions that find a special point inside a triangle, satisfying some unique property: see the references section for a catalogue of them. Often they are constructed by finding three lines associated in a symmetrical way with the three sides (or vertices) and then proving that the three lines meet in a single point: an important tool for proving the existence of these is Ceva's theorem, which gives a criterion for determining when three such lines are concurrent. Similarly, lines associated with a triangle are often constructed by proving that three symmetrically constructed points are collinear: here Menelaus' theorem gives a useful general criterion. In this section just a few of the most commonly-encountered constructions are explained.\n\nA perpendicular bisector of a triangle is a straight line passing through the midpoint of a side and being perpendicular to it, i.e. forming a right angle with it. The three perpendicular bisectors meet in a single point, the triangle's circumcenter; this point is the center of the circumcircle, the circle passing through all three vertices. The diameter of this circle can be found from the law of sines stated above.\n\nThales' theorem states that if the circumcenter is located on one side of the triangle, then the opposite angle is a right one. More is true: if the circumcenter is located inside the triangle, then the triangle is acute; if the circumcenter is located outside the triangle, then the triangle is obtuse.\n\nAn altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and perpendicular to (i.e. forming a right angle with) the opposite side. This opposite side is called the base of the altitude, and the point where the altitude intersects the base (or its extension) is called the foot of the altitude. The length of the altitude is the distance between the base and the vertex. The three altitudes intersect in a single point, called the orthocenter of the triangle. The orthocenter lies inside the triangle if and only if the triangle is acute.\nThe three vertices together with the orthocenter are said to form an orthocentric system.\n\nAn angle bisector of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex which cuts the corresponding angle in half. The three angle bisectors intersect in a single point, the incenter, the center of the triangle's incircle. The incircle is the circle which lies inside the triangle and touches all three sides. There are three other important circles, the excircles; they lie outside the triangle and touch one side as well as the extensions of the other two. The centers of the in- and excircles form an orthocentric system.\n\nA median of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite side, and divides the triangle into two equal areas. The three medians intersect in a single point, the triangle's centroid. This is also the triangle's center of gravity: if the triangle were made out of wood, say, you could balance it on its centroid, or on any line through the centroid. The centroid cuts every median in the ratio 2:1, i.e. the distance between a vertex and the centroid is twice as large as the distance between the centroid and the midpoint of the opposite side.\n\nThe midpoints of the three sides and the feet of the three altitudes all lie on a single circle, the triangle's nine-point circle. The remaining three points for which it is named are the midpoints of the portion of altitude between the vertices and the orthocenter. The radius of the nine-point circle is half that of the circumcircle. It touches the incircle (at the Feuerbach point) and the three excircles.\n\nThe centroid (yellow), orthocenter (blue), circumcenter (green) and center of the nine-point circle (red point) all lie on a single line, known as Euler's line (red line). The center of the nine-point circle lies at the midpoint between the orthocenter and the circumcenter, and the distance between the centroid and the circumcenter is half that between the centroid and the orthocenter.\n\nThe center of the incircle is not in general located on Euler's line.\n\nIf one reflects a median at the angle bisector that passes through the same vertex, one obtains a symmedian. The three symmedians intersect in a single point, the symmedian point of the triangle.\n\nComputing the area of a triangle \nCalculating the area of a triangle is an elementary problem encountered often in many different situations. Various approaches exist, depending on what is known about the triangle. What follows is a selection of frequently used formulae for the area of a triangle.\n\nUsing geometry \nThe area S of a triangle is S\u00a0=\u00a0\u00bdbh, where b is the length of any side of the triangle (the base) and h (the altitude) is the perpendicular distance between the base and the vertex not on the base. This can be shown with the following geometric construction.\n\nTo find the area of a given triangle (green), first make an exact copy of the triangle (blue), rotate it 180\u00b0, and join it to the given triangle along one side to obtain a parallelogram. Cut off a part and join it at the other side of the parallelogram to form a rectangle. Because the area of the rectangle is bh, the area of the given triangle must be\u00a0\u00bdbh.\n\nThe product of the inradius and the semiperimeter of a triangle also gives its area.\n\nUsing vectors \nThe area of a parallelogram can also be calculated by the use of vectors. If AB and AC are vectors pointing from A to B and from A to C, respectively, the area of parallelogram ABDC is |AB\u00a0\u00d7\u00a0AC|, the magnitude of the cross product of vectors AB and AC. |AB\u00a0\u00d7\u00a0AC| is also equal to |h\u00a0\u00d7\u00a0AC|, where h represents the altitude h as a vector.\n\nThe area of triangle ABC is half of this, or S\u00a0=\u00a0\u00bd|AB\u00a0\u00d7\u00a0AC|.\n\nThe area of triangle ABC can also be expressed in term of dot products as follows:\n\nUsing trigonometry \nThe altitude of a triangle can be found through an application of trigonometry. Using the labelling as in the image on the left, the altitude is h\u00a0=\u00a0a\u00a0sin\u00a0\u03b3. Substituting this in the formula S\u00a0=\u00a0\u00bdbh derived above, the area of the triangle can be expressed as S\u00a0=\u00a0\u00bdab\u00a0sin\u00a0\u03b3.\n\nIt is of course no coincidence that the area of a parallelogram is ab\u00a0sin\u00a0\u03b3.\n\nIf one uses \n\nand \n\nand also the formula shown above, then one arrives at the following formula for area\n\n[Note that, this is a multiplied out form of Heron's formula]\n\nUsing coordinates \nIf vertex A is located at the origin (0,\u00a00) of a Cartesian coordinate system and the coordinates of the other two vertices are given by B\u00a0=\u00a0(xB,\u00a0yB) and C\u00a0=\u00a0(xC,\u00a0yC), then the area S can be computed as \u00bd times the absolute value of the determinant \n\nFor three general vertices, the equation is:\n\n \n\nIn three dimensions, the area of a general triangle {A\u00a0=\u00a0(xA,\u00a0yA,\u00a0zA), B\u00a0=\u00a0(xB,\u00a0yB,\u00a0zB) and C\u00a0=\u00a0(xC,\u00a0yC,\u00a0zC)} is the 'Pythagorean' sum of the areas of the respective projections on the three principal planes (i.e. x=0, y=0 and z=0):\n\nUsing Heron's formula \nYet another way to compute S is Heron's Formula:\n\nwhere s\u00a0=\u00a0\u00bd\u00a0(a\u00a0+\u00a0b\u00a0+\u00a0c) is the semiperimeter, or half of the triangle's perimeter.\n\nMultiplied out form of Heron's formula (see above for proof)\n\nNon-planar triangles \nA non-planar triangle is a triangle which is not contained in a (flat) plane. Examples of non-planar triangles in noneuclidean geometries are spherical triangles in spherical geometry and hyperbolic triangles in hyperbolic geometry.\n\nWhile all regular, planar (two dimensional) triangles contain angles that add up to 180\u00b0, there are cases in which the angles of a triangle can be greater than or less than 180\u00b0. In curved figures, a triangle on a negatively curved figure (\"saddle\") will have its angles add up to less than 180\u00b0 while a triangle on a positively curved figure (\"sphere\") will have its angles add up to more than 180\u00b0. Thus, if one were to draw a giant triangle on the surface of the Earth, one would find that the sum of its angles were greater than 180\u00b0.\n\n\u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\n\n\u092a\u093f\u0928\u0947\u092f\u093e\u0917\u0941 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092a\u0942\u0924\u0903 \n Triangle Calculator - solves for remaining sides and angles when given three sides or angles, supports degrees and radians.\n Napoleon's theorem A triangle with three equilateral triangles. A purely geometric proof. It uses the Fermat point to prove Napoleon's theorem without transformations by Antonio Gutierrez from \"Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas\"\n William Kahan: Miscalculating Area and Angles of a Needle-like Triangle.\n Clark Kimberling: Encyclopedia of triangle centers. Lists some 1600 interesting points associated with any triangle.\n Christian Obrecht: Eukleides. Software package for creating illustrations of facts about triangles and other theorems in Euclidean geometry.\n Proof that the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 degrees\n Triangle constructions, remarkable points and lines, and metric relations in a triangle at cut-the-knot\n Printable Worksheet on Types of Triangles\n Compendium Geometry Analytical Geometry of Triangles\n Area of a triangle - 7 different ways\n Triangle definition pages with interactive applets that are also useful in a classroom setting. Math Open Reference\n Constructing an equilateral triangle  , Isosceles triangle  and Copying a Triangle with only a compass and straightedge, interactive animation.\n\n\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":142,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":6123,"url":"https:\/\/new.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%82","title":"\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0941\u0902","language":"new"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"is a media franchise owned by The Pok\u00e9mon Company. It is based on the concept of hatching, catching, playing with, staying with, befriending, defending, raising, trading, training and battling with hundreds of different monsters. The concept was made by Satoshi Tajiri, Pok\u00e9mon's creator. It is represented in many types of media, most famously video games, a still-running anime series, manga, and a trading card game. There are eight regions in the Pok\u00e9mon games. Although there are 1013 different Pok\u00e9mon, most people will know of the mascot of the company, an electric Pok\u00e9mon known as Pikachu.\n\nThe video games have sold more copies than every other series except Nintendo's Mario series.\n\nVideo games \n\nA number of Pok\u00e9mon games have been released, mostly on Nintendo systems, with the exception of Pok\u00e9mon GO as The Pok\u00e9mon Company is owned by Nintendo.\n\nMost games are based on catching, training and battling Pok\u00e9mon, and the player is a Pok\u00e9mon trainer who does all these things. There are a number of aspects to the games.\n\nIn the games, Pok\u00e9mon are monsters that trainers catch (using various types of capture devices known as Pok\u00e9 Balls), train, battle, collect, and trade with each other. As of the ninth generation, there are 1013 of them. One of the most popular Pok\u00e9mon in competitive battling is Mega Kangaskhan, because of its ability to hit the target twice with each move.\n\nAnother Pok\u00e9mon game is the famous Pok\u00e9mon GO that can be played only on touch phones. It has a big difference from the other games but its basics are the same. This game uses Augmented Reality and the phone's GPS to give the player a very real sense of play. People literally walk around their neighbourhoods, explore new places and catch Pok\u00e9mon which can be captured along with your surrounding environment by using the phone's camera. People can also go to special places or landmarks where there would be Poke Stops and Gyms which can be used to collect items, battle other Pok\u00e9mon etc. This game has been a huge success when it was released and is widely considered as the beginning of the AR era.\n\nGameplay \n\nThe gameplay of the Pok\u00e9mon series of role-playing video games involves the capture and training of many of fictional monsters called \"Pok\u00e9mon\" and using them to battle other trainers. Each generation of games builds upon this idea by introducing new Pok\u00e9mon, items, and gameplay concepts. Some of the general ideas were featured elsewhere before being introduced in the games; double battles appeared in the anime long before appearing in the games, and Pok\u00e9mon abilities are similar to the Pok\u00e9mon Powers first seen in the Pok\u00e9mon Trading Card Game.\n\nAnime \n\nNot long after Pok\u00e9mon Red and Blue (the first Pok\u00e9mon video games) were released, a Pok\u00e9mon anime was created. It was first shown in Japan in early 1997, and in the United States in late 1998. The anime started what has been called \"Pok\u00e9mania\", which meant that after the anime came out, it became very popular among children, and many parents assumed it was a fad and no one would care about it in a couple years. However, it was never cancelled, and it is still running.\n\nThe interesting thing about the Pok\u00e9mon Anime is that when a new Pok\u00e9mon game is released that is not a remake, the whole Anime focuses on that with new Pok\u00e9mon and the world that is in that Pok\u00e9mon game.\n\nThe anime shows the adventures of Ash Ketchum, (with the exception of some special series) a ten-year-old Pok\u00e9mon trainer who has many adventures, meeting many new people and Pok\u00e9mon. His most famous Pok\u00e9mon, and probably the most famous Pok\u00e9mon, is Pikachu.\n\nA number of Pok\u00e9mon films have also been made that relate to the anime. The first one was Pok\u00e9mon: The First Movie (released in 1998 in Japan and 1999 in United States). There are more movies still being made. There have now been seventeen films released.\n\n2024 Live Action movie\n Grayson Eddey as Ash Ketchum\n Violet McGraw as Misty\n Ethan William Childress as Brock\n Mckenna Grace as Liza\n Kate Mara as Delia Ketchum\n Pierce Brosnan as Professor Oak\n Angelique Cabral as Office Jenny\n Alaina Huffman as Nurse Joy\n Sophia Lillis as Jessie of Team Rocket.\n Ty Simpkins as James of Team Rocket.\n Isabel May as Wendy of Team Rocket.\n Jeremy Palko as Giovanni the Boss of Team Rocket.\n Tom Budge as Team Rocket Flatcap man #1\n\nTrading card game \nA Pok\u00e9mon trading card game also exists. Players use Pok\u00e9mon cards to battle each other and collect them by opening packs. There are also live tournaments hosted by Nintendo. Pok\u00e9mon's damage is counted by \"damage counters\" or objects which are placed on the cards to keep track of damage. After you add up all of the numbers on the damage counters, you subtract it from the card's HP (health points) to find out how much HP is left. Only 60 cards are used in a player's deck, and six of these are set aside in a pile called \"prize cards.\" After one player knocks out an opponent's card, the defeater takes just one face-down prize card for non-EX Pok\u00e9mon. Meanwhile, when someone makes an EX Pok\u00e9mon faint, he or she gets two prize cards. There is one discard pile for each player, where fainted Pok\u00e9mon go. Some ways to win are taking all of your prize cards, and\/or making your opponent draw all of his or her cards.\n\nThere are cards designed as various Pok\u00e9mon, which usually need \"Energy\" cards to use attacks. There are also \"Trainer\" cards, which are used for additional things other than direct Pok\u00e9mon attacks, like giving Pok\u00e9mon more HP. Most fans of the series agree that a good deck is made of about twenty \"Pok\u00e9mon\" cards, twenty \"Energy\" cards, and twenty \"Trainer\" cards.\n\nPlayers can evolve their Benched or Active Pok\u00e9mon. The Bench is a spot that can hold Pok\u00e9mon, and these Pok\u00e9mon can be evolved with its evolution card. Active Pok\u00e9mon can evolve too, but can also use attacks. To evolve a Pok\u00e9mon, you can just put its evolution card on top of it.\n\nAll Pok\u00e9mon cards have types. The type affects how effective an attack is. For example, a certain Lightning-type Pikachu card can use an attack that normally deals 80 damage. If the Pikachu uses it against a Pok\u00e9mon with a Weakness of +20 to Lighting, you add 20 more damage to the normal damage to make it 100. Types can also make things less effective.\n\nThere is also a special kind of Pok\u00e9mon in the trading card game called \"EX\" Pok\u00e9mon. EX & GX Pok\u00e9mon are stronger than regular ones, but when they are knocked out, the player's opponent draws two of their prize cards (with regular Pok\u00e9mon it is just one.) Also, there is another special type of Pok\u00e9mon in the trading card game called \"Delta Species\" Pok\u00e9mon, which have types that are different than typical cards, like an Electric-type Charmander, who is usually Fire-type. In the \"Diamond & Pearl\" trading card game expansion, \"LV.X\" cards were introduced. These are a little like evolution cards, but they can only be used on Active Pok\u00e9mon. In the \"HeartGold & SoulSilver\" expansion, The Pok\u00e9mon Company released new cards, called LEGEND cards. LEGEND cards are two cards sold separately that when put together make one picture. They can be used only when the two cards they are made of are put together; they cannot work separately.\n\nCriticism \nThe Pok\u00e9mon media franchise, especially the anime, has been often criticized by organizations such as PETA.\n\nDenn\u014d Senshi Porygon \nAn episode of the anime called \"Denn\u014d Senshi Porygon\" (\"Electric Soldier Porygon\" translated in English) was first shown in Japan on December 16, 1997. One part of the episode showed quick flashing red and blue lights. This caused 685 Japanese children to have epileptic seizures. Because of this, the anime went on a four-month break, and several laws were put in place regarding the flashing lights. Also, the previous episodes released had been toned down when Pokemon aired again.\n\nPorygon, one of the main characters in the episode, has not appeared again in the anime ever since \"Denn\u014d Senshi Porygon\". It has two evolved forms, Porygon2 and Porygon-Z, and neither of them have appeared in the anime at all, even though it was Ash Ketchum's Pikachu that made the explosion that caused the flashing lights.\n\nAn episode of The Simpsons called \"Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo\" made fun of \"Denn\u014d Senshi Porygon\", as well as an episode of South Park called \"Chinpokomon\".\n\nJynx \nJynx, a species of Pok\u00e9mon, was criticized because it looked like it was using blackface (an old film-making technique that makes white actors look African-American).  It was also criticized because it looked like a drag queen (a man who dresses as a woman). This was not an issue in Japan, but it caused a lot of argument in the United States because of the United States' history of racism. Ever since then, Jynx has purple skin instead of black skin, and anime episodes featuring it were banned due to argument.\n\nGame censorship \nIn Pok\u00e9mon Diamond and Pearl, the Pok\u00e9mon Registeel had its sprite changed in some European versions, because its pose was too similar to a Nazi salute.\n\nAnother Nazi-related censorship was the trading card Koga's Ninja Trick. In this card, there are various symbols, one of them being the swastika. The swastika symbol is used in some cultures and religions. However, it is also used as a symbol of Nazism. Because of this, the symbol was changed in the English and International versions of the trading card.\n\nReferences \n\n5.  Team GO Rocket arrival to Pokemon Go generated record breaking $110 million revenue in August  -AndroidNature.com- August 2019\n\n \n \nAnime","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":238,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":2,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":6,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":5,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":6,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":5,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":6,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":6,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":9,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":12,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":7,"2019-26":12,"2019-22":5,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":5,"2018-17":6,"2018-13":6,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":7,"2017-51":5,"2017-47":7,"2017-43":6,"2017-39":8,"2017-34":3}},"id":117344,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pok%C3%A9mon","title":"Pok\u00e9mon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Epic poetry tells a dramatic story in a poem. There are characters in the story. It is usually long, and takes place in different settings. Epic poems started in prehistoric times as part of oral tradition. The Kyrgyz Epic of Manas is one of the longest written epics in history.\n\nBeowulf is a typical example, written in Old English. Well-known people who wrote epics were Homer, Virgil, Ovid, Dante, Edmund Spenser and Milton. William Wordsworth's Prelude plays with epic ideas though the poem is autobiography.\n\nCharacteristics \nEpics have seven main characteristics: \n The hero is outstanding. They might be important, and historically or legendarily significant.\n The setting is large. It covers many nations, or the known world.\n The action is made of deeds of great valor or requiring superhuman courage.\n Supernatural forces\u2014gods, angels, demons\u2014insert themselves in the action.\n It is written in a very special style (verse as opposed to prose).\n The poet tries to remain objective.\n Epic poems are believed to be supernatural and real by the hero and the villain\n \nConventions of epics: \n It starts with the theme or subject of the story.\n In epics inspired from Western civilization the writer invokes a Muse, one of the nine daughters of Zeus.  The poet prays to the Muses to provide divine inspiration to tell the great story.  \n Narrative opens in medias res, or in the middle of things, usually with the hero at his lowest point. Usually flashbacks show earlier portions of the story.\n Catalogues and genealogies are given. These long lists of objects, places, and people place the finite action of the epic within a broader, universal context. Often, the poet is also paying homage to the ancestors of audience members.\n Main characters give extended formal speeches.\n\n Use of the epic simile.\n Heavy use of repetition or stock phrases.\n It presents the heroic ideals such as courage, honour, sacrifice, patriotism and kindness.\n An epic gives a clear window of the social and cultural patterns of the contemporary life. Beowulf thus shows the love of wine, wild celebration, war, adventure and sea-voyages.\n\nExamples\n\nAncient \n20th to 10th century BC:\nEpic of Gilgamesh  (Mesopotamia)\n8th century BC to 3rd century AD:\nMah\u0101bh\u0101rata  (Indian mythology)\n8th to 6th century BC:\nIliad and Odyssey, ascribed to Homer  (Greek mythology)\n1st century BC:\nAeneid, Vergil (Latin)\n\nMedieval \nSong of Roland\n8th to 10th century AD\nBeowulf (Old English)\n12th to 13th century AD\nSirat Bani Hilal (Arabic)    *[https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taghribat_Bani_Hilal]*\n10th to 12th century AD\nNj\u00e1l's saga (Old Norse)\n14th century AD\nSir Gawain and the Green Knight (dialect of middle English)\n\nContemporary \nOmeros (1990), Derek Walcott\n\nEmpire of Dreams (1988), Giannina Braschi\n\nOther page \nLyric poetry - contrary notion\n\nReferences\n\nPoetry forms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":145,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":5,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":3,"2024-10":3}},"id":67783,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epic%20poetry","title":"Epic poetry","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Igor Stravinsky was born in Lomonosov (then Oranienbaum), 17 June 1882 and died in New York, 6 April 1971. He was one of the most important composers of the 20th century, and a leader in modernism in music. He was brought up in Russia. When the Russian Revolution started he moved to Switzerland and then to Paris, and finally, when World War II started in 1939, he moved to the United States.\n\nStravinsky wrote music in different styles. At first he wrote music similar to his teacher Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. He loved his native Russian music. He wrote music which had very complicated chords and rhythms. It is lively music, and some of his best known works of this kind were written for the Ballets Russes of Sergei Diaghilev: The Firebird, Petrushka, The Rite of Spring, Les noces, Pulcinella and Apollo musag\u00e8te. They were written from 1910 to 1928.\n\nThen he changed his style and wrote in what is called a \"neo-classical\" way. He based it on music from the Classical music period but changed it. His only full-length opera The Rake's Progress was written in this way. In his later years he wrote serial music.\n\nEarly years \nIgor was the third of four children, all boys. As a child he spent the winter months in St Petersburg and the summers in the country where several of his relatives on his mother's side had large estates.\n\nIgor was not particularly good at school, but he often went to see the operas in which his father Fyodor was performing. Fyodor was an opera singer with a fine bass voice. He sang at the opera house in Kiev and later at the Mariinsky Theatre in St Petersburg. Igor also went to ballets and even heard Tchaikovsky conduct in 1893, at the end of his life.\n\nFor a time Stravinsky studied law at the university of St Petersburg, but gave up in 1906. Then he married one of his cousins. They soon had a son and a daughter.\n\nMeanwhile, since his school days, Igor played the piano, and had lessons in harmony and counterpoint. He enjoyed improvising and he started to be interested in composing. He wrote some short piano pieces and showed them to the composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, the father of a friend. Rimsky-Korsakov told him he ought to continue to have private music lessons instead of going to the conservatoire. Shortly after this, Stravinsky's father died. Igor went to stay with Rimsky-Korsakov. He met many musical people there, and Rimsky-Korsakov taught him how to write for the different instruments. In 1905, he began to take twice-weekly private lessons from Rimsky-Korsakov, whom he came to regard as a second father. These lessons continued until Rimsky-Korsakov's death in 1908.\n\nEarly career  \nIn 1908 Rimsky-Korsakov died. Stravinsky met Sergei Diaghilev, the ballet impresario. Diaghilev wanted to put on performances of new operas and ballets. He needed a composer to write the music and saw that Stravinsky might be the ideal person. He asked him to write music for a ballet called The Firebird, which was a Russian fairytale. Stravinsky wrote it at Rimsky-Korsakov's country house and finished it in St Petersburg. The ballet was first performed at the Paris Op\u00e9ra on 25 June 1910 by the Ballets Russes who were very famous in Europe. Mikhail Fokin was the choreographer. It has remained one of Stravinsky's most famous pieces of music. Some of the music is often performed in a concert hall without the dancing. This version is called a \"suite\" (literally \"a collection of dances\"). It shows his love of Russian folk melody.\n\nThe success of The Firebird made Stravinsky world famous. His music was especially well known in Europe, and in Paris where the Ballets Russes were based. The next work Stravinsky wrote for them was Petrouchka. It was the story of a puppet which comes to life. It was performed in Paris on 13 June 1911 and became just as famous as The Firebird. This music, too, is often performed as a concert piece. Stravinsky also made an arrangement of three of the dances for piano solo. It is very hard to play and needs a virtuoso pianist.\n\nStravinsky was becoming well known among musicians. His friends included Debussy and Ravel. He met Schoenberg in Berlin and was very impressed by his piece called Pierrot Lunaire. He spent a lot of his time with his family in Switzerland where he had peace and quiet to compose.\n\nOn 29 May 1913 a new ballet by Stravinsky called The Rite of Spring was performed at the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre des Champs-Elys\u00e9es in Paris. It was an absolute sensation. Some people loved it and others hated it. There was a big fight in the theatre and the police were called in. People were shouting so much that no one could hear the music. Stravinsky became ill afterwards and spent some weeks to recover. When the ballet was performed again people were quieter and listened to the music. There were lots of new ideas in the music: harsh chords and very complicated rhythms. The music of The Rite of Spring had an great influence on the development of music in the 20th century.\n\nStravinsky's next idea for a ballet was Les noces, French for 'The Wedding'. Stravinsky went back to Russia to collect some things that would help him to compose it. When he returned to Switzerland World War I started.\n\nThe war years \nStravinsky's family spent most of their time in Switzerland during the war. He was short of money because there was no more income from the Russian estates. The Ballets Russes could not perform any more in Paris. Stravinsky spent a lot of time working at Les Noces. He finished it in 1917 and played it to Diaghilev. It was another six years before it was performed. Stravinsky eventually chose to arrange it for four pianos, percussion, chorus and vocal soloists. It was performed at the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre de la Ga\u00eet\u00e9 Lyrique on 13 June 1923.\n\nBecause Switzerland was neutral in the war, Stravinsky was able to travel. He went to Italy where he met Gerald Tyrwhitt (who later became Lord Berners) and Prokofiev. He wrote Reynard and Rag-Time. He performed in America with Ballets Russes.\n\nWhen the Russian Revolution broke out in February 1917 Stravinsky thought this would be good, but when the Bolshevik Revolution followed it became obvious that he would never be able to go back to Russia. He wrote L'histoire du soldat (The Soldier's Tale). It was performed in Lausanne with Ernest Ansermet conducting. There would have been more performances but many people had influenza. When the war ended Stravinsky decided to move to France. He wrote a ballet called Pulcinella which was based on music by the 18th century composer Pergolesi. It was performed at the Paris Op\u00e9ra on 15 May 1920. For some years Igor became interested in the music of the late 18th century, and the style of his work after 1920 is often described as neoclassical.\n\nFrance \nIn 1920 Stravinsky's family moved from Stravinsky to Brittany, then the following year they moved to Biarritz. Stravinsky composed a piece called Symphonies for Wind Instruments. It was soon performed in London at a concert which also included The Rite of Spring, conducted by Eugene Goossens in the Queen's Hall. He met a theatre designer called Serge Soudeikine and fell madly in love with Vera, who would later become his second wife.  Meanwhile, his first wife, Katerina, was in a sanitorium suffering from tuberculosis. Vera and Stravinsky saw one another as much as possible for the next 18 years. Meanwhile, Stravinsky's mother managed to get out of Russia and she joined Stravinsky's family in Biarritz. Stravinsky had to support a large family, and he decided he needed to work more as a conductor and pianist instead of composing large works. He composed smaller pieces, including the piano version of three dances from Petrouchka. Later, when his son was grown up, he composed a Concerto for two solo pianos for himself to play with his son. He did not compose any more for the Ballets Russes, but he did compose Oedipus rex as a special tribute to them. This work was a mixture of opera and oratorio. The words were in Latin and were written by Jean Cocteau. It was performed as a concert performance. Although he did not write for Diaghilev any more, he accepted an invitation from Ida Rubinstein to write a ballet called Le baiser de la f\u00e9e (The fairy's kiss) which was based on music by Tchaikovsky. Diaghilev was annoyed, but then he died in 1929 and the Ballets Russes company no longer carried on.\n\nIn 1926 Stravinsky, who belonged to the Russian Orthodox Church, had a deep religious experience which effected his music. The best of these religious pieces is the Symphony of Psalms, written for the Boston Symphony Orchestra's 50th birthday celebrations.\n\nStravinsky met the violinist Dushkin and composed a Violin Concerto as well as the Duo concertante for violin and piano which the two musicians played together at many concerts. He became more and more in demand in the United States and wrote several works for American people. He was offered a job as professor at Harvard University. At this time a lot of his family were ill. Then his daughter died, his wife died and his mother died. He was ill himself. Then, by September 1939, just as World War II started, he was well enough to travel to North America.\n\nAmerican years \nStravinsky was immediately invited to conduct many concerts in America. Vera arrived in America four months later and she and Stravinsky were married in Bedford, Massachusetts. They applied for American citizenship and settled in Hollywood. He was quite short of money and he accepted any invitation to compose music. He even accepted a private pupil.\n\nStravinsky composed a mass. It was not commissioned, he just wanted to compose it. It was performed in La Scala, Milan, in 1948 conducted by Ansermet. He then decided to compose a full-length opera in English. This was The Rake's Progress. It was first performed in Venice in 1951. It is the best of his works in the neo-classical style. Another work from this period is his Symphony in C. It shows a different way of composing tonal music to the tonal works of classical composers.\n\nHe met a musician called Robert Craft who came to live with the family and helped Stravinsky sort out his compositions and papers. He was surprised to find that Stravinsky never visited Schoenberg, who only lived a few streets away. After Schoenberg died in 1951 Craft encouraged Stravinsky to listen to Schoenberg's serial music. Soon Stravinsky started to use serialism in his own compositions. Craft travelled with Stravinsky and helped him a great deal, for example, by conducting some of the concerts, or rehearsing the orchestras before Stravinsky came.\n\nIn 1962 he was invited to the White House by President Kennedy. In the same year he returned to Russia for a visit. He had not been there for nearly half a century. It was a great success, and people in the USSR became more interested in Stravinsky's music. It made Stravinsky very happy to know that Russians were interested in him again.\n\nDuring his last years he became rather ill. Threni is one of his last compositions. It is a setting of the parts of the Lamentations of Jeremiah for voices and orchestra. He composed other religious works including Requiem Canticles. In 1969 he moved with his family to New York where he died two years later.\n\nStravinsky was buried in Venice, near Diaghilev's grave.\n\nReferences \n The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980; \n Craft, Robert. 1992. Stravinsky: glimpses of a life. London: Lime Tree; New York: St Martins Press.  (Lime Tree);  (St.Martins).\n Craft, Robert. 1994. Stravinsky: chronicle of a friendship, revised and expanded edition. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press. .\n Stravinsky, Igor. 1962. An Autobiography. New York: Norton. . Originally published in French as Chroniques de ma vie, 2 vols. Paris: Deno\u00ebl et Steele, 1935; translated as Chronicle of my life. London: Gollancz, 1936. Reprinted as An Autobiography (1903\u20131934) London: Boyars, 1990  (cased);  (pbk). Also published as Igor Stravinsky: an autobiography New York: Steuer, 1958.\n\n1882 births\n1971 deaths\n20th-century Russian composers\nGrammy Award winners\nBallets Russes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":154,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":30137,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Igor%20Stravinsky","title":"Igor Stravinsky","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Walpurgis Night (Valborgsm\u00e4ssoafton in Swedish, Vappu in Finnish, Volbri\u00f6\u00f6 in Estonian, Valpur\u0123u nakts or Valpur\u0123i in Latvian, Walpurgisnacht in German), \u010carod\u011bjnice in Czech is a holiday celebrated on April 30 or May 1, in Finland, Sweden, Bohemia (Czech Republic), Estonia, Latvia and Germany.\n\nOrigins\nThe festival is named after Saint Walburga (known in Scandinavia as \"Valborg\"; alternative forms are \"Walpurgis\", \"Wealdburg\", or \"Valderburger\"), born in Wessex in 710 a niece of Saint Boniface. According to legend, she was a daughter to the Saxon prince St. Richard. Together with her brothers she travelled to W\u00fcrttemberg, Germany where she became a nun and lived in the convent of Heidenheim, which was founded by her brother Wunibald. Walburga died on 25 February 779 and that day still carries her name in the Catholic calendar. However she was not made a saint until 1 May in the same year, and that day carries her name in the Swedish calendar.\n\nHistorically the Walpurgisnacht is derived from Pagan spring customs, where the arrival of spring was celebrated with bonfires at night. Viking fertility celebrations took place around April 30 and due to Walburga being declared a saint at that time of year, her name became associated with the celebrations. Walburga was worshipped in the same way that Vikings had celebrated spring and as they spread throughout Europe, the two dates became mixed together and created the Walpurgis Night celebration.\n\nGermany\nIn Germany, Walpurgisnacht, the night from April 30 to May 1, is the night when allegedly the witches hold a large celebration on the Blocksberg and await the arrival of Spring. When the travel to that mountain is too far, they may also chose another hill in the region they live.  \n\"Walpurgis Night (in German folklore) the night of April 30 (May Day's eve), when witches meet on the Brocken mountain and hold revels with their Gods...\" \n\n\"Brocken the highest of the Harz Mountains of north central Germany. It is noted for the phenomenon of the Brocken spectre and for witches' revels which reputably took place there on Walpurgis night. \nThe Brocken Spectre is a magnified shadow of an observer, typically surrounded by rainbow-like bands, thrown onto a bank of cloud in high mountain areas when the sun is low. The phenomenon was first reported on the Brocken.\" \n\n\u2014Taken from Oxford Phrase & Fable.\n\nPaganism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":22481,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Walpurgis%20Night","title":"Walpurgis Night","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Daith Metal is a kynd o hivy metal muisic that stairtit as an affshuit o thrash metal in 1980s.\n\nName \nThere's a nummer o common theories for hou the genre teuk its name. The first is that it cam frae the sang Death Metal bi Possessed that wis on their Seven Churches album in 1985 (an album aften hauden tae be the first album in the genre, predatin the wark o baith Morbid Angel an Death. The seicont is that is wis taen frae a sang o the same name later that year bi thrash metal baund Onslaught. Mair ootower in 1985, genre peeoneers Death pit oot a demo cried Death by Metal. Anither theory is that the genre teuk its name frae the name o the baund Death syne their Scream Bloody Gore made Death Metal mair recognised in the metal warld, an that they war sae associatit wi the genre that they gien it the name. The late Thomas \"Quothorn\" Forsberg o black metal baund Bathory threapit that he haed cleckit the term as lang syne as 1984, tho his baund wis niver Daith Metal ava.\n\nIt aiblins possible, tho no likely, that the 1984 compilation album Death Metal gien the genre its name.\n\nHistory \nDaith Metal stairtit out in Americae in the aichties as an affshuit o thrash metal. Thrie albums frae atween 1985 an 1987 wis responsible for the bringin oot o Daith Metal frae the ranks o thrash metal. Thir is Seven Churches bi Possessed (1985), Reign in Blood bi Slayer (mair o a thrash metal album, but aye gey influential on the Daith Metal scene) (1986) an the mair definitive Scream Bloody Gore bi Death (1987). As the scene skailt, it teuk on deeferent chairacteristics - in Swaden it becam mair technical, for exemplar. It is aften said that the scene stagnatit in the mid -late 90's (exceptin the sae cried Gothernburg Boom o the late 90's), but in the 2000s the re-kythin o mony aulder baunds as weel as the popularity o baunds sic as Children of Bodom an Nile haes seen tae it that Daith Metal isna gaun tae dee ony time suin, an seems tae be outlastin the thrash metal that it cam frae in terms o innovatin an (ironically) vivacity.\n\nMuisical Chairacteristics \nDaith Metal is for ordinar lood, fast an gey intense. Dountuined guitars, gey laich harsk vocals (whiles cried Cookie Monster Vocals bi baith fans an detractors) an fast drummin is staundart. The muisic is aften gey haird tae play, wi time chynges, key chynges an sang structurs bein mair complicatit nor in mony genres, as weel as the drummin an guitar wark takkin a wheen o skeel tae play. The muckle feck o deid metal drummers uises twa bass drums or a double kick pedal. The staundart line-up for Daith Metal baunds is vocals; lead guitar; rhythm guitar; bass guitar; drums - but keybuirds an e'en saxophones is uised forby.\n\nDegrees o technical skeel varies frae baund tae baund an sub genre tae sub genre - the kynd kent as tech deid is clairly gey skeelie, while ither kynds is mair semple tae play.\n\nLeerically, themes reenges frae meesticism tae Satanasim; deid tae meetholigy; nihilism tae politics. Whit wey the genre cam tae be associatit wi dait isna certain; but fechtin, gore an daith is staundart leerical themes aften tae be fund on maist Daith Metal albums.\n\nReferences\n\nFremmit Airtins \n Deathmetal wabsteid\n Metal Crypt - wi a guid page anent genres\n Metal Archives - wi a leet o a wheen o deid metal baunds\n\nDaith metal","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":6194,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daith%20metal","title":"Daith metal","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Old Catholic Church is a name for a group of Christian churches. Most of them are from German-speaking countries. Their beliefs are close to that of the Anglican Church.\n\nOrigins \nThey split from the Roman Catholic Church in the 1870s. This was because the First Vatican Council had said the pope was infallible. The Council was from 1869 to 1870. The word Old Catholic was first used in 1853 for the See of Utrecht (who was not under the authority of the pope). Usually, these churches are part of the Union of Utrecht.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":87383,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Old%20Catholic%20Church","title":"Old Catholic Church","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A clinic is a medical facility that gives health care for patients in an area. It is different from a hospital, because people do not stay in a clinic for a long time. Some clinics can become as large as hospitals, but still have the name Clinic. Small clinics are run by one or more general practitioners or practice managers. Physiotherapy clinics are run by physiotherapists, psychology clinics run by clinical psychologists, and so on for each type of health care. Some clinics are operated, or run, by employers. Other clinics are owned by people who do not have medical education, like in China.\n\nSome clinics are a place for people with injuries or illness to come and be seen by triage nurse or other health worker.  In these clinics, the injury or illness may not be large or dangerous enough to warrant a visit to an emergency room, but the person can be moved to one if they need to be. These clinics sometimes can use equipment such as X-ray machines. Doctors at these clinics can send patients to specialists, a doctor who is very good at one kind of medicine.\n\nWhere the word came from\nThe word clinic comes from the Greek word klinein, which means to put something at an angle, or to lie down. Latin has the word clinicus, which is a lot like the word we use today. An early meaning of the word clinic was, 'one who gets baptism on a sick bed'.\n\nTypes of clinics\n In the United States, a free clinic provides free or low cost health care for people without insurance.\n A Retail Based Clinic is put in placed like shops, and may be staffed by nurse practitioners.\n A general out-patient clinic is a clinic offering treatment without an overnight stay.\n A polyclinic is a clinic, hospital, or school where many diseases are treated and studied.\n A fertility clinic helps women to become pregnant.\n An abortion clinic is a medical facility providing certain kinds of medical care, such as abortion to women.\n\nRelated pages\n Simple Clinic, a free retail clinic chain.\n Abortion clinic\n Free clinic\n Clinical Management System\n\nReferences \n\nHealthcare\nHospitals","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":92033,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinic","title":"Clinic","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Land of the Rising Sun (pol. Kraj Wschodz\u0105cego S\u0142o\u0144ca) \u2212 hymn istniej\u0105cego w latach 1967\u22121970 afryka\u0144skiego pa\u0144stwa Biafra. Melodi\u0119 hymnu zapo\u017cyczono z pie\u015bni Finlandia autorstwa Jeana Sibeliusa.\n\nTekst \nLand of the rising sun, we love and cherish,\nBeloved homeland of our brave heroes;\nWe must defend our lives or we shall perish,\nWe shall protect our hearts from all our foes;\nBut if the price is death for all we hold dear,\nThen let us die without a shred of fear.\n \nHail to Biafra, consecrated nation,\nOh fatherland, this be our solemn pledge:\nDefending thee shall be a dedication,\nSpilling our blood we'll count a privilege;\nThe waving standard which emboldens the free\nShall always be our flag of liberty.\n \nWe shall emerge triumphant from this ordeal,\nAnd through the crucible unscathed we'll pass;\nWhen we are poised the wounds of battle to heal,\nWe shall remember those who died in mass;\nThen shall our trumpets peal the glorious song\nOf victory we scored o'er might and wrong.\n \nOh God, protect us from the hidden pitfall,\nGuide all our movements lest we go astray;\nGive us the strength to heed the humanist call:\n\"To give and not to count the cost\" each day;\nBless those who rule to serve with resoluteness,\nTo make this clime a land of righteousness.\n\nBiafra\nBiafra","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":230,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"curated_sources":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":4,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":4,"2017-13":9,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":4,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":7,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":6,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":7,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":8,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":5,"2018-05":5,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":10,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":6,"2017-17":5,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1}},"id":1311234,"url":"https:\/\/pl.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hymn%20Biafry","title":"Hymn Biafry","language":"pl"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The ossicles are the three smallest bones in the human body. They may be called ear bones or auditory ossicles. They are in the auditory system of all mammals. \n\nThey are contained within the middle ear space and serve to transmit sounds from the air to the fluid-filled labyrinth (cochlea). The absence of the auditory ossicles would cause moderate-to-severe deafness.\n\nAnatomy\nThe ossicles are, in order from the eardrum to the inner ear (from superficial to deep), the malleus, incus, and stapes.  The terms mean hammer, anvil, and stirrup.  \n\nThe malleus (hammer) connects with the incus and is attached to the tympanic membrane (eardrum), from which vibrational sound pressure motion is passed.  \nThe incus (anvil) is connected to both the other bones. \nThe stapes (stirrup) connects with the incus and is attached to the membrane of the fenestra ovalis, the elliptical or oval window or opening between the middle ear and the inner ear.\n\nDevelopment\nStudies have shown that ear bones in mammal embryos are attached to the dentary, which is part of the lower jaw. These are ossified (turned into bone) portions of cartilage -- called Meckel's cartilage -- that are attached to the jaw. As the embryo develops, the cartilage hardens to form bone.  Later in development, the bone structure breaks loose from the jaw and migrates to the inner ear area.  The structure is known as the middle ear, and is made up of the incus, stapes, malleus, and tympanic membrane.  These correspond to the quadrate, prearticular, articular, and angular structures in earlier land vertebrates.\n\nReferences \n\nBones of the skull\nEvolutionary biology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":287090,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ossicles","title":"Ossicles","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The following is a list of terms commonly used in Aviation.\n\nAirports\n\n Air cargo - Cargo that is moved using airplanes. Many companies that move cargo, such as FedEx and the US Postal Service, have their own airplanes for moving air cargo. Most large airports have entire sections of the airport and warehouses for dealing with air cargo. \n Airport - a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and blimps take off and land. \n Arrival area (Arrivals) -  The area of the terminal used for airplanes coming to the airport.\n Baggage - luggage and other items brought on the airplane by passengers. One piece of small baggage can often be brought on the airplane by the passenger. Large baggage (or if the is many small pieces) are kept in a special part of the airplane.\n Baggage area - The area of the airport terminal used for dealing with Baggage. These often have one or more large moving belt(s). The passengers wait at the belt for their baggage to move to them. \n Concessions - Businesses often inside the airport terminal. These usually sell food, beverages or retail goods such as book, magazines or souvenirs to passengers.\n Concourse - An open space for people to move around in an airport terminal. \n Departure area (Departures) - The area of the terminal for airplanes leaving the airport.\n Destination - The place an aircraft is going to. An aircraft may have more than one destination. This is because it takes people to many places along its travel. For example, an aircraft leaving Atlanta, may stop at Memphis, Dallas, and Boulder before finally stopping in San Diego. San Diego is its final destination on this travel, but the other cities are also destinations. \n Flight - The noun form of Fly. This is the term for what a person takes when they fly. She took a flight to Atlanta. It can also be used in the name of the trip - She took Flight 213 to Atlanta. If an airport had 500 flights that day, it means airplanes came to and left the airport 500 times that day. \n Domestic flight - A flight that starts and ends in the same country. This is usually between two cities in the same country. For example, from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to Los Angeles, California. \n International flight - A flight that starts in one county and ends in an other country. For example, from Moscow, Russia to Sydney, Australia.\n Gates - The areas on the concourse where passengers get on to the airplane\nHangar - a large building which can store airplanes.\n Hub - The central location an airline uses for its operations. Most airlines keep their headquarters and maintenance facilities as at a single airport. Most flights from that airline go through this airport.\n Landing - The act of an airplane returning to the ground. \n Runway - The part of the airport where planes take off or land.\n Take-off - The act of an airplane leaving the ground.\n Terminal - The main building of an airport used by passengers and cargo. \n Tower - The tower in an airport is a building used for air traffic control.\n\nAircraft\n\n Aircraft - vehicle used for flying.\n Attack aircraft - A type of military aircraft used mainly to attack targets on the ground.\n Biplane - an aircraft with two sets of wings mounted one above the other.\n Fighter aircraft - A type of military airplane used mainly to fight with other airplanes.\n Fixed-wing aircraft - The type of aircraft commonly thought of by most people. It has wings that do not move. The wings on some fixed wing aircraft can move a small distance but are generally fixed in one position. For example, the wings on an F-14 can be rotated from a forward position (for better control at slow speed and for take off and landing) to a rear position (for better control at high speed). Most airplanes are fixed wing.\n Jet aircraft - Aircraft that use jet engines to make them move.\n Propeller powered aircraft - Aircraft that use propellers to make them move.\n Rotary wing aircraft - Aircraft such as Helicopters.\n Training aircraft - A type of military aircraft used mainly to train pilots.\n Triplane - An aircraft with three sets of wings. German World War I pilot Manfred von Richthofen (The Red Baron) is well known for flying a triplane.\n Water bomber - A type of aircraft used to fight the fire.\n\nOther websites\nAppendix:Glossary of aviation, aerospace, and aeronautics\n\nTerms\nAviation","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":7,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-09":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":323455,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List%20of%20aviation%20terms","title":"List of aviation terms","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An urban area is an area where many people live and work close together. The population density is higher than in the surrounding area.  It is where buildings are close together. Urban is the opposite of rural, where farm lands and nature are. Urban areas are usually cities and towns.  Most of the work available in urban areas is factory and office work. Agricultural work is rare because buildings are close together and there is no space for farm lands. \n\nThere are different urban area definitions for each country. The definitions mostly depend on how populated the country is and if the definition shows a true percentage of how urbanized the country is. For example, in Poland an urban area is any place that has the status of a town, whereas in China it is any district, city, or town with a population density higher than 1500 people per square kilometer. The urban population definition for Canadian and Scandinavian countries depends on density.  If there is a house every 200 meters it is classified as urban.\n\nA large urban area, with all connected areas (usually developed around some city) is called a Metropolitan area.\n\nRelated pages \nList of largest cities (includes a list of urban areas)\n\nUrban planning\nUrban geography\nEconomic geography","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":193,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":6,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":4,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3}},"id":47705,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Urban%20area","title":"Urban area","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Aristophanes (born around 450\/445 BC \u2013 died around 385 BC) was a Greek writer who wrote 40 plays. However, only 11 of his plays survive in their entirety. He is famous for writing comedies. They were biting satires aimed at famous men of his day, and the all-too-human weaknesses of ordinary people.\n\nHis most famous play, Lysistrata, is about a group of women who protest against a war by not having sexual intercourse with their husbands until the war is ended.\n\nAncient Greek theatre was first presented in competitions at the festival of Dionysia, dedicated to the god Dionysus. The interesting thing is that Aristophanes did not always win first prize. The plays which won ahead of his have been lost, so we cannot make comparisons.\n\nA licence for slander \nGeorge Grote said of Aristophanes:\n\"Never probably will the full power of unshackled comedy be so exhibited again...the unsparing licence of attack upon the gods, the institutions, the politicians, philosophers, poets, private citizens... and even upon the women of Athens\".\n\"[Athenians] bore with good-humoured indulgence the full outpouring of ridicule... upon those democratic institutions to which they were sincerely attached... The democracy was strong enough to tolerate unfriendly tongues either in earnest or in jest.p450\/452\n\nSurviving plays \n The Acharnians (425 BC) Aristophanes shows he will not give in to political intimidation. The play is notable for absurd humour, and an imaginative appeal for an end to the Peloponnesian War\n The Knights (424 BC) The play is a satire on the social and political life of Athens and a scurrilous attack on the pro-war populist Cleon. Cleon had prosecuted Aristophanes for slandering the city in an earlier play, The Babylonians (426 BC: it has not survived). Aristophanes had promised revenge in The Acharnians, and it was in The Knights that his revenge was taken.\n The Clouds (original 423 BC, uncompleted revised version from 419 to 416 BC survives) It pokes fun at Socrates and intellectual fashions in classical Athens. The first known \"comedy of ideas\".\n The Wasps (422 BC) Aristophanes ridicules the law courts, which provided Cleon with his power-base. Also. has a young man vs old man theme which re-appears in several plays.\n Peace (first version, 421 BC) just a few days before the end of the ten year old Peloponnesian War. The play is notable for its celebration of a return to life in the countryside. But the ending is not happy for everyone. As in all Aristophanes' plays, the jokes are numerous, the action is wildly absurd and the satire is savage. Cleon, the pro-war populist leader of Athens, is once again a target, even though he had died in battle just a few months earlier.\n The Birds (414 BC) A fantasy about birds? No, it's a critique of the Athens of his day, disguised as a conversation between birds. It's one of the few works of the day which have been fully recovered. A critic remarks \"A masterpiece, one of the greatest comedies ever written, and probably Aristophanes' finest\".\n Lysistrata (411 BC) The best-known of his plays, often produced in modern versions. The play is notable for being an early expos\u00e9 of sexual relations in a male-dominated society.\n Thesmophoriazusae (The Festival Women, first version, c. 410 BC) A parody of Athenian society, with a focus on the role of women in a male-dominated society, the vanity of poets such as Euripides and Agathon, and the shameless vulgarity of ordinary Athenians.\n The Frogs (405 BC) A play on the theme \"old ways good, new ways bad\". The Frogs tells the story of the god Dionysus, who travels to Hades with his slave Xanthias, who is smarter and braver than he is, to bring the playwright Euripides back from the dead.\n Ecclesiazousae (The Assemblywomen, c. 392 BC) is similar in theme to Lysistrata. Much of the comedy comes from women involving themselves in politics. The play is much more infused with gender issues than Lysistrata.\n Plutus (Wealth, second version, 388 BC) The play features an elderly Athenian citizen, Chremylos, and his slave. Chremylos presents himself and his family as virtuous but poor, and has gone to seek advice from an oracle. The advice he gets is to follow the first man he meets and take him home with him. That man turns out to be the god Plutus  who is, contrary to expectations, a blind beggar. After much argument, Plutus is convinced to enter Chremylus' house, where his sight is restored. The plot can be read as: wealth will now go only to those who deserve it in some way.\n\nRelated pages \n Theatre of Ancient Greece\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n The Frogs at the Internet Classics archive (English version) \n\n450s BC births\n380s BC deaths\nAncient Greek writers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":27295,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aristophanes","title":"Aristophanes","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A creed is a statement or confession of belief \u2014 usually religious belief \u2014 or faith. The word comes from the Latin credo for I believe. It is  called symbol (Greek, \u03c3\u03c5\u03bc\u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd), that means a \"token\" by which persons of like beliefs might recognize each other.\n\nChristian creeds\n\nIt is likely that the earliest creed of Christianity that deserves the title in full is the Apostles' Creed.  The Apostles' Creed seems to have been formulated to resist Gnosticism; it emphasizes the birth, physical death, and bodily Resurrection of Jesus Christ. It reads:\n\nI believe in God, the Father almighty,\ncreator of heaven and earth.\nI believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord.\nHe was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit\nand born of the Virgin Mary.\nHe suffered under Pontius Pilate,\nwas crucified, died, and was buried.\nHe descended into hell.\nOn the third day he rose again.\nHe ascended into heaven\nand is seated at the right hand of the Father.\nHe will come again to judge the living and the dead.\nI believe in the Holy Spirit,\nthe holy catholic Church,\nthe communion of saints,\nthe forgiveness of sins,\nthe resurrection of the body,\nand the life everlasting.\n\nThe Nicene Creed is clearly derived from the Apostles' Creed, and represents an elaboration of its basic themes.  The most important additions to this creed are much more elaborate statements concerning Christology and the Trinity. \nChristians today probably use the Nicene Creed most widely, followed by the Apostles' Creed.\n\nJewish Creed: the \"Shmah\"\nThe Jewish faith recognizes a single creed called the Shmah or Shema Yisrael, a statement of faith in strict unitarian monotheism, the belief in one God. This creed is embodied in a single prayer recited twice a day: \"Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One\", also translated as \"Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is unique [or alone].\"\n\nIn Hebrew:  \u05e9\u05de\u05e2 \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc \u05d0\u05d3\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d0\u05d3\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d0\u05d7\u05d3\n\nThis is pronounced phonetically in Hebrew: Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad.\n\nIslamic creeds\nThe most basic attempt to put the religion of Islam in a brief statement of doctrine is the shahada, the proclamation that there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His prophet.\n\nMore detailed credal declarations of Islamic dogma constitute aqidah.\n\nThe six Sunni articles of belief are:\nBelief in God (Allah), the one and only one worthy of all worship (tawhid).\nBelief in all the Prophets (nabi) and Messengers (rusul) sent by God.\nBelief in the Books (kutub) sent by God (including the Qur'an).\nBelief in the Angels (mala'ika).\nBelief in the Day of Judgement (qiyama) and in the Resurrection (life after death).\nBelief in Predestination (qadar).\n\nAlso from the Aqidah of the Salaf is the belief that the faith (i.e. Eemaan) consists of (both) speech and action and that it increases and decreases. This differs from the Murji'ah a sect who uphold the belief of \"Irjaa'\"-to hold that sins major and minor, do not affect the faith and that faith neither increases nor decreases.\n\nAnd they uphold the belief that the Quran is the Speech of Allah, His Revelation and Light. It is not created, since the Quran is from Allah and that which is from Allah is not created. One of the attributes of Allah is his Speech. Since His attributes have been with Him eternally, His Speech cannot be created and therefore, the Quran is not created. According to the Salaf, debating about it is disbelief. It is not denied except by a Jahmee. A Jahmee is one who denies Allah's attributes.\n\nRelated pages\n Thirty-Nine Articles\nDoctrine\n\nFurther reading\n Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition . Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss. Published by Yale University Press in 2003.\n\nOther websites \n The Creeds of Christendom - A website linking to many formal Christian declarations of faith.\n www.iclnet.org\n\nChristian genres","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":60244,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Creed","title":"Creed","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In statistics, the mode of a set of data is the one that occurs most.  Very often, samples of data are collected. These might be measurements of some kind. In this context, the mode is the value that occurs most often. Unlike the median and the mean, the mode is not necessarily unique. There might be several different values that occur the same number of times. \n\nStatistics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":62613,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mode%20%28statistics%29","title":"Mode (statistics)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Orlande de Lassus (whose name is also spelt Orlandus Lassus, Orlando di Lasso, Roland de Lassus, or Roland Delattre) (born Mons, Hainaut, probably in 1532 ; died Munich, 14 June, 1594) was a Franco-Flemish composer who lived in the last part of the Renaissance. Lassus and Palestrina are the two most famous composers of that time who were writing church music in a polyphonic style.\n\nLife \n\nHe was born in Mons in the province of Hainaut in the Low Countries which is mostly what is today the south part of the Netherlands and Belgium. We know very little about his childhood. There is a story that, when he was a choirboy, he was abducted three times by another church who wanted him to sing in their choir because he had a beautiful voice. There is no proof that this story is true. At the age of twelve he left his country and went to Mantua, Sicily, and later to Milan in Italy and then to Naples where he worked until the early 1550s. Next he moved to Rome, where he worked for the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who had a large household there. In 1553, he became maestro di cappella of the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome. This was an excellent job for a man who was only 21 years old. However, he only stayed there a year. Later, in 1555, Palestrina took that job. Lassus left Rome to go home to the Low Countries to see his parents who were ill, but by the time he got home they were both dead.\n\nWe are not sure what he did between then and 1554. He may have gone to France and England. In 1555 he returned to the Low Countries and had some of his first works published in Antwerp. In 1556 he joined the court of Duke Albert V of Bavaria who was very keen on music and was trying to make music in his country as good as the music in Italy. Lassus was one of several Netherlanders to work there, and by far the most famous. He seems to have been happy in Munich and he stayed there. In 1558 he married the daughter of a maid of honour of the Duchess; they had two sons who both became composers. By 1563 Lassus had been made maestro di cappella. He stayed there for the rest of his life, although several other kings and aristocrats offered him jobs in other places. He had many honours, including being knighted by the Pope.\n\nIn 1590 his health started to be bad. In 1594 his employer decided it was costing him too much to employ Lassus, so he wrote a letter to him to say that he was dismissed (that he no longer had a job). Lassus never saw the letter, because that very same day he died.\n\nHis music \n\nLassus composed a lot of church music. He had to compose masses for the morning and evening services. Many of these are parody masses, which means they were based on tunes from other compositions. Others were influenced by composers from Venice. \n\nHe wrote many motets which were probably sung at services as well. In some of these motets he shows a sense of humour. For example, one of his motets makes fun about bad singers: the music stops and starts and stutters. It was a kind of musical joke. Sometimes he had to write music for special occasions. He had visited Italy several times and learned the Italian way of writing polyphonic music.\n\nLassus also wrote many songs in French (chansons) as well as German (Lieder). He also wrote madrigals. He even wrote drinking songs.\n\nHe never wrote anything that was strictly instrumental music.\n\nReferences \n\n1530s births\n1594 deaths\nRenaissance composers\nFranco-Flemish composers\nBelgian composers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3}},"id":89740,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Orlande%20de%20Lassus","title":"Orlande de Lassus","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Jules Henri Poincar\u00e9 (29 April 1854 \u2013 17 July 1912) was a French mathematician and scientist. He was described as a \"monster of mathematics \" when still a child. Many people think he was the last person to understand all branches of mathematics before the subject became too big for anyone to do this.\n\nFamily\nHe came from a clever family, his father was a professor of medicine and his cousin, Raymond Poincar\u00e9 became president of France. He was sick as a child and for many years he had to be taught at home by his mother.\n\nWorks\nHe used his mathematical skills to look at some of the biggest problems in science in his day. He was the first person to describe in mathematical terms how three planets in orbit affect each others paths as they pass near by one another. This was called the Three Body Problem. He also tried to understand why the speed of light seems to be the fastest speed at which anything can travel in the universe. In some ways he beat the famous scientist Albert Einstein to solving this question, but Einstein gave a more complete answer. He gained fame for the discovery of the theory of relativity instead of Poincar\u00e9.\n\nHe created the Poincar\u00e9 Conjecture, one of the most famous problems in mathematics which was only solved 100 years later. He began the branches of mathematics which are known today as chaos theory and topology.\n\nHe also wrote about science in a simple way that ordinary people could understand.\n\n1791 births\n1867 deaths\nFrench geometers\nFrench theoretical physicists\nTopologists\nDeaths from embolism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":174168,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Henri%20Poincar%C3%A9","title":"Henri Poincar\u00e9","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Agricultur is the growin o fuid an ither things for fowk an ainimals. No juist fuid craps is grawn but things like flouers, ornamental plaunts an nursery plaunts, manure or dung, ainimal hides, laither, industrial chemicals (starch, ethanol, an plastics), feebres (cotton, oo, hemp, an flax), fuels (methane, biodiesel, biomass), an drogs (biopharmaceuticals, marijuana, opium)\n\nAgricultur micht hae stairtit mair nor 10,000 year syne, but naebody kens for shuir hou auld it is. Agricultur stairtit in the Fertile Crescent in East Asie. The airt cried the Fertile Crescent is nou in the kintras o Iraq, Sirie, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, an Egyp. Wheat an baurley is some o the first craps fowk grew. Fowk aiblins stairtit agricultur by plautin a puckle craps, but aye gaithert mony fuids frae the wild. Fowk micht hae stairtit fermin acause the wather an syle begoud tae chynge. Fermin can feed mony mair fowk nor gaitherin on the same bit grund.\n\nMony fowk leeves by tawin awa at whit is cried subseestence agricultur, on a wee ferm. Anerly the fermer's faimily leeves on the ferm. Subseestence agricultur is growin juist eneuch fuid for tae feed the fermer, his faimily, an his beasts. Extrae fuid or ainimals is selt for siller or ither things the fermer canna growe. The yield is the amoont o fuid grown on a gien bit laund, an the yield is aften law, acause subseestence fermers is less eddicate, an they hae less siller for tae coff graith. Whan yields is law, forests is whiles cuttit for tae fend new laund for tae growe fuid. This is guid in the short term, but can be ill for the kintra an the laund in the lang term.\n\nIn rich kintras, ferms is aften a hail sicht lairger an the yield on the ferms haes gotten bigger in the last hunder year, acause fermers growes better varieties o plaunts, uise mair fertilizer, uise mair watter, an haes less weeds an pests. Mair oot ower, mony ferms uises machines, sae they need fewer fermers. Sae, there are fewer fermers in rich kintras, but they growe mair fuid. This kind o intensive agricultur maks problems an aw. Fermers uises a lot o chemical fertilizers, pesticides (chemicals that kills insects), an herbicides (chemicals that kills weeds). They whiles pollute the syle or the watter. They whiles mair reseestant insects an weeds. The syle is whiles skaithed by erosion, saut accumulation, or loss o structur. Irrigation (taen watter frae rivers) can pollute watter an lawer the watter table. Haein fewer fermers chynges society an aw an can mak a kintra less able tae feed itsel in haurd times.\n\nAgricultur","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":6787,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agricultur","title":"Agricultur","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The word independence means \"not dependent\", or not having to depend on anyone or anything else. It also means being strong and able to survive alone. Anything can be dependent or independent. When people talk about independence, it may be about people or countries, where it is often being spoken about as a good thing. For places, it may mean sovereignty or autonomy. In science, as in independent variable the word does not mean it is good or bad.\n\nIn countries \nA country gets its independence when it is no longer part of another country. Sometimes countries get their independence in a war, as when the United States left the British Empire in the American War of Independence. Countries can also get their independence peacefully, like Canada and Norway did. Help from another country may be needed to get independence, like in World War II, when the allies freed many countries that had been controlled by the Axis powers and, temporarily, vice versa. Attempts to gain independence may lead to civil war and may be unsuccessful.\n\nExamples \nSingapore gained independence from Malaysia in 1965. The newest country to get its independence was South Sudan.  Other countries that became independent not long ago are Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, Eritrea in 1993 and East Timor in 2002. However, some countries have political parties that discuss whether their country should become independent. Some examples of these are the Scottish National Party (SNP) or the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP).\n\nRelated pages \n Declaration of independence\n Autonomy\n Nationalism\n Self-determination\n\nPolitics\nNationalism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":156,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2}},"id":6421,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Independence","title":"Independence","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A diode is an electronic component with two electrodes (connectors) that allows electricity to go through it in one direction and not the other direction.\n\nDiodes can be used to turn alternating current into direct current (Diode bridge).  They are used in power supplies and sometimes to decode amplitude modulation radio signals (like in a crystal radio). Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are a type of diode that produce light.\n\nToday, the most common diodes are made from semiconductor materials such as silicon or sometimes germanium.\n\nHistory \nThe first types of diodes were called Fleming valves. They were vacuum tubes. They were inside a glass tube (much like a lightbulb). Inside the glass bulb there was a small metal wire and a large metal plate. The small metal wire would heat up and emit electricity, which was captured by the plate. The large metal plate was not heated, so electricity could go in one direction through the tube but not in the other direction. Fleming valves are not used much anymore because they have been replaced by semiconductor diodes, which are smaller than Fleming valves. Thomas Edison also discovered this property when working on his light bulbs.\n\nConstruction \n\nSemiconductor diodes are made of two types of semiconductors connected to each other. One type has atoms with extra electrons (called the n-side). The other type has atoms that want electrons (called the p-side). Because of this, the electricity will flow easily from the side with too many electrons to the side with too few. However, electricity will not flow easily in the reverse direction. These different types are made by doping (semiconductor). Silicon with arsenic dissolved in it makes a good n-side semiconductor, while silicon with aluminum dissolved in it makes a good p-side semiconductor. Other chemicals can also work.\n\nThe connector to the n-side is called the cathode, the connector to the p-side is called the anode.\n\nFunction of a diode\n\nPositive voltage at p-side \n\nIf you give positive voltage to the p-side and negative voltage to the n-side, the electrons in the n-side will want to go to the positive voltage at the p-side and the holes of the p-side will want to go to the negative voltage at the n-side. Because of this, current flow is able to exist, but it takes a certain amount of voltage to get this started (very small amount of voltage is not enough to get the electric current to flow). This is called the cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage of a silicon diode is at about 0.7\u00a0V. A germanium diode needs a cut-in voltage at about 0.3\u00a0V.\n\nNegative voltage at p-side \n\nIf you instead give negative voltage to the p-side and positive voltage to the n-side, the electrons of the n-side want to go to the positive voltage source instead of the other side of the diode. Same thing happens on the p-side. So, current will not flow between the two sides of the diode. Increasing the voltage will eventually force electric current to flow (this is the break-down voltage). Many diodes will be destroyed by a reverse flow but some are made that can survive it.\n\nInfluence of temperature \n\nWhen the temperature increases, the cut-in voltage goes down.  This makes it easier for electricity to pass through the diode.\n\nTypes of diodes \nThere are many types of diodes.  Some have very specific uses and some have a variety of uses.\n\nSymbols \nHere are some common semiconductor diode symbols used in schematic diagrams:\n\nStandard rectifier diode \nThis changes A\/C (alternating current, like in a wall plug in a house) to D\/C (direct current, used in electronics). The standard rectifier diode has specific requirements. It should handle high current, not be much affected by temperature, have a low cut-in voltage and support quick changes in the direction of current flow. Modern analog and digital electronics use such rectifiers.\n\nLight-Emitting Diode\nAn LED produces light when electricity flows through it.  It is a longer lasting and more efficient way of creating light than incandescent light bulbs. Depending on how it was made, the LED can make different colors. LEDs were first used in the 1970's. The light-emitting diode may eventually replace the light bulb as developing technology makes it brighter and cheaper (it is already more efficient and lasts longer). In the 1970's the LEDs were used to show numbers in appliances such as calculators, and as a way to show the power was on for larger appliances.\n\nPhotodiode\nA photodiode is a photo detector (the opposite of a light-emitting diode). It responds to light that comes in. Photodiodes have a window or optical fiber connection, which lets light in to the sensitive part of the diode. Diodes usually have strong resistance; the light reduces the resistance.\n\nZener Diode\nA zener diode is like a normal diode, but instead of being destroyed by a big reverse voltage, it lets electricity through.  The voltage needed for this is called the breakdown voltage or Zener voltage.  Because it is built with a known breakdown voltage it can be used to supply a known voltage.\n\nVaractor Diode \nThe varicap or varactor diode is used in many appliances. It uses the region between the p-side and n-side of the diode where electrons and holes balance each other.  This is called the depletion zone.  By changing the amount of reverse voltage, the size of the depletion zone changes.  There is some capacitance in this area, and it changes based on the size of the depletion zone.  This is called variable capacitance, or varicap for short.  It is used in PLLs (Phase-locked loops) which are used to control the high-speed frequency a chip runs at.\n\nStep-Recovery-Diode \nThe symbol is the symbol of a diode with a kind of snag.  It is used in circuits with high frequencies up to GHz. It turns off very quickly when the forward voltage stops.  It uses the current that flows after the polarity was reversed to do this.\n\nPIN Diode \nThe construction of this diode has an intrinsic (normal) layer between the n- and the p-sides. At slower frequencies, it acts much like a standard diode. But at high speeds it can not keep up with fast changes and starts to act like a resistor.  The intrinsic layer also lets it handle high power inputs, and can be used as a photodiode.\n\nSchottky diode \nThe symbol of this is the diode symbol, with an 'S' at the peak.  Instead of both sides being a semiconductor (like silicon), one side is metal, like aluminum or nickel.  This reduces the cut-in voltage to about 0.3 volt. This is about half of the threshold voltage of a usual diode.\nThe function of this diode is that no minority carriers are injected - the n-side only has holes, not electrons, and the p-side only has electrons, not holes.  Because this is cleaner, it can react faster, without diffusion capacitance that can slow it down.  It also creates less heat and is more efficient.  But it does has some current leakage with reverse voltage.\n\nWhen a diode switches from moving current to not moving current, this is known as switching. It takes dozens of nanoseconds in a typical diode; this creates some radio noise, which temporarily degrades radio signals. The Schottky diode switches in a small fraction of that time, less than a nanosecond.\n\nTunnel diode \nIn the symbol of the tunnel diode there is a kind of additional square bracket at the end of the usual symbol.\n \nA tunnel diode consists of a highly doped pn-junction. Because of this high doping, there is only a very narrow gap where the electrons are able to pass through. This tunnel-effect appears in both directions.\nAfter a certain quantity of electrons have passed, the current through the gap decreases, until the normal current through the diode at the threshold voltage begins.  This causes an area of a negative resistance.\nThese diodes are used to deal with really high frequencies (100\u00a0GHz).  It is also resistant to radiation, so they are used in spacecraft. They are also used in microwaves and refrigerators.\n\nBackward diode \nThe symbol has at the end of the diode a sign that looks like a big I.  It is made similar to the tunnel diode, but the n- and the p-layer are not doped as high. It allows current to flow backwards with small negative voltages.  It can be used to rectify low voltages (less than 0.7 volts).\n\nSilicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)\nInstead of two layers like a normal diode, this has four layers, it is basically two diodes put together, with a gate in the middle. When voltage goes between the gate and the cathode the lower transistor will turn on. This lets the current go through, which activates the upper transistor, and then the current will not need to be turned on by a gate voltage.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n The Unusual Diode FAQ \n\nElectronic components\nRectifiers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":95912,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diode","title":"Diode","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Community centres, community centers, or community halls are public locations where members of a community tend to gather for group activities, social support, public information, and other purposes. They may be open for the whole community or for a specialized subgroup within the greater community. Community centres can be religious in nature, such as Christian, Islamic, Jewish, Hindu or Buddhist community centres, or can be secular, such as youth clubs.\n\nUses\n\nThe community centres are usually used for:\n\n Celebrations,\n Public meetings of the citizens on various issues,\n Organising meetings(where politicians or other official leaders come to meet the citizens and ask for their opinions, support or votes (\"election campaigning\" in democracies, other kinds of requests in non-democracies),\n Volunteer activities,\n Organising parties, weddings,\n Organising local non-government activities,\n Passes on and retells local history,etc.\n\nOrganization and ownership\n\nAround the world (and sometimes within single countries) there appear to be four common ways in which the operation of the kind of community centre are owned and organised. In the following description, \"Government\" may refer to the ordinary secular government or to a dominant religious organisation such as the Roman Catholic Church; and it may refer to the central, national, or international branch of a government\/church or to the local subdivision of it.\n\n Community owned: The centre is directly owned and run by the local community through an organization separate from the official (local) governmental institutions of the area, but with the full knowledge and sometimes even funding from (local) government institutions.\n Government owned: The centre is a public (local) government facility, though it is mostly used for non-government community activities and may even have some kind of local leadership elected from its community.\nKominkan (in Japan)\n Sponsored: A rich citizen or commercial corporation owns the centre and donates its use to the community for reasons of charity or public relations.\n Commercial: The community centre is a purely commercial entity which aims to profit from renting its facilities to various community groups on terms suitable for such use.\n\nTypes of community centres\n\nThe community centres typically have their own origin and history. There are some examples:\n\n Built as such - Buildings have been erected specifically to function as community centers (as early as 1880, perhaps even earlier).\n A disused public building - When an official government building (such as a school or city hall) is no longer needed for its original purpose, it is sometimes offered to the community as gift, loan or sale.\n A disused commercial building - When a commercial building of some local importance is no longer used, it is sometimes sold or donated to the community.\n A building that served many of the purposes now given to the community centre in addition to a different primary use (such as school, church, inn, or town hall), which was later acquired so it could continue these functions after its primary use subsided.\n\nSchools as community centers\nEarly forms of community centers in the United States were based in schools providing facilities to inner city communities out of school hours. An early celebrated example of this is to be found in Rochester, New York from 1907. Edward J. Ward, a Presbyterian minister, joined the Extension Department at the University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison, organizing the Wisconsin Bureau of Civic and Social Development. By 1911 they organized a country-wide conference on schools as social centers. Despite concerns expressed by politicians and public officials that they might provide a focus for alternative political and social activity, the idea was successful. In 1916, with the foundation of the National Community Center Association, the term Community Center was generally used in the US. By 1918 there were community centers in 107 US cities, and in 240 cities by 1924. By 1930 there were nearly 500 centers with more than four million people regularly attending. The first of these was Public School 63, located in the Lower East Side. Clinton Child's, one of the organizers, described it as: \n\"A Community organized about some center for its own political and social welfare and expression; to peer into its own mind and life, to discover its own social needs and then to meet them, whether they concern the political field, the field of health, of recreation, of education, or of industry; such community organization is necessary if democratic society is to succeed and endure\".\n\nIn the UK many villages and towns have their own Community Centre, although nearby schools may offer their assembly or dining hall after school for Community Centre activities.  For example, local schools near Ouston, County Durham may host dance or sporting activities provided by a local community centre.\n\nGrassroots functions\nParks are also considered community centers. Another pioneer of community centers was Mary Parker Follett, who saw community centers as playing a major part in her concept of community development and democracy seen through individuals organizing themselves into neighborhood groups, and attending to people's needs, desires and aspirations. This can also include parks.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, the oldest community centre is possibly that which was established in 1901 in Thringstone, Leicestershire by the old age pensions pioneer, Charles Booth (1847-1916). Extended in 1911 and taken over by the Leicestershire County Council in 1950, this centre still thrives as an educational, social and recreational community resource and was the inspiration for numerous others of its kind.\n\nThere are also community centres for a specific purpose, but serving the whole community, such as an arts centre.\n\nOnline community centres are defined as a web-based interactive, user-submitted network for groups, organizations, or businesses.  Users create their own personal profiles, blogs, groups, photos, art, calendars, music, and videos to display on their own pages.  Administrators provide oversight to the content and approve membership of users.\n\nUrban planning\n\nIn Singapore, community centres are distinct buildings that are officially designated by the government of Singapore. They are meant to play an urban planning role especially as part of Housing Development Board projects. Enrichment and grassroots organization are their functions like most other community centres, but relieving traffic congestion concerns by placing community centres nearby is also another reason.\n\nSee also\nCultural center\nVillage hall\nYMCA\nKominkan (Japanese citizen's public hall)\nPeople's House\nTeen center\nCommunity arts\nAutonomous social center\nFar-right social centres\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nSelfmanaged Social Centers\nSocial Centers, Community Spaces, and Squats From \"Italy's Cultural Underground\" by Adam Bregman\nInternational Federation of Settlements and Neighborhood Centers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":139,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":6,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":4}},"id":2689823,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Community%20centre","title":"Community centre","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Arthur Seyss-Inquart\/Arthur Sey\u00df-Inquart (born Arthur Sey\u00df-Inquart on 22 July 1892\u201316 October 1946) was a prominent lawyer and later Nazi official in pre-Anschlu\u00df Austria, the Third Reich and in wartime Germany, Poland, and the Netherlands. Sey\u00df-Inquart was executed at the Nuremberg Trials for crimes against humanity.\n\nLife before the Anschluss \nSey\u00df-Inquart was born in 1892 in Stona\u0159ov (Stannern), Moravia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to school principal Emil Zajtich and his wife Auguste Hyrenbach. The family moved to Vienna in 1907, where they changed the Czech Slavic name of \"Zajtich\" to the German \"Sey\u00df-Inquart\". Sey\u00df-Inquart later studied law at the University of Vienna. At the beginning of World War I in August 1914, Sey\u00df-Inquart enlisted in the Austrian Army and served in Russia, Romania and Italy.  He was decorated for bravery on a number of occasions, and while recovering from wounds in 1917 he completed his final examinations for his degree.\n\nIn 1911, Sey\u00df-Inquart met Gertrud Maschka. The couple married in 1916 and had three children: Ingeborg Caroline Auguste Sey\u00df-Inquart (born 18 September 1917), Richard Sey\u00df-Inquart (born 1921) and Dorothea Sey\u00df-Inquart (born 1928).\n\nHe went into law after the war, and in 1921 set up his own practice. During the early years of the first Austrian republic, he was close to the Vaterl\u00e4ndische Front.\n\nAs a successful lawyer, he was asked to join the cabinet of Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in 1933.\n\nHe became a State Councillor in 1937 under Kurt Schuschnigg. He was not a member of the Austrian National Socialist party at first. But by 1938, Sey\u00df-Inquart was the highest-ranking politician in the Austrian National Socialist Party.\n\nIn February 1938, Sey\u00df-Inquart was appointed Minister of the Interior by Schuschnigg, after Hitler had threatened Schuschnigg. On 11 March 1938, Schuschnigg resigned as Austrian Chancellor and Sey\u00df-Inquart was appointed to the position by Austrian President Wilhelm Miklas. Hitler's plan was to have Sey\u00df-Inquart send a telegram asking for German help to stop riots, but President Miklas did not make Sey\u00df-Inquart chancellor until after Hitler's invasion of Austria. On 13 March 1938, Sey\u00df-Inquart joined the National Socialist party.\n\nHead of Ostmark and Southern Poland \nHitler was going to leave Austria independent, but after the welcome the invading German troops got during the Anschlu\u00df he decided to make Austria a new part of the Third Reich, called Ostmark (or eastern boundary) . Sey\u00df-Inquart wrote the statute which made Austria a province of Germany, and signed it into law on 13 March.\n\nSey\u00df-Inquart became Reichsstatthalter or Governor of the so-called Ostmark. Ernst Kaltenbrunner was chief minister, and Burckel Commissioner for the Reunion of Austria (concerned with the \"Jewish Question\").\n\nSey\u00df-Inquart was made an SS Gruppenf\u00fchrer, and in May 1939 Minister without portfolio in Hitler's government.\n\nAfter the invasion of Poland Sey\u00df-Inquart became governor of Southern Poland, but before he started work there the General Government was created, and Sey\u00df-Inquart became a deputy to Governor General Hans Frank.\n\nReichskommissar in the Netherlands \nAfter Germany invaded the Low Countries, Sey\u00df-Inquart became Reichskommissar for occupied Netherlands in May 1940. His job was to organize civil administration, create close economic ties with Germany and defend the interests of the Reich.\n\nHe supported the Dutch National Socialist Party (NSB) and allowed it to create a paramilitary Landwacht, as an auxiliary police force. Other political parties were banned in late 1941, and many former government officials imprisoned at Sint-Michielsgestel. The administration of the country was largely controlled by Sey\u00df-Inquart himself.\n\nHe introduced measures to combat 'terror', and when a widespread strike took place in Amsterdam, Arnhem and Hilversum in May 1943 special summary court-martials were held and a collective fine of 18 million guilders was imposed. Sey\u00df-Inquart authorized the execution of around 800 people before liberation. Some people say it was not merely 800 but over 1,500, including executions under the so-called \"Hostage Law\" involving (among others) political prisoners who were close to being liberated, the Putten incident, and the reprisal execution of 117 Dutchmen for the attack on SS and Police Leader\" Hanns Albin Rauter. From July 1944 on, most of Sey\u00df-Inquart's powers were transferred to the military commander in the Netherlands and the Gestapo, but he was still an important and powerful political figure.\n\nThere were two small concentration camps in the Netherlands:\n KZ Herzogenbusch near Vught, and\n Kamp Amersfoort near Amersfoort.\n\nThere was also a \"Jewish assembly camp\" at Westerbork, in addition to a number of other camps controlled by the military, the police, the SS or Sey\u00df-Inquart's administration. These included a \"voluntary labor recruitment\" camp at Ommen. A total of around 530,000 Dutch civilians worked for the Germans, of whom 250,000 were sent to factories in Germany.\n\nSeyss-Inquart was an anti-Semite: within a few months of his arrival in the Netherlands, he sacked Jews from government, the press and leading positions in industry. Anti-Jewish measures escalated after 1941: approximately 140,000 Jews were registered, a ghetto was created in Amsterdam and a transit camp set up at Westerbork. In February 1941, 600 Jews were sent to the Buchenwald and Mauthausen concentration camps. Later, Dutch Jews were sent to Auschwitz. As Allied forces approached in September 1944 the remaining Jews at Westerbork were sent to Theresienstadt. Of 140,000 registered Dutch Jews, only 44,500 survived the war.\n\nWhen Hitler committed suicide on 30 April 1945, Sey\u00df-Inquart became the Foreign Minister in Admiral Karl D\u00f6nitz's new German government.\n\nThe Nazi regime had tried a 'scorched earth' policy, and also destroyed some docks and harbors. Sey\u00df-Inquart agreed with Armaments Minister Albert Speer that destroying everything to keep valuable materials from Allied forces or a new government after the war was wrong. Sey\u00df-Inquart also helped in the so-called 'hunger winter' of 1945 to distribute food, and allowed Allied airplanes to drop Swedish white bread for the hungry people of occupied northern Netherlands. He remained Reichskommissar until 8 May 1945, when, after a meeting with Karl D\u00f6nitz to confirm his blocking of the scorched-earth orders, he was captured in Hamburg.\n\nNuremberg Trials \n\nAt the Nuremberg Trials, Sey\u00df-Inquart faced charges of conspiracy to commit crimes against peace; planning, starting and fighting wars of aggression; war crimes; and crimes against humanity.\n\nHis defence lawyer was Gustav Steinbauer. Sey\u00df-Inquart was nonetheless found guilty of all charges except conspiracy. On hearing of his death sentence, Seyss-Inquart made it clear he accepted responsibility for excesses during the war, \"Death by hanging...well, in view of the whole situation, I never expected anything different. It's all right\". He was hanged on 16 October 1946, at the age of 54, together with nine other Nuremberg defendants. His last words were \"I hope that this execution is the last act of the tragedy of the Second World War and that the lesson taken from this world war will be that peace and understanding should exist between peoples. I believe in Germany\".\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Arthur Seyss-Inquart\n\n1892 births\n1946 deaths\nAustrian people of World War II\nAustrian war criminals\nChancellors of Austria\nExecuted Austrian people\nExecuted Nazis\nGovernment ministers of Austria\nGovernment ministers of Nazi Germany\nHolocaust perpetrators\nAustrian lawyers\nMembers of the Reichstag (Nazi Germany)\nPeople executed by hanging\nPoliticians of the Nazi Party\nSS officers\nAustrian Roman Catholics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":134,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3}},"id":87849,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur%20Sey%C3%9F-Inquart","title":"Arthur Sey\u00df-Inquart","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"William Hogarth (10 November 1697 \u2013 26 October 1764) was an English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic and editorial cartoonist. \n\nHe is said to have started western sequential art. His work ranged from realistic portraits to comic strip-like series of pictures called \"modern moral subjects\". His work is so well known that satirical political illustrations in this style are often referred to as \"Hogarthian\".\n\nMoral series art\n\nHarlot's Progress \n\nIn 1731, he completed a series of moral works which made him recognised as a great and original genius. This was A Harlot's Progress. It was first done as paintings, which are now lost. Then the series was published as engravings. In the six scenes, the fate of a country girl who became a prostitute in town is traced out. At the start, the girl meets a bawd, a woman who persuades her to take up prostitution. At her shameful end, the girl dies of venereal disease and there follows a merciless funeral ceremony. The engraving show vivid scenes of drunken and loose behaviour. The series was an immediate success.\n\nRake's Progress \n\nA Rake's Progress showed in eight pictures the reckless life of Tom Rakewell, the son of a rich merchant. Tom wastes all his money on luxurious living, whoring, and gambling, and dies in Bedlam. The original paintings of A Rake's Progress is displayed in the gallery room at Sir John Soane's Museum, London.\n\nMarriage \u00e0-la-mode \n\nIn 1743\u20131745 Hogarth painted the six pictures of Marriage \u00e0-la-mode (National Gallery, London), a pointed skewering of upper class 18th century society. This moralistic warning shows the miserable tragedy of an ill-considered marriage for money. This is regarded by many as his finest project and may be among his best planned story serials. Marital ethics were the topic of much debate in 18th century Britain. Marriages of convenience, and their unhappiness, came in for particular criticism.\n\nThe series shows the story of the fashionable marriage of the son of bankrupt Earl Squanderfield to the daughter of a rich but miserly city merchant. It starts with the signing of a marriage contract at the Earl's mansion and ending with the murder of the son by his wife's lover, and the suicide of the daughter after her lover is hanged at Tyburn.\n\nIndustry and Idleness \nIn the twelve prints of Industry and Idleness (1747) Hogarth showed the lives of two apprentices, one of whom is dedicated and hard working, the other idle. The industrious apprentice becomes Sheriff and Lord Mayor of London. The idle turns one to crime. In the end, he is executed at Tyburn. The idle apprentice is sent to the gallows by the industrious apprentice himself.\n\nThis shows the work ethic of Protestant England, where those who work hard get rewarded, and those who do not end badly,\n\nBeer Street and Gin Lane \n\nBeer Street and Gin Lane (1751) was his warning on alcoholism. They were two engravings designed to be seen side by side. Hogarth engraved Beer Street to show a happy city drinking the 'good' beverage of English beer. On the other side was Gin Lane. This showed the effects of drinking gin which, as a harder liquor, caused more problems for society. People are shown as healthy, happy and prosperous in Beer Street, while in Gin Lane they are scrawny, lazy and careless. \n\nThe woman at the front of Gin Lane who lets her baby fall to its death, echoes the tale of Judith Dufour who strangled her baby so she could sell its clothes for gin money. The prints were published in support of what would become the Gin Act of 1751.\n\nHogarth's friend, the magistrate Henry Fielding, may have got Hogarth to help with propaganda for the Gin Act: Beer Street and Gin Lane were issued shortly after Fielding's work An Enquiry into the Causes of the Late Increase of Robbers, and Related Writings.\n\nThe Four Stages of Cruelty \n\nOther prints were his outcry against inhumanity in The Four Stages of Cruelty (published 21 February 1751). Hogarth depicts the cruel treatment of animals, and suggests what will happen to people who carry on in this manner. In the first picture there are scenes of torture of dogs, cats and other animals. The second shows one of the characters from the first painting, Tom Nero, has now become a coach driver, and his cruelty to his horse has caused it to break its leg. In the third painting Tom is shown as a murderer, with the woman he killed lying on the ground, while in the fourth, titled Reward of Cruelty, the murderer is shown being dissected by surgeons after his execution. The method of execution, and the dissection, reflect the 1752 Act of Parliament. This allowed the public dissection of criminals who had been executed for murder.\n\nHogarth wished to stop \"that barbarous (mean) treatment of animals, the very sight of which renders [makes] the streets of our metropolis so distressing to every feeling mind\".\n\nHumours of an Election \n\nThe Humours of an Election is a series of four oil paintings and later engravings by Hogarth. They show what went on in the 1754 election of a Member of Parliament. The oil paintings were created in 1755. \n\nAt this time each constituency elected two MPs, and there was a property qualification for voters, so only a minority of the male population was enfranchised. There was no secret ballot, so bribery and threats were used to raise votes.\n\nThe originals are held by Sir John Soane's Museum, London.\n\nHogarth was also a popular portrait painter. In 1746 he painted actor David Garrick as Richard III. He was paid \u00a3200, \"which was more,\" he wrote, \"than any English artist ever received for a single portrait\". In the same year a sketch of Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat, afterwards beheaded on Tower Hill, had an exceptional success. \n\nHogarth's portrait of his friend, the philanthropic Captain Coram (1740; Thomas Coram Foundation for Children, now Foundling Museum), and his unfinished oil sketch of The Shrimp Girl (National Gallery, London) are highly regarded. There are also portraits of his wife and his two sisters and of many others.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\nEnglish painters\nBritish cartoonists\n1697 births\n1764 deaths\nArtists from London\nEngravers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":347505,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William%20Hogarth","title":"William Hogarth","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Christchurch is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand and the third largest urban area in the country. Christchurch is located on the South Island's east coast. The population is approximately 376,700 (2010).\n\nThe name 'Christchurch' was decided upon at the first meeting of the Canterbury Association (made up of settlers of the surrounding province of Canterbury) on March 27, 1848. The city's name came from the Christ Church, Oxford College and was suggested by John Robert Godley, who attended the college. Earlier, the name of the town was Christ Church. On July 31, 1856, Christchurch became a city by Royal Charter and is officially the oldest established city in New Zealand.\n\nHistory\nOriginal settlers of the Christchurch region were Moa Hunters. These settlers hunted the moa out of existence by about the year 1500. The hunters cleared large areas of Mata\u012b and T\u014dtara forests by fire, changing the landscape. The M\u0101ori people (Ngati Mamoe and later Ngai Tahu) arrived in Canterbury between 1500 and 1700. The Moa Hunters were either killed or adopted by tribes. On February 16, 1770, Captain James Cook was the first European to see the Canterbury peninsula from his ship the Endeavour. Thinking it was an island, he named it Banks Island after the ship's botanist, Joseph Banks. It was not until around 1815 when European sailors from the sealing ship, Governor Bligh, landed and set foot on Banks Peninsula. During the 1820s the local M\u0101ori population fell due to fighting between different groups of Ng\u0101i Tahu and raids by the Ng\u0101ti Toa chief Te Rauparaha from 1830 to 1832. The impact of European diseases, especially measles and influenza only increased the death toll of the M\u0101ori people. The M\u0101ori tribes fought each other to near disappearance in the Christchurch region.\nEuropean pilgrims began settling the area in the 1800s. In 1839, the New Zealand Company was established in London. In current history, people started immigrating from Europe to New Zealand during this time. In May 1840, Major Thomas Bunbury arrived on a ship, the HMS Herald, to collect signatures from the Ng\u0101i Tahu chiefs for the Treaty of Waitangi. The Treaty had been signed by many North Island chiefs in the Bay of Islands earlier in the year on 6 February, 1840. During Bunbury's visit, only two of the Ng\u0101i Tahu chiefs signed it. After this treaty was signed, the colony became in direct control of the UK. The settlement by the British began in 1850. Christchurch was born by a royal warrant of the British King as the oldest city in New Zealand on July 31, 1856. A building of Neo-Gothic architecture was designed and constructed by Benjamin Mount Fort in the city center. The suburb of Hei Hei was subdivided for poultry farming after WWI for returning serviceman, but the venture failed due to the poor soil conditions. In 1947, New Zealand's a major fire occurred at Ballantyne's Department Store in the inner city. 41 people died in a blaze which razed the rambling collection of buildings. Mass shootings occurred at two mosques on 15 March 2019.\n\nGeography\nChristchurch is in Canterbury. It is the largest city in the South Island. The Pacific Ocean lines its east coast and south coast. The Southern Alps act as a border on the west coast. The Waimakariri River creates a natural northern border. The purest and cleanest water can be found in Christchurch. This water comes from the Southern Alps via aquifers.\n\nA two-hour drive by car includes the many highlights from Christchurch International Airport. One can enjoy skiing, golf, bungee jumping, white-water rafting, mountain biking, windsurfing, whale watching and a variety of other activities including the winery garden circulation. Christchurch has earned the pet name of \"the garden city\" with the southern island.\nCentral city\n\nThe Cathedral Square is located right in the center of the city. The city center was damaged by the earthquake of February, 2011. The area around this square, within the 'four avenues' of Christchurch, was the central business district of the city. There were a number of residential areas within the central city including Inner City East, Inner City West, Avon Loop, Moa Neighbourhood and Victoria. Cathedral Square is located at the crossing of two famous, major central streets, Colombo Street and Worcester Street, both of which are currently cordoned off as you approach the square.\n\nAttractions such as the Wizard of New Zealand, Ian Brackenbury Channell, and evangelist Ray Comfort were hosted at the Cathedral Square until the earthquake in February, 2011. They also held market days, free standing food and coffee carts, an aquarium, pubs, restaurants and the city's chief tourist information centre. The City Mall was refurbished in 2008 & 09 before the earthquake of February 2011. The mall had specially designed seating, flower and garden boxes, more trees, paving, and an extension to the central city tram route. Now all that lies there is The Bridge of Remembrance commemorating war dead stands at the western end of the mall.\n\"A City for People Action Plan\" was released in 2010 by the Christchurch City Council. This program of work is planned through the year 2022 to improve public spaces within the central city to entice more inner city residents and visitors. To increase the comfort of pedestrians, a plan was put into action to reduce the impact of motorized private vehicles. The renowned Danish design firm, Gehl Architects prepared this report. Wellington architect Ian Athfield has since been selected to re-plan and help rebuild since the February, 2011 Christchurch earthquake.\n\nTransportation\nThe main mode of public transportation in the city is by bus. The bus system operates throughout the city. Also, there is a free shuttle bus going around the city center.\nA railroad station exists southwest, around 4\u00a0km from the inner-city, but it is not for citizens. It is used for freight and sightseeing exclusively.\n\nEconomy\nAgriculture is the main industry that is carried out over the Canterbury plains. The main crops grown are wheat, barley, various strains of clover and other grasses for seed exporting. Besides growing these crops, it also created various processing and distribution businesses in Christchurch. In recent years, agriculture has expanded to the wine industry and olive production and processing. Deer farming has led to new processing using antlers for Asian medicine and aphrodisiacs. Also, dairy farming and raising stock are also carried out on the flourishing Canterbury plains. Other industries include manufacturing, real estate and wholesale business. In more recent years, sightseeing and tourism have become prosperous, led by tourists from Europe, Asia, and North America.\n\nClimate \nChristchurch has moderate rainfall year-round. It has warm summers and cool winters. The most common wind is a northeasterly sea breeze, but the city is famous for Nor'westers, hot dry, dusty winds which blow across the plains.\n\nEducation\n\nSecondary schools\nBurnside High School is in Christchurch. Largest school in New Zealand with 2,506 students enrolled. Cashmere High School at Rose Street is the second largest co-educational secondary school. Recently, Papanui High School has grown rapidly and is almost the same size. Then there is Riccarton High School that was one of the first state schools in the country to adopt a strong values base \u2013 the Riccarton Way. There are several single-sex schools as follows: Shirley Boys' High School, Christchurch Boys' High School, Avonside Girls' High School and Christchurch Girls' High School.\n\nEnglish public schools\nChristchurch is also well known for several very traditional schools of the English public school type as follows: St. Thomas of Canterbury College, St. Margaret's College, Christ's College, St. Bede's College, Mariam College, St. Andrew's College, Villa Maria College and Rangi Ruru Girls' School.\n\nCollege\nThere are also less conventional schools such as Unlimited Paenga Tawhiti and Hagley Community College.\nTertiary educational institutes include:\n University of Canterbury\n Lincoln University\n Ara Institute of Canterbury\n University of Otago\n Christchurch School of Medicine and Health Sciences\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":64145,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christchurch","title":"Christchurch","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An article is a word that is used with a noun. There are two kinds of articles: definite articles and indefinite articles.\n\nIn English there is just one definite article: the. There are two indefinite articles: a and an. The word an is used before a word starting with a vowel sound (which does not have to be a vowel letter): we say a horse, a child, a European (European has a \"Y\" sound, \/j\/, which is a consonant sound), a university, but an orange, an elephant. \n\nSome languages have more than one word for the. In some languages, this is because each noun is either masculine or feminine or, in some languages it can be masculine, feminine or neuter. For example: in French le is used for masculine nouns (le jardin - the garden) and la for feminine nouns (la table - the table). The becomes les in front of plural nouns. The indefinite articles in French are un (masculine) and une (feminine). German, Dutch and Ancient Greek have masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, but in the case of Dutch the word for the is the same for masculine and feminine (de) so you do not need to know which it is. The M\u0101ori language uses one word for the for when the subject or object to which the the refers is one in number, and uses another word for the when the subject or object to which the the refers numbers more than one.\n\nThere are also many languages that do not have articles. Some examples include Russian, Hindi, Japanese, and Chinese. When speakers of these languages are learning English, it is often difficult to explain to them what an article is because English speakers use them naturally. Even though these languages do not have articles, they still have grammatical features that allow them to show definiteness.\n\nIn general: the in English is used for something you already know about or have already been talking about. The word a is used when introducing a new idea:\n\n\"The tired woman was looking for her cat. Suddenly she saw the cat up a tree\". (We are already talking about the cat. The tree is a new idea).\n\n\"The tired woman was walking along when she suddenly saw a cat up a tree\". (She had not been thinking about cats until then).\n\nSometimes we do not need an article, for example when talking about something in general:\n\n\"The dogs do not bite\" (meaning: dogs that you are thinking about).\n\"Barking dogs do not bite\" (barking dogs in general).\n\nParts of speech\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":32115,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Article%20%28grammar%29","title":"Article (grammar)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Saunt Andra (dee'd c. 60 AD) wis a disypil o Jesus Christ an brither o Saunt Peter. Tho he kythsna aften in the Gospels, he is mentiont in acoonts o a twa-thrie wechtie an kenspekil happenins.\n\nAndra is the patron saunt o Scotland, Ukraine, Roushie, Romanie, Patras in Greece, Amalfi in Italy, Luqa in Maltae, an Esgueira in Portugal. He wis the patron saunt o Prussie an o the Order o the Gowden Fleece anaw. The Banner o Scotland an banner o Nova Scotia featur St Andra's saltire cross. The saltire is on the Banner o Tenerife, the banner o Galicie an the naval jack o Roushie anaw. Forby thon, he is the patron saunt o fishermen.\n\nThe feast o Andra is on the 30t November in baith the Eistren an Wastren kirks, an is the naitional day o Scotland.\n\nName\nThe name \"Andra\" cums frae the Greek for \"manlie, braw\" (\u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, meinin \"manhuid, valor\"). Lyk ither Greek names, it seems ti hae been common amang the Jews frae the 3rd or 2nt yeirhunder BC. Nae Hebrew or Aramaic name is recordit for him. He is dempt ti be the foonder an first beishop o the Kirk o Byzantium.\n\nLyf \n(Aw Biblical quotes haes been taen frae W.L Lorimer's translate)\n\nIn The New Testament \nIt isna kent whan Andra wis born, but lyk as no he wis a man o Bethsaida, bi Loch Genesareth in Galilee. This is no faur frae Capernaum that wis ane o the important steids o Jesus's darg. \n\nA fisherman bi tred, he wis a follaer o John the Baptist. Eftir listenin ti John cry Jesus \"the Laum o God\", he left him ti tak the gate wi Jesus, The Gospel o John tels that he at anss kent Jesus wis the Messiah an gaed ti tel his brither. The Gospel o Matthew gies this upcast o the cawin o Peter an Andra:\n\nAe day he [viz. Jesus] wis traivlin asyd the Loch o Galilee, whan he saw twa brithirs, S\u00edmon, cried Peter, an Andra his brithir, castin a net intil the loch; for thay war fishers bi tred.\n\"Cum eftir me,\" qo he til thaim, \"an I s' mak ye men-fishers\": an strecht thay quat thair nets an follaed him. (Matt. 4: 18-20)\n\nAcause he wis ane o the first follaers o Christ, he is kent in the Greek as Pr\u014dtokl\u0113tos that meins \"the first-caw'd\". His name isna aften mentiont in the Gospels, but whan it is, he is aye bringin ither fowk ti Jesus. Ae byspel kyths in The Gospel o John, whan Jesus is aboot ti feed a fell thrang o fowk. Seein that thar isna eneuch fuid for the thrang, the disypil begoud ti colloge aboot hou ti feed thaim:\n\n\"Twa hunder merk,\" Philip answert, \"wadna buy as mukkil breid as wad gie thaim a tuithfu the piece\".\nAne o the disypils, Anda, Simon Peter's brither, sayd til him, [viz. Jesus] \"Thar's a laddok here wi five bear laifs an twa fishes: but whit is that amang sae monie?\"\"Gar the fowk lie doun,\" sayd Jesus... (John. 6: 6-10)\n\nAn Jesus gaes on ti say the grace an gie the fuid amang the thrang. Later on, the same Gospel gies this upcast:Amang thaim at cam ti Jerusalem ti wurship at the Festival thar wis a whein Greeks. Thir Greeks cam ti Philip, at belang'd Bathsa\u00efda in Galilee, an sayd til him, \"Cud we see Jesus, sir?\" Philip gaed awa an telt Andra, an the twasum gaed an telt Jesus. (John 12: 20-22)\n\nEftir Jesus's daith an resurrection, Andra wis ane o the curn that gat the Haly Gaist at Pentecost (Acts chaipter ane).\n\n Ootwi The New Testament \n\nEusebius o Caesarea quotes Origen as sayin Andra preichit alang the Blek Sie as faur as the Volga, Kiev an Novgorod. Hence he becam a patron saunt o Ukraine, Romanie an Roushie. By tradeition, he foondit the Episkopal See o Byzantium (Constantinople) in 38 AD, makkin Stachys the beishop. By Hippolytus o Rome, he preichit in Thrace, an his bein in Byzantium is mention'd in the apocrifal Acts o Andra, wrat in the 2nt yeirhunder.\n\nAndra is sayd ti hae been mairtir'd bi crusifixion at the ceitie o Patras (Patr\u00e6) in Greece. Aerlie texts, sik as the Acts o Andra'' kent ti Gregory o Tours, beskrive Andra as band, no nailt, til a Laitin ruid o the kynd on whilk Jesus is sayd ti hae been crusifee'd; yit a tradeition cam aboot that Andra haed been crusifiee'd on an X-shapit ruid, or \"saltire\", nou aften kent as a \"Saunt Andra's Cross\". Thon wis sayd ti be at his ain behest, as he dempt himsel wanwirthie ti be crusifee'd on the same kynd o ruid as Jesus.\n\nRelics\nRelics o Andra ar keppit at the Basilica o St Andra in Patras, Greece; the Duomo di Sant'Andrea in Amalfi, Italy; St Mary's Roman Catholic Kirk in Edinburgh, Scotland; an the Kirk o St Andra an St Albert in Warsaw, Poland. Thar ar monie smawer reliquaries athort the warld anaw.\n\nAndra an Scotland \nGaun by auld threaps, St Rule brocht Andra's relics ti Scotland in the 4t yeirhunder - gydit bi God ti modren St Andras in Fife - whaur he biggit a kirk an haed his heidsteid for his ain mission darg for the neist thritie yeir. Houaniver, maist skolars jalouses that this isna true.\n\nGaun bi legend, in 832 AD, Ungus II led an airmie of Pechts an Scots inti battil agin the Angles, led bi \u00c6thelstan, naur modren-day Athelstaneford, East Lowden. On the morn o the battil, it wis sayd that Ungus saw white cluds shapit lyk a saltire in the lift. Ungus an his airmie, in maugre o bein ootnummer'd, wan the fecht. Ungus threapit that his airmie haed been unner the beild o Saunt Andra. Eftir, he tuik Andra as his patron an appyntit him the Patron Saunt o Scotland. This is sayd ti hae been the springheid o the Banner o Scotland; the white saltire agin a blue bakgrund.\n\nReferenses\n\nFremmit airtins \n The Meesionary Vaiges o Andra \n St Andra in Orthodoxy \n St Andra in the Naitional Archives o Scotland \n Biography o Andra \n Sermon anent St Andra; Partick Newton Place Church, Glesca, 1976, A. S. Borrowman\n\n1st-century births\n1st-century daiths\n1st-century Romans\n1st-century Christian mairtyrs\nSaunts frae the Haly Laund\nFowk executit bi crucifixion\nRoman-era Jews\n1st-century bishops\nHistory o Christianity in Ukraine\nFishers\nBuirials at the Kirk o the Haly Apostles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5}},"id":6865,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saunt%20Andra","title":"Saunt Andra","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Coburg (East Franconian: Coborch, Coburch)  is a town on the Itz River in Bavaria, Germany. Its 2005 population was 42,015. It joined with Bavaria by popular vote in 1920. Before 1918, it was the larger of the two capital cities in the united duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.\n\nCoburg's Coat of Arms honoring the city's patron Saint Maurice was granted in 1493.\n\nHistory \nCoburg is about 90\u00a0km south of Erfurt and about 100\u00a0km north of Nuremberg. Coburg was first mentioned in a document dated 1056, although there was a settlement at the site that before then called Trufalistat. Following several changes of noble owners, it came into the hands of the House of Wettin in 1353 when Friedrich III, the Strong, married Katherina von Henneberg. In 1596, it became the capital of one of the new Duchy of Saxe-Coburg under the leadership of Duke Johann Casimirs (ruled 1596-1633).\n\nDue to the royal connections among the royal houses of Europe, Coburg was the site of many royal Ducal weddings and visits. Britain's Queen Victoria made 6 visits to Coburg during her 64-year reign. In 1896 one ceremony brought together Queen Victoria, her son Edward (future Edward VII), her second son Alfred (Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha), her daughter the German dowager Empress Friedrich (Victoria), and many of her grandchildren, such as Tsar Nicholas and Alexandra of Russia, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, and the future King George V of Great Britain.\n\nIn 1920, two years after the abdication of the last duke, the locals voted to join Bavaria. Thus whilst the other Saxon-Thuringian principalities were later incorporated into the German Democratic Republic after World War II, Coburg became part of West Germany As a result, the town spent the Cold War years lying right next to the Iron Curtain, surrounded by East German territory on three sides.\n\nMain sights \nCoburg has the typical features of a former capital of German little states. There are numerous houses from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The most important landmarks include:\n Ehrenburg, a former Franciscan convent built in 1220 and turned into a castle in 1543-1549, and renovated until the 19th century. The internal decoration dates from the late 17th-early 18th centuries.\n St.-Moriz Church (\"St. Maurice\", 14th-16th centuries), is a Gothic edifice on the Hallenkirche plan with two towers. The interior, remade in 1701, include the notable funerary moment of Duke John Casimir, a 12\u00a0m-tall alabaster sculpture painted with statue and reliefs (1595-1598).\n The medieval Veste Coburg, one of the biggest and most beautiful castles in Germany. It was mostly rebuilt in the 19th century. It has a triple line of walls with numerous towers. Martin Luther resided here in 1530. The edifices contain today 3 museums with armories, art galleria, exhibitions and other attractions.\n Casimirium, an elegant Renaissance edifice from 1598.\n Gymnasium Caimirianum, begun in 1601.\n Arsenal (1616-1621).\n Coburg State Theatre\n Coburg Doll Museum\n Callenberg Palace\n Town Hall (1414)\n Castle Rosenau near Coburg\n The Baroque sanctuary at the Basilica of the Vierzehnheiligen, 20\u00a0km outside the city.\n\nReligion \nMost residents of Coburg are members of the Evangelical Church (Lutheranism). Other Christian communities are Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, the ICF Movement, Jehovah's Witnesses, Catholics, Old Catholics and the New Apostolic Church, as well as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. There are also three communities of Muslims. Coburg had a large Jewish community until the 1940s. Jews have lived there since the 14th century. The old synagogue was a former church. Today it is used by Old Catholics. Coburg became Protestant after the Reformation. All Catholics were persecuted. A new Catholic community was founded in the 19th century.\n\nDistricts \nCoburg is divided into 15 districts:\n\n Coburg City\n Beiersdorf\n Bertelsdorf\n Cortendorf\n Creidlitz\n Glend\n Ketschendorf\n L\u00f6belstein\n L\u00fctzelbuch\n Neu- and Neershof\n Neuses\n R\u00f6gen\n Scheuerfeld\n Seidmansdorf\n W\u00fcstenahorn\n\nOver two thirds of Coburg's population live in Coburg City.\n\nFamous people \nAmongst the associated royalty, one individual's 20th century association with Coburg proved especially tragic. This was that of the British Royal Charles Edward, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha who was arrested and tried as a Nazi.\n\nBesides various royalty, other famous individuals associated with Coburg include Hans Berger (graduated), William Frishmuth (born), and Eduard Study (born).\n\nIn 1530, Martin Luther stayed in the Veste Coburg to follow negotiations at the Imperial Diet in Augsburg. He also preached at St. Moriz church. \n\nIn 1887, Johann Strauss, the Waltz King, left Vienna when the Roman Catholic Church would not let him divorce his 2nd wife. He moved to Lutheran Saxe-Coburg-Gotha with his future 3rd wife Adele, where he lived the last 13 years of his life in Coburg. He was however buried in Vienna.\n\nIn 1922, Adolf Hitler led several hundred stormtroopers in a march through the city, fighting pitched street battles with leftists. During the Nazi era, the Coburg Badge was one of the most prestigious party medals.\n\nHans Morgenthau, founder of International Relations as a field of study, was born here.\n\nThe US National Hot Dog and Sausage Council asserts that Frankfurt am Main is traditionally credited with originating the Frankfurter. According to the Council, this claim is disputed and that the hot dog was created in the late 1600s by Johann Georghehner, a butcher, living in Coburg.  Coburg was the first German town to elect a Nazi Mayor.\n\nTwin towns \n , Cobourg\n , Gais\n , Garden City\n , Isle of Wight\n , Niort\n , Oudenaarde\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n Coburg Tourist Board\n World sites atlas \n Schloss- under Gartenverwaltung Coburg\n Aerial view of the Castle\n Lots of Photos from Coburg","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":90546,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coburg","title":"Coburg","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The International Date Line (IDL), also known as just the Date Line, is an imaginary line on the surface of the Earth, going from north to south in the Pacific Ocean. The date becomes one day later as one travels across it in western direction, and one day earlier as one travels across it in eastern direction.\n\nThe reason for this effect is that the countries on the western side of the International Date Line, (in or outside eastern Asia) have the time zone 10\u201312 hours more than Greenwich. And the countries on eastern side of it (Alaska\/Hawaii and other areas) have the time zone 9\u201312 hours less than Greenwich. So when travelling across the line, one's watch has to be adjusted 20\u201324 hours, depending on the time zones. \n\nFor example, New Zealand is twelve hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time while Hawaii is ten hours behind Greenwich Mean Time. When travelling from New Zealand to Hawaii the clocks must be switched 22 hours backwards, about one day.\n\nGeography\nInternational Date Line follows the meridian of 180\u00b0 longitude down the middle of the Pacific Ocean for some distance. So that it does not cross nations, it passes around the far east of Russia and other archipelagos in the Pacific.\n\nIn the north the date line turns to the east through the Bering Strait and then west past the Aleutian Islands in order to keep Alaska and Russia on opposite sides of the line. This is to keep it in agreement with the date of the rest of those countries. The date line passes equidistantly between the two Diomede Islands\u2014Little Diomede Island (US) and Big Diomede Island (Russia)\u2014at a distance of 1.5\u00a0km (1\u00a0mi) from each island.\n\nThe date line circumvents the territory of Kiribati by swinging far to the east, almost reaching the 150\u00b0 meridian.\n\nIn the South Pacific the date line swings east such that Wallis and Futuna, Fiji, Tonga, and New Zealand's Kermadec Islands have the same date but Samoa is one day earlier.\n\nThe International Date Line can cause confusion among airline travelers. The most problematic situation usually occurs with short journeys from west to east. To travel from Tonga to Samoa by air, for example, takes about two hours but involves crossing the International Date Line, causing passengers to arrive the day before they left. This often causes confusion in travel schedules, like hotel bookings. Some examples of time zone adjustments for real air trips are: Alaska-Siberia 21 hours, New Zealand-Cook Islands 22 hours, and Samoa-Tonga 24 hours.\n\nIf someone travels around the globe in an airplane from east to west (the same direction as Magellan), they should subtract one hour for every 15\u00b0 of longitude crossed, losing 24 hours for one circuit of the globe; but 24 hours are added when crossing the International Date Line (from east to west). The International Date Line must therefore be observed in conjunction with Earth's time zones: the net adjustment to one's watch is zero. If one crosses the date line at precisely midnight, going westward, one skips an entire day; while going eastward, one repeats the entire day.\n\nFor two hours every day, at UTC 10:00\u201311:59, there are actually three different days observed at the same time. At UTC time Thursday 10:15, for example, it is Wednesday 23:15 in Samoa, which is eleven hours behind UTC, and it is Friday 00:15 in Kiritimati (separated from Samoa by the IDL), which is fourteen hours ahead of UTC. For the first hour (UTC 10:00\u201310:59), this phenomenon affects inhabited territories, whereas during the second hour (UTC 11:00\u201311:59) it only affects an uninhabited maritime time zone twelve hours behind UTC.\n\nProblems\nOriginally, the date line ran along the 180\u00b0 meridian. This is a relatively good choice, because most of the time, there is no land there. There are however some problems.\n\nChukchi Peninsula\nLooking from the north, one of the first places where the meridian runs over dry land is the Chukchi Peninsula, which is part of Russia. The whole peninsula has been declared part of the UTC+12. This means that all of Russia (and with it, all of Asia) is on the same side of the date line.\n\nGroups of islands\nThere are many groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. These groups belong to states which do not want some islands on one side of the date line, and the rest on the other. They have therefore decided to move the date line, so that all islands are in the same time zone. Examples of this are the Aleutian Islands, which are on both sides of the 180\u00b0 meridian. They are part of Alaska, and are therefore all in the UTC-10 timezone. The date line has a bump to the west, there.\n\nThere are a few Islands, east of the 180\u00b0, which belong to New Zealand. It was decided that they should have the same date as New Zealand, so the date line runs east of the meridian there.\n\nKiribati is a state consisting of many small islands, spread over a huge portion of the Pacific; the meridian runs right through the state. Because the state needed the same date over all its territory, the date line was shifted east, the biggest shift to occur, in 1995.  The easternmost island of Kiribati was renamed to Millennium Island, because it was the first part of the world which saw the new millennium.\n\nThe Philippines had very good trade relations with Mexico.  They therefore decided they wanted the same date, date line to the west of the state. When the trade with China grew, this was inconvenient.  They changed, after Monday, 30 December 1844, came Wednesday, 1 January 1845.\n\nDifference in religions\nJews and Muslims and Christians regard particular days of the week as holy. For Muslims this is Friday, Jews (and a few Christian denominations) regard Saturday as the Sabbath, while most Christians observe Sunday as \"the Lord's Day\" in honour of the resurrection of Jesus on that day. This works well if the traveller stays on the same side of the date line, but there is a problem when travellers move across it. For the traveller it might still be Friday, but the place where he is might say that it is Saturday.\n\nRelated pages\n Meridian\n Time zone\n\nOther websites\n A History of the International Date Line\n\nLines of longitude","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":63755,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International%20Date%20Line","title":"International Date Line","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A lecture is when someone talks to a group of people about something interesting.  It is like a lesson.  At college or university students go to lectures to learn things.  The person who is teaching (talking to the group) is called the lecturer or sometimes professor.  The lecturer may accept questions from the audience.\n\nSometimes we say that someone was \"given a lecture\".  This means that he was told off for doing something wrong.\n\nLearning","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1}},"id":38677,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lecture","title":"Lecture","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In Arabic, caliph means \"a successor to the prophet\". This is what leaders of the Islamic faith came to be called. Their rule is called a caliphate.\n\nSome of the early leaders of the Muslim community following Muhammad's (570\u2013632) death called themselves \"Khalifat Allah\", meaning representative of God. But the other title of \"Khalifat rasul Allah\", meaning the successor to the prophet of God, became the common title. Some academics write the term as Khal\u012bf.\n\nCaliphs were often also called Am\u012br al-Mu'min\u012bn (), leader of the Muslims. This title has since been shortened to \"emir\". It is also found as a personal name in some countries.\n\nAfter the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib), the title was used by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, as well as by other dynasties in Southern Pakistan, Spain, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Most historical Muslim rulers simply titled themselves sultans or emirs, and the caliph himself often had very little real authority. The title was not used after the Republic of Turkey abolished the Ottoman caliphate in 1924.\n\nRelated pages \nCaliphate\nEmirate\nIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant\nShah\nShaykh al-Islam","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":41983,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caliph","title":"Caliph","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A sword is a hand-held weapon made for cutting.  It is often made of metal. It has a long blade, and a handle called a hilt.  Often there is some form of hand protection, such as a cross-guard or a basket. It can be used either for cutting, slashing or stabbing, depending on the type of sword.\n\nSwords were first created from bronze by blacksmiths in Ancient Egypt in 1150 BCE. Soon other cultures adopted them, and they began to spread quite quickly. Before guns were invented, swords were much more common as a weapon. After the invention of the gun, swords remained as sidearms, as secondary weapons used in man-to-man fight once the battle lines had contacted after shooting. Since after the American Civil War, swords have not been used as much by armies, except as a ceremonial part of uniforms. Some guns, however, have bayonets to perform the same function.\n\nToday, Sport fencing, is an Olympic games sport which uses very light swords and a strict scoring system. Western Martial Arts use swords that are much closer to the original blades, such as longswords, rapiers and sabres. The blades used are blunt, but they are much heavier than a sport fencing sword, which means the fencers need much more armour. Likewise, the Japanese sport kendo is swordplay in armour with two-handed bamboo swords called shinai.\n\nTypes of swords\n\nThere are many kinds of swords.  One kind of sword is a sabre (or saber). A sabre is a curved, light sword, sharpened on one side and at the tip, and was generally used on horseback.  A broadsword is a straight sword that is sharp on both sides and at the tip. A rapier is long and thin, with a basket protecting the hand. Another type of sword is a foil, used in sport fencing, and is long and thin, with a button at the tip to protect the fencers from injury. Larger swords, such as Longswords or claymores are used with two hands. In Eastern martial Arts, swords like the Katana are used. A Katana has one sharp edge and a small guard near the handle. Some Katanas are used with one hand, while other larger versions are used with two hands.\n\nFamous swords\nThe sword of King Arthur, Excalibur, is one of the most famous swords, although it is suspected it is legendary and does not exist.\n\nIn a Vietnamese legend, the Dragon King gives a sword called Heaven's Will to Emperor L\u00ea L\u1ee3i so he can free Vietnam from the Chinese.\n\nThe Frisian freedom fighters Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijerd Jelckama are known to have wielded swords of great size. Donias sword was a long as 210\u00a0cm (seven feet) and weighed 7\u00a0kg (15\u00a0lbs). The swords are kept in the Frisian Museum in Leeuwarden.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":9713,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sword","title":"Sword","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A professional is someone who has a specialised job which only very well trained people can perform, such as  Doctors, lawyers, and teachers. These occupations are known as professional occupations. They may often get paid more than other people. In sport, a professional is someone who is paid to play. For example, Petra Kvitov\u00e1 and Tim Cahil are professional sportspeople.\n\nThe word \"professional\" is often used as an adjective, e.g.\n \"He did a thoroughly professional job\" (meaning: a very good one, even if he was not a professional).\n \"His behaviour was always professional\" (meaning: he behaved in a proper way, like someone of his profession should).\nThe opposite of \"professional\" in this sense is: \"unprofessional\".\n\nAnother word that is the opposite of \"professional\" is \"amateur\". This means that someone does not get paid for the job he is doing (even if he may be doing it very well).","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":38312,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Professional","title":"Professional","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Escapology is the practice of escaping from restraints or other traps. Escapologists (also classified as escape artists) escape from handcuffs, straitjackets, cages, coffins, steel boxes, barrels, bags, burning buildings, fish-tanks, and other perils, often in combination.\n\nHistory\nThe art of escaping from restraints and confined spaces has been a skill employed by performers for a very long time. It was not originally displayed as an overt act in itself but was instead used secretly to create illusions such as a disappearance or transmutation. In the 1860s, the Davenport Brothers, who were skilled at releasing themselves from rope ties, used the art to convey the impression they were restrained while they created spirit phenomena.\n\nOther illusionists, including John Nevil Maskelyne, worked out how the Davenports did their act and re-created the tricks to debunk the brothers' claims of psychic power. However, the re-creations did not involve overt escape, merely a replication of tricks with the statement that they were accomplished by secret magicians' skills rather than spirits. It took another thirty years before the pure skill of escape began to be displayed as an act in itself. The figure most responsible for making escapology a recognized entertainment was Harry Houdini, who built his career on demonstrating the ability to escape from a huge variety of restraints and difficult situations.\n\nHoudini made no secret of the fact that he was an expert on restraints and the skills needed to overcome them but he often concealed the exact details of his escapes to maintain an air of mystery and suspense. Although many of his escapes relied on technical skills such as lock-picking and contortion, he also performed tricks such as Metamorphosis and the Chinese Water Torture Cell, which are essentially classic stage illusions reliant on cleverly designed props. Houdini's feats helped to define the basic repertoire of escapology, including escapes from handcuffs, padlocks, straitjackets, mail bags, beer barrels, and prison cells.\n\nA succession of performers have added new ideas and created variations on old stunts, but it is common for even the best contemporary escapologists to be dubbed modern day \"Houdinis\". During his lifetime, Houdini argued his main escape acts were copyrighted, and sued competitors such as John Clempert, who in 1906 apologized and settled out of court. \n\nBecause St. Nicholas Owen successfully escaped the Tower of London and arranged the escape of two Jesuit inmates from the prison, the 16th-century Christian martyr is considered by Catholic escapologists as their patron saint. Along with St. John Don Bosco, the two are considered the primary patrons of Catholic Gospel Magicians.\n\nSocieties\nThe United Kingdom Escape Artists was formed in 2004 and is currently the only organisation in the United Kingdom devoted to the promotion of UK escape artists and the preservation of escapology within the UK. Its members are made up of professional escapologists, restraint collectors, master locksmiths, and historians. The UKEA meet once a year for their AGM.\n\nThe International Escapologists Society is an online society with its own monthly newsletter that is dedicated to the art of escape on an international level.\n\nEscape Masters (The International Association of Escape Artists) was formed in 1985 by renowned escape artist Norman Bigelow and has been run by Thomas Blacke as International President of the organization and Editor\/Publisher of the magazine since 2001.  This newsletter ceased publication with the passing of Mr. Blacke in 2019.\n\nFounded in February 2021, Global Escapology Organisation (GEO) is an elite group of Escapologists and subject experts from around the world.\n\nForms of escape performance\nHidden is a style of escape performance popularised by the late Harry Houdini that involved much of the performance taking place behind some form of screen or inside a cabinet in order to protect the secrets of the performer. This style of escape performance was popular with the majority of escape artists until the end of the 20th Century and is still preferred by many performers today. Its disadvantage is that audiences may wrongly believe a concealed assistant to have released the escapologist, whom they may not have seen struggle.\nFull View is a form of escape performance that was popularised by Norman Bigelow Sr. during the 1970s. He presented his escapes as pure tests of human skill and endurance and the audience could actually see everything from start to finish. His signature escape, \"The Doors of Death,\" inspired many escape artists to adopt this style of performance in their own shows.  One performer, Jonathon Bryce, took the full view approach to the Buried Alive escape and with the encouragement of Norman Bigelow Sr., made the world debut of Buried Alive in Full View at the Music is Art Festival in Buffalo, NY with the help of Goo Goo Dolls bassist, Robby Takac. Mark Nelson, \"The Great Markini\" also performed Full View with his Electrified Mummy Lid Torture Board Escape. \nEscape or Die, the form of escape performance originated by Houdini, is the standard for top-of-the-line escapologists. There are at least three possible ways for an escapologist's life to be at risk from the possible failure of this escape. These are death by drowning, as in the water escapes Houdini pioneered; death by suffocation, as in escapes from airtight enclosures containing no water, such as coffins; and death by falling, as also originated by Houdini, in a straitjacket escape hanging high above the earth as when Houdini hung from cranes and buildings upside down in a strait jacket where falling would mean certain death. UK escape artist Alan Alan took this further by hanging from a burning rope hundreds of feet in the air. This type of escapology does fail, and its failures have resulted in escape artists getting hurt or losing their lives.  Others who have done this type of escape include Dorothy Dietrich, Antony Britton, Jonathon Bryce, and Mark Nelson \"Markini The Worlds Youngest Professional Escape Artist\" highlighted death by electrocution with his \"Electrified Mummy Lid Torture Board\". Escape was required in under 60 seconds or a fatal charge of electricity would be passed through the chains holding him to the board.\n\nWorld Records\nIn 2012, Lucas Wilson, an illusionist from Canada managed the fastest ever recorded escape from a straitjacket while suspended; he escaped in 8.4 seconds while hanging upside down from his ankles at a height of 1m.\n\nIn fiction \nThe Grim Game, a 1919 film, stars Harry Houdini as a young man who is bound and imprisoned on numerous occasions by a gang who have kidnapped his fianc\u00e9e. Considered by many as Houdini's best film. Lost for over 90 years and rediscovered in 2015 by escape artist and magician Dorothy Dietrich.\nHaldane of the Secret Service, a 1924 film directed by and starring Harry Houdini, who is repeatedly restrained by villains who murdered his detective-father. Filmed at Beaver Kill Falls in Valatie, NY.\nThe novel The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay, written by Michael Chabon and winner of the 2001 Pulitzer Prize, features escapology as an important plot point.\nRagtime, by E.L. Doctorow, features Harry Houdini as a major character, and uses escapology as a metaphor for the struggles faced by the American immigrant.\nIn American superhero comic books, many superheroes like Batman are trained in escapology, which is invaluable when dealing with deathtraps. However,  superheroes who are escapologists by profession include Mister Miracle, Ms. Liberty and The Escapist. (Mister Miracle and The Escapist were both based on escapologist-turned-comic artist Jim Steranko.) Houdini himself appeared as a time\/space traveler in the comic book series Daring Escapes featuring Houdini.\nThe 1953 biographical film, Houdini, starring Tony Curtis in the title role, depicted many of Houdini's escapology performances.  Curtis' performance artist character, The Great Leslie, also performs a suspended straight-jacket escape at the start of the film The Great Race.\nIn 1971, Christopher George played an escape artist named Cameron Steele in the TV movie\/unsold series pilot, Escape. Steele was a non-performing escapologist and night-club owner who, like Bill Bixby's Anthony Blake (The Magician), habitually helped people in trouble.\nIn 1982, Griffin O'Neal played a junior escapologist named Danny Masters in the film, The Escape Artist.\nIn 1983, real-life escape artist Bill Shirk played himself in a film called The Escapist.\nYorick, the main character of the comic book Y: The Last Man, is an escape artist.\nIn the 1991 film, The Linguini Incident, Rosanna Arquette plays an aspiring escape artist.\nThe novels Specific Gravity and Ontario Lacus by J. Matthew Neal (2007 and 2008) features a scientist who is also a master escape artist.\nPaul Adam's Escape from Shadow Island, first published in 2009, features young escapologist Max Cassidy. Two further books in the series, Jaws of Death and Dead Man's Bay, will be released in April 2011 and 2012 respectively.\n Houdini himself - or rather his ghost - appeared in an episode of The Real Ghostbusters; not having lost his touch, the protagonists' ghost traps could not hold him for more than a minute. \nAdam Phillips's essay \"Houdini's Box\" uses Houdini himself, as well as a young victim of sexual abuse and other examples, to discuss escapology.\nThe console video game Exit focuses around the exploits of the self-proclaimed escapologist known as Mr. ESC.\nThe 2006 movie The Prestige deals with two magicians who employ increasingly difficult escape illusions in a competitive one-upmanship, with tragic results.\nIn the 2013 film, Now You See Me, Isla Fisher plays an escape artist named Henley Reeves. In an interview, she says, \"I watched all of Houdini's work and Dorothy Dietrich, who is a female escapologist, who is amazing, you have to watch her.\" \"I got to train with Dorothy Dietrich, the first lady magician to catch a bullet with her teeth.\" Fisher studied the life and work of Dietrich to prepare for the role. \"Dorothy is a real female escapologist who is working today. She was the first woman to capture a bullet between her teeth, which is an amazing feat. She's not only good at misdirection, but she also connects emotionally with the audience, so she's better able to involve them in the stunts.\"\n\nList of notable escape artists\n\n Harry Houdini\n David Copperfield\n Doc Cunningham\n Alan Alan\n Antony Britton\n Dean Gunnarson\n Frank Reno\n James Randi\n Norman Bigelow\n David Merlini\n Bill Shirk\n Dorothy Dietrich\n Criss Angel\n Michael Griffin\n Kristen Johnson\n Jonathan Goodwin\n Roslyn Walker\n Major Zamora\n Gopinath Muthukad\n Johnny Strange\n\nSee also\n Illusionist\n List of magicians\n Stunt performer\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Houdini Museum Tour * Magic Show\n Escapology \u2014 the magic art of escape\n Busker Central - Rare and historic videos of Escapologists.\n\n \nMagic (illusion)\nMagic tricks\nPhysical restraint\n\nde:Fesselung (physisch)#Entfesselungskunst","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":41,"dup_details":{"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2020-10":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":2,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":3}},"id":83893,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Escapology","title":"Escapology","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Shelf life is length of time that food can be stored safely.  Food cannot be kept forever. After a certain time it will go bad.  After this time it is no longer safe to eat it.  Shelf life is also used for drugs, drinks and other things that can go bad.\n\nIn some countries, a best before, use by or freshness date must be put on packaged foods.\n\nDuring this time, if the food is kept under proper conditions the quality of the food does not change.  Frozen food that does not remain frozen will go bad earlier, for example.  Most of these labels do not guarantee the safety of food.  They should only be used as a guide.\n\nShelf life \nShelf life is different from expiration date.  Shelf life is linked to food quality, expiration date to food safety.  A product that has passed its shelf life might still be safe, but quality is no longer guaranteed.  In most food stores, shelf life is controlled by using stock rotation.  This means moving products with the earliest sell by date to the front of the shelf, so that most shoppers will pick them up first and take them out of the store.  This is important, as stores can be fined for selling out of date products.  Most shops, if not all, will have to mark such products down as wasted, leading to a loss of profit.\n\nShelf life is can be changed by many things: exposure to light and heat, transmission of gases (including humidity), mechanical stresses, and contamination by things such as micro-organisms.\n\nMathematically, product quality is often modelled using only one parameter, for example the concetration of a chemical substance, a microbiological index, or a physical parameter. Sometimes, the parameter picked is irrelevant.\n\nThe shelf life is an important factor to health. Bacteria are everywhere, and foods left unused too long will often get large amounts of bacterial living in them. It may be dangerous to eat them and lead to food poisoning. The shelf life itself cannot always be trusted to tell how safe it is to eat a certain item of food. For example, pasteurized milk can remain fresh for five days after its sell-by date if it is refrigerated properly. In contrast, if milk already has harmful bacteria, the use-by dates do not matter.\n\nFor drugs the situation is different. If drugs are used within the expiration date, the manufacturer guarantees that they work as expected. After that date, they may still work, but only to a lesser extent. A rare exception is a case of renal tubular damage said to have been caused by out of date tetracycline. A study done by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration covered over 100 drugs, prescription and over-the-counter. The results showed that about 90% of them were safe and effective as far as 15 years past their expiration date. Joel Davis, a former FDA expiration-date compliance chief, said that with a handful of exceptions - notably nitroglycerin, insulin and some liquid antibiotics - most expired drugs are probably effective.\n\nPreservatives and antioxidants may be put into some food and drug products to make their shelf life longer. Some companies use induction sealing and vacuum pouches to add to the shelf life of their products.\n\nSome degradation factors can be controlled by provisions in the ed packaging. For example, the amber bottle used for many beers blocks damaging wavelengths of light. Transparent beer bottles do not. Packaging with barrier materials (e.g., (low moisture vapor transmission rate, etc.) extends the shelf life of some foods and pharmaceuticals.\n\nTemperature control\nNearly all chemical reactions will occur (at various rates depending on the individual nature of the reaction) at common temperatures. Examples are the breakdown of many chemical explosives into more unstable compounds. Nitroglycerine is notorious. Old explosives are thus more dangerous (i.e., liable to be triggered to explode by very small disturbances, even trivial jiggling) than more recently manufactured explosives. Rubber products also degrade as sulphur bonds induced during vulcanization revert; this is why old rubber bands and other rubber products soften and get sticky as they age.\n\nThese breakdown processes usually happen more quickly at higher temperatures. The usually quoted rule of thumb is that chemical reactions double their rate for each temperature increase of 10 Celsius degrees (C\u00b0) because of activation energy barriers become more easily surmounted at higher temperatures. However, as with all rules of thumb, there are many caveats and assumptions. This particular one is most applicable to reactions with activation energy values around 50\u00a0kJ\/mole; many of these are important at the usual temperatures we encounter. It is often applied in shelf life estimation, sometimes wrongly. There is a widespread impression. for instance in industry, that \"triple time\" can be simulated in practice by increasing the temperature by 15\u00a0C\u00b0, e.g. storing a product for one month at 35\u00a0\u00b0C simulates three months at 20\u00a0\u00b0C. There is enough variation that this practical rule cannot be routinely relied upon .\n\nThe same is true, to a point, of the chemical reactions of life. They are usually enzymatically catalyzed which changes reaction rates, but with constant catalytic action, the rule of thumb is still mostly applicable. In the particular case of bacteria and fungi, the reactions needed to feed and reproduce increase at higher temperatures, up to the point that the proteins and other compounds in their cells themselves begin to breakdown, or denature,  so quickly that they cannot be replaced. This is the reason high temperatures kill bacteria and other micro organisms; 'tissue' breakdown reactions reach such rates that they cannot be compensated for and the cell dies. On the other hand, 'elevated' temperatures short of these result in increased growth and reproduction; if the organism is harmful, perhaps to dangerous levels.\n\nJust as temperature increase speeds up reactions, temperature decreases reduce them. Therefore, to make explosives stable for longer periods, or to keep rubber bands springy, or to force bacteria to slow down their growth, they can be cooled. This is the reason shelf life is generally extended by temperature control: (refrigeration, insulated shipping containers, controlled cold chain, etc.)  and the reason some medicines and foods must be refrigerated.\n\nBest before\nBest before is sometimes put on food and drink wrappers, followed by a date. It shows the date before which the supplier intended the food should be consumed. The term best before is also used to show the date by which the item will have outlived its shelf life, and is intended to ensure that customers will not unwittingly purchase or eat stale food. Sometimes the packaging process involves using pre-printed labels, making it impractical to write the best before date in a clearly visible location. In this case, a  term like best before see bottom or best before see lid might be printed on the label and the date marked in a different location as indicated.\n\nBest Before is usually advisory and refers to the quality of the product, in contrast with Use By which indicates that the product is no longer safe to eat after the specified date.\n\nUse by\nGenerally, foods that have a use by date written on the packaging must not be eaten after it has expired. This is because such foods usually go bad quickly and may be dangerous to eat. It is also important to follow storage instructions carefully for these foods (for example, product must be refrigerated).\n\nFoods that have a best before date are usually safe to eat after the date has passed, although they are likely to have deteriorated either in flavour, texture, appearance or nutrition.\n\nBathroom products\/toiletries usually state a time in months by which,  once the product is opened, they should be used. This is often indicated by a graphic of an open tub, with the number of months written inside (e.g., \"12M\" means use the product within 12 months of opening).\n\nOpen dating\nOpen Dating is the use of a date or code stamped on the package of a food product to help determine how long to display the product for sale. It is also helpful to the customer and ensures that the product is at its best quality when bought. An Open Date does not supersede a Use by date, which should still be followed.\n\nSell by \/ Display until\nThese dates are meant to help keep track of the stock in stores. Food that has passed its sell by or display until date, but is still within its use by \/ best before can still be eaten, if it has been stored correctly. It is common practice in large stores to throw away such food, as it makes the stock control process easier. It also reduces the risk of customers buying food without looking at the date, only to find out the next day that they cannot use it. Changing the posted date is illegal in many countries.\n\nMost stores will rotate stock by moving the products with the earliest dates to the front of shelving units, which allows them to be sold first and saving them from having to be either marked down or thrown away, both of which contribute to a loss of profit.\n\nMark-downs\nIt is also common for food approaching the use by date to be marked down for quick sale, with greater reductions the closer to the use by date it gets.\n\nSoftware Shelf Life\nIn a metaphorical sense, much software also has a shelf life. Most software products are released to market with defects, xecurity vulnerabilities, and design flaws. Over time, some of these are discovered and patches issued by the vendor (and possibly others, as in the open source environment) which fix bugs and add functionality. The result is that, after some time, the software application is rather different than it was at first release, even with the same version level. Since correct inclusion of patches at end user sites is spotty, the actual population of that software application in the field is quite varied; some will have patches 1 and 2, others 1, 2, and 3, some others none, in  all possible variations. This increases support difficulty. There have been a few attempts to address this. One commercial attempt is from Preemptive.\n\nUS Government Guidelines\nThe Food & Drug Administration, which controls packaged foods and drugs, only requires a use-by, or expiration, date on infant formula and some baby foods. That's because formula must contain a certain quantity of each nutrient that is described on the label. And if formula is stored too long, it loses its nutritional quality. It also separates or form lumps that will clog the bottle nipple. Except for infant formula and some baby foods, product dating is not required by federal regulations.\n\nThe Agriculture Dept., which controls fresh produce and meats, only requires labeling of the date when poultry is packed at the farm. However, many manufacturers are allowed to also add sell-by or use-by dates.\n\nExample\n\nBeer freshness date\nA freshness date is the date used in the American brewing industry to indicate either the date the beer was bottled or the date before which the beer should be consumed.\n\nBeer is does not keep forever. It can be affected by light, air, or the action of bacteria.  Although beer in the USA does not have to have a shelf life, freshness dates serve much the same purpose and are a marketing tool.\n\nBeginnings of freshness dating \nThe Boston Beer Company, maker of Samuel Adams, was among the first to start adding freshness dates to their product line in 1985. For ten years there was a slow growth in  brewers adding freshness dates to their beer. The practice rapidly grew in popularity after the Anheuser-Busch company's heavily marketed \"Born-On dates\" starting in 1996. Many other brewers have started adding freshness dates to their products, but there is no standard for what the date means.  For some companies, the date on the bottle or can will be the date that the beer was bottled; others have the date by which the beer should be consumed.\n\nBeer processing \n\nBefore a beer is bottled, it is processed to make its shelf life longer. This can change the beer's freshness date. It may be done in several ways, not all of which will be used by a particular brewery:\n\nPasteurisation is a how a liquid is heated for a brief time to kill microbes that may be in the liquid. Pasteurisation has also been used for many years to keep milk safe for drinking due to bacteria that may be present.\nSterile filtration, in which the beer is passed through a mechanical filtration system which removes anything larger than 0.5 micrometres.  This removes any yeast or hops that may still be in the beer which would continue to react with it.\nBottle conditioning allows yeasts to remain in the beer after it is bottled.  This helps prevent some oxidation of the beer.\nFreshness longevity affects the time it takes a beer to become stale. Some of this depends on the type of beer ingredients included. If the beer has more hops and more alcohol than otherwise, it will stay fresh longer than those that are not as strong.\n\nOther websites \nUSDA - Food Product Dating and storage guidelines \nFDA - Food freshness and smart packaging \nHow to store your food\n\nReferences\n\n Labuza, T. P., and Szybist, L., \"Open dating of Foods\". 2001, Food and Nutrition Press, Trumbul CN \n \"Cold Chain Management\", 2003, 2006,  \n \"Freshness and Shelf Life of Foods\", Hugo Weenen and Keith Cadwallader,  \n \"Shelf-Life Evaluation of Foods\", by C. M. Man, A. A. Jones,  \n \"Stability and Shelf Life of Food\", by David Kilcast, Persis Subramaniam \nFood preservation","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"unknown":5}},"id":129219,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shelf%20life","title":"Shelf life","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Shiyali Ramamrita Ranganathan ( 9 August 1892\u00a0\u2013 27 September 1972) was a librarian and mathematician from India. His most notable contributions to the field were his five laws of library science and the development of the first major faceted classification system, the colon classification. He is considered to be the father of library science, documentation, and information science in India and is widely known throughout the rest of the world for his fundamental thinking in the field. His birthday is observed every year as the National Librarian Day in India.\n\nHe was a university librarian and professor of library science at Banaras Hindu University (1945\u201347) and professor of library science at the University of Delhi (1947\u201355). The last appointment made him director of the first Indian school of librarianship to offer higher degrees. He was president of the Indian Library Association from 1944 to 1953. In 1957 he was elected an honorary member of the International Federation for Information and Documentation (FID) and was made a vice-president for life of the Library Association of Great Britain.\n\nEarly life and education\nRanganathan was born on 9 August 1892 in Siyali, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu in an orthodox Hindu Brahmin family. His birth date is also written 12 August 1892 but he himself wrote his birth date 9 August 1892 in his book,  The Five Laws of Library Science.\n\nRanganathan began his professional life as a mathematician; he earned B.A. and M.A. degrees in mathematics from Madras Christian College in his home province, and then went on to earn a teaching license. His lifelong goal was to teach mathematics, and he was successively a member of the mathematics faculties at universities in Mangalore, Coimbatore and Madras. As a mathematics professor, he published papers mainly on the history of mathematics. His career as an educator was somewhat hindered by stammering (a difficulty he gradually overcame in his professional life). The Government of India awarded Padmashri to Dr. S.R. Ranganathan in 1957 for valuable contributions to Library Science.\n\nEarly career\n\nIn 1923, the University of Madras created the post of University Librarian to oversee their poorly organized collection. Among the 900 applicants for the position, none had any formal training in librarianship, and Ranganathan's handful of papers satisfied the search committee's requirement that the candidate should have a research background. His sole knowledge of librarianship came from an Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica article he read days before the interview. Ranganathan was initially reluctant to pursue the position (he had forgotten about his application by the time he was called for an interview there). To his own surprise, he received the appointment and accepted the position in January 1924.\n\nAt first, Ranganathan found the solitude of the position was intolerable. In a matter of weeks, complaining of total boredom, he went back to the university administration to beg for his teaching position back. A deal was struck that Ranganathan would travel to London to study contemporary Western practices in librarianship, and that, if he returned and still rejected librarianship as a career, the mathematics lectureship would be his again.\n\nRanganathan travelled to University College London, which at that time housed the only graduate degree program in library science in Britain. At University College, he earned marks only slightly above average, but his mathematical genius latched onto the problem of classification, a subject typically taught by rote in library programs of the time. As an outsider, he focused on what he perceived to be flaws with the popular decimal classification, and began to explore new possibilities on his own.\n\nHe also devised the Acknowledgment of Duplication, which states that any system of classification of information necessarily implies at least two different classifications for any given datum. He anecdotally proved this with the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) by taking several books and showing how each might be classified with two totally different resultant DDC numbers. For example, a book on \"warfare in India\" could be classified under \"warfare\" or \"India\". Even a general book on warfare could be classified under \"warfare\", \"history\", \"social organisation\", \"Indian essays\", or many other headings, depending upon the viewpoint, needs, and prejudices of the classifier. To Ranganathan, a structured, step-by-step system acknowledging each facet of the topic of the work was immensely preferable to the anarchy and \"intellectual laziness\" (as he termed it) of the DDC. Given the poor technology for information retrieval available at that time, the implementation of this concept was a tremendous step forwards for the science of information retrieval.\n\nHe began drafting the system that was ultimately to become colon classification while in England, and refined it as he returned home, even going so far as to reorder the ship's library on the voyage back to India. He initially got the idea for the system from seeing a set of Meccano in a toy store in London. Ranganathan returned with great interest for libraries and librarianship and a vision of its importance for the Indian nation. The system remains useful even into the modern times. He returned to and held the position of University Librarian at the University of Madras for twenty years. During that time, he helped to found the Madras Library Association, and lobbied actively for the establishment of free public libraries throughout India and for the creation of a comprehensive national library.  \n\nRanganathan was considered by many to be a workaholic. During his two decades in Madras, he consistently worked 13-hour days, seven days a week, without taking a vacation for the entire time. Although he married in November 1928, he returned to work the afternoon following the marriage ceremony. A few years later, he and his wife Sarada had a son. The couple remained married until Ranganathan's death.\n\nThe first few years of Ranganathan's tenure at Madras were years of deliberation and analysis as he addressed the problems of library administration and classification. It was during this period that he produced what have come to be known as his two greatest legacies: his five laws of library science (1931) and the colon classification system (1933).\n\nRegarding the political climate at the time, Ranganathan took his position at the University of Madras in 1924. Gandhi had been imprisoned in 1922 and was released around the time that Ranganathan was taking that job. Ranganathan sought to institute massive changes to the library system and to write about such things as open access and education for all which essentially had the potential to enable the masses and encourage civil discourse (and disobedience). Although there is no evidence that Ranganathan did any of this for political reasons, his changes to the library had the result of educating more people, making information available to all, and even aiding women and minorities in the information-seeking process.\n\nThe Northern Ireland crisis got an unexpected metaphorical reference in a book by S. R. Ranganathan, as \"making an Ulster of the ... law of parsimony\", complaining about the harmful effects of low budget on the good functioning of a library.\n\nLater career\n\nAfter two decades of serving as librarian at Madras\u00a0\u2013 a post he had intended to keep until his retirement\u00a0\u2013, Ranganathan retired from his position after conflicts with a new university vice-chancellor became intolerable. At the age of 54, he submitted his resignation and, after a brief bout with depression, accepted a professorship in library science at Banaras Hindu University in Varanasi, his last formal academic position, in August 1945. There, he catalogued the university's collection; by the time he left four years later, he had classified over 100,000 items personally.\n\nRanganathan headed the Indian Library Association from 1944 to 1953, but was never a particularly adept administrator, and left amid controversy when the Delhi Public Library chose to use the Dewey Decimal Classification system instead of his own Colon Classification. He held an honorary professorship at Delhi University from 1949 to 1955 and helped build that institution's library science programs with S. Dasgupta, a former student of his. While at Delhi, Ranganathan drafted a comprehensive 30-year plan for the development of an advanced library system for the whole of India. In 1951, Ranganathan released an album on Folkways Records entitled, Readings from the Ramayana: In Sanskrit Bhagavad Gita.\n\nRanganathan briefly moved to the Zurich, Switzerland, from 1955 to 1957, when his son married a European woman; the unorthodox relationship did not sit well with Ranganathan, although his time in Zurich allowed him to expand his contacts within the European library community, where he gained a significant following. However, he soon returned to India and settled in the city of Bangalore, where he spent the rest of his life. While in Zurich, though, he endowed a professorship at Madras University in honour of his wife of thirty years, largely as an ironic gesture in retaliation for the persecution he suffered for many years at the hands of that university's administration.\n\nRanganathan's final major achievement was the establishment of the Documentation Research and Training Centre as a department and research centre in the Indian Statistical Institute in Bangalore in 1962, where he served as honorary director for five years. In 1965, the Indian government honoured him for his contributions to the field with a rare title of \"National Research Professor.\"\n\nIn the final years of his life, Ranganathan suffered from ill health and was largely confined to his bed. On 27 September 1972, he finally succumbed to complications from bronchitis.\n\nUpon the 1992 centenary of his birth, several biographical volumes and collections of essays on Ranganathan's influence were published in his honour. Ranganathan's autobiography, published serially during his life, is titled A Librarian Looks Back.\n\nInfluence and legacy\nRanganathan dedicated his book The Five Laws of Library Science to his maths tutor at Madras Christian College, Edward Burns Ross. His birthday, August 12, has been denoted National Librarians' Day in India.\n\nSee also\n Colon classification\n Faceted classification\n Five laws of library science\n Madras Public Libraries Act\n Subject (documents)\n\nReferences\n\nCited sources\n Srivastava, A. P. (1977). Ranganathan: A pattern maker. New Delhi: Metropolitan Book Co.\n\nExternal links\n\n Portal on Dr. S R Ranganathan from India\n Ranganathan for Information Architects by Mike Steckel\n Ranganathan's Monologue on Melvil Dewey, Recorded 1964\u00a0\u2013 transcript\n India's First IT Guru\n S.R. Ranganathan (1892\u20131972): Google Scholar Profile\n Ranganathan- Profile in Brief\n Full-view works by S.R. Ranganathan at HathiTrust Digital Library.\n\n1892 births\n1972 deaths\n20th-century Indian mathematicians\nAcademic librarians\nIndian librarians\nLibrarianship and human rights\nLibrary science scholars\nPeople from Mayiladuthurai district\nRecipients of the Padma Shri in literature & education\nScientists from Tamil Nadu\nUniversity of Madras alumni","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":44,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"unknown":35,"2023-50":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":3,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":1}},"id":316603,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S.%20R.%20Ranganathan","title":"S. R. Ranganathan","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"I Love You, California () \u2014 \u041a\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b\u043d\u044b\u04a3 \u0440\u0435\u0441\u043c\u0438 \u04d9\u043d\u0456. \u04d8\u043d\u043d\u0456\u04a3 \u0441\u04e9\u0437\u0456\u043d \u0436\u0430\u0437\u0493\u0430\u043d \u2014 \u041b\u043e\u0441 \u0410\u043d\u0436\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0441 \u0442\u04b1\u0440\u0493\u044b\u043d\u044b, \u0442\u0456\u0433\u0456\u043d\u0448\u0456 \u0424\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0441\u0438\u0441 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0434 \u0421\u0438\u043b\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0443\u0434 (1863\u20141924). \u041a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u043e\u0437\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b \u2014 \u0410\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0445\u0430\u043c \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043a\u043b\u0438\u043d \u0424\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0435\u043d\u0448\u0442\u0435\u0439\u043d (1873\u20141934).\n\n\u04d8\u043d\u043d\u0456\u04a3 \u0441\u04e9\u0437\u0456 (\u0430\u0493\u044b\u043b.) \nI Love You, California\n\n   I \u0448\u0443\u043c\u0430\u049b:\n   I love you, California, you're the greatest state of all.\n   I love you in the winter, summer, spring and in the fall.\n   I love your fertile valleys; your dear mountains I adore.\n   I love your grand old ocean and I love her rugged shore.\n\n   \u049a\u0430\u0439\u044b\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0441\u044b:\n   Where the snow crowned Golden Sierras\n   Keep their watch o'er the valleys bloom,\n   It is there I would be in our land by the sea,\n   Every breeze bearing rich perfume.\n   It is here nature gives of her rarest. It is Home Sweet Home to me,\n   And I know when I die I shall breathe my last sigh\n   For my sunny California.\n\n   II \u0448\u0443\u043c\u0430\u049b:\n   I love your red-wood forests - love your fields of yellow grain.\n   I love your summer breezes and I love your winter rain.\n   I love you, land of flowers; land of honey, fruit and wine.\n   I love you, California; you have won this heart of mine.\n\n   III \u0448\u0443\u043c\u0430\u049b:\n   I love your old gray Missions - love your vineyards stretching far.\n   I love you, California, with your Golden Gate ajar.\n   I love your purple sun-sets, love your skies of azure blue.\n   I love you, California; I just can't help loving you.\n\n   IV \u0448\u0443\u043c\u0430\u049b:\n   I love you, Catalina, you are very dear to me.\n   I love you, Tamalpais, and I love Yosemite.\n   I love you, Land of Sunshine, Half your beauties are untold.\n   I loved you in my childhood, and I'll love you when I'm old.\n\n\u04d8\u043d\u04b1\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430\u0440","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":160,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":6,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":5,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":4,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":492184,"url":"https:\/\/kk.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I%20Love%20You%2C%20California","title":"I Love You, California","language":"kk"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Baltic Sea is a sea in northern Europe between Scandinavia, Finland, Russia, the Baltic countries, Poland, and Germany.\n\nMany big rivers in the surrounding countries drain into the Baltic Sea. The Baltic Sea is connected to the ocean through the narrow and shallow Danish straits and belts. For this reason, the water has a low amount of salt, so the northern parts of the sea freeze over in the winter. The ice can carry cars, and roads are established every winter between the islands in the archipelagos between Sweden and Finland.\n\nFor several thousand years, the Baltic Sea has connected the countries at her shores. For that reason there are many cultural similarities in these countries. Since all of these countries are European, this sea is also considered European.\n\nOther websites\n\nBaltic Sea\nBaltic states","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":9140,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Baltic%20Sea","title":"Baltic Sea","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"R\u00f6yksopp is an electronica musical group from Troms\u00f8, Norway that formed in 1998. They are currently based in Bergen. The members are Svein Berge and\nTorbj\u00f8rn Brundtland. They won an award for best music video in 2002 by MTV Europe for their song, \"Remind Me\". They have released four studio albums and one EP. \n\nBerge and Brundtland formed a band with Kolbj\u00f8rn Lyslo and Gaute Barlindhaug called Aedena Cycle. They released a vinyl EP called Traveler's Dreams under Apollo Records in 1994. After this they left to form R\u00f6yksopp. Their first single \"So Easy\" was released by Tell\u00e9. It was used in a T-mobile advert in the UK. \n\nBrundtland was a member of Those Norwegians in 1997. \n\nThey have worked with many other musicians. They released a single called \"Running to the Sea\" and a cover version of \"Ice Machine\" by Depeche Mode from their album Late Night Tales: R\u00f6yksopp in 2013. Both songs have vocals from Susanne Sundf\u00f8r.\n\nTheir first album Melody A.M. has two songs with Erlend \u00d8ye, \"Poor Leno\" and \"Remind Me\".\n\n'R\u00f8yksopp' is a Norwegian word that means puffball fungus. They have collaboration with the singer, Robyn.\n\nReferences \nhttp:\/\/www.metrolyrics.com\/royksopp-awards-featured.html \n\nMusical groups from Bergen\nMusical groups established in 1998\n1998 establishments in Europe\n1990s establishments in Norway","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2}},"id":192264,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R%C3%B6yksopp","title":"R\u00f6yksopp","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A watch is a small clock carried or worn by a person. It makes it easy to see the time. It is also a fashion accessory for men and women, and expensive watches are designed for this purpose. A watch may be one of the few accessories worn by a person.\n\nA wristwatch is designed to be worn on a wrist, attached by a strap or other type of bracelet. A pocket watch is to be carried in a pocket. There are other variations. Nurses often wear a watch attached to the front of their uniform. It hangs down from a short strap: when lifted by the user it is right side up. \n\nA wrist watch has the advantage of being portable in comparison to traditional watches. \n\nWatches evolved in the 17th\u00a0century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th\u00a0century. In 1524, Peter Henlein created the first pocket watch. \nThe first watches were strictly mechanical, driven by clockwork. \n\nAs technology developed, mechanical watches were largely replaced by vibrating quartz crystals, producing accurately timed electronic pulses. Some watches use radio technology to correct the time and date. The first digital electronic watch was developed in 1970.\n\nElectronic movements, also known as quartz movements, have few or no moving parts, except a quartz crystal which is made to vibrate by the piezoelectric effect. A varying electric voltage is applied to the crystal, which responds by changing its shape so it works as an oscillator. It resonates at a stable frequency, which paces a timekeeping mechanism. Most quartz movements are primarily electronic but are geared to drive mechanical hands on the face of the watch to give a traditional analog display of the time. Most consumers prefer this.\n\nSome watches are smartwatches, mobile devices similar to smartphones but smaller.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2}},"id":14975,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watch","title":"Watch","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Ae million (1,000,000), or ae thoosand thoosand, is the naitural nummer efter 999,999 an afore 1,000,001. In scienteefic notation, it's written as 106.\n\nThe million is whiles uised as a metaphor for a gey muckle nummer, as in \"Ne'er in a million year\", or a hyperbole, as in \"A'v walked a million mile\". Hence, a \"millionaire\" can mean juist a rich bodie, nae maiter the actual siller or the exact quantity. Il Milione is the teetle o Marco Polo's narration o his traivels tae Cheenae. The name is jaloused tae come frae Polo's byname efter his tales o riches an multitudes.\n\nThe wird \"million\" is common tae the dock scale an lang scale nummerin seestems (an tae the proposed Rowlett nummerin seestem forby), no like the muckler nummers that haes differin names in the twa seestems.\n\nThe name is derived frae Italian, whaur milla wis 1,000, an 1,000,000 becam millione, \"a lairge thoosand\".\n\nMathematics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":2123,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Million","title":"Million","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A castrato (plural castrati) was a type of male singer with a very high voice. The effect was produced either through castration, or because of some hormonal problems. The word castrato literally means castrated. Such singers were very sought after in the early days of the opera. Most of the main soprano roles in operas by Handel and other composers of that time were written for castrati. Nowadays they are almost always sung by female sopranos, since there are no castrati left.\n\nThe practice of castrating young boys who had good singing voices was quite common in Italy in the 17th century. When castration is done before puberty, the usual effects of puberty will not happen. These include the vocal cords enlarging and growing bigger, and the voice getting deeper as a consequence. \n\nEven though castration was illegal in many parts of Italy, it was often performed. Many families who were poor had their children castrated because it might give them a better future. \n\nOnce a boy was castrated he would go to a special music school where children learned singing and musical instruments. The castrati pupils were given special treatment. They were fussed over and kept warm to stop them from getting colds. When they grew up they hoped to become famous opera singers. A few of them had very successful careers in opera. They were the great stars of their day, and audiences came to the opera to cheer on their favourite singers. Those who were not good enough to make a career in opera joined church choirs instead.\n\nIt is impossible now for us to know what these great castrato voices sounded like, but they must have had very powerful voices and many of the singers were very skilled in singing and adding musical ornamentation to the songs. In the 18th century Italian opera became very popular in England. This was largely due to the German-born composer Georg Friderich H\u00e4ndel who moved to England in 1709 and wrote lots of Italian operas. Many singers who sang in London came from Italy, and many were castrati. The most famous one was called Farinelli. \n\nThe popularity of castrato singers died out in the 19th century. By the mid-19th century they were no opera castrati left, although a few castrati still sang in church choirs. The last one, a man called Alessandro Moreschi, died in 1922 aged 64. There is a recording of his voice made in 1902 which can be heard online, but he may not have been a good singer and he was old when he made the recording, so we cannot judge whether the castrato voice was beautiful by that recording.\n\nRelated pages\n Breeches role\n\nOther websites \n Alessandro Moreschi at Internet Archive\n\nVocal ranges","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":34141,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Castrato","title":"Castrato","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Jules Massenet (born Montaud nr. Saint-\u00c9tienne, 12 May 1842; died Paris, 13 August 1912) was a French composer. He is most famous for his operas, although he wrote a large amount of other music as well.\n\nHis life\n\nEarly years \n\nJules' father had a business making agricultural tools. His mother gave him his first piano lessons. In 1847 his father retired and the family moved to Paris. When he was ten years old he went to the Paris Conservatoire for piano and solf\u00e8ge studies. Over a period of ten years he studied there, gaining many prizes. He was taught composition by Ambroise Thomas who was an excellent music teacher.\n\nJules earned enough money to keep himself by giving piano lessons. He also played timpani in the orchestra of the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Lyrique. This helped him to get a good knowledge of French composers such as Gounod (especially his Faust) as well as music by Gluck, Mozart and Beethoven. He was also very keen on the music of Berlioz and Wagner.\n\nIn 1863 he won the Prix de Rome (it was his second attempt). This allowed him to spend two years in Italy. During this time he travelled a lot but hardly composed anything.\n\nEarly career \n\nIn 1866 he returned to Paris where he married. He gave piano lessons. At this stage he had hardly written anything important. However, soon he was to start writing many famous works. He became friends with other composers: Saint-Sa\u00ebns, Bizet, Delibes, Lalo, Faur\u00e9, Duparc and others. Several of these people competed in writing operas for competitions. Massenet wrote several works, but he found writing operas difficult. His operas never won any prizes.\n\nYears of fame \n\nIn 1870 he served in the National Guard during the Franco-Prussian war. After the war he continued to compose, and he became professor of composition at the Conservatoire. He spent many years working on an opera Le Roi de Lahore. This was a great success and helped him to become internationally famous. For many years he spent the winter in Paris and the summer in various places in the country where he could compose. His pupils at the Conservatoire included Piern\u00e9, Koechlin, Hahn, Enesco. In 1884 his opera Manon was produced at the Op\u00e9ra-comique. This made him clearly the most famous opera composer of his time. It was an op\u00e9ra-comique with some speech over the music. During the next 28 years he composed another 20 operas. Another opera that was particularly famous was Werther. It was first performed in 1892 in Vienna and a year later in Paris. It was soon being performed in all the big European opera houses.\n\nSome of his greatest operatic roles were written for the young American soprano Sybil Sanderson. This includes the main role in his popular opera Tha\u00efs. The story is set in Egypt and is about a monk who tries to persuade Tha\u00efs to give up her life as a prostitute. However, he soon finds he is falling in love with her himself. This mixture of religion and salvation became an extremely popular subject for operas at that time. The M\u00e9ditation from Tha\u00efs is a short piece for violin solo. It is one of the best-loved of all Romantic violin solos.\n\nHe continued to compose lots of music even when his health was failing during his last years. He was a quiet, family man who hated it when people made a fuss about him. He liked best to spend his evenings quietly at home, or in the countryside during the summer. He continued to compose in a Romantic style to the end of his life, even though many composers around him (e.g. Debussy) were writing music which was more \"modern\" sounding.\n\nRomantic composers\n20th-century French composers\n1842 births\n1912 deaths\nPeople from Saint-\u00c9tienne\u200e","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":71362,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jules%20Massenet","title":"Jules Massenet","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Politics is the way that people living in groups make decisions. \nPolitics is about making agreements between people so that they can live together in groups such as tribes, cities, or countries. In large groups, such as countries, some people may spend a lot of their time making such agreements. These people are called politicians. Politicians, and sometimes other people, may get together to form a government. The study of politics in universities is called political science, public affairs, government, political studies, or public administration.\n\nIn everyday life, the term \"politics\" refers to the way that countries are governed, and to the ways that governments make rules and laws to manage the human society properly. Politics can also be seen in other groups, such as in companies, clubs, schools, and churches.\n\nGovernment \nThe government  tries to lead the whole group. Governments do things such as:\n Decide which people get which pieces of land\n Decide which people can tell other people what to do\n Decide whether to go to war with another country\n Create money\n Build things for the use of the whole group, such as roads, hospitals, libraries, and docks.\n Educate people, either for their own good, or to teach them what the government wants them to know\n Take care of the very young, the sick, or the very old\n Manage the welfare of the country and manages the money available for spending on services (Hospitals, Schools, etc.)\n\nOne of the ways the government leads the group is by making laws and rules which tell everybody what they can and can not do. The government makes these laws so that society will be safe and well-ordered. The law that says \"you must not drive a car when you have been drinking alcohol\" stops people from drunk driving, which could kill people. The law that says \"you must wear a helmet on a motorcycle\" makes sure that people protect themselves when riding their motorcycles. \n\nThe government can also control people and what happens in a country in other ways besides making laws.\n For example, how the government spends its money makes a big difference in what people will do or what will happen to people. If the government spends a lot of money on hospitals and nurses, the people will probably become healthier.\n Also, if people like their government, or think that their government is wise, they may do something just because their government says it is a good thing to do. Governments often make posters or television advertisements that encourage people to stop smoking cigarettes or eat more fruits and vegetables.\n\nPolitics is often compared to ethics (ideas about right and wrong). Ethics is a more abstract study of right and wrong. Ethics is usually more concerned with principle than law or politics or diplomacy, so many people think ethics is not practical. But without some agreement on ethics, there is probably no way to even have a debate, laws or an election. There is always some agreement on ethics and personal conduct in a political system.\n\nPolitical parties \nIn most countries, people have formed political parties to put forward their ideas. There is usually some disagreement between people within a party, but they work together because they feel that they agree on enough things, and they will have more power if they join together. They agree to take the same position on many issues, and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties. Some examples of parties are the Liberal party, the Labor party and the Greens.\n\nHistory \nThe Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote that humans are a political animal and that ethics and politics are closely linked.\n\t\nNiccol\u00f2 Machiavelli wrote, in his 1532 book, The Prince, that politics was firstly about having and keeping power. He said that without power, a leader could do nothing.\n\nIn 1651, Thomas Hobbes wrote Leviathan, a book about politics. Hobbes wrote that people living in groups often give up some of their rights in exchange for some protections from a government. This is the basis of the social contract theory.\n\t\nIn the 1800s, John Stuart Mill developed the \"liberal\" idea of politics. Mill said that democracy is the most important political development of the 1800s. He said that there should be more protection for individual rights against the government. \n\nBernard Crick wrote a list of the political virtues, which were about best practices of politics itself.\n\nInternational politics \nThere are also disagreements between different countries. Attempts to solve the problem with meetings are called diplomacy. This is politics between nations instead of politics within nations. If the problems are not resolved by diplomatic meetings they can lead to war or terrorism.\n\nRelated pages \n Constitution\n Geopolitics\n Horseshoe Theory\n Identity politics\n Political polarization\n Political economy\n Political philosophy\n\nOther websites \n\n Politics -Citizendium","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":218,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":5,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":4,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":6,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":6,"2021-10":6,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":8,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":4,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":6,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":1,"2014-15":7}},"id":592,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Politics","title":"Politics","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Engineering is the use of science and math to design or make things.  People who do engineering are called engineers.  They learn engineering at a college or university.  Engineers usually design or build things.  Some engineers also use science, mathematics, and other skills to solve Technology problems.  There are different types of engineers that design everything from computers and buildings to watches and websites.  People have been creating and engineering things for thousands of years.  Some engineers become engineering managers.\n\nSpecialties \nEngineering is a big subject. Here are a few of the many types of engineers:\n\n Aerospace engineers design space vehicles or airplanes.\n Biomedical engineers design and work with medical equipment.\n Ceramic engineers create objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials.\n Chemical engineers use chemicals to make products like drugs and medicines or fertilizers for crops.\n Civil engineers work on roads, bridges, buildings and other public structures.\n Computer engineers design or improve computers (including embedded systems and their parts).\n Electrical engineers work with electricity and design electrical equipment, from small things like radios and computers to large things like electric power transmission systems.\n Electronic engineers work with electronics, which are used to build computer parts and electrical equipment.\n Environmental engineers design and implement ways to remediate and restore the environment.\n Manufacturing engineers design and improve the machines and assembly lines that make things.  They work with robots and automation and ways to help companies work faster and better with fewer mistakes.\n Mechanical engineers design machines or things that move, like cars and trains. A mechanical engineer also might help design electricity generating stations, oil refineries, and factories.\n Mechatronics engineers\u00a0work in multiple\u00a0fields of engineering that include mechanical engineering,\u00a0electrical engineering,\u00a0telecommunications engineering,\u00a0control engineering and\u00a0computer engineering.\n Marine engineers design, build, test and repair boats, ships, underwater craft, focusing primarily on their internal systems.\n Nanotechnology engineers study very small things, like strings of atoms and how they are put together.\n Nuclear engineers design and build nuclear plants. They also study the characteristic behaviors of certain radioactive or unstable elements.\n Structural engineers work on design and analysis of buildings and other large structures to withstand both the gravity and wind loads as well as natural disasters.\n Software engineers design and write programs for computers.\n Systems engineers look at how complicated things work and try to make them faster and smarter.\nEngineers do not only work with machines.  They also work a lot with other people. Many engineering projects are large and very complicated. Often different kinds of engineers work together and help each other. As an example, computer engineers need help from electrical engineers to build a computer. The computer needs programs written by software engineers. The computer could be used by aerospace engineers to control an airplane. An airplane is a big mechanical system with many parts, so a mechanical engineer and a systems engineer are also needed.\n\nStudy \nMost (but not all) engineers have had years of training. Much of their training involves working within a limited budget and materials.\n\nAmerican courses \nIn the United States, most engineers go to a college or university to get an engineering degree. Most people go to school for four years to get a bachelor's degree in engineering. A Master's Degree is an advanced degree, usually requiring two more years of study after the Bachelors. A person with a master's degree is eligible to enter a Doctoral program in engineering. A graduate of a Doctoral program is awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree, which is commonly called a PhD. A PhD in engineering requires three or four years of study after a master's degree, and includes the completion of a long research report called a dissertation. After having gained enough work experience, one can sit for their Professional Engineer's (PE) License, reinforcing their demonstrated proficiency in their specialty.\n\nBritish courses \nIn the United Kingdom, engineering degrees at universities are either three year BEng (Bachelor of Engineering) or four year MEng (Master of Engineering). In many universities it is common to take only one engineering discipline (e.g. aeronautical or civil engineering) although some universities have a general engineering degree. British universities may also offer Doctoral programs as a doctor of philosophy (PhD) or a doctor of engineering (EngD).  Engineers of all disciplines have common approaches to solving problems including teamwork, communication, and an Iterative  design process.\n\nEngineers can also get additional recognition in the form of becoming Chartered. A chartered engineer is one who has his degree or doctorate has been recognised by a group of professionals such as the IET (Institute of Engineering and Technology), IMechE (Institution of Mechanical Engineers), IChemE (Institution of Chemical Engineers) or ICE (Institution of Civil Engineers). Experience and responsibility enables a further step of recognition by becoming a Fellow of these institutions.\n\nFrench courses \nThe best way to become an engineer in France is to take the CPGE (Classe Pr\u00e9paratoire pour les Grandes \u00c9coles is the French class for engineer's school) for two years and then study for three years in an \"\u00c9cole d'Ing\u00e9nieur\" (Engineer's school).\nYou can also study in an IUT (Institut universitaire technologique) for two years, and then study three years in an \"\u00c9cole d'Ing\u00e9nieur\".\n\nNotes\n\nOther websites \n\n Engineering Citizendium","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":162,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":5,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":4,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":6,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":2816,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineering","title":"Engineering","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Isle of Youth () is the largest Cuban island after Cuba itself. It is the sixth-largest island in the West Indies. The island has an area of  and is  southwest of mainland Cuba. It is across the Gulf of Bataban\u00f3. The island is almost directly south of Havana and Pinar del R\u00edo. Because of its superficial extension, population and for its economic characteristics, it is considered to be a Special Municipality. It is therefore not a part of any province. The Isle of Youth is administered directly by the central government of Cuba.\n\nThe island is the  largest of the 350 in the Canarreos Archipelago (). It has an estimated population of 100,000. The capital and largest city is Nueva Gerona in the north. The second-largest and oldest city is Santa Fe in the interior. Other communities are Columbia, Mac Kinley, Santa B\u00e1rbara, Cuchilla Alta, Punta del Este, Sierra de Caballos and Sierra de Casas. The island was called the Isle of Pines () before 1978.\n\nHistory\n\nLittle is known of the pre-Columbian history of the island, though a cave complex near the Punta del Este beach preserves 235 ancient drawings made by the native population. The island first became known to Europeans during Christopher Columbus's third voyage to the New World  in 1494. Columbus named the island La Evangelista and claimed it for Spain; the island would also come to be known Isla de Cotorras (\"Isle of Parrots\") and Isla de Tesoros (\"Treasure Island\") at various points in its history.\n\nPirate activity in and around the area left its trace in English literature. Both Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson and Peter Pan by James Matthew Barrie are rooted in part on accounts of the island and its native and pirate inhabitants, as well as long dugout canoes (which were often used by pirates as well as indigenous peoples) and the great American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) on the island.\n\nFollowing the victory of the United States in the Spanish-American War, Spain dropped all claims to Cuba under the terms of the 1898 Treaty of Paris. The Isla de la Juventud was not mentioned in the Platt Amendment, which defined Cuba's boundaries, and this led to competing claims to the island by the United States and the now-independent Cuba. In 1907, the U.S. Supreme Court decided that the island did not belong to the United States. A treaty was signed between the U.S. and Cuba in 1925, recognizing Cuban ownership.\n\nGeography and economy\n\nMuch of the island is covered with pine forests. These are the source of the island's large lumber industry. The northern region of the island has low ridges from which marble is quarried. The southern region is an elevated plain. Agriculture and fishing are the island's main industries, with citrus fruit and vegetables being grown. A black sand beach was formed by volcanic activity.\n\nThe island has a mild climate, but is known for frequent hurricanes. It is a popular tourist destination, with many beaches and resorts, including Bibijagua Beach. Until the Cuban government expropriated all foreign-owned property in the early 1960s, much land was owned by Americans.\n\nTransportation\nThe main transportation to the island is by boat or aircraft. Hydrofoils (kometas) and motorized catamarans will make the trip in between two and three hours. A much slower and larger cargo ferry takes around six hours to make the crossing, but is cheaper. The province has only one municipality, also named Isla de la Juventud.\n\nPrisons\n\nFrom 1953 to 1955, Cuban leader Fidel Castro was imprisoned in the Presidio Modelo on the Isla de la Juventud by the regime of Fulgencio Batista after leading the failed July 1953 attack on the Moncada Barracks in the Oriente Province. Later, Castro used the same facility to imprison counterrevolutionaries and dissidents, such as Huber Matos (once a comandante of rebel troops supporting the Cuban Revolution but later came into conflict with Cuban government), who claims to have been tortured there , and Armando F. Valladares.\n\nPresidio Modelo is now closed, and turned into a museum. It is replaced by more modern prisons. These include (MAS = maximum security prison; COR = correctional):\nPrison El Guayabo (MAS)\nCenter for Reeducation of Minors (COR)\nCorrectional Los Colonos (COR)\nPaquito Rosales Cueto (1 y 11) (COR)\nPrison la 60 (Columbia) (COR)\n\nOther websites  \n\n \nSupreme Court decision of 1907\nSatellite view of the Isle of Youth (interactive)\nMunicipality page  (Spanish)\n\n1925 establishments in North America\n20th-century establishments in Cuba","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":51047,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Isla%20de%20la%20Juventud","title":"Isla de la Juventud","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A city hall or town hall is the headquarters of a city or town's administration and usually houses the city or town council, its associated departments and their employees. It is also usually the base of the city, town, borough or county mayor. \n\nIn North America, a hall is labeled a \"city\" or \"town\" hall depending on the size of the municipality it serves. City halls are usually found in larger cities and town halls in smaller urban areas.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong and many Commonwealth countries, \"town hall\" is the more common term. During the 1960s many of the older town halls were replaced by \"Civic centres\". The civic centre was a functional building, offices of the council only, without the art gallery or hall for cultural activities which were a feature of many of the older town halls.\n\n\"County hall\" is used for the headquarters of County council administrations.\n\nLocal government\nAdministrative buildings","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":61826,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Town%20hall","title":"Town hall","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bo Diddley (born Ellas Bates, December 30, 1928 in McComb, Mississippi, died June 2, 2008 in Archer, Florida) was an American singer, guitarist and songwriter. He was one of the original rock and roll musicians; he, along with others, created rock music.\n\nIn 1955, he recorded and released his first songs. He is most famous for the rhythm which he has made popular in many of his recordings. The rhythm has become known as the Bo Diddley beat. Some of the most popular songs which feature the Bo Diddley beat include \"Not Fade Away\" and \"I Want Candy\", George Michael's song \"Faith\" and U2's song \"Desire\". Bo Diddley is also famous for the unusual shapes of many of his guitars, for his exciting stage shows and for his use of female musicians.\n\nBo Diddley made many appearances on radio, television and in the movies. In 1956, he co-wrote the popular song \"Love Is Strange\" for the singing duo Mickey and Sylvia.\n\nSome of his most popular songs are: \"I'm A Man\" (1955), \"Pretty Thing\" (1955), \"Bring It To Jerome\" (1955), \"Diddy Wah Diddy\" (1955), \"Who Do You Love\" (1956), \"Mona (I Need You Baby)\" (1957), \"Before You Accuse Me\" (1957), \"Crackin' Up\" (1959), \"Say Man\" (1959), \"Say Man, Back Again\" (1959), \"Road Runner\" (1960), \"Pills\" (1961), \"You Can't Judge A Book By The Cover\" (1962) and \"I Can Tell\" (1962).\n\nBo Diddley often sang simple or amusing songs about himself. Some of these songs are \"Bo Diddley\" (1955), \"Diddley Daddy\" (1955), \"Hey Bo Diddley\" (1957), \"Bo Meets The Monster\" (1958), \"Bo Diddley's A Gunslinger\" (1960), \"Just Like Bo Diddley\" (1989), \"Bo Diddley Is Crazy\" (1996) and \"Oops! Bo Diddley\" (1996).\n\nHis songs have been recorded by many other popular recording artists, including Aerosmith, The Animals, Eric Clapton, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Dr. Feelgood, The Doors, Buddy Holly, Chris Isaak, New York Dolls, Quicksilver Messenger Service, Rolling Stones, Bob Seger, George Thorogood and The Destroyers, The Who and The Yardbirds.\n\nIn 2003, U.S. Representative John Conyers paid tribute to Bo Diddley in the United States House of Representatives when he described him as \"one of the true pioneers of rock and roll, who has influenced generations\".\n\nIn 2005, Bo Diddley celebrated his 50th anniversary in music with successful tours of Australia and Europe and with coast-to-coast shows across North America.\n\nOn June 2, 2008, Diddley died from heart failure at the age of 79.\n\nDiscography\n Bo Diddley (1958)\n Go Bo Diddley (1959)\n Have Guitar Will Travel (1960)\n Bo Diddley in the Spotlight (1960)\n Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger (1960)\n Bo Diddley Is a Lover (1961)\n Bo Diddley's a Twister (1962)\n Bo Diddley (1962)\n Bo Diddley & Company (1962)\n Surfin' with Bo Diddley (1963)\n Bo Diddley's Beach Party (1963)\n Bo Diddley's 16 All-Time Greatest Hits (1964)\n Two Great Guitars (with Chuck Berry) (1964)\n Hey Good Lookin''' (1965)\n 500% More Man (1965)\n The Originator (1966)\n Super Blues (with Muddy Waters & Little Walter) (1967)\n Super Super Blues Band (with Muddy Waters & Howlin' Wolf) (1967)\n The Black Gladiator (1970)\n Another Dimension (1971)\n Where It All Began (1972)\n Got My Own Bag of Tricks (1972)\n The London Bo Diddley Sessions (1973)\n Big Bad Bo (1974)\n 20th Anniversary of Rock & Roll (1976)\n I'm a Man (1977)\n Ain't It Good To Be Free (1983)\n Bo Diddley & Co - Live (1985)\n Hey...Bo Diddley in Concert (1986)\n Breakin' Through the BS (1989)\n Living Legend (1989)\n Rare & Well Done (1991)\n Live at the Ritz (with Ronnie Wood) (1992)\n This Should Not Be (1993)\n Promises (1994)\n A Man Amongst Men (1996)\n Moochas Gracias'' (with Anna Moo) (2002)\n\nOther websites \n Authorised Website\n The Official Bo Diddley MySpace Page\n The Bo Diddley Legacy MySpace Page\n Talent Source Management\n \n\n1928 births\n2008 deaths\n \nSingers from Mississippi","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":103518,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bo%20Diddley","title":"Bo Diddley","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"is a video game character made by Nintendo. He is an Italian plumber who lives in the Mushroom Kingdom. The character was created and designed by Japanese game designer Shigeru Miyamoto. Mario is the main mascot of Nintendo. He has been in more than 200 games by the company, which are usually designed for people of all ages. \n\nIn most of the Mario games, he tries to stop Bowser from kidnapping Princess Peach. He is helped by his brother Luigi in most games. He has other enemies like Donkey Kong, Waluigi, and Wario, but they are friends in some several spinoffs.\n\nMario is one of the most famous video game characters. Over a whopping 200 million Mario games have been sold all over the world.\n\nConcept and creation\n\nMario first appeared in the arcade game Donkey Kong as a carpenter named Jumpman. In Japan, he had the name \"Mr. Jump.\" Later, he was named \"Mario,\" after Mario Segale, who was a lot like Mario. Mario Segale owned the land where Nintendo of America's office was built.\n\nMario later appeared with his younger brother Luigi in an arcade game called Mario Bros. The game Super Mario Bros. was released at the same time as the Nintendo Entertainment System. Super Mario Bros. was a very well liked game, along with Super Mario Bros. 3  and Legend Of Zelda.\n\nAt that time, video games were hard to make and Nintendo could not make Mario move without making his arms \"disappear\". Changing his clothes fixed it. They also did not have the space to give him a mouth or ears. They also could not make hair on his head. To fix this, the makers of the game gave Mario a moustache, sideburns, and a cap so it would not look like he was bald. Mario's creator, Shigeru Miyamoto, said that he gave Mario a cap,  because it is hard for him to draw hair. Mario is voiced by (his voice is made by) Charles Martinet, who also voices Luigi, Wario, Waluigi and other characters like Toadsworth.\n\nMario is Nintendo's mascot (the face of the company). Mario's rival was Sega's mascot, Sonic the Hedgehog. Sonic the Hedgehog first appeared in 1991. At first, Sega and Nintendo competed with each other. But then, in Sonic Adventure 2: Battle, Sega made a game for a Nintendo video game console. Mario and Sonic appeared together in a sports game, Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games, and again in Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate.\n\nPlayable appearances (1981-present)\nDonkey Kong (series debut) (1981)\n Mario's Cement Factory (1983)\nMario Bros. (1983)\nMario's Bombs Away (1983)\nGolf (1984)\n Donkey Kong Hockey (1984)\nWrecking Crew (1985)\nSuper Mario Bros. (1985)\nSuper Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels (Super Mario Bros. 2 in Japan) (1986)\n Famicom Grand Prix: F-1 Race (1987)\nSuper Mario Bros. 2 (Doki Doki Panic in Japan) (1988)\nSuper Mario Bros. 3 (1988)\nSuper Mario Land (1989)\nDr. Mario (1990)\nSuper Mario World (1990)\n Mario Teaches Typing (1991)\n Mario the Juggler (1991)\n Yoshi (1991)\nMario Paint (1992)\nSuper Mario Kart (1992)\nSuper Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins (1992)\n Yoshi's Cookie (1992)\nMario is Missing (1992)\n Yoshi's Safari (1993)\nMario & Wario (1993) (Japan only)\n Mario's Time Machine (1993)\n Super Mario All-Stars (Super Mario Collection in Japan) (1993)\n Hotel Mario (1994)\n Donkey Kong (1994)\n Mario's Early Years! Fun with Letters (1994)\n Mario's Early Years! Fun with Numbers (1994)\n Mario's Early Years! Preschool Fun (1994)\nSuper Mario All-Stars + Super Mario World (1994)\n Mario's Early Years! CD-ROM Collection (1995)\n Mario's Picross (1995)\nMario's Tennis (1995)\nMario Clash (1995)\n Mario's Game Gallery (1995)\nSuper Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars (1996)\nSuper Mario 64 (1996)\n Mario Teaches Typing 2 (1996)\nMario Kart 64 (1996)\nExcitebike: Bun Bun Mario Stadium (1997) (Japan only)\n Game & Watch Gallery (1997)\nWrecking Crew '98 (1998) (Japan only)\n Mario's FUNdamentals (1998)\nMario no Photopi (1998) (Japan only)\nMario Party (1998)\n Super Smash Bros. (1999)\nSuper Mario Bros. Deluxe (1999)\nMario Golf (1999)\nMario Party 2 (1999)\nMario Tennis (2000)\nPaper Mario (2000)\n Mario Tennis (handheld) (2000)\nMario Party 3 (2000)\nSuper Mario Advance (2001)\nSuper Monkey Ball (2001)\n Mobile Golf (2001)\nMario Kart: Super Circuit (2001)\nSuper Smash Bros. Melee (2001)\n Super Mario Sunshine (2002)\nMario Party 4 (2002)\n Mario Party-e (2003)\n Mario Golf: Toadstool Tour (2003)\n Mario Kart: Double Dash!! (2003)\nMario Party 5 (2003)\nMario & Luigi: Superstar Saga (2003)\n Mario vs. Donkey Kong (2004)\n Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door (2004)\n Mario Pinball Land (2004)\n Super Mario Fushigi no Korokoro Party (2004) (Japan only)\n Mario Power Tennis (2004)\nMario Party 6 (2004)\nSuper Mario 64 DS (2004)\n Mario Party Advance (2005)\n Yakuman DS (2005) (Japan only)\n Dance Dance Revolution: Mario Mix (2005)\n Mario Superstar Baseball (2005)\n Mario Tennis: Power Tour (2005)\nMario Party 7 (2005)\nMario Kart DS (2005)\nDr. Mario & Puzzle League (2005)\nMario Kart Arcade GP (2005)\n Super Mario Fushigi no Korokoro Party 2 (2005) (Japan only)\n Super Mario Strikers (2005)\nMario & Luigi: Partners in Time (2005)\nNew Super Mario Bros. (2006)\nMario Hoops 3-on-3 (2006)\nSuper Paper Mario (2007)\n Mario Strikers Charged (2007)\nMario Party 8 (2007)\nItadaki Street DS (2007) (Japan only)\nSuper Mario Galaxy (2007)\nMario Kart Arcade GP 2 (2007)\n Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games (2007)\nMario Party DS (2007)\nSuper Smash Bros. Brawl (2008)\nMario Kart Wii (2008)\nDr. Mario Online RX (2008)\nMario vs Donkey Kong: Minis March Again (2008)\nMario Super Sluggers (2008)\nDr. Mario Express (2008)\nMario & Luigi: Bowser's Inside Story (2009)\n Mario Party Fushigi no Korokoro Catcher (2009) (Japan only)\nMario & Sonic at the Olympic Winter Games (2009)\nNew Super Mario Bros. Wii (2009)\nSuper Mario Galaxy 2 (2010)\nSuper Mario All-Stars 25th Anniversary Edition (2010)\nMario Sports Mix (2010)\nSuper Mario 3D Land (2011)\n Mario & Sonic at the London 2012 Olympic Games (2011)\nMario Kart 7 (2011)\n Fortune Street (2011)\nMario Party 9 (2012)\n Mario Tennis Open (2012)\nNew Super Mario Bros. 2 (2012)\n Paper Mario: Sticker Star (2012)\nNew Super Mario Bros. U (2012)\n Mario & Luigi: Dream Team (2013)\n New Super Luigi U (2013)\nSuper Mario 3D World (2013)\n Mario Kart Arcade GP DX (2013)\n Mario & Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Games (2013)\n Mario Party: Island Tour (2013)\n Mario Golf: World Tour (2014)\n Mario Kart 8 (2014)\n Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U (2014)\nMario vs Donkey Kong: Tipping Stars (2015)\n Mario Party 10 (2015)\n Super Mario Maker (2015)\n Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash (2015)\nDr. Mario: Miracle Cure (2015)\n Mario & Luigi: Paper Jam (2015)\nMini Mario and Friends Amiibo Challenge (2016)\n Mario & Sonic at the Rio 2016 Olympic Games (2016)\n Minecraft: Wii U Edition (2016)\n Paper Mario: Color Splash (2016)\n Mario Party: Star Rush (2016)\nSuper Mario Maker for Nintendo 3DS (2016)\nMario Kart 8 Deluxe (2017)\nSuper Mario Odyssey (2017)\nMario and Rabbids Kingdom Battle (2017)\nMario & Luigi: Superstar Saga + Bowser's Minions (2017)\nMinecraft: Nintendo Switch Version (2017)\nMario Tennis Aces (2018)\nSuper Mario Party (2018)\nSuper Smash Brothers Ultimate (2018)\nMario & Luigi: Bowser's Inside Story + Bowser Jr.'s Journey (2019)\nNew Super Mario Bros U Deluxe (2019)\nSuper Mario Maker 2 (2019)\nMario Kart Tour (2019)\nLuigi's Mansion 3 (2019)\nMario and Sonic at the Olympic Games Tokyo 2020 (2019)\nPaper Mario: The Origami King (2020)\nSuper Mario Bros. 35 (2020)\nSuper Mario 3D All-Stars (2020)\nSuper Mario 3D World + Bowser's Fury (2021)\nMario Golf: Super Rush (2021)\nMario Party Superstars (2021)\nMario Strikers: Battle League (2022)\nMario + Rabbids Sparks of Hope (2022)\nSuper Mario Bros. Wonder (2023)\n\nAppearances\nMario was first seen as \"Jumpman\" in Donkey Kong in 1981. He was first named \"Mario\" in the arcade game Donkey Kong Junior in 1982, the only game where he is a villain. His twin brother Luigi was first seen in 1983 in Mario Bros. He was next seen in Super Mario Bros. for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), which would quickly be one of the most famous games on the console.\n\nBy 2007, more than 200 million copies of Mario games had been sold all over the world. The game that was best sold was Super Mario Bros. 3. Mario was also seen in some Game & Watch games. Mario has appeared in almost every type of video game, like platform, puzzle, racing, sports, fighting, role-playing and educational games.\n\nMario has been seen in many games, and is seen in games that are not Mario games as well, like Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!! where he is a referee. He is also a character you can play as in the Super Smash Bros. series. Mario has even appeared as a secret character which any player can play as in GameCube version of NBA Street V3 and SSX on Tour, which are both from Electronic Arts. In some games, he only makes very small appearances: in both The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past and The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, a picture of Mario can be seen, and in Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes small Mario and Yoshi statues can be seen.\n\nAfter the Game & Watch game Mario Bombs Away, the first Mario non-platformer game, Dr. Mario, was sold in 1990. There are two educational Mario games that have been made. They are called Mario Paint, was sold in 1992 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and Mario Pinball Land for the Game Boy Advance. Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars was released in 1996 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It is the first Mario role-playing game. Since then, other Mario role-playing games have been released, such as Paper Mario for the Nintendo 64;  and Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga for the Game Boy Advance. Both of these games were made into their own series later on.\n\nThere have been more series based on the original Mario series. The Mario Kart series' first game was Super Mario Kart for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The Mario Kart series is the most successful racing video game series of all time. The Mario Kart series is a type of Mario sports game. There have been other Mario sports games like Mario Golf and Mario Tennis, and the baseball and soccer games Mario Superstar Baseball and Super Mario Strikers. In 1999, the Mario Party series started on the Nintendo 64.\n\nThere has been a few TV shows and a movie for the Mario series. The name of the first TV show is The Super Mario Bros. Super Show! and the movie is called Super Mario Bros.. The TV show starred \"Captain\" Lou Albano as Mario, and the movie starred Bob Hoskins as Mario. There have also been Mario toys sold in some places.\n\nCharacteristics\nMario was first a 2D character but since technology has changed, Nintendo has remade Mario in 3D. He is a plumber who lives in the land of Mushroom Kingdom. He is the older, shorter brother of Luigi, and they are both plumbers. In the television series, Mario and Luigi are from Brooklyn, although Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island says he was born in the Mushroom Kingdom.\n\nPhysical appearance\nMario's looks have changed over the years although he has several staple features. He is a short, stubby man wearing a hat with an \"M\" on it, brown hair, black moustache, a very large nose, white gloves, and denim overalls. In most appearances, Mario wears a red hat and shirt with blue overalls. However, in the original Super Mario Bros. video game, Mario wears a brown shirt and red overalls.\n\nMario's clothes depend on the game he is in. For example, in the Super Mario Strikers soccer game, Mario wears a football kit instead of overalls, and in Super Mario Sunshine, a very sunshiny tropical game, the character wears a red T-shirt and can also put on sunglasses and a Hawaiian-style shirt. In some games, Mario can turn into different forms, each with different clothes.\n\nPersonality\nMario is a kind-hearted and brave hero, with a love of pasta and pizza. People know Mario has a great, happy, personality since he has a high pitched, funny voice. Since Mario's Game Gallery, Charles Martinet has been his voice actor. In the games, Mario speaks in English with a thick Italian accent. In other things like TV shows, he has a more Brooklyn-styled accent. Mario does not say many things. He usually says: \"Okey dokey!\", \"Woohoo!\", \"Let's a-go!\", \"It's-a me! Mario!\", \"Here we go\", \"Mama mia!\" and more, though in sports games, he says things relevant to the sport, in Mario Golf he says \"Fore!\" for example. Mario hardly ever speaks properly in any games, leaving the talking to other characters. He does speak normally in the DiC animated cartoons and the anime series.\n\nOccupation and hobbies\nMario is a plumber (he was a carpenter). He only acts like a plumber in the games, Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga and the original Mario Bros., but pipes are always one way to get around. Mario was seen plumbing during the animated series. He knows a lot about tools and fixing pipes in the movie. In the first Donkey Kong games when Mario was called Jumpman, he was a carpenter.\n\nIn the Dr. Mario games first seen in 1990, Mario is a doctor. In 2001, Mario appeared in Dr. Mario 64, an updated version of the original puzzle game. Dr. Mario appeared as an secret character in the Nintendo GameCube game Super Smash Bros. Melee, and in another newer version, Dr. Mario Virus Buster, for WiiWare. In the Game Boy game Mario's Picross, Mario is an archaeologist.\n\nMario usually saves Princess Peach (AKA Princess Toadstool), Princess Daisy and Pauline. And he usually has to defeat villains, like Bowser(AKA King Koopa in Japan) Most characters in the games know who he is because he acts like a hero, as shown in Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga, where they are called \"superstars\", or celebrities.\n\nIn Mario vs. Donkey Kong 2: March of the Minis, it is said that Mario has a toy-making company that earns him money.\n\nRelationships\nSince his first game, Mario has to save the \"damsel in distress\" of the game. Originally, he had to rescue his girlfriend Pauline in Donkey Kong. Pauline was soon replaced by a new damsel-in-distress, Princess Peach, in Super Mario Bros. (she was first named \"Princess Toadstool\" or simply \"the Princess\" in English-speaking places until 1993, when Yoshi's Safari was sold, even though the name was not widely used until Super Mario 64 was sold three years later). Pauline returned in the Game Boy remake of Donkey Kong in 1994, and later Mario vs. Donkey Kong 2: March of the Minis in 2006, although the character is now said to be \"Mario's friend\".\n\nMario has rescued Princess Peach lots of times since Super Mario Bros.. In a role reversal, Peach rescues Mario in Super Princess Peach. Some people say the two could be a couple.\n\nLuigi is Mario's younger brother. He is usually a companion on many of Mario's adventures and the character whom players play as in two-player sessions of many of the video games. He sometimes acts like a \"scaredy cat\" who sets off to help Mario but instead needs help himself, though he has also had to rescue Mario occasionally as displayed in Mario is Missing! and Luigi's Mansion. Yoshi is another one of Mario's friends.\n\nMario rescued Princess Daisy in Super Mario Land for the Game Boy. In Super Smash Bros. Melee, the text explaining Princess Daisy's trophy states that \"after her appearance in Mario Golf, some gossips portrayed her as Luigi's answer to Mario's Peach\", although Luigi and Daisy were previously paired as a romantic couple in the live-action Super Mario Bros movie.\n\nWario, Mario's evil counterpart was first seen in Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins. Though there is no clear relationship between the two, Wario was once referred to as Mario's cousin in Nintendo Power. Wario is designed to act, in a way, as an anti-Mario.\n\nBaby Mario\nBaby Mario is Mario when he was a child. He first appeared in Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island, released in 1995 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and has appeared in several titles since. Baby Mario has often appeared in Nintendo-sports titles, such as Mario Golf, Mario Tennis, Mario Superstar Baseball, Mario Kart: Double Dash!!, Mario Super Sluggers, and Mario Kart Wii. These games imply Mario and Baby Mario are separate characters, but those games are considered to be outside the continuity of the main Mario series. More recently, he has appeared in Mario & Luigi: Partners in Time, in which Baby Mario appeared via time travel along with Baby Luigi, Baby Peach, and Baby Bowser, which could explain the separation of the two characters. Like the older Mario, Baby Mario is also voiced by Charles Martinet.\n\nAbilities\nDuring the development of Donkey Kong, Mario was known as \"Jumpman\". Jumping\u2014both to access places and as an offensive move\u2014is a common gameplay element in Mario games, especially the Super Mario Bros. series.\n\nMario's most commonly portrayed form of attack is jumping to stomp on the heads of enemies, first used in Mario Bros.. This jump-stomp move may entirely crush smaller enemies on the stage, and usually deals damage to larger ones, sometimes also causing secondary effects. This attack often enables Mario to knock the turtle-like Koopa Troopas into their shells, which can slide into and damage other enemies or Mario.\n\nSubsequent games have elaborated on Mario's jumping-related abilities. Super Mario World added the ability to spin-jump, which allows Mario to break blocks under him. Later, the Game Boy version of Donkey Kong allows Mario to jump higher with many jumps, and perform a back-flip. In Super Mario 64, Mario has several jumping abilities, such as a sideways somersault, a \"ground pound\", which makes Mario hit the ground under him hard, and the \"Wall Kick\", which propels him upwards by kicking off walls.\n\nPower-ups\nMario uses many items, which give him various powers. The one that shows up the most often is the \"Super Mushroom\", which allows Mario to grow to twice his size, becoming \"Super Mario\" (after the name of the series), and can take a hit before shrinking back down to \"regular\" Mario. If \"Super Mario\" collects a \"Fire Flower\", he will transform into \"Fire Mario\", who can throw fireballs at enemies. Picking up a \"Star\" makes it so nothing can hurt Mario for several seconds.\n\nA common theme in the Mario series' power-ups is the fact that many items give Mario a semi-animal appearance, sometimes related to the item itself, for example Super Mario Bros. 3s Frog Suit, which turns Mario into a frog, and Super Mario Land 2s Power Carrot, which turns Mario into a rabbit. Other times the item may not be related to the power; for example, the Raccoon Leaf gives him raccoon ears, a tail, and the power of flight. Other power-ups are overall more useful; in Super Mario World, the Cape allows Mario to fly and glide, and a balloon in a later game in the series allows similar effects. New Super Mario Bros. introduced other types of Mushroom power-ups, such as the \"Mega Mushroom\", which causes Mario to grow to a screen-filling size and the \"Mini Mushroom\" that makes him shrink to a very small size.  The Drill Mushroom in Super Mario Bros. Wonder allows the player to dig and dodge enemies go through walls and dig in ceilings to almost fly. \n\nIn Super Mario 64, Mario takes extra damage without when he is not wearing his hat. Different types of caps found in the game also give him powers of flight, invincibility, and invisibility. Along with these basic features, caps gave more practical abilities as well. For example, the Metal Cap allows Mario to sink to sea floors and the Invisibility cap allows him to walk through thin surfaces such as iron grates.\n\nSuper Mario Sunshine has several few power-ups with a water theme. He is granted a F.L.U.D.D. (Flash Liquidizing Ultra Dousing Device) pack that performs his main attack and squirts paint and enemies with water, named the Squirt Nozzle. He has three other expansion packs including the Hover Nozzle, which allows him to hover for short distances, the Turbo Nozzle, which allows him to move a lot faster and break through some barriers, and the Rocket Nozzle, which charges water up, then blasts Mario high into the air.\n\nSuper Mario Galaxy introduced several new power-ups along with a few older items re-done. These include the Bee Shroom, which allows him to float short distances and stick to certain surfaces; the Boo Shroom, which makes him capable of floating as well as traveling through walls; the Life Shroom, which gives him three more life wedges; the Rainbow Star, granting him brief invincibility; the Fire Flower, which appeared for the first time in a 3D game; and the Ice Flower, which allows him to turn water into solid ice so he can go to otherwise unreachable or deadly places. A hidden power-up is the Flight Star, which allows Mario to fly for a while.\n\nMario uses hammers in numerous games, such as Super Mario Bros. 3, the original Donkey Kong, and Super Mario RPG. Hammers are used to attack and for other things, like flicking switches and solving puzzles. He often picks up and throws various projectiles around him, however, starting in Super Mario Bros. 2. He tosses items such as vegetables, giant blocks and Bob-ombs.\n\nIn the Mario Kart series, there are a number of items to use. For example, a mushroom makes the characters go faster, and a Koopa shell knocks into other players to slow them down.\n\nReception and legacy\n\nAs Nintendo's mascot, many people think that Mario is the most famous video game character of all time. The Mario series of video games has sold more than 200 million copies, making it the best selling game series of all time.  Mario was the first video game character to get a wax figure in the Hollywood Wax Museum in 2003. In 1990, a national survey showed that more kids knew Mario than Mickey Mouse.\n\nSince he was created, Mario has become a very famous person having been in many television shows, comic books, and in a movie. He has been on lunch boxes, T-shirts, magazines, commercials, in candy form, on Shampoo bottles, cereal, badges, and as a stuffed toy. Nintendo of Japan made a 60-minute anime (Japanese cartoon) movie starring Mario and his friends in 1986, but this movie has never been shown or sold on DVD outside of Japan. The animated series The Super Mario Bros. Super Show! had a live-action series of episodes starring former WWF manager \"Captain\" Lou Albano as Mario and Danny Wells as Luigi. There was even a book series, the Nintendo Adventure Books. In 2005, Jonathan Mann even wrote an opera based on the character, and performed The Mario Opera at the California Institute of the Arts.\n\nBergsala, the distributor of Nintendo's products in the Nordic and the Baltic countries, is located at Marios Gata 21 (Mario's Street 21) in Kungsbacka, Sweden, named after Mario.\n\nMario's legacy is recognized by Guinness World Records, who awarded the Nintendo Mascot and his games seven records in the Guinness World Records: Gamer's Edition 2008. These records include, \"Best Selling Video Game Series of All Time\", \"First Movie Based on an Existing Video Game\", and \"Most Prolific Video Game Character\", with Mario appearing in 116 distinct titles (not including remakes or re-releases).\n\nIn a poll conducted in 2008, Mario was voted as the most popular video game character in Japan.\n\nIn popular culture\n Former NHL hockey player, Mario Lemieux was given the nickname \"Super Mario\" by the media during his career. Mario Williams, the #1 draft pick in the 2006 NFL Draft, was also given the nickname \"Super Mario\", as was pro-cyclist, Mario Cipollini. German international footballer Mario Basler was affectionately referred to as \"Super Mario\" by fans and the media. Another sportsman who received this nickname was the Brazilian soccer player M\u00e1rio Jardel, famous for his jumps and headers.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\nThe official home of Mario (Nintendo of America official site.)\nSuper Mario Bros. Hub (Nintendo UK official site)\n\nFictional characters introduced in 1981\nFictional Italian people\nMario\nMascots\nAmerican culture","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":4016,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mario","title":"Mario","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Queens is a borough of New York City and a county of New York State. It was named for Catherine of Braganza, the Queen of England and wife of King Charles II of England.\n\nQueens is in western Long Island.  The East River separates it from Manhattan in the east and The Bronx in the north.  Queens' only land boundary with another New York City borough is with Brooklyn in the south and west.  Jamaica Bay separates most of Queens from its Rockaway Peninsula in the south.  Nassau County lies to the east. Until 1899, Nassau County was part of Queens County. \n\nAbout 2.4 million people live in Queens and it is the largest borough of New York City in size and second in population (after Brooklyn). According to the United States census, Queens is the most ethnically diverse county in the USA. That means that it has the most people from different kinds of places, religions, and ethnic groups of any place in the USA. Large parts of Queens are urban and an equal part is suburban.\n\nTransportation \nQueens is home to both of New York City's airports, LaGuardia Airport (LGA) and John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK). Queens is connected to the Bronx by three bridges: the Bronx Whitestone Bridge, the Throgs Neck Bridge and the Triborough Bridge. It is connected to Manhattan by two bridges and one tunnel: the Triborough Bridge, the Queensboro Bridge, and the Queens Midtown Tunnel.\n\nMany controlled-access highways cross Queens, including I-495 (the Long Island Expressway), I-278 (the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway), and I-678 (the Van Wyck Expressway, pronounced Van Wike). Important state highways in Queens include the Grand Central Parkway, which becomes the Northern State Parkway when it crosses the Queens border into Nassau County.\n\nMany New York City Subway lines go through Queens.  The most famous is the Flushing Line, the 7 Train, which has the nickname \"International Express\" because it goes through many neighborhoods where many immigrants live.  Other subway lines in Queens include the A Train, C Train, E Train, F Train, G Train, J Train, M Train, N Train, R Train, V Train, W Train, and Z Train.\n\nQueens has a very large bus system that goes to all parts of the borough. Some bus routes go to Brooklyn, Manhattan, or the Bronx.\n\nThe Long Island Rail Road also has many stations in Queens. The Port Washington Line crosses northern Queens. There are busy stations at Woodside, Queens, Forest Hills, and Flushing. The central depot and main station for the railroad is in the neighborhood of Jamaica.\n\nSport & Recreation \n\nThe New York Mets of the National League of Major League Baseball play in Citi Field in Queens. The U.S. Open, a famous and important tennis tournament, is played in Arthur Ashe Stadium in Flushing Meadows Park south of the baseball stadium.\n\nNeighborhoods \n\nQueens has dozens of neighborhoods and named areas. These include:\n\n Addisleigh Park\n Arverne\n Astoria\n Auburndale \n Baisley Park\n Bay Terrace\n Bayside\n Bayswater\n Beechhurst\n Bellaire\n Belle Harbor\n Bellerose\n Blissville\n Breezy Point\n Briarwood\n Broad Channel\n Cambria Heights\n College Point\n Corona\n Ditmars \/ Steinway\n Douglaston\n Dutch Kills\n Edgemere\n Elmhurst\n Far Rockaway\n Floral Park\nFlushing\n Forest Hills Gardens\n Forest Hills\n Fresh Meadows\n Glen Oaks\n Glendale\n Hamilton Beach\n Hillcrest\n Hollis Hills\n Hollis\n Holliswood \n Howard Beach\n Howard Park\n Hunters Point\n Jackson Heights\n Jamaica\n Jamaica Estates\n Kew Gardens Hills\n Kew Gardens\n Laurelton\n Linden Hill\n Lindenwood\n Long Island City\n Little Neck\n Malba\n Maspeth\n Middle Village\n Morris Park\n Murray Hill\n Neponsit\n New Hyde Park\n Oakland Gardens\n Ozone Park\n Pomonok\n Queens Village\n Queensboro Hill\n Queensbridge\n Ravenswood\n Rego Park\n Richmond Hill\n Ridgewood\n Rochdale\n Rockaway Beach\n Rockaway Park\n Rockaway Point\n Rosedale\n Saint Albans\n Seaside\n South Jamaica\n South Ozone Park\n Springfield Gardens\n Sunnyside\n Utopia\n Whitestone\n Willets Point\n Woodhaven\n Woodside\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n \nCounty seats in New York (state)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":146,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":4,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":18262,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Queens","title":"Queens","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Germ theory of disease is a theory in biology. It says that small organisms (called germs), also known as microbes, cause some diseases. These diseases are called infectious diseases. The germ theory states that small organisms cause a reaction in the body of those who are infected. The body's reaction to infection is called a disease.\n\nMany scientists and doctors in history figured out that diseases are caused by microscopic organisms. Even after the microscope was invented, people still didn't know that germs caused diseases. People long believed that \"bad air\" from stinky trash dumps and from rotting meat was the cause of diseases. So people thought that covering their mouth and nose with a cloth would help filter out the \"bad air.\" Scientists and doctors would use garlic and perfumes to ward off the bad air. But people still got sick and even died, so this theory was wrong. Polluted air is not the cause of disease.\n\nOne problem with the old theories of disease was that people believed that living things were spontaneously generated. Spontaneous generation is when something like a fly grows from a small speck of smelly meat. That old theory is called abiogenesis. In the seventeenth century, Francesco Redi (February 18, 1626 \u2013 March 1, 1697) discovered that flies lay eggs that become maggots. Prior to this, people thought that maggots came from rotting meat. He discovered this by sealing some meat in a jar and watching it. No maggots were found on the sealed meat. He also put some meat in a jar and covered it with gauze. Maggots were found on the gauze but not inside the jar. But when he placed meat in an open jar, maggots were found on the meat and inside the jar. Experiments like this proved that maggots come from flies who lay eggs, not from rotting meat. Later scientists would prove that diseases did not come from the air. Diseases are spread by infection.\n\nSanitation \nAlso in the eighteenth century, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discovered the first microscopic organisms with a microscope. He was the first microbiologist. He saw some of the microscopic organisms that cause diseases, but he didn't know what they were. In 1700, Nicolas Andry thought that some of these microscopic organisms caused smallpox and other diseases. Over 100 years later, Agostino Bassi figured out what caused disease in silkworms. Ignaz Semmelweis was a doctor who figured out that if doctors washed their hands after touching dead people, that other patients wouldn't get sick. That was in 1847. It was about this time that sanitation and hand washing became popular with some, but not all doctors. Doctors began to use chemicals to cleanse wounds and clean their tools between each patient.\n\nOne of the most famous experiments of the nineteenth century was when John Snow discovered the source of a cholera outbreak. It turns out that cholera is transmitted when human waste contaminates water that people drink. Snow found out that there was a large number of sick people in Soho in London. After talking to many people in the area and mapping where each sick person lived, he realized that the sick people were almost all getting their drinking water from the same public water pump. He solved the epidemic by having the water pump's handle removed so that the people would get water from some other place. It worked, and the epidemic was soon over.\n\nLouis Pasteur showed that the germ theory of disease was true. In 1862, he invented a process that heats up a liquid to a high temperature to keep it from spoiling. This process is known as pasteurization, named after Pasteur. Pasteurization is used to kill microscopic organisms in liquids like milk, wine, and beer. Liquids that are pasteurized will last much longer before they spoil.\n\nLater, he did an experiment with fermentation. In one case he made a broth that he put inside a jar with a very long winding tube, so that no particles could pass to it from outside. Air could get inside the tube, but almost no dust. The broth he made did not change, and no fermentation took place. \n\nHe then took a similar broth, but this time he allowed air and dust to go inside the jar. This time, fermentation took place. The thing that caused fermentation therefore needed to come from outside (the environment). And it wasn't just air that caused fermentation, it must be something floating in the air which was very small. We now know that small particles called yeast cause fermentation.\n\nIn the latter part of the nineteenth century, Robert Koch and Joseph Lister would go on and help establish the germ theory of disease as an important part of science and medicine. Koch's theories are called \"postulates\" and helped medical researchers know what causes diseases. Lister's ideas would help establish sanitation as a major defense against disease. Koch's postulates and Lister's sanitation discoveries are still very important today.\n\nWe now know that small things cause diseases. Each one of these things can cause infection: fungus, bacteria, virus, prion, yeast, protist.\n\nOther websites \n Germ theory of disease -Citizendium\n\nMicrobiology\nHistory of medicine","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":30829,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Germ%20theory%20of%20disease","title":"Germ theory of disease","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sir Frederick William Herschel FRS (15 November 1738 \u2013 25 August 1822) was a German-British astronomer, the greatest observational astronomer of the day. He is best known for discovering Uranus in 1781. He also discovered infrared radiation, binary stars, and published important catalogues of stars and nebulae. Herschel built many telescopes, including the largest in the world at that time.\n\nHerschel was also a musician in his younger days. He played the cello, oboe, harpsichord and organ. He composed numerous musical works, including 24 symphonies and many concertos, as well as some church music.\n\nEarly life \nHerschel was born in the Electorate of Hanover, one of ten children. His father was of Jewish descent, and an oboist in the Hannover Military Band. In 1755 the Hannoverian Guards regiment, in whose band Wilhelm and his brother Jakob were engaged as oboists, was ordered to England. At the time the crowns of Great Britain and Hanover were united under George II. The next year the brothers resigned from the Guards band, and moved to London to avoid the Seven Years' War.p4 Wilhelm, nineteen years old at this time, learnt the English language quickly. In England he went by the English version of his name, Frederick William Herschel.\n\nAstronomy \n\nHerschel's music led him to an interest in mathematics and lenses. His interest in astronomy grew stronger after 1773 and he made the acquaintance of the English Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne. He started building his own reflecting telescopes and would spend up to 16 hours a day grinding and polishing the metal primary mirrors.\n\nUranus \nWhen he discovered Uranus, Herschel was not looking for a planet but doing a survey of stars; it was an accidental discovery.\n\nIt was the first discovery of a new planet since ancient times. The first five, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, are visible with the naked eye, and have been known since early history. Uranus was the first discovered by telescope. Actually, Uranus had been seen before by other observers with telescopes, but had been marked on charts as a fixed star. Herschel found it moved against the background of stars, and at first thought it was a comet. His measurements were used by the French mathematician Pierre Laplace, who worked out its orbit, and proved it was a planet.\n\nHerschel called the new planet the 'Georgian star' (Georgium sidus) after King George III, which brought him favour; the name did not stick, however. In France, where reference to the British king was to be avoided if possible, the planet was known as 'Herschel' until the name 'Uranus' was universally adopted. The same year, Herschel was awarded the Copley Medal and elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1782, he was appointed \"The King's Astronomer\". He got a generous award from the king, which enabled him to stop work as a musician, and devote all his time to astronomy. The award was a life pension to Herschel of \u00a3200 a year, and \u00a350 a year to Caroline. Work on the 40-foot telescope was also supported by a grant from the king.p6\n\nHerschel's telescopes \n\nDuring the course of his career, he constructed more than four hundred telescopes. He was helped in this by his brother Alexander who, like Caroline, spent all his time working as Herschel's assistant.\n\nThe largest and most famous of his telescopes was a reflecting telescope with a  main  mirror and a 40-foot (12\u00a0m) focal length. This was the world's largest telescope from 1789 until it was dismantled (taken apart) 50 years later.p6 The mirror was made of a hard metal alloy of tin and copper, called 'speculum', which he polished by hand.\n\nOn 28 August 1789, his first night of observation using this instrument, he discovered a new moon of Saturn. A second moon followed within the first month of observation. However, the 40-foot telescope was awkward to use, and most of his observations were done with a smaller    reflector. \n\nHe continued his work as a telescope maker, selling many of them to other astronomers. Together with his pension from the king, the money helped support him and his two siblings in their work.\n\nStar catalogue \nHerschel used to work with his sister Caroline Herschel. She recorded his observations as he made them. In 1783 he gave Caroline a telescope, and she began to make astronomical discoveries in her own right, particularly comets. \n\nCaroline discovered eight comets, three nebulae and, at her brother's suggestion, updated and corrected Flamsteed's work on the position of stars. This was published as the British Catalogue of Stars. She was honoured by the Royal Astronomical Society for this work. Caroline also continued to serve as his assistant.\n\nBinary stars \nHerschel was the first to find out that some line-of-sight apparent double stars were actually true binary star systems where the two stars revolved around each other. This was the first evidence that Newton's laws of gravitation apply outside the Solar System. Herschel discovered 850 binary stars, and worked up the first catalogue of binary stars. His son John Herschel discovered many more, and extended the catalogue.\n\nSolar System and Milky Way \n\nHerschel studied the changes in star position relative to the Solar System. Changes do occur, and quite rapidly for some nearby stars. Also, the whole Solar System moves, and this was discovered by Herschel.\n\nFrom studying the proper motion of stars, he was the first to realize that the solar system is moving through space. He worked out the approximate direction of that movement. He also studied the structure of the Milky Way and concluded that it was in the shape of a disk. This was also a really significant discovery.\n\nDiscovery of infrared radiation \nOn 11 February 1800, Herschel was testing filters for the sun so he could observe sun spots. When using a red filter he found there was a lot of heat produced. \n\nHerschel discovered infrared radiation by passing sunlight through a prism and holding a thermometer just beyond the red end of the visible spectrum. This thermometer was meant to be a control to measure the ambient air temperature in the room. He was shocked when it showed a higher temperature than the visible spectrum. Further experimentation led to Herschel's conclusion that there must be an invisible form of light beyond the visible spectrum.\n\nFamily and death\nWilliam Herschel and his wife Mary had one child, John. In 1816, William was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order by the Prince Regent. \n\nHerschel died at Observatory House, Windsor Road, Slough, Buckinghamshire, and is buried at nearby St Laurence's Church, Upton. He died in his 84th year, which is the same number of years Uranus takes to orbit the Sun. His son John Herschel also became a famous astronomer. His sister Caroline returned to Hanover, Germany after the death of her brother. She died on 9 January 1848 at the age of 97.\n\nHis house at 19 New King Street in Bath, Somerset where he made many telescopes and first observed Uranus, is now home to the Herschel Museum of Astronomy.\n\nReferences\n\n1738 births\n1822 deaths\n18th-century British composers\nEnglish astronomers\nFellows of the Royal Society\nGerman organists\n18th-century German composers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"unknown":9}},"id":109181,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William%20Herschel","title":"William Herschel","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343\u201325 October 1400) was an English writer, poet, and philosopher. He is most famous for writing Canterbury Tales which had 24 stories but was not completed. He was one of the first writers to write in English. He wrote in Middle English.\n\nEarly life \nChaucer was probably born in London. His father, John, and grandfather were prosperous wine merchants in London. The name Chaucer is French and means shoemaker. However, not many details are known of his early life and education.\n\nBy 1357, Chaucer was a page to Elizabeth, Countess of Ulster, wife of Lionel, 1st Duke of Clarence. In 1360, he was captured by the French near Reims during a battle in the Hundred Years' War. He was then ransomed and released. King Edward III gave \u00a316 towards his release. Chaucer married Phillipa (de) Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to the queen and had close family connections to John of Gaunt. He had about three or four children.\n\nThe king's squire \nChaucer may have studied law in the Inner Temple.  He joined the Royal court and travelled around Europe on business for the king. He became one of the king's esquires. One of his first known poems was written in 1369. It was called The Book of The Duchess, and was written after the death of John of Gaunt's wife, Blanche. In 1374, he became Comptroller (in charge of the money) of the Customs for the Port of London. He did this job for 12 years. It was a well paid job and Chaucer was quite rich.\n\nWhen Richard II became king, Chaucer continued to work in Customs. He was also sent to Europe on several more diplomatic jobs for the king.\n\nCountry life \nChaucer moved to Kent in 1385 where he had a new position as Justice of the Peace. He was also elected as one of two knights of the shire to be a member of parliament. At the end of the year he lost his customs jobs. His wife, Phillipa, died in 1387. But on 12 July 1389, he was made the Clerk of the Kings Works, looking after repairs to the royal palaces. He was given other small positions, including looking after the river banks of the Thames, and as a deputy forester in the Royal Forest. Over the next few years, Chaucer became poorer and often was given small payments and pensions from the king.\n\nDeath \nHe died at St.Mary's Chapel in Sevenoaks on 25 October 1400. Chaucer is buried in Westminster Abbey, in what is now called the Poets' Corner.\n\nHis writings \nChaucer did most of his writing between 1369 and 1393. He is famous for his collection of stories in verse called the Canterbury Tales. He also wrote The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame and Troilus and Criseyde. For these works he is called \"the father of English poetry\". He also wrote A Treatise on the Astrolabe, an instruction manual.\n\nReferences \n\n1340s births\n1400 deaths\nPeople buried in Westminster Abbey\nEnglish writers\nEnglish poets\nMedieval poets\nBritish poets laureate","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":16687,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geoffrey%20Chaucer","title":"Geoffrey Chaucer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Screen Actors Guild (SAG) was an American labor union which represented over 100,000 film and television principal and background performers worldwide. On March 30, 2012, the union leadership announced that the SAG membership voted to merge with the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) to create SAG-AFTRA.\n\nBackground\nAccording to SAG's Mission Statement, the Guild sought to: negotiate and enforce collective bargaining agreements that establish equitable levels of compensation, benefits, and working conditions for its performers; collect compensation for exploitation of recorded performances by its members, and provide protection against unauthorized use of those performances; and preserve and expand work opportunities for its members.\n\nThe Guild was founded in 1933 in an effort to eliminate the exploitation of Hollywood actors, who were being forced into oppressive multi-year contracts with the major movie studios. Opposition to these contracts included that they did not include restrictions on work hours or minimum rest periods, and often had clauses that automatically renewed at the studios' discretion. These contracts were notorious for allowing the studios to dictate the public and private lives of the performers who signed them, and most did not have provisions to allow the performer to end the deal.\n\nThe Screen Actors Guild was associated with the Associated Actors and Artistes of America (AAAA), which is the primary association of performer's unions in the United States. AAAA is affiliated with the AFL\u2013CIO. SAG claimed exclusive jurisdiction over motion picture performances, and shared jurisdiction of radio, television, Internet, and other new media with its sister union AFTRA, with which it shared 44,000 dual members. Internationally, the SAG was affiliated with the International Federation of Actors.\n\nIn addition to its main offices in Los Angeles, SAG also maintained branches in several major US cities, including Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Honolulu, Houston, Las Vegas, Miami, Nashville, New York, New Orleans, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Portland, Salt Lake City, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington, D.C.\n\nBeginning in 1995, SAG began to award the Screen Actors Guild Awards, which are considered an indicator of success at the Academy Awards. It continues through SAG-AFTRA.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly years \nIn 1925, the Masquers Club was formed by actors discontented with the grueling work hours at the Hollywood studios. This was one of the major concerns which led to the creation of the Screen Actors Guild in 1933. Another was that the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, which at that time arbitrated between the producers and actors on contract disputes, had a membership policy which was by invitation only.\n\nA meeting in March 1933 of six actors (Berton Churchill, Charles Miller, Grant Mitchell, Ralph Morgan, Alden Gay, and Kenneth Thomson) led to the guild's foundation. Three months later, three of the six and eighteen others became the guild's first officers and board of directors: Ralph Morgan (its first president), Alden Gay, Kenneth Thomson, Alan Mowbray (who personally funded the organization when it was first founded), Leon Ames, Tyler Brooke, Clay Clement, James Gleason, Lucile Webster Gleason, Boris Karloff, Claude King, Noel Madison, Reginald Mason, Bradley Page, Willard Robertson, Ivan Simpson, C. Aubrey Smith, Charles Starrett, Richard Tucker, Arthur Vinton, Morgan Wallace, and Lyle Talbot.\n\nMany high-profile actors refused to join SAG initially. This changed when the producers made an agreement amongst themselves not to bid competitively for talent. A pivotal meeting, at the home of Frank Morgan (Ralph's brother, who played the title role in The Wizard of Oz), was what gave SAG its critical mass. Prompted by Eddie Cantor's insistence, at that meeting, that any response to that producer's agreement help all actors, not just the already established ones, it took only three weeks for SAG membership to go from around 80 members to more than 4,000. Cantor's participation was critical, particularly because of his friendship with the recently elected President Franklin D. Roosevelt. After several years and the passage of the National Labor Relations Act, the producers agreed to negotiate with SAG in 1937.\n\nActors known for their early support of SAG (besides the founders) include Edward Arnold, Humphrey Bogart, James Cagney, Dudley Digges, Porter Hall, Paul Harvey, Jean Hersholt, Russell Hicks, Murray Kinnell, Gene Lockhart, Bela Lugosi, David Manners, Fredric March, Adolphe Menjou, Chester Morris, Jean Muir, George Murphy, Erin O'Brien-Moore, Irving Pichel, Dick Powell, Edward G. Robinson, Edwin Stanley, Gloria Stuart, Lyle Talbot, Franchot Tone, Warren William, and Robert Young.\n\nBlacklist years \nIn October 1947, the members of a list of suspected communists working in the Hollywood film industry were summoned to appear before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), which was investigating Communist influence in the Hollywood labor unions. Ten of those summoned, dubbed the \"Hollywood Ten\", refused to cooperate, and were charged with contempt of Congress and sentenced to prison. Several liberal members of SAG, led by Humphrey Bogart, Lauren Bacall, Danny Kaye, and Gene Kelly, formed the Committee for the First Amendment (CFA) and flew to Washington, DC, in late October 1947 to show support for the Hollywood Ten.\n\nThe president of SAG \u2013 future United States President Ronald Reagan \u2013 also known to the FBI as Confidential Informant \"T-10\", testified before the committee but never publicly named names. Instead, according to an FBI memorandum in 1947: \"T-10 advised Special Agent [name deleted] that he has been made a member of a committee headed by Mayer, the purpose of which is allegedly is to 'purge' the motion-picture industry of Communist party members, which committee was an outgrowth of the Thomas committee hearings in Washington and subsequent meetings ... He felt that lacking a definite stand on the part of the government, it would be very difficult for any committee of motion-picture people to conduct any type of cleansing of their own household\". Subsequently, a climate of fear, enhanced by the threat of detention under the provisions of the McCarran Internal Security Act, permeated the film industry. On November 17, 1947, the Screen Actors Guild voted to force its officers to take a \"non-communist\" pledge. On November 25 (the day after the full House approved the ten citations for contempt) in what has become known as the Waldorf Statement, Eric Johnston, president of the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), issued a press release: \"We will not knowingly employ a Communist or a member of any party or group which advocates the overthrow of the government of the United States by force or by any illegal or unconstitutional methods.\"\n\nNone of those blacklisted were proven to advocate overthrowing the government \u2013 most simply had Marxist or socialist views. The Waldorf Statement marked the beginning of the Hollywood blacklist that saw hundreds of people prevented from working in the film industry. During the height of what is now referred to as McCarthyism, the Screen Writers Guild gave the studios the right to omit from the screen the name of any individual who had failed to clear his name before Congress. At a 1997 ceremony marking the 50th anniversary of the Blacklist, the Guild's president made this statement:\n\n1970s to 2012 \nThe Screen Actors Guild Ethnic Minorities Committee was co-founded in 1972 by actors Henry Darrow, Edith Diaz, Ricardo Montalb\u00e1n and Carmen Zapata.\n\nThe Screen Actors Guild Women's Committee was founded in 1972.\n\nIn 1980, SAG and AFTRA held a strike over issues regarding profit sharing from home media and pay TV.\n\nMarquez v. Screen Actors Guild \n\nIn 1998, Naomi Marquez filed suit against SAG and Lakeside Productions claiming they had breached their duty of fair representation. The claim was denied by the Supreme Court.\n\nMerger with AFTRA \n\nThe membership of the Screen Actors Guild voted to merge with the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists on March 30, 2012.\n\nComposition \n\nAccording to SAG's Department of Labor records since 2006, when membership classifications were first reported, 30%, or almost a third, of the guild's total membership had consistently been considered \"withdrawn,\" \"suspended,\" or otherwise not categorized as \"active\" members. These members were ineligible to vote in the guild. \"Honorable withdrawals\" constituted the largest portion of these, at 20% of the total membership, or 36,284 members before the merger in 2012. \"Suspended\" members were the second largest, at 10%, or 18,402 members. This classification scheme is continued by SAG-AFTRA.\n\nRules and procedure\n\nBecoming a member \nAn actor was eligible to join the Screen Actors Guild by meeting the criteria in any of the following three categories: principal actor in a SAG production, background actor (originally the \"three voucher rule\"), and one-year member of an affiliated union (with a principal role). The basic categories were:\n Principal actor: Any actor who works as a principal actor for a minimum of one day on a project (film, commercial, TV show, etc.) under a producer's agreement with SAG, and the actor has been paid at the appropriate SAG daily, three-day, or weekly rate was then considered \"SAG-eligible\". A SAG-eligible actor could work in other SAG or non-SAG productions up to 30 days, during which that actor was classified as a \"Taft\u2013Hartley\". After the 30-day Taft\u2013Hartley period has expired, the actor could not work on any further SAG productions until first joining SAG, by: paying the initiation fee with the first half-year minimum membership dues, and agreeing to abide by the Guild's rules and bylaws.\n Background actor: For years, SAG had the \"three voucher rule\". After collecting three valid union vouchers for three separate days of work, a background actor could become SAG-eligible; however, employment must have been confirmed with payroll data, not vouchers. SAG productions required a minimum number of SAG members be employed as background actors before a producer was permitted to hire a non-union background actor. For television productions in the West Coast Zones, the minimum number of SAG background actors was 21 (25 in the New York Zone), for commercials the minimum was 40, and for feature films, the minimum was 57 in the West Coast zones (85 in the New York zone). In rare circumstances, due to the uniqueness of a role, or constraints on the numbers of available SAG actors or last-minute cancellations, those minimums were unable to be met. When this happened, producers were permitted to fill one or more of those union spots with non-union actors. The non-union actor chosen to fill the union spot was then issued a union background voucher for the day, and that non-union actor was entitled to all the same benefits and pay that the union actor would have received under that voucher. This was called a Taft\u2013Hartley voucher. The SAG-Eligible background actor could continue working in non-union productions, but after obtaining 3 Taft\u2013Hartley vouchers were given a 30-day window where they were allowed to work as many SAG jobs as they wish. After the 30-day window had expired the actor became a \"Must Join\" with SAG, meaning they could no longer work any SAG projects without formally joining the union. They could continue to work non-union jobs, however, until they officially became a SAG member.\n Member of an affiliated union: Members in good standing, for at least one year, of any of the other unions affiliated with the AAAA, and who had worked as a principal at least once in an area of the affiliated union's jurisdiction, and who had been paid for their work in that principal role, were eligible to join SAG.\n\nInitiation fee and membership dues \nMembers joining the Los Angeles, New York, or Miami SAG locals were assessed an initial fee to join the Guild of $3,000. At the time of initiation, the first minimum semi-annual membership dues payment of $58 must have also been paid, bringing the total amount due upon initiation into the Guild to $3,058. All other SAG locals still assessed initiation fees at the previous rate. Members from other locales who worked in Los Angeles, New York, or Miami after joining were charged the difference between the fee they paid their local and the higher rate in those markets.\n\nMembership dues were calculated and due semi-annually, and were based upon the member's earnings from SAG productions. The minimum annual dues amount was $116, with an additional 1.85% of the performer's income up to $200,000. Income from $200,000 to $500,000 was assessed at 0.5%, and income from $500,000 to $1 million was assessed at 0.25%. For the calculation of dues, there was a total earnings cap at $1 million. Therefore, the maximum dues payable in any one calendar year by any single member was limited to $6,566.\n\nSAG members who became delinquent in their dues without formally requesting a leave of absence from the Guild were assessed late penalties, and risked being ejected from the Guild and could be forced to pay the initiation fee again to regain their membership.\n\nGlobal Rule One \nThe SAG Constitution and Bylaws stated that, \"No member shall work as a performer or make an agreement to work as a performer for any producer who has not executed a basic minimum agreement with the Guild which is in full force and effect.\" Every SAG performer agreed to abide by this, and all the other SAG rules, as a condition of membership into the Guild. This means that no SAG members could perform in non-union projects that were within SAG's jurisdiction, once they became members of the Guild. Since 2002, the Guild had pursued a policy of worldwide enforcement of Rule One, and renamed it Global Rule One.\n\nUnique stage names \n\nLike other guilds and associations that represent actors, SAG rules stipulated that no two members may have identical working names. Some actors use their middle initial in their stage name, or have stage names that differ from their legal name to comply with this rule. Notable examples include Michael Keaton, Michael J. Fox and Emma Stone, whose birth names \"Michael Douglas\", \"Michael Fox\" and \"Emily Stone,\" respectively, were already in use.\n\nMember benefits and privileges \nSAG contracts with producers contained a variety of protections for Guild performers. Among these provisions were: minimum rates of pay, adequate working conditions, special protection and education requirements for minors, arbitration of disputes and grievances, and affirmative action in auditions and hiring.\n\nStandardized pay and work conditions \nAll members of the Guild agreed to work only for producers who had signed contracts with SAG. These contracts spelled out in detail the responsibilities that producers must assume when hiring SAG performers. Specifically, the SAG basic contract specified: the number of hours performers may work, the frequency of meal breaks required, the minimum wages or \"scale\" at which performers must be compensated for their work, overtime pay, travel accommodations, wardrobe allowances, stunt pay, private dressing rooms, and adequate rest periods between performances. When applicable, and with due regard to the safety of the individuals, cast and crew, women and minorities were to be considered for doubling roles and for descript and non-descript stunts on a functional, non-discriminatory basis.\n\nThe Producers and the Pension and Health Plans \nPerformers who meet the eligibility criteria of working a certain number of days or attaining a certain threshold in income derived from SAG productions could join the Producers Pension and Health Plans offered by the Guild. The eligibility requirements varied by age of the performer and the desired plan chosen (there were two health plans). There were also Dental, Vision, and Life & Disability coverage included as part of the two plans.\n\nResiduals \nThe Guild secured residuals payments in perpetuity to its members for broadcast and re-broadcast of films, TV shows, and TV commercials through clauses in the basic SAG agreements with producers.\n\nMajor strikes and boycotts\n\nEarly strikes \nIn July 1948, a strike was averted at the last minute as the SAG and major producers agreed upon a new collective bargaining contract. The major points agreed upon included: full union shop for actors to continue, negotiations for films sent direct to TV, producers could not sue an actor for breach of contract if they strike (but the guild could only strike when the contract expires).\n\nIn March 1960, SAG went on strike against the seven major studios. This was the first industry-wide strike in the 50-year history of movie making. Earlier walkouts involved production for television. The Writers Guild of America had been on strike since January 31, 1960 with similar demands to the actors. The independents were not affected since they signed new contracts. The dispute rested on actors wanting to be paid 6% or 7% of the gross earnings of pictures made since 1948 and sold to television. Actors also wanted a pension and welfare fund.\n\nIn December 1978, members of SAG went on strike for the fourth time in its 45-year history. It joined the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists in picket lines in Los Angeles and New York. The unions said that management's demand would cut actors' salaries. The argument was over filming commercials. Management agreed to up salaries from $218 to $250 per scene, but if the scene were not used at all, the actor would not be paid.\n\nStrike and Emmy Awards boycott of 1980 \n\nIn July, SAG members walked out on strike, along with AFTRA, the union for television and radio artists, and the American Federation of Musicians. The union joined the television artists in calling for a successful boycott against that year's prime-time Emmy awards. Powers Boothe was the only one of the 52 nominated actors to attend: \"This is either the most courageous moment of my career or the dumbest\" he quipped during his acceptance speech. The guild ratified a new pact, for a 32.25% increase in minimum salaries and a 4.5% share of movies made for pay TV, and the strike ended on October 25.\n\nThe commercials strike of 2000 \nThe commercials strike of 2000 was extremely controversial. Some factions within SAG call it a success, asserting that it not only saved Pay-Per-Play (residuals) but it also increased cable residuals by 140% up from $1,014 to $2,460. Others suggested almost identical terms were available in negotiation without a strike. In the wake of the strike, SAG, and its sister union AFTRA, gathered evidence on over 1,500 non-members who had worked during the strike. SAG trial boards found Elizabeth Hurley and Tiger Woods guilty of performing in non-union commercials and each was fined $100,000.\n\nBeyond the major studios \nSAG Principal members could not work on non-union productions. Union background actors were not fully covered nationwide and could work non-union outside the background zones. These background zones included the state of Hawaii, 4 zones in California, Las Vegas NV, and a 300-mile radius around New York City. Many film schools had SAG Student Film Agreements with the Guild to allow SAG actors to work in their projects. SAGIndie was formed in 1997 to promote using SAG actors; SAG also had Low Budget Contracts that were meant to encourage the use of SAG members on films produced outside of the major studios and to prevent film productions from leaving the country, known as \"Runaway production\". In the fight against \"Runaway production\", the SAG National Board voted unanimously to support the Film and Television Action Committee (FTAC) and its 301(a) Petition which asked the US Trade Representative to investigate Canadian film subsidies for their violation of trade agreements Canada signed with the United States.\n\nFinancial core \nFinancial core, or Fi-Core, was a payment to a union to allow someone to work in a union environment without being a member of the union. The concept was defined in 1963 by Supreme Court case Labor Board v. General Motors and clarified for the communications industry in 1988 via Communications Workers of America v. Beck.\n\nApproximately 96% of normal union dues must have been paid to be a Financial Core member of the SAG, and Financial Core members may not \"represent themselves as Screen Actors Guild members.\" Additionally, the Screen Actors Guild said \"Fi-Core\/FPNM are viewed as scabs ... by SAG members, directors, and writers\u2014most of whom also belong to entertainment unions\". This statement had been met with skepticism by some.\n\nFormer SAG President Charlton Heston was apparently a supporter of Fi-Core.\n\nNational Women's Committee \nEntertainment remains among the most gender unequal industries in the United States. The National Women's Committee operated within the National Statement of Purpose to promote equal employment opportunities for its female SAG members. It also encouraged positive images of women in film and television, in order to end sexual stereotypes and educate the industry about the representation of women, both in numbers and quality of representation.\n\nSAG Women's Committee had been dedicated to working towards strategic objectives adopted from the Fourth World Conference on Women Beijing Platform of 1995. These objectives included supporting research into all aspects of women and the media so as to define areas needing attention and action. The SAG Hollywood Division Women's Committee also encouraged the media to refrain from presenting women as inferior beings and exploiting them as sexual objects and commodities.\n\nWoman's Committee timeline \n 1972: The Screen Actors Guild Women's Committee is founded. Brigham Young University conducts a study that reveals 81.7% of television roles are male, versus 18.3% female.\n 1974\u20131976: In conjunction with the Directors Guild of America, the Screen Actors Guild compiles statistical surveys that explicitly document the disenfranchisement of their women members, often linking the data to a specific studio, network and in several cases individual television shows. These efforts are spearheaded by the two organizations' individual Women's Committees.\n 1975: Kathleen Nolan becomes the Screen Actors Guild's first female president.\n 1979: A study reveals that between 1949 and 1979, 7,332 feature films were made and released by major distributors. Fourteen, a mere 0.19%, were directed by women.\n October 10, 1979: Women and Minorities Rally. President Kathleen Nolan leads protest rally, with signs reading \"Women and Minorities: Not Seen on the American Scene\"...\"Window Dressing on the Set\"...and \"TV: it's Time for a Facelift\".\n 1981\u20131985: Leslie Hoffman, first stuntwoman elected to the Hollywood Screen Actors Board. She works towards hiring more women, minorities, seniors, and disabled performers as stuntpeople. She is blacklisted by the Screen Actors Guild Board and Stuntmen Groups.\n 1984: SAG creates additional low-budget motion picture agreement, giving advantages to productions that hire more women, minorities, seniors, and disabled performers. SAG's New York branch forms Women's Voice-Over Committee to study why women get only 10\u201320% of voiceover work.\n 1986: Women's voice-over study by McCollum\/Spielman and Company indicates \"it makes absolutely no difference whether a male or female voice is used as a TV commercial voice-over\", destroying long-held advertising industry assertion that male voices \"sell better\" and carry \"more authority\".\n 1989: A SAG report reveals that 71% of all roles in feature films and 64% of all roles in TV went to men. The report said the combined income of men more than doubled that of women ($644 million to $296 million).\n 1990: At the SAG National Women's Conference, Meryl Streep keynotes first national event, emphasizing the decline in women's work opportunities, pay parity, and role models within the film industry. She lashes out at the film industry for downplaying the importance of women both on screen and off.\n 1996: Composition of female leading roles rises to 40%, but supporting roles for women decline to 33%.\n 1997: SAG contracts for actresses exceed $472 million, while male SAG contracts receive more than $928 million.\n 2004: Only 37% of all SAG television and film roles go to women.\n 2008: Kathryn Bigelow becomes the first woman to win the Oscar for Best Director of a Motion Picture, after being only the fourth woman in history to secure a nomination. Statistics show that only 9% of directors are female.\n 2009: Dr. Martha Lauzen of the Alliance for Women Film Journalists, conducts a study revealing that, of 2009's top 250 films at box offices, women comprised only 16% of the directors, producers, writers, and other top jobs. This represents a 3% decline from the 2001 study showing 19% female composition. Female directors fall from a low 9% in 2008, to a meager 7%. Warner Brothers Pictures and Paramount Pictures did not release a single film directed by a woman.\n 2010: A study carried out by the Annenberg School for Communication and the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in the Media finds that male characters outnumber female characters by 2.42 to one in top-grossing American films.\n 2010: Ex-Board Member Leslie Hoffman successfully fights to get Disability Health Plans for two stuntmen and a reimbursement for a disabled stuntwoman.\n\nHistorical leadership: 1933-2012\n\nSee also \n American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA)\n SAG Foundation\n Screen Actors Guild Awards\n The Screen Guild Theater\n\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\nBaar, K. Kevyne. \" 'What Has My Union Done For Me?' The Screen Actors Guild, the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists, and Actors' Equity Association Respond to McCarthy-Era Blacklisting.\" Film History (2008): 437\u2013455. online\n\nExternal links\n\nSAG history\n\n \n1933 establishments in California\n2012 disestablishments in California\nTrade unions established in 1933\nTrade unions disestablished in 2012\nTrade unions in California\nAFL\u2013CIO","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":158,"dup_dump_count":63,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":3,"2018-17":4,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-39":6,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":6,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":3}},"id":129218,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Screen%20Actors%20Guild","title":"Screen Actors Guild","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March 1685 in Eisenach \u2013 28 July 1750 in Leipzig; pronounced BAHK) was a German composer and organist. He lived in the last part of the Baroque period. He is most famous for his work Toccata and Fugue in D Minor, St. Matthew Passion, St. John Passion, Mass in B minor, and the Brandenburg Concertos. He spent several years working at courts of noblemen. Here he wrote most of his chamber music and orchestral music. Most of his life, however, he worked in a church where he was expected to write church music. Bach wrote almost every kind of music except opera. During the last part of his life most composers were writing in a new style called the Classical style, but Bach always wrote in the Baroque style. That made some people at the time think he was old-fashioned, but today we know that his work is the very best of Baroque music.  Along with Mozart and Beethoven, Bach is regarded as one of the greatest composers who has ever lived.\n\nEarly life\nBach came from a highly musical family. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was a trumpeter at the court of Saxe-Eisenach. Many of his relatives were professional musicians of some sort: violinists and town musicians, organists, Cantors (Directors of Music in a church), court musicians and Kapellmeisters (Directors of Music at a royal court). Most of them played several instruments. Of his twenty children, several became quite famous composers, especially Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714\u20131788), Johann Christian Bach (1735\u20131782), Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach and Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (1710\u20131784).\n\nWhen he was fifteen, he went to the small town of L\u00fcneburg. At first he sang treble in the choir and was said to have a very fine treble voice, but his voice very soon got lower, so he made himself useful playing instruments. He learned by listening to famous organists like Reincken (1623\u20131722) and Dietrich Buxtehude (1637\u20131707). Bach got his first job in 1703 in Arnstadt. It was a well-paid job for a young boy who was 18 years old. There was a new organ in the church, and Bach already knew a lot about organ building as well as being a brilliant organist. They asked him to examine the new organ, and then they offered him a job. Bach spent four years as organist there. He composed some organ works. Unfortunately, the congregation were not musical enough to like it. They did not understand the ornamental notes he added to the hymn tunes. Bach got rather fed up with the priests who were always complaining about it, so he resigned and took another job in M\u00fchlhausen, not far away. After a year there, he gave up that job and went to a big town called Weimar.\n\nWeimar years (1708\u20131717) \n\nJohann Sebastian was made organist to the Duke of Saxe-Weimar. At the Duke's court there was a chapel with an organ. Bach composed many of his great organ works at this time. He became very famous as an organist and was invited to play in other big churches and to give advice on organ building. He was extremely good at improvisation. On one occasion he was in Dresden at the same time as a French organist named Louis Marchant. There was going to be a competition between the two men to see who was better at improvisation. Bach was practicing the day before and Marchant heard him. He realized that Bach would win, so he left.\n\nIn 1714 the Duke made Bach Konzertmeister (Concertmaster, a job that paid more money). He had to write cantatas for church services. In 1717 he was offered a job in the town of C\u00f6then, where he would earn an even better salary. The Duke was angry and did not want him to go but Bach insisted, so the Duke put Bach in prison for a month. In the end he had to let the musician go.\n\nC\u00f6then (1717\u20131723)\nAt C\u00f6then, Bach worked for Prince Leopold. The Prince was very musical and a wonderful man to work for. Bach was Kapellmeister (Director of Music) and was treated well. The organ was not very good, and it was not used much, so Bach did not write any organ music during this period. The Duke had an orchestra, and Bach was in charge. Nearly all Bach's orchestral works were written in C\u00f6then: the Brandenburg Concertos, the violin concertos, the orchestral suites, the solo music for violin and for cello, and a lot of keyboard music for harpsichord or clavichord.\n\nDuring 1719, the great composer George Frideric Handel, who had moved to England, came to Germany to visit his mother. Bach wanted to meet Handel, who was only 30\u00a0km away, but these two famous musicians never met. Handel wanted to spend his limited time in Germany with his mother who was old and frail, knowing that it would be the last time he would see her.\n\nBach's first wife, Maria Barbara Bach, died in 1720. The couple had seven children. Soon afterwards, he married Anna Magdalena with whom he had another thirteen children. However, several of his children died young.\n\nLeipzig (1723\u20131750)\nIn 1723 Bach moved to Leipzig to take the job of Cantor at the St Thomas Church, a very large church in the town. As Cantor he was in charge of all the music, both at St Thomas and at another church nearby. He also had to compose music for the town. It was an excellent job, and more secure than being at a court. The schools were good for his sons. Bach stayed in Leipzig until his death. He loved his job most of the time and worked very hard. He composed many cantatas for the church services. These services were very long, lasting about three hours. Many of the cantatas he wrote last about 30 minutes. He had assistants to play the organ. Bach himself directed the choir and the orchestra. There were probably 16 singers in the choir and 18 players in the orchestra. He wrote the St Matthew Passion and the St John Passion. Both these works, which are very long, tell the story of Jesus dying on the cross. They are among the most famous pieces of music ever written. He also wrote cantatas for special occasions such as weddings or funerals.\n\nLife was not always easy, and sometimes there were arguments with the people who ruled the church. The sub-deacon wanted to choose some of the hymns, but this was the Cantor's job. Bach was a sensible man, and he managed to get his way without making enemies. On another occasion he argued with the headmaster of the school (Bach had to do some teaching at the church school) about who was allowed to choose the choir section leaders. This actually went to court, and Bach won the case.\n\nBach often made journeys to other towns. In 1747 he visited the court of Prussian King Frederick the Great near Berlin. The king, a music lover, gave Bach a theme to improvise from on the harpsichord. Bach sat down and improvised a fugue using this theme. Later Bach wrote a very long composition for flute, violin and harpsichord with cello accompaniment, in many movements, all based on this theme. At the end, the theme is heard in 5 of the 6 voices. Bach called it The Musical Offering and he sent it to the king.\n\nBach wrote many fugues, eventually he decided to write a collection called The Art of Fugue. His plan was to publish it, but he died before he could finish it (his son later published it in his honor, as Bach's last published piece). In the last year or two of his life, he became blind in spite of two eye operations.\nIn the 19th century more people became interested in Bach, and many of his works were published after he had been dead more than a hundred years.\n\nDiscography\nStudio albums\n Magnificat BWV 243 \/ Cantata \"Ich habe genug\" BWV 82 (1995)\n Brandenburg Concertos nos. 1 - 6 (1997)\n Die Kunst der Fuge BWV 1080 (2001)\n Oboe Concertos (2005)\n Goldberg-Variationen: Fassung f\u00fcr zwei Klaviere von Joseph Rheinberger und Max Reger (2009)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n The JS Bach Home Page-Part of joint Bach website project\n J.S. Bach Archive and Bibliography-Part of joint Bach website project \n The DigitalBach Project at the Oregon Bach Festival \n\n1685 births\n1750 deaths\nJohann Sebastian\nBaroque composers\n18th-century German composers\nGerman Lutherans\nGerman organists\nPeople from Saxony-Anhalt\nGerman harpsichordists","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":153,"dup_dump_count":5,"dup_details":{"2024-30":21,"2024-26":18,"2024-22":34,"2024-18":16,"2024-10":31,"unknown":33}},"id":4463,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johann%20Sebastian%20Bach","title":"Johann Sebastian Bach","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A parody is a special piece of art.\n\nParodies make fun of another piece of art by mocking it.\n\nThe parody is an imitation of the original, but exaggerating it, showing clich\u00e9s which have been used, to make the original look ridiculous or to make a comment about an issue affecting society.\n\nFor example, in a serious Western movie, the good guys always seem to shoot better and faster than the bad guys. In a Western parody, this might be exaggerated by showing a good guy firing a single shot, and a dozen of the bad guys falling from their horses as a result.\n\nMel Brooks is a director who has made many movies which are parodies:\n\n Blazing Saddles is a parody of Western movies in general,\n Spaceballs is a parody of the Star Wars movies, and science fiction in general,\n Men in Tights is a parody of Robin Hood movies,\n\nThe website Uncyclopedia is also a parody of Wikipedia.\n\nParodies can be anything from songs to poems to books to movies.\n\nA movie that makes a parody of another movie or several movies at once is a parody movie. \n\nNewspaper columnists are well known for their strip cartoons which can very often parody public opinion on major issues affecting society, such as the recent credit crunch.\n\nRelated pages \n Irony\n Satire\n Parody mass","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":4,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":9690,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parody","title":"Parody","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"John Winston Ono Lennon (born John Winston Lennon; 9 October 1940\u00a0\u2013 8 December 1980) was an English singer and songwriter. He became famous as a singer and guitarist of the English rock band The Beatles. After the Beatles stopped making records in 1970, he lived in the United States with his wife Yoko Ono. He continued his music career up until his murder.\n\nBiography \nJohn Winston Lennon was born on 9 October 1940 at Liverpool Women's Hospital in Liverpool. He was the son of Alfred Lennon and Julia Lennon. \nHe started the Beatles in his hometown of Liverpool, with Paul McCartney and George Harrison. After Ringo Starr joined the band, they started to be very successful. People were excited by their music, and their live performances always pleased audiences. Manager Brian Epstein and record producer George Martin helped the Beatles become the most popular act in entertainment.\n\nLennon played the guitar, and later learned to play the piano. Most of the songs the Beatles recorded were written by Lennon and McCartney. Their songs were always credited as by \"Lennon\/McCartney\" on Beatles records, but in fact they usually wrote their songs on their own. The two men often helped to make each other's songs better, so they liked to share writing credit. Famous songs written by Lennon for the Beatles are \"A Hard Day's Night\", \"Help!\", \"Strawberry Fields Forever\", \"A Day In The Life\" and many others. \n\nThe Beatles grew apart as the members got older. Lennon divorced his first wife, Cynthia Powell, and married Yoko Ono, while McCartney married Linda Eastman. Each wife had different ideas, and encouraged their husbands to depend less on each other. Later, some fans blamed Yoko and Linda for breaking the Beatles up.\n\nLennon loved his wife so much that he added her surname Ono to his own name, since she became Yoko Ono Lennon when she married him. He had never liked his middle name Winston (given him by his mother after Winston Churchill) and wanted to change it, but was told he could not under British law. He could add a new name though, so he did that. He never used the name Winston again, unless he had to for legal reasons (such as when he travelled to America). Otherwise he gave his \"full name\" as John Ono Lennon.\n\nLennon recorded several albums and singles after the Beatles disbanded. The best-known one was Imagine. He made many records with Yoko Ono. On some records they called themselves the Plastic Ono Band. Lennon and Ono worked with different musician friends, including Ringo Starr, Jim Keltner, Klaus Voormann, Harry Nilsson, Eric Clapton and Elton John. Lennon's solo music was different from his Beatles songs. He spoke more directly about his own feelings, and sometimes used harsh language or loud sounds. This upset a few fans, who wished for more Beatles music from him.\n\nLennon and Ono moved to the United States in 1971, and settled in New York City. Ono had a daughter, Kyoko Chan Cox, from an earlier husband, Anthony Cox, a filmmaker, who took her and disappeared. It was easier to look for Kyoko, and get the law's help to look, if they stayed in America. Ono and Lennon were also hurt emotionally by the way Ono was treated by many people in England. Some insulted Ono, and asked Lennon why he was with her. On the other hand, most of the people they met in America accepted them together.\n\nLennon and Ono were also campaigners for peace in the world. They used Lennon's famous name to talk to the media (television, radio and newspapers) about their beliefs. Lennon and Ono were sometimes in trouble with people like politicians, who did not like the things they said. President Richard Nixon's administration even tried to deport Lennon, because of his political views. \n\nThe two things Lennon and Ono wanted most were to live permanently in the United States, and to have a child together. Their lives were stressful in the early 1970s for several reasons. There were the problems with immigrating to the United States, and with the search for Kyoko. The public were also sometimes negative toward Ono, her music, and her ideas. The couple had several miscarriages, caused partly by the stress.\n\nLennon also had business problems, because leaving the Beatles was not as simple as quitting an ordinary job. The Beatles had signed many contracts. They promised to do things in a certain way, meet deadlines, and work together, to be paid as musicians and songwriters. Many business deals had to be finished or changed, and new deals had to be made, to continue their music careers apart. This took time, and meant making many hard decisions. The four former Beatles could not always agree on what to do with the things they owned together. It took years to work out what to still own in common, what to divide up, and what to let go. The choices they had to make sometimes hurt their friendship.\n\nLennon and Ono separated for over a year, from late 1973 until early 1975, because of the stress in their lives, and their relationship. Each of them dated another person (Lennon pairing off with May Pang, his and Ono's personal assistant, and Ono with guitarist David Spinozza), and they were nearly divorced. They spoke nearly every day by telephone, however, and tried to work things out. They decided that they wanted to be together more than anyone else could want them apart, and they reunited.\n\nWhen Richard Nixon faced the Watergate crisis in 1974, it became more important than pushing Lennon out of the country. The deportation case against him was dropped. Lennon won the right to stay in America in 1975. Lennon and Ono also finally had a son, Sean Lennon, that October. Father and son shared the same birthday.\n\nLennon and Ono stopped making music for five years, to be able to spend more time together, and give Sean as much attention as he needed. They lived on Lennon's income from the music he already made. Ono became Lennon's business manager, and invested his money in real estate and organic farming. Her office was downstairs in the Dakota, the apartment building where they lived, so they were never far apart. Lennon became a full-time father to Sean, and he was proud to call himself a \"househusband\". They also visited Ono's family in Japan several times, and made other trips.\n\nIn 1980 Lennon and Ono began to write new music, as Sean got old enough to begin school. They recorded a new album titled Double Fantasy that year. A single from the album, \"(Just Like) Starting Over\", was a hit, and people welcomed Lennon back. Even people who had not liked Ono earlier now respected her, and more of them began to like her music. Lennon and Ono planned to start fresh, do a world tour, and record more albums.\n\nDeath \n\nOn 8 December 1980, Lennon was shot to death as he was going into his home, by a man named Mark David Chapman who was mentally ill. Even though he was ill, Chapman was still prosecuted for murdering Lennon. Chapman pled guilty to the murder the next year, and is still in prison today. He admitted later he was jealous of Lennon's fame and success, while his own life disappointed him. Chapman thought that killing Lennon would give his own life more meaning. He is always refused for parole, and is infamous (hated by many people).\n\nFans all over the world mourned Lennon's death. It made them feel that a special part of their lives was gone. Many met in New York's Central Park, near where Lennon and Ono lived, to say their goodbyes. Some played recordings of Lennon's music. Politicians and celebrities everywhere were sorry Lennon had died, even if they disliked him, because his music meant so much to so many people. Radio stations in the Soviet Union, where rock music was rarely allowed to be played, gave an hour over to Beatles recordings.\n\nThere was no funeral for Lennon, but Yoko Ono asked people everywhere to observe ten minutes of silence and prayer for him on Sunday, December 14, 1980, at 2:00 PM. At two o'clock, the music playing in Central Park stopped, and people all over the world fell silent for ten minutes. Other tributes came later, including songs by George Harrison (\"All Those Years Ago\"), Paul McCartney (\"Here Today\"), Elton John (\"Empty Garden (Hey Hey Johnny)\") and Queen (\"Life Is Real (Song for Lennon)\").\n\nLegacy \nLennon's music (with and after his Beatles years) is still played everywhere, and people are still touched by it. A series of radio programs were devoted to playing demoes of his songs. Young musicians play Lennon's records, and learn his music. Yoko Ono released an album of acoustic versions of many Lennon songs, to help musicians understand them better.\n\nThere is now a garden in Central Park in Lennon's memory called \"Strawberry Fields\" after one of Lennon's most popular songs, which in turn was named after a Salvation Army orphanage near his childhood home. On October 9, 1990, on what would have been Lennon's fiftieth birthday, \"Imagine\" was simulcast on radio and television stations all over the world, uniting people everywhere to remember Lennon and his music.\n\nAwards\n\nWith The Beatles \nBRIT Awards:\n 1977: Outstanding contribution to the recording industry during the past 25 years.\n 1977: Best British pop group of the past 25 years.\n 1977: Best British pop album of the past 25 years (for Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band). \n 1983: Outstanding contribution to music.\n\nSolo career \n 1982 Grammy Award - 1981 Album of the Year (for Double Fantasy) \n 1982 BRIT Awards - Outstanding contribution to music.\n In 2002, a 100 Greatest Britons BBC poll voted Lennon into eighth place.\n In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked Lennon number 38 on its list of \"The Immortals: The Fifty Greatest Artists of All Time\". \n In 2008, Rolling Stone magazine ranked Lennon number five on its list of \"100 Greatest Singers of All Time\".\n\nDiscography \n Unfinished Music No.1: Two Virgins (with Yoko Ono) (1968)\n Unfinished Music No.2: Life with the Lions (with Yoko Ono) (1969)\n Wedding Album (with Yoko Ono) (1969)\n Live Peace In Toronto (with Plastic Ono Band) (1969)\n John Lennon\/Plastic Ono Band (1970)\n Imagine (1971)\n Some Time in New York City (with Yoko Ono) (1972)\n Mind Games (1973)\n Walls and Bridges (1974)\n Rock 'n' Roll (1975)\n Double Fantasy (with Yoko Ono) (1980)\n Milk and Honey (with Yoko Ono) (1984)\n Live In New York City  (Recorded live in 1972) (1986)\n\nSingles\n\nMonuments and sculptures \n\n 1981 Los Angeles, USA, City Hall\u2013East, by Brett-Livingstone Strong. \n 2001 John Lennon Park, Havana, Cuba, by Jos\u00e9 Villa Sober\u00f3n \n 2002 John Lennon Airport, Liverpool, England \n 2005 A Coru\u00f1a, Spain, by Jose Luis Ribas\n 2006 Almer\u00eda, Spain, by Carmen Mudarra\n 2007 Imagine Peace Tower, Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland by Ono. \n 2007 Lima, Peru\n Liverpool, Cavern Pub\n \"Imagine Monument\", Strawberry Fields, Central Park, New York City \n Pla\u00e7a De John Lennon, on Travessera de Gr\u00e1cia in Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain\n\nReferences \n\n1940 births\n1980 deaths\nEnglish guitarists\nEnglish pianists\nEnglish murder victims\nEnglish rock singers\nEnglish singer-songwriters\n \nMurdered musicians\nMurders by firearm in the United States\nMusicians from Liverpool\nNonviolence advocates\nThe Beatles members\nMembers of the Order of the British Empire\nPeople murdered in New York (state)\nFormer Roman Catholics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":7711,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John%20Lennon","title":"John Lennon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Karajaan Sw\u00e9dia (Sw\u00e9dia: ) nya\u00e9ta hiji nagara Nordik di Skandinavia. Diwatesan ku Norw\u00e9gia di beulah kulon, Finlandia di w\u00e9tan kal\u00e9r, Selat Skagerrak jeung Selat Kattegat di kulon kidul, sarta Laut Baltik jeung Teluk Bothnia di beulah w\u00e9taneunnana. Sw\u00e9dia dihubungkeun jeung Denmark di beulah w\u00e9tan kiduleunnana ku Sasak Oresund.\n\nSw\u00e9dia miboga kapadetan pangeusi nu handap kajaba di wewengkon m\u00e9tropolitan, nu mana lolobana daratannana mangrupa leuweung. Nagara ieu miboga sumber alam cai, kayu jeung beusi nu r\u00e9a. Wargana ngarasakeun ngeunahna standar kahirupan nu luhur di hiji nagara nu sacara umum karasa mod\u00e9ren jeung liberal.\n\nDina pertengahan Abad Panengah (1397), miturut pungkasannana Jaman Viking (ca. 800-1100), Sw\u00e9dia jadi bagian tina Uni Kalmar babarengan jeung D\u00e9nmark sarta Norw\u00e9gia (Finlandia kiwari mangrupa bagian tina karajaan Sw\u00e9dia). Sw\u00e9dia ninggalkeun uni dina abad ka-16, sarta ampir henteu eureun-eureun perang jeung tatanggana salila sababaraha taun, hususna Rusia jeung D\u00e9nmark-Norw\u00e9gia nu ngahiji k\u00e9n\u00e9h, nu henteu kungsi narima kaluarna Sw\u00e9dia tina gabungan. Dina abad ka-17 Sw\u00e9dia nambah wilayahna alatan perang sarta jadi Kakuatan Ged\u00e9, dua kalieun ukurannana kiwari. Taun 1814 Sw\u00e9dia leungiteun karajaannana saperti Finlandia, nu sam\u00e9m\u00e9hna mangrupa bagian tina Karajaan Sw\u00e9dia. Ti 1814, Sw\u00e9dia jadi nagara dam\u00e9y, mak\u00e9 kawijakan luar nagri non-blok dina waktu dam\u00e9y sarta n\u00e9tralitas dina waktuna aya perang.\n\nSweden has been a major Europ\u00e9an exporter of beusi, tambaga jeung kayu since the Middle Ages. However, improved transportation and communication allowed it to utilize natural assets from different parts of the country on a far larger scale, most notably timber and iron ore. Economic liberalization as well as universal schooling contributed to the rapid industrialization, and by the 1890s the country had begun to develop an advanced manufacturing industry. In the 20th century, Sweden emerged as a welfare state; consequently, it usually ranks among the top countries in the UN Human Development Index.\n\nSajarah\n\nPrasajarah \n\nThe first population came to Sweden from the \u00e9ast. In the beginning the land was populated by Sami p\u00e9ople (see Fenno-Ugrian languages and cultures). Generally we can see that soon after the end of the last ice age, Sweden became populated by Indo-Europ\u00e9an hunter-gatherers and then farmers during the Nordic Stone Age (10 000 BC \u2013 1700 BC). This was followed by the Nordic Bronze Age (1700 - 500 BC) and Iron Age (500 BC - AD 1050). Societies in Sweden remained on the preliterate tribal and chiefdom levels to the 1st millennium AD.\nAt this time a lot of p\u00e9ople had access to this ar\u00e9a. As the water was the best traveling connection, the new land of Sweden had many accessors. The inhabitants of this time frame are p\u00e9ople from all over surrounding ar\u00e9as. The country borders did not exist.\n\nIt is not known when and how the kingdom of Sweden was born. Sweden was first mentioned in the 1st century, by Roman historian Tacitus, who wrote that the Suiones tribe lived out in the s\u00e9a and were powerful in both arms and ships. Tacitus expressed concern that these Swedes might ally with neighboring tribes and cause trouble for the Roman Empire. This referred to the inhabitants of \u00e9astern Sweden: Svealand, primarily around lake M\u00e4laren. From this tribe, Sweden derived its name (see Etymology of Sweden). The southern parts, on the other hand, were inhabited by the Geats in the G\u00f6taland territory, and Beowulf sp\u00e9aks of semi-legendary Swedish-Geatish wars in the 6th century. The northern part, Norrland, was according to him, populated by Sami and possibly p\u00e9ople related to the Finns (the northern men).\n\nThe Vikings were antigent travellers who were skillful tradesmen and even robbers. During the Viking Age of the 9th and 10th century, Swedish vikings travelled \u00e9ast starting from Sweden and Finland going to Baltic countries, and Russia, whose name probably comes from the Slavic name for these Vikings: Rus. There are res\u00e9archers who are having strong evidence for the name \"Roslagen\" being taken into the Finnish language as the country name \"Ruotsi.\" The name \"Ruotsi\" has been latterly referred to word Ryssi (foreigners). Their routes passed the rivers of Russia down south to Constantinople.\n\nJaman Pertemgahan \n\nWith Christianization in the 11th century, the country became consolidated, with its centre in the agricultural regions of \u00d6sterg\u00f6tland and V\u00e4sterg\u00f6tland and later on also in the water-ways of the northern Baltic and the Gulf of Finland. In the 14th century Sweden, like the rest of Europe, was struck by the Black Death (the Plague), with all its effect.\n\nDuring the Middle Ages, Christianity came to Sweden from the south by Catholic monks and nuns. Christianity came from the \u00e9ast to Finland possibly via the Vikings. Sweden expanded towards the northern part of the country, Lappland. Finland was still a part of Sweden from 1155 until 1809.\n\nIn 1389, Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united under a single monarch in a tr\u00e9aty known as the Kalmar Union. After several wars and disputes between these nations, King Gustav I of Sweden (House of Vasa) broke free from it in 1521 and established a nation state, considered the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards he rejected Catholicism and led Sweden to the Protestant Reformation. Gustav I is considered to be Sweden's \"Father of the Nation\".\n\nThe Emergence of a Great Power \n\nThe 17th century saw the rise of Sweden as one of the Great Powers in Europe, because of successful participation, initiated by King Gustav II Adolph, in the Thirty Years' War and by Charles X Gustav of Sweden in the The Deluge of Poland. During this time Sweden was a nation of some importance in northern Europe, but its overall standing was not comparable to that of Europe's l\u00e9ading nations. Sweden also acquired several mighty enemies and the gr\u00e9at power status crumbled in the 18th century, after the Great Northern War (1700 - 1721). Finally in 1809 there was a shift of the rule. The part of the country that was once named \u00d6sterland (\u00e9astern district) was left by Swedish forces in a battle 1809 in Sveaborg in Finland. Finland became an autonomous Duchy of Imperial Russia.\n\nAfter Denmark was def\u00e9ated in the Napoleonic wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel. Norway had m\u00e9anwhile declared itself independent and this led to the Campaign against Norway, which was fought in 1814. It ended with the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a union with Sweden that was not dissolved until 1905. But the campaign also signified the last of the Swedish wars.\n\nSajarah mod\u00e9ren \n\nThe 18th and 19th centuries saw a significant population incr\u00e9ase, which the writer Esaias Tegn\u00e9r in 1833 famously attributed to \"the peace, the (smallpox) vaccine, and the potatoes\", with the population doubling between 1750 and 1850. Many looked towards America for a better life, and although not affluent, many Swedes had sufficiently high incomes to be able to afford the boat tickets necessary to mak\u00e9 the journey across the Atlantic. It is believed that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States. In the \u00e9arly 20th century, more Swedes lived in Chicago than in Gothenburg (Sweden's second largest city). Most Swedish immigrants moved to the Midwestern United States, with a large population in Minnesota. Some Swedes also moved to Canada.\n\nSweden was traditionally less developed than Western Europe (though more affluent than much of \u00e9astern and Southern Europe); industrialization began in \u00e9arnest after 1870. During the late 19th century, Sweden was influenced by Protestant temperance movements, mainly of American origin. As a result of their intense propaganda, it is often claimed that alcohol consumption was unusually high in Sweden at this time. However, there is no factual ground for believing that alcohol consumption was higher than in other comparable countries.\n\nStrong grassroots movements sprung up during the latter half of the 19th century (unions, temperance groups, and independent religious groups). They were all based on democratic principles and built a strong base for Sweden's migration into a mod\u00e9rn parliamentary democracy, achieved by the time of World War I. As the Industrial Revolution progressed during the century, p\u00e9ople gradually began moving into cities to work in factories, and became involved in Socialist unions. A Socialist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of Parliamentarism, and the country was democratized.\n\nSajarah terahir \n\nBy the 1930s Sweden had achieved one of Europe's highest living standards.\n\nSweden remained neutral during World War I and World War II as claimed by itself, although its neutrality during World War II has been highly debated. Sweden was forcibly under German influence for most of the war, as ties to the rest of the world were cut off through blockades. The Swedish government felt that it was in no position to openly disagree with Germany, but it did attempt to help the Allies in secret. Many refugees were saved partly because of Sweden's neutrality, among them many Jews. (See further Sweden during World War II).\n\nFollowing the war, Sweden took advantage of intact industrial base, social stability and its natural resources, making it possible to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe, l\u00e9ading it to be one of the richest countries in the world by 1960. Sweden was part of the Marshall Plan but continued to stay non-aligned during the Cold War, and is still not a member of any military alliance. During most of the post-war era, the country was governed by the Swedish Social Democratic Party (in Swedish: Socialdemokraterna) and established a welfare state, striving for a \"well being for all\"-policy.\n\nSweden joined the European Union in 1995. During the Cold War, Europe's non-aligned Western countries, except Ireland, had considered membership unwise as the then Europ\u00e9an Community, although not involved in military co-operation, was strongly associated with NATO countries; following the end of the Cold War, Sweden, Austria and Finland joined. However, in a 2003 consultative referendum, Swedish citizens declined to adopt the Euro. Sweden remains non-aligned militarily although it participates in some joint military exercises with NATO (and other) countries and has extensive cooperation with other Europ\u00e9an countries in the ar\u00e9a of defence technology and defence industry. Sweden has a long history of participating in international military operations, including most recently, Afghanistan, where Swedish troops are under NATO command, and in EU sponsored p\u00e9ace keeping operations in Kosovo and Bosnia.\n\nSweden's economic performance worsened beginning in the 1970s. Following a recession in the \u00e9arly 1990s as a result of global economic slowdown, m\u00e9asures were taken to liberalize the economy. Although the basis of the welfare state have been maintained a number of economic reforms have been implemented, including a reform of the pension system, privatization of state-owned companies and liberalization of markets. The economic situation has improved significantly since then with growth rates outpacing those of the Eurozone.\n\nSweden has had two political murders in recent history: those of Prime Minister Olof Palme in 1986 and foreign-minister Anna Lindh in 2003.\n\nG\u00e9ografi \n\nAt 449,964\u00a0km\u00b2 (173,720 square miles), Sweden is the 55th largest country in the world, the 3rd largest in Europe and the 1st largest in Northern Europe. The country is somewhat larger than the U.S. state of California, and in 2006 it had a population of 9.1 million p\u00e9ople.\n\n\u00e9ast of Sweden lies the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia, providing a long coastline, and mellowing the climate. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain (Skanderna), a range that separates Sweden from Norway.\n\nThe southern part of the country is predominantly agricultural, with forests covering a larger percentage of the land the further north one goes. Population density is also higher in southern Sweden, with centres being in the valley of lake M\u00e4laren and the \u00d6resund region.\n\nGotland and \u00d6land are the largest islands of Sweden.\n\nSweden enjoys a mostly temperate climate despite its northern latitude, mainly because of the Gulf Stream. In the south of Sweden, l\u00e9af-b\u00e9aring trees are prolific, further north pines, spruces and in the very north hardy birches dominate the landscape. In the mountains of northern Sweden a sub-Arctic climate predominates. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of \u00e9ach summer, and in the winter, night is unending for a corresponding period.\n\nBabagian administratif\n\nCounty \n\nSw\u00e9dia kabagi jadi 21 county atawa , nya\u00e9ta County Stockholm,\nCounty Uppsala,\nCounty S\u00f6dermanland,\nCounty \u00d6sterg\u00f6tland,\nCounty J\u00f6nk\u00f6ping,\nCounty Kronoberg,\nCounty Kalmar,\nCounty Gotland,\nCounty Blekinge,\nCounty Sk\u00e5ne,\nCounty Halland,\nCounty V\u00e4stra G\u00f6taland,\nCounty V\u00e4rmland,\nCounty \u00d6rebro,\nCounty V\u00e4stmanland,\nCounty Dalarna,\nCounty G\u00e4vleborg,\nCounty V\u00e4sternorrland,\nCounty J\u00e4mtland,\nCounty V\u00e4sterbotten and\nCounty Norrbotten.\n\n\u00e9ach has a County Administrative Board or l\u00e4nsstyrelse (the first Swedish County Administrative Board was made up by the Swedish Prime minister Axel Oxenstierna in 1634), which is appointed by the Government. In \u00e9ach county there is also a separate County Council or landsting, which is the municipal representation appointed by the county electorate. \u00e9ach county further divides into a number of municipalities or kommuner, making a total of 290 municipalities, in 2004. There are also older historical divisions of Sweden, primarily into the 25 provinces and three lands. These divisions are still significant.\n\nMunisipalitas panglegana \n\nDi handap nunjukkeun pangeusi di wewengkon munisipalitas (kommun). Lega diitung dina km\u00b2. Gambar dumasar data 31 Maret 2006.\n\nD\u00e9mografi \n\nSweden has one of the world's highest life expectancies. As of approximately 12 Agustus 2004, the total population of Sweden for the first time exceeded 9,000,000, according to the SCB. As of February 2006, the population was 9,060,430. About 86.7% of the population is ethnic Swedish. The largest non-Swedish ethnic group are the Finns, who mak\u00e9 up about 5% of the whole population and in the ar\u00e9as n\u00e9ar the border to Finland 50% of the population. A big group that has immigrated is from former Yugoslavia and the Middle \u00e9ast. The original population of Sami people (a folk group living in 4 countries) is only about 20 000 persons. Approximately 77,500 of the nation's population is of sub-Saharan African ancestry.\n\nSweden has been transformed from a nation of emigration ending after World War I to a nation of immigration from World War II onwards. Currently, almost 12% of the residents were born abroad, and about one fifth of Sweden's population are either immigrants or the children of immigrants. The largest immigrant groups are from Finland, the former Yugoslavia, the Middle East and other Nordic Countries, in that order. This reflects the inter-Nordic migrations, \u00e9arlier periods of labour immigration, and later decades of refugee and family immigration.\n\nSoviet intervention against the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and the 1968 Czechoslovak liberalization resulted in the first surges of intellectual political refugees. Some American deserters from the Vietnam War also found refuge among the Swedes, who in international politics took a cl\u00e9ar stand against what they typically viewed as imperialism executed by both the Soviet Union and the United States. Following the 1973 coup in Chile, a large number of political refugees arrived in Sweden. Others came from South American countries like Argentina and Uruguay following the rise of military dictatorships. Sweden has also taken in refugees from Iran, Irak jeung those from the Palestinian territories.\n\nBasa \n\nSwedish is a North Germanic language, related and very similar to Danish and Norwegian, but differing in pronunciation and orthography. Sweden has no basa resmi but Swedish holds a de facto status as such. The dominant language has always been Swedish and there has previously never been a political need to mak\u00e9 it an official language. However, with the recognition of five minority languages of Sweden (Finnish, Me\u00e4nkieli, Sami, Romani and Yiddish) on 1 April, 2000, the issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language was raised. On 7 D\u00e9s\u00e9mber 2005, the parliament voted on this issue, but with a count of 147 to 145 because of voting errors by some members of parliament the proposal to mak\u00e9 Swedish the official language failed. It was, however, strengthened as the principal language in that same proposal.\n\nA majority of Swedes, especially those born after World War II, are able to understand and sp\u00e9ak English thanks to trade links, the popularity of overs\u00e9as travel, a strong Anglo-American influence and the tradition of subtitling rather than dubbing foreign television shows and films. English became a compulsory subject for secondary school students studying natural sciences as \u00e9arly as 1849 and has\nbeen a compulsory subject for all Swedish students since the late 1940s. Depending on the local school authorities, English is currently a compulsory subject from third until ninth grade, and all students continuing in secondary school study English for at l\u00e9ast another y\u00e9ar. Most students also l\u00e9arn one and sometimes two additional languages; the most popular being Spanish, German, French. Some Danish and Norwegian is, at times, also taught as part of the Swedish course taught to native sp\u00e9akers of Swedish to emphasize differences and similarities between the two languages.\n\nPulitik\n\nSistim pulitik \nSweden is a constitutional monarchy, in which King Carl XVI Gustaf is h\u00e9ad of state, but royal power has long been limited to official and ceremonial functions.\n\nThe nation's legislature is the Swedish Parliament (Riksdag), with 349 members. Parliamentary elections are held every four y\u00e9ars, on the third Sunday of September.\n\nSweden has been a monarchy for almost a millennium, with its taxation controlled by the Riksdag (parliament). It consisted of two chambers, made up by representatives from the 4 estates: clergy, nobility, townsmen and peasants, until 1866 when Sweden became a Constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. Its First Chamber was indirectly elected by local governments, and the Second Chamber directly elected in national elections every four y\u00e9ars.\n\nLegislative power was (symbolically) shared between king and parliament until 1975. In 1971 the Riksdag became unicameral. Constitutionally, the 349-member Riksdag holds supreme authority in Sweden, and its acts are not subject to compulsory judicial review, although the review carried out by lagr\u00e5det (Law Council) is typically respected. Acts of the parliament must be made inapplicable at every level if they are obviously against constitutional laws.\n\nLegislation may be initiated by the Cabinet or by members of Parliament. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-y\u00e9ar term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a supermajority and confirmation after the following general elections. Sweden has three other constitutional laws: the Act of Royal Succession, the Freedom of Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression.\n\nExecutive power was shared between the King and a noble Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the common estates of the Parliament. As a r\u00e9action to the failed Great Northern War, Parliamentarism was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of Constitutional Monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. The monarch remains as the formal, but merely symbolic head of state with ceremonial duties.\n\nThe Swedish Social Democratic Party has played a l\u00e9ading political role since 1917, after Reformists had confirmed their strength and the revolutionaries left the party. After 1932, the Cabinets have been dominated by the Social Democrats. Only four general elections (1976, 1979, 1991 and 2006) have given the centre-right bloc enough s\u00e9ats in Parliament to form a government. It is considered the r\u00e9ason for the Swedish post-war welfare state, with government expenditure of slightly more than 50% of the gross domestic product. In the 2006 general election the Moderate Party, allied with the Centre Party, Liberal P\u00e9ople's Party, and the Christian Democrats, with a common political platform, won a majority of the votes. Together they have formed a majority government under the l\u00e9adership of the Moderate party's l\u00e9ader Fredrik Reinfeldt.\n\nThe following political parties hold s\u00e9ats in the Riksdag (the most recent elections were held in September 2006; the next elections will be held in September 2010):\n Socialdemokraterna (s, Social Democrats): 130 s\u00e9ats, 35.0% (2002: 39.8% of votes, 144 s\u00e9ats)\n Moderaterna (m, Moderates): 97 s\u00e9ats, 26.2% (2002: 15.2% of votes, 55 s\u00e9ats)\n Centerpartiet (c, Centre Party): 29 s\u00e9ats, 7.9% (2002: 22 s\u00e9ats, 6.1% of votes)\n Folkpartiet liberalerna (fp, Liberal Party): 28 s\u00e9ats, 7.5% (2002: 13.3% of votes, 48 s\u00e9ats)\n Kristdemokraterna (kd, Christian Democrats): 24 s\u00e9ats, 6.6% (2002: 33 s\u00e9ats, 9.1% of votes)\n V\u00e4nsterpartiet (v, Left Party): 22 s\u00e9ats, 5.8% (2002: 28 s\u00e9ats, 8.3% of votes)\n Milj\u00f6partiet (mp, Greens): 19 s\u00e9ats, 5.2% (2002: 17 s\u00e9ats, 4.6% of votes)\n Other parties (Sveriged\u00e9mokraterna, Feministiskt initiativ, Piratpartiet, Junilistan, Sjukv\u00e5rdspartiet) 5.7%\n\nSweden has a history of strong political involvement by ordinary p\u00e9ople through its \"popular movements\" (\"Folkr\u00f6relser\" in Swedish), the most notable being trade unions, the women's movement, the temperance movement, and - more recently - the sports movement. Election turnout in Sweden has always been high in international comparisons, although it has declined in recent decades, and is currently around 80% (80.11 in Sweden general election, 2002, 81.99 in Sweden general election, 2006).\n\nSome Swedish political figures that have become known worldwide include Raoul Wallenberg, Folke Bernadotte, Dag Hammarskj\u00f6ld former Secretary General of the United Nations, Olof Palme, former Prime Minister, Carl Bildt former Prime Minister and currently Foreign minister, Jan Eliasson the pr\u00e9sid\u00e9nt of the General Assembly of the United Nations and Hans Blix former IAEA inspector in Iraq.\n\nPulitik \u00e9n\u00e9rgi \nKeur katerangan leuwih j\u00e9ntr\u00e9 ngeunaan jejer ieu, tempo: Nuclear power phase-out in Sweden; Oil phase-out in Sweden\n\nThe 1973 oil crisis strengthened Sweden's commitment to decr\u00e9ase dependence on imported fossil fuels. Since then, electricity has been generated mostly from hydropower and nucl\u00e9ar power. Among other things, the accident of Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (AS) prompted the Swedish parliament to hold a referendum on nucl\u00e9ar power. The referendum led to a decision that no further nucl\u00e9ar power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. As of 2005, the use of renewables amounted to 26% of the energy supply in Sweden, most important being hydropower and, on a far smaller scale, biomass. In 2003, electricity from hydropower accounted for 53 TWh and 40% of the country's production of electricity with nucl\u00e9ar power delivering 65 TWh (49%). At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 13 TWh of electricity.\n\nIn Maret 2005, an opinion poll showed that 83% supported maintaining or incr\u00e9asing nucl\u00e9ar power. Since then however, reports about radioactive l\u00e9akages at a nucl\u00e9ar waste store in Forsmark, Sweden, have been published. This does not seem to have changed the public support of continued use of nucl\u00e9ar power.\n\nSweden decided to phase out nuclear fission before 2020, although it is very unlikely that this will happen.\n\nKawijakan luar nagri \nThroughout the 20th century, Swedish foreign policy was based on the principle of non-alignment in p\u00e9acetime and neutrality in wartime.\n\nSweden has been known as one of, if not the most, diplomatically neutral state during times of war. Dating back to World War II Sweden did not favour any one side. This has been disputed by many since in effect Sweden allowed the Nazi regime to use its railroad system to transport troops and goods, especially iron ore from the rich mines in northern Sweden, something the German war machine was in desperate need of. This also carries on to Cold War \u00e9ra politics in which Sweden was not under the Warsaw Pact and received only minimal aid from the Marshall Plan and remained neutral for quite some time. Sweden was also known to be the first western nation to detect unusually high radiation levels in the atmosphere, which later was confirmed to have been the residual nucl\u00e9ar fallout from the Chernobyl accident.\n\nDuring the \u00e9arly Cold War era, Sweden combined its policy of non-alignment with a low profile in international affairs. At the same time, the country maintained relatively close informal connections with the Western bloc, especially in the r\u00e9alm of intelligence exchange. In 1952 a Swedish DC-3 was shot down over the Baltic s\u00e9a by a Soviet Fighter. Later investigations rev\u00e9aled that the plane was actually gathering information for NATO. Another plane, a Catalina search and rescue craft, was sent out a few days later and shot down by the Soviets as well.\n\nBeginning in the late 1960s, Sweden for a period attempted to play a more significant and independent role in international relations. This involved significant activity in international p\u00e9ace efforts, especially through the United Nations, and in support to the Third World. Since the murder of Olof Palme in 1986 and the end of the Cold War, this has been significantly toned down, although Sweden is still comparatively active in p\u00e9ace keeping missions and maintains a generous foreign aid budget.\n\nIn 1981 a Soviet Whiskey class submarine ran aground close to the Swedish naval base at Karlskrona in the southern part of the country. It has never been cl\u00e9arly established whether the submarine ended up on the shoals through a navigational mistake or if it was a matter of espionage against Swedish military potential. The incident triggered a diplomatic crisis between Sweden and the Soviet Union.\n\nSince 1995 Sweden has been a member of the European Union, and as a consequence of a new world security situation the country's foreign policy doctrine has been partly modified, with Sweden playing a more active role in Europ\u00e9an security co-operation as well.\n\nMilit\u00e9r \n\nThe Swedish Armed Forces (Swedish: F\u00f6rsvarsmakten) is a Government agency responsible for the p\u00e9acetime operation of the armed forces of Sweden. The primary task of the agency is to train and deploy p\u00e9ace support forces abroad, while maintaining the long-term ability to refocus on the defense of the country in the event of war. The Armed Forces is branched into Army, Air Force and Navy. As a Government agency, it reports to the Swedish Ministry of Defence. The h\u00e9ad of armed forces is the Commander-in-Chief of the Swedish Armed Forces (\u00d6verbef\u00e4lhavaren, \u00d6B), beside the Sovereign the most senior officer in the country.\n\nSweden's military is built on conscription, and until the end of the Cold War n\u00e9arly all males r\u00e9aching the age of military service were conscripted. In recent y\u00e9ars, the number of conscripted males has reduced dramatically, while the number of female volunteers has incr\u00e9ased slightly. Recruitment has generally shifted towards finding the most motivated recruits, rather than solely on the otherwise most fit for service. All soldiers serving abroad are by law required to be volunteers. In 1975 the total number of conscripts was 45,000. By 2003 it was down to 15,000. After the Defense Proposition 2004, the number of troops in training will decr\u00e9ase even more to between 5000 and 10000 \u00e9ach y\u00e9ar, which emphasizes the need to recruit only the soldiers later prepared to volunteer for international service.\n\nDuring the y\u00e9ars Swedish units have taken part in p\u00e9acekeeping operations, in Congo, Cyprus, Bosnia, Kosovo and Afghanistan.\n\nCurrently, one of the most important tasks for the Swedish Armed Forces is to form a Swedish-led EU Battle Group to which Norway, Finland and Estonia will also contribute. The Nordic Battlegroup (NBG) is to have a 10-day deployment r\u00e9adiness during the first half of 2008.\n\n\u00c9konomi \n\nSweden is an export oriented market economy f\u00e9aturing a mod\u00e9rn distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy h\u00e9avily oriented toward foreign trade. The engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. Telecommunications, the automotive industry and the pharmaceutical industries are of gr\u00e9at importance. Agriculture accounts for 2% of GDP and employment.\n\nSweden's industry is overwhelmingly in private control; unlike some other industrialized Western countries, such as Austria and Italy, publicly owned enterprises were always of minor importance. 80% of the workforce is organized through the trade-unions which have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees.\n\nThe Swedish Riksbank - founded in 1668 and thus making it the oldest central bank in the world - is focusing on price stability with its inflation target of 2%. Growth is expected to r\u00e9ach 3.3% in 2006. High taxes have however ensured a higher degree of government influence on household consumption decisions than in most other Western nations. Public sector spending amounts to 53% of the GDP; the high figure primarily reflects the large transfer payments of the Swedish welfare state. \n\nSwedish unemployment figures are highly contested, with the Social-Democrats defending the official figure of 5.4% (as of 2006) and the centre-right Alliance for Sweden claiming a much higher figure. These numbers do not, however, include unemployed p\u00e9ople in government programmes (about 2% of the workforce), p\u00e9ople on extended sick-l\u00e9ave, those in \u00e9arly retirement or those outside the unemployment system. Unemployment is higher amongst younger p\u00e9ople. Many Swedes work abroad in Denmark, Norway and even the UK, where they are desired and viewed as a skilled workforce. Because of the contradiction - unemployment and a growing commercial enterprise economy, politicians and analysts often sp\u00e9ak of the \"jobless growth\".\n\nSweden is known for having an even distribution of income, with a Gini coefficient at 0.21 in 2001 (one of the most even income distributions in the industrialized world). However Sweden still b\u00e9ars scars from the economic crisis in the 1990s, induced by a glitch in the economic system and poor l\u00e9adership. The crisis resulted in thousands of p\u00e9ople unemployed and a gr\u00e9at national debt. Two remnants of the event are the gr\u00e9at economic segregation in the country and the national debt of approximately 1245 billion Swedish Krona (approx. \u20ac133 billion , 09.2006).\n\nKasajahtraan \n\nIn recent y\u00e9ars, economic liberalization has ensured that Sweden is now more similar to other high tax Europ\u00e9an countries. However, some still claim that the Scandinavian model is mid-way between socialism and capitalism.\n\nLike many other industrialized countries, especially in Western Europe, Sweden has a large welfare state. However, it is unusually extensive in Sweden. The state provides for tax-funded childcare, parental l\u00e9ave, a ceiling on h\u00e9alth care costs, tax-funded education (all levels up to, and including university), retirement pensions, tax-funded dental care up to 20 y\u00e9ars of age and sick leave (partly paid by the employer). Parents are entitled to a total of 480 days partly paid l\u00e9ave between birth and the child's eighth birthday, with 60 days reserved specifically for \u00e9ach parent, in effect providing the father with two so-called \"daddy-months\". In addition, the ceiling on h\u00e9alth care costs makes it \u00e9asier, relative to other nations, for Swedish workers to take time off for medical r\u00e9asons.\n\nThe Swedish welfare system remains extensive, but a recession in the 1990s forced an introduction of a number of reforms, such as education vouchers in 1992 and decentralization of some types of h\u00e9althcare services to municipal control.\n\nThe welfare state requires high taxes. Since the late 1960s, Sweden has had the highest tax quota (as percentage of GDP) in the industrialized world, but today the difference is only a couple of percentage points of GDP above that of other high-tax countries such as France, Belgium and Denmark. Sweden has a two step progressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and an additional high-income state tax of 20-25% when a salary exceeds roughly 300 000 SEK per y\u00e9ar. The employing company pays an additional 32% of an \"employer's fee\". In addition, a national VAT of 25% or 18% is added to many things bought by private citizens, with the exception of food (12% VAT), transportation, and books (6% VAT). Certain items are taxed at higher rates, e.g. petrol\/diesel and alcoholic beverages.\n\nPangatikan \n\nAs part of its social welfare system, Sweden provides an extensive childcare system that guarantees a place for all young children from 1\u20135 y\u00e9ars old in a public day-care facility (f\u00f6rskola or dagis). Between ages 6\u201316, children attend compulsory comprehensive school, divided in three stages. After completing the ninth grade, 90% continue with a three-y\u00e9ar upper secondary school (gymnasium) l\u00e9ading sometimes to a vocational diploma and often to qualifications for further studies at a university or university college (h\u00f6gskola). Both upper secondary school and university studies are financed by taxes. Some Swedes go straight to work after secondary school.\n\nAgeman \n\nBefore the 11th century, p\u00e9ople of Sweden adhered to Norse paganism, worshiping \u00c6sir gods, with its centre at the Temple in Uppsala. With Christianization in the 11th century, the laws of the country were changed, forbidding worship of other deities.\n\nAfter the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s the Church and State were separated, abolishing the authority of the Roman Catholic bishops, and in the long run allowed only Lutheranism to prevail. This process was not completed until the Uppsala Synod 1593. During the \u00e9ra following the Reformation, usually known as the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, in the 17th century, small groups of non-Lutherans, especially Calvinist Dutchmen and Walloons who played a significant role in trade and industry, were quietly tolerated as long as they kept a low religious profile. The Sami originally had their own shamanistic religion, but they were converted to Lutheranism by Swedish missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries.\n\nNot until liberalization in the late 18th century, were believers of other faiths, including Judaism and Catholicism, allowed to openly live and work in Sweden, although it remained illegal until 1860 for Lutheran Swedes to convert to another religion. The 19th century saw the arrival of various evangelical free churches, and, towards the end of the century secularism began attracting attention, l\u00e9ading p\u00e9ople to distance themselves from Church rituals. L\u00e9aving the Church of Sweden became legal with the so-called dissenter law of 1860, but only under the provision of entering another denomination. The right to stand outside any religious denomination was established in the Law on Freedom of Religion in 1951. Today about 78% of Swedes belong to the Church of Sweden, but the number is decr\u00e9asing by about one per cent every y\u00e9ar, and Church of Sweden services are sparsely attended (hovering in the single digit percentages of the population). The r\u00e9ason for the large number of inactive members is that until 1996, all children became members automatically at birth, if at l\u00e9ast one of their parents were a member. Since 1996, all children that are baptised become members. Some 275,000 Swedes are today members of various free churches (where congregation attendance is much higher), and, in addition, immigration has m\u00e9ant that there are now some 92,000 Roman Catholics and 100,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians living in Sweden. Due to immigration, Sweden also has a significant Muslim population. As many as 500,000 are Muslims by tradition and between 80,000 - 400,000 of these are practicing Muslims. (See also Islam in Sweden)\n\nAccording to the most recent Eurostat \"Eurobarometer\" poll, in 2005, 23% of Swedish citizens responded that \"they believe there is a god\", wher\u00e9as 53% answered that \"they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force\" and 23% that \"they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force\".\n\nBudaya \n\nSwedish authors of worldwide recognition include Henning Mankell, Carolus Linnaeus (the father of botany), Emanuel Swedenborg, August Strindberg, Selma Lagerl\u00f6f, Vilhelm Moberg, Harry Martinson and Astrid Lindgren, the author of the Pippi Longstocking books.\n\nSweden made its first contributions to Western culture and science in the mid 18th century. The nation's most well-known artists are painters Carl Larsson, Anders Zorn, and Alexander Roslin, and the sculptors Tobias Sergel and Carl Milles.\n\nSome well-known inventions and discoveries, historical and mod\u00e9rn, were made by Swedes. Some notable figures are Alfred Nobel, Anders Celsius, Baltzar von Platen, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, J\u00f6ns Jakob Berzelius, John Ericsson, Anders Jonas \u00c5ngstr\u00f6m, Lars Magnus Ericsson, Svante Arrhenius, Arvid Carlsson, H\u00e5kan Lans.\n\nSwedish 20th century culture is noted by pioneering works in the \u00e9arly days of cinema, with Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sj\u00f6str\u00f6m. In the 1920s\u20131980s, the filmmakers Ingmar Bergman and Bo Widerberg received Academy Awards, and actresses Greta Garbo, Ingrid Bergman, Ann-Margret, Lena Olin, Zarah Leander, and Anita Ekberg made careers abroad. The actors Max von Sydow, Stellan Skarsg\u00e5rd, Dolph Lundgren and Peter Stormare are also worth mentioning. More recently, the films of Lukas Moodysson and Lasse Hallstr\u00f6m have received international recognition.\n\nThroughout the 1960s and 1970s Sweden was perceived as an international l\u00e9ader in what is now referred to as the \"sexual revolution\", with gender equality particularly promoted. At the present time, the number of single p\u00e9ople is one of the highest in the world. Some Swedish films reflected a liberal view of sexuality, including scenes of love making that caught international attention, and introduced the concept of the \"Swedish sin\". However, Sweden was at that time not as sexually liberal as p\u00e9ople believed. Sweden has also become, in recent decades, fairly liberal regarding homosexuality, as is reflected in the popular acceptance of films such as Fucking \u00c5m\u00e5l (In English: Show Me Love), and the popular writer Jonas Gardell, among others. In Sweden many gay and lesbian celebrities live openly without causing a stir, much as in many other Western countries. Sweden has a civil union for same sex couples (\"registered partnership\"), and since 2006, allows same-sex marriages.\n\nMusik \n\nSw\u00e9dia beunghar ku tradisi musik, ti mimiti balada kuno abad pertengahan nepikeun ka house music. The music of the pre-Christian Norse has been lost to history, although there have been historical attempts to recr\u00e9ate how it could have sounded based on instruments found in Viking sites. Instruments used were the lur (a sort of trumpet), simple string instruments, wooden flutes and drums. It is possible that the Viking musical legacy lives on in some of the old Swedish folk music.\n\nCarl Michael Bellman, Wilhelm Stenhammar, Wilhelm Peterson-Berger, Hugo Alfv\u00e9n, Franz Berwald, jeung Johan Helmich Roman are among Sweden's gr\u00e9at classical composers. The best-known opera singers are the 19th century soprano Jenny Lind and the 20th century tenor Jussi Bj\u00f6rling, who had gr\u00e9at success abroad. Bj\u00f6rling is considered by many to be the epitome of a gr\u00e9at tenor. Also sopranos Christina Nilsson, Birgit Nilsson, and tenor Nicolai Gedda, baritone H\u00e5kan Hageg\u00e5rd and the contemporary mezzo-soprano Anne-Sofie von Otter have become known in the world of opera.\n\nEvert Taube, Povel Ramel, Cornelis Vreeswijk are all popular mod\u00e9rn troubadours, considered to be classics in Swedish music.\n\nABBA is without a doubt the most well-known popular music group from Sweden, and the only one that ranks among the most well-known in the world. ABBA were Agnetha F\u00e4ltskog, Bj\u00f6rn Ulvaeus, Anni-Frid Lyngstad, and Benny Andersson, and whose first name initials cr\u00e9ate the palindrome \"ABBA.\" With ABBA, Sweden entered into a new era, in which Swedish pop music gained international prominence. Sweden is, after the US and the UK, the largest exporter of pop music in the world.Some of the most successful post-ABBA popular music artists from Sweden are Roxette, Ace of Base, Carola H\u00e4ggkvist, Army of Lovers, Robyn, A*Teens, The Cardigans, Europe, Alcazar, Play, and guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen. A number of bands with less emphasis on pop music have come out of the country in recent y\u00e9ars, including Eskobar, Clawfinger, The Sounds, Jos\u00e9 Gonz\u00e1lez, The Hives, Hardcore Superstar, Millencolin, Sahara Hotnights, The Hellacopters, Kent, The Ark, Infinite Mass, Love is All, I'm From Barcelona, The Knife,The Shout Out Louds, Looptroop, Caesars and Stefan Olsdal of Placebo. Such has been the success of music abroad that clubs specializing in Swedish music have sprung up in major cities like, Berlin, Barcelona and London where the likes of Tack!Tack!Tack! the Monthly Swedish Music club is produced.\n\nIn underground circles, Sweden is known for a large number of heavy metal (mostly death metal and melodic death metal), as well as Progressive bands. Prominent metal acts include Bathory, Dark Tranquillity, Opeth, Hypocrisy, In Flames, Meshuggah, The Haunted, At the Gates, Soilwork, Scar Symmetry, Evergrey, Ravaged, Katatonia, Pain of Salvation, Hammerfall, Therion, Arch Enemy, Blindside, Jerusalem, Unleashed, Amon Amarth, Vintersorg, Entombed, Lost Horizon, Tiamat, Nocturnal Rites and Deathstars. Successful progressive\/psychedelic acts are for example Bo Hansson, Dungen, Anekdoten, Morte Macabre, Paatos, Trettio\u00e5riga Kriget and Mecki Mark Men\n\nIn the synth world, the band S.P.O.C.K is still active after 18 y\u00e9ars. Sweden is also responsible for the Swechno scene, offering a distinct house and techno sound, of which artists like Adam Beyer is famous. More recently, the so-called Swedish House Mafia including Steve Angello, Sebastian Ingrosso, Axwell, and Eric Prydz have topped the house music charts and DJ top 10s around the world. Also worth mentioning are Joakim Th\u00e5str\u00f6m and his punk band Ebba Gr\u00f6n. Sweden is also home to several influential emo and hardcore punk bands, such as Fireside, The Last Days Of April, Kelly 8 and landmark post-hardcore band Refused. In the last y\u00e9ar, Basshunter has become popular with his eurodance songs, mostly about computer games.\nSweden is also known in the hardcore world for more aggressive bands like Mob 47, Anti Cimex and The S**tlickers.\n\nIn the world of jazz, Monica Zetterlund achieved international renown, both as a singer and as an actress. Other names worth mentioning are Alice Babs, Jan Johansson, Arne Domnerus, Georg Riedel, Putte Wickman, George Wadenius, Bengt Hallberg, Lars Gullin, Ulf Wakenius, Magnus Lindgren, and Esbj\u00f6rn Svensson Trio.\n\nSome groups and artists who are not as well-known internationally but are recognized in Sweden include Peter J\u00f6back, Lill-Babs Svensson, Ted G\u00e4rdestad, Gyllene Tider, Helen Sj\u00f6holm, and Patrik Isaksson.\n\nSweden also has a significant folk-music scene, both in the traditional style as well as more mod\u00e9rn interpretations which often mix in elements of rock and jazz. V\u00e4sen is more of a traditionalist group, using a unique traditional Swedish instrument called the nyckelharpa while Garmarna, Nordman, and Hedningarna have more mod\u00e9rn elements. Lena Willemark is a popular folk musician. There is also Saami music, called the joik, which is actually a type of chant which is part of the traditional Saami animistic spirituality but has gained recognition in the international world of folk music as well.\n\nABBA-members Benny Andersson and Bj\u00f6rn Ulvaeus have been very successful in musical th\u00e9atre, with their international hit Mamma Mia!, as well as Chess, and Kristina fr\u00e5n Duvem\u00e5la, which was a huge success in Sweden. An English version is expected to hit Broadway in 2007.\n\nM\u00e9dia \n\nSwedes are among the gr\u00e9atest consumers of newspapers in the world, and n\u00e9arly every town is served by a local paper. The country's main quality morning papers are Dagens Nyheter (liberal), G\u00f6teborgs-Posten (liberal), Svenska Dagbladet (conservative) and Sydsvenska Dagbladet (liberal). The two largest evening tabloids are Aftonbladet (social democratic) and Expressen (centrist). The ad-financed, free international morning paper, Metro International, was originally founded in Stockholm, Sweden. The country's news is reported in English by, among others, The Local (liberal).\n\nFor many y\u00e9ars Swedish television consisted solely of the two channels broadcast by the public service company Sveriges Television, which, as in most other Europ\u00e9an countries, is financed through a radio and TV license. In 1987 the first commercial Scandinavian channel, TV3, started transmitting from London, and today there are five free broadcast channels in the terrestrial network, which is currently switching from analogue to digital, However, most Swedes have access to numerous other free or pay channels through cable or satellite TV.\n\nPo\u00e9 per\u00e9 \n\nApart from traditional Protestant Christian holidays, Sweden also celebrates some unique holidays, some of a pre-Christian tradition. They include Midsummer, celebrating the summer solstice; Walpurgis Night on 30 April lighting bonfires; Labour Day on May 1 is dedicated to socialist demonstrations; and 13 D\u00e9s\u00e9mber, the day of Saint Lucia the lightgiver. 6 Juni is National Day of Sweden and as of 2005 a public holiday. Furthermore, there are official flag day observances and a Namesdays in Sweden calendar. In August many Swedes have kr\u00e4ftskivor (crayfish dinner parties). More regional variants are the surstr\u00f6mming parties in Northern Sweden (surstr\u00f6mming is a type of fermented fish), and \u00e5lagillen (eel parties) in Sk\u00e5ne. The Sami, one of Sweden's indigenous minorities, have their holiday on 6 P\u00e9bruari.\n\nKadaharan \n\nSwedish cuisine, like that of the other Skandinavian countries (Denmark and Norway), is traditionally simple. Lauk, daging jeung kentang mangrupa kadaharan utama. Spices are sparse. Famous dishes include Swedish m\u00e9atballs (k\u00f6ttbullar \u2014 traditionally served with gravy, boiled potatoes and lingonberry jam), pl\u00e4ttar (Swedish pancakes, served with jam), lutfisk, the sm\u00f6rg\u00e5s (open-faced sandwich), and the famous 'Sm\u00f6rg\u00e5sbord' or lavish buffet. Aquavit, or akvavit, is a popular celebratory alcoholic drink made with potatoes and herbs such as caraway seeds.\n\nKas\u00e9hatan publik \nSweden ranks in the top five countries with respect to infant mortality. It also ranks high in life expectancy and in safe drinking water. H\u00e9althcare in Sweden is viewed as very developed. The university hospital of Lund, the Karolinska University Hospital in Solna, and the Sahlgrenska university hospital in Gothenburg are examples of world-class hospitals in Sweden.\n\nOlahraga \n\nSport activities are a national movement with half of the population actively participating, much thanks to the h\u00e9avy government subsidies of sport associations (\"f\u00f6reningsst\u00f6d\"). The two main spectator sports are football (soccer) and ice hockey. Some notable Swedish football stars include Fredrik Ljungberg, Henrik Larsson, Olof Mellberg and Zlatan Ibrahimovi\u0107. Swedish hockey players have often been regarded as some of the best in their sport. Famous Swedish hockey players include: Sven Tumba, Leif Holmqvist \"Honken\", Roland Stoltz, Lasse Bj\u00f6rn, Ulf Sterner, Bengt-\u00c5ke Gustafsson, H\u00e5kan Loob, Mats N\u00e4slund, Peter Forsberg, Henrik Zetterberg, Markus N\u00e4slund, Mats Sundin, Tommy Salo, Daniel Alfredsson, Nicklas Lidstr\u00f6m, Tomas Holmstr\u00f6m, Daniel Sedin, Henrik Sedin, B\u00f6rje Salming, Mattias Norstr\u00f6m, Tomas Sandstr\u00f6m, Kent Nilsson, Pelle Lindbergh and Henrik Lundqvist.\n\nSecond to football, horse sports have the highest number of practitioners, mostly women. Ther\u00e9after follow golf, athletics, and the team sports of handball, floorball, basketball and bandy. American sports such as baseball and American football are also practiced but have no widespr\u00e9ad popularity.\n\nSuccessful tennis players include former world No. 1's Bj\u00f6rn Borg, Mats Wilander and Stefan Edberg; in skiing sports, Pernilla Wiberg and Anja P\u00e4rson have all had dominating periods in alpine skiing, as have Sixten Jernberg, Gunde Svan, Torgny Mogren, Per Elofsson and Thomas Wassberg in cross country skiing. In ski jumping, Jan Bokl\u00f6v revolutionized the sport with his new technique, the V-style.\n\nA number of Swedes have been internationally successful in athletics. In the 1940s runner Gunder H\u00e4gg dominated middle distance. In recent y\u00e9ars, stars include high jumpers such as the Europ\u00e9an record holder Patrik Sj\u00f6berg, Kajsa Bergqvist, and Athens Olympic gold medalist Stefan Holm. Two other Swedish athletes won gold medals in the 2004 Olympic Games: heptathlete Carolina Kl\u00fcft and triple jumper Christian Olsson.\n\nOther famous Swedish athletes include the heavyweight boxing champion Ingemar Johansson, golfers Jesper Parnevik and Henrik Stenson, former five times World table tennis Champion Jan-Ove Waldner, the World Speedway Champion Tony Rickardsson and Magnus Wislander a player who has been voted as the Handball Player of the Century.\n\nProfessional skateboarders include Pontus Alv, Matthias Ringstr\u00f6m, and Tony Magnuson. In schools, on m\u00e9adows and in parks, the game br\u00e4nnboll, a sport similar to baseball, is commonly played for fun. Other leisure sports are the historical game of kubb and boules among the older generation.\n\nSweden hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the FIFA World Cup in 1958. Other big sports events held here include 1992 UEFA European Football Championship, FIFA Women's World Cup 1995, and several championships of ice hockey, athletics, skiing and bandy.\n\nR\u00e9ngking internasional \n Sweden Summary Amnesty Report 2005\n CIA World Factbook - GDP  - PPP per capita\n 2005: 19th of 232 countries \n Save the Children: State of the World's Mothers (2004) Report (PDF file)\n Mothers' index rank: 1st of 119 countries\n Women's index rank: 1st of 119 countries\n Children's index rank: 10th of 119 countries\n Infant mortality rate: 2nd lowest\n % s\u00e9ats in the national government held by women: 50% (highest)\n UN Human Development Index (2006)\n 5th of 177 countries\n World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report  (2006-2007)\n 3rd  of 125 countries\n Reporters Without Borders world-wide press freedom index 2006:\n 8th of 168 countries\n The Economist Intelligence Unit's democracy index 2006 (PDF file):\n 1st of 167 countries\n The Economist Intelligence Unit's worldwide quality-of-life index 2005 (PDF file):\n 5th of 111 countries\n Nation Master 's list by economic importance:\n 19th of 25 countries\n Nation Master 's list by technological achievement:\n 4th of 68 countries\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n\n Allemansr\u00e4tten (Right of public access to the wilderness)\n Komunikasi di Sw\u00e9dia\n Suku bangsa di Sw\u00e9dia\n Perwakilan pamar\u00e9ntahan di Sw\u00e9dia\n Daptar jejer nu patali jeung Sw\u00e9dia\n Angkatan Bersenjata Sw\u00e9dia\n Daptar r\u00e9sim\u00e9n Sw\u00e9dia\n NGO di Sw\u00e9dia\n Perangko jeung sajarah pos Sw\u00e9dia\n Wisata di Sw\u00e9dia\n\nCatetan\n\nRujukan \n World History Database - Sweden\n CIA World Factbook - Sweden \n United States Department of State - Sweden\n\nTumbu luar \n \n Swedish Language Council\n VisitSweden.com - Official travel and tourism website for Sweden\n SWEDEN.SE - The Official Gateway to Sweden\n The Local - Sweden's news in English, commercial\n Radio Sweden (in English) - Public service\n The Swedish Government - Official site\n Study in Sweden - Official guide to studying in Sweden\n Statistiska Centralbyr\u00e5n - Swedish Central Bur\u00e9au of Statistics (governmental)\n Trettontrettisju  - Official leetwebsite\n\n \nNagara anggota Uni \u00c9ropa\nKarajaan konstitusional\nNagara palaut","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":155,"dup_dump_count":94,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":17032,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sw%C3%A9dia","title":"Sw\u00e9dia","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Joseph Philbrick Webster, also known as J.P. Webster (February 18, 1819\u00a0\u2013 January 18, 1875), was an American songwriter and composer most notable for his musical compositions during the antebellum and American Civil War periods of United States history, and his post-war hymns.\n\nAmongst his most notable works are the ballad \"Lorena\" (1857), often considered the most popular song of the American Civil War (on both sides), \"I'll Twine 'Mid the Ringlets\" (written in 1860 and later known as \"Wildwood Flower\") and \"In the Sweet By and By\" (1868), one of the best-known Christian hymns in American history.\n\nLife and works\nJ.P. Webster was born in Manchester, New Hampshire on February 22, 1819. From an early age he expressed an interest and talent in music, and went on to study with distinguished composers such as Lowell Mason and George James Webb, including a three-year course of study beginning in 1840 in Boston. Afterwards he travelled extensively throughout the Eastern United States as a concert singer, including notable stays in New York City and Madison, Indiana, where he performed with the famous \"Swedish Nightingale\" Jenny Lind, as her pianist. After years of travel, Webster eventually settled in Racine, Wisconsin.\n\nSometime before 1859 Webster developed what was commonly called \"Lake Michigan Throat\", a severe form of bronchitis, forcing him to abandon his singing career and move himself, and by then a wife and children, farther south and away from the lake to Elkhorn, Wisconsin. No longer having the strength in his voice for singing, Webster turned his attention to composing music. This was a passion that would produce over 1,000 songs, including music for ballads, hymns, patriotic drama, and a cantata.\n\nDuring the Civil War years Webster taught and composed a variety of songs related to the war. He also participated as a drill sergeant for the Elkhorn \"Wide Awakes\", whose role was to act as the local home guard. As the war began to close, Webster returned his focus to writing ballads and hymns. About this time he also opened what was considered a \"respectable saloon\", which attracted young literary men of the town with which he would have future musical collaborations. One of these young men was Sanford Fillmore Bennett, who would later write the lyrics for \"In the Sweet By and By\".\n\nWebster remained in Elkhorn until his death on January 18, 1875, at the age of 55. He is buried at the Hazel Ridge Cemetery in Elkhorn, where his epitaph reads, \"Joseph P. Webster. In the Sweet By and By We Shall Meet\". His former residence is now the home of the Walworth County Historical Society, which acts as a museum to both Webster and thousands of Civil War era antiques and unique items.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nSheet music for \"Paul Vane, or Lorena's Reply\", Macon, GA: John C. Schreiner & Son, from the Confederate Imprints Sheet Music Collection\n\nAmerican male composers\nComposers of Christian music\nPeople of Wisconsin in the American Civil War\nPeople from Manchester, New Hampshire\nPeople from Elkhorn, Wisconsin\n1819 births\n1875 deaths\n19th-century American composers\nSongwriters from New Hampshire\nSongwriters from Wisconsin\n19th-century American male musicians\nAmerican male songwriters","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":6,"dup_details":{"unknown":7,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":117,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1}},"id":18663079,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph%20Philbrick%20Webster","title":"Joseph Philbrick Webster","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Shema is the first Jewish prayer that bairns learn, an whit a'body seys three times in the day.  Ance in the morn whaun ye get up; ance though the day; an afore ye gang tae yer bed.  The wurds are frae the beuk o Deuteronomy, whit lays doon the laws a Jewish life an wurship.  Shema meana \"listen oot!\" in the Ebreu leid.\n\nShema, Israel!  Adonai Eloheinu, Adonai Echad! \nThat's the stairt o it; it seys, Listen oot, fowk o Israel!  Yer God is Ane, an there is but ane God.\n\nIf ye're in a synagogue, the fowk micht repeat,\nBaruch shem k'vod, malchuto olam vayed\nthat's Ebreu leid fur, Bless'd be His name, an' His kingdom, fur aye.\n\nThen ye start oan the prayer proper.\n\nAn' ye'll luv the Lord, yer God, wi' a' yer hert, an' a' yer sowel, an' a' yer strength\nAn' a' the wurds that I am awa' tae gie ye, ye'll ley up in yer hert.\nYe'll teach them tae yer bairns, an' ye'll spik o' them\nAs ye sit in yer hoose, whilies ye gang up the road, afore ye gang tae yer bed, an when ye get up in the mornin.\nYe'll keep them as a sign oan yer airms, an atween yer ee'n.\nYe'll scrive them oan the posts o' yer hoose door, an' yer yett.\nAn' it will come tae pass, if ye hearken tae My wurds that I hae ge'en ye this day,\ntae luv yer God, an' serve Him, wi' a' yer hert an sowel,\nAh will gie ye the rain fur yer lands, at the proper time,\nThe early rain and the late rain.\nYe will gaither in yer hairst an' yer wine an' yer oil\nI will pit grass oan yer loan fur yer kye\nAn ye will all eat hearty and hae fu' bellies.\nBut mind!  Lest ye be tempted awa, an ye find strange gods tae bow doon tae\nFur then the anger o yer God will blaze agin ye, and He will shut the Heavens, an there will be nae mair rain.\nYe'll get nuthin' frae the grun, an ye'll be pit awa' frae the guid soil that ye were gi'en.\nSo, ye'll place these wurds in yer hert and sowel, ye'll pit them fur a sign oan yer airms and atween yer ee'n.\nYe'll learn them tae yer bairns, ye'll chew the fat wi' them, as ye sit in her hooses, as ye gang up the road, as ye gang tae sleep an as ye get up.\nYe'll pit them oan yer door posts an' yer yetts.\nSo's ye'll lengthen yer days an' the day's o' yer bairns, in the place that God has promised tae yer forefaithers\nTae gie them, fur as lang's there's a Heaven ower the Airth.\nAn God says tae Moses,\nSpik tae the folk o' Israel, an' tell them, they huv tae mak' wee fringes a' doon the edges o' their claes\nA'body doon a' the generations\nAn' at the corner o' each fringe tae hae a wee cordie o' blue worst\nAn that's gaunny be yer \"tzitzit\", tae remind ye when ye see it,\nYe'll mind on a' the commandments o' yer God an ye'll folly them,\nAn' no listen tae yer ain hert, or folly yer ane ee'n, for they'll only tak' ye doon the wrang path.\nBut ye'll mind oan My commandments an' dae them a', an keep yersels Holy fur yer God.\nFur I am the Lord, yer God\nFa brocht ye awa' frae Egyp faur ye were slaves.\nI AM THE LORD, YER God.\n\nJewish prayer an ritual texts\nEbreu Bible verses\nEbreu wirds an phrases in the Ebreu Bible\nShacharit\nMaariv\nBeuk o Deuteronomy\nEbreu wirds an phrases in Jewish prayers an blessins\nSiddur o Orthodox Judaism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-33":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":2}},"id":19209,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shema%20Yisrael","title":"Shema Yisrael","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Chola dynasty (\u0b9a\u0bcb\u0bb4\u0bb0\u0bcd \u0b95\u0bc1\u0bb2\u0bae\u0bcd) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled in southern India until the 13th century. The dynasty came from the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. \nKarikala Chola was the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I were famous emperors of the medieval Cholas.\n\nThe Cholas were at the height of their power during the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola I (Rajaraja the Great) and his son Rajendra Chola, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the South to as far North as the banks of the Ganges River in Bangladesh.\n\nAncient India\nRoyal dynasties\nDynasties in Tamil Nadu","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":47950,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chola%20dynasty","title":"Chola dynasty","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"451 - The Council of Chalcedon, the fourth ecumenical council in Cr\u012bstend\u014dm, opened. It repudiated the Eutychian doctrine of monophysitism, and set forth the Chalcedonian Creed.\n 1600 \u2013 S\u0113o \u021cesettnes Sanctes Marines \u01bf\u00e6s \u021denumen and macode \u0101n \u00fe\u0101ra \u01e3restena \u00de\u0113od\u00feinga in \u00fe\u01e3re \u01bforulde.\n 1895 - Queen Min, the last empress Corean, \u01bf\u00e6s \u0101c\u01bfellode.\n 1962 - Spiegel scandal: Der Spiegel uncovered the sorry state of the Bundeswehr (se \u00de\u0113odisc here) facing the communist threat from the east at the time. The magazine was soon accused of treason. \n 1967 - Che Guevara (pictured), an Argentine-born l\u00e6ce, Marxist revolutionary and Cuban guerrilla l\u01e3dere, \u01bf\u00e6s \u021den\u014dm in Bolivian.\n\n08","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":8,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":2}},"id":3832,"url":"https:\/\/ang.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/8.%20Winterfylle%C3%B0es","title":"8. Winterfylle\u00f0es","language":"ang"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Art is a creative activity. It produces a product, an object. Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, performing subjects, and expressing the author's thoughts. The product of art is called a work of art, for others to experience.\n\nSome art is useful in a practical sense, such as a sculptured clay bowl that can be used. That kind of art is sometimes called a craft.\n\nThose who make art are called artists. They hope to affect the emotions of people who experience it. Some people find art relaxing, exciting or informative. Some say people are driven to make art due to their inner creativity.\n\n\"The arts\" is a much broader term. It includes drawing, painting, sculpting, photography, performance art, dance, music, poetry, prose and theatre.\n\nTypes of art \n\nArt is divided into the plastic arts, where something is made, and the performing arts, where something is done by humans in action. The other division is between pure arts, done for themselves, and practical arts, done for a practical purpose, but with artistic content.\n\n Plastic art\n Fine art is expression by making something beautiful or appealing to the emotions by visual means: drawing, painting, printmaking, sculpture\n Literature: poetry, creative writing\n Performing art\n Performing arts are expression using the body: drama, dance, acting, singing\n Auditory art (expression by making sounds): music, singing\n Practical art\n Culinary art (expression by making flavors and tastes): cooking\n The practical arts (expression by making things and structures: architecture, filming, fashion, photography, video games)\n\nWhat \"art\" means \nSome people say that art is a product or item that is made with the intention of stimulating the human senses as well as the human mind, spirit and soul.  An artwork is normally judged by how much impact it has on people, the number of people who can relate to it, and how much they appreciate it. Some people also get inspired.\n\nThe first and broadest sense of \"art\" means \"arrangement\" or \"to arrange.\" In this sense, art is created when someone arranges things found in the world into a new or different design or form; or when someone arranges colors next to each other in a painting to make an image or just to make a pretty or interesting design.\n\nArt may express emotion.  Artists may feel a certain emotion and wish to express it by creating something that means something to them.  Most of the art created in this case is made for the artist rather than an audience.  However, if an audience is able to connect with the emotion as well, then the art work may become publicly successful.\n\nHistory of art \nThere are sculptures, cave painting and rock art dating from the Upper Paleolithic era.\n\nAll of the great ancient civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt, India, China, Greece, Rome and Persia had works and styles of art. In the Middle Ages, most of the art in Europe showed people from the Bible in paintings, stained-glass windows, and mosaic tile floors and walls.\n\nIslamic art includes geometric patterns, Islamic calligraphy, and architecture. In India and Tibet, painted sculptures, dance, and religious painting were done. In China, arts included jade carving, bronze, pottery, poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, and fiction. There are many Chinese artistic styles, which are usually named after the ruling dynasty.\n\nIn Europe, after the Middle Ages, there was a \"Renaissance\" which means \"rebirth\". People rediscovered science and artists were allowed to paint subjects other than religious subjects. People like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci still painted religious pictures, but they also now could paint mythological pictures too. These artists also invented perspective where things in the distance look smaller in the picture. This was new because in the Middle Ages people would paint all the figures close up and just overlapping each other. These artists used nudity regularly in their art.\n\nIn the late 1800s, artists in Europe, responding to Modernity created many new painting styles such as Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, and Impressionism. The history of twentieth century art includes Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, and Minimalism.\n\nRoles of art \nIn some societies, people think that art belongs to the person who made it. They think that the artist put his or her \"talent\" and industry into the art. In this view, the art is the property of the artist, protected by copyright.\n\nIn other societies, people think that art belongs to no one. They think that society has put its social capital into the artist and the artist's work. In this view, society is a collective that has made the art, through the artist.\n\nFunctions of art \nThe functions of art include:\n\n1) Cognitive function\n\n Works of art let us know about what the author knew, and about what the surroundings of the author were like.\n\n2) Aesthetic function\n\n Works of art can make people happy by being beautiful.\n\n3) Prognostic function\n\n Some artists draw what they see the future like, and some of them are right, but most are not...\n\n4) Recreation function\n\n Art makes us think about it, not about reality; we have a rest.\n\n5) Value function\n\n What did the artist value? What aims did they like\/dislike in human activity? This usually is clearly seen in artists' works.\n\n6) Didactic function\n\n What message, criticism or political change did the artist wish to achieve?\n\nRelated pages \n Art history\n Modern art\n Abstract art\n Magnum opus\n Painting\n Sculpture\n Street art\n\nReferences \n\n \nNon-verbal communication\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":175,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":4,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":6,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Art","title":"Art","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Lyon Sprague de Camp (; November 27, 1907 \u2013 November 6, 2000) was an American writer of science fiction, fantasy and non-fiction. In a career spanning 60 years, he wrote over 100 books, including novels and works of non-fiction, including biographies of other fantasy authors. He was a major figure in science fiction in the 1930s and 1940s.\n\nBiography\nDe Camp was born in New York City, one of three sons of Lyon de Camp, a businessman in real estate and lumber, and Emma Beatrice Sprague. His maternal grandfather was the accountant, banker, pioneering Volap\u00fckist and Civil War veteran Charles Ezra Sprague. De Camp once noted that he rarely used pen-names, \"partly because my own true name sounds more like a pseudonym than most pseudonyms do.\"\n\nDe Camp began his education at the  Trinity School in New York, then spent ten years attending the Snyder School in North Carolina, a military-style institution. His stay at the Snyder School was an attempt by his parents, who were heavy-handed disciplinarians, to cure him of intellectual arrogance and lack of discipline. He was awkward and thin, an ineffective fighter, and suffered from bullying by his classmates. His experiences at the school taught him to develop a detached, analytical style considered cold by all but his closest friends, though he could, like his father, be disarming and funny in social situations. He would later recall these challenging childhood experiences in the semi-autobiographical story Judgment Day (1955).\n\nAn aeronautical engineer by profession, de Camp conducted his undergraduate studies at the California Institute of Technology (where his roommate was at one point noted rocket fuel scientist John Drury Clark), and earned his Bachelor of Science degree from Caltech in Aeronautical Engineering 1930. He earned his Master of Science degree in Engineering from the Stevens Institute of Technology in 1933. De Camp was also a surveyor and an expert in patents.\n\nHis first job was with the Inventors Foundation, Inc. in Hoboken, New Jersey, which was taken over by The International Correspondence Schools. De Camp transferred to the Scranton, Pennsylvania, division. He was principal of the School of Inventing and Patenting when he resigned in 1937. His first book Inventions and Their Management resulted and was published in July 1937.\n\nOn August 12, 1939, de Camp married Catherine Crook, with whom he collaborated on science fiction and nonfiction beginning in the 1960s.\n\nDuring World War II, de Camp served as a researcher at the Philadelphia Naval Yard along with his fellow writers Isaac Asimov and Robert A. Heinlein. De Camp eventually rose to the rank of lieutenant commander in the U.S. Navy as a reserve officer.\n\nDe Camp was a member of the all-male literary and dining club the \"Trap Door Spiders\" in New York City, which served as the basis of Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers the \"Black Widowers.\"  De Camp himself was the model for the character named \"Geoffrey Avalon.\"\n\nDe Camp was a founding member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), a loosely knit group of Heroic fantasy writers that was founded during the 1960s and led by Lin Carter, with entry by credentials as a fantasy writer alone.\n\nThe de Camps moved to Plano, Texas, in 1989, and Sprague de Camp died there on November 6, 2000, seven months after his wife, on what would have been her birthday, just three weeks before his own 93rd birthday. His ashes were inurned, together with hers, in the Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.\n\nDe Camp's personal library of about 1,200 books was acquired for auction by Half Price Books in 2005. The collection included books inscribed by fellow writers, such as Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan, as well as de Camp himself.\n\nCoinage of \"Extraterrestrial\" and \"E.T.\"\n\"Extraterrestrial\", a coinage from \"extra\" + \"terrestrial\", meaning from beyond earth, is attested as an adjective as early as 1868, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Its first use in connection with life beyond earth was likely by H. G. Wells, in his 1898 novel The War of the Worlds. L. Sprague de Camp is credited with its first usage as a noun with the meaning of \"alien life\" and with coining the abbreviation \"E.T.\" in the first part of his two-part article \"Design for Life\", published in the May 1939 issue of Astounding Science Fiction.\n\nHypothesis regarding sea serpent sightings\nDe Camp made a suggestion in 1968 that fossil discoveries had influenced modern reports of sea monster sightings. The suggestion was made in his article \"Dinosaurs in Today's World\" in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction v. 34, no. 3, March 1968, later reprinted in his nonfiction collection The Fringe of the Unknown, Buffalo, New York: Prometheus, 1983. In 2019 de Camp's theory was scientifically tested by C. G. M. Paxton and D. Naish, who concluded that trends in the data of reported sightings appear to support his hypothesis.\n\nBody of work\nDe Camp was a materialist who wrote works examining society, history, technology and myth. He published numerous short stories, novels, non-fiction works and poems during his long career.\n\nDe Camp had the mind of an educator, and a common theme in many of his works is a corrective impulse regarding similar previous works by other authors. A highly rational and logical thinker, he was frequently disturbed by what he regarded as logical lapses and absurdities in others' writings. Some, like Asimov, felt de Camp's conscientiousness about facts limited the scope of his stories: de Camp was reluctant to use technological or scientific concepts (e.g., hyperspace or faster-than-light travel) if he regarded them as impossible. Thus, his response to Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court was to write a similar time travel novel (Lest Darkness Fall) in which the method of time travel was rationalized and the hero's technical expertise both set at a believable level and constrained by the technological limitations of the age.\n\nIn like fashion, he reimagined space opera and planetary romance in his \"Viagens Interplanetarias\" series, and the prehistoric precursor civilizations characteristic of much heroic fantasy in his Pusadian series. When he was not debunking literary conventions he was often explaining them. For example, in the Harold Shea stories co-written with his longtime friend Fletcher Pratt (1897\u20131956), the magical premises of some bodies of myths and legends were accepted but examined and elucidated in terms of their own systems of inherent logic. The imaginative civilizations in The Compleat Enchanter, for example, are built upon a cultural and technological reality based on scientific formulas. Characters may be transported to these different worlds, but the magic contained within those worlds is only feasible to the extent that it coincides with the technology of the day (e.g., the combustion engine). De Camp's explanatory tendency also carried over into his non-fictional writings, including advice to science fiction writers on handling the different states of languages in future worlds.\n\nScience fiction\nDe Camp's science fiction is marked by his interests in linguistics, ancient history, and the history and philosophy of science. His first published story was \"The Isolinguals\", in the September 1937 issue of Astounding Science Fiction\u2014the last issue edited by F. Orlin Tremaine, prior to the long tenure of John W. Campbell. Most of his early science fiction stories were unrelated to each other, the exceptions being his \"Johnny Black\" tales about a black bear uplifted to human-level intelligence, and his \"Drinkwhiskey Institute\" stories, a series of tall tales involving time travel. Campbell's fantasy magazine, Unknown, was suited to de Camp's idiosyncratic imagination, logic, and sense of humor. He contributed ten novels (five as collaborations), much of it characterized by humor and dry wit. De Camp eschewed the intention of being a satirist, insisting, instead, that the stories he wrote were meant less for instruction or improvement, as satire requires, and more for the amusement of his readers.\n\nDe Camp's treatment of time travel and alternate history in stories such as Lest Darkness Fall (1939), \"The Wheels of If\" (1940), \"A Gun for Dinosaur\" (1956), \"Aristotle and the Gun\" (1958), and The Glory That Was (1960) challenged the popular notion of his time that history consisted of an arbitrary series of accidents. Instead, de Camp, through sound background knowledge and logical thought, systematically demonstrated how technological advances could determine the pattern of an eventful history. His display of technological determinism in historical recreation is considered a tour de force. Lest Darkness Fall, \"The Wheels of If\" and \"Aristotle and the Gun\" have been recognized as seminal works in the field of alternate history.\n\nHis most extended work was his \"Viagens Interplanetarias\" series, set in a future where Brazil is the dominant power, particularly a sub-series of sword and planet novels set on the planet Krishna, beginning with The Queen of Zamba. His most influential Viagens novel was the non-Krishna work Rogue Queen, a tale of a hive society undermined by interstellar contact, which was one of the earliest science fiction novels to deal with sexual themes.\n\nFantasy\n\nDe Camp was best known for his light fantasy, particularly two series written in collaboration with Pratt, the Harold Shea stories (from 1940 et seq.) and Gavagan's Bar (from 1950). Floyd C. Gale in 1961 said that they \"were far and away the finest team of fantasy collaborators\". De Camp and Pratt also wrote some stand-alone novels similar in tone to the Harold Shea stories, of which the most highly regarded is Land of Unreason (1942), and de Camp wrote a few more of this genre on his own.\n\nHe was also known for his sword and sorcery, a fantasy genre revived partly by his editorial work on and continuation of Robert E. Howard's Conan cycle. He also edited a series of fantasy anthologies credited with helping to spark the renaissance of heroic fantasy in the late 1960s.\n\nDe Camp also created three noteworthy sword and sorcery sequences. The Pusadian series (from 1951), composed of the novel The Tritonian Ring and several short stories, is set in an antediluvian era similar to Howard's.\n\nMore substantial is the Novarian series (from 1968), of which the core is the Reluctant King trilogy, beginning with The Goblin Tower, de Camp's most accomplished effort in the genre, continuing in The Clocks of Iraz, and concluding with The Unbeheaded King. The trilogy features the adventurer Jorian, ex-king of Xylar. Jorian's world is an alternate reality to which our own serves as an afterlife. Other novels in the sequence include The Fallible Fiend, a satire told from the point of view of a demon, and The Honorable Barbarian, a follow-up to the trilogy featuring Jorian's brother as the hero.\n\nThe Incorporated Knight series comprises some 1970s short stories by de Camp and two novels written in collaboration with Catherine Crook de Camp, The Incorporated Knight (1988) and The Pixilated Peeress (1991). The early short stories were incorporated into the first of these. The sequence is set in the medieval era of another alternate world sharing the geography of our own, but in which a Neapolitan empire filled the role of Rome and no universal religion like Christianity ever arose, leaving its nations split among competing pagan sects. The setting is borrowed in part from Mandeville's Travels.\n\nHistorical fiction\nDe Camp also wrote historical fiction set in the era of classical antiquity from the height of the First Persian Empire to the waning of the Hellenistic period. Five novels published by Doubleday from 1958 to 1969 form a loosely connected series based on their common setting and occasional cross references. They were also linked by a common focus on the advancement of scientific knowledge, de Camp's chosen protagonists being explorers, artisans, engineers, innovators and practical philosophers rather than famous names from antiquity, who are relegated to secondary roles. The best known of his historical novels is The Dragon of the Ishtar Gate.\n\nNonfiction\n\nDe Camp's first book was Inventions and Their Management, co-written with Alf K. Berle and published by International Textbook Company in 1937: a 733-page book with three-page list of law cases cited.\n\nHe enjoyed debunking doubtful history and pseudoscientific claims about the supernatural. He conducted extensive research for what was to be a book on magic, witchcraft and occultism, though only the first chapter, \"The Unwritten Classics\" (March 1947), was published in the Saturday Review of Literature. By May 1976, concerned with what Paul Kurtz described as \"an enormous increase in public interest in psychic phenomena, the occult and pseudoscience,\" de Camp joined the newly formed Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal along with astronomers George Abell, Bart Bok, and Carl Sagan; philosophers Brand Blanshard, Antony Flew, Sidney Hook, and Ernest Nagel; authors Isaac Asimov, Daniel Cohen, Charles Fair, Martin Gardner, and Phillip J. Klass; psychologists Ray Hyman and B.F Skinner; and magician James Randi. Despite being a long-time writer of fantasy, de Camp did not believe in ghosts in the supernatural sense. His ghosts dwelt only in his mind as memories of his parents. His mother, he wrote in a New York Times Magazine article, died of an overdose of faith healing. When considering claims of UFO sightings, astrology, and other subjects considered moot by the scientific community, de Camp would address the circular logic expressed by enthusiasts by insisting on first-hand, unbiased, measurable data to back up the claims. \"In the history of cultism,\" de Camp said in a Science News interview, \"one is always experiencing a feeling of deja vu.\"\n\nHe explained how ancient civilizations produced structures and architecture that many considered to be impossible for them, such as the Pyramids of Ancient Egypt. Works in this area include Lost Continents, Citadels of Mystery, and The Ancient Engineers.\n\nSome others of his many and wide-ranging nonfiction works were The Great Monkey Trial (about the Scopes Trial), The Ragged Edge of Science, Energy and Power, The Heroic Age of American Invention, The Day of the Dinosaur (which argued, among other things, that evolution took hold after Darwin because of the Victorian interest spurred by recently popularized dinosaur remains, corresponding to legends of dragons), Great Cities of the Ancient World and The Evolution of Naval Weapons (a United States government textbook).\n\nPublished in the July 1938 issue of Astounding Science Fiction, \"Language for Time Travelers\" won de Camp the first non-fiction readership monthly honor awarded in the magazine for his exploration of the communication difficulties for time travelers as pronunciation and semantics shift over time.\n\nDe Camp's pioneering biographies of fantasy writers were many short articles and full-length studies of Robert E. Howard and H. P. Lovecraft, the first major independent biographies of both writers. Matthew Hartman, in a review of de Camp's Lovecraft: A Biography, stated that de Camp \"does not defend his subject; he criticizes where criticism is due, and he explains in historical and sociological context, rather than attempting to excuse.\" De Camp's \"warts and all\" approach to his subjects has been branded by some fans as unflattering and unbalanced. For instance, Mark Finn, author of Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard, contends that de Camp deliberately framed his questions in regard to Howard to elicit answers matching his Freudian theories about him.\n\nDe Camp also wrote nonfiction radio scripts for Voice of America.\n\nDe Camp wrote a number of lesser-known but nonetheless significant works that explored such topics as racism, which he wrote could be more accurately described as ethnocentrism, noting that no scholar comparing the merits of various ethnicities has ever sought to prove that his own ethnicity was inferior to others. Isaac Asimov recalled de Camp finding the tendency of authors to portray human characters in outer-space science fiction as superior to aliens analogous to northern Europeans imagining they had some inherent superiority over other races.\n\nAwards and honors\nDe Camp and Willy Ley won the 1953 International Fantasy Award for nonfiction recognizing their study of geographical myths, Lands Beyond (Rinehart, 1952). De Camp was a guest of honor at the 1966 World Science Fiction Convention and was named the third Gandalf Grand Master of Fantasy, after Tolkien and Fritz Leiber, at the 1976 convention. The Science Fiction Writers of America made him its fourth SFWA Grand Master in 1979 and he won the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 1984, a Special Achievement Sidewise Award for Alternate History in 1996, citing \"seminal works in the field,\" and the Hugo Award for Nonfiction in 1997 for his autobiography, Time and Chance.\n\nAt a meeting of the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) in Denver, Colorado, in April 2011, De Camp was selected for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics.  The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism.  CSI was previously known as the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP).\n\nIn popular culture\nL. Sprague de Camp has been depicted in fictional works by a number of other authors. Randall Garrett conflated him with J. R. R. Tolkien's Gandalf in the character of the magician \"Sir Lyon Gandolphus Gray\" in his Lord Darcy series. He was the model for the \"Geoffrey Avalon\" character in Isaac Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers the \"Black Widowers,\" and the unnamed court magician in Lawrence Watt-Evans' \"Return to Xanadu\" (The Enchanter Completed: A Tribute Anthology for L. Sprague de Camp, 2005).\n\nHe also appears without fictional disguise in the short stories \"Green Fire\" by Eileen Gunn, Andy Duncan, Pat Murphy, and Michael Swanwick (Asimov's Science Fiction, April 2000) and \"Father Figures\" by Susan Shwartz (The Enchanter Completed: A Tribute Anthology for L. Sprague de Camp, 2005), and in the novels In the Courts of the Crimson Kings (2008) by S. M. Stirling and The Astounding, the Amazing, and the Unknown (2011) by Paul Malmont.\n\nA semi-fictionalized version of de Camp appears in the third episode of the 2017 TV series Manhunt: Unabomber, as one of several academics and authors consulted by the FBI on the basis of the citation of their work in the Unabomber manifesto. In the scene depicting this meeting, de Camp's name appears on a placard as \"L. Sprague de Camp, S.A.G.A. Author, The Ancient Engineers.\" De Camp's name does not specifically appear in the episode credits, which identify the roles of actors in the scene as composite characters. The Ancient Engineers is cited in endnote 18 of the manifesto.\n\nSelected works\n\nThis selection is limited to books.\n\nScience fiction\n Lest Darkness Fall (1939) \u2013 an early alternate history novel that helped define the genre and remains in print after more than 70 years.\n The Wheels of If and Other Science Fiction (1948) \u2013 early collection of de Camp's short fiction, including \"The Wheels of If\"\n Genus Homo (1950) (with P. Schuyler Miller) \u2013 first science fiction novel de Camp had a hand in, possibly the earliest work of fiction dealing with the \"Planet of the Apes\" theme\n The Hand of Zei (1950) \u2013 the best of the early Krishna novels\n Rogue Queen (1951) \u2013 one of the earliest science fiction novels to deal with sexual themes\n The Continent Makers and Other Tales of the Viagens (1953) \u2013 collection of most of the shorter works in the Viagens Interplanetarias series\n The Virgin of Zesh (1953) \u2013 Krishna novel noted for the early use (for science fiction) of a strong female protagonist and a possible influence on Daniel Keyes's Flowers for Algernon\n The Glory That Was (1960) \u2013 a tour de force incorporating most of de Camp's major interests into one work\n A Gun for Dinosaur and Other Imaginative Tales (1963) \u2013 collection of some of the best of de Camp's early fiction, including \"A Gun for Dinosaur\" and \"Aristotle and the Gun\"\n The Best of L. Sprague de Camp (1978) \u2013 a mid-career review collecting de Camp's best short works\n\nFantasy\n The Incomplete Enchanter (1941) (with Fletcher Pratt) \u2013 first of the de Camp\/Pratt collaborations, including the earliest Harold Shea stories\n Land of Unreason (1942) (with Fletcher Pratt) \u2013 best of the non-series de Camp\/Pratt collaborations\n The Undesired Princess (1951) \u2013 earliest of de Camp's major fantasies not written in collaboration with Pratt; set in an Aristotelian universe\n Tales from Gavagan's Bar (1953, exp. 1978) (with Fletcher Pratt) \u2013 collected edition of de Camp and Pratt's second major fantasy series\n The Tritonian Ring and Other Pusadian Tales (1953) \u2013 collection of the earlier works in the Pusadian series, including The Tritonian Ring\n Tales of Conan (1955) (with Robert E. Howard) \u2013 collection containing the first of de Camp's \"posthumous collaborations\" with Howard, marking the beginning of his successful promotion of Howard's \"Conan the Barbarian\" character\n Conan the Adventurer (1966) (with Robert E. Howard) \u2013 collection inaugurating the paperback Conan series, which ensured the success of the character and defined it for a generation\n The Goblin Tower (1968) \u2013  first of the Novarian series\n The Fallible Fiend (1973) \u2013 offbeat entry in the Novarian series presenting a satirical look at humanity through the eyes of a demon\n\nHistorical fiction \n\nIn chronological order:\n\n The Dragon of the Ishtar Gate (1961)\n The Arrows of Hercules (1965)\n An Elephant for Aristotle (1958)\n The Bronze God of Rhodes (1960)\n The Golden Wind (1969)\n\nAnthologies \n\n Swords and Sorcery (1963) \u2013 pioneering sword and sorcery anthology, the first ever published\n\nNonfiction\n Inventions and Their Management (1937; vt. Inventions, Patents, and Their Management (1959)) (with Alf K. Berle) \u2013 de Camp's first work of nonfiction\n Lands Beyond (1952) (with Willy Ley) \u2013 a comprehensive survey of geographical myths\n Science-Fiction Handbook (1953 (revised 1975, with Catherine Crook de Camp)) \u2013 an influential early writers' guide\n Lost Continents: the Atlantis Theme in History, Science, and Literature (1954) \u2013 the title says it all\n The Ancient Engineers (1963) \u2013 an exhaustive account of practical science through the ages prior to the modern era\n The Great Monkey Trial (1968) \u2013 the definitive popular account of the Scopes Trial\n Lovecraft: A Biography (1975) \u2013 the first major biography of H. P. Lovecraft\n Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers  (1976) \u2013 a major contribution to the historical study of modern fantasy authors\n Dark Valley Destiny: the Life of Robert E. Howard (1983) (with Catherine Crook de Camp and Jane Whittington Griffin) \u2013 the first major biography of Robert E. Howard\n The Ape-Man Within (1995) \u2013 Explores how human evolution of aggression and competition affected our historical and social development.\n Time and Chance: an Autobiography (1996) \u2013 winner of the 1997 Hugo Award for Best Non-Fiction Book\n\nLinguistic studies \nSome search results can be found through Google Scholar.\n\n 1944. Pronunciation of upstate New York place-names. American Speech 19:250-265 (Paywall)\n 1973. American English from Eastern Massachusetts. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 3:40-41 (Paywall)\n 1978. American English from Central Texas. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 8:81-82 (Paywall)\n\nSee also\n\n Robert E. Howard's legacy\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n \n sprague de camp: The Fan Site \n Yahoo Discussion Group for de Camp fans\nListen to\n A Gun for Dinosaur on X Minus One, NBC radio, 1956\n\n \n1907 births\n2000 deaths\n20th-century American male writers\n20th-century American novelists\n20th-century American short story writers\nAmerican alternate history writers\nAmerican fantasy writers\nAmerican historical novelists\nAmerican male non-fiction writers\nAmerican male novelists\nAmerican male short story writers\nAmerican science fiction writers\nAmerican skeptics\nAmerican speculative fiction critics\nAmerican speculative fiction editors\nAnalog Science Fiction and Fact people\nBurials at Arlington National Cemetery\nCalifornia Institute of Technology alumni\nConan the Barbarian novelists\nCritics of Theosophy\nH. P. Lovecraft scholars\nHugo Award-winning writers\nNovelists from New York (state)\nPulp fiction writers\nSFWA Grand Masters\nScience fiction critics\nSidewise Award winners\nStevens Institute of Technology alumni\nUnited States Navy officers\nUnited States Navy personnel of World War II\nWorld Fantasy Award-winning writers\nWriters from New York City\nWriters of historical fiction set in antiquity","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":129,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":5,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":5,"2024-30":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":4}},"id":45075,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/L.%20Sprague%20de%20Camp","title":"L. Sprague de Camp","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Alice Springs () is a city in the Northern Territory of Australia.  It is 200 km south of the centre of mainland Australia. It is about halfway between Darwin in the north and Adelaide in the south.\n\nIn 2005 there were 26,486 people living in Alice Springs. This makes it the second largest town in the Northern Territory.\n\nAlice Springs is often called \"the Alice\" or simply \"Alice.\" It is called \"Mparntwe\" by the Arrernte. The Arrernte people are the Aboriginal people who have lived around Alice Springs for more than 50,000 years.\n\nHistory\n\nIndigenous History \n\nAccording to the Arrernte traditional stories, the land around Alice Springs was shaped by caterpillars, wild dogs, travelling boys, two sisters, euros and other ancestral figures. There are many sites of traditional importance in and around Alice Springs. These include Anthwerrke (Emily Gap), Akeyulerre (Billy Goat Hill), Ntaripe (Heavitree Gap), Atnelkentyarliweke (Anzac Hill) and Alhekulyele (Mt. Gillen).\n\nEarly city \n\nIn 1862, John McDouall Stuart led an expedition into Central Australia and the area where Alice Springs is located.  Until the 1930s the town was known as Stuart. The Australian Overland Telegraph Line that joined Adelaide to Darwin and Great Britain was completed in 1872. It followed Stuart's route. It opened up the interior for permanent European settlement. When surface alluvial gold was found at Arltunga, 100\u00a0km east of Alice Springs, in 1887 many people began to move into the area.\n\nThe telegraph station was built near a waterhole in the normally dry Todd River. It was thought to be a permanent source of water, and was named Alice Springs. Alice was the wife of the former Postmaster General of South Australia, Sir Charles Todd. The Todd River was named after Sir Charles.\n\nThe original method of travel in the outback were camels. These camel trains were run by people from Pathan tribes in the North-West frontier of India and Pakistan. They were wrongly called 'Afghans' in Australia.\n\nIn 1929 the Palmerston and Pine Creek Railway was built from Darwin as far as Birdum, Northern Territory. The Great Northern Railway had been built in 1891 from Port Augusta as far as Oodnadatta, South Australia. The lines wouldn't meet until 2003. On February 4, 2004, the first passenger train arrived in Darwin.\n\nDuring the 1960s Alice Springs became an important defence base. About 700 people work at the US\/Australian Pine Gap joint defence satellite monitoring base.\n\nThe major industry in recent times is tourism.\n\nGeography and climate\n\nTopography and climate \nThe town of Alice Springs built on the banks of the usually dry Todd River. It is on the northern side of MacDonnell Ranges. The region where Alice Springs is located is known as Central Australia, or the Red Centre. It is a very dry region, made up of several different deserts.\n\nTemperatures can vary by up to 28\u00a0\u00b0C. In summer the average highest temperature is in the high 30s. In winter the average lowest temperature can be -7.5\u00a0\u00b0C.\n\nThe rainfall can vary quite a lot from year to year. The annual average rainfall is 286\u00a0mm. In 2001 741 mm fell, but in 2002 only 198\u00a0mm fell.\n\nEconomy \n\nAlice Springs began as a town to supply the cattle farms that first came to the area. The arrival of the railway increased its economy and productivity. Today the town supplies a region of 546,046 square kilometres. There are 38,749 people living in the region. The region includes a number of mining and farm communities, the Joint Defence Facility at Pine Gap and tourist attractions.\n\nThe people \nIn June 2004, 38,749 people lived in the region. There were 26,058 people living in the city of Alice Springs. Aboriginal people made up about 37% of people in the Alice Springs region in 2001.\n\nAboriginal population \nAccording to the 2001 census, Australian Aborigines are about 17% of the people in Alice Springs, and 29% of the people in the Northern Territory. Alice Springs is the business centre of Central Australia. Aboriginal people come from all over the region to use the town's services. Aboriginal residents usually live in the suburbs, on special purpose leases (or town camps). Some live farther out at Amoonguna to the south. Many live on the small family outstation communities on Aboriginal Lands in surrounding areas.\n\nThe traditional owners of the Alice Springs area are the Central Arrernte people. As it is the largest town in central Australia, there are also speakers of at least thirteen other languages.\n\nAmerican influence \n\nThe American influence in Alice Springs comes from Pine Gap, a US satellite tracking station. It is 19\u00a0km south-west of Alice Springs. Pine Gap employs 700 American and Australians. There are about 2,000 people in the Alice Springs region who are US citizens.\n\nAmerican influence can be seen throughout Alice Springs. The Americans still celebrate all major festivals, including Halloween, Independence Day and Thanksgiving. A number of Australians also join in the festivities from time to time. There is also American sport, including baseball, basketball, and American football.\n\nVisitors \nAlice Springs has a large number of visitors up of:\n Tourists\n Residents of Pine Gap\n Australian Aborigines visiting from nearby Central Australian communities\n Australian or international workers on short-term contracts (locally called \"blow-ins\")\n\nEducation \nAlice Springs has 19 public and private schools and colleges. This includes 2 for aboriginal students, 7 pre-schools and the Alice Springs School of the Air. The School of the Air provides education to students in remote areas. The Alice Springs Campus of Charles Darwin University offers courses in TAFE and Higher Education. The Centre for Appropriate Technology was established in 1980. It has a range of services to encourage and help Aboriginal people improve their quality of life on remote communities.\n\nSport \n\nAustralian Rules Football is a popular sport in Alice Springs. The Central Australian Football League has several teams and many people play. The sport is very popular in Indigenous communities. The local stadium, Traeger Park, can hold 10,000 people. It was built to hold national AFL and international cricket matches. In 2004, an AFL pre-season Regional Challenge match between Collingwood Football Club and Port Adelaide Football Club filled the stadium.\n\nCricket is also a popular sport in Alice Springs. The Imparja Cup Cricket Carnival started in 1994. Teams from Indigenous communities come from all across Australia. A unique sporting event, held every year, is the Henley-on-Todd Regatta. This is also known as the Todd River Race. It is a sand river race with bottomless boats. It is the only dry river regatta in the world. Another unusual sporting event is the Camel Cup. This is also held every year at the local racetrack, Blatherskite Park. It is a full day event with races using camels instead of horses.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":134,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":56499,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alice%20Springs","title":"Alice Springs","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Money, also sometimes called currency, can be defined as anything that people use to buy goods and services. Money is what many people receive for selling their own things or services.\nThere are lots of different kinds of money in the world. Most countries have their own kind of money, such as the United States dollar or the British pound.\n\nHistory \nThe idea of bartering things is very old. A long time ago, people did not buy or sell with money. Instead, they traded one thing for another to get what they wanted or needed. One person who owned many cows could trade with another person who had a lot of wheat. Each would trade a little of what he had with the other. This would support the people on his farm. Other things that were easier to carry around than cows also came to be held as valuable. This gave rise to trade items such as jewelry and spices.\n \nWhen people changed from trading in things like, for example, cows and wheat to using money instead, they needed things that would last a long time. They must still have a known value, and could be carried around. The first country in the world to make metal coins was called Lydia. These first appeared during the 7th century BC, in the western part of what is now Turkey. The Lydian coins were made of a weighed amount of precious metal and were stamped with a picture of a lion. This idea soon spread to Greece, the rest of the Mediterranean, and the rest of the world. Coins were all made to the same size and shape. In some parts of the world, different things have been used as money, like clam shells or blocks of salt.\n\nBesides being easier to carry than cows, using money had many other advantages. Money is easier to divide than many trade goods. If someone own cows, and wants to trade for only \"half a cow's worth\" of wheat, he probably does not want to cut his cow in half. But if he sells his cow for money, and buys wheat with money, he can get exactly the amount he wants.\n\nCows die, and wheat rots. But money lasts longer than most trade goods. If someone sells a cow for money, he can save that money away until he needs it. He can always leave it to his children when he dies. It can last a very long time, and he can use it at any time.\n\nNot every cow is as good as another cow. Some cows are sick and old, and others are healthy and young. Some wheat is good and other wheat is moldy or stale. So if a person trades cows for wheat, he might have a hard time arguing over how much wheat each cow is worth. However, money is standard. That means one dollar is worth the same as another dollar. It is easier to add up and count money, than to add up the value of different cows or amounts of wheat.\n\nLater, after coins had been used for hundreds of years, paper money started out as a promise to pay in coin, much like an \"I.O.U.\" note. The first true paper money was used in China in the 10th century AD. Paper money was also printed in Sweden between 1660 and 1664. Both times, it did not work well, and had to be stopped because the banks kept running out of coins to pay on the notes. Massachusetts Bay Colony printed paper money in the 1690s. This time, the use became more common.\n\nToday, most of what people think of as money is not even things you can hold. It is numbers in bank accounts, saved in computer memories. Many people still feel more comfortable using coins and paper, and do not totally trust using electronic money on a computer memory.\n\nKinds \n \nMany types of money have been used at different times in history. These are:\n Cowry shells\n Commodity money\n Convertible paper money\n Inconvertible money\n Bank deposits\n Electronic money\n\nCommodity money can be used for other purposes besides serving as a medium of exchange. We say it possesses intrinsic value, because it is useful or valuable by itself. Some examples of commodity money are cattle, silk, gold and silver. Convertible paper money is money that is convertible into gold and silver. Gold and Silver certificates are convertible paper money as they can be fully convertible into gold and silver.\n\nInconvertible money is money that cannot be converted into gold and silver. Notes and coins are inconvertible money. They are inconvertible and are declared by the government money. Such fiat money is a country's legal tender. Today, notes and coins are the currencies used in bank deposits.\n\nTypes of bank deposits:\n Demand deposits\n Savings deposits\n Time deposits\n Negotiable certificate\n\nMore reading \n Ferguson, Niall (2008). The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World. Allen Lane. \n Davies, Glyn (2010). History of Money: From Ancient Times to the Present Day (Fourth ed.). University of Wales Press.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n Linguistic and Commodity Exchanges by Elmer G. Wiens. Examines the structural differences between barter and monetary commodity exchanges and oral and written linguistic exchanges.\n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":175,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":4,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":5,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":479,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Money","title":"Money","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The endocrine system includes those organs of the body which produce hormones.\nIt helps to regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, and plays a part also in mood.\nThe field of medicine that deals with disorders of endocrine glands is endocrinology.\n\nIn physiology, the endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body.\n\nThe endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its chemicals using ducts. The endocrine system is an information signal system like the nervous system, yet its effects and mechanism are different.\n\nThe endocrine system's effects are slow to start, and long-lasting in their response. The nervous system sends information quickly, and responses are generally short lived. Hormones are complex chemicals released from endocrine tissue into the bloodstream where they travel to target tissues and trigger a response.\n\nFeatures of endocrine glands are, in general, they have no ducts, they have a good blood supply, and usually they have vacuoles or granules inside their cells, storing their hormones.\n\nEndocrine glands and the hormones they secrete\n\nCentral nervous system \n\n Hypothalamus produces\n Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons\n Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)  Neuroendocine cells of the Preoptic area\n Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)  Neuroendocrine neurons of the Arcuate nucleus\n Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)  Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons\n Vasopressin Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons\n Somatostatin (SS; also GHIH, growth hormone-inhibiting hormone) Neuroendocrince cells of the Periventricular nucleus\n Prolactin inhibiting hormone or PIH or Dopamine (DA) Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus\n Prolactin releasing hormone\n Pineal body produces\n Melatonin (mainly)  Pinealocytes\n Pituitary gland (hypophysis) produces\n Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)\n Growth hormone (GH) Somatotropes\n Prolactin (PRL) Lactotropes \n Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, corticotropin) Corticotropes\n Lipotropin Corticotropes\n Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, thyrotropin) Thyrotropes\n Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Gonadotropes  \n Luteinizing hormone (LH)  Gonadotropes\n Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)\n Oxytocin Magnocellular neurosecretory cells\n Vasopressin (AVP; also ADH, antidiuretic hormone) Magnocellular neurosecretory cells\n Intermediate pituitary lobe (pars intermedia)\n Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Melanotroph\n\nThyroid \n Thyroid produces \n Triiodothyronine (T3), the potent form of thyroid hormone Thyroid epithelial cell\n Thyroxine (T4), also known as tetraiodothyronine: it is a  less active form of thyroid hormone (mainly) Thyroid epithelial cells\n Calcitonin  Parafollicular cells\n\nParathyroid \nParathyroid hormone PTH triggers an increase in blood calcium levels.\n\nMuscles \n Striated muscle produces\n Thrombopoietin  Myocytes\n\nAlimentary system \n\n Stomach produces\n Gastrin (mainly)  G cells\n Ghrelin  P\/D1 cells\n Neuropeptide Y (NPY)\n Secretin S cells\n Somatostatin  D cells\n Histamine  ECL cells\n Endothelin X cells\n Duodenum produces\n Cholecystokinin  I cells\n Liver produces\n Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) (mainly)  Hepatocytes\n Angiotensinogen  Hepatocytes\n Thrombopoietin Hepatocytes\n Pancreas produces\n Insulin (mainly)  \u03b2 Islet cells\n Glucagon (also mainly)  \u03b1 Islet cells\n Somatostatin  \u03b4 Islet cells\n Pancreatic polypeptide  PP cells\n\nKidney \n Kidney produces\n Renin (Primarily) Juxtaglomerular cells\n Erythropoietin (EPO)  Extraglomerular mesangial cells\n Calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D3)\n Thrombopoietin\n\nAdrenal glands \n Adrenal glands\n Adrenal cortex produces\n Glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol) Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells\n Mineralocorticoids (chiefly aldosterone) Zona glomerulosa cells\n Androgens (including DHEA and testosterone) Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells\n Adrenal medulla produces\n Adrenaline (epinephrine) (Primarily) Chromaffin cells\n Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)  Chromaffin cells\n Dopamine  Chromaffin cells\n Enkephalin  Chromaffin cells\n\nReproductive system\n\nMale \n Testes\n Androgens (chiefly testosterone) Leydig cells\n Oestradiol Sertoli cells\n Inhibin Sertoli cells\n\nFemale \nOestrous cycle\n Ovarian follicle\/Corpus luteum\n Progesterone Granulosa cells, Theca cells\n Androstenedione  Theca cells\n Oestrogens (mainly oestradiol) Granulosa cells\n Inhibin Granulosa cells\n Placenta (when a woman is pregnant)\n Progesterone (Primarily)\n Oestrogens (mainly oestriol) (Also primarily)\n Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)  Syncytiotrophoblast\n Human placental lactogen (HPL)  Syncytiotrophoblast\n Inhibin Fetal trophoblasts\n Uterus (when a woman is pregnant)\n Prolactin (PRL) Decidual cells\n Relaxin  Decidual cells\n\nCalcium regulation \n Parathyroid produces\n Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Parathyroid chief cell\n Skin produces\n Vitamin D3 (calciferol)\n\nMiscellaneous \n\n Heart produces\n Atrial-natriuretic peptide (ANP) Cardiac myocytes\n Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)  Cardiac myocytes\n Adenosine  Cardiac myocytes\n Adipose tissue\n Leptin (Primarily) Adipocytes\n Oestrogens (mainly oestrone)  Adipocytes\n Bone marrow produces\n Thrombopoietin\n\nRelated pages \n Hormones\n Nervous system\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Journals Designed for Clinical Endocrinologists\n Islet cell antibody \n Binding of antibody to pancreas \n Kidshealth.org\n\n \nHormones\nGlands","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":4,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1}},"id":75895,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Endocrine%20system","title":"Endocrine system","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Organic compounds are carbon-based compounds. Organic compounds contain carbon bonds in which at least one carbon atom is covalently linked to an atom of another type (usually hydrogen, oxygen or nitrogen). Most polymers are organic compounds.\n\nHistory \nThe name \"organic\" is a historical name from the 19th century.\n\nPeople believed that only living things could make organic compounds and \"dead\" things (such as minerals) could make inorganic compounds. However, Friedrich W\u00f6hler proved this wrong by synthesizing urea, a well-known organic compound.\n\nKinds of organic compounds \nThere are natural organic compounds, and synthetic ones. Their structure may be described by using names, and making diagrams. \n\nOne way of showing the molecule is by drawing its structural formula. Because molecules can have complicated structures, people have made ways to show them in simple language. One way is to use line diagrams. Each atom is shown by a letter, and connected by a line to each atom with which it is has a covalent bond. One line means a single bond, two lines means a double bond and so on. \n\nBecause there is in an infinite number of possible organic compounds, language is needed to give a unique name to each one. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, or IUPAC, made a system for doing this. Although an IUPAC name makes every single possible molecule unique, the names are often long and complicated, so in everyday life, trivial names--unofficial but widely understood names--are used, such as the trivial names Paracetamol, Tylenol, and Acetaminophen, which are used for a compound whose IUPAC name is N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) acetamide. Some of these trivial names are trademarks.\n\nNatural Compounds \nNatural compounds are compounds made by living beings. These could also be made in a lab, but many of these compounds are taken from nature because it is easier and less expensive to do it that way. For example, every year people grow and eat huge amounts of natural sugar and starch. Other common natural compounds are: amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, many antibiotics like Penicillin and Amoxicillin.\n\nSynthetic compounds \nSynthetic compounds are those made by people. Sometimes, this is done by taking something natural and changing the molecule in a small way, such as making glycerin from vegetable oils. Other compounds are synthesized in long, complicated reactions with many steps. Plastics are sometimes mostly natural, and other kinds are manufactured.\n\nStructure \nSince a compound is often first discovered in nature instead of being made on purpose in a lab, people may know the compound exists, and even know what it does sometimes, but not know exactly what atoms it is made of and how it is arranged. There are several ways of taking an unknown compound and finding out this structure:\n Mass spectrometry\n X-ray diffraction\n Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy\n Infrared spectroscopy\n\nRelated pages \nAcetone\nInorganic compound\nOrganic chemistry\nBiochemistry\n\nOther websites \n Organic chemistry online","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":5,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":4110,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organic%20compound","title":"Organic compound","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An alphabet is a writing system, a list of symbols for writing. The basic symbols in an alphabet are called letters. In an alphabet, each letter is a symbol for a sound or related sounds. To make the alphabet work better, more signs assist the reader: punctuation marks, spaces, standard reading direction, and so on.\n\nThe name alphabet comes from Aleph and Beth, the first two letters in the Phoenician alphabet.\n\nThis article is written with the Roman alphabet (or Latin alphabet).  It was first used in Ancient Rome to write Latin.  Many languages use the Latin alphabet: it is the most used alphabet today.\n\nAlphabets \nIt seems that the idea of an alphabet \u2013 a script based entirely upon sound \u2013 has been copied and adapted to suit many different languages. Although no alphabet fits its language perfectly, they are flexible enough to fit any language approximately. The alphabet was a unique invention.p12\n\n \nThe Roman alphabet, the Cyrillic, and a few others come from the ancient Greek alphabet, which dates back to about 1100 to 800BC.p167 The Greek alphabet was probably developed from the Phoenician script, which appeared somewhat earlier, and had some similar letter-shapes.\n\nThe Phoenicians spoke a Semitic language, usually called Canaanite. The Semitic group of languages includes Arabic, Maltese, Hebrew and also Aramaic, the language spoken by Jesus. We do not know much about how the alphabetic idea arose, but the Phoenicians, a trading people, came up with letters which were adapted by the early Greeks to produce their alphabet. The one big difference is that the Phoenician script had no pure vowels. Arabic script has vowels which may, or may not, be shown by diacritics (small marks above or below the line). The oldest Qu'ran manuscripts had no diacritics. Israeli children to about the third grade use Hebrew texts with vowel 'dots' added.p89\n\nNo ancient script, alphabetic or not, had pure vowels before the Greeks. The Greek alphabet even has two vowels (Eta) and Epsilon) for 'e' and two (Omega and Omicron) for 'o', to distinguish between the long and short sounds. It appears that careful thought went into both the Phoenician invention and the Greek adaptation, but no details survive of either process.\n\nSemitic scripts apparently derive from Proto-Sinaitic, a script of which only 31 inscriptions (plus 17 doubtful) are known. It is thought by some researchers that the original source of this script was the Egyptian hieratic script, which by the late Middle Kingdom (about 1900BC) had added some alphabetic signs for representing the consonants of foreign names. Egyptian activity in Sinai was at its height at that time. A similar idea had been suggested many years previously.\n\nShort list of alphabets \nA list of alphabets and examples of the languages they are used for:\nProto-Sinaitic script\n Phoenician alphabet, used in ancient Phoenicia.\n Greek alphabet, used for Greek\n Roman alphabet (or Latin alphabet), most commonly used today\n Arabic alphabet, used for Arabic, Urdu and Persian\n Hebrew alphabet, used for Hebrew, Ladino (only in Israel) and Yiddish\n Devanagari, used for many languages of India\n Cyrillic alphabet, which is based on the Greek alphabet, used for Russian and Bulgarian\n Hangul, used for Korean \n Ethiopic\n\nOther writing systems \nOther writing systems do not use letters, but they do (at least in part) represent sounds. For example, many systems represent syllables. In the past such writing systems were used by many cultures, but today they are almost only used by languages people speak in Asia.  A syllabary is a system of writing that is similar to an alphabet. A syllabary uses one symbol to indicate each syllable of a word, instead of one symbol for each letter of the word. For example, a syllabary would use one symbol to mean the syllable \"ga\", instead of two letters of the alphabet \"g\" and \"a\".\n\n Japanese uses a mix of the Chinese writing (kanji) and two syllabaries called hiragana and katakana. Modern Japanese often also uses romaji, which is the Japanese syllabary written in the Roman alphabet.\n The Koreans used the Chinese writing in the past, but they created their own alphabet called hangul.\n\nOriginally, 1200 BC in the Shang dynasty, Chinese characters were mainly \"pictographic\", using pictures to show words or ideas.  Now only 1% of Chinese characters are pictographic.p97 97% of modern characters are SP characters.  These are a pair of symbols, one for meaning (semantics) and the other for pronunciation.p99 In many cases the P and S parts are put together into one joint character.  Chinese is not one spoken language, but many, but the same writing system is used for all.  This writing system has been reformed a number of times.\n\nRelated pages \n Multialphabetism\n Writing\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":5892,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alphabet","title":"Alphabet","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Pennsylvanian is the Upper Carboniferous epoch in the strata of North America. It comes after (above) the Mississippian, and before the Permian. The Pennsylvanian started about 323 million years ago (mya), and ended about 299 mya.\n\nThe coal measures, which give the Carboniferous its name, are the remains of peat formed by dense tropical wetland forests. They were formed in the Pennsylvanian, from about 315\u2013300 million years years ago.\n\nThese forests were on the equator, and the wetlands, which are always low-lying, stretched from North America in the west, through what is now Europe to China in the east, because these continents were all together at the time (Laurussia). The river plain which was the heart of the wetland stretched 5000km from eastern Canada to Ukraine, and was 700km wide.p6 This would make the Pennsylvanian basin larger than any wetlands on Earth today.\n\nThe characteristic vertebrates of the coal measures were amphibia, and the plants were mostly giant clubmosses such as Lepidodendron.\n\nChange of climate \nThe rainforest system collapsed about halfway through the Pennsylvanian, and was replaced by a cooler, drier climate. The wetland forests ended when the land level was raised by the pressure of the Gondwana continent against Laurussia, causing the zone of contact to be raised. The end of the Coal Measures marks the end of the Carboniferous period. China was too far away to be affected, and there the wetland forests continued for another 50 million years, into the early Permian.p30\n\nAs the climate became drier, egg-laying amniotes (Synapsids and Sauropsids) became more common than amphibia. These are the lines that would lead to reptiles and mammals. These egg-laying land vertebrates probably split from the early amniotes in the Mississippian.\n\nReferences \n\nCarboniferous","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":5,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":220839,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pennsylvanian","title":"Pennsylvanian","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Bishop o Rome, whiles cried the Pape, is the heid o the Roman Catholic Kirk an sovereign o Vatican Ceety. The Bishop is waled by Cairdinals in whit is kent as a Papal Conclave. The current Bishop is His Haliness Pape Frauncis, wha succeedit Pape Benedict XVI efter his reteirement in Februar, 2013. The line o Bishop can be traced richt back tae the verra first Pape, St. Peter, wha wis appyntit bi Jesus Christ.\n\n \nEcclesiastical teetles\nEpiscopacy in Roman Catholicism\n \nReleegious leadership roles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-21":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":3905,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pape","title":"Pape","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Franks ( or ; ) were originally a Germanic people who lived near the Lower Rhine, on the northern frontier of the late Roman Empire, but they successfully expanded their power and influence during the Middle Ages, until much of the population of western Europe, particularly in or near France, were commonly described as Franks, for example in the context of their joint efforts during the crusades starting in the 11th century. This expansion came about because the romanized Frankish dynasties based within the collapsing Western Roman Empire first became the rulers of the whole region between the rivers Loire and Rhine, and then subsequently imposed power over many other post-Roman kingdoms both inside and outside the old empire. \n\nAlthough the Frankish name does not appear until the 3rd century, at least some of the original Frankish tribes had long been known to the Romans under their own names, both as allies providing soldiers, and as enemies.  The Franks were first reported as working together to raid Roman territory. However, the Romans also reported the Franks suffering attacks upon them from outside their frontier area, and being allowed to move into Roman territory. Frankish peoples subsequently living inside Rome's frontier on the Rhine river are often divided by historians into two groups - the Salian Franks to the west, who came south via the Rhine delta; and the Ripuarian or Rhineland Franks to the east, who eventually conquered the Roman frontier city of Cologne and took control of the left bank of the Lower Rhine in that region. \n\nIn the middle of the 5th century, Childeric I, a Salian Frank, was one of several military leaders commanding Roman forces with various ethnic affiliations in the northern part of Roman Gaul, which corresponds roughly with modern France and the Low countries. He and his son Clovis I founded the Merovingian dynasty which succeeded in conquering most of Gaul during the 6th century, as well as establishing leadership over all the Frankish kingdoms on or near the Rhine frontier. The dynasty subsequently gained control over a significant part of what is now western and southern Germany. It was by building upon the basis of this Merovingian empire that the subsequent dynasty, the Carolingians, eventually came to be seen as the new emperors of Western Europe in 800, when Charlemagne was crowned by the pope.\n\nIn 870 the Frankish realm came to be permanently divided between western and eastern kingdoms, which were the predecessors of the future Kingdom of France and Holy Roman Empire respectively. It is the western kingdom whose inhabitants eventually came to be known simply as \"the French\" (,  etc.) which has become a distinct modern concept connected to the nation state of France. However, in various historical contexts, such as during the medieval crusades, the peoples of neighbouring regions in Western Europe continued to be referred to collectively as Franks. The crusaders in particular had a lasting impact on the use of Frank-related names for Western Europeans in many non-European languages.\n\nEtymology \n\nThe name  was not a tribal name, but within a few centuries it had eclipsed the names of the original peoples who constituted them. Following the precedents of Edward Gibbon and Jacob Grimm, the name of the Franks has been linked with the English adjective frank, originally meaning \"free\". There have also been proposals that Frank comes from the Germanic word for \"javelin\" (such as in Old English  or Old Norse ). Words in other Germanic languages meaning \"fierce\", \"bold\" or \"insolent\" (German , Middle Dutch , Old English  and Old Norwegian ), may also be significant.\n\nEumenius addressed the Franks in the matter of the execution of Frankish prisoners in the circus at Trier by Constantine I in 306 and certain other measures:  (\"Where now is that ferocity of yours? Where is that ever untrustworthy fickleness?\"). Latin  was used often to describe the Franks. Contemporary definitions of Frankish ethnicity vary both by period and point of view. The formulary of Marculf written about 700 AD described a continuation of national identities within a mixed population when it stated that \"all the peoples who dwell (in the official's province), Franks, Romans, Burgundians and those of other nations, live\u00a0\u2026 according to their law and their custom.\" Writing in 2009, Professor Christopher Wickham pointed out that \"the word 'Frankish' quickly ceased to have an exclusive ethnic connotation. North of the River Loire everyone seems to have been considered a Frank by the mid-7th century at the latest (except Bretons); Romani (Romans) were essentially the inhabitants of Aquitaine after that\".\n\nMythological origins \nApart from the History of the Franks by Gregory of Tours, two early sources relate the mythological origin of the Franks: a 7th-century work known as the Chronicle of Fredegar and the anonymous , written a century later.\n\nThe author of the Chronicle of Fredegar claimed that the Franks came originally from Troy and quoted the works of Virgil and Hieronymus:\n\nAccording to historian Patrick J. Geary, those two stories are \"alike in betraying both the fact that the Franks knew little about their background and that they may have felt some inferiority in comparison with other peoples of antiquity who possessed an ancient name and glorious tradition. (...) Both legends are of course equally fabulous for, even more than most barbarian peoples, the Franks possessed no common history, ancestry, or tradition of a heroic age of migration. Like their Alemannic neighbours, they were by the sixth century a fairly recent creation, a coalition of Rhenish tribal groups who long maintained separate identities and institutions.\"\n\nThe other work, the , previously known as  before its republication in 1888 by Bruno Krusch, described how 12,000 Trojans, led by Priam and Antenor, sailed from Troy to the River Don in Russia and on to Pannonia, which is on the River Danube, settling near the Sea of Azov. There they founded a city called Sicambria. (The Sicambri were the most well-known tribe in the Frankish homeland in the time of the early Roman empire, still remembered though defeated and dispersed long before the Frankish name appeared.) The Trojans joined the Roman army in accomplishing the task of driving their enemies into the marshes of M\u00e6otis, for which they received the name of Franks (meaning \"fierce\"). A decade later the Romans killed Priam and drove away Marcomer and Sunno, the sons of Priam and Antenor, and the other Franks.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history \nThe most important contemporary sources mentioning the early Franks include the , Ammianus Marcellinus, Claudian, Zosimus, Sidonius Apollinaris and Gregory of Tours. The Franks are first mentioned in the Augustan History, a collection of biographies of the Roman emperors. None of these sources presents a detailed list of which tribes or parts of tribes became Frankish, or concerning the politics and history, but to quote :\nA Roman marching-song joyfully recorded in a fourth-century source, is associated with the 260s; but the Franks' first appearance in a contemporary source was in 289. [...] The Chamavi were mentioned as a Frankish people as early as 289, the Bructeri from 307, the Chattuarri from 306\u2013315, the Salii or Salians from 357, and the Amsivarii and Tubantes from c. 364\u2013375.\n\nThe Franks were described in Roman texts both as allies () and enemies (). About the year 260 one group of Franks penetrated as far as Tarragona in present-day Spain, where they plagued the region for about a decade before they were subdued and expelled by the Romans. In 287 or 288, the Roman Caesar Maximian forced a Frankish leader Genobaud and his people to surrender without a fight.\n\nIn 288 the emperor Maximian defeated the Salian Franks, Chamavi, Frisii and other Germanic people living along the Rhine and moved them to Germania inferior to provide manpower and prevent the settlement of other Germanic tribes. In 292 Constantius, the father of Constantine I  defeated the Franks who had settled at the mouth of the Rhine. These were moved to the nearby region of Toxandria. Eumenius mentions Constantius as having \"killed, expelled, captured [and] kidnapped\" the Franks who had settled there and others who had crossed the Rhine, using the term  for the first time. It seems likely that the term Frank in this first period had a broader meaning, sometimes including coastal Frisii.\n\nThe Life of Aurelian, which was possibly written by Vopiscus, mentions that in 328, Frankish raiders were captured by the 6th Legion stationed at Mainz. As a result of this incident, 700 Franks were killed and 300 were sold into slavery. Frankish incursions over the Rhine became so frequent that the Romans began to settle the Franks on their borders in order to control them.\n\nThe Franks appear to be mentioned in the , an atlas of Roman roads. (It is a 13th-century copy of a 4th or 5th century document that reflects information from the 3rd century.) Several tribal names are written at the mouth of the Rhine. One of these says , which is generally believed to mean 'The Chamavi who are Franks' (despite the letter p). Further up the river the word \"Francia\" is clearly marked, indicating a country name on the bank opposite to Nijmegen and Xanten.\n\nSalians \n\nThe Salians were first mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus, who described Julian's defeat of \"the first Franks of all, those whom custom has called the Salians,\" in 358. Julian allowed the Franks to remain in Texuandria as  within the Empire, having moved there from the Rhine-Maas delta. The 5th century  lists a group of soldiers as .\n\nSome decades later, Franks in the same region, possibly the Salians, controlled the River Scheldt and were disrupting transport links to Britain in the English Channel. Although Roman forces managed to pacify them, they failed to expel the Franks, who continued to be feared as pirates.\n\nThe Salians are generally seen as the predecessors of the Franks who pushed southwestwards into what is now modern France, who eventually came to be ruled by the Merovingians (see below). This is because when the Merovingian dynasty published the Salian law (Lex Salica) it applied in the Neustrian area from the river Liger (Loire) to the Silva Carbonaria, the western kingdom founded by them outside the original area of Frankish settlement. In the 5th century, Franks under Chlodio pushed into Roman lands in and beyond the \"Silva Carbonaria\" or \"Charcoal forest\", which ran through the area of modern western Wallonia. The forest was the boundary of the original Salian territories to the north and the more Romanized area to the south in the Roman province of Belgica Secunda, which now lies in northern France. Chlodio conquered Tournai, Artois, Cambrai, and as far as the Somme river. Chlodio is often seen as an ancestor of the future Merovingian dynasty. Childeric I, who according to Gregory of Tours was a reputed descendant of Chlodio, was later seen as administrative ruler over Roman Belgica Secunda and possibly other areas.\n\nRecords of Childeric show him to have been active together with Roman forces in the Loire region, quite far to the south. His descendants came to rule Roman Gaul all the way to there, and this became the Frankish kingdom of Neustria, the basis of what would become medieval France. Childeric's son Clovis I also took control of the more independent Frankish kingdoms east of the Silva Carbonaria and Belgica II. This later became the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia, where the early legal code was referred to as \"Ripuarian\".\n\nRipuarians \n\nThe Rhineland Franks who lived near the stretch of the Rhine from roughly Mainz to Duisburg, the region of the city of Cologne, are often considered separately from the Salians, and sometimes in modern texts referred to as Ripuarian Franks. The Ravenna Cosmography suggests that Francia Renensis included the old civitas of the Ubii, in Germania II (Germania Inferior), but also the northern part of Germania I (Germania Superior), including Mainz. Like the Salians they appear in Roman records both as raiders and as contributors to military units. Unlike the Salii, there is no record of when, if ever, the empire officially accepted their residence within its borders. They eventually succeeded to hold the city of Cologne, and at some point seem to have acquired the name Ripuarians, which may have meant \"river people\". In any case a Merovingian legal code was called the Lex Ribuaria, but it probably applied in all the older Frankish lands, including the original Salian areas.\n\nJordanes, in his Getica mentions a group called the \"Riparii\" as auxiliaries of Flavius Aetius during the Battle of Ch\u00e2lons in 451, and disctinct from the \"Franci\":   But these  (\"river dwellers\") are today not considered to be Ripuarian Franks, but rather a known military unit based on the river Rhone.\n\nThe Ripuarian territory on both sides of the Rhine thus became a central part of Merovingian Austrasia. This stretched to include Roman Germania Inferior (later Germania Secunda), which included the original Salian and Ripuarian lands, and roughly equates to medieval Lower Lotharingia. It also included Gallia Belgica Prima (roughly medieval Upper Lotharingia), and further lands on the east bank of the Rhine.\n\nMerovingian kingdom (481\u2013751) \n\nGregory of Tours (Book II) reported that small Frankish kingdoms existed during the fifth century around Cologne, Tournai, Cambrai and elsewhere. The kingdom of the Merovingians eventually came to dominate the others, possibly because of its association with Roman power structures in northern Gaul, into which the Frankish military forces were apparently integrated to some extent. In the 450s and 460s, Childeric I, a Salian Frank, was one of several military leaders commanding Roman forces with various ethnic affiliations in Roman Gaul (roughly modern France). Childeric and his son Clovis I faced competition from the Roman Aegidius as competitor for the \"kingship\" of the Franks associated with the Roman Loire forces (according to Gregory of Tours, Aegidius held the kingship of the Franks for 8 years while Childeric was in exile). This new type of kingship, perhaps inspired by Alaric I, represents the start of the Merovingian dynasty which succeeded in conquering most of Gaul in the 6th century, as well as establishing its leadership over all the Frankish kingdoms on the Rhine frontier. Aegidius died in 464 or 465. Childeric and his son Clovis I were both described as rulers of the Roman Province of , by its spiritual leader in the time of Clovis, Saint Remigius. \n\nClovis later defeated the son of Aegidius, Syagrius, in 486 or 487 and then had the Frankish king Chararic imprisoned and executed. A few years later, he killed Ragnachar, the Frankish king of Cambrai, and his brothers. After conquering the Kingdom of Soissons and expelling the Visigoths from southern Gaul at the Battle of Vouill\u00e9, he established Frankish hegemony over most of Gaul, excluding Burgundy, Provence and Brittany, which were eventually absorbed by his successors. By the 490s, he had conquered all the Frankish kingdoms to the west of the River Maas except for the Ripuarian Franks and was in a position to make the city of Paris his capital. He became the first king of all Franks in 509, after he had conquered Cologne.\n\nClovis I divided his realm between his four sons, who united to defeat Burgundy in 534. Internecine feuding occurred during the reigns of the brothers Sigebert I and Chilperic I, which was largely fuelled by the rivalry of their queens, Brunhilda and Fredegunda, and which continued during the reigns of their sons and their grandsons. Three distinct subkingdoms emerged: Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, each of which developed independently and sought to exert influence over the others. The influence of the Arnulfing clan of Austrasia ensured that the political centre of gravity in the kingdom gradually shifted eastwards to the Rhineland.\n\nThe Frankish realm was reunited in 613 by Chlothar II, the son of Chilperic, who granted his nobles the Edict of Paris in an effort to reduce corruption and reassert his authority. Following the military successes of his son and successor Dagobert I, royal authority rapidly declined under a series of kings, traditionally known as les rois fain\u00e9ants. After the Battle of Tertry in 687, each mayor of the palace, who had formerly been the king's chief household official, effectively held power until in 751, with the approval of the Pope and the nobility, Pepin the Short deposed the last Merovingian king Childeric III and had himself crowned. This inaugurated a new dynasty, the Carolingians.\n\nCarolingian empire (751\u2013843) \n\nThe unification achieved by the Merovingians ensured the continuation of what has become known as the Carolingian Renaissance. The Carolingian Empire was beset by internecine warfare, but the combination of Frankish rule and Roman Christianity ensured that it was fundamentally united. Frankish government and culture depended very much upon each ruler and his aims and so each region of the empire developed differently. Although a ruler's aims depended upon the political alliances of his family, the leading families of Francia shared the same basic beliefs and ideas of government, which had both Roman and Germanic roots.\n\nThe Frankish state consolidated its hold over the majority of western Europe by the end of the 8th century, developing into the Carolingian Empire. With the coronation of their ruler Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800 AD, he and his successors were recognised as legitimate successors to the emperors of the Western Roman Empire. As such, the Carolingian Empire gradually came to be seen in the West as a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire. This empire would give rise to several successor states, including France, the Holy Roman Empire and Burgundy, though the Frankish identity remained most closely identified with France.\n\nAfter the death of Charlemagne, his only adult surviving son became Emperor and King Louis the Pious. Following Louis the Pious's death, however, according to Frankish culture and law that demanded equality among all living male adult heirs, the Frankish Empire was now split between Louis' three sons.\n\nMilitary\n\nParticipation in the Roman army \nGermanic peoples, including those tribes in the Rhine delta that later became the Franks, are known to have served in the Roman army since the days of Julius Caesar. After the Roman administration collapsed in Gaul in the 260s, the armies under the Germanic Batavian Postumus revolted and proclaimed him emperor and then restored order. From then on, Germanic soldiers in the Roman army, most notably Franks, were promoted from the ranks. A few decades later, the Menapian Carausius created a Batavian\u2013British rump state on Roman soil that was supported by Frankish soldiers and raiders. Frankish soldiers such as Magnentius, Silvanus and Arbitio held command positions in the Roman army during the mid 4th century. From the narrative of Ammianus Marcellinus it is evident that both Frankish and Alamannic tribal armies were organised along Roman lines.\n\nAfter the invasion of Chlodio, the Roman armies at the Rhine border became a Frankish \"franchise\" and Franks were known to levy Roman-like troops that were supported by a Roman-like armour and weapons industry. This lasted at least until the days of the scholar Procopius (c. 500 \u2013 c. 565), more than a century after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, who wrote describing the former Arborychoi, having merged with the Franks, retaining their legionary organization in the style of their forefathers during Roman times. The Franks under the Merovingians melded Germanic custom with Romanised organisation and several important tactical innovations. Before their conquest of Gaul, the Franks fought primarily as a tribe, unless they were part of a Roman military unit fighting in conjunction with other imperial units.\n\nMilitary practices of the early Franks \nThe primary sources for Frankish military custom and armament are Ammianus Marcellinus, Agathias and Procopius, the latter two Eastern Roman historians writing about Frankish intervention in the Gothic War.\n\nWriting of 539, Procopius says:\n\nHis contemporary, Agathias, who based his own writings upon the tropes laid down by Procopius, says:\n\nIn the Strategikon, supposedly written by the emperor Maurice, or in his time, the Franks are lumped together with the Lombards under the heading of the \"fair-haired\" peoples.\n\nWhile the above quotations have been used as a statement of the military practices of the Frankish nation in the 6th century and have even been extrapolated to the entire period preceding Charles Martel's reforms (early mid-8th century), post-Second World War historiography has emphasised the inherited Roman characteristics of the Frankish military from the date of the beginning of the conquest of Gaul. The Byzantine authors present several contradictions and difficulties. Procopius denies the Franks the use of the spear while Agathias makes it one of their primary weapons. They agree that the Franks were primarily infantrymen, threw axes and carried a sword and shield. Both writers also contradict the authority of Gallic authors of the same general time period (Sidonius Apollinaris and Gregory of Tours) and the archaeological evidence. The , the early 7th century legal code of the Rhineland or Ripuarian Franks, specifies the values of various goods when paying a wergild in kind; whereas a spear and shield were worth only two , a sword and scabbard were valued at seven, a helmet at six, and a \"metal tunic\" at twelve. Scramasaxes and arrowheads are numerous in Frankish graves even though the Byzantine historians do not assign them to the Franks.\n\nThe evidence of Gregory and of the  implies that the early Franks were a cavalry people. In fact, some modern historians have hypothesised that the Franks possessed so numerous a body of horses that they could use them to plough fields and thus were agriculturally technologically advanced over their neighbours. The  specifies that a mare's value was the same as that of an ox or of a shield and spear, two  and a stallion seven or the same as a sword and scabbard, which suggests that horses were relatively common. Perhaps the Byzantine writers considered the Frankish horse to be insignificant relative to the Greek cavalry, which is probably accurate.\n\nMerovingian military\n\nComposition and development \nThe Frankish military establishment incorporated many of the pre-existing Roman institutions in Gaul, especially during and after the conquests of Clovis I in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. Frankish military strategy revolved around the holding and taking of fortified centres () and in general these centres were held by garrisons of  or , who were former Roman mercenaries of Germanic origin. Throughout Gaul, the descendants of Roman soldiers continued to wear their uniforms and perform their ceremonial duties.\n\nImmediately beneath the Frankish king in the military hierarchy were the , his sworn followers, who were generally 'old soldiers' in service away from court. The king had an elite bodyguard called the truste. Members of the truste often served in , garrison settlements that were established for military and police purposes. The day-to-day bodyguard of the king was made up of antrustiones (senior soldiers who were aristocrats in military service) and  (junior soldiers and not aristocrats). All high-ranking men had pueri.\n\nThe Frankish military was not composed solely of Franks and Gallo-Romans, but also contained Saxons, Alans, Taifals and Alemanni. After the conquest of Burgundy (534), the well-organised military institutions of that kingdom were integrated into the Frankish realm. Chief among these was the standing army under the command of the Patrician of Burgundy.\n\nIn the late 6th century, during the wars instigated by Fredegund and Brunhilda, the Merovingian monarchs introduced a new element into their militaries: the local levy. A levy consisted of all the able-bodied men of a district who were required to report for military service when called upon, similar to conscription. The local levy applied only to a city and its environs. Initially only in certain cities in western Gaul, in Neustria and Aquitaine, did the kings possess the right or power to call up the levy. The commanders of the local levies were always different from the commanders of the urban garrisons. Often the former were commanded by the counts of the districts. A much rarer occurrence was the general levy, which applied to the entire kingdom and included peasants ( and ). General levies could also be made within the still-pagan trans-Rhenish stem duchies on the orders of a monarch. The Saxons, Alemanni and Thuringii all had the institution of the levy and the Frankish monarchs could depend upon their levies until the mid-7th century, when the stem dukes began to sever their ties to the monarchy. Radulf of Thuringia called up the levy for a war against Sigebert III in 640.\n\nSoon the local levy spread to Austrasia and the less Romanised regions of Gaul. On an intermediate level, the kings began calling up territorial levies from the regions of Austrasia (which did not have major cities of Roman origin). All the forms of the levy gradually disappeared, however, in the course of the 7th century after the reign of Dagobert I. Under the so-called , the levies disappeared by mid-century in Austrasia and later in Burgundy and Neustria. Only in Aquitaine, which was fast becoming independent of the central Frankish monarchy, did complex military institutions persist into the 8th century. In the final half of the 7th century and first half of the 8th in Merovingian Gaul, the chief military actors became the lay and ecclesiastical magnates with their bands of armed followers called retainers. The other aspects of the Merovingian military, mostly Roman in origin or innovations of powerful kings, disappeared from the scene by the 8th century.\n\nStrategy, tactics and equipment \nMerovingian armies used coats of mail, helmets, shields, lances, swords, bows and arrows and war horses. The armament of private armies resembled those of the Gallo-Roman  of the late Empire. A strong element of Alanic cavalry settled in Armorica influenced the fighting style of the Bretons down into the 12th century. Local urban levies could be reasonably well-armed and even mounted, but the more general levies were composed of  and , who were mostly farmers by trade and carried ineffective weapons, such as farming implements. The peoples east of the Rhine\u00a0\u2013 Franks, Saxons and even Wends\u00a0\u2013 who were sometimes called upon to serve, wore rudimentary armour and carried weapons such as spears and axes. Few of these men were mounted.\n\nMerovingian society had a militarised nature. The Franks called annual meetings every Marchfeld (1 March), when the king and his nobles assembled in large open fields and determined their targets for the next campaigning season. The meetings were a show of strength on behalf of the monarch and a way for him to retain loyalty among his troops. In their civil wars, the Merovingian kings concentrated on the holding of fortified places and the use of siege engines. In wars waged against external foes, the objective was typically the acquisition of booty or the enforcement of tribute. Only in the lands beyond the Rhine did the Merovingians seek to extend political control over their neighbours.\n\nTactically, the Merovingians borrowed heavily from the Romans, especially regarding siege warfare. Their battle tactics were highly flexible and were designed to meet the specific circumstances of a battle. The tactic of subterfuge was employed endlessly. Cavalry formed a large segment of an army , but troops readily dismounted to fight on foot. The Merovingians were capable of raising naval forces: the naval campaign waged against the Danes by Theuderic I in 515 involved ocean-worthy ships and rivercraft were used on the Loire, Rh\u00f4ne and Rhine.\n\nCulture\n\nLanguage \n\nIn a modern linguistic context, the language of the early Franks is variously called \"Old Frankish\" or \"Old Franconian\" and these terms refer to the language of the Franks prior to the advent of the High German consonant shift, which took place between 600 and 700 CE. After this consonant shift the Frankish dialect diverges, with the dialects which would become modern Dutch not undergoing the consonantal shift, while all others did so to varying degrees. As a result, the distinction between Old Dutch and Old Frankish is largely negligible, with Old Dutch (also called Old Low Franconian) being the term used to differentiate between the affected and non-affected variants following the aforementioned Second Germanic consonant shift.\n\nThe Frankish language has not been directly attested, apart from a very small number of runic inscriptions found within contemporary Frankish territory such as the Bergakker inscription. Nevertheless a significant amount of Frankish vocabulary has been reconstructed by examining early Germanic loanwords found in Old French as well as through comparative reconstruction through Dutch. The influence of Old Frankish on contemporary Gallo-Roman vocabulary and phonology, have long been questions of scholarly debate. Frankish influence is thought to include the designations of  the four cardinal directions: nord \"north\", sud \"south\", est \"east\" and ouest \"west\" and at least an additional 1000 stem words.\n\nAlthough the Franks would eventually conquer all of Gaul, speakers of Frankish apparently expanded in sufficient numbers only into northern Gaul to have a linguistic effect. For several centuries, northern Gaul was a bilingual territory (Vulgar Latin and Frankish). The language used in writing, in government and by the Church was Latin. Urban T. Holmes has proposed that a Germanic language continued to be spoken as a second tongue by public officials in western Austrasia and Northern Neustria as late as the 850s, and that it completely disappeared as a spoken language during the 10th century from regions where only French is spoken today.\n\nThe Germanic tribes who were called Franks in Late Antiquity are associated with the Weser-Rhine Germanic\/Istvaeonic cultural-linguistic grouping.\n\nArt and architecture \n\nEarly Frankish art and architecture belongs to a phase known as Migration Period art, which has left very few remains. The later period is called Carolingian art, or, especially in architecture, pre-Romanesque. Very little Merovingian architecture has been preserved. The earliest churches seem to have been timber-built, with larger examples being of a basilica type. The most completely surviving example, a baptistery in Poitiers, is a building with three apses of a Gallo-Roman style. A number of small baptistries can be seen in Southern France: as these fell out of fashion, they were not updated and have subsequently survived as they were.\n\nJewelry (such as brooches), weapons (including swords with decorative hilts) and clothing (such as capes and sandals) have been found in a number of grave sites. The grave of Queen Aregund, discovered in 1959, and the Treasure of Gourdon, which was deposited soon after 524, are notable examples. The few Merovingian illuminated manuscripts that have survived, such as the Gelasian Sacramentary, contain a great deal of zoomorphic representations. Such Frankish objects show a greater use of the style and motifs of Late Antiquity and a lesser degree of skill and sophistication in design and manufacture than comparable works from the British Isles. So little has survived, however, that the best quality of work from this period may not be represented.\n\nThe objects produced by the main centres of the Carolingian Renaissance, which represent a transformation from that of the earlier period, have survived in far greater quantity. The arts were lavishly funded and encouraged by Charlemagne, using imported artists where necessary, and Carolingian developments were decisive for the future course of Western art. Carolingian illuminated manuscripts and ivory plaques, which have survived in reasonable numbers, approached those of Constantinople in quality. The main surviving monument of Carolingian architecture is the Palatine Chapel in Aachen, which is an impressive and confident adaptation of San Vitale, Ravenna \u2013 from where some of the pillars were brought. Many other important buildings existed, such as the monasteries of Centula or St Gall, or the old Cologne Cathedral, since rebuilt. These large structures and complexes made frequent use of towers.\n\nReligion \nA sizeable portion of the Frankish aristocracy quickly followed Clovis in converting to Christianity (the Frankish church of the Merovingians). The conversion of all under Frankish rule required a considerable amount of time and effort.\n\nPaganism \n\nEchoes of Frankish paganism can be found in the primary sources, but their meaning is not always clear. Interpretations by modern scholars differ greatly, but it is likely that Frankish paganism shared most of the characteristics of other varieties of Germanic paganism. The mythology of the Franks was probably a form of Germanic polytheism. It was highly ritualistic. Many daily activities centred around the multiple deities, chiefest of which may have been the Quinotaur, a water-god from whom the Merovingians were reputed to have derived their ancestry. Most of their gods were linked with local cult centres and their sacred character and power were associated with specific regions, outside of which they were neither worshipped nor feared. Most of the gods were \"worldly\", possessing form and having connections with specific objects, in contrast to the God of Christianity.\n\nFrankish paganism has been observed in the burial site of Childeric I, where the king's body was found covered in a cloth decorated with numerous bees. There is a likely connection with the bees to the traditional Frankish weapon, the angon (meaning \"sting\"), from its distinctive spearhead. It is possible that the fleur-de-lis is derived from the angon.\n\nChristianity \n\nSome Franks, like the 4th century usurper Silvanus, converted early to Christianity. In 496, Clovis I, who had married a Burgundian Catholic named Clotilda in 493, was baptised by Saint Remi after a decisive victory over the Alemanni at the Battle of Tolbiac. According to Gregory of Tours, over three thousand of his soldiers were baptised with him. Clovis' conversion had a profound effect on the course of European history, for at the time the Franks were the only major Christianised Germanic tribe without a predominantly Arian aristocracy and this led to a naturally amicable relationship between the Catholic Church and the increasingly powerful Franks.\n\nAlthough many of the Frankish aristocracy quickly followed Clovis in converting to Christianity, the conversion of all his subjects was only achieved after considerable effort and, in some regions, a period of over two centuries. The Chronicle of St. Denis relates that, following Clovis' conversion, a number of pagans who were unhappy with this turn of events rallied around Ragnachar, who had played an important role in Clovis' initial rise to power. Although the text remains unclear as to the precise pretext, Clovis had Ragnachar executed. Remaining pockets of resistance were overcome region by region, primarily due to the work of an expanding network of monasteries.\n\nThe Merovingian Church was shaped by both internal and external forces. It had to come to terms with an established Gallo-Roman hierarchy that resisted changes to its culture, Christianise pagan sensibilities and suppress their expression, provide a new theological basis for Merovingian forms of kingship deeply rooted in pagan Germanic tradition and accommodate Irish and Anglo-Saxon missionary activities and papal requirements. The Carolingian reformation of monasticism and church-state relations was the culmination of the Frankish Church.\n\nThe increasingly wealthy Merovingian elite endowed many monasteries, including that of the Irish missionary Columbanus. The 5th, 6th and 7th centuries saw two major waves of hermitism in the Frankish world, which led to legislation requiring that all monks and hermits follow the Rule of St Benedict. The Church sometimes had an uneasy relationship with the Merovingian kings, whose claim to rule depended on a mystique of royal descent and who tended to revert to the polygamy of their pagan ancestors. Rome encouraged the Franks to slowly replace the Gallican Rite with the Roman rite. When the mayors took over, the Church was supportive and an Emperor crowned by the Pope was much more to their liking.\n\nLaws \nAs with other Germanic peoples, the laws of the Franks were memorised by \"rachimburgs\", who were analogous to the lawspeakers of Scandinavia. By the 6th century, when these laws first appeared in written form, two basic legal subdivisions existed: Salian Franks were subject to Salic law and Ripuarian Franks to Ripuarian law. Gallo-Romans south of the River Loire and the clergy remained subject to traditional Roman law. Germanic law was overwhelmingly concerned with the protection of individuals and less concerned with protecting the interests of the state. According to Michel Rouche, \"Frankish judges devoted as much care to a case involving the theft of a dog as Roman judges did to cases involving the fiscal responsibility of , or municipal councilors\".\n\nCrusaders and other Western Europeans as \"Franks\" \n\nThe term Frank has been used by many of the Eastern Orthodox and Muslim neighbours of medieval Latin Christendom (and beyond, such as in Asia) as a general synonym for a European from Western and Central Europe, areas that followed the Latin rites of Christianity under the authority of the Pope in Rome. Another term with similar use was Latins.\n\nModern historians often refer to Christians following the Latin rites in the eastern Mediterranean as Franks or Latins, regardless of their country of origin, whereas they use the words Rhomaios and R\u00fbmi (\"Roman\") for Orthodox Christians. On a number of Greek islands, Catholics are still referred to as  () or \"Franks\", for instance on Syros, where they are called  (). The period of Crusader rule in Greek lands is known to this day as the Frankokratia (\"rule of the Franks\").\n\nDuring the Mongol Empire in the 13\u201314th centuries, the Mongols used the term \"Franks\" to designate Europeans. Persianate Turkic dynasties used and spread the term in throughout Iran and India with the expansion of the language. The term Frangistan (\"Land of the Franks\") was used by Muslims to refer to Christian Europe and was commonly used over several centuries in Iberia, North Africa, and the Middle East.\n\nThe Chinese called the Portuguese  \u4f5b\u90ce\u6a5f (\"Franks\") in the 1520s at the Battle of Tunmen and Battle of Xicaowan. Some other varieties of Mandarin Chinese pronounced the characters as Fah-lan-ki.\n\nThe Mediterranean Lingua Franca (or \"Frankish language\") was a pidgin first spoken by 11th century European Christians and Muslims in Mediterranean ports that remained in use until the 19th century.\n\nExamples of derived words include:\n  () in Greek\n  in Albanian\n  in Turkish\n  in Azerbaijani (derived from Persian)\n ,  and  in Arabic\n ,  in Persian, also the toponym \n Faranji in Tajik.\n Ferengi or Faranji in some Turkic languages\n  in Amharic in Ethiopia,  in Tigrinya, and derivative forms in other languages of the Horn of Africa, refers to white people or any white (European stock) person\n  or  in Hindi and Urdu (derived from Persian)\n Phirangee in some other Indian languages\n  in Tamil\n  in Malayalam; in Sinhala, the word refers specifically to Portuguese people\n  () in Burmese\n  in Khmer\n  in Malay\n  or Fah-lan-ki () and Fulang in Chinese\n  () in Thai.\n  (\"blonde\"),  (\"temperament\/al\") in Bahasa Indonesia\n\nIn the Thai usage, the word can refer to any European person. When the presence of US soldiers during the Vietnam War placed Thai people in contact with African Americans, they (and people of African ancestry in general) came to be called  (\"Black Farang\", ). Such words sometimes also connote things, plants or creatures introduced by Europeans\/Franks. For example, in Khmer, , literally \"French Chicken\", refers to a turkey and in Thai,  is the name both for Europeans and for the guava fruit, introduced by Portuguese traders over 400 years ago. In contemporary Israel, the Yiddish word  () has, by a curious etymological development, come to refer to Mizrahi Jews in Modern Hebrew and carries a strong pejorative connotation.\n\nSome linguists (among them Drs. Jan Tent and Paul Geraghty) have suggested that the Samoan and generic Polynesian term for Europeans, Palagi (pronounced Puh-LANG-ee) or Papalagi, might also be cognate, possibly a loan term gathered by early contact between Pacific islanders and Malays.\n\nSee also \n\n Germanic Christianity\n List of Frankish kings\n List of Frankish queens\n Name of France\n List of Germanic peoples\n Frankokratia\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nPrimary sources \n\n Fredegar\n \n \n \n Gregory of Tours\n \n \n \n Ammianus Marcellinus\n \nProcopius\n\nSecondary sources \n\n Bachrach, Bernard S. Merovingian Military Organization, 481\u2013751. University of Minnesota Press, 1971. \n Collins, Roger. Early Medieval Europe 300\u20131000. MacMillan, 1991.\n \n\n \n .\n\n \n \n Lewis, Archibald R. \"The Dukes in the Regnum Francorum, A.D. 550\u2013751.\" Speculum, Vol. 51, No 3 (July 1976), pp.\u00a0381\u2013410.\n McKitterick, Rosamond. The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751\u2013987. London: Longman, 1983. .\n Murray, Archibald Callander, and Goffart, Walter A. After Rome's Fall: Narrators and Sources of Early Medieval History. University of Toronto Press: Toronto, 1998.\n Nixon, C. E. V. and Rodgers, Barbara. In Praise of Later Roman Emperors. Berkeley, 1994.\n\n \n \n \n Schutz, Herbert. The Germanic Realms in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400\u2013750. American University Studies, Series IX: History, Vol. 196. New York: Peter Lang, 2000.\n Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. The Long-Haired Kings. London: Butler & Tanner Ltd, 1962.\n Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. The Barbarian West. London: Hutchinson, 1970.\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \nEarly Germanic peoples\nHistorical ethnic groups of Europe\nEarly Middle Ages\nMedieval Belgium\nMedieval Netherlands\nGerman tribes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":47,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-30":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":5,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":6,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":6,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":7,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":4,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":1}},"id":2462183,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Franks","title":"Franks","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The flute is a musical instrument. A person who plays the flute is called a flutist.\n\nThere are many kinds of flutes. The most common concert flute is on C tuning. In addition, there are other flutes like piccolos, alto flutes, and bass flutes.\n\nFlutes have changed over time. Pan flutes were made for many centuries. Later, the \"Renaissance flute\" came into use. In Baroque music flute means recorder, so flutes were called traverso in order not to confuse them. A Bavarian flute maker named Boehm reformed flutes largely to enlarge the volume and improve the way of using the chromatic scale. Later improvements created the modern flute.\n\nThere is a large repertoire of music for the flute. Baroque composers used them in their orchestras, usually in pairs, and composed concertos, chamber music and solo music for them. This has continued to the present day. Orchestras have at least 2 flutes each, sometimes three or four. Sometimes there is 1 piccolo which plays an octave higher, or an alto flute which plays a fifth lower than the flute.\n\nThe flute sounds very bright and cheerful playing high notes. Please listen, for example, to the Badinerie from Bach's Orchestral Suite no 2. It can also sound very thoughtful or sad when playing in its lowest register. A good example is the opening of Debussy's Pr\u00e9lude \u00e0 l'apr\u00e8s midi d'un faune also flutes Andre a brass instrument and can make a really low pitch.  \n\nPlaying\n\nThe flute is a woodwind instrument, but modern flutes are made of metal. It was made of wood a long time ago. It doesn't need lip vibration like brass instruments. Flute players hold it horizontally and make a sound by blowing their breath over the edge of the hole of flute's head. This makes the air vibrate. Flutes need the second most amount of air for an instrument, next to the tuba. Flautists can change the pitch by pushing buttons or changing the direction of the breath. These buttons are called keys. The breath also can change the tone or the volume. Flute has many variations of the sound. The sound of flute is high, so composers often express it as a bird. A flute matches with many instruments such as violin and piano, and is often part of an ensemble.\n\nMaterial\nThere are many kinds of flute, so the material also varies.  Most flutes are made out of silver. Gold, platinum, wood, and aluminum are also used. The price of flute depends on the material, but there are many different playing situations, so not only expensive flutes are useful.\n\nDifferent Flutes\n Flutes of India and China \nThe oldest kind of side-blown flute was made in India.\nIn India, a flute called bansuri is used. It has no keys and is often made of bamboo or cane.\n\nIn China, a simple flute is used, which has no keys. The Chinese flute sometimes has a thin piece of paper over one hole, which adds a bright raspiness to the sound.\n\n Other flutes \nThere are other kinds of flute, that are played by blowing into the end, like a recorder. Some of these are tin whistle, flageolet, tabor pipe, and ocarina.\n\nIn Japan there is a kind of flute called a shakuhachi, which is made from the bottom of a bamboo plant. It is blown at the end, but is not like the recorder because it does not have an opening that guides the air across a hole that makes the sound.\n\nIn South America, there is a flute called a quena that makes its sound the same way as the shakuhachi''.\n\nThe Pan pipes are a form of flute with no holes. It has more than one pipe connected together, with the bottom closed. The player blows across the top of one of the pipes to make a note. The pipes are in different sizes, so that each one makes a different note. They are named after Pan, who played this instrument in Greek myth.\n\nGallery\nThere are flutes in many cultures.  The flute has been described as \"a musical weed which springs up everywhere\".\n\nFamous Flutists \nThe band Jethro Tull was founded by a flute player (Ian Anderson). It can be heard in many songs. One of them is the hit \"Locomotive Breath\".\n\nRelated pages \n Digeridoo\n Piccolo\n Pan Flute\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1}},"id":14223,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flute","title":"Flute","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Chamber music means music written for small groups of instruments. A \"chamber\" is a \"room\" (from the French word \"chambre\"). Usually the word \"chamber\" in English means a room in a large house or castle. In the days when people with big houses or castles kept their own musicians, they might have their own private orchestra which played in the large hall. Sometimes there would be a concert in a small chamber. This was called \"chamber music\".\n\nChamber music can be any group of instruments from two up to nine. Each player will be playing something different from the others (\"one to a part\"). Unlike an orchestra where there may be many violins all playing the same notes.\n\nThe word \"chamber\" is also used for a \"chamber orchestra\" meaning: a small orchestra. By contrast: a large orchestra is often called a \"symphony orchestra\". A small choir may be called a \"chamber choir\". But these examples are not usually thought of as \"chamber music\".\n\nWords for the size of groups \n\nThese words are used to show how many people are playing. They can also be used for groups of singers (vocal solo, duet etc.):\n\n a solo is just one player (or singer). This is not usually called chamber music.\n\n a duet or duo is a piece for two instruments. The word \"duo\" usually means a piece in which the two parts are of equal importance. Violin sonatas, flute sonatas etc. usually have piano accompaniment but are not normally called \"duets\". Piano duets are for two players at one piano.\n\n a trio is a piece for three instruments. Piano trios are pieces for piano, violin and cello. Sometimes trios may be called after one of the instruments, for example: Brahms' \"Horn Trio\" is for French horn, violin and piano, not for three horns!\n\n a quartet is a piece for four instruments. String quartets are the most popular form of chamber music. They are for two violins, viola and cello. A piano quartet would be for piano, violin, viola and cello.\n\n a quintet is a piece for five instruments. A string quintet can be for two violins, two violas and cello (e.g. Mozart's string quintets) or it can be for two violins, viola and two cellos (e.g. the one by Schubert). A piano quintet is for piano and string quartet (although Schubert's Trout Quintet is unusual: it is for piano, violin, viola, cello and double bass).\n\n a sextet is a piece for six instruments. String sextets are normally for two violins, two violas and two cellos. Poulenc's Sextet is for piano and five wind instruments.\n\n a septet is quite unusual and could be for any combination of instruments. Beethoven, Saint-Sa\u00ebns and Ravel all wrote septets, but for different combinations.\n\n an octet is for eight instruments. Schubert's Octet is for clarinet, horn, bassoon, string quartet and double bass. Mendelssohn's Octet is for two string quartets.\n\n a nonet is quite rare. Louis Spohr wrote a nonet for violin, viola, cello, double bass, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon and French horn.\n\nHistory \n\nChamber music for instruments became popular as something different from big orchestras. The orchestra developed in the 17th century and so did chamber music. Composers wrote trio sonatas which were for two high instruments (e.g. two violins) and a continuo accompaniment (usually harpsichord and cello). Arcangelo Corelli and Johann Sebastian Bach wrote many trio sonatas.\n\nJoseph Haydn wrote lots of string quartets. He made this combination popular. Mozart and Beethoven also wrote some very great string quartets. The last ones that Beethoven wrote were very difficult to play and to understand, but composers of the 19th century like Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn and Brahms were inspired by them. In the twentieth century some of the best string quartets were written by Bart\u00f3k and Shostakovich.\n\nPlaying chamber music \nIt is great fun to play chamber music because each player is an individual. It is like having a conversation in music. There is no conductor, so each musician has to listen carefully to the others and learn to play together as a small team. The musicians can also hear their own playing better than they can in an orchestra. Some living composers have written a lot of music for young players who are not very advanced. Some of Mozart's earlier string quartets are not too difficult and make an excellent introduction to chamber music playing.\n\nExample \n\nMusic genres","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":30415,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chamber%20music","title":"Chamber music","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An engine, or motor, is a machine used to change energy into movement that can be used. The energy can be in any form. Common forms of energy used in engines are electricity, chemical (such as petrol or diesel) or heat. When a chemical is used to produce energy it is known as fuel.\n\nTerminology \nIn past centuries motor and \"engine\" meant very different things. A motor was made to move something such as a vehicle. This meaning is still often used. Sometimes a thing is called an engine if it creates mechanical energy from heat, and a motor if it creates mechanical energy from other kinds of energy, like electricity. Typical engines in this meaning are steam engine and internal combustion engine, while typical motors are electric motor and hydraulic motor. And sometimes the two words mean the same thing.\n\n\"Engine\" was originally a term for any mechanical device that converts force into motion. Hence, pre-industrial weapons such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams were called \"siege engines\". The word \"gin,\" as in \"cotton gin\", is short for \"engine.\" The word derives from Old French engine, from the Latin ingenium, which is also the root of the word ingenious. Most mechanical devices invented during the industrial revolution were described as engines\u2014the steam engine being a notable example.\n\nPiston engines\n \nEarly kinds of engine used heat that was outside of the engine itself to heat up a gas to a high pressure. This was usually steam and the engines are called steam engines. The steam was piped to the engine where it pushed on pistons to bring about motion. These engines were commonly used in old factories, boats and trains.\n\nMost cars use a chemical engine that burns fuel inside it. This is called an internal combustion engine.  There are many different types of internal combustion engine. They can be grouped by fuel, cycle and configuration. Common fuel types for internal combustion engines are petrol, diesel, auto gas and alcohol. There are many other types of fuels.\n\nThere are 3 different types of cycle. 2-stroke engines produce power once every turn of the engine. 4-stroke engines cylinders make power once every two turns of the engine. 6-stroke engines cylinders make power twice in every six turns of the engine. \n\nThere are lots of different configurations of piston engines. Their cylinders have pistons in them and a crankshaft. Any number of cylinders can be used but 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 are common. The cylinders can be arranged in many ways, in a straight line, at an angle to each other or in a circle.\n\nA Wankel engine has no cylinders and uses a triangle shaped rotor spinning in an oval housing which mimics the movement of a piston.\n\nTurbine engines\n\nHot gas can also be made to push a turbine around rather like the way the wind turns a windmill. Most electric power stations use big steam turbines. Others use water or wind turbines. Smaller turbines called gas turbines are used for internal combustion engines, such as the jet engines used in aircraft.\n\nRocket engines\n\nA rocket causes movement by shooting jets of gas very fast out of a nozzle. The gas may have been stored under pressure or be a chemical fuel that burns to make a very hot gas. Although they are very simple, rockets are the most powerful engines we know how to make. They will work in space where there is nothing to push against.\n\nElectric motors\n\nElectric motors do not use a fuel. The energy is supplied to them by electricity carried along wires.  The energy may come from a fuel being burnt somewhere else a long way off. The electricity is used to make powerful magnets inside the motor switch on and off at the right time to turn the shaft of the motor.\n\nElectric engine is not a motor, but a railway locomotive which runs on electricity.\n\nRelated pages \nDiesel engine\nSteam engine\nTurbine\nElectric motor\nStirling engine\n\nReference section \n\nMachines\nBasic English 850 words\nMotors","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":153,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":8382,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engine","title":"Engine","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Mesons are incredibly small subatomic particles that are made of one quark and one antiquark. Antiquarks are the antimatter counterpart of a regular quark. Since antimatter quarks have the opposite spin of regular quarks, their spins can cancel each other out, which forms a particle similar to a Higgs Boson. The name meson comes from Greek \"mesos\", meaning middle. This is because the masses of the first mesons discovered were between the mass of light particles like electrons, called leptons, and heavy particles like protons, called baryons.\n\nMesons' spin\nMesons are hadrons, which simply means that they are made of quarks. Since quarks have different fractional charges, mesons can have a charge. However, the charges of the quarks may cancel out, forming an uncharged meson. The rest of the hadron family are known as baryons, which are made of three quarks. Since quarks all have a spin of 1\/2, three of them will never add up to an integer spin. An integer spin is simply 0, 1, or 2. Particles with an integer spin are called bosons, which obey Bose-Einstein Statistics. This means that more than one boson can actually be in the same point in space at the same time. However, a meson is made of one quark and one antiquark, which each do not have an integer spin. Particles which do not have an integer spin have a spin of 1\/2 or 3\/2. These particles with 1\/2 spin are called Fermions because they obey Fermi-Dirac Statistics. This means that no more than one fermion can be in the same point in space at the same time. All known baryons and quarks (and antiquarks) are fermions, and all mesons are bosons. This can get very confusing because this means that more than one meson can exist in the same point in space at the same time, but the quarks that make up mesons cannot exist in the same point in space at the same time.\n\nCreation of Mesons\nThe most common natural way that we find mesons are through the interactions of cosmic rays with matter. This process can be duplicated in particle accelerators, which smash high-energy quarks and antiquarks. However, the mesons are very unstable and quickly turn into other particles. Charged Mesons can decay into electrons and neutrinos, and uncharged mesons can decay into photons. Since antimatter is destroying matter, a large amount of energy is given off. The energy follows the equation E=mc2.\n\nQuantum mechanics\nSubatomic particles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":273469,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meson","title":"Meson","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Morality  is the concept of doing the right thing. Morals are basic guidelines for living.\n\nMany people have written about ways of choosing what the right thing is. Some believe that there is an objective (true even if you do not agree with it) morality, often thinking it was set by God or another similar being; others think that morality is subjective (that what is good or bad is a community choice).\n\nPeople can learn morals from religion, parents, friends, school, books, or from ethical traditions. People that teach or follow morals are called moralists.\n\nIt can also be a lesson that someone learns in a book or story. It is usually one line at the end of the story (\"The moral of this story is.....\"). Fables are stories with a moral. \n\nThe opposite of \"moral\" is \"immoral\", meaning the wrong thing to do. \"Amoral\" means something that is not related to morality, or has no morally good or bad aspect to it. It is the same as \"morally neutral\". Morality means that you can tell between a right and a wrong thing.\n\nSome morally correct things to do are\n\n\u2022Eat healthy\n\n\u2022Sleep well\n\n\u2022be polite\n\n\u2022use your brain\n\n\u2022use common sense\n\n\u2022Don't smoke\n\n\u2022Don't drink alcohol\n\n\u2022Don't murder\n\nRelated pages\nEthics\nMoral equivalence\nMoral hazard\n\nEthics\nPsychology\nPhilosophy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":220,"dup_dump_count":96,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":5,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":5,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":7,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":4,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":49279,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morality","title":"Morality","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"String theory tries to model the four known fundamental interactions\u2014gravitation, electromagnetism, strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force\u2014together in one theory. This tries to resolve the alleged conflict between classical physics and quantum physics by elementary units\u2014the one classical force: gravity, and a new quantum field theory of the other three fundamental forces. \n\nEinstein had sought a unified field theory, a single model to explain the fundamental interactions or mechanics of the universe.  Today's search is for a unified field theory that is quantized and that explains matter's structure, too.  This is called the search for a theory of everything (TOE). The most prominent contender as a TOE is string theory converted into superstring theory with its six higher dimensions in addition to the four common dimensions (3D + time).\n\nSome superstring theories seem to come together on a shared range of geometry that, according to string theorists, is apparently the geometry of space. The mathematical framework that unifies the multiple superstring theories upon that shared geometrical range is M-theory. Many string theorists are optimistic that M-theory explains our universe's very structure and perhaps explains how other universes, if they exist, are structured as part of a greater \"multiverse\". M theory\/supergravity theory has 7 higher dimensions + 4D.\n\nBackground \n\nIntroductions to string theory that are designed for the general public must first explain physics.  Some of the controversies over string theory result from misunderstandings about physics. A common misunderstanding even for scientists is the presumption that a theory is proved true in its explanation of the natural world wherever its predictions are successful.  Another misunderstanding is that earlier physical scientists, including chemists, have already explained the world. This leads to the misunderstanding that string theorists began making strange hypotheses after they became unaccountably \"set free from truth\".\n\nClassical realm\n\nNewtonian physics \n\nNewton's law of universal gravitation (UG), added to the three Galilean laws of motion and some other presumptions, was published in 1687.  Newton's theory successfully modeled interactions among objects of a size we can see, a range of phenomena now called the classical realm.  Coulomb's law modeled electric attraction. Maxwell's electromagnetic field theory unified electricity and magnetism, while optics emerged from this field.\n\nLight's speed remained about the same when measured by an observer traveling in its field, however, although addition of velocities predicted the field to be slower or faster relative to the observer traveling with or against it.  So, versus the electromagnetic field, the observer kept losing speed.  Still, this did not violate Galileo's Principle of relativity that says the laws of mechanics work the same for all objects showing inertia.\n\nBy law of inertia, when no force is applied to an object, the object holds its velocity, which is speed and direction.  An object either in uniform motion, which is constant speed in an unchanging direction, or staying at rest, which is zero velocity, experiences inertia.  This exhibits Galilean invariance\u2014its mechanical interactions proceeding without variation\u2014also called Galilean relativity since one cannot perceive whether one is at rest or in uniform motion.\n\nRelativity theory\n\nSpecial relativity \n\nIn 1905, Einstein's special theory of relativity explained the accuracy of both Maxwell's electromagnetic field and Galilean relativity by stating that the field's speed is absolute\u2014a universal constant\u2014whereas both space and time are local phenomena relative to the object's energy.  Thus, an object in relative motion shortens along the direction of its momentum (Lorentz contraction), and its unfolding of events slows (time dilation). A passenger on the object cannot detect the change, as all measuring devices aboard that vehicle have experienced length contraction and time dilation. Only an external observer experiencing relative rest measures the object in relative motion to be shortened along its travel pathway and its events slowed. Special relativity left Newton's theory\u2014which states space and time as absolute\u2014unable to explain gravitation.\n\nBy the equivalence principle, Einstein inferred that being under either gravitation or constant acceleration are indistinguishable experiences that might share a physical mechanism. The suggested mechanism was progressive length contraction and time dilation\u2014a consequence of the local energy density within 3D space\u2014establishing a progressive tension within a rigid object, relieving its tension by moving toward the location of greatest energy density. Special relativity would be a limited case of a gravitational field. Special relativity would apply when the energy density across 3D space is uniform, and so the gravitational field is scaled uniformly from location to location, why an object experiences no acceleration and thus no gravitation.\n\nGeneral relativity \n\nIn 1915, Einstein's general theory of relativity newly explained gravitation with 4D spacetime modeled as a Lorentzian manifold. Time is one dimension merged with the three space dimensions, as every event in 3D space\u20142D horizontally and 1D vertically\u2014entails a point along a 1D time axis. Even in everyday life, one states or implies both. One says or at least means, \"Meet me at building 123 Main Street intersecting Franklin Street in apartment 3D on 10 October 2012 at 9:00PM\". By omitting or missing the time coordinate, one arrives at the correct location in space when the sought event is absent\u2014it is in the past or future at perhaps 6:00PM or 12:00AM.\n\nBy converging space and time and presuming both relative to the energy density in the vicinity, and by setting the only constant or absolute as not even mass but as light speed in a vacuum, general relativity revealed the natural world's previously unimagined balance and symmetry. Every object is always moving at light speed along a straight line\u2014its equivalent, on a curved surface, called geodesic or worldline\u2014the one pathway of least resistance like a free fall through 4D spacetime whose geometry \"curves\" in the vicinity of mass\/energy.\n\nAn object at light speed in a vacuum is moving at maximal rate through 3D space but exhibits no evolution of events\u2014it is frozen in time\u2014whereas an object motionless in 3D space flows fully along 1D time, experiencing the maximal rate of events' unfolding. The displayed universe is relative to a given location, yet once the mass\/energy in that vicinity is stated, Einstein's equations predict what is occurring\u2014or did occur or will occur\u2014anywhere in the universe. The popularized notion that relative in Einstein's theory suggests subjective or arbitrary was to some regret of Einstein, who later thought he ought have to named it general theory.\n\nCosmology \n\nThe electromagnetic field's messenger particles, photons, carry an image timelessly across the universe while observers within this field have enough flow through time to decode this image and react by moving within 3D space, yet can never outrun this timeless image. The universe's state under 400 000 years after the presumed big bang that began our universe is thought to be displayed as the cosmic microwave background (CMB).\n\nIn 1915, the universe was thought to be entirely what we now call the Milky Way galaxy and to be static. Einstein operated his recently published equations of the gravitational field, and discovered the consequence that the universe was expanding or shrinking. (The theory is operable in either direction\u2014time invariance.) He revised the theory add a cosmological constant to arbitrarily balance the universe. Nearing 1930, Edwin Hubble's telescopic data, interpreted through general relativity, revealed the universe was expanding.\n\nIn 1916 while on a World War I battlefield, Karl Schwarzschild operated Einstein's equations, and the Schwarzschild solution predicted black holes. Decades later, astrophysicists identified a supermassive black hole in the center of perhaps every galaxy. Black holes seem to lead galaxy formation and maintenance by regulating star formation and destruction.\n\nIn the 1930s, it was noticed that according to general relativity, galaxies would fall apart unless surrounded by invisible matter holding a galaxy together, and by the 1970s dark matter began to be accepted. In 1998 it was inferred that the universe's expansion, not slowing, is accelerating, indicating a vast energy density\u2014enough to accelerate both visible matter and dark matter\u2014throughout the universe, a vast field of dark energy. Apparently, under 5% of the universe's composition is known, while the other 95% is mysterious\u2014dark matter and dark energy.\n\nQuantum realm\n\nStrange mechanics \n\nBy the 1920s, to probe the operating of the electromagnetic field at minuscule scales of space and time, quantum mechanics (QM) was developed. Yet electrons\u2014the matter particles that interact with the photons that are the electromagnetic field's force carriers\u2014would appear to defy mechanical principles altogether. None could predict a quantum particle's location from moment to moment.\n\nIn the slit experiment, an electron would travel through one hole placed in front of it. Yet a single electron would travel simultaneously though multiple holes, however many were placed in front of it. The single electron would leave on the detection board an interference pattern as if the single particle were a wave that had passed through all the holes simultaneously. And yet this occurred only when unobserved. If light were shone on the expected event, the photon's interaction with the field would set the electron to a single position.\n\nBy the uncertainty principle, any quantum particle's exact location and momentum cannot be determined with certainty, however. The particle's interaction with the observation\/measurement instrument deflects the particle such that greater determination of its position yields lower determination of its momentum, and vice versa.\n\nField theory quantized \n\nBy extending quantum mechanics across a field, a consistent pattern emerged. From location to adjacent location, the probability of the particle existing there would rise and fall like a wave of probability\u2014a rising and falling probability density.  When unobserved, any quantum particle enters superposition, such that even a single particle fills the entire field, however large.  Yet the particle is not definitely anywhere in the field, but there at a definite probability in relation to whether it was had been at the adjacent location.  The waveform of Maxwell's electromagnetic field was generated by an accumulation of probabilistic events.  Not the particles, but the mathematical form, was constant.\n\nSetting the field to special relativity permitted prediction of the complete electromagnetic field.  Thus arose relativistic quantum field theory (QFT).  Of the electromagnetic field, it is relativistic quantum electrodynamics (QED).  Of the weak and electromagnetic fields together, it is relativistic electroweak theory (EWT).  Of the strong field, it is relativistic quantum chromodynamics (QCD).  Altogether, this became the Standard Model of particle physics.\n\nDivision in physics \n\nWhen the Standard Model is set to general relativity in order to include mass, probability densities of infinity appear.  This is presumed incorrect, as probability ordinarily ranges from 0 to 1\u20140% to 100% probability.  Some theoretical physicists suspect that the problem is in the Standard Model, which represents each particle by a zero-dimensional point that in principle can be infinitely small. Yet in quantum physics, the Planck's constant is the minimum energy unit that a field can be divided into, perhaps a clue to the smallest size a particle can be.  So there is a quest to quantize gravity\u2014to develop a theory of quantum gravity.\n\nConcept\n\nFramework \n\nString conjectures that on the microscopic scale, Einstein's 4D spacetime is a field of Calabi-Yau manifolds, each containing 6 space dimensions curled up, thus not extended into the 3 space dimensions presented to the classical realm.  In string theory, each quantum particle is replaced by a 1D string of vibrating energy whose length is the Planck length.  As the string moves, it traces width, and thus becomes 2D, a worldsheet.  As a string vibrates and moves within the 6D Calabi-Yau space, the string becomes a quantum particle.  With this approach, the hypothetical graviton\u2014predicted to explain general relativity\u2014emerges easily.\n\nTheories \n\nString theory began as bosonic string theory, whose 26 dimensions act as many fewer.  Yet this modeled only bosons, which are energy particles, while omitting fermions, which are matter particles.  So bosonic string theory could not explain matter.  Yet by adding supersymmetry to bosonic string theory, fermions were achieved, and string theory became superstring theory, explaining matter, too.\n\n(In versions of quantum field theory that include supersymmetry (SUSY), each boson has a corresponding fermion, and vice versa.  That is, each energy particle has a corresponding matter particle, and each matter particle has a corresponding energy particle, yet the unobservable partner is more massive and thus super.  These superpartners might seem an extravagant prediction, yet many theorists and experimentalists favor supersymmetric versions of the Standard Model, whose equations must otherwise be tweaked extravagantly and sometimes arbitrarily to maintain predictive success or mathematical consistency, but with the superpartners align.)\n\nControversies\n\nUntestable\u2014unscientific? \n\nString theory's claim that all molecules are strings of energy has drawn harsh criticism.  There are many versions of string theory, none quite successfully predicting the observational data explained by the Standard Model.  M theory is now known to have countless solutions, often predicting things strange and unknown to exist.  Some allege that string theorists select only the desired predictions.\n\nThe allegation that string theory makes no testable predictions is false, as it makes many.  No theory\u2014a predictive and perhaps explanatory model of some domain of natural phenomena\u2014is verifiable.  All conventional physical theories until the Standard Model have made claims about unobservable aspects of the natural world.  Even the Standard Model has various interpretations as to the natural world.  When the Standard Model is operated, it is often made a version with supersymmetry, doubling the number of particle species so far identified by particle physicists.\n\nNone can literally measure space, yet Newton postulated absolute space and time, and Newton's theory made explicit predictions, highly testable and predictively successful for 200 years, but the theory was still falsified as explanatory of nature.  Physicists accept that there exists no such attractive force directly attracting matter to matter, let alone that the force traverses the universe instantly.  Nevertheless, Newton's theory is still paradigmatic of science.\n\nHidden dimensions? \n\nThe idea of hidden dimensionality of space can seem occult.  Some theorists of loop quantum gravity\u2014a contender for quantum gravity\u2014regard string theory as fundamentally misguided by presuming that space even has a shape until particles shape it.  That is, they do not doubt that space takes various shapes, simply regard the particles as determining space's shape, not the other way around.  The spacetime vortex predicted by general relativity is apparently confirmed.\n\nIf interpreted as naturally true, the Standard Model, representing a quantum particle as a 0D point, already indicates that spacetime is a sea of roiling shapes, quantum foam.  String theorists tend to believe nature more elegant, a belief that loop theorist Lee Smolin dismisses as romantic while using biology's Modern Synthesis as a rhetorical device.  Experiments to detect added spatial dimensions have so far failed, yet there is still the possibility that signs of them can emerge.\n\nSo many solutions? \n\nM theory has many trillions of solutions.  Leonard Susskind, a leader of string theory, interprets string theory's plasticity of solutions as paradoxical support resolving the mystery of why this universe exists, as M theory shows it but a variant of a general pattern that always approximately results.\n\nGeneral relativity has brought many discoveries that in 1915 were all but unimaginable except in fiction.  A solution of Einstein's equations that sought to explain quantum particles' dynamics, the Einstein-Rosen Bridge predicts a shortcut connecting two distant points in spacetime.  Commonly called a wormhole, the Einstein-Rosen Bridge is doubted but not disproved, showing either that not all consequences of a theory must be accurate or that reality is quite bizarre in ways unobservable.\n\nMany worlds \n\nEven the Standard Model of particle physics suggests bizarre possibilities that populist accounts of science either omit or mention as unexplained curiosities.  The theory conventionally receives the Copenhagen interpretation, whereby the field is only possibilities, none real until an observer or instrument interacts with the field, whose wavefunction then collapses and leaves only its particle function, only the particles being real.  Yet wavefunction collapse was merely assumed\u2014neither experimentally confirmed nor even mathematically modeled\u2014and no variance from either the wavefunction in the quantum realm or the particle function in the classical realm has been found.\n\nIn 1957 Hugh Everett described his \"Relative state\" interpretation.  Everett maintained that the wavefunction does not collapse, and since all matter and interactions are presumed to be built up from quantum waveparticles, all possible variations of the quantum field\u2014indicated by the mathematical equations\u2014are real and simultaneously occurring but different courses of history.  By this interpretation, whatever interacts with the field joins the field's state that is relative to the observer's state\u2014itself a waveform in its own quantum field\u2014while the two simply interact in a universal waveform never collapsing.  By now, many physicists' interpretation of the apparent transition from the quantum to the classical realms is not wavefunction collapse, but quantum decoherence.\n\nIn decoherence, an interaction with the field takes the observer into only one determinant constellation of the quantum field, and so all observations align with that new, combined quantum state.  Everett's thesis has inspired Many worlds interpretation, whereby within our universe are predicted to be virtually or potentially infinite parallel worlds that are real, yet each a minuscule distance from the other worlds.  As each world's waveform is universal\u2014not collapsing\u2014and its mathematical relations are invariant, parallel worlds simply fill the gaps and do not touch.\n\nMany universes \n\nEinstein doubted that black holes, as predicted by the Schwarzschild solution, are real.  Some now conjecture that black holes do not exist as such but are dark energy, or that our universe is both\u2014a black hole and dark energy.  The Schwarzschild solution of Einstein's equations can be maximally extended to predict a black hole having a flip side\u2014another universe emerging from a white hole.  Perhaps our universe's big bang was half of a big bounce, something's collapse down to a black hole, and our universe popping out its other side as a white hole.\n\nParticles are strings? \n\nPhysicists widely doubt that quantum particles are truly 0D points as represented in Standard Model, which offers formalism\u2014mathematical devices whose strokes predict phenomena of interest upon input of data\u2014not interpretation of the mechanisms determining those phenomena.  Yet string theorists do tend to optimistically conjecture that the strings are both real and explanatory, not merely predictive devices.  It is far beyond the capacity of today's particle accelerators to propel any probing particles at energy levels high enough to overcome a quantum particle's own energy and determine whether it is a string.  Yet this limitation also exists on testing other theories of quantum gravity.  Developments suggest other strategies to \"observe\" the structure of quantum particles.\n\nParadoxically, even if testing confirmed that particles are strings of energy, that still would not conclusively prove even that particles are strings, since there could be other explanations, perhaps an unexpected warpage of space although the particle was a 0D point of true solidity.  Even when predictions succeed, there are many possible explanations\u2014the problem of underdetermination\u2014and philosophers of science as well as some scientists do not accept even flawless predictive success as verification of the successful theory's explanations if these are posed as offering scientific realism, true description of the natural world.\n\nMatter is energy? \n\nTalk of particle physicists testing theoretical physicists' predicted particles by colliding particles in accelerators suggests that quantum particles are tiny Newtonian particles that experimentalists crack open to reveal their structure.  Instead, when two particles, each of a certain mass\u2014measured in terms of energy as electronvolts\u2014are collided, they can combine into a particle of that combined mass\/energy, and the generated particle is \"observed\" for correspondence with the prediction.\n\nIt is not controversial among physicists that all particles are energy.  Loop theorists, sometimes in rivalry with string theory, claim that spacetime itself converts into the particles.  Matter's being a special variant of energy was a consequence of Einstein's special theory of relativity, and thereupon Einstein formalized the mass-energy equivalence, E=mc2.  When sufficiently energetic photons collide, they can combine and generate matter\u2014matter creation.  All particles have antiparticles, and atoms of matter have antiatoms of antimatter, whose union annihilates the particles and matter while leaving energy.\n\nDevelopments \n\nAn inspiring development is discovery of mirror symmetry, whereby Calabi-Yau spaces tend to come in pairs such that solutions previously difficult within the extreme vibrational mode of one string can be solved by through the mirror Calabi-Yau space's geometry in its opposite range.\n\nString theory is usually solved through conformal field theory, a quantum field theory on 2D space.  It is confirmed that molecules can collapse to 2D.  And the electron, long presumed an elementary particle, apparently splits into three entities separately carrying the electron's three degrees of freedom when the molecules that contain the electrons are channeled through a 1D pathway.\n\nRelated pages\nM-theory\n\nNotes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":744,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/String%20theory","title":"String theory","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Richard Wellington Burkhardt (May 18, 1918 \u2013 March 4, 2014) was the 8th President of Ball State University, from 1978 to 1979. Richard Burkhardt received his undergraduate degree from Knox College in 1939 and his doctorate from Harvard University in 1945. After serving as director of the division of teacher preparation at Syracuse University, he became dean of the Teachers College while the Teachers College was the only college at Ball State.  In 1961, Richard Burkhardt also became the acting dean of the Division of Sciences and Humanities, and then went on to be named the vice president for instructional affairs (later renamed to provost) and dean of the faculties, a position he held for almost 20 years. In addition to this, during the 1978\u20131979 academic year, Richard Burkhardt served as acting president of the university.\n\nRichard Burkhardt maintained his association with the history department during his years as Ball State's chief academic officer, occasionally teaching a course in modern European history. In 1980, he returned to the history department as a distinguished service professor, and he taught courses in his specialty until his retirement in 1985.\n\nEven in retirement, Burkhardt maintained an active program of research. He collaborated with James K. Danglade on the research and writing of Sixty Years of Outreach and Public Service: A History of Continuing Education at Ball State University, published in 1985. In 1991, he published Eliza Julia Flower: Letters of an English Gentlewoman: Life on the Illinois-Indiana Frontier, 1817-1861, in collaboration with Janet Walker.\n\nScience Hall, one of the oldest buildings on Ball State's campus, was named the Burkhardt Building in his honor.\n\nHe died in Muncie, Indiana on March 4, 2014.\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n \n \n\n2014 deaths\n1918 births\nPresidents of Ball State University\nHarvard University alumni\nKnox College (Illinois) alumni","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":45,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":4,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":12,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":7,"2014-23":8,"2014-15":2}},"id":31588032,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard%20W.%20Burkhardt","title":"Richard W. Burkhardt","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A stroke is an illness in which part of the brain loses its blood supply. This can happen if an artery that feeds blood to the brain gets clogged, or if it tears and leaks.\n\nA stroke is when there is a lack of blood flow to the brain. There are two types of strokes. One is when there is a blood clot blocking the artery. The other type of stroke is when a blood vessel bursts and there is blood moving around freely in the brain.\n\nA stroke is the rapid loss of brain function(s) due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can happen because of ischemia (lack of blood flow) caused by blockage (thrombosis, arterial embolism), or a haemorrhage (leakage of blood).\n\nAs a result, the affected area of the brain cannot work properly. Symptoms might include: hemiplegia (an inability to move one or more limbs on one side of the body), aphasia (inability to understand or use language), or an inability to see one side of the visual field.\n\nA stroke is a medical emergency. It can cause permanent damage. If it is not quickly treated, it may lead to death. It is the third most common cause of death and the most common cause of disability for adults in the United States and Europe.\n\nStrokes happen on both the left and right side of the brain. When a stroke happens on the left side of someone's brain, it affects the right side of the body. It can also cause problems with the patient's speech and language. If a stroke affects the right side of the brain, it affects the left side of the body. It also changes patient's spatial (relating to space) perceptions. Getting a stroke on the right side of the brain can also cause people to not acknowledge their illness. Patients behave impulsively and neglect the side of their body.\n\nFactors that increase the risk of a stroke include old age, high blood pressure, a previous stroke, diabetes, high cholesterol, smoking, atrial fibrillation, migraine with aura, and thrombophilia (a tendency to thrombosis). Of those factors, the most easy to fix are high blood pressure and smoking.\n\nHow are strokes identified?\n\nPre-hospital \nThe Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale was designed to help \"pre-hospital\" medical professionals (like EMTs) identify a possible stroke before the patient gets to the hospital. It tests three basic signs.  If any of these signs are not normal, the patient may be having a stroke and should be transported to a hospital as soon as possible.\n\nFacial droop: Have the person smile or show his or her teeth.\n Normal: Both sides of face move equally\n Abnormal: One side of face does not move as well as the other (or at all); part of the face looks like it is drooping\nArm drift:  Have the person close his or her eyes and hold his or her arms straight out for about 10 seconds.\n Normal: Both arms move equally or not at all\n Abnormal: One arm does not move, or one arm drifts down compared with the other side\nSpeech:  Have the person say, \"You can't teach an old dog new tricks,\" or some other simple, familiar saying.\n Normal: Patient uses correct words with no slurring\n Abnormal: Patient's speech is slurred, patient uses incorrect words, or is unable to speak\n\nAbout 72% of patients who cannot do one of these three tasks normally are having an ischemic stroke.  More than 85% of patients who cannot do all three tasks are having an acute stroke.\n\n\"Spot a stroke\" \nThe 'spot a stroke' campaign, created by the American Heart Association and the American Stroke Association, teaches everyday people how to recognize a stroke. It teaches the basic tests from the Cincinnati Stroke Scale, using the acronym FAST:\n F: Face - Facial Droop.  Is one side of the face drooping or numb?  Ask the person to smile.  Is the person's smile uneven?\n A: Arm - Arm Weakness.  Is one arm weak or numb?  Ask the person to raise both arms.  Does one arm drift downward?\n S: Speech - Speech Difficulty. Is speech slurred? Is the person unable to speak or hard to understand? Ask the person to repeat a simple sentence, like \"The sky is blue.\" Is the sentence repeated correctly?\n T: Time - Time to Call 911.  If someone shows any of these symptoms, even if the symptoms go away, it is time to call 9-1-1.\n\nIn the hospital \nOnce the patient is in the hospital, doctors can find out for sure whether they are having a stroke by looking at their brain with special scanning machines, like an MRI or a CT scanner.\n\nPrevention\nStrokes can kill. To prevent a stroke, doctors advise people to:\nControl blood pressure\nStop smoking\nExercise at least once a week \nStay at a healthy weight\nDo not drink too much\nGet regular checkups\n\nStatistics\n795,000 people in the United States get a stroke each year\nOne out of four people who have a stroke die (137,000 deaths from stroke per year)\nCurrently, 3 million people in the US have disabilities from strokes\nIn US, strokes cost $57.9 billion per year (damage and loss of work)\n\u2154 of stroke happen in people 65 and up\nStrokes affect men more than women\nWomen more likely to die from stroke than men\nStrokes are more common in African Americans \nStrokes are more likely to be fatal in African Americans\nStroke rates in older adults are declining but rates in younger people are rising (scientists think that it's related to obesity) \nPhysical therapy can help patients\nSome people are in a wheelchair after getting a stroke\n10% of survivors suffer no long term disabilities\n10% of survivors suffer from so many disabilities that they have to stay in 24 hour care\n\nReferences\n\nMore reading\n\nOther websites\n\n The basis for this article was the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke public domain resource at this page\n Canadian Stroke Network \n Registry of the Canadian Stroke Network \n StrokEngine  (McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada) Focuses on stroke rehabilitation and interventions\n Cerebrovascular disease and risk of stroke \n  video\n American Stroke Association \n National Stroke Association\n Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada\n The Stroke Association UK\n Heart attack, stroke and cardiac arrest warning signs, from the American Heart Association\n StrokeMD.net\n National Stroke Association of Malaysia\n Outcome of childhood stroke UK","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2}},"id":78303,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stroke","title":"Stroke","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In geometry the parallel postulate is one of the axioms of Euclidean geometry. Sometimes it is also called Euclid's fifth postulate, because it is the fifth postulate in Euclid's Elements.\n\nThe postulate says that: \n\nIf you cut a line segment with two lines, and the two interior angles the lines form add up to less than 180\u00b0, then the two lines will eventually meet if you extend them long enough.\n\nThe field of geometry which follows all of Euclid's axioms is called Euclidean geometry. Geometries which do not follow all of Euclid's axioms are called non-Euclidean geometry.\n\nHistory\n\nSome mathematicians thought that Euclid's fifth postulate was much longer and more complicated than the other four postulates. \n\nMany of them thought that it could be proven from the other simpler axioms.  Those who tried to do it included Omar Khayy\u00e1m, and later Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri, John Wallis, Lambert, and Legendre.  Some mathematicians announced that they had proven the proposition from the simpler propositions, but they all turned out to be mistaken.\n\nPlayfair's axiom\nAnother more recent proposition known as Playfair's axiom is similar to Euclid's fifth postulate. It says that:\n\nGiven a straight line and a point not on this line, you can only draw one straight line through this point that will not meet the other straight line.\n\nIn fact, mathematicians found out that this axiom is not only similar to Euclid's fifth postulate, but has exactly the same implications. Mathematically, the two propositions are called 'equivalent' propositions. Today Playfair's axiom is used more often by mathematicians than Euclid's original parallel postulate.\n\nNon-Euclidean geometry\n\nEventually some mathematicians tried to build new geometries without using the axiom.  One kind of Non-Euclidean geometry is called elliptic geometry.  In elliptic geometry the parallel postulate is replaced by an axiom that states that:\n\nGiven a straight line and a point not on this line, you cannot draw a straight line through this point that will not eventually cross the other straight line.\n\nMathematicians found that when they replaced Euclid's fifth postulate with this axiom, they were still able to prove many of Euclid's other theorems. One way to imagine elliptic geometry is by thinking of the surface of a globe. On a globe, lines of longitude appear to be parallel at the equator, but they all meet at the poles. Late in the 19th century, elliptic geometry was shown to be consistent. This proved that Euclid's fifth postulate was not independent of the other postulates. After this, mathematicians mostly stopped trying to prove the fifth postulate from the other four postulates. Instead, many mathematicians began studying other geometries that do not follow Euclid's fifth postulate.\n\nAnother axiom mathematicians sometimes replace Euclid's fifth axiom with says that:\n\nGiven a straight line and a point not on this line, you can draw at least two straight lines through this point that will not eventually cross the other straight line.\n\nThis is called hyperbolic geometry.\n\nAnother geometry simply removes Euclid's fifth postulate and does not replace it with anything. This is called neutral geometry or absolute geometry.\n\nGeometry\n\ntr:Paralel#Paralel aksiyomu","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":176468,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel%20postulate","title":"Parallel postulate","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Buffy the Vampire Slayer is an American television series. It is about a girl who fought vampires and other monsters.  It was written by Joss Whedon. He based it on the script that he wrote for a movie with the same title. The movie came out in 1992 and stars Kristy Swanson, Luke Perry, Donald Sutherland, and Paul Reubens. The television series has many fans. It was originally shown from March 10, 1997 until May 20, 2003.\n\nThe main idea of the series is the opposite of what is the normal Hollywood idea about horror. In traditional Hollywood horror stories, the young blonde girl is always the weakest character. She is always the one that needs to be saved. She is often the first one to die. In Buffy, Whedon changed that. He changed that girl into the person with all the power. He changed her into the hero. Many of the monsters and storylines on the series are symbols of real-life problems faced by teenagers. As Whedon has said, \"Highschool is a horror movie.\"\n\nBuffy the Vampire Slayer was first shown on March 10, 1997 on the WB network. It was a very important part of the Warner Bros. television network in its early years.\nAfter five seasons, the series left the WB and went to the United Paramount Network (UPN) for its last two seasons.  In the United Kingdom, the entire series was shown on Sky One and BBC2. The BBC showed the series at two different times. A family-friendly version with violence and bad language cut out was shown early in the evening and an unedited version was shown later at night. Sky One did something similar. It showed an edited version in the afternoon and the uncut version in prime time. From the fourth season onwards, the BBC showed the series in anamorphic 16:9 widescreen format, but Whedon said that Buffy was never supposed to be watched this way.\n\nThe Slayer\nThe Slayer or Chosen One is a girl who kills vampires. She had superhuman strength and speed. She also heals very fast. It is her destiny to fight evil demons, mainly vampires. When the Slayer dies, a new girl is chosen. That girl gets all of the powers of the Slayer. Potentials (girls who might be chosen - \"potential slayers\") are trained from an early age by a \"Watcher\". In this series, Buffy Summers, Kendra Young, and Faith Lehane were the main slayers.\n\nPlot\n\nThe main character was Buffy Summers. She was played by Sarah Michelle Gellar.  Buffy was an ordinary high school student in the fictional city of Sunnydale, California, except for being a \"vampire slayer.\"  Buffy's Watcher was a British man named Giles.  With the help of Giles and her friends, Xander and Willow, Buffy fought a different monster every episode. (aside from the main villains of each season).\n\nBuffy and her friends went to school at Sunnydale High School. They appear normal to their families while killing vampires and monsters at night.\n\nNot all vampires were evil in the series.  One vampire was named Angel. He was given his soul back by a gypsy curse.  The curse would make him lose his soul and become evil again if he became really happy.  He and Buffy fell in love. The curse took his soul away when they had sexual intercourse for the first time. This caused Angel to become evil (losing his soul).  When Angel got back his soul, he knew that he and Buffy could not be together because he might lose it again.  Angel left Sunnydale and went to Los Angeles. The television series Angel tells the story of what happened to him after he left.\n\nNotable episodes\n\n\"Earshot\" (Season 3): This episode was not shown when it was first supposed to. The episode dealt with a school violence. It was first scheduled to be shown just after the shootings at Columbine happened. Because of this, they did not show it in the United States until the summer after the season had ended.\n\"Hush\"(Season 4): Nearly all of the episode was done with no talking at all. For 29 minutes, the characters could not say anything. Joss Whedon created this episode after hearing that the most important part of the series was the dialogue. The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award.\n\"The Body\" (Season 5): This episode had no musical soundtrack at all. The episode was about the death of Buffy's mother, Joyce Summers.\n\"Once More, With Feeling\"(Season 6): The entire episode was done as a musical. Every scene included the characters singing. They usually were also dancing. The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award.\n\nCharacters\n\nMajor characters\n\nBuffy Summers\nBuffy Anne Summers (played by Sarah Michelle Gellar) is \"the Slayer,\" one in a long line of young women chosen to fight evil. She is blonde and beautiful and she is a normal cheerleading girl at the start of the movie. Being the Slayer gave her increased strength, endurance, agility and healing. She also had greater intuition, and some ability of clairvoyance, usually in the form of dreams that tell the future. She was born January 19, 1981 and grew up in Los Angeles, California. Buffy died two times in the normal series. There have also been magical times that she died in, but these periods of time were stopped and do not affect normal times. The first time she died, she drowned and was brought back to life with CPR. The second time, magic was used to bring her back to life.\n\nRupert Giles\nRupert \"Ripper\" Giles (played by Anthony Stewart Head) is Buffy's Watcher. He was an Englishman. He was Buffy's second Watcher. Her first watcher was killed in the movie version of the story but this fact is not talked about in the series. Unlike most slayers, it was not known that Buffy was a potential slayer at an early age. When she was chosen, the Watcher's council sent a watcher to help her. When he died, the Council sent Giles to Sunnydale to become her watcher. In the past, Giles used magic and had a lot of knowledge about demons and vampires.\n\nWillow Rosenberg\nWillow Rosenberg (played by Alyson Hannigan) was Buffy's schoolmate and best friend. She was very smart and good with computers. During the series, she learned more and more about magic. She found out that she is very good at magic and became a powerful witch. While in highschool, she had a boyfriend named Oz, who was a guitarist in a local band called Dingoes Ate My Baby, and he was also a werewolf. After Oz left in college, Willow fell in love with another witch, Tara Maclay. When Tara was killed, Willow tried to destroy the world, but Xander stopped her. Later on, at the end of season seven, she developed a relationship with a potential slayer named Kennedy.\n\nXander Harris\nAlexander Lavelle \"Xander\" Harris (played by Nicholas Brendon) was another good friend of Buffy. During season 4, Xander becomes romantically involved with an ex-vengeance demon, Anya (Anyanka), whom he later became engaged to, but left during the wedding in the episode \"Hells Bells\". It was said many times during the series that Xander was the person in the group who had no special powers at all, but still fought as much as everyone else, and, in season 7 (\"Potential\") Xander is named the \"Seer\" because he sees everything that is going on, because he's never actually in the spotlight, just next to it. Xander was often the character the writers used for comic moments. Xander was a major character in the series and saved the world (from Willow) at the end of Season 6, by telling her he loved her repeatedly, accessing the human love inside of her \"evil\" persona, created by Tara Maclay's death.\n\nDawn Summers\nDawn Summers (played by Michelle Trachtenberg) was a magical energy (The Key) that was turned into a person and Buffy's sister. At first, Dawn had the special ability to open the way to a hell dimension (with her blood). After Buffy's death closed that way, Dawn's only special abilities was being very good with languages and a very fast learner. She could have made a very good Watcher.\n\nAnya Jenkins\nAnya Christina Emmanuella Jenkins, or Anyanka, or Aud (played by Emma Caulfield) was an 1100 year old vengeance demon. She was born with the name Aud somewhere in Scandinavia during the 9th century. She became a vengeance demon after casting a magic spell on her lover, Olaf. The spell turned him into a troll. Anya spent the next 1100 years as Anyanka. As a vengeance demon, she would use magic to give a wish to a woman who had been treated wrong by a man. Anyaka lost her powers during a wish she cast for Cordelia Chase. When the wish was ended, Anyanka was trapped in the human body of 17 year old Anya. Anya and Xander got together after graduation and later were engaged. But Xander left her at the wedding, realising he was not ready to get married, but still loved her. She then got her vengeance powers back from D'Hoffryn (head of vengeance) but later lost them again after she realized how unfulfilling maiming human men was (her human side).\n\nAngel\nAngel (played by David Boreanaz) was an Irish vampire first named Liam. He was born in 1727, in Galway, Ireland. After being turned into a vampire in 1753, he spent the next 145 year creating terror as \"Angelus\" (face of an angel). In 1898, he killed the daughter of gypsies. As punishment, the Gypsies returned Angelus human soul to him. This caused him to have to feel all the pain he had caused. Angel went to the United States and lived on the streets. He stopped killing people to drink their blood because with a soul he knew it was wrong. He lived a very poor life drinking the blood of rats until a messenger from the Powers That Be took him to California to show him Buffy. He fell in love with her and changed his life so he could help her. Buffy fell in love with Angel but he turned evil after she gave him one true moment of happiness (after they had sex). Then he turned into Angelus and when he was finally changed back (after months, by Willow), Buffy stabbed him in order to once again save the world by closing acaphla (against her feelings of love for him).\n\nCordelia Chase\nCordelia \"Cordy\" Chase (played by Charisma Carpenter) went to Sunnydale High with Buffy. She was a cheerleader who only thought of herself. She would help Buffy every now and then, but most often was the one that needed help. During her senior year of high school, all the money Cordelia's parents had was taken away by the government because Cordy's dad had not fully paid his family's taxes. Cordy had to get a job at a dress store to pay for a dress for her senior prom.\n\nAlthough Cordelia started off as a self-involved character, she grew throughout the first three seasons, learning to love others (spawning a relationship with Xander Harris, above). After Season 3 of Buffy, Cordelia moves away to L.A. to become an actress. After having little luck, she meets Angel and they work together in the detective business- Angel Investigations. Cordelia's character grows even further throughout Angel as well, and by Season 4\/5 of Angel, she seems to be a completely different person.\n\nSpike\nSpike, or William the Bloody, (played by James Marsters) was an English vampire. He was born in London around 1853. He was turned into a vampire in 1880 by Drusilla, a pretty vampire created by Angelus. He spent the next 20 years with Angelus, Drusilla and Darla as they killed throughout Europe and Asia. After Angelus got his soul back and left, Spike and Drusilla continued for 100 years before going to Sunnydale to try and find him. Later, Spike fell in love with Buffy. He fought a demon (initially to get his chip removed) and got his soul back and helped save the world in the last episode (\"Chosen\"). He was sent, by the amulet he wore, to Angel. (Stars in the final season of Angel).\n\nFaith Lehane\nFaith Lehane (played by Eliza Dushku) was a vampire slayer. Buffy's first death caused Kendra Young to be chosen as the Slayer. When Kendra died, Faith was chosen. Faith is in many ways the opposite of Buffy. While Buffy had family and friends for support, Faith was alone. Faith tried to fight evil, but later chose to be evil instead. In the end, Faith learns from her mistakes and helps Buffy in her fight.\n\nOz\nDaniel \"Oz\" Osborne (played by Seth Green) was a musician and werewolf. He was Willow's first boyfriend. For three nights each month, Oz would change shape. If he was not put into a cage or locked up, he would roam Sunnydale from the time the sun set until it came up again in the morning. Being a werewolf gave him increased strength, endurance and healing. As a werewolf, his mind was similar to an animal and not a human.\n\nRiley Finn\nRiley Finn was a member of a secret part of American military. \nDuring the day, he was a helper to a professor at Sunnydale University. At night, he lead a military team that hunted and captured demons. He had increased strength and endurance, but he was not as strong as Buffy. He gave Buffy an ultimatum and at the last minute she decided on him. But when she got to his helicopter they had already taken off and he did not see her. When he comes back in a later episode Buffy finds out that he is married.\n\nTara Maclay\n\nTara was a member of the Wicca group Willow joined in her first year in college. Willow and Tara started as friends. Over time, they became lovers. When Tara is first introduced, she is very shy. Tara has a very obvious stutter in her first season. Through season five, Tara becomes more confident. Eventually, her family comes back to take Tara home, but she (with Buffy and the gang's help) stands up to them. She became more and more confident until Glory took her sanity. Willow got it back in the season five finale, and Tara was sane again.\n\nIn season 6, Willow used dark magic (magic that hurt other people) more and more. Eventually, she used it to make Tara forget a fight they had had. Tara broke up with Willow. Tara came back when Willow stopped using dark magic. A very short time later, Tara died after being hit by a bullet meant for Buffy.\n\nMinor characters\nJoyce Summers: Joyce was Buffy's mother. She died of a aneurysm shortly after having surgery to take a tumor out of her head.\nJonathan Levinson: Jonathan went to school with Buffy. He was often only used for comic moments. In season 6, he played a larger part as a member of the Trio. He was killed by Andrew Wells in season 7 in an attempt to open the Hellmouth.\nHarmony Kendall: Harmony was one of Cordelia's friends. She was turned into a vampire at their high school graduation.\nPrincipal Snyder: Snyder was the high school principal for a lot of Buffy's time at Sunnydale High. He made Buffy's daily life very hard. He is one of the few people other than the main cast that shows he knows about the weird things in town such as vampires and demons. After Mayor Wilkins turned into a giant demon snake at the graduation, he killed Principal Snyder.\nKennedy: Kennedy was one of the potential slayers. She had a lesbian relationship with Willow.\nPrincipal Robin Wood: Wood was the son of a Slayer (Nikki Woods). His mother was killed by Spike. He became the principal of Sunnydale High after it was rebuilt. He tried and failed to get revenge on Spike for killing his mother. He later joined Buffy in her fight and got into a relationship with Faith.\nAndrew Wells: Andrew was a obnoxious, possibly bi-sexual nerdy member of the Trio. He has a talent for languages and summoning demons.\nJenny Calendar: Jenny was the high school computer teacher. She was also a member of the same gypsy clan that cursed Angel. She was in Sunnydale to watch Angel. She had a romance with Giles. Angelus broke her neck, killing her.\n\nVillains\nThe Master: The Master was one of the oldest living vampires. He was the first major villain that Buffy faced in Sunnydale. The Master was the leader of a vampire cult called the Order of Aurelius. The cult included Darla who The Master turned into a vampire. Buffy killed the Master in season 1.\nDarla: Darla was a very old vampire. She was turned into a vampire in 1609. She was a prostitute who was dying of syphilis, when the Master turned her into a vampire. She was the vampire who sired Liam turning him into Angelus (Angel). Darla was killed by Angel in season 1 of Buffy. She was later brought back to life on the spin-off Angel.\nDrusilla: Drusilla is a vampire created by Angelus around 1860. Angelus made her insane before turning her into a vampire. She has the ability to see the future and hypnotize people. Drusilla created Spike in 1880. It is not known if Drusilla has been killed or if she still lives.\nMayor Richard Wilkins III: Wilkins was the mayor of Sunnydale. He first came to the area in the 19th century to search for gold. He is the founder of Sunnydale. Wilkins made a deal with demons. He created the town so that demons would have a place to feed and the demons said they would turn him into a pure demon. It would take over 100 years to turn into a demon. Wilkins turned into a giant snake at Buffy's graduation. She killed him by blowing up the school with him inside it. Wilkins was the major villain in season 3.\nAdam: Adam was a cyborg. He was made out of parts of humans, demons, and electronic machines. Adam was created in The Initiative's lab 314.  He was the major villain in season 4. Buffy killed Adam by taking his power source out of his chest.\nGlorificus: Glorificus, or Glory, was an evil goddess from a different dimension. She was trapped in the body of a baby boy named Ben. Many years later, she began to take control of the body. After a while she could take full control and change the body into that of her own form for a short time. Glory was trying to find the key that would let her go back to her own dimension. Buffy stopped her. She beat her very badly and Glory was trapped inside Ben again. Knowing that she would become strong enough to come back one day, Giles killed Ben which also killed Glory. Glory was the main villain of season 5.\nThe First: The First, or The First Evil, is the creator of evil itself. The First has no body (incorporeal) and can not physically affect things. It can look like anyone who has ever died. This includes dead humans (Buffy's mother Joyce), vampires (Drusilla, Spike), and even Buffy herself. The First had an army of very very old vampires called Turok-Han and a cult of humans called The Bringers that did things for it because it could not do them itself. The First can not be killed. Its army and cult were destroyed in the final episode of the series and its plans were stopped. The First was the main villain in season 7.\n\nWhedon's Trademarks\nJoss Whedon uses several themes throughout his works. These are often found in the writing done for Buffy.\n\nStrong female characters: As a supporter of feminism, Whedon likes to create teenage girls with superpowers. Many of the most powerful characters in the series are female. Buffy and Willow are examples.\nHomosexuality: Whedon uses gay characters both for major parts (Willow and Tara) and for minor parts (Larry Blaisdall and Scott Hope).\nWitty dialogue: The dialogue in Joss Whedon's series and movies is notable. It often has rapid-fire wit and pop culture references. Some are easy to notice others are more difficult.\nDeath: No one is safe in a story written by Whedon. Major characters can die at any time. Minor characters die more often. In a world with magic, not all deaths are forever though. Buffy herself died at least four times and was brought back to life twice. Tara Maclay, Jenny Calender, Joyce Summers, and Principal Snyder were all regular characters that died and did not return. Other characters such as Harmony Kendall died and came back as vampires.\nRelationships: A good romantic relationship makes for a bad story. Whedon does not like relationships that have a happy ending. Every relationship in the series ended badly.\nAngel and Buffy: Angel loses his soul and turns evil.\nSpike and Buffy: Spike later tries to rape Buffy, but she stops him. At the end of the series, Spike dies to save the world.\nWillow and Tara: Tara is shot and killed.\nXander and Anya: They almost got married, but Xander leaves Anya at the altar. They never get back together. Anya dies at the end of the series.\n\nFamily: In a Whedon story, family is not who you were born to. Family is who you chose to be with. In Buffy, Buffy, Giles, Willow and Xander, as well as the others with them, were more of a family than any of their biological families.\nFatherhood: Fathers in Whedon's stories are almost always shown badly. Buffy's father left her mother and her. He is rarely talked about or seen in the series. Xander's father is always shown as being abusive. Father figures replace the traditional father in the same way Whedon replaced the traditional family. Giles takes the place of the father in Buffy. At times, even he is shown badly in the role.\n\nRelated pages\nAngel\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n 20th Century Fox \u2014 Buffy section \n All Things Philosophical on Buffy the Vampire Slayer\n Buffyverse Dialogue Database \n Slayage.tv - Buffy academic essays\n Whedonesque.com \n Whedon.info\n Stakes and Salvation: a Buffyverse Encyclopedia \n WhedonWiki.com \n\n1997 American television series debuts\n2003 American television series endings\n1990s American drama television series\n2000s American drama television series\nAmerican fantasy television series\nAmerican horror television series\nAmerican teen drama television series\nCollege television series\nHigh school television series\nTelevision series created by Joss Whedon\nTelevision series set in California\nUPN network shows\nWhedonverse\nWB network shows\nEnglish-language television programs\nThe WB original programming","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":149,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":6,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":11,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":9504,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Buffy%20the%20Vampire%20Slayer","title":"Buffy the Vampire Slayer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Crosstrees are the two horizontal spars at the upper ends of the topmasts  of sailing ships that are used to anchor the shrouds from the topgallant mast. They may also be mounted at the upper end of the topgallant to anchor the shrouds from the royal mast (if fitted). Similar transverse spars remain on steamship and motor vessel masts to secure wire antennae or signal flag halyards.\n\nExplanation\nAny vertical structure like a mast is subject to dynamic swaying stress from wind, which levers immense force at the base of the mast. Such stress is countered through guy ropes which are diagonally supporting ropes from mast top to its base. These ropes share the load on the mast tops and communicate that force to the base structure.\n\nThe taller the mast, the wider a base is required for the guy-wires so as to form an appropriate angular support against the sway the mast is exposed to, yet ships are fixed in their beam (width) and hence only a limited angle is possible for the guy-ropes to support very high masts. Thereby, the taller the ship's mast, the more narrow and unfeasible would be the angle between its support wires and its top. This is where a simple innovation like the crosstree helps to overcome such limitation. \n\nThe crosstree serves as a fresh base to spread the next level of supporting guy ropes, thereby providing a stable height extension to the masts. Without the crosstree, the ship's mast would have been severely limited in height, in relation to the beam of the ship. \n\nEach crosstree serves to spread another level of holding ropes on a fresh wider spar so as to provide support to the next mast top section. Effectively, the crosstree allows to extend the height, mount yet another layer of sail shrouds and option more wind power to the ships. The crosstree also serves to spread the shroud tops.\n\nSources\n\nExternal links \n \n\nSailing rigs and rigging","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":11,"dup_details":{"2018-09":24,"2018-05":28,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":31,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":19,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1}},"id":6904563,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crosstrees","title":"Crosstrees","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Johann Wild (Ferus) (1497 \u2013 8 September 1554) was a German Franciscan scriptural commentator and preacher.\n\nLife\nWild was born in Swabia.  At an early age he joined the Franciscan Order. He was educated at Cologne. At a chapter held in the Convent at T\u00fcbingen in 1528, he was appointed professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres, scriptor, and preacher. His sermons in the churches of Mainz soon gained a high reputation for learning and eloquence.\n\nSubsequently, at a chapter celebrated in the Convent at Mainz in 1540, he was elected definitor of the province and appointed to the arduous post of Domprediger (preacher in the cathedral), which he continued to occupy till his death.\n\nIt was partly due to his preaching that Mainz remained Catholic. Not even his opponents disputed his title of being the most learned preacher in Germany in the sixteenth century. The Protestant historian, Henry Pantaleon, said of him:\n\n\"His days and nights were spent in the fulfillment of his sacred functions and in study, so that he became a most learned theologian. To profound learning and rich eloquence he united great sanctity of life\".\n\nWhen the troops of Albert of Brandenburg, burning and pillaging as they went, entered Mainz in 1552, priests, religious, and most of the inhabitants fled from the city. Father Wild remained. His courage was greatly admired by Albert, who solicited him to give up the religious habit. \"For many years\", he answered, \"I have worn it, it has never done me any harm, why should I now abandon it?\" He was ordered to preach in the presence of Albert and his followers on the text, \"Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's\", etc. At the end of his discourse he addressed his audience on the text, \"Render an account of thy stewardship\". The prince was so struck by his apostolic zeal and courage that he promised to grant him any request he would make. He asked that the cathedral and Franciscan buildings should be spared from all desecration and injury. His request was granted, and in recognition of this a statute representing Wild holding the cathedral in his hand was placed in the treasury.\n\nWild is mentioned as present at the chapter held at the Convent of Pforzheim on 15 April 1554. He died at Mainz, the same year, and was buried in the front of the high altar in the Franciscan Church at Mainz.\n\nWorks\nHis principal works are commentaries on the Pentateuch, Josue, Judges, Job, Ecclesiastes, Psalms 31 and 60, Esther, Esdras, Nehemias, Lamentations of Jeremias, Jonas, St. Matthew, St. John, Acts of the Apostles, Romans, I John; six vols. of sermons; examination of candidates for Sacred Orders. Also sermons, orations, and ascetical works. His method in explaining the Holy Scripture was to oppose to the quotations of the Lutherans a learned commentary drawn up from the Church Fathers.\n\nNearly all his works were published after his death, and had not been composed with a view to publication. With the exception of the Commentaries on Matthew, John, and I John, his other works were placed on the Index with the clause donec corrigantur. Dominicus a Soto, O.P., extracted from the Commentary of St. John seventy-seven passages which he considered susceptible to false interpretation. He was answered by Michael Medina, O.S.F., who had been theologian with Dominicus at the Council of Trent. Sixtus Senensis, Nicholas Serarius, Luke Wadding, and many others state that the works of Wild were deliberately altered by the Lutherans to deceive the Catholics. In the Roman edition of the Commentary on St. John, the passages criticized were left out.\n\nReferences\nSerario, Moguntiacarum Rerum libri quinque (Mainz, 1604)\nSixtus Senensis, Bibliotheca Sancta (Paris, 1610)\nWadding-Sbaralea, Script. Ord. Min. (Rome, 1806)\n\u2014, Annal. Ord. Min., XIX (Rome, 1745)\nJohn A. S. Antonio, Bibliotheca Univ. Franciscana (Madrid, 1732)\nPantaleon, L'hommes illustres d'Allemagne\nNiceron, Memoires pour servir a l'Historie des hommes illustres (Paris, 1729)\nMarcellino da Civezza, Storia della Missioni Francescane, VII (Prato, 1883), I\nGlassberger, Chronica (Quaracchi, 1887)\nPaulus, Joh. Wild, ein Mainzer Domprediger des 16. Jahrhunderts (Cologne, 1893).\n\nExternal links \n Source\n \n\n1497 births\n1554 deaths\n16th-century German people\nGerman Franciscans\nGerman biblical scholars","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":52,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":3,"unknown":11,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3,"2024-10":1}},"id":11327029,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johann%20Wild","title":"Johann Wild","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Debate or debating is a method of argument. Disputes and conflicts may be settled by debate. It is a larger form of argument than logical argument, because in a debate, the debaters try to influence the feelings of the audience, in order to persuade them on a topic.\n\nThe subject or issue of the debate is the question on which the participants debate. An issue or debate always has two sides or positions. Informal debates like discussion are very common, but the quality of a debate improves with knowledge and skill of its participants as debaters.\n\nDeliberative bodies such as parliaments, legislative assemblies, and meetings of all sorts have debates. The winner of a debate may be decided by the audience's vote, by judges, or by both.\n\nFormal debates between candidates for an elected office are common in places where leaders of countries are chosen by the people. The most well-known of these debates are between candidates for the President and Vice President of the United States, and leaders debates between leaders of parties in Parliament in countries like Great Britain and Canada.\n\nOther websites\n\nPublic speaking\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":4,"2019-09":4,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1}},"id":47025,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Debate","title":"Debate","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Leisure (or free time) is when a person can choose what to do. During a person's leisure time, they do not have an obligation to be at school or work at a job. During leisure time, people can do fun activities, family activities, or other non-work activities, such as hobbies.  \n\nCommon forms of recreation or leisure are:\n\n Playing sports such as football or hockey\n Playing games such as chess or cards\n Exercising such as running or lifting weights\n Watching television and movies\n Listening to music\n Hobbies such as playing piano or guitar, knitting, or sewing\n Travelling\n Reading\n Drawing\n Painting\n\nA vacation or holiday is the setting aside of time specifically for leisure. During their vacation, some people travel to a different region or country, and stay at a hotel so that they can do things they could not do near home. Other people prefer to spend their vacation time at home in their own community.\n\nIn rich industrialized countries such as the US and Canada, as well as in most European countries, workers are allowed to stay home on the weekend (usually Saturday and Sunday), and use it as leisure time. People in poorer developing countries usually have less leisure time, as they have to work longer hours and more days per year.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":4,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":423,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leisure","title":"Leisure","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Anton Bruckner (born Ansfelden, Austria, 4 September 1824; died Vienna, 11 October 1896) was an Austrian composer. He is especially famous for his nine symphonies. They are all very long and are written in a late Romantic style for a large orchestra. He was also an organist and teacher.\n\nLife \n\nBruckner's father was an organist and schoolmaster in a small village in Austria. By the age of four Bruckner was showing musical talent. He played hymn tunes on a tiny violin and then found the chords to go with them on the family spinet. When he was ten he sometimes played the village organ for services. After his father's death in 1837 he became a choirboy at the monastery school of St Florian where, in 1848, he became the organist of the abbey church. He started composing at this time and wrote a Requiem in d minor. He liked the music of Schubert and Mendelssohn and they influenced the way he composed.\n\nAlthough he was happy at St Florian his friends told him he ought to look for a better job. They made him apply for the job of organist at the cathedral of Linz which he got easily. Meanwhile, he was trying to learn more about harmony and took a course with a famous teacher Simon Sechter. He then took a course in orchestration with the teacher Otto Kitzler. He became very interested in the music of Romantic composers like Liszt, Berlioz and especially Wagner. In 1864 he wrote a Mass in d minor for chorus and orchestra which clearly showed Wagner's influence. In 1866 he finished the first of his nine symphonies. He also wrote some very beautiful motets which are among the best music of the 19th century written for the Roman Catholic church.\n\nIn 1866 he spent three months in a sanatorium after a nervous collapse. During his later years he often suffered from depression.\n\nIn 1868 he became professor at the Vienna Conservatoire where he taught harmony and counterpoint. This was an excellent job. The last 25 years of his life he spent his time teaching and composing his symphonies. He also travelled and gave organ recitals at Notre Dame in Paris and the Royal Albert Hall and Crystal Palace in London.\n\nHis music was very modern for its time and some people, including the famous music critic Eduard Hanslick, did not like it. Hanslick said that Bruckner composed like Wagner, but although Bruckner had learned from Wagner he did not simply copy him. Bruckner's music shows his own strong personality. Hanslick, who preferred the symphonies of Brahms, did Bruckner a lot of harm by writing bad reviews of his music. He was Dean of the Music Department at the university in Vienna and did not want Bruckner to be appointed lecturer at the university. However, Bruckner did get that job in 1875. He became more and more famous, especially after the great conductor Arthur Nikisch conducted the first performance of his Symphony no 7 in the Leipzig Gewandhaus in 1884. He was given many honours. At the time of his death he had not yet finished his Symphony no 9. He was buried in St Florian.\n\nPersonality \n\nBruckner always remained a simple person who dressed and behaved like someone from a small village. He never felt very self-confident and was always asking other people whether he was good enough for his job. He never married or had a proper relationship with anyone although he fell in love with several young women.\n\nMusic and achievement \n\nBruckner's symphonies show a wonderful ability to develop ideas slowly over a long period of time. Some of the slow movements last about 30 minutes. His music builds up in stages to big climaxes in a similar way to organ music. His scherzos (third movements) are tuneful dance movements which often sound like country dances. His music shows great harmonic and polyphonic skills. Bruckner often made revisions (changes) to his music. This often makes a problem for conductors today as they have to decide which version to use. Many musicians think that often Bruckner's first versions were the best. The revisions were often cuts to make a symphony shorter so that orchestras would be more likely to play it, but the cuts spoil the flow of the music. Nowadays we recognize Bruckner as one of the greatest writers of symphonies as well as a great composer of choral music.\n\n1824 births\n1896 deaths\nAustrian composers\nAustrian organists\nPeople from Upper Austria\nRomantic composers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":53426,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anton%20Bruckner","title":"Anton Bruckner","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Canton Ticino or Ticino ([]; French and German: Tessin [] and []) is the southernmost canton of Switzerland. The written language is Italian in almost the entire canton (except the Walser municipality of Bosco Gurin, where it is German). It surrounds the Italian exclave of Campione d'Italia. Together with areas of the canton of Graub\u00fcnden it makes up the so-called Svizzera Italiana (Italian Switzerland). Lombard dialects (Ticinese) are still spoken, especially in the valleys, but they have no official status. It is named after the Ticino river.\n\nGeography \n\nThe canton of Ticino is located in the south of Switzerland. It is almost entirely surrounded by Italy which lies to its east, west and south. To the north lie the cantons of Valais and Uri, to the northeast the canton of Graub\u00fcnden.\n\nIts area is 2,812\u00a0km\u00b2, of which about three quarters are considered productive. Forests cover about a third of the area, but also the lakes Maggiore and Lugano make up a considerable part of the total area. These lakes are known with the above listed names, but are officially named Lake Verbano and Lake Ceresio.\n\nThe canton is split geographically in two parts by the Monte Ceneri pass. The northern, more mountainous part, called Sopraceneri, is formed by the two major Swiss valleys around the lake Maggiore:  Ticino Valley and Maggia Valley. The southern part, called Sottoceneri, is the region around the Lake Lugano.\n\nThe River Ticino is the largest river in the canton. It drains most of the canton, flowing from the northwest through the Bedretto Valley and the Leventina valley to enter Lake Maggiore near Locarno. Its main tributaries are the Brenno in the Blenio Valley and the Moesa in the Mesolcina Valley in Graub\u00fcnden. The lands of the canton are shaped by the river, which in its mid portion forms a wide valley, commonly known as the Riviera.\n\nThe western lands of the canton, however, are drained by the Maggia River. The Verzasca Valley is located between the Ticino river and the Maggia river. There is also a smaller area that drains directly into the Lake Lugano. Most of the land is considered within the Alps, but a small area is part of the plain of the River Po which drains the north of Italy.\n\nHistory \nIn ancient times the area of what is today Ticino was settled by the Lepontii, a Celtic tribe. Later, probably around the rule of Augustus, it became part of the Roman Empire. After the fall of the Western Empire, was ruled by the Ostrogoths, the Lombards and the Franks. Around 1100 CE it was the centre of struggle between the free communes of Milan and Como: in the 14th century it was definitively acquired by the Visconti, Dukes of Milan. In the 15th century the Swiss Confederates conquered the valleys south of the Alps in three separate conquests.\n\nThe Canton of Uri conquered the Leventina Valley in 1440. Between 1403 and 1422 some of these lands were already annexed by forces from Uri, but subsequently lost. In a second conquest Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden gained the town of Bellinzona and the Riviera in 1500. Some of the land and the town Bellinzona itself were previously annexed by Uri in 1419 but lost again in 1422. The third conquest was fought by troops from the entire Confederation (at that time constituted by 12 cantons). In 1512 Locarno, the Maggia Valley, Lugano and Mendrisio were annexed. Subsequently, the upper valley of the Ticino River, from the St. Gotthard to the town of Biasca (Leventina Valley) was part of Canton Uri. The remaining territory (Baliaggi Ultramontani, Ennetbergische Vogteien, the Bailiwicks Beyond the Mountains) was administered by the Twelve Cantons.\n\nThe lands of the canton of Ticino are the last lands to be conquered by the Swiss Confederation. (After the battle of Marignano in 1515 the king of France Francis I defeated the Confederates, and they gave up any further conquests.) In February 1798 an attempt of annexation by the Cisalpine Republic was repelled by a volunteer militia in Lugano. Between 1798 and 1803, during the Helvetic Republic, the districts of Bellinzona and Lugano were separate cantons, but in 1803 the two were unified to form the canton of Ticino that joined the Swiss Confederation as a full member in the same year. During the Napoleonic Wars, many Ticinese (as was the case for other Swiss) served in Swiss military units allied with the French.\n\nUntil 1878 the three largest cities, Bellinzona, Lugano and Locarno, alternated as capital of the canton. In 1878, however, Bellinzona became the only and permanent capital.\n\nThe current constitution   dates from 1997. The previous constitution, heavily modified, dates from 1830, nearly 20 years before the constitution of actual Swiss Confederation.\n\nGovernment \nThe cantonal parliament is the Grand Council (Italian: Gran Consiglio), with 90 members and the government (Consiglio di Stato) has 5 members (Consiglieri di Stato). In the both councils the members are elected with the proportional electoral system. The canton sends two deputies to the Swiss Council of States (upper house), and eight deputies to the National Council (lower house).  It's regional capitol is Bellinzona.\n\nAgriculture \nThe main agricultural production is wine, mostly merlot, a type of red wine. It is followed by horticulture, milk and cheese production.\n\nEconomy \nThe hilly slopes of the canton are used extensively for the production of hydroelectricity. The electricity produced is used at home and sold for export. There is cattle breeding in the northern areas. The production of wine is important in the canton and exported to mainly other areas in Switzerland. The vineyards are mostly concentrated in the southern half of the canton where the climate is warmer. Other agricultural produce includes corn (maize), potatoes, tobacco and vegetables.\n\nThe weather in the canton is often inverse to that north of the Alps. This, and a warmer climate in general, attracts many tourists from other Swiss cantons. The lakes together with the sunshine are considered attractive. Tourism is the single most important economic factor in the canton.\n\nThere is also light industry, mostly concentrated around the three largest towns of Lugano, Locarno and Bellinzona.\n\nThe canton is well connected to the rest of Switzerland. There are tunnels underneath the Gotthard massive, both for rail and road. The canton of Grisons (Graub\u00fcnden) is connected with a direct coach link, whereas the canton of Valais is connected by rail through a tunnel at the Simplon Pass. There are good rail links to Milan and Rome in Italy as well as Germany via Basel and Z\u00fcrich.\n\nBecause of the tourist trade there are a number of small railways in scenic areas in the mountains. Winter sports is important, despite being less developed.\n\nThere are two major centres of education and research located in the canton of Ticino. The University of Italian speaking Switzerland (USI, Universit\u00e0 della Svizzera Italiana) is the only Swiss university teaching in Italian. The University of Applied Sciences of Italian speaking Switzerland (SUPSI, Scuola Universitaria Professionale della Svizzera Italiana) on the other hand is a professional training college focused on a practical method of teaching in the areas of applied art, economy, social work, technology and production science.\n\nThree daily newspapers are published in Ticino: Corriere del Ticino, La Regione, and Giornale del Popolo. These represent the only Italian daily publications in Switzerland.\n\nLanguage \nThe official language, and the one used for most written communication, is Italian. In oral communication Western Lombard (Ticinese) varieties, although receding in favour of Italian (especially in the cities of Lugano, Ascona and Locarno and among the younger generations), are still well preserved.  These are further subdivided into local variations, with the northern valleys speaking a dialect more closely aligned with Romansch, Switzerland's fourth official language. There is a certain amount of popular literature (poems, comedies, etc.) in Ticinese, and the national radio and televisions trasmit regularly program in Ticinese (mainly comedies).\n\nReligion \nThe population is mostly Roman Catholic (75%) or Protestant (7%). About 2% each are Orthodox or Muslim.\n\nDistricts \nThe Canton of Ticino is divided into 8 districts (distretti) and 38 circles (circoli):\n\n Distretto di Mendrisio\n Distretto di Lugano\n Distretto di Locarno\n Distretto di Vallemaggia\n Distretto di Bellinzona\n Distretto di Riviera\n Distretto di Blenio\n Distretto di Leventina\n\nMunicipalities \nThere are 195 municipalities in the canton (as of February 2006). These municipalities (comuni) are grouped in 38 circoli (circles or sub-districts) which are in turn grouped into districts (distretti). Since late 1990 there is an ongoing project of group some municipalities together (as they are small).\n\nOther websites \n\n Cantone Ticino  official site\n Official Statistics\n Tourism office, official tourism office of Ticino.\n official website for wine of Ticino. \n Ethnologue report for Switzerland, Ethnologue language report.\n Virtual Tour of Canton Ticino, QuickTime VR virtual tour of Canton Ticino.\n Canton of Ticino maps","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":153,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":4,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":65643,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ticino","title":"Ticino","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Bill of Rights is the name for the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution, which limit the power of the federal government and guarantee citizens of the United States  certain rights. The amendments were written in 1789 by James Madison, and were based on important ideas about personal rights. The Bill of Rights went into effect in 1791, when 3\/4 of the states agreed that they were fair. Originally, the Bill of Rights had 12 different amendments, but the first two were not passed by enough states. The second amendment that was not passed was eventually added to the Constitution in 1992, becoming the 27th amendment in the Constitution.\n\n1st Amendment\n\"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...\"\nThis means that the government cannot make any religion an official religion. It also cannot stop people from practicing any religion.\n\n\"...or abridging the freedom of speech\"\n\nThis means that the government cannot stop people from saying what they think. It applies to many forms of expression, like art.  However, people do not have freedom to say things that will limit other people's rights. For example, people do not have the freedom to threaten to kill other people.\n\n\"...or of the press\"\n\nThis means that the government cannot prevent newspapers and other news sources from reporting the news.\n\n\"...or of the right of the people to peaceably assemble...\"\n\nThis means that people can protest things by getting together and having rallies or marches, as long as they are not violent.\n\n\"...and to petition the government for redress of grievances.\"\n\nThis means that people can complain to the government about things they do not like.  They can ask the government to fix those things.\nThe conclusion of the BOR were that the constitution will work and America will be successful.\n2nd Amendment\n\"A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.\" \n\nPeople have the right to own firearms. \n\n3rd Amendment\n\"No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house he consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.\"\n\nThis means that people cannot be forced to keep soldiers in their houses.\n\n4th Amendment\n\"The right of the people to be secure in their, houses, writing papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated...\"\n\nThe government does not have the right to search people or their property without a good reason, and it does not have the right to take people's property without a good reason.\n\n\"...and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the people or things to be seized.\"\n\nA search warrant, which gives the police permission to search a person's property, can only be issued if there is a good reason to think that the person is hiding something that might show that a crime has been committed.\n\n5th Amendment\n\"No person shall be held to answer for any capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger...\"\n\nIf somebody is accused of committing a very serious crime, including crimes that can be punished with the death penalty, they have the right to have a grand jury decide if there is enough evidence to put the person on trial. However, this does not apply to somebody who is accused of committing a crime while serving in the military.\n\n\"...nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb...\"\n\nIf somebody is accused of committing a crime and goes to a trial, and is found not guilty, the person cannot be forced to have a second trial. The idea of giving the same person a second trial after being found not guilty the first time is called double jeopardy.\n\n\"...nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself...\"\n\nSomebody cannot be forced to testify against themselves in court. This means that they cannot be forced to say things that hurt their case in a trial.\n\n\"nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.\"\n\nSomebody cannot be punished by being executed, going to jail or prison, or having money or property taken away from them without going through the legal system first. This could mean having a hearing, going before a judge, or having a jury trial.\n\n6th Amendment\n\n\"In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district where in the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law...\"\n\nIf somebody is accused of a crime, they have the right to a trial that does not take too long to start after the person is accused of the crime. The trial must be held in public and cannot be secret. The person has the right to have a jury who will decide the case fairly. Members of the jury cannot decide which side they will take before the trial starts. They also have the right to have their trial in the same area where the crime was committed.\n\n\"...and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor...\"\n\nSomebody who is going on trial for a crime has the right to know why they are being accused of a crime and to ask questions to any witnesses who testify (say in court) that the person committed the crime. A person that is going on trial has the right to have witnesses to the trial who say that the person did not commit the crime.\n\n\"...and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense.\"\n\nA person going on trial for a crime has the right to be defended by a lawyer.\n\n7th Amendment\n\n\"In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.\"\n\nIf somebody sues somebody over something that is worth at least $20, this is called a civil trial. They have the right of a jury trial. The decision of the jury is final, although in some rare cases, the judge can throw out the jury's decision and bring in a new jury if the judge thinks that the jury's decision ignored the facts that they learned during the trial.\n\n8th Amendment\n\n\"Excessive bail shall not be required...\"\n\nIf somebody is arrested, they cannot be given too high of an amount for bail. Bail is something that people who are arrested have to pay if they want to be let out of jail before their trial starts. If they show up for their trial, they will get their money back. \n\n\"nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.\"\n\nIf a jury in a trial decides that somebody is guilty of a crime, their punishment cannot be too harsh or cruel. They also cannot be forced to pay too high of an amount of money as punishment for their crime.\n\n9th Amendment\n\n\"The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.\"\n\nPeople can have other rights, even if the Constitution does not specifically talk about them. \n\n10th Amendment\n\n\"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.\"\n\nIf the Constitution does not specifically say that the federal (United States) government has the power to do something, then the power to do it goes to the state government unless the Constitution specifically says that states can not do so.\n\nReferences\nThe Bill of Rights, from the U.S. Archives.\nAmendments 11-27, from the U.S. Archives.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":170,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":5,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":5,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":4,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":47564,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United%20States%20Bill%20of%20Rights","title":"United States Bill of Rights","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Hollywood is a district in Los Angeles, California. It is very famous around the world as a place where movies and television series are made. It has many different attractions such as the Hollywood Walk of Fame and the famous Hollywood Sign. Many tourists come to Hollywood to see all of these things. Because of the importance of Hollywood in the movie industry of the United States, the whole industry is often called \"Hollywood\", even though not all movies are made in Hollywood. This use of the word \"Hollywood\" is called metonymy..\n\nMany historic Hollywood theatres are used as venues and concert stages to premiere major theatrical releases and host the Academy Awards. It is a popular destination for nightlife and tourism and home to the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The Hollywood Walk of Fame was created in 1958 and the first star was placed in 1960. It is a sidewalk along the Hollywood Boulevard and the USA. There are more than 2000 five-points stars on the walk featuring the names of artists working in the entertainment industry.\n\nThe first movie to be made entirely in Hollywood was the 17-minute short In Old California. It was directed by D. W. Griffith. It was released in 1910.\n\nOn the mountain overlooking Hollywood, there is a sign that is made of very big letters, spelling out its name. It's called the \"Hollywood sign\". The huge Hollywood sign was built in 1923.\n\nRelated pages\n Bollywood\n\nOther websites\n\n \n Hollywood Photos \n\nMovie industry\nNeighborhoods of Los Angeles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":58,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":4,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":4,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":7,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":5,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2}},"id":7441,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hollywood","title":"Hollywood","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"iTunes is a media player made by Apple. It came out on January 10, 2001, at the Macworld Expo in San Francisco. iTunes is used for playing and sorting music and video files. It also lets users see and change what is on their iPod or iPhone. \niTunes is a free download for Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows from Apple's website. The download is also included with QuickTime, a program used to play videos. It also comes with all Apple Macintosh computers, and some HP and Dell computers. However, on 3 Jun 2019, Apple announced that iTunes would not be available on macOS Catalina.\n\niTunes Store \n\nThe iTunes Store is an online store built into iTunes. iTunes can connect to the iTunes Store if there is an internet connection to buy and download music, music videos, television shows, iPod games, audiobooks, podcasts, and movies. The files from the iTunes Store used to use Digital Rights Management (DRM) to prevent piracy. However, iTunes now sells music and videos called iTunes Plus, which are higher quality and have no DRM.\n\nSome singers and bands do not have most of their music on iTunes yet: The KLF, Garth Brooks, Bob Seger, Def Leppard, King Crimson and Tool.\n\nFor a long time, you could not get music by The Beatles on iTunes due to a legal conflict between Apple Inc. and Apple Records. Starting in November 2010, you can now get music by the Beatles. It is very popular nowadays. There is a lot of advertisement by Apple for Beatles music.\n\nBeginning \nBill Kincaid had developed SoundJamMP which was released later in the year of 1999. It was later renamed iTunes which was then purchased by Apple in 2000.\n\nAs SoundJam was being worked on throughout the years, the interface of the site was changed to make it easier for people to understand how to use it.  And added the ability to burn CDs, and removed its recording feature and skin support.\n\nOn January 9, 2001, iTunes 1.0 was released at Macworld San Francisco. Macintosh users immediately began to dig through iTunes's resource fork where they discovered that there were so many other strings and other resources that indicated iTunes was a re-engineered SoundJam MP. Casady & Greene ceased distribution of SoundJam MP on June 1, 2001 at the request of the developers.\n\nReferences \n\n \n\nIPod\nApple software","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":161,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":6}},"id":66519,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITunes","title":"ITunes","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An award is something given to a person or group of people to recognize that they have done something very good. Usual awards are medal, trophy, ribbon, certificate, or plaque for example. Sometimes awards are called prizes, such as the Nobel Prize.\n\nAwards can be given by any person or institution. Governments and militaries often give awards to their citizens for contributions they have made to the nation. This recognition can be given during the person's lifetime or even after they have died. In the United States if a military member receives a posthumous award it is generally presented to their family members or next of kin. This can include medals like the Medal of Honor; promotions to the next higher grade or naming a building or ship after them.\n\nSome entertainment awards are:\nAcademy Awards\nEmmy Awards\nGrammy Awards\nHarry Oppenheimer Fellowship Award\nJuno Awards\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":29827,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Award","title":"Award","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
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[ 6 ] \u0c28\u0c47\u0c21\u0c41 \u0c05\u0c26\u0c3f \u0c15\u0c47\u0c35\u0c32\u0c02 \u0c30\u0c46\u0c02\u0c21\u0c4b \u0c09\u0c02\u0c26\u0c3f \u0c1c\u0c30\u0c4d\u0c2e\u0c28\u0c4d \u0c38\u0c4d\u0c2a\u0c40\u0c15\u0c30\u0c4d\u0c32\u0c32\u0c4b \u0c2c\u0c46\u0c30\u0c4d\u0c32\u0c3f\u0c28\u0c4d . \u0c35\u0c3f\u0c2f\u0c28\u0c4d\u0c28\u0c3e \u0c10\u0c15\u0c4d\u0c2f\u0c30\u0c3e\u0c1c\u0c4d\u0c2f\u0c38\u0c2e\u0c3f\u0c24\u0c3f, OPEC \u0c05\u0c28\u0c47\u0c15 \u0c2a\u0c4d\u0c30\u0c27\u0c3e\u0c28 \u0c05\u0c02\u0c24\u0c30\u0c4d\u0c1c\u0c3e\u0c24\u0c40\u0c2f \u0c38\u0c02\u0c38\u0c4d\u0c25\u0c32\u0c15\u0c41, \u0c06\u0c24\u0c3f\u0c25\u0c4d\u0c2f\u0c2e\u0c3f\u0c1a\u0c4d\u0c1a\u0c41 . \u0c28\u0c17\u0c30\u0c02 \u0c06\u0c38\u0c4d\u0c1f\u0c4d\u0c30\u0c3f\u0c2f\u0c3e \u0c24\u0c42\u0c30\u0c4d\u0c2a\u0c41\u0c28 \u0c09\u0c02\u0c26\u0c3f, \u0c1a\u0c46\u0c15\u0c4d \u0c30\u0c3f\u0c2a\u0c2c\u0c4d\u0c32\u0c3f\u0c15\u0c4d, \u0c38\u0c4d\u0c32\u0c4a\u0c35\u0c47\u0c15\u0c3f\u0c2f\u0c3e,, \u0c39\u0c02\u0c17\u0c47\u0c30\u0c3f \u0c38\u0c30\u0c3f\u0c39\u0c26\u0c4d\u0c26\u0c41\u0c32\u0c15\u0c41 \u0c26\u0c17\u0c4d\u0c17\u0c30\u0c17\u0c3e \u0c09\u0c02\u0c26\u0c3f. \u0c08 \u0c2a\u0c4d\u0c30\u0c3e\u0c02\u0c24\u0c3e\u0c32\u0c4d\u0c32\u0c4b \u0c12\u0c15 \u0c2f\u0c42\u0c30\u0c4b\u0c2a\u0c3f\u0c2f\u0c28\u0c4d Centrope \u0c38\u0c30\u0c3f\u0c39\u0c26\u0c4d\u0c26\u0c41 \u0c2a\u0c4d\u0c30\u0c3e\u0c02\u0c24\u0c02\u0c32\u0c4b \u0c15\u0c32\u0c3f\u0c38\u0c3f \u0c2a\u0c28\u0c3f . \u0c38\u0c2e\u0c40\u0c2a\u0c02\u0c32\u0c4b\u0c28\u0c3f \u0c2c\u0c4d\u0c30\u0c3e\u0c1f\u0c3f\u0c38\u0c4d\u0c32\u0c3e\u0c35\u0c3e \u0c2a\u0c3e\u0c1f\u0c41, \u0c35\u0c3f\u0c2f\u0c28\u0c4d\u0c28\u0c3e 3 \u0c2e\u0c3f\u0c32\u0c3f\u0c2f\u0c28\u0c4d\u0c32 \u0c2e\u0c02\u0c26\u0c3f \u0c12\u0c15 \u0c2e\u0c39\u0c3e\u0c28\u0c17\u0c30 \u0c2a\u0c4d\u0c30\u0c3e\u0c02\u0c24\u0c02\u0c32\u0c4b \u0c0f\u0c30\u0c4d\u0c2a\u0c30\u0c41\u0c38\u0c4d\u0c24\u0c41\u0c02\u0c26\u0c3f . 2001 \u0c32\u0c4b, \u0c15\u0c47\u0c02\u0c26\u0c4d\u0c30\u0c02 \u0c12\u0c15 UNESCO \u0c2a\u0c4d\u0c30\u0c2a\u0c02\u0c1a \u0c39\u0c46\u0c30\u0c3f\u0c1f\u0c47\u0c1c\u0c4d \u0c38\u0c48\u0c1f\u0c4d\u0c17\u0c3e .\n\nVienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.757\u00a0million (2.4\u00a0million within the metropolitan area, more than 20% of Austria's population), and its cultural, economic, and political centre. It is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Until the beginning of the 20th century it was the largest German-speaking city in the world, and before the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I the city had 2 million inhabitants. Today it is the second only to Berlin in German speakers. Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city lies in the east of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region. Along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3\u00a0million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.\n\nApart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be \"The City of Dreams\" because it was home to the world's first psycho-analyst \u2013 Sigmund Freud. The city's roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city, the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, and the late-19th-century Ringstrasse lined with grand buildings, monuments and parks.\n\nIn a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first (in a tie with Vancouver, Canada) for the world's most livable cities (in the 2012 survey of 140 cities Vienna was ranked number two, behind Melbourne). For four consecutive years (2009\u20132012), the human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Vienna first in its annual \"Quality of Living\" survey of hundreds of cities around the world, a title the city has reclaimed in 2014. Monocle's 2012 \"Quality of Life Survey\" ranked Vienna fourth on a list of the top 25 cities in the world \"to make a base within\" (up from sixth in 2011 and eighth in 2010).\n\nThe city was ranked 1st globally for its culture of innovation in 2007 and 2008, and fifth globally (out of 256 cities) in the 2011 Innovation Cities Index, which analyzed 162 indicators in covering three areas: culture, infrastructure and markets. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is often used as a case study by urban planners.\n\nEach year since 2005, Vienna has been the world's number one destination for international congresses and conventions. It attracts about five million tourists a year.\n\nName\n\nThe English name Vienna is borrowed from the Italian name Vienna. \"Vienna\" and the official German name Wien, and the names of the city in most languages, are thought to be derived from the Celtic word \"windo-\", meaning bright or fair \u2013 as in the Irish \"fionn\" and the Welsh \"gwyn\" \u2013 but opinions vary on the precise origin. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning \"forest stream,\" which subsequently became Venia, Wienne and Wien. Others claim that the name comes from the Roman settlement of Celtic name Vindobona (Celtic \"windo-bona\"), probably meaning \"white base\/bottom [land],\" which became Vindovina, V\u00edde\u0148 (Czech) and Wien.\n\nThe name of the city in Hungarian (B\u00e9cs), Croatian (Be\u010d) and Ottoman Turkish (Be\u00e7) appears to have a different, Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. In Slovene, the city is called Dunaj, which in other Slavic languages means the Danube River, on which it is located.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nEvidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the frontier city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north.\n\nClose ties with other Celtic peoples continued through the ages. The Irish monk Saint Colman (or Koloman, Irish Colm\u00e1n, derived from colm \"dove\") is buried in Melk Abbey and Saint Fergil (Virgil the Geometer) was Bishop of Salzburg for forty years, and twelfth-century monastic settlements were founded by Irish Benedictines. Evidence of these ties is still evident in Vienna's great Schottenstift monastery, once home to many Irish monks.\n\nIn 976, Leopold I of Babenberg became count of the Eastern March, a 60-mile district centering on the Danube on the eastern frontier of Bavaria. This initial district grew into the duchy of Austria. Each succeeding Babenberg ruler expanded the march east along the Danube eventually encompassing Vienna and the lands immediately east. In 1145, Duke Henry II Jasomirgott moved the Babenberg family residence from Klosterneuburg to Vienna. Since that time, Vienna remained the center of the Babenberg dynasty.\n\nIn 1440, Vienna became the resident city of the Habsburg dynasty. It eventually grew to become the de facto capital of the Holy Roman Empire (1483\u20131806) and a cultural centre for arts and science, music and fine cuisine. Hungary occupied the city between 1485\u20131490.\n\nIn the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman armies were stopped twice outside Vienna (see Siege of Vienna, 1529 and Battle of Vienna, 1683). A plague epidemic ravaged Vienna in 1679, killing nearly a third of its population.\n\nAustro-Hungarian Empire\n\nIn 1804, during the Napoleonic wars, Vienna became the capital of the Austrian Empire and continued to play a major role in European and world politics, including hosting the 1814 Congress of Vienna. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, Vienna remained the capital of what was then the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The city was a centre of classical music, for which the title of the First Viennese School is sometimes applied.\n\nDuring the latter half of the 19th century, the city developed what had previously been the bastions and glacis into the Ringstra\u00dfe, a new boulevard surrounding the historical town and a major prestige project. Former suburbs were incorporated, and the city of Vienna grew dramatically. In 1918, after World War I, Vienna became capital of the Republic of German-Austria, and then in 1919 of the First Republic of Austria.\n\nFrom the late 19th century to 1938, the city remained a centre of high culture and modernism. A world capital of music, the city played host to composers such as Brahms, Bruckner, Mahler and Richard Strauss. The city's cultural contributions in the first half of the 20th century included, among many, the Vienna Secession movement, psychoanalysis, the Second Viennese School, the architecture of Adolf Loos and the philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle. In 1913, Adolf Hitler, Leon Trotsky, Joseph Tito, Sigmund Freud and Joseph Stalin all lived within a few miles of each other in central Vienna, with some of them being regulars at the same coffeehouses. Within Austria, Vienna was seen as a centre of socialist politics, for which it was sometimes referred to as \"Red Vienna\". The city was a stage to the Austrian Civil War of 1934, when Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss sent the Austrian Army to shell civilian housing occupied by the socialist militia.\n\nThe Anschluss and World War II\n\nIn 1938, after a triumphant entry into Austria, Austrian-born Adolf Hitler spoke to the Austrian Germans from the balcony of the Neue Burg, a part of the Hofburg at the Heldenplatz. Between 1938 (after the Anschluss) and the end of the Second World War, Vienna lost its status as a capital to Berlin.\n\nOn 2 April 1945, the Soviets launched the Vienna Offensive against the Germans holding the city and besieged it. British and American air raids and artillery duels between the SS and Wehrmacht and the Red Army crippled infrastructure, such as tram services and water and power distribution, and destroyed or damaged thousands of public and private buildings. Vienna fell eleven days later. Austria was separated from Germany, and Vienna was restored as the republic's capital city, but the Soviet hold on the city remained until 1955.\n\nFour-power Vienna\n\nAfter the war, Vienna was part of Soviet-occupied Eastern Austria until September, 1945. As in Berlin, Vienna in September, 1945 was divided into sectors by the four powers: the USA, the UK, France and the Soviet Union and supervised by an Allied Commission. The four-power occupation of Vienna differed in one key respect from that of Berlin: the central area of the city, known as the first district, constituted an international zone in which the four powers alternated control on a monthly basis. The control was policed by the four powers on a de facto day-to-day basis, the famous \"four soldiers in a jeep\" method. The Berlin Blockade of 1948 raised allied concerns that the Soviets might repeat the blockade in Vienna. The matter was raised in the UK House of Commons:\n\nThere was a lack of airfields in the Western sectors, and authorities drafted contingency plans to deal with such a blockade. Plans included the laying down of metal landing mats at Sch\u00f6nbrunn. The Soviets did not blockade the city. The Potsdam Agreement included written rights of land access to the western sectors, whereas no such written guarantees had covered the western sectors of Berlin. During the 10 years of the four-power occupation, Vienna became a hot-bed for international espionage between the Western and Eastern blocs. In the wake of the Berlin Blockade, the Cold War in Vienna took on a different dynamic. While accepting that Germany and Berlin would be divided, the Soviets had decided against allowing the same state of affairs to arise in Austria and Vienna. Here the Soviet forces controlled the districts 2, 4, 10, 20, 21 and 22 and all areas incorporated into Vienna in 1938.\n\nThey put up barbed wire fences around the perimeter of West Berlin in 1953, but not in Vienna. By 1955, the Soviets, by signing the State Treaty, agreed to relinquish their occupation zones in Eastern Austria as well as their sector in Vienna. In exchange they required that Austria declare its permanent neutrality after the allied powers had left the country. Thus they ensured that Austria would not be a member of NATO and that NATO forces would therefore not have direct communications between Italy and West Germany.\n\nThe atmosphere of four-power Vienna is the background for Graham Greene's screenplay for the film The Third Man (1949). Later he adapted the screenplay as a novel and published it. Occupied Vienna is also depicted in the Philip Kerr novel, A German Requiem.\n\nAustrian State Treaty and afterwards\nThe four-power control of Vienna lasted until the Austrian State Treaty was signed in May 1955. That year, after years of reconstruction and restoration, the State Opera and the Burgtheater, both on the Ringstra\u00dfe, reopened to the public. The Soviet Union signed the State Treaty only after having been provided with the political guarantee by the federal government to declare Austria's neutrality after the withdrawal of the allied troops. This law of neutrality, passed in late October 1955 (and not the State Treaty itself), ensured that modern Austria would align with neither NATO nor the Soviet bloc, and is considered one of the reasons for Austria's late entry into the European Union.\n\nIn the 1970s, Austrian Chancellor Bruno Kreisky inaugurated the Vienna International Centre, a new area of the city created to host international institutions. Vienna has regained much of its former international stature by hosting international organizations, such as the United Nations (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, United Nations Office at Vienna and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization, the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the United European Gastroenterology Federation.\n\nHistorical population\n\nBecause of the industrialization and migration from other parts of the Empire, the population of Vienna increased sharply during its time as the capital of Austria-Hungary (1867\u20131918). In 1910, Vienna had more than two million inhabitants, and was the fourth largest city in Europe after London, Paris and Berlin. Around the start of the 20th century, Vienna (Czech V\u00edde\u0148, Hungarian B\u00e9cs) was the city with the second-largest Czech population in the world (after Prague). At the height of the migration, about one-third of the Viennese population was of Slavic or Hungarian origin. After World War I, many Czechs and Hungarians returned to their ancestral countries, resulting in a decline in the Viennese population. After World War II, the Soviets used force to repatriate key workers of Czech and Hungarian origins to return to their ethnic homelands to further the Soviet bloc economy.\n\nUnder the Nazi regime, 65,000 Jewish people were deported and murdered in concentration camps by Nazi forces; approximately 130,000 fled.\n\nBy 2001, 16% of people living in Austria had nationalities other than Austrian, nearly half of whom were from former Yugoslavia. ; the next most numerous nationalities in Vienna were Turks (39,000; 2.5%), Poles (13,600; 0.9%) and Germans (12,700; 0.8%).\n\nAs of 2012, an official report from Statistics Austria showed that more than 660,000 (38.8%) of the Viennese population have full or partial migrant background, mostly from Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, ex-Yugoslavia, Turkey and Germany.\n This is reflected today in the telephone list of the city where there is an eclectic list of surnames.\n\nFrom 2002 to 2012 the city's population grew by over ten percent. In 2012 alone it added 25,000 people, making it the fastest growing city in German-speaking countries.\n\nGeography and climate\n\nVienna is located in northeastern Austria, at the easternmost extension of the Alps in the Vienna Basin. The earliest settlement, at the location of today's inner city, was south of the meandering Danube while the city now spans both sides of the river. Elevation ranges from .\n\nVienna lies within a transition of oceanic climate and humid continental climate, and features, according to the K\u00f6ppen classification, a Cfb (oceanic) -climate. The city has hot summers with average high temperatures of , with maxima exceeding  and lows of around . Winters are relatively dry and cold with average temperatures at about freezing point. Spring and autumn are mild. Precipitation is generally moderate throughout the year, averaging  annually, with considerable local variations, the Vienna Woods region in the west being the wettest part ( annually) and the flat plains in the east being the driest part ( annually).\n\nDistricts and enlargement\n\nVienna is composed of 23 districts (Bezirke). Administrative district offices in Vienna (called Magistratische Bezirks\u00e4mter) serve functions similar to those in the other states (called Bezirkshauptmannschaften), the officers being subject to the Landeshauptmann (which in Vienna is the mayor); with the exception of the police, which in Vienna is governed by the President of the Police (at the same time one of the nine Directors of Security of Austria), a federal office, directly responsible to the Minister of the Interior.\n\nAs had been planned in 1919 for all of Austria but not introduced, district residents in Vienna (Austrians as well as EU citizens with permanent residence here) elect a District Assembly (Bezirksvertretung), which chooses the District Head (Bezirksvorsteher) as political representative of the district on city level. City hall has delegated maintenance budgets, e.g., for schools and parks, so that they are able to set priorities autonomously. Any decision of a district can be overridden by the city assembly (Gemeinderat) or the responsible city councillor (amtsf\u00fchrender Stadrat).\n\nThe heart and historical city of Vienna, a large part of today's Innere Stadt, was a fortress surrounded by fields in order to defend itself from potential attackers. In 1850, Vienna with the consent of the emperor annexed 34 surrounding villages, called Vorst\u00e4dte, into the city limits (districts no. 2 to 8, after 1861 with the separation of Margareten from Wieden no. 2 to 9). Consequently the walls were razed after 1857, making it possible for the city centre to expand.\n\nIn their place, a broad boulevard called the Ringstra\u00dfe was built, along which imposing public and private buildings, monuments, and parks were created by the start of the 20th century. These buildings include the Rathaus (town hall), the Burgtheater, the University, the Parliament, the twin museums of natural history and fine art, and the Staatsoper. It is also the location of New Wing of the Hofburg, the former imperial palace, and the Imperial and Royal War Ministry finished in 1913. The mainly Gothic Stephansdom is located at the centre of the city, on Stephansplatz. The Imperial-Royal Government set up the Vienna City Renovation Fund (Wiener Stadterneuerungsfonds) and sold many building lots to private investors, thereby partly financing public construction works.\n\nFrom 1850 to 1890, city limits in the West and the South mainly followed another wall called Linienwall. Outside this wall from 1873 onwards a ring road called G\u00fcrtel was built. In 1890 it was decided to integrate 33 suburbs (called Vororte) beyond that wall into Vienna by 1 January 1892 and transform them into districts no. 11 to 19 (district no. 10 had been constituted in 1874); hence the Linienwall was torn down beginning in 1894. In 1900, district no. 20, Brigittenau, was created by separating the area from the 2nd district.\n\nFrom 1850 to 1904, Vienna had expanded only on the right bank of the Danube, following the main branch before the regulation of 1868\u20131875, i.e., the Old Danube of today. In 1904, the 21st district was created by integrating Floridsdorf, Kagran, Stadlau, Hirschstetten, Aspern and other villages on the left bank of the Danube into Vienna, in 1910 Strebersdorf followed. On 15 October 1938 the Nazis created Great Vienna with 26 districts by merging 97 towns and villages into Vienna, 80 of which were returned to surrounding Lower Austria in 1954. Since then Vienna has 23 districts.\n\nIndustries are located mostly in the southern and eastern districts. The Innere Stadt is situated away from the main flow of the Danube, but is bounded by the Donaukanal (\"Danube canal\"). Vienna's second and twentieth districts are located between the Donaukanal and the Danube River. Across the Danube, where the Vienna International Centre is located, and in the southern areas are the newest parts of the city (districts 21\u201323).\n\nPolitics\n\nIn the twenty years before the First World War and until 1918, Viennese politics were shaped by the Christian Social Party, in particular long-term mayor Karl Lueger; he managed not to apply the general voting rights for men introduced by and for the parliament of imperial Austria, the Reichsrat, in 1907, thereby excluding most of the working class from taking part in decisions. For Adolf Hitler, who spent some years in Vienna, Lueger was a remarkable teacher of how to use antisemitism in politics.\n\nVienna is today considered the centre of the Social Democratic Party of Austria. During the period of the First Republic (1918\u20131934), the Vienna Social Democrats undertook many overdue social reforms. At that time, Vienna's municipal policy was admired by Socialists throughout Europe, who therefore referred to the city as \"Red Vienna\" (Rotes Wien). In February 1934 troops of the Conservative Austrian federal government under Engelbert Dollfuss, who had closed down the first chamber of the federal parliament, the Nationalrat, in 1933, and paramilitary socialist organisations were engaged in the Austrian civil war, which led to the ban of the Social Democratic party.\n\nFor most of the time since after the First World War, the city has been governed by the Social Democratic Party (SP\u00d6) with absolute majorities in the city parliament. Only between 1934 and 1945, when the Social Democratic Party was illegal, mayors were appointed by the austro-fascist and later by the Nazi authorities. The current mayor of Vienna is Michael H\u00e4upl of the SP\u00d6. As rural Austria is dominated by conservative citizens, if the Social Democrats would not maintain their nearly unbreakable hold on Vienna, the rival Austrian People's Party (\u00d6VP) would dominate Austrian politics.\n\nThe city has enacted many social democratic policies. The Gemeindebauten are social housing assets that are well integrated into the city architecture outside the first or \"inner\" district. The low rents enable comfortable accommodation and good access to the city amenities. Many of the projects were built after WW II on vacant lots that were destroyed by bombing during the war. The city took particular pride in building them to a high standard.\n\nSince Vienna obtained federal state (Bundesland) status of its own by the federal constitution of 1920, the mayor (except 1934\u20131945) also holds the function of the state governor (Landeshauptmann). The Rathaus accommodates the offices of the mayor (Magistrat der Stadt Wien) and the state government (Landesregierung). The city is administered by a multitude of departments (Magistratsabteilungen), politically supervised by amtsf\u00fchrende Stadtr\u00e4te (members of the city government leading offices; according to the Vienna constitution opposition parties have the right to designate members of the city government not leading offices).\n\nIn the 1996 City Council election, the SP\u00d6 lost its overall majority in the 100-seat chamber, winning 43 seats and 39.15% of the vote. In 1996 the Freedom Party of Austria (FP\u00d6), which won 29 seats (up from 21 in 1991), beat the \u00d6VP into third place for the second time running. From 1996\u20132001, the SP\u00d6 governed Vienna in a coalition with the \u00d6VP. In 2001 the SP\u00d6 regained the overall majority with 52 seats and 46.91% of the vote; in October 2005 this majority was increased further to 55 seats (49.09%). In course of the 2010 city council elections the SP\u00d6 lost their overall majority again and consequently forged a coalition with the Green Party \u2013 the first SP\u00d6\/Green coalition in Austria.\n\nReligion\n\nVienna is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vienna; its current Archbishop is Cardinal Christoph Sch\u00f6nborn. According to the 2001 census, 49.2% of Viennese are Roman Catholics, while 25.7% are of no religion, 7.8% are Muslim, 6.0% are members of an Orthodox denomination, 4.7% are Protestant (mostly Lutheran), 0.5% are Jewish, and 6.3% are either of other religions or did not reply.\n\nMany Roman Catholic churches in central Vienna feature performances of religious or other music, including masses sung to classical music and organ. Some of Vienna's most significant historical buildings are Roman Catholic churches, including the St. Stephen's Cathedral (Stephansdom), Karlskirche, Peterskirche, and the Votivkirche.\n\nThe proportion of Viennese who identify as Roman Catholic has dropped over the last fifty years, from 90% in 1961 to 39.8% in 2010.\n\nCulture\n\nMusic, theatre and opera\n\nMusic is one of Vienna's legacies. Musical prodigies including Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Johannes Brahms, Gustav Mahler and Arnold Schoenberg have worked there.\n\nArt and culture had a long tradition in Vienna, including theatre, opera, classical music and fine arts. The Burgtheater is considered one of the best theatres in the German-speaking world alongside its branch, the Akademietheater. The Volkstheater Wien and the Theater in der Josefstadt also enjoy good reputations. There is also a multitude of smaller theatres, in many cases devoted to less mainstream forms of the performing arts, such as modern, experimental plays or cabaret.\n\nVienna is also home to a number of opera houses, including the Theater an der Wien, the Staatsoper and the Volksoper, the latter being devoted to the typical Viennese operetta. Classical concerts are performed at world famous venues such as the Wiener Musikverein, home of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra..known across the world for the annual widely broadcast \"New Year's Day Concert\", also the Wiener Konzerthaus. Many concert venues offer concerts aimed at tourists, featuring popular highlights of Viennese music, particularly the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Johann Strauss the father, and Johann Strauss the son.\n\nUp until 2005, the Theater an der Wien has hosted premieres of musicals, although with the year of the Mozart celebrations 2006 it has devoted itself to the opera again and has since become a stagione opera house offering one new production each month, thus quickly becoming one of Europe's most interesting and advanced opera houses. Since 2012 Theater an der Wien has taken over the Wiener Kammeroper, a historical small theatre in the first district of Vienna seating 300 spectators, turning it into its second venue for smaller sized productions and chamber operas created by the young ensemble of Theater an der Wien (JET). Before 2005 the most successful musical by far was \"Elisabeth\", which was later translated into several languages and performed all over the world. The Wiener Taschenoper is dedicated to stage music of the 20th and 21st century. The Haus der Musik (\"house of music\") opened in the year 2000.\n\nThe Wienerlied is a unique song genre from Vienna. There are approximately 60,000 \u2013 70,000 Wienerlieder.\n\nIn 1981 the popular British new romantic group Ultravox paid a tribute to Vienna on an album and an artful music video recording called \"Vienna\". The inspiration for this work arose from the cinema production called \"The Third Man\" with the title Zither music of Anton Karas.\n\nThe Vienna's English Theatre (VET) is an English theater in Vienna. It was founded in 1963 and is located in the 8th Vienna's district. It is the oldest English-language theater in Europe outside the UK.\n\nMusicians from Vienna\n\nNotable musicians were born in Vienna, including: Franz Schubert, Johann Strauss I, Johann Strauss II, Arnold Sch\u00f6nberg, Fritz Kreisler, Alban Berg, Louie Austen, Falco and Joe Zawinul.\n\nFamous musicians who came here to work from other parts of Austria and Germany were Johann Joseph Fux, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Antonio Salieri, Carl Czerny, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Franz Liszt, Franz von Supp\u00e9, Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, Gustav Mahler and Rainhard Fendrich.\n\nMuseums\nThe Hofburg is the location of the Imperial Treasury (Schatzkammer), holding the imperial jewels of the Habsburg dynasty. The Sisi Museum (a museum devoted to Empress Elisabeth of Austria) allows visitors to view the imperial apartments as well as the silver cabinet. Directly opposite the Hofburg are the Kunsthistorisches Museum, which houses many paintings by old masters, ancient and classical artifacts, and the Naturhistorisches Museum.\n\nA number of museums are located in the Museumsquartier (museum quarter), the former Imperial Stalls which were converted into a museum complex in the 1990s. It houses the Museum of Modern Art, commonly known as the MUMOK (Ludwig Foundation), the Leopold Museum (featuring the largest collection of paintings in the world by Egon Schiele, as well as works by the Vienna Secession, Viennese Modernism and Austrian Expressionism), the AzW (museum of architecture), additional halls with feature exhibitions, and the Tanzquartier. The Liechtenstein Palace contains much of one of the world's largest private art collections, especially strong in the Baroque. Castle Belvedere, built under Prinz Eugen, has a gallery containing paintings by Gustav Klimt (The Kiss), Egon Schiele, and other painters of the early 20th century, also sculptures by Franz Xaver Messerschmidt, and changing exhibitions too.\n\nThere are a multitude of other museums in Vienna, including the Albertina, the Military History Museum, the Technical Museum, the Burial Museum, the Museum of Art Fakes, the KunstHausWien, the Sigmund Freud Museum, and the Mozarthaus Vienna. The museums on the history of the city, including the former Historical Museum of the City of Vienna on Karlsplatz, the Hermesvilla, the residences and birthplaces of various composers, the Museum of the Romans, and the Vienna Clock Museum, are now gathered together under the group umbrella Vienna Museum. In addition there are museums dedicated to Vienna's individual districts. They provide a record of individual struggles, achievements and tragedy as the city grew and survived two world wars. For readers seeking family histories these are good sources of information.\n\nArchitecture\n\nA variety of architectural styles can be found in Vienna, such as the Romanesque Ruprechtskirche and the Baroque Karlskirche. Styles range from classicist buildings to modern architecture. Art Nouveau left many architectural traces in Vienna. The Secession, Karlsplatz Stadtbahn Station, and the Kirche am Steinhof by Otto Wagner rank among the best known examples of Art Nouveau in the world.\n\nConcurrent to the Art Nouveau movement was the Wiener Moderne, during which some architects shunned the use of extraneous adornment. A key architect of this period was Adolf Loos, whose works include the Looshaus (1909), the K\u00e4rntner Bar or American Bar (1908) and the Steiner House (1910).\n\nThe Hundertwasserhaus by Friedensreich Hundertwasser, designed to counter the clinical look of modern architecture, is one of Vienna's most popular tourist attractions. Another example of unique architecture is the Wotrubakirche by sculptor Fritz Wotruba. In the 1990s, a number of quarters were adapted and extensive building projects were implemented in the areas around Donaustadt (north of the Danube) and Wienerberg (in southern Vienna). \nThe 220-meter high DC Tower 1 located on the Northern bank of the Danube, completed in 2013, is the talltest skyscraper in Vienna. In recent years, Vienna has seen numerous architecture projects completed which combine modern architectural elements with old buildings, such as the remodelling and revitalisation of the old Gasometer in 2001.\nMost buildings in Vienna are relatively low; in early 2006 there were around 100 buildings higher than 40 m. The number of high-rise buildings is kept low by building legislation aimed at preserving green areas and districts designated as world cultural heritage. Strong rules apply to the planning, authorisation and construction of high-rise buildings. Consequently, much of the inner city is a high-rise free zone.\n\nVienna balls\nVienna is the last great capital of the nineteenth-century ball. There are over 200 significant balls per year, some featuring as many as nine live orchestras. Balls are held in the many beautiful palaces in Vienna, with the principal venue being the Hofburg Palace at Heldenplatz. While the Opera Ball is the best known internationally of all the Austrian balls, other balls such as the Kaffeesiederball (Cafe Owners Ball), the J\u00e4gerball (Hunter's Ball) or the Life Ball (AIDS Charity Event) are almost as well known within Austria and even better appreciated for their cordial atmosphere. Viennese of at least middle class may visit a number of balls in their lifetime. For many, the ball season lasts three months and can include up to ten or fifteen separate appearances.\n\nDancers and opera singers from the Vienna Staatsoper often perform at the openings of the larger balls.\n\nA Vienna ball is an all-night cultural attraction. Major Viennese balls generally begin at 9\u00a0pm and last until 5\u00a0am, although many guests carry on the celebrations into the next day.\n\nEducation\nVienna is Austria's main centre of education and home to many universities, professional colleges and gymnasiums (high schools).\n\nUniversities\nAcademy of Fine Arts Vienna\nDiplomatic Academy of Vienna\nMedical University of Vienna\nPEF Private University of Management Vienna\nUniversity of Applied Arts Vienna\nUniversity of Applied Sciences bfi Vienna\nUniversity of Applied Sciences FH Campus Wien\nUniversity of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna\nUniversity of Veterinary Medicine Vienna\nUniversity of Vienna\nVienna University of Economics and Business\nUniversity of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna\nVienna University of Technology\nWebster University Vienna\nSigmund Freud University Vienna\nInternational Anti-Corruption Academy (in Laxenburg,  south of Vienna)\n Modul University Vienna (Private University)\n\nInternational schools\n\nAMADEUS International School Vienna\nAmerican International School Vienna\nDanube International School\nInternational University Vienna\nSAE Vienna\nLauder Business School\nLyc\u00e9e Fran\u00e7ais de Vienne\nVienna Christian School\nVienna International School\nWake Forest University - Flow House\nMegatrend Internatiional University Vienna\n\nLeisure activities\n\nParks and gardens\n\nVienna possesses many parks, including the Stadtpark, the Burggarten, the Volksgarten (part of the Hofburg), the Schlosspark at Schloss Belvedere (home to the Vienna Botanic Gardens), the Donaupark, the Sch\u00f6nbrunner Schlosspark, the Prater, the Augarten, the Rathauspark, the Lainzer Tiergarten, the Dehnepark, the Resselpark, the Votivpark, the Kurpark Oberlaa, the Auer-Welsbach-Park and the T\u00fcrkenschanzpark. Green areas include Laaer-Berg (including the Bohemian Prater) and the foothills of the Wienerwald, which reaches into the outer areas of the city. Small parks, known by the Viennese as Beserlparks, are everywhere in the inner city areas.\n\nMany of Vienna's famous parks include monuments, such as the Stadtpark with its statue of Johann Strauss II, and the gardens of the baroque palace, where the State Treaty was signed. Vienna's principal park is the Prater which is home to the Riesenrad, a Ferris wheel. The imperial Sch\u00f6nbrunn's grounds contain an 18th-century park which includes the world's oldest zoo, founded in 1752.\nThe Donauinsel, part of Vienna's flood defences, is a  long artificial island between the Danube and Neue Donau dedicated to leisure activities.\n\nSport\n\nAustria's capital is home to numerous football teams. The best known are the local football clubs include FK Austria Wien (21 Austrian Bundesliga titles and record 27-time cup winners), SK Rapid Wien (record 32 Austrian Bundesliga titles), and the oldest team, First Vienna FC. Other important sports clubs include the Raiffeisen Vikings Vienna (American Football), who won the Eurobowl title between 2004 and 2007 4 times in a row and had a perfect season in 2013, the Aon hotVolleys Vienna, one of Europe's premier Volleyball organisations, the Vienna Wanderers (baseball) who won the 2012 and 2013 Championship of the Austrian Baseball League, and the Vienna Capitals (Ice Hockey). Vienna was also where the European Handball Federation (EHF) was founded. There are also three rugby clubs; Vienna Celtic, the oldest rugby club in Austria, RC Donau, and Stade Viennois\n\nVienna hosts many different sporting events including the Vienna City Marathon, which attracts more than 10,000 participants every year and normally takes place in May. In 2005 the Ice Hockey World Championships took place in Austria and the final was played in Vienna. Vienna's Ernst Happel Stadium was the venue of four Champions League and European Champion Clubs' Cup finals (1964, 1987, 1990 and 1995) and on 29 June it hosted the final of Euro 2008 which saw a Spanish 1\u20130 victory over Germany.\n\nCulinary specialities\n\nFood\n\nVienna is well known for Wiener Schnitzel, a cutlet of veal (Kalbs Schnitzel) or pork (Schweins Schnitzel) that is pounded flat, coated in flour, egg and breadcrumbs, and fried in clarified butter. It is available in almost every restaurant that serves Viennese cuisine and can be eaten hot or cold. Other examples of Viennese cuisine include Tafelspitz (very lean boiled beef), which is traditionally served with Ger\u00f6stete Erd\u00e4pfel (boiled potatoes mashed with a fork and subsequently fried) and horseradish sauce, Apfelkren (a mixture of horseradish, cream and apple) and Schnittlauchsauce (a chives sauce made with mayonnaise and stale bread).\n\nVienna has a long tradition of producing the finest cakes and desserts. These include Apfelstrudel (hot apple strudel), Milchrahmstrudel (milk-cream strudel), Palatschinken (sweet pancakes), and Kn\u00f6del (dumplings) often filled with fruit such as apricots (Marillenkn\u00f6del). Sachertorte, a delicately moist chocolate cake with apricot jam created by the Sacher Hotel, is world famous.\n\nIn winter, small street stands sell traditional Maroni (hot chestnuts) and potato fritters.\n\nSausages are popular and available from street vendors (W\u00fcrstelstand) throughout the day and into the night. The sausage known as Wiener (German for Viennese) in the U.S. and in Germany, is in Vienna called a Frankfurter. Other popular sausages are Burenwurst (a coarse beef and pork sausage, generally boiled), K\u00e4sekrainer (spicy pork with small chunks of cheese), and Bratwurst (a white pork sausage). Most can be ordered \"mit Brot\" (with bread) or as a \"hot dog\" (stuffed inside a long roll). Mustard is the traditional condiment and usually offered in two varieties: \"s\u00fc\u00df\" (sweet) or \"scharf\" (spicy).\n\nKebab and pizza are, increasingly, the snack foods most widely available from small stands.\n\nThe Naschmarkt is a permanent market for fruit, vegetables, spices, fish, meat, etc., from around the world. The city has many coffee and breakfast stores.\n\nDrinks\nVienna, along with Paris, Prague, Bratislava, Warsaw and London, is one of the few remaining world capital cities with its own vineyards. The wine is served in small Viennese pubs known as Heuriger, which are especially numerous in the wine growing areas of D\u00f6bling (Grinzing, Neustift am Walde, Nu\u00dfdorf, Salmannsdorf, Sievering), Floridsdorf (Stammersdorf, Strebersdorf), Liesing (Mauer) and Favoriten (Oberlaa). The wine is often drunk as a Spritzer (\"G'spritzter\") with sparkling water. The Gr\u00fcner Veltliner, a dry white wine, is the most widely cultivated wine in Austria.\n\nBeer is next in importance to wine. Vienna has a single large brewery, Ottakringer, and more than ten microbreweries. A \"Beisl\" is a typical small Austrian pub, of which Vienna has many.\n\nViennese caf\u00e9s\nThis section is linked from Kara Mustafa \n\nViennese caf\u00e9s have an extremely long and distinguished history that dates back centuries, and the caffeine addictions of some famous historical patrons of the oldest are something of a local legend. These coffee houses are unique to Vienna and many cities have unsuccessfully sought to copy them. Traditionally, the coffee comes with a glass of water. Viennese caf\u00e9s claim to have invented the process of filtering coffee from booty captured after the second Turkish siege in 1683. Viennese caf\u00e9s claim that when the invading Turks left Vienna, they abandoned hundreds of sacks of coffee beans. The Polish King Jan III Sobieski, the commander of the anti-Turkish coalition of Poles, Germans, and Austrians, gave Franz George Kolschitzky (Polish \u2013 Franciszek Jerzy Kulczycki) some of this coffee as a reward for providing information that allowed him to defeat the Turks. Kolschitzky then opened Vienna's first coffee shop. Julius Meinl set up a modern roasting plant in the same premises where the coffee sacks were found, in 1891.\n\nTourist attractions\n\nMajor tourist attractions include the imperial palaces of the Hofburg and Sch\u00f6nbrunn (also home to the world's oldest zoo, Tiergarten Sch\u00f6nbrunn) and the Riesenrad in the Prater. Cultural highlights include the Burgtheater, the Wiener Staatsoper, the Lipizzaner horses at the spanische Hofreitschule, and the Vienna Boys' Choir, as well as excursions to Vienna's Heurigen district D\u00f6bling.\n\nThere are also more than 100 art museums, which together attract over eight million visitors per year. The most popular ones are Albertina, Belvedere, Leopold Museum in the Museumsquartier, KunstHausWien, BA-CA Kunstforum, the twin Kunsthistorisches Museum and Naturhistorisches Museum, and the Technisches Museum Wien, each of which receives over a quarter of a million visitors per year.\n\nThere are many popular sites associated with composers who lived in Vienna including Beethoven's various residences and grave at Zentralfriedhof (Central Cemetery) which is the largest cemetery in Vienna and the burial site of many famous people. Mozart has a memorial grave at the Habsburg gardens and at St. Marx cemetery (where his grave was lost). Vienna's many churches also draw large crowds, famous of which are St. Stephen's Cathedral, the Deutschordenskirche, the Jesuitenkirche, the Karlskirche, the Peterskirche, Maria am Gestade, the Minoritenkirche, the Ruprechtskirche, the Schottenkirche, St. Ulrich and the Votivkirche.\n\nModern attractions include the Hundertwasserhaus, the United Nations headquarters and the view from the Donauturm.\n\nTransportation\n\nVienna has an extensive transportation network with a unified fare system that integrates municipal, regional and railway systems under the umbrella of the Verkehrsverbund Ost-Region (VOR). Public transport is provided by buses, trams and 5 underground metro lines (U-Bahn). Trains are operated by the \u00d6BB.\n\nVienna has multiple road connections including motorways.\n\nVienna is served by Vienna International Airport, located  southeast of the city centre next to the town of Schwechat.\n\nInternational relations\n\nInternational organisations in Vienna\nVienna is the seat of a number of United Nations offices and various international institutions and companies, including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) and the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA).\nCurrently Vienna is the world's third \"UN city\", next to New York, Geneva, and Nairobi.\nAdditionally, Vienna is the seat of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law's secretariat (UNCITRAL). In conjunction, the University of Vienna annually hosts the prestigious Willem C. Vis Moot, an international commercial arbitration competition for students of law from around the world.\n\nVarious special diplomatic meetings have been held in Vienna in the latter half of the 20th century, resulting in various documents bearing the name Vienna Convention or Vienna Document. Among the more important documents negotiated in Vienna are the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, as well as the 1990 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe.\n\nCharitable organisations in Vienna\nAlongside international and intergovernmental organisations, there are dozens of charitable organisations based in Vienna.. One such organisation is the network of SOS Children's Villages, founded by Hermann Gmeiner in 1949. Today, SOS Children's Villages are active in 132 countries and territories worldwide. Others include HASCO.\n\nAnother extremely popular international event is the annual Life Ball, which supports people with HIV or AIDS. Guests such as Bill Clinton and Whoopi Goldberg were recent attendees.\n\nTwin towns and sister cities\n\nVienna is twinned with the following cities:\n\nPartnerships\nOther forms of cooperation and city friendship similar to the twin city programmes:\n\nIn addition, individual Viennese districts are twinned with  Japanese cities\/districts:\n\nFurther, the Viennese district Leopoldstadt and the New York City borough Brooklyn entered into a partnership in 2007.\n\nSee also\n\n Augarten porcelain\n Donauinselfest\n List of honorary citizens of Vienna\n List of mayors of Vienna\n List of Viennese\n Soviet War Memorial (Vienna)\n Vienna Biennale\n Vienna (Billy Joel song)\n Vienna Circle\n Vienna (Ultravox song)\n Viennese German\n\n -->\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\nPippal, M.: A short History of Art in Vienna, Munich: C.H. Beck 2000, ISBN 978-3-406-46789-9, provides a concise overview.\nDassanowsky, Robert ed, : \"World Film Locations: Vienna\", London: Intellect\/Chicago: U of Chicago Press, 2012, ISBN 9781841505695. International films about Vienna or Austria shot on location throughout cinema history.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial websites\nWien.gv.at \u2013 Official site of the municipality, with interactive map.\nWien.info \u2013 Official site of the tourism board: events, sightseeing, cultural information, etc.\nList of Embassies in Vienna\n\nPictures and videos of Vienna\nPhotos of Vienna at night (very-bored.com) \nPhotos of Vienna (zoomvienna.com)\nPhotos of Vienna (europe61.com)\nPhotoGlobe Vienna \u2013 a collection of georeferenced photos of Vienna\nVienna. Pleasure and Melancholy A collection of photos of Vienna (willypuchner.com)\nPanoramic pictures of Vienna (wienkultur.info)\n360\u00b0 virtual tour of Vienna, Austria (VRVienna.com)\nVienna Christmas market  \"Wiener Christkindlmarkt\" (butkaj.com)\nPhotos of Vienna  Sightseeings (butkaj.com)\nWien Gigapixel Panorama (12.000 Megapixel)\n \n\nHistory of Vienna\nHundreds of articles on historical buildings of Vienna: Churches, Palaces, Art, Culture and History of Vienna\nJews in Vienna (from Encyclopaedia Judaica 1971) .\nGerman flaktowers in Vienna\nHistory of the Coat of Arms of Vienna and all (former) districts and municipalities\n\nFurther information on Vienna\nVienna Information Sorted by categories. Choose from 5 Languages\nEvents in Vienna\n\n\u0c30\u0c3e\u0c1c\u0c27\u0c3e\u0c28\u0c41\u0c32\u0c41\n\u0c28\u0c17\u0c30\u0c3e\u0c32\u0c41\n\u0c06\u0c38\u0c4d\u0c1f\u0c4d\u0c30\u0c3f\u0c2f\u0c3e","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":454,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":7,"2015-18":10,"2015-11":12,"2015-06":9,"2014-10":18,"2013-48":9,"2013-20":15,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":8,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":7,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":6,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":8,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":9,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":7,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":8,"2019-47":6,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":8,"2019-30":8,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":5,"2018-26":6,"2018-22":4,"2018-17":9,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":7,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":5,"2017-43":5,"2017-39":7,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":5,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":6,"2017-17":5,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":10,"2015-27":9,"2015-22":10,"2015-14":7,"2014-52":12,"2014-49":13,"2014-42":20,"2014-41":16,"2014-35":16,"2014-23":16,"2014-15":14}},"id":162081,"url":"https:\/\/te.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE","title":"\u0c35\u0c3f\u0c2f\u0c28\u0c4d\u0c28\u0c3e","language":"te"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A trial is where two people or two groups of people argue in a court.\n\nCivil trial \nIn a civil trial, there is a plaintiff and a defendant. The plaintiff tries to prove that he or she has a reason why the defendant needs to give him or her money.\n\nCriminal trial \nIn a criminal trial, there is a prosecutor and a defendant. The prosecutor works for the government and tries to prove that the defendant committed a crime. It often takes a long time to get a trial scheduled as the courts can be very busy. In the United States, Federal court can take up to 10 months to get a court date.\n\nJudge \nThe judge controls the courtroom. He or she decides who speaks when, and they decide what evidence and arguments can be used. Sometimes, a jury is brought in to determine whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty. If there is no jury, the judge or judges decide whether the defendant is proven guilty or not. If the defendant is proven guilty of the crime, the judge will decide the punishment, which is also called the \"sentence\". If the crime is serious, the defendant may go to prison or, in some countries, be executed. For smaller crimes, there is often a fine\u2014money that must be paid, in addition to having a criminal record.\n\nDifferences in each country\nTrials are different in places where the laws are different. Different countries, cities and states all have different laws that change how trials happen. Trials in some places are very short. In some places, however, important trials can take as long as a few years while the two sides gather information and put together their arguments.\n\nRelated pages\nRight to a fair trial","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":162,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":43564,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trial","title":"Trial","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A picture, also called an image, is a group of coloured points on a flat surface that looks the same as something else. For example, a picture can look the same as an object or a person. Pictures can also be drawings, paintings or photographs. People who make such pictures are called artists, photographers or painters.  Pictures are very helpful.  Sometimes people say pictures are worth a thousand words.  Pictures and diagrams can be used to explain how to do things, and thus a picture is a kind of tool. A moment captured in an image.\n\nAn image is something that can be seen, but it is not physically there.  It can be a photograph, a painting, or a picture on a television or computer screen.  A lens can make an image of an object appear somewhere else.  Cameras use this to make the image that becomes a photograph.\n\nMaking Pictures\n\nMost pictures today are 'photographs'. Photographs are made with cameras. A camera makes a picture that looks very real.\n\nWhen there were no cameras, people made pictures by using paint, brushes, pencils, crayons, pens, and other things that people can write or draw with. Pictures made with paint and brush are called 'paintings'. Before cameras, some artists were able to make very real looking pictures with just paint. Sometimes pictures made with pencil or pen are called 'sketches', if they are made quickly and only look a little bit like the real thing.\n\nUsually pictures are put on paper. Pictures made with paint are usually put on a strong, rough fabric called 'canvas'. Sometimes pictures can be put on walls or other things, even glass.\n\nSome places, such as churches have pictures on windows made out of colored pieces of glass. These are called stained glass.\n\nSpecial types of Pictures \n\nIf people take a lot of pictures, and show them one at a time, very fast, they can make a picture that looks like it is moving.  This is called a \"moving picture\", or a movie.  A television shows people a moving picture by using light. \n\nA slide show is a series of pictures arranged to tell a story, for example to illustrate a narrative.  \n\nA projector shines light from a light bulb through a kind of transparent picture.  When light shines through this kind of picture onto a screen or another flat place, the picture can be seen on that flat place.  This is often used to show movies and slide shows to an audience.\n\nSome people make pictures that do not look flat, by taking two regular flat pictures at the same time. People have to move their eyes in a special way or use a stereoscope so they can see both pictures together.  When they look at the pictures using their binocular vision correctly, the picture does not look flat.  This is called '3D' or 'three dimensional'.\n\nCutaway pictures show what is inside of something, that cannot actually be seen.\n\nGraphics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":237,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":5,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":6,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":5,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":6079,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Picture","title":"Picture","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Federico Fellini (born 20 January 1920 in Rimini, died 31 October 1993 in Rome) was an Italian movie-maker and director. Fellini's movies combine memory, dream, and fantasy.\n\nThe first movie Fellini directed was Lo Sceicco Bianco (1951), with Alberto Sordi, written by Michelangelo Antonioni and Ennio Flaiano. In making this movie Fellini met Nino Rota, the musician that would follow him for the successful rest of his career.\n\nFellini was married to actress Giulietta Masina (1921-1994) from 1943 until his death. In 1945, he had a son who survived for only 2 weeks; it was the only child of Fellini and Giulietta Masina. Masina acted in many of his movies. Other actors Fellini often worked with include Marcello Mastroianni, Alberto Sordi, and Anita Ekberg.\n\nApart from making movies he also wrote scripts for radio shows, for movies (mainly for Roberto Rossellini) and wrote comic gags for well known actors like Aldo Fabrizi. Fellini also produced several drawings (mostly pencil on paper), often humoristic portraits. His first success was in drawing advertising pictures for movies.\n\nDuring Fascism an Avanguardista, his first writings were for Alleanza Cinematografica Italiana (ACI), a production company of Vittorio Mussolini, son of Benito, who introduced him to Rossellini.\n\nIn 1944, when Fascism was over, he opened a shop in Rome in which he sold these drawings. The shop was named (in English) \"The Funny Face Shop\", and contained works from Fellini and De Seta, Verdini, Camerini, Scarpelli, Majorana, Guasta, Giobbe, Attalo, Migneco (all writers, directors or otherwise intellectuals working for Italian cinema). In the same year started his contribution to Rossellini's Roma Citt\u00e0 Aperta, with Aldo Fabrizi. Fellini took also part in writing another of Rossellini's movies: Pais\u00e0. He wrote also for other directors as Alberto Lattuada, Pietro Germi and Luigi Comencini.\n\nIn 1987 he won the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award. In 1993, he received an Academy Award (Oscar) for his lifetime achievement.\n\nMovies \n Luci del variet\u00e0 (1950)\n Lo Sceicco Bianco (1951)\n I Vitelloni (1953)\n La Strada (1954) Oscar (best foreign movie)\n Le Notti di Cabiria (1957) Oscar (best foreign movie)\n La Dolce Vita (1960) Oscar (best costumes)\n 8 1\/2 (1963) 2 Oscars (best foreign movie, best costumes)\n Giulietta degli Spiriti (1965)\n Satyricon (1969)\n I Clowns (1970)\n Roma (1972)\n Amarcord (1973) Oscar (best foreign movie)\n Casanova (1976)\n Prova d'Orchestra (1979)\n La Citta' delle Donne (1980)\n E la nave va (1983)\n Ginger and Fred (1986)\n Intervista'' (1987)\n\nOther websites\n \n\nAcademy Award winning directors\nDeaths from myocardial infarction\nItalian movie directors\nItalian screenwriters\nPeople from Rimini\n1923 births\n1993 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":83415,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federico%20Fellini","title":"Federico Fellini","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"For the policy on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Blocks and bans.\nA ban is an action used to stop people from doing something, either bad or dangerous. Ban can also be made on products. For example, Singapore, a country, bans chewing gum. Ban may sometimes be made on the Internet, where an administrator or a moderator with higher powers than other members can stop vandals from causing harm to others. Sometimes, users of a website say that moderators or administrators have banhammers that they use to ban bad users.\n\nInternet\nLegal terms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":140,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-21":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":35601,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ban","title":"Ban","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The military\u2013industrial complex refers to the relationship between the government, the military, and the businesses that make things for the military. For example, the businesses can give money to politicians in elections.  Then, politicians give more money to the military.  Then, the military buys things from the businesses.  Each group gains something, so they try to keep doing the same thing.\n\nThe term was invented in the United States.  However, most countries have politicians and soldiers and people who make weapons and other military supplies; thus they have a military-industrial complex.\n\nWhen there is a military-industrial complex, problems can happen.  The government can become corrupt.  A business might want the country to be at war because they make more money during war than during times of peace.\n\nWhere the term came from\nPresident of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower used the term in his farewell speech\u2014the last speech he gave while he was the President.  He said, \"we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex.\"  This was a warning.  It means that people should be careful or the military-industrial complex will get too much power.\n\nToday, the term is used a lot by people writing and talking about politics.  Especially when the subject is militarism in the United States.  It also appears in discussions about private military companies\u2014businesses that commonly employ soldiers who have left the military.\n\nRelated pages\n Constitutionalism\n Constitutional economics\n Rule according to higher law\n Roerich Pact\nLockheed Martin","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":56,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-25":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":32643,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military%E2%80%93industrial%20complex","title":"Military\u2013industrial complex","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Hydrocarbon exploration (or oil and gas exploration) is the search by petroleum geologists and geophysicists for deposits of hydrocarbons, particularly petroleum and natural gas, in the Earth's crust using petroleum geology.\n\nExploration methods \n\nVisible surface features such as oil seeps, natural gas seeps, pockmarks (underwater craters caused by escaping gas) provide basic evidence of hydrocarbon generation (be it shallow or deep in the Earth). However, most exploration depends on highly sophisticated technology to detect and determine the extent of these deposits using exploration geophysics. Areas thought to contain hydrocarbons are initially subjected to a gravity survey, magnetic survey, passive seismic or regional seismic reflection surveys to detect large-scale features of the sub-surface geology. Features of interest (known as leads) are subjected to more detailed seismic surveys which work on the principle of the time it takes for reflected sound waves to travel through matter (rock) of varying densities and using the process of depth conversion to create a profile of the substructure. Finally, when a prospect has been identified and evaluated and passes the oil company's selection criteria, an exploration well is drilled in an attempt to conclusively determine the presence or absence of oil or gas. Offshore the risk can be reduced by using electromagnetic methods \n\nOil exploration is an expensive, high-risk operation. Offshore and remote area exploration is generally only undertaken by very large corporations or national governments. Typical shallow shelf oil wells (e.g. North Sea) cost US$10 \u2013 30 million, while deep water wells can cost up to US$100 million plus. Hundreds of smaller companies search for onshore hydrocarbon deposits worldwide, with some wells costing as little as US$100,000.\n\nElements of a petroleum prospect \n\nA prospect is a potential trap which geologists believe may contain hydrocarbons. A significant amount of geological, structural and seismic investigation must first be completed to redefine the potential hydrocarbon drill location from a lead to a prospect. Four geological factors have to be present for a prospect to work and if any of them fail neither oil nor gas will be present.\n\n Source rock  When organic-rich rock such as oil shale or coal is subjected to high pressure and temperature over an extended period of time, hydrocarbons form.\n Migration  The hydrocarbons are expelled from source rock by three density-related mechanisms: the newly matured hydrocarbons are less dense than their precursors, which causes over-pressure; the hydrocarbons are lighter, and so migrate upwards due to buoyancy, and the fluids expand as further burial causes increased heating. Most hydrocarbons migrate to the surface as oil seeps, but some will get trapped.\n Reservoir  The hydrocarbons are contained in a reservoir rock. This is commonly a porous sandstone or limestone. The oil collects in the pores within the rock although open fractures within non-porous rocks (e.g. fractured granite) may also store hydrocarbons. The reservoir must also be permeable so that the hydrocarbons will flow to surface during production.\n Trap  The hydrocarbons are buoyant and have to be trapped within a structural (e.g. Anticline, fault block) or stratigraphic trap. The hydrocarbon trap has to be covered by an impermeable rock known as a seal or cap-rock in order to prevent hydrocarbons escaping to the surface\n\nExploration risk \n\nHydrocarbon exploration is a high risk investment and risk assessment is paramount for successful project portfolio management. Exploration risk is a difficult concept and is usually defined by assigning confidence to the presence of the imperative geological factors, as discussed above. This confidence is based on data and\/or models and is usually mapped on Common Risk Segment Maps (CRS Maps). High confidence in the presence of imperative geological factors is usually coloured green and low confidence coloured red. Therefore, these maps are also called Traffic Light Maps, while the full procedure is often referred to as Play Fairway Analysis (PFA). The aim of such procedures is to force the geologist to objectively assess all different geological factors. Furthermore, it results in simple maps that can be understood by non-geologists and managers to base exploration decisions on.\n\nTerms used in petroleum evaluation \n\n Bright spot  On a seismic section, coda that have high amplitudes due to a formation containing hydrocarbons.\n Chance of success An estimate of the chance of all the elements (see above) within a prospect working, described as a probability. \n Dry hole  A boring that does not contain commercial hydrocarbons. See also Dry-hole clause\n Flat spot  Possibly an oil-water, gas-water or gas-oil contact on a seismic section; flat due to gravity.\n Full Waveform Inversion  A supercomputer technique recently use in conjunction with seismic sensors to explore for petroleum deposits offshore.\n Hydrocarbon in place  Amount of hydrocarbon likely to be contained in the prospect. This is calculated using the volumetric equation - GRV x N\/G x Porosity x Sh \/ FVF\n Gross rock volume (GRV)  Amount of rock in the trap above the hydrocarbon water contact\n Net sand  Part of GRV that has the lithological capacity for being a productive zone; i.e. less shale contaminations.\n Net reserve  Part of net sand that has the minimum reservoir qualities; i.e. minimum porosity and permeability values.\n Net\/gross ratio (N\/G)  Proportion of the GRV formed by the reservoir rock (range is 0 to 1)\n Porosity  Percentage of the net reservoir rock occupied by pores (typically 5-35%)\n Hydrocarbon saturation (Sh)  Some of the pore space is filled with water - this must be discounted\n Formation volume factor (FVF)  Oil shrinks and gas expands when brought to the surface. The FVF converts volumes at reservoir conditions (high pressure and high temperature) to storage and sale conditions\n Lead  Potential accumulation is currently poorly defined and requires more data acquisition and\/or evaluation in order to be classified as a prospect. \n Play  An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or prospects of a given type occur. For example, the shale gas plays in North America include the Barnett, Eagle Ford, Fayetteville, Haynesville, Marcellus, and Woodford, among many others. \n Prospect  A lead which has been more fully evaluated.\n Recoverable hydrocarbons  Amount of hydrocarbon likely to be recovered during production. This is typically 10-50% in an oil field and 50-80% in a gas field.\n\nLicensing \n\nPetroleum resources are typically owned by the government of the host country. In the United States, most onshore (land) oil and gas rights (OGM) are owned by private individuals, in which case oil companies must negotiate terms for a lease of these rights with the individual who owns the OGM. Sometimes this is not the same person who owns the land surface. In most nations the government issues licences to explore, develop and produce its oil and gas resources, which are typically administered by the oil ministry. There are several different types of licence. Oil companies often operate in joint ventures to spread the risk; one of the companies in the partnership is designated the operator who actually supervises the work.\n\n Tax and Royalty  Companies would pay a royalty on any oil produced, together with a profits tax (which can have expenditure offset against it). In some cases there are also various bonuses and ground rents (license fees) payable to the government - for example a signature bonus payable at the start of the licence. Licences are awarded in competitive bid rounds on the basis of either the size of the work programme (number of wells, seismic etc.) or size of the signature bonus.\n Production Sharing contract (PSA)  A PSA is more complex than a Tax\/Royalty system - The companies bid on the percentage of the production that the host government receives (this may be variable with the oil price), There is often also participation by the Government owned National Oil Company (NOC). There are also various bonuses to be paid. Development expenditure is offset against production revenue.\n Service contract  This is when an oil company acts as a contractor for the host government, being paid to produce the hydrocarbons.\n\nReserves and resources \n\nResources are hydrocarbons which may or may not be produced in the future. A resource number may be assigned to an undrilled prospect or an unappraised discovery. Appraisal by drilling additional delineation wells or acquiring extra seismic data will confirm the size of the field and lead to project sanction. At this point the relevant government body gives the oil company a production licence which enables the field to be developed. This is also the point at which oil reserves and gas reserves can be formally booked.\n\nOil and gas reserves\nOil and gas reserves are defined as volumes that will be commercially recovered in the future. Reserves are separated into three categories: proved, probable, and possible. To be included in any reserves category, all commercial aspects must have been addressed, which includes government consent. Technical issues alone separate proved from unproved categories. All reserve estimates involve some degree of uncertainty.\n\nProved reserves are the highest valued category. Proved reserves have a \"reasonable certainty\" of being recovered, which means a high degree of confidence that the volumes will be recovered. Some industry specialists refer to this as P90, i.e., having a 90% certainty of being produced. The SEC provides a more detailed definition:\nProved oil and gas reserves are those quantities of oil and gas, which, by analysis of geoscience and engineering data, can be estimated with reasonable certainty to be economically producible\u2014from a given date forward, from known reservoirs, and under existing economic conditions, operating methods, and government regulations\u2014prior to the time at which contracts providing the right to operate expire, unless evidence indicates that renewal is reasonably certain, regardless of whether deterministic or probabilistic methods are used for the estimation. The project to extract the hydrocarbons must have commenced or the operator must be reasonably certain that it will commence the project within a reasonable time.\n Probable reserves are volumes defined as \"less likely to be recovered than proved, but more certain to be recovered than Possible Reserves\". Some industry specialists refer to this as P50, i.e., having a 50% certainty of being produced.\n Possible reserves are reserves which analysis of geological and engineering data suggests are less likely to be recoverable than probable reserves. Some industry specialists refer to this as P10, i.e., having a 10% certainty of being produced.\n\nThe term 1P is frequently used to denote proved reserves; 2P is the sum of proved and probable reserves; and 3P the sum of proved, probable, and possible reserves. The best estimate of recovery from committed projects is generally considered to be the 2P sum of proved and probable reserves. Note that these volumes only refer to currently justified projects or those projects already in development.\n\nReserve booking\n\nOil and gas reserves are the main asset of an oil company. Booking is the process by which they are added to the balance sheet.\n\nIn the United States, booking is done according to a set of rules developed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE). The reserves of any company listed on the New York Stock Exchange have to be stated to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reported reserves may be audited by outside geologists, although this is not a legal requirement.\n\nIn Russia, companies report their reserves to the State Commission on Mineral Reserves (GKZ).\n\nSee also \n\n Abiogenic petroleum origin\n Decline curve analysis\n Drill baby drill\n Energy development\n Future energy development\n Giant oil and gas fields\n Hubbert peak\n NORM\n Petroleum\n Petroleum exploration in the Arctic\n Petroleum licensing\n Renewable energy\n Seismic source\n Site survey\n Upward continuation\n Wildcatter\n Extraction of petroleum\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \nOilfield Glossary\nExploration Geology Forums \n\nExploration\nPetroleum geology\nNatural gas\nOil exploration\nFossil fuels\n\nda:Olieudvinding","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-10":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":5,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":4,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":6}},"id":614302,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrocarbon%20exploration","title":"Hydrocarbon exploration","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Regierungsbezirk is a government region of Germany in some federal states (Bundesl\u00e4nder). \n\nRegierungsbezirke are divided into districts (Kreise), either Landkreise or urban districts: cities which constitute a district in their own right (kreisfreie St\u00e4dte). The Regierungsbezirk is governed by a Bezirksregierung and led by a Regierungspr\u00e4sident.\n\nNot all Bundesl\u00e4nder have this sub-division; some are directly divided into districts. Currently, five states are divided into 22 Regierungsbezirke, ranging in population from 5,255,000 (D\u00fcsseldorf) to 1,065,000 (Gie\u00dfen):\n\n Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg: Freiburg, Karlsruhe, Stuttgart, T\u00fcbingen\n Bavaria: Oberbayern, Niederbayern, Oberpfalz, Oberfranken, Mittelfranken, Unterfranken, Schwaben\n Hesse: Darmstadt, Gie\u00dfen, Kassel\n North Rhine-Westphalia: Arnsberg, Cologne, Detmold, D\u00fcsseldorf, M\u00fcnster\n Saxony: Chemnitz, Dresden, Leipzig\n\nHistory \nThe first Regierungsbezirke were created by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1808\/16, which divided its provinces into 25 Regierungsbezirke. The Regierungsbezirke of North Rhine-Westphalia are in direct continuation of those created in 1815. Other states of the German Empire created similar entities, named Kreishauptmannschaft (in Saxony) or Kreis (in Bavaria and W\u00fcrttemberg) (not to be confused with the Kreis or Landkreis today). During the Third Reich, the Nazi government unified the naming; since then all these entities are called Regierungsbezirk.\n\nOn January 1 2000 Rhineland-Palatinate disbanded its three Regierungsbezirke Koblenz, Rheinhessen-Pfalz and Trier - the employees and assets of the three Bezirksregierungen were converted into three public authorities responsible for the whole state, each covering a part of the former responsibilities of the Bezirksregierung.\n\nOn January 1, 2004, Saxony-Anhalt disbanded its three Regierungsbezirke: Dessau, Halle and Magdeburg. The responsibilities are now covered by a Landesverwaltungsamt with three offices at the former seats of the Bezirksregierungen. \n\nOn January 1, 2005, Lower Saxony disbanded its four Regierungsbezirke: Braunschweig, Hanover, L\u00fcneburg, and Weser-Ems.\n\nIn 2005, North Rhine-Westphalia planned to abolish its five Regierungsbezirke and create three self-government entities. The old, \"Prussian-style\", Regierungsbezirk had no self-government organs.\n\n \nLocal government of Germany","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":89888,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regierungsbezirk","title":"Regierungsbezirk","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The GNU General Public License (GPL) is a computer software copyleft license. This license lets the user of the software use a program in many of the same ways as if it were public domain. They can use it, change it, and copy it. They can also sell or give away copies of the program with or without any changes they made to it. The license lets them do this as long as they agree to follow the terms of the license. The GPL was created by Richard Stallman. The current version is version 3, created in 2007, although some software still uses version 2, created in 1991.\n\nThere are two main terms to the license. Both apply to giving the program away or selling it. \nA copy of the source code or written instructions about how to get a copy must be included with the software. If the software is able to be downloaded from the internet, the source code must also be available for downloading.\nThe license of the software can not be changed or removed. It must always use the GPL.\n\nIf the user does not agree to follow the GPL, they can still use the software under copyright laws. They can use it and make copies or changes to it for themselves, but they cannot give it away or sell it. They also can not change the license.\n\nRelated pages\n List of software licenses\n\nOther websites \n GNU General Public License v1.0\n GNU General Public License v2.0\n GNU General Public License v3.0\n GNU website\n\nSoftware licences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":179,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":5,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":4,"2018-51":4,"2018-43":4,"2018-34":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3}},"id":4639,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GNU%20General%20Public%20License","title":"GNU General Public License","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Vertebrae (singular: vertebra) are the individual irregular bones that make up the spinal column (aka ischis) \u2013 a flexuous and flexible column.\nThere are normally thirty-three (33) vertebrae in humans, including the five that are fused to form the sacrum (the others are separated by intervertebral discs) and the four coccygeal bones which form the tailbone.\nThe upper three regions comprise the remaining 24, and are grouped under the names cervical (7 vertebrae), thoracic (12 vertebrae) and lumbar (5 vertebrae), according to the regions they occupy.  Each vertebra has a hole through which the spinal cord passes.\n\nReferences \n Gray's Anatomy: The Vertebral column - The 1917 Gray's Anatomy is available via the Bartleby project. It is available with full colour diagrams, and provides an excellent starting point in anatomy, as well as a relatively complete source for gross anatomy. This article was copied and pasted from the 1917 Gray's Anatomy, which is in the public domain.\n Smart implant will help broken vertebra  - An article from IsraCast\n\nBones","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":72053,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vertebra","title":"Vertebra","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A hyperbola is a type of conic section. Like the other three types of conic sections - parabolas, ellipses, and circles - it is a curve formed by the intersection of a cone and a plane. A hyperbola is created when the plane intersects both halves of a double cone, creating two curves that look exactly like each other, but open in opposite directions. This occurs when the angle between the axis of the cone and the plane is less than the angle between a line on the side of the cone and the plane.\n\nHyperbolas can be found in many places in nature. For example, an object in open orbit around another object - where it never returns - can move in the shape of a hyperbola. On a sundial, the path followed by the tip of the shadow over time is a hyperbola.\n\nOne of the most well-known hyperbolas is the graph of the equation .\n\nDefinitions and equations \n\nThe two disconnected curves that make up a hyperbola are called arms or branches.\n\nThe two points where the branches are closest together are called the vertices. The line between these two points is called the transverse axis or major axis. The midpoint of the transverse axis is the center of the hyperbola.\n\nAt large distances from the center, the branches of the hyperbola approach two straight lines. These two lines are called the asymptotes. As the distance from the center increases, the hyperbola gets closer and closer to the asymptotes, but never intersects them.\n\nThe conjugate axis or minor axis is perpendicular, or at a right angle to, the transverse axis. The endpoints of the conjugate axis are at the height where a segment that intersects the vertex and is perpendicular to the transverse axis intersects the asymptotes.\n\nA hyperbola that has a center at the origin of the Cartesian coordinate system, which is the point (0,0), and has a transverse axis on the x-axis can be written as the equation\n\na is the distance between the center and a vertex. The length of the transverse axis is equal to 2a. b is the length of a perpendicular line segment from a vertex to an asymptote. The length of the conjugate axis is equal to 2b.\n\nThe two branches of the above type of hyperbola open to the left and the right. If the branches open up and down and the transverse axis is on the y-axis, then the hyperbola can be written as the equation\n\nHyperbolic trajectory \nA hyperbolic trajectory is the trajectory followed by an object when its velocity is more than the escape velocity of a planet, satellite, or star. That means its orbital eccentricity is greater than 1. For example, meteors approach on a hyperbolic trajectory, and interplanetary space probes leave on one. \nConic sections\n\nRelated pages \nHyperbolic functions","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":63,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2023-14":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2014-10":3}},"id":391680,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hyperbola","title":"Hyperbola","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Shaka kaSenzangakhona (sometimes spelled Tshaka, Tchaka or Chaka; ca. 1787 \u2013 ca. 22 September 1828) was the most important leader of the Zulu Empire. He joined the Zulu tribal groups together into the beginnings of a nation. This Zulu nation ruled a large area of southern Africa, between the Phongolo and Mzimkhulu rivers. His leadership and his energy make him one of the greatest Zulu chieftains. He has been called a military genius for his changes and new ideas. However, there were also brutal and cruel things that happened when he was in charge.\n\nZulu leader \nShaka maintained a good relationship with the Europeans in Africa, including the Colonial leaders. He was disliked by other Africans, including his own people, who hated his constant wars. \n\nTen years of  warfare placed incredible strains on the Zulu nation. Shaka, unstable and worried about being replaced by an heir, finally snapped into madness after the death of his mother in 1828. He imposed a year of celibacy on his people. He killed anyone who did not show enough sadness at the death of his mother. He was killed within the year by his half-brother, Dingane, who succeeded him as ruler. \n\nEven though he created brutal conditions for his subjects, he created the powerful Zulu Kingdom.\n\nReferences \n\n1781 births\n1828 deaths\nAfrican people\nHistory of South Africa\nAssassinated people","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":131,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":29267,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shaka","title":"Shaka","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"B\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k (b. Nagyszentimikl\u00f3s, Hungary, 25 March 1881; d. New York City 26 September 1945) was a famous Hungarian composer and pianist. He was one of the most important and original composers of the 20th century. He became very interested in folk music and travelled a lot in Hungary and other countries, including Romania, listening to the folk songs which the country people sang. He often used the style of these songs in his music. He is famous for his piano music, string quartets and several pieces for orchestra including one called Concerto for Orchestra. Bart\u00f3k's harmonies and lively rhythms were sometimes quite new to classical music and some audiences found them difficult to understand at first.\n\nChildhood and early years \nB\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k was born in the small town of Nagyszentmikl\u00f3s. In those days it was in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, but today it is in Romania. When he was very small he showed great musical talent, and his mother taught him to play the piano.\n\nB\u00e9la was often ill when he was a child. When he was seven his father died, and his mother took him and his sister to live in Nagysz\u0151l\u0151s (today it is called Vinogradiv and is in the Ukraine), and then to Pozsony (today it is Bratislava in Slovakia). There he gave his first public recital when he was eleven. He included some music which he had composed himself.\n\nEarly musical career \n\nSoon he was studying the piano with Istv\u00e1n Thoman who had studied with the famous Franz Liszt. He had lessons in composition from J\u00e1nos Koessler at the Royal Academy of Music in Budapest. There he met the composer Zolt\u00e1n Kod\u00e1ly, who was a great influence on him and who became a lifelong friend.\n\nHe soon started to compose longer pieces of music. He liked the music of Richard Strauss and Claude Debussy and these influenced his style of music. He started to be interested in folk music. This can be heard in the first of his six string quartets.\n\nBart\u00f3k and Kod\u00e1ly travelled together into the countryside to collect and study old Hungarian folk melodies. People in those days thought that real Magyar (old Hungarian) folk music was Gypsy music. Bart\u00f3k and Kod\u00e1ly showed that there were other traditions beside these. They found music which used pentatonic scales similar to those used in some parts of Asia. The two composers started to use these folk ideas in their own compositions. Kod\u00e1ly often quoted (copied) actual folk songs in his own music, while Bart\u00f3k preferred to compose music which sounded like folksong without actually copying it.\n\nMiddle years and career \n\nIn 1909, Bart\u00f3k married M\u00e1rta Ziegler. Their son, also named B\u00e9la, was born in 1910.\n\nIn 1911, Bart\u00f3k wrote his only opera, Bluebeard's Castle. There are only two singers in the opera: Bluebeard and his wife Judith. He also wrote a ballet called The Wooden Prince. This started to make him famous abroad. Another ballet, The Miraculous Mandarin, is even more famous today. It shows the influence of Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, as well as Richard Strauss. He wrote a lot of chamber music including a total of 6 string quartets, 2 violin sonatas and a Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion. He wrote some pieces for smaller orchestras: Divertimento for strings and Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta.\n\nBart\u00f3k divorced M\u00e1rta in 1923, and married a piano student, Ditta P\u00e1sztory. His second son, P\u00e9ter, was born in 1924.\n\nWorld War II and later career \n\nWhen World War II broke out Bart\u00f3k criticized the Nazis. After they came into power in Germany, he refused to give concerts there and did not use his German publisher. His political ideas gave him a great deal of trouble in Hungary.\n\nHaving first sent his manuscripts out of the country, Bart\u00f3k felt he had to emigrate to the USA with Ditta P\u00e1sztory. They lived in New York City. Their son P\u00e9ter joined them in 1942 and later joined the United States Navy. Bart\u00f3k 's older son B\u00e9la stayed in Hungary.\n\nBart\u00f3k did not feel comfortable in the US, and found it very difficult to compose. He was also not very well known in America, and not many people were interested in his music. He and his wife Ditta gave concerts, and for a while, they were given some money to work on a collection of Yugoslav folk songs. They did not have very much money, although he had some friends who gave them enough to live on. Serge Koussevitsky asked him to write the  Concerto for Orchestra . This soon became Bart\u00f3k's most popular work, and brought him some money. He was also asked by Yehudi Menuhin to write a Sonata for Solo Violin. This seemed to make him interested again in composing, and he went on to write his Piano Concerto No. 3 and began work on his  Viola Concerto.\n\nBart\u00f3k died by polycythemia in New York City from on 26 September 1945, aged 64. He left the Viola Concerto unfinished at his death; it was later finished by his pupil Tibor Serly.\n\nMusic \n\nBart\u00f3k's music has many modern techniques such atonality, bitonality and modern harmonies. He often uses different kinds of scales (not just major and minor ones), and very complicated rhythms. A lot of these are inspired by the folk music he heard. He wrote a lot of piano music, including some easy pieces for people who are learning the piano. This includes a collection of pieces in six volumes called Mikrokosmos which are very popular with young musicians today.\n\n20th-century composers\nCancer deaths in New York City\nDeaths from blood disease\nHungarian composers\n1881 births\n1945 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":146,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":6,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":7,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":28819,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/B%C3%A9la%20Bart%C3%B3k","title":"B\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Heat capacity is a measure of how much materials can store up heat as they change temperature.\n\nMaterials with high heat capacities require a lot of heat to be stored up before a small change.  Materials with low heat capacities require very little heat to be stored up before a large change.\n\nThe heat capacity of one gram (or some other unit of mass) of a material is called the specific heat capacity of the material, so that the heat capacity of something is its mass times its specific heat capacity.\n\nSpecific heat capacities are often listed in tables, like this one: \n\nBasic physics ideas\nHeat\nPhysical quantity","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":65983,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heat%20capacity","title":"Heat capacity","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Warning coloration (or aposematism) is how animals let other animals know that they are poisonous or dangerous. It is the exact opposite of camouflage. Warning colors are usually some combination of red, yellow, black and white.\n\nAlfred Russel Wallace, a British naturalist, explained it this way, in 1889:\n\"The animals in question are possessors of some deadly weapons, as stings or poison fangs, or they are uneatable, and are thus so disagreeable to the usual enemies of their kind that they are never attacked when their peculiar powers or properties are known. It is, therefore, important that they should not be mistaken for defenceless [sic] or eatable species... since they might suffer injury, or even death, before their enemies discovered the danger or uselessness of their attack. They require some signal or danger flag which shall serve as a warning to would-be enemies...\" \n\nWallace predicted that birds and other predators would reject conspicuous prey whilst accepting cryptic prey. Later reports confirmed this.\n\nAnimals with warning colors move slowly and expose themselves to sight. The sluggishness and exposure helps to advertise their defense. Along with the color and behavior often goes the foul smell of their chemical weapons. The grasshopper Aularches miliaris is a very good example. Noxious caterpillars often have thick, leathery cuticles which help them to resist young birds making a 'test'. When the bird takes a peck, disgusting fluid seeps out from special glands on its back. The caterpillar (or other larva) will often survive such an attack, and the young bird has learnt a lesson it will never forget. All in all, the predator is given good warning. Tests show that warning colors definitely do deter predators.\n\nSome individual animals will die or receive damage while birds or mammals on the attack learn about the connection between color and taste. However, if warning costs less than hiding, the animal benefits. And the advertising traits such as colors may serve other functions as well. The patterns may help mate identification within the species, for instance.\n\nWarning coloration is the basis of two different kinds of mimicry: M\u00fcllerian mimicry and Batesian mimicry.\n\nToxin resistance \nThere are a number of predators which eat toxic animals. Cases which have been studied suggest there is some kind of cost to be borne for their relative immunity to the toxin.\n\nThe rough-skinned newt is toxic, and displays its warning color by showing its abdomen. Throughout much of the newt's range, the common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) is resistant to the toxin. In several populations, these snakes successfully prey upon the newts. Toxin resistant garter snakes are the only known animals that can eat these newts and survive.\n\nThe snake's resistance to the toxin has resulted in a selective pressure that favours newts which produce more potent levels of toxin. Increases in newt toxicity then causes a selective pressure favouring snakes with mutations conferring even greater resistance. The price paid by the snakes is that their digestion and body metabolism is slower than related species. Really resistant snakes have slower crawl speeds than snakes with little or no resistance.\n\nThis is an example of co-evolution. This cycle of a predator and prey co-evolving is sometimes called an evolutionary arms race. In this case it results in the newts producing levels of toxin far in excess of what is needed to kill any other conceivable predator.\n\nBright colors \nAnimals can, and do, show bright colors which have other functions. The most common functions are:\nIdentification, a secondary sex characteristic to find a mate.\nTemperature regulation.\nCamouflage against unusual backgrounds.\nHowever, the bright colors used for these functions tend to be different from the standard warning patterns and colors.\n\nUnknown function \nThe coloring of many species has unknown function. This is usually because their life habits have not been studied sufficiently, and because no field tests have been done. One example is the moth Utetheisa pulchella, the crimson speckled moth. Its association with the plant Dittrichia viscosa, which has a somewhat unpleasant smell, suggest the moth has warning coloration, but the matter is not settled. The related species Utetheisa ornatrix, which feeds on other plants, is known to exude (squeeze out) alkaloids to put predators off.\n\nReferences \n\nCoevolution\nEthology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-23":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":230865,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warning%20colouration","title":"Warning colouration","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Guant\u00e1namo Bay () is a bay in Guant\u00e1namo province, Cuba. It is at the southeastern end of Cuba (). It is the largest harbour on the south side of the island. It is surrounded by steep hills creating an enclave cut off from its immediate hinterland.\n\nHistory\nThe bay was originally named Guant\u00e1namo by the Ta\u00edno.  Christopher Columbus landed at the location known as Fisherman's Point in 1494, naming it Puerto Grande. On landing, Columbus's crew found Ta\u00edno fisherman preparing a feast for the local chieftain. When Spanish settlers took control of the island, the bay became a vital harbor on the south side of the island.\n\nThe bay has been the focus of military activities for a long time. In the colonial era, British troops tried to land there, during the War of the Jenkin's Ear. That war was between England and Spain. It took place between 1739 and 1742. The troops could land in the bay, and later tried to take the city Santiago de Cuba. As it turned out, this was impossible. So the troops claimed the bay as theirs, and named it Cumberland Harbour. Later they left the island again, because some of their troops had died from tropical diseases.\n\nThe United States tried to buy the whole island of Cuba. In the Spanish-American war, US troops occupied the bay, because there was a harbour there. The Treaty of Paris, between the United States and Spain ended the war. It gave Cuba its independence from Spain. Spain also gave the territory of Puerto Rico, and the islands of Guam and the Philippines to the United States, amongst others. Cuba, however, came under the political and military infuence of the United States. The US then put presidents and dictators at the head of the Cuban state. These were of course favorable to the interests of the United States. In 1902 the Platt Amendment was appended to the Constitution of the Cuban state. It limited the freedom of Cuba very much. It also said that some territory in the south should be ceded to the United States for a military base.  Bound by the amendment, the Cubans granted the US a 99-year lease to the territory. This treaty was made by Tom\u00e1s Estrada Palma, an American citizen, who became the first President of Cuba.\n\nThe current Cuban government rejects the Cuban-American Treaty because it violates article 52 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. The Cuban government therefore considers the U.S. presence in Guant\u00e1namo to be an illegal occupation of the area. Article 52 declares a treaty void only if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force in violation of international law.\n\nThe US Naval base\n\nThe southern portion of the bay is surrounded by the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, a naval base established in 1898. Recently, the base began hosting a detainment camp for suspected militant combatants collected (actions that are viewed by some as kidnapping) from both Afghanistan and Iraq, or from secret NATO prisons in Europe (discovered recently, in 2006).\n\nThe base, sometimes called \"GTMO\" or \"Gitmo\", covers 116\u00a0km\u00b2 (about 45 square miles) on the western and eastern banks of the bay. It was established in 1898, when the United States obtained control of Cuba from Spain at the end of the Spanish-American War, following the 1898 invasion of Guant\u00e1namo Bay.  The U.S. government obtained a perpetual lease that began on February 23, 1903.\n\nWikisource links\n Texts of United States - Cuban agreements and treaty of 1934\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\nU.S. sources\n Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Guant\u00e1namo Detainees\n\nOfficial U.S. military website\n www.jtftmo.southcom.mil \u2013 \"Joint Task Force-Guantanamo's official website.\"\n\nOfficial U.S. NAV base website\n NSGtmo.navy.mil  \u2013 \"U.S. Naval Station Guant\u00e1namo Bay Cuba: The United States' oldest overseas Naval Base\"\n\nOfficial website of the Cuban Ministry of Foreign Affairs\n www.cubaminrex.cu  \u2013 \"Guant\u00e1namo: U.S. Black Hole\"\n\nMaps and photos\n Google Maps\n Photos  Hosted by Brad Beckett\n Virtual 3D Walk-through of Camp Delta (from the Art project Zone*Interdite) \n\nBays\nAtlantic Ocean\nGeography of Cuba","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":51017,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Guant%C3%A1namo%20Bay","title":"Guant\u00e1namo Bay","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A record label or record company makes and sells audio and video recordings, on various formats including compact discs, LPs, DVD-Audio, SACDs, and cassettes. The name \"record label\" is from the paper label at the center of a gramophone record (what is also known as a \"phonograph record\" in American English). \n\nMost major record labels are owned by a few large multinational companies (Big Four record labels) that make up the almost all of the global recording industry, although there is a recent resurgence in independent record labels.\n\nLabels as brands \nRecording companies often spend a lot of time and money in discovering new musicians or developing the talent of artists they already have signed up with a contract. The association of the brand with the artists helps define the image of both the brand and the artist.\n\nIn spite of the fact that both parties need each other to survive, the relationship between record labels and artists can, at times, be a difficult one.  Many artists have had albums changed or censored in some way by the labels before they are released\u2014songs being edited, artwork or titles being changed, etc.  Record labels generally do this because they believe that the album will sell better if the changes are made.  Often the record label's decisions are correct ones from a commercial perspective, but this typically frustrates the artist who feels that their artwork is being destroyed. \n\nIn the early days of the recording industry, record labels were absolutely necessary for the success of any artist. The first goal of any new artist or band was to get signed to a contract as soon as possible. In the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, many artists were so desperate to sign a contract with a record company that they usually ended up signing a bad contract, sometimes giving away the rights to their music in the process. Entertainment lawyers are used by some to look over any contract before it is signed.\n\nIndustry consolidation \n\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, there was a phase of consolidation in the record industry that led to almost all major labels being owned by a very few multinational companies, who in turn were members of the RIAA.\n\nThe resurgence of independent labels \n\nIn the 1990s, due to the widespread use of home studios, consumer CD recorders, and the Internet, independent labels began to become more commonplace. Independent labels are typically artist-owned (although not always), with a focus usually on making good music and not necessarily on the business aspects of the industry or making lots of money. Because of this, independent artists usually receive less radio play and sell fewer CDs than artists signed to major labels. However, they usually have more control over the music and packaging of the released product.\n\nOn occasion established artists, once their record contract has finished, move to an independent label. This often gives the combined advantage of name recognition and more control over one's music. Singers Dolly Parton, Aimee Mann and Prince, among others, have achieved this. \n\nWhile there are many independent labels, folk singer Ani DiFranco's Righteous Babe Records is often cited as an ideal example. The singer turned down lucrative contracts from several top-name labels in order to establish her own New-York-based company. Constant touring resulted in noteworthy success for an act without significant major funding. Ani and others from the company have spoken on several occasions about their business model in hopes of encouraging others. \n\nSome independent labels become successful enough that major record companies negotiate contracts to either distribute music for the label or in some cases, purchase the label completely. \n\nOn the punk rock scene, the DIY punk ethic encourages bands to self-publish and self-distribute.  This approach has been around since the early 1980s, in an attempt to stay true to the punk ideals of doing it yourself and not selling out to corporate profits and control.  Such labels have a reputation for being fiercely uncompromising and especially unwilling to cooperate with the Big Five record labels at all.\n\nThe emergence of net labels \nMain Article: net label\n\nWith the Internet now being a viable source for music, net labels emerge. Depending on the ideals of the net label, music files from the artists may be downloaded free of charge or for a fee that is paid via PayPal or an online payment system. Some of these labels also offer hard copy CDs in addition to direct download (for example, Baltimore's Schismatik record label ships CDs for a nominal charge).  Most net labels acknowledge the Creative Commons licensing system thus reserving certain rights for the artist.\n\nThe emergence of open-source labels  \nMain Article: Open source record label\n\nThe new century brings the phenomenon of open-source or open-content record label. These are inspired by the free software and open-source movement and the success of GNU\/Linux. \n\nExamples are\n\n LOCA Records\n Magnatune\n Opsound\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":6,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":13733,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Record%20label","title":"Record label","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Hentai is a Japanese word that literally means \"strange appearance\", but also means \"perverted\". Hentai, because of this, is a word used by countries outside of Japan to show porn and sex-related anime, manga and video games. The word is not used to mean this in Japan. In Japan, terms such as ecchi are used.\n\nThe word hentai is sometimes used to apply to cartoon characters that are not anime characters. Hentai is the anime version of porn. There is on screen sex, often very graphic and very imaginative. Since hentai is anime, the performers are not bound by physical laws. Makers of hentai often use this in very creative ways. Some of the acts performed in hentai would be physically impossible. Some of the performers are often impossible themselves. Fairies, monsters, and even new and strange creatures are stars of hentai.  Monsters and demons with tentacles are seen so often that \"tentacle porn\" is its own sub-category of hentai.\n\nMost of the hentai (anime)-films in the late 1990s to the present day are based on Ero-Games, where the only actual goal is to date the girls in the game and have sex with one of them. The games feature various character-types, like a bookworm, a tough girl, a younger girl, and a tomboy. Ero-games can include highly taboo themes, such as coprophilia or dismemberment, pedophilia, and rape. Sometimes slightly less taboo subjects, such as incest. Some examples of these kind of game-to-hentai-anime conversions are Immoral Sisters, Isaku, Pia Carrot, Five Card, Bible Black, Words Worth, Night Shift Nurses, Huniepop, and Milk Junkies.\n\nFamous hentai films include:\n Cream Lemon (1984)\n Urotsukid\u00f4ji (1987)\n La Blue Girl (1992)\n Night Shift Nurses (2000)\n Bible Black (2001)\n Boku No Pico (2006)\n\nPornography\nHentai","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":18715,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hentai","title":"Hentai","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The cell membrane is a thin flexible layer around the cells of all living things. It is sometimes called the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane.\n\nIts basic job is to separate the inside of cells from the outside.\nIn all cells, the cell membrane separates the cytoplasm inside the cell from its surroundings. Animal cells are contained in just a membrane. Bacteria, fungi and plants have strong cell walls as well, which support the cell and block the passage of large molecules.\n\nStructure \n\nThe membrane is made up of a thin layer called the 'phospholipid bilayer'. This has two layers of phospholipid molecules with phosphate heads on the surfaces and lipid (oil) tails on the inside. The outside heads mix with water, but the tails reject water.\n\nOther proteins and lipids can be added to the cell membrane. By these changes, the cell can adjust what it brings in or puts out. Some proteins are always stuck into it, these are called integral membrane proteins. It also has some which are only sometimes stuck onto it. These are called peripheral membrane proteins. The outer layer protecting the inner cell.\n\nFunction \n\nThe membrane is selectively permeable.  It is active and regulates (adjusts) what comes in and what goes out of the cell.  The movement of substances across the membrane can be either passive, occurring without the input of cellular energy, or active, requiring energy.\n\nProteins in the membrane \n\nProteins within the membrane are key to its working. These proteins mainly transport chemicals and information across the membrane.\n\nThe membrane contains many proteins. The surface proteins can act as gates. They let some chemicals into the cell and let other chemicals leave the cell. It is estimated that up to a third of the human proteome may be membrane proteins. Some of these proteins are linked to the exterior of the cell membrane. An example of this is the CD59 protein, which identifies cells as \"self\" and thus inhibits their destruction by the immune system.\n\nReferences \n\nCells\nOrganelles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":15293,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cell%20membrane","title":"Cell membrane","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"This article is about physical object; for meaning from audio field, see loudness.\n\nThe volume of an object is a measure of the amount of space occupied by that object, and is not to be confused with mass. The volume of a mountain is much larger than the volume of a rock, for instance.\n\nBy convention, the word volume implies a three-dimensional context where: \n The length is the longest distance between the object's extremities.\n The width (or breadth) refers to the size of the object in a direction perpendicular to its length.\n The height (or depth) stands for the size of that object in the direction perpendicular to both the length and the width.\n\nFor objects at or near the Earth's surface, height or depth often refers to the dimension of the object along the local vertical. All physical objects occupy a volume, even if some are so thin that they appear to be two-dimensional, like a sheet of paper.\n\nUnits of volume \nThe unit of volume in the International System of Units is the cubic meter, which is represented by the symbol m3.\n\nIn some fields or applications, one often uses different units to simplify the discussions or writings. For instance:\n\n Everyday quantities of liquids are often measured in units of a litre, written as L, which is the volume occupied by a cubic decimetre.\n Large quantities of liquids, such as oil, and sometimes other materials, may be measured and traded in units of barrels. There are many different reference volumes called barrels, depending on the nature of the content.\n\nTraditional units are still in encountered in some countries: Imperial units such as the gallon or the fluid ounce were in widespread use within the British Empire. Some of them are still popular in the United States, which also uses units like the bushel, the quart, the cup and the teaspoon (in cooking recipes, for example). See U.S. customary units for more examples.\n\nNon-conservation of volume \nThe volume of an object is not a fundamental property of that object: it can change with environmental conditions such as pressure and temperature, especially if the object is highly compressible.\n\nThe volume of a mixture of fluids (liquids, gases) may or may not be equal to the sum of their volumes before they were mixed.\n\nMeasuring a volume \nIn mathematics, the volume of simple geometric objects, written , can often be calculated on the basis of their shape and dimensions:\n\n The volume of a perfect cube of side c is c3.\n The volume of a rectangular box is the product of its three linear dimensions: length, width and length.\n The volume of a parallelepiped of sides a, b and c is a \u00d7 b \u00d7 c.\n The volume of a sphere of radius r is (4\/3) \u03c0 r3.\nThe volume of a gas is typically that of its container, but it could be ill-defined, as in the case of the atmosphere, which has no clear upper limit. The volume of a liquid is often measured by pouring it into a graduated container. The volume of a small solid can be estimated by immersing it into a graduated container partially filled with a known amount of liquid, provided the solid is not soluble in the liquid.\n\nRelated pages\n Geometry\n Surface area to volume ratio\n\nReferences \n\nPhysical quantity\nGeometry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":4,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":895,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volume","title":"Volume","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Electrical impedance is the amount of opposition that a circuit presents to current or voltage change.\n\nThe two main ways to write an impedance are:\n(see the 2nd figure, \"complex impedance plane\")\n\n with the resistance \"R\" (real part) and the reactance  \"X\" (imaginary part), for example \n with a magnitude and a phase (the size  and the angle ), for example  (1.4 ohm at 45 degrees)\n\nThe Impedance and the resistance are quite similar:\n\nIn the case of resistance, a resistor resists any current going through it.  The higher the resistance, the higher the voltage that is needed to achieve a given current. The formula is:\n\n, where V is the voltage, R is the resistance, and I is the current.\n\nIn the case of impedance, an inductor resists changes to the current and the capacitor resists changes to the voltage.\n\nThe key difference between resistance and impedance is the word \"change\", the rate of change affects the impedance. Usually the \"change\" is expressed as a frequency, the number of times per second the current or voltage change direction. The formulas are:\n\nFor the inductor:\n\nFor the capacitor:\n\nWhere Z is the symbol for impedance, j is the imaginary number ,  is the constant pi, f is the frequency, L is the inductance and C is the capacitance. The units for the resistance and the impedance are the same, the ohm with the symbol  (capital omega).\n\nAs indicated by the formulas above, the impedance varies depending on the frequency, for example, at zero Hertz, or DC, the impedance of the inductor is zero, the same as a short-circuit, and the impedance of the capacitor is infinite, the same as an open-circuit. Most signals are the sum of many sine waves at various frequencies (see the fourier transform for more details), and each of them experience a different impedance.\n\nSimilarly to the resistance, the higher the impedance, the higher the voltage that is needed to achieve a given current. The formula is:\n\n, where V is the voltage, Z is the impedance, and I is the current.\n\nAt the physical level, simplifying many things:\n the resistance is caused by the collisions of the electrons with the atoms inside the resistors.\n the impedance in a capacitor is caused by the creation of an electric field.\n the impedance in an inductor is caused by the creation of a magnetic field.\n\nOne important difference between the resistance and the impedance is that a resistor dissipates energy, it gets hot, but an inductor and a capacitor store the energy and can return that energy to the source when it goes down.\n\nIf the impedance of the source, cable and load are not all equal, then a fraction of the signal is reflected back to the source, wasting power and creating interference. The ratio of the reflection can be calculated with:\n\n where  (capital gamma) is the Reflection coefficient,  is the impedance of the source,  is the impedance of the load.\n\nAny medium that can have a wave has a wave impedance, even empty space (light is an electro-magnetic wave and it can travel in space) has an impedance of about 377.\n\nPhase \n\nAcross a resistor, both the voltage and the current goes up and down at the same time, they are said to be in phase, but with an impedance it's different, the voltage is shifted by 1\/4 wavelength behind the current in a capacitor, and forward in an inductor.\n\nA 1\/4 wavelength is usually represented with the imaginary number \"j\", which is also equivalent to a 90 degree shift.\n\nThe use of the imaginary number \"j\" makes the mathematics much simpler, it allows to calculate the total impedance the same way as it's done with resistors, for example a resistor plus an impedance in series is R+Z, and in parallel it's (R*Z)\/(R+Z).\n\nimpedance","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3}},"id":272930,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrical%20impedance","title":"Electrical impedance","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The perihelion is the point in the orbit of a planet, asteroid or comet that is nearest to the sun. It is the opposite of aphelion, which is the point farthest from the sun.\n\nThe word perihelion stems from the Greek words \"peri,\" meaning near, and \"Helios,\" meaning the Greek god of the sun. So it is referred to as perihelion. \n\nAll planets, comets and asteroids in our solar system have approximately elliptical (a kind of non-circular) orbits. Thus, they all have a closest and a farthest point from the sun: a perihelion and an aphelion. Orbital eccentricity measures the flatness of the orbit. Any single revolution of a body around the sun is only approximately elliptical, because the precession of the perihelion prevents the orbit from being a simple closed curve such as an ellipse. This causes Milankovich cycles.  \n\nEarth comes closest to the sun every year around January 3. It is farthest from the sun every year around July 4. The difference in distance between Earth's nearest point to the sun in January and farthest point from the sun in July is 3.1 million miles (5 million kilometers). Earth is about 91.4 million miles (147.1 million kilometers) from the sun in early January, in contrast to about 94.5 million miles (152 million kilometers) in early July.\n\nWhen Earth is closest to the sun, it is winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the southern hemisphere. Thus it is possible to see that Earth's distance from the sun does not noticeably  cause the seasons to change; the relatively minor effects of differences in distance is somewhat masked by the mainly oceanic southern hemisphere vs the half- continental northern hemisphere. Therefore, the Earth's seasons come and go mainly because Earth does not rotate with its axis exactly upright with respect to the plane of our world's orbit around the sun. Earth's axial tilt is 23.5 degrees.  This puts the Sun farther south in December and January, so the north has winter and the south has summer. Thus winter falls on that part of the globe where sunlight strikes least directly. Summer falls on that part of the globe where sunlight strikes most directly.\n\nOrbits","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2}},"id":18034,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perihelion","title":"Perihelion","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Francis Hutcheson LLD (; 8 August 1694 \u2013 8 August 1746) was an Irish philosopher born in Ulster to a family of Scottish Presbyterians who became known as one of the founding fathers of the Scottish Enlightenment. He was Professor of Moral Philosophy at Glasgow University and is remembered as author of A System of Moral Philosophy.\n\nHutcheson was an important influence on the works of several significant Enlightenment thinkers, including David Hume and Adam Smith.\n\nEarly life\nHe is thought to have been born at Drumalig in the parish of Saintfield, County Down, in modern-day Northern Ireland. He was the \"son of a Presbyterian minister of Ulster-Scottish stock, who was born in Ireland\" but whose roots were in Ayrshire in Scotland. Hutcheson was educated at Killyleagh, and went on to Scotland to study at the University of Glasgow, where he spent 1710 to 1718 in the study of philosophy, classics and general literature, and afterwards in the study of theology, receiving his degree in 1712. While a student, he worked as tutor to the Earl of Kilmarnock.\n\nReturn to Ireland\nFacing suspicions about his \"Irish\" roots and his association with New Licht theologian John Simson (then under investigation by Scottish ecclesiastical courts), a ministry for him in Scotland was unlikely to be a success, so he returned to Ireland and received a licence to preach. When, however, he was about to enter upon the pastorate of a small dissenting congregation he changed his plans in order to pursue a career in academia. He was induced to start a private academy in Dublin, where, assisted by Thomas Drennan, he taught for 10 years.\n\nIn Dublin his literary attainments gained him the friendship of many prominent inhabitants. Among these was The Rt. Hon. and Most Rev. Dr William King, the Church of Ireland Lord Archbishop of Dublin, who refused to prosecute Hutcheson in the Archbishop's Court for keeping a school without the episcopal licence. Hutcheson's relations with the clergy of the established church, especially with Archbishop King and with The Rt. Hon. and Most Rev. Dr Hugh Boulter, Lord Archbishop of Armagh, seem to have been cordial, and his biographer, speaking of \"the inclination of his friends to serve him, the schemes proposed to him for obtaining promotion\", etc., probably refers to some offers of preferment, on condition of his accepting episcopal ordination.\n\nIn 1725 Hutcheson married his cousin Mary, daughter of Francis Wilson of Longford. Her dowry included extensive property holdings including the townlands of Drumnacross, Garrinch, and Knockeagh, in County Longford. They had seven children of whom only one survived, also called Francis.\n\nWhile living in Dublin, Hutcheson published anonymously the four essays for which he is best known: in 1725 Inquiry concerning Beauty, Order, Harmony and Design, and Inquiry concerning Moral Good and Evil, which together comprise his Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue; and in 1728, the Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions and Affections and Illustrations upon the Moral Sense. The alterations and additions made in the second edition of these essays were published in a separate form in 1726. To the period of his Dublin residence are also to be referred the Thoughts on Laughter (1725) (a criticism of Thomas Hobbes) and the Observations on the Fable of the Bees, being in all six letters contributed to Hibernicus' Letters, a periodical that appeared in Dublin (1725\u20131727, 2nd ed. 1734). At the end of the same period occurred the controversy in the London Journal with Gilbert Burnet (probably the second son of The Rt. Rev. Dr Gilbert Burnet, Lord Bishop of Salisbury) on the \"True Foundation of Virtue or Moral Goodness\". All these letters were collected in one volume (Glasgow, 1772).\n\nChair of Moral Philosophy at Glasgow\nIn 1729, Hutcheson succeeded his old master, Gershom Carmichael, in the Chair of Moral Philosophy at the University of Glasgow, being the first professor there to lecture in English instead of Latin. It is curious that up to this time all his essays and letters had been published anonymously, but their authorship appears to have been well known. In 1730, he entered on the duties of his office, delivering an inaugural lecture (afterwards published), De naturali hominum socialitate (About the natural fellowship of mankind). He appreciated having leisure for his favourite studies; \"non-levi igitur laetitia commovebar cum almam matrem Academiam me, suum olim alumnum, in libertatem asseruisse audiveram.\" (I was, therefore, moved by no mean frivolous pleasure when I had heard that my alma mater had delivered me, its one time alumnus, into freedom.) Yet the works on which Hutcheson's reputation rests had already been published. During his time as a lecturer in Glasgow College he taught and influenced Adam Smith, the economist and philosopher. \"[T]he order of topics discussed in the economic portion of Hutcheson's System [of Moral Philosophy, 1755] is repeated by Smith in his Glasgow Lectures and again in the Wealth of Nations.\"\n\nHowever, it was likely something other than Hutcheson's written work that had such a great influence on Smith. Hutcheson was well regarded as one of the most prominent lecturers at the University of Glasgow in his day and earned the approbation of students, colleagues, and even ordinary residents of Glasgow with the fervour and earnestness of his orations. His roots as a minister indeed shone through in his lectures, which endeavoured not merely to teach philosophy but also to make his students embody that philosophy in their lives (appropriately acquiring the epithet, preacher of philosophy). Unlike Smith, Hutcheson was not a system builder; rather, it was his magnetic personality and method of lecturing that so influenced his students and caused the greatest of those to reverentially refer to him as \"the never to be forgotten Hutcheson\", a title that Smith in all his correspondence used to describe only two people, his good friend David Hume and influential mentor, Hutcheson.\n\nOther works\nIn addition to the works named, the following were published during Hutcheson's lifetime: a pamphlet entitled Considerations on Patronage (1735); Philosophiae moralis institutio compendiaria, ethices et jurisprudentiae naturalis elementa continens, lib. iii. (Glasgow, 1742); Metaphysicae synopsis ontologiam et pneumatologiam campleciens (Glasgow, 1742). The last work was published anonymously. After his death, his son, Francis Hutcheson published much the longest of his works, A System of Moral Philosophy, in Three Books (2 vols. London, 1755). To this is prefixed a life of the author, by Dr William Leechman, professor of divinity in the University of Glasgow. The only remaining work assigned to Hutcheson is a small treatise on Logic (Glasgow, 1764). This compendium, together with the Compendium of Metaphysics, was republished at Strasbourg in 1722.\n\nThus Hutcheson dealt with metaphysics, logic and ethics. His importance is, however, due almost entirely to his ethical writings, and among these primarily to the four essays and the letters published during his time in Dublin. His standpoint has a negative and a positive aspect; he is in strong opposition to Thomas Hobbes and Mandeville, and in fundamental agreement with Shaftesbury, whose name he very properly coupled with his own on the title page of the first two essays. Obvious and fundamental points of agreement between the two authors include the analogy drawn between beauty and virtue, the functions assigned to the moral sense, the position that the benevolent feelings form an original and irreducible part of our nature, and the unhesitating adoption of the principle that the test of virtuous action is its tendency to promote the general welfare.\n\nEthics\nAccording to Hutcheson, man has a variety of senses, internal as well as external, reflex as well as direct, the general definition of a sense being \"any determination of our minds to receive ideas independently on our will, and to have perceptions of pleasure and pain\" (Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions, sect. 1). He does not attempt to give an exhaustive enumeration of these \"senses,\" but, in various parts of his works, he specifies, besides the five external senses commonly recognized (which he hints might be added to):\n consciousness, by which each man has a perception of himself and of all that is going on in his own mind (Metaph. Syn. pars i. cap. 2)\n the sense of beauty (sometimes called specifically \"an internal sense\")\n a public sense, or sensus communis, \"a determination to be pleased with the happiness of others and to be uneasy at their misery\"\n the moral sense, or \"moral sense of beauty in actions and affections, by which we perceive virtue or vice, in ourselves or others\"\n a sense of honour, or praise and blame, \"which makes the approbation or gratitude of others the necessary occasion of pleasure, and their dislike, condemnation or resentment of injuries done by us the occasion of that uneasy sensation called shame\"\n a sense of the ridiculous. It is plain, as the author confesses, that there may be \"other perceptions, distinct from all these classes,\" and, in fact, there seems to be no limit to the number of \"senses\" in which a psychological division of this kind might result.\n\nOf these \"senses,\" the \"moral sense\" plays the most important part in Hutcheson's ethical system. It pronounces immediately on the character of actions and affections, approving those that are virtuous, and disapproving those that are vicious. \"His principal design,\" he says in the preface to the two first treatises, \"is to show that human nature was not left quite indifferent in the affair of virtue, to form to itself observations concerning the advantage or disadvantage of actions, and accordingly to regulate its conduct. The weakness of our reason, and the avocations arising from the infirmity and necessities of our nature, are so great that very few men could ever have formed those long deductions of reasons that show some actions to be in the whole advantageous to the agent, and their contraries pernicious. The Author of nature has much better furnished us for a virtuous conduct than our moralists seem to imagine, by almost as quick and powerful instructions as we have for the preservation of our bodies. He has made virtue a lovely form, to excite our pursuit of it, and has given us strong affections to be the springs of each virtuous action.\"\n\nPassing over the appeal to final causes involved in this passage, as well as the assumption that the \"moral sense\" has had no growth or history, but was \"implanted\" in man exactly as found among the more civilized races (an assumption common to both Hutcheson and Butler), his use of the term \"sense\" tends to obscure the real nature of the process of moral judgement. For, as established by Hume, this act consists of two parts: an act of deliberation leading to an intellectual judgement; and a reflex feeling of satisfaction at actions we consider good, and of dissatisfaction at those we consider bad. By the intellectual part of this process, we refer the action or habit to a certain class; but no sooner is the intellectual process complete than there is excited in us a feeling similar to what myriads of actions and habits of (apparently) the same class excited in us on former occasions.\n\nEven if the latter part of this process is instantaneous, uniform and exempt from error, the former is not. All mankind may approve of that which is virtuous or makes for the general good, but they entertain the most widely divergent opinions and frequently arrive at directly opposite conclusions as to particular actions and habits. Hutcheson recognizes this obvious distinction in his analysis of the mental process preceding moral action, and does not ignore it, even when writing on the moral approbation or disapprobation that follows action. Nonetheless, Hutcheson, both by his phraseology and the language he uses to describe the process of moral approbation, has done much to favour that loose, popular view of morality which, ignoring the necessity of deliberation and reflection, encourages hasty resolves and unpremeditated judgements.\n\nThe term \"moral sense\" (which, it may be noticed, had already been employed by Shaftesbury, not only, as William Whewell suggests, in the margin, but also in the text of his Inquiry), if invariably coupled with the term \"moral judgement,\" would be open to little objection; but, taken alone, as designating the complex process of moral approbation, it is liable to lead not only to serious misapprehension but to grave practical errors. For, if each person's decisions are solely the result of an immediate intuition of the moral sense, why be at any pains to test, correct or review them? Or why educate a faculty whose decisions are infallible? And how do we account for differences in the moral decisions of different societies, and the observable changes in a person's own views? The expression has, in fact, the fault of most metaphorical terms: it leads to an exaggeration of the truth it is intended to suggest.\n\nBut though Hutcheson usually describes the moral faculty as acting instinctively and immediately, he does not, like Butler, conflate the moral faculty with the moral standard. The test or criterion of right action is with Hutcheson, as with Shaftesbury, its tendency to promote the general welfare of mankind. He thus anticipates the utilitarianism of Bentham\u2014and not only in principle, but even in the use of the phrase \"the greatest happiness for the greatest number\" (Inquiry concerning Moral Good and Evil, sect. 3). Hutcheson does not seem to have seen an inconsistency between this external criterion with his fundamental ethical principle. Intuition has no possible connection with an empirical calculation of results, and Hutcheson in adopting such a criterion practically denies his fundamental assumption. Connected with Hutcheson's virtual adoption of the utilitarian standard is a kind of moral algebra, proposed for the purpose of \"computing the morality of actions.\" This calculus occurs in the Inquiry concerning Moral Good and Evil, sect. 3.\n\nHutcheson's other distinctive ethical doctrine is what has been called the \"benevolent theory\" of morals. Hobbes had maintained that all other actions, however disguised under apparent sympathy, have their roots in self-love. Hutcheson not only maintains that benevolence is the sole and direct source of many of our actions, but, by a not unnatural recoil from the repellent doctrine of Hobbes, that it is the only source of those actions of which, on reflection, we approve. Consistently with this position, actions that flow from self-love only are morally indifferent. But surely, by the common consent of civilized men, prudence, temperance, cleanliness, industry, self-respect and, in general, the \"personal virtues\", are regarded, and rightly regarded, as fitting objects of moral approbation.\n\nThis consideration could hardly escape any author, however wedded to his own system, and Hutcheson attempts to extricate himself from the difficulty by laying down the position that a man may justly regard himself as a part of the rational system, and may thus \"be, in part, an object of his own benevolence\" (Ibid.), a curious abuse of terms, which really concedes the question at issue. Moreover, he acknowledges that, though self-love does not merit approbation, neither, except in its extreme forms, did it merit condemnation, indeed the satisfaction of the dictates of self-love is one of the very conditions of the preservation of society. To press home the inconsistencies involved in these various statement would be a superfluous task.\n\nThe vexed question of liberty and necessity appears to be carefully avoided in Hutcheson's professedly ethical works. But, in the Synopsis metaphysicae, he touches on it in three places, briefly stating both sides of the question, but evidently inclining to what he designates as the opinion of the Stoics, in opposition to what he designates as the opinion of the Peripatetics. This is substantially the same as the doctrine propounded by Hobbes and Locke (to the latter of whom Hutcheson refers in a note), namely that our will is determined by motives in conjunction with our general character and habit of mind, and that the only true liberty is the liberty of acting as we will, not the liberty of willing as we will. Though, however, his leaning is clear, he carefully avoids dogmatising, and deprecates the angry controversies to which the speculation on this subject had given rise.\n\nIt is easy to trace the influence of Hutcheson's ethical theories on the systems of Hume and Adam Smith. The prominence given by these writers to the analysis of moral action and moral approbation with the attempt to discriminate the respective provinces of the reason and the emotions in these processes, is undoubtedly due to the influence of Hutcheson. To a study of the writings of Shaftesbury and Hutcheson we might, probably, in large measure, attribute the unequivocal adoption of the utilitarian standard by Hume, and, if this be the case, the name of Hutcheson connects itself, through Hume, with the names of Priestley, Paley and Bentham. Butler's Sermons appeared in 1726, the year after the publication of Hutcheson's two first essays, and there are parallels between the \"conscience\" of the one writer and the \"moral sense\" of the other.\n\nDeath\n\nFrancis Hutcheson spent time in Dublin, and died while on a visit to that city in 1746. He is buried in the churchyard of Saint Mary's, which is also the final resting place of his cousin William Bruce. Today Saint Mary's is a public park located in what is now Wolfe Tone Street. Many United Irishmen would have revered the memory of Francis Hutcheson. Some of the leaders of the Dublin United Irishmen are remembered in the street and place-names of the city.\nMost Dubliners can direct a visitor to Wolfe Tone Street, Oliver Bond Street, Russell Street, Lord Edward Street and Emmet Road. \"Never to be forgotten Hutcheson\" lies in what is now an unmarked grave in the Dublin he loved and \"where his best work was done\".\n\nMental philosophy\n\nIn the sphere of mental philosophy and logic, Hutcheson's contributions are by no means so important or original as in that of moral philosophy. They are interesting mainly as a link between Locke and the Scottish school. In the former subject the influence of Locke is apparent throughout. All the main outlines of Locke's philosophy seem, at first sight, to be accepted as a matter of course. Thus, in stating his theory of the moral sense, Hutcheson is peculiarly careful to repudiate the doctrine of innate ideas (see, for instance, Inquiry concerning Moral Good and Evil, sect. I ad fin., and sect. 4; and compare Synopsis Metaphysicae, pars i. cap. 2). At the same time he shows more discrimination than does Locke in distinguishing between the two uses of this expression, and between the legitimate and illegitimate form of the doctrine (Syn. Metaph. pars i. cap. 2).\n\nAll our ideas are, as by Locke, referred to external or internal sense, or, in other words, to sensation and reflection. It is, however, a most important modification of Locke's doctrine, and connects Hutcheson's mental philosophy with that of Reid, when he states that the ideas of extension, figure, motion and rest \"are more properly ideas accompanying the sensations of sight and touch than the sensations of either of these senses\"; that the idea of self accompanies every thought, and that the ideas of number, duration and existence accompany every other idea whatsoever (see Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions, sect. i. art. I; Syn. Metaph. pars i. cap. 1, pars ii. cap. I; Hamilton on Reid, p.\u00a0124, note). Other important points in which Hutcheson follows the lead of Locke are his depreciation of the importance of the so-called laws of thought, his distinction between the primary and secondary qualities of bodies, the position that we cannot know the inmost essences of things (\"intimae rerum naturae sive essentiae\"), though they excite various ideas in us, and the assumption that external things are known only through the medium of ideas (Syn. Metaph. pars i. cap. I), though, at the same time, we are assured of the existence of an external world corresponding to these ideas.\n\nHutcheson attempts to account for our assurance of the reality of an external world by referring it to a natural instinct (Syn. Metaph. pars i. cap. 1). Of the correspondence or similitude between our ideas of the primary qualities of things and the things themselves God alone can be assigned as the cause. This similitude has been effected by Him through a law of nature. \"Haec prima qualitatum primariarum perceptio, sive mentis actio quaedam sive passio dicatur, non-alia similitudinis aut convenientiae inter ejusmodi ideas et res ipsas causa assignari posse videtur, quam ipse Deus, qui certa naturae lege hoc efilcit, Ut notiones, quae rebus praesentibus excitantur, sint ipsis similes, aut saltem earum habitudines, si non-veras quantitates, depingant\" (pars ii. cap. I). Locke does speak of God \"annexing\" certain ideas to certain motions of bodies; but nowhere does he propound a theory so definite as that here propounded by Hutcheson, which reminds us at least as much of the speculations of Nicolas Malebranche as of those of Locke.\n\nAmongst the more important points in which Hutcheson diverges from Locke is his account of the idea of personal identity, which he appears to have regarded as made known to us directly by consciousness. The distinction between body and mind, corpus or materia and res cogitans, is more emphatically accentuated by Hutcheson than by Locke. Generally, he speaks as if we had a direct consciousness of mind as distinct from body, though, in the posthumous work on Moral Philosophy, he expressly states that we know mind as we know body\" by qualities immediately perceived though the substance of both be unknown (bk. i. ch. 1). The distinction between perception proper and sensation proper, which occurs by implication though it is not explicitly worked out (see Hamilton's Lectures on Metaphysics, \u2013 Lect. 24).\n\nHamilton's edition of Dugald Stewart's Works, v. 420 (the imperfection of the ordinary division of the external senses into two classes, the limitation of consciousness to a special mental faculty) (severely criticized in Sir W Hamilton's Lectures on Metaphysics Lect. xii.) and the disposition to refer on disputed questions of philosophy not so much to formal arguments as to the testimony of consciousness and our natural instincts are also amongst the points in which Hutcheson supplemented or departed from the philosophy of Locke. The last point can hardly fail to suggest the \"common-sense philosophy\" of Reid.\n\nThus, in estimating Hutcheson's position, we find that in particular questions he stands nearer to Locke, but in the general spirit of his philosophy he seems to approach more closely to his Scottish successors.\n\nThe short Compendium of Logic, which is more original than such works usually are, is remarkable chiefly for the large proportion of psychological matter that it contains. In these parts of the book Hutcheson mainly follows Locke. The technicalities of the subject are passed lightly over, and the book is readable. It may be specially noticed that he distinguishes between the mental result and its verbal expression judgment-proposition, that he constantly employs the word \"idea,\" and that he defines logical truth as \"convenientia signorum cum rebus significatis\" (or \"propositionis convenientia cum rebus ipsis,\" Syn. Metaph. pars i. cap. 3), thus implicitly repudiating a merely formal view of logic.\n\nAesthetics\n\nHutcheson may further be regarded as one of the earliest modern writers on aesthetics. His speculations on this subject are contained in the Inquiry concerning Beauty, Order, Harmony and Design, the first of the two treatises published in 1725. He maintains that we are endowed with a special sense by which we perceive beauty, harmony and proportion. This is a reflex sense, because it presupposes the action of the external senses of sight and hearing. It may be called an internal sense, both to distinguish its perceptions from the mere perceptions of sight and hearing, and because \"in some other affairs, where our external senses are not much concerned, we discern a sort of beauty, very like in many respects to that observed in sensible objects, and accompanied with like pleasure\" (Inquiry, etc., sect. 1, XI). The latter reason leads him to call attention to the beauty perceived in universal truths, in the operations of general causes and in moral principles and actions. Thus, the analogy between beauty and virtue, which was so favourite a topic with Shaftesbury, is prominent in the writings of Hutcheson also. Scattered up and down the treatise there are many important and interesting observations that our limits prevent us from noticing. But to the student of mental philosophy it may be specially interesting to remark that Hutcheson both applies the principle of association to explain our ideas of beauty and also sets limits to its application, insisting on there being \"a natural power of perception or sense of beauty in objects, antecedent to all custom, education or example\" (see Inquiry, etc., sects. 6, 7; Hamilton's Lectures on Metaphysics, Lect. 44 .).\n\nHutcheson's writings gave rise to much controversy. To say nothing of minor opponents, such as \"Philaretus\" (Gilbert Burnet, already alluded to), Dr John Balguy (1686\u20131748), prebendary of Salisbury, the author of two tracts on \"The Foundation of Moral Goodness\", and Dr John Taylor (1694\u20131761) of Norwich, a minister of considerable reputation in his time (author of An Examination of the Scheme of Amorality advanced by Dr Hutcheson), the essays appear to have suggested, by antagonism, at least two works that hold a permanent place in the literature of English ethics\u2014Butler's Dissertation on the Nature of Virtue, and Richard Price's Treatise of Moral Good and Evil (1757). In this latter work the author maintains, in opposition to Hutcheson, that actions are \u2013 in themselves right or wrong, that right and wrong are simple ideas incapable of analysis, and that these ideas are perceived immediately by the understanding. We thus see that, not only directly but also through the replies that it called forth, the system of Hutcheson, or at least the system of Hutcheson combined with that of Shaftesbury, contributed, in large measure, to the formation and development of some of the most important of the later schools of ethics.\n\nLater scholarly mention\nReferences to Hutcheson occur in histories, both of general philosophy and of moral philosophy, as, for instance, in pt. vii. of Adam Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments; Mackintosh's Progress of Ethical Philosophy; Cousin, Cours d'histoire de la philosophie morale du XVIII' si\u00e8cle; Whewell's Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy in England; A Bain's Mental and Moral Science; Noah Porter's Appendix to the English translation of Ueberweg's History of Philosophy; Sir Leslie Stephen's History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Gentury, etc. See also Martineau, Types of Ethical Theory (London, 1902); WR Scott, Francis Hutcheson (Cambridge, 1900); Albee, History of English Utilitarianism (London, 1902); T Fowler, Shaftesbury and Hutcheson (London, 1882); J McCosh, Scottish Philosophy (New York, 1874). Of Dr Leechman's Biography of Hutcheson we have already spoken. J. Veitch gives an interesting account of his professorial work in Glasgow, Mind, ii. 209\u201312.\n\nInfluence in Colonial America\n\nNorman Fiering, a specialist in the intellectual history of colonial New England, has described Francis Hutcheson as \"probably the most influential and respected moral philosopher in America in the eighteenth century\". Hutcheson's early Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue, introducing his perennial association of \"unalienable rights\" with the collective right to resist oppressive government, was used at Harvard College as a textbook as early as the 1730s. In 1761, Hutcheson was publicly endorsed in the annual semi-official Massachusetts Election Sermon as \"an approved writer on ethics.\" Hutcheson's Short Introduction to Moral Philosophy was used as a textbook at the College of Philadelphia in the 1760s. Francis Alison, the professor of moral philosophy at the College of Philadelphia, was a former student of Hutcheson who closely followed Hutcheson's thought. Alison's students included \"a surprisingly large number of active, well-known patriots\", including three signers of the Declaration of Independence, who \"learned their patriotic principles from Hutcheson and Alison\". Another signer of the Declaration of Independence, John Witherspoon of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), relied heavily on Hutcheson's views in his own lectures on moral philosophy.\n\nJohn Adams read Hutcheson's Short Introduction to Moral Philosophy shortly after graduating from Harvard. Garry Wills argued in 1978 that the phrasing of the Declaration of Independence was due largely to Hutcheson's influence, but Wills's work suffered a scathing rebuttal from Ronald Hamowy. Wills' view has been partially supported by Samuel Fleischacker, who agreed that it is \"perfectly reasonable to see Hutcheson's influence behind the appeals to sentiment that Jefferson put into his draft of the Declaration...\"\n\nSelected other works\n Reflections Upon Laughter: And REMARKS UPON The FABLE of the BEES. \u2013 Garland Publishing, 1750\n\nSee also\n List of abolitionist forerunners\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n Contains versions of Origin of ideas of Beauty etc. and of Virtue etc., slightly modified for easier reading\n Francis Hutcheson Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article\n \n\n1694 births\n1746 deaths\n18th-century British economists\n18th-century essayists\n18th-century Irish male writers\n18th-century Irish philosophers\n18th-century Irish writers\n18th-century Ministers of the Church of Scotland\nAcademics of the University of Glasgow\nAlumni of the University of Glasgow\nBurials at St. Mary's Churchyard, Dublin\nClassical economists\nConsequentialists\nEmpiricists\nEnlightenment philosophers\nEpistemologists\nHumor researchers\nIrish essayists\nIrish ethicists\nIrish logicians\nIrish male non-fiction writers\nIrish philosophers\nIrish Presbyterians\nOntologists\nPamphleteers\nPeople from Saintfield\nPeople of the Scottish Enlightenment\nPhilosophers of art\nPhilosophers of economics\nPhilosophers of education\nPhilosophers of logic\nPhilosophers of mind\nPhilosophers of religion\nPhilosophers of social science\nPhilosophy writers\nSocial philosophers\nTheorists on Western civilization\nUlster Scots people","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":60,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":4,"unknown":9}},"id":188405,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Francis%20Hutcheson%20%28philosopher%29","title":"Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The brainstem is the rear part of the brain. It has two sections: the hindbrain, which includes the pons and medula, and the midbrain.\n\nThough the brainstem is small, it is extremely important. The motor (movement) and sensory connections from the main part of the brain to the rest of the body pass through the brain stem. Also, from the brainstem come the main motor and sensory nerves to the face and neck. These nerves are called the cranial nerves. The brainstem controls many bodily functions of which we are not normally aware, such as breathing, heart beat, and sweating. The brainstem controls functions which are unconscious, but necessary for life. \n\nThe hindbrain consists of the pons, and the medulla oblongata; which is an extension of the spinal cord.  It connects the other parts of the brain (the cerebrum and cerebellum) to the spinal cord. Its neurons are the control centre of bodily functions, such as breathing and blood pressure.\n\nFunctions of the brainstem \nConduction All information going between the body and the cerebellum and the cerebrum must go through the brainstem.\nNerves Cranial nerves 3\u201312 emerge from the brainstem. There are motor neurons in the brainstem that allow movement in the face, including speech and swallowing. \nIntegration It is involved in cardiovascular system control, respiratory control, pain sensitivity control, alertness, awareness, and consciousness. Thus, brainstem damage is a serious and often life-threatening problem.\n\nAnatomy of the brain","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":145,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4}},"id":51771,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brain%20stem","title":"Brain stem","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Heimdall (or Heimdallr) is one of the gods in Northern mythology. He is the guardian of the Bifr\u00f6st Bridge. He was the son of nine different mothers and was called the White God. \n\nHeimdall is the guardian of the gods. He will blow a horn, called the Gjallarhorn, if Asgard is in danger. His senses are so good that he can hear the grass grow and he can see to the end of the world. Heimdall could hear a leaf fall. He does not need any sleep at all. \n\nHeimdall was said to be the last of the gods to die at Ragnarok when he and Loki would kill one another.\n\nNorse gods and goddesses","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":43037,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heimdall","title":"Heimdall","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"River dolphins are five species of dolphin which live in fresh water rivers and estuaries. Three species live in fresh water rivers. The La Plata Dolphin lives in salt water estuaries and the ocean.\n\nSouth Asian river dolphins (two sub-species)\nGanges river dolphin, Platanista gangetica gangetica \u2013 Lives in Nepal, Republic of India and Bangladesh\n Indus river dolphin, Platanista indicus minor \u2013 Lives in Pakistan; National mammal of Pakistan.\nSouth American river dolphins (three species)\n Amazon river dolphin (or Boto), Inia geoffrensis \u2013 Largest of river dolphins, lives in Peru and Brazil.\nAraguaia river dolphin, Inia araguaiaensis  \u2013 Recently discovered in the river basin in Brazil after which it is named. Identified as a separate species by genetic sequence analysis.\n La Plata dolphin (or Franciscana), Pontoporia blainvillei \u2013 Lives in Argentina.\n Chinese river dolphin (or Baiji), Lipotes vexillifer \u2013 Lives in the Yangtze River in China (one of the most endangered of all dolphins and whales). Recent counts have come up with 17 remaining individuals. Scientists now want to raise some dolphins in a lake.\n\nDifferences between marine and river dolphins \nBoth river dolphins and marine dolphins belong to a group of mammals called cetaceans. The snout of a river dolphin measures about 58 centimeters (2\u00a0ft) long, approximately four times as long as that of most marine dolphins. They use their long snout to search for fish on the muddy bottom of the river. River dolphins have smaller eyes than marine dolphins, and their vision is poorly developed because they live in dark, muddy water. River dolphins are less active than marine dolphins because they do not need to search so widely to find fish. Marine dolphins work in pods (packs) because when they find a shoal of fish then they work together to make the most of their find. River dolphins work mostly as individuals or small groups.\n\nTaxonomy \nThe following is the taxonomy of river dolphins, or how dolphins are classified:\n\nRiver dolphin classification \n Superfamily Platanistoidea\n Family Platanistidae\n South Asian river dolphin Platanista gangetica (two subspecies)\n Ganges river dolphin P. g. gangetica\n Indus dolphin P. g. minor\n Family Iniidae\n Amazon river dolphin (or Boto) Inia geoffrensis\n Family Lipotidae\n Chinese river dolphin (or Baiji) Lipotes vexillifer\n Family Pontoporiidae\n La Plata dolphin (or Franciscana) Pontoporia blainvillei\n\nReferences\n\nOther sources \nRiver-Dolphins-and-their-habitat","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":19656,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/River%20dolphin","title":"River dolphin","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Edward Benjamin Britten, Baron Britten of Aldeburgh, OM CH (born Lowestoft, 22 November 1913; died Aldeburgh, 4 December 1976) was one of the greatest English composers of his time.  He came from East Anglia (a region in the East of England) and he often thought about the East Anglian landscape and the sea when writing his music.  He wrote a lot of music for his long-term partner, the tenor Peter Pears.  His operas include Peter Grimes, Billy Budd, A Midsummer Night's Dream, and Death in Venice. His War Requiem was performed in Coventry Cathedral in 1962 after it had been rebuilt because the old cathedral had been destroyed in the war.  He wrote music for children which sounds like proper, adult music.  Britten started the Aldeburgh Festival.  He was an excellent pianist and conductor.\n\nLife\n\nEarly years\nBenjamin Britten started composing music at the age of five although he had no one to help him. When he was ten years old he took part in an amateur music festival in Norwich.  A composer called Frank Bridge heard him and was so impressed that he offered to teach him composition.  He helped Britten to compose using proper musical techniques.  Britten started to get to know music by a lot of important modern composers including Schoenberg and Bart\u00f3k.  In 1930 he went to the Royal College of Music.  He had excellent piano teachers but he did not learn much from his composition teacher John Ireland and most of the music he wrote was never performed.  Britten was more interested in music from abroad than in English music.  In 1934 he heard the opera Wozzeck by Alban Berg.  He wanted to go to Austria to study with Berg but he was not allowed to.  Meanwhile, some of his first proper compositions started to be performed.  He wrote some music for movies that were being made by the General Post Office, including one about a train delivering mail.  The music describes the rhythm of the train rushing along.\n\nUSA\nWhile working on the movie music he met the writer W. H. Auden.  He started to be interested in political ideas.   These can be heard in some works he wrote at this time such as Our Hunting Fathers (1936) and Ballad of Heroes (1939).  When Auden emigrated to the United States Britten followed him.  With him was the tenor Peter Pears who was to become a lifelong friend and partner, and who was to be the inspiration for many songs and operas.\n\nBritten wrote several compositions in the USA including Sinfonia da Requiem (1940) and his First String Quartet (1941).  The following year he was reading about the poet George Crabbe who came from Suffolk, the same part of England where Britten had grown up.  Britten suddenly became homesick.  He realized that he could not work and be himself in a foreign country.  So he returned with Pears to England.\n\nAldeburgh Festival\nAs soon as he was on the boat sailing back to England he started work on Ceremony of Carols.  Back in England, Britten and Pears gave concerts to audiences of all kinds and took part in opera productions of Sadler's Wells Opera Company, which was having a new theatre built.  On the 7 June 1945 the new theatre was opened with a performance of Britten's opera Peter Grimes.  This opera was to make Britten into the most famous English composer of his time.  It was soon being performed abroad as well as in England.\n\nBritten was now composing lots of music: songs, chamber music and a very popular piece called Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra (also known as Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Purcell).  This piece shows off each instrument of the orchestra in turn so that young people can get to know the sound of the musical instruments.  It is based on a tune written by Henry Purcell 300 years ago.  There were more popular works: St Nicolas and the Spring Symphony.  There were not many opportunities for big operas to be performed, so he wrote some \"chamber operas\" which only needed small orchestras and a small number of singers.  These were performed in places such as local churches by a group which called themselves English Opera Group.  He wrote The Rape of Lucretia (1946) and Albert Herring (1947).  In 1948 the group helped to start a music festival in Aldeburgh.  Benjamin Britten spent the rest of his life mainly working on music which was to be performed at the Aldeburgh Festival.  He composed some of his greatest works for the festival, and he took part in the performances as conductor and pianist.\n\nThe 1950s\nOne of Britten's most popular pieces of music for amateurs including children was Noye's Fludde (1957).  He wrote three \"church parables\".  His large operas include Billy Budd (1951) which was soon produced in Covent Garden.  In June 1953 he wrote Gloriana, an opera about Queen Elizabeth I, written for the coronation celebrations of Elizabeth II.  When he travelled with Peter Pears to the Far East he was influenced by the music of Bali and he composed a ballet called The Prince of the Pagodas, performed in Covent Garden in 1957.  Another great work inspired by the East was the parable Curlew River (1964).  The opera A Midsummer Night's Dream was written for the Aldeburgh Festival in 1960. In 1962 he wrote the War Requiem to celebrate the new Coventry Cathedral.  This is one of the greatest musical works of the 20th century.\n\nHis last years\nIn 1961 he became friends with the great Russian cellist Mstislav Rostropovich. He composed a Cello Sonata and a Cello Symphony (1963) (a kind of cello concerto), as well as three suites for solo cello. He travelled with Pears to the Soviet Union.\n\nIn 1967 the Aldeburgh Festival had a new concert hall, the Maltings at Snape. His next opera was Owen Wingrave (1970), written for television but soon produced in Covent Garden. In June 1973 Britten produced another great opera Death in Venice. The main character, called Aschenbach, was perhaps the best music he ever wrote for Peter Pears. It was performed at the Aldeburgh Festival, but Britten was ill by this time and unable to be at the performance. His heart condition made it impossible to work on any more large works, but he still wrote some harp music for the harpist Ossian Ellis, a song called Phaedra for Janet Baker, and a Third String Quartet. He died in Aldeburgh on 4 December 1976.\n\nBritten received many honours both in Britain and in other countries. He became a Companion of Honour in 1952 a member of the Order of Merit in 1965 and, in the year he died, he was the first musician ever to receive a life peer (the title Lord Britten).\n\nHis music\nBritten's early works were often written for instruments.  His Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge (1937) for string orchestra is a very popular work today.  He often borrowed and reinvented themes by other composers (this is called \"parody\" technique).  During his last years he again gave much attention to instrumental music, mainly chamber music.\n\nAfter he met Peter Pears much of his music was vocal.  This includes more than 100 songs, a number of operas, chamber operas as well as three works for tenor solo and orchestra: Les Illuminations, the Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings and the Nocturne.  His songs are often grouped in cycles.  He also wrote many folksong settings.  These were very popular as encore pieces when he accompanied Peter Pears in song recitals.\n\nBritten wrote music for choirs, including Hymn to St Cecilia (Britten was proud of having been born on St Cecilia's day: 22 November).  The War Requiem is his greatest work which combines writing for choir and orchestra.  It describes the horrors of war (Britten had refused to fight in World War II).\n\nHe wrote a lot of work for children.  There are even parts for children in some of his operas, e.g. Peter Grimes, The Turn of the Screw and Owen Wingrave.  He even wrote an opera in which all the main parts are sung by children: The Little Sweep (1949).\n\nMany of his great operatic roles, from Peter Grimes to Aschenbach in Death in Venice, deal with the theme of the outsider, the person who does not quite fit into society, or who is misunderstood.  Britten's homosexuality (which was something that was never discussed in his lifetime) may have something to do with this.  He also knew what it was like to be an outsider when he tried to live in the United States, and his refusal to fight in the war may have distanced him from some people.\n\nThe Aldeburgh Festival at the Maltings in Snape (a village near Aldeburgh) continue to be a focus for Britten's music.  Every year the Brittens-Pears School of Music organizes lessons and performance opportunities for young musicians.  A series of \"Prom\" concerts is held there every year in August.\n\nReferences\n\n20th-century English composers\nBritish conductors\nCompanions of Honour\nDeaths from heart failure\nEnglish LGBT people\nEnglish pianists\nGay men\nGrammy Award winners\nLGBT composers\nLGBT musicians\nMusicians from Suffolk\nOrder of Merit\n1913 births\n1976 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":28820,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benjamin%20Britten","title":"Benjamin Britten","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Oops! Page Not Found (Error 404)\n\nOops... sorry! For one reason or another the page you are looking for could not be found and its probably not your fault. It might be:\n\n A mis-typed URL\n An out-of-date or a faulty referral from another site\n Or an old page that has been deleted or moved\n\nYou could maybe visit the Home Page to start fresh or try the search.\n\nPepe","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":163,"dup_dump_count":12,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":5,"2024-18":14,"2024-10":6,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":22,"2015-11":23,"2015-06":24,"2014-10":41,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":12,"unknown":9}},"id":10767,"url":"https:\/\/map-bms.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sepak%20bola","title":"Sepak bola","language":"map-bms"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Okinawa is the name for the biggest island in the Ry\u016bky\u016b Islands, far south of Japan. It is also the common name for Okinawa Prefecture, which controls the Southern Ry\u016bky\u016b Islands.\n\nThe capital of Okinawa is Naha. Naha is on the island with the most people, Okinawa island. Okinawa used to be called Great Lew Chew Island.\n\nOkinawa is home to the Okinawan people, who also inhabit the minor islands surrounding Okinawa as well. There are also many Japanese in Okinawa.\n\nMany of Okinawa's islands are scenic, and there are many beaches there. \n\nThe temperature in Okinawa is often warm or hot.  Many animals make their home around the Okinawa islands.  For example, sea turtles, jellyfish, and many kinds of birds all live around Okinawa.\n\nAn average person in Okinawa lives to be older than 100 years old. Some people think that is because Okinawan food is healthy. Fish is very popular, but people also eat sea vegetables and pork. Okinawans are known as easygoing people, almost everyone loves to sing and dance. Okinawa's music is popular all over Japan.  A musical instrument called a sanshin is often used. They celebrate their musical instrument every year on March 4th by singing folk songs together. Okinawans when compared with Japanese are peaceful people. They placed sanshin on their tokonoma while on Japanese mainland tend to display samurai.\n\nOkinawan food is famous for its originality. Examples of local specialties are Okinawa Soba, Go-ya Champuru, Rafute, and Ji-mami-doufu.\n\nOkinawa was the site of the last big battle of World War II, the Battle of Okinawa. A lot of Okinawan people died during the battle. Now, the United States has some military bases for soldiers on the different islands of Okinawa. There are some symbols of this battle in Okinawa. The Himeyuri Monument is the most famous symbol.\n\nHistory \nOkinawa is currently a part of Japan. However, it has its own history and culture distinguished from Japan. The history of Okinawa is usually divided into five eras as follows.\n Prehistoric era (Tens of thousands of years ago~12th century)\n Old Ryukyu era (12th century~1609)\n Early modern Ryukyu era (1609~1879)\n Modern Okinawa era (1879~1945)\n Post-war era (1945~)\n\nIn the prehistoric era, hunting animals and collecting plants prevailed. A shift to farming advanced during the 10th to 12th centuries. Many communities were formed, and integrated into the three small countries of Hokuzan, Ch\u016bzan, and Nanzan. In 1372, Ch\u016bzan began paying tribute to the Chinese Ming Dynasty. This small country became strong by trade with the Ming dynasty, and attacked the other countries. It became the \"Ry\u016bky\u016b Kingdom\". This kingdom flourished through trade throughout Asia during the 15th and 16th centuries.\n\nIn 1609, Shimazu Iehisa invaded the Ry\u016bky\u016b Kingdom. He was the feudal lord of Satsuma Province. This invasion meant that the Ry\u016bky\u016b Kingdom was forced to pay tribute to the Japanese shogunate regime. This domination continued until the end of the 19th century.\n\nIn 1867, the Japanese shogunate ended and power was returned to the Emperor Meiji. The new government had a policy to incorporate the Ry\u016bky\u016b Kingdom into the Japanese Empire. The Ry\u016bky\u016b Kingdom was reorganized. At first, in 1872, the Ry\u016bky\u016b Kingdom was renamed Ry\u016bky\u016b Domain, meaning that it was directly controlled by Japan instead of Satsuma Province. In 1879, it was reorganized as Okinawa Prefecture. The Ry\u016bky\u016b Kingdom was ended at that time. Okinawa became a Japanese colony.\n\nAt first, Japan emphasized the differences between Okinawan and Japanese culture, to justify discriminatory policies in the colony. However, to justify the colonization to the West, the policies were changed to ones which emphasized similarities and which assimilated Okinawa into Japan. Thus, Okinawan society has been greatly influenced by Japan. The Japanese taught Okinawan children that the Okinawan language was a \"dialect\" of Japanese, and students were punished for speaking their native language. Okinawa was caught up in the Japanese war against U.S.A. and China. Okinawa was incorporated into the war system. At the end of World War II, Okinawa itself became the battlefield, the social infrastructure was completely destroyed, and many people died. \n\nAfter the war, Okinawa was put under the U.S. military. The people expected freedom, but priority was given to U.S. military policy. Therefore, the movement for a return to Japan was strengthened, and it was carried out in 1972. However, the problem continues up to the present as the Japanese government continues to give priority to U.S. military policy. Many US military bases are still left, and crimes by a few US soldiers continue to be a social problem.\n\nRelated pages\n Provinces of Japan\n Prefectures of Japan\n List of regions of Japan\n List of islands of Japan\n\nReferences\n\nIslands of Japan\nRyukyu Islands\nOkinawa Prefecture","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":38336,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Okinawa","title":"Okinawa","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A synagogue is a place where Jews meet to worship and pray to God.\n\nIn Hebrew, a synagogue is called beit knesset, which means, a \"house of gathering\". The word \"synagogue\" comes from sunagoge, which is a Greek word. In a synagogue, Jews carry out the Jewish services, which consist of prayers, sometimes with special actions.\n\nA synagogue will usually have a large room for prayers. There might be some smaller rooms for studying. There will be some offices. There will also usually be a big room for special events. \n\nThe front of a synagogue faces towards Jerusalem in Israel.  In the front is the holiest part of the synagogue, the Ark. This is a closet which has the Torah scrolls inside.  The Torah scrolls have the holy writings of Judaism on them.  The Ark usually has a curtain in front of it.\n\nOn top of the Ark is light which is always lit, called the \"Eternal Lamp\". It is a symbol which means that God is always there.\nEvery synagogue has a raised platform called the \"Bimah\". The person who reads the Torah scroll stands there when he reads. The Bimah is either in the middle of the hall, or in front of the Ark.\n\nIn some synagogues men and women sit in different places. Some synagogues even have a short wall so that they can not see each other. This is so that the people will think about the prayers better.\n\nJews may call synagogues by different names. Many Orthodox and Conservative Jews living in English-speaking countries use the name \"synagogue\" or the word \"shul\", which is Yiddish. Jews who speak Spanish or Portuguese call synagogues esnoga. Some Jews call the synagogue a temple. \n\nJewish worship does not have to be carried out in a synagogue.  It can be wherever a minyan of ten Jews are. It could be in someone's home or anywhere such as a cruise liner or an airplane. Some synagogues have a separate room or torah study, this is called the \"beth midrash\" meaning house of study. Some kinds of Jewish worship can be done alone or with fewer than ten people.\nSynagogues are places were Jews can worship.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":815,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synagogue","title":"Synagogue","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An invention is a new thing that someone has made. The computer was an invention when it was first made. We say when it was \"invented\". New things that are made or created are called inventions. Cars and plastics are inventions that everyone knows. Inventions are made by inventors. Many inventions are patented.\n\nIdeas are also called inventions. Writers can invent characters, and then invent a story about them.\n\nInventing \nOver time, humans have invented objects which make life easier for themselves. Because of this, a quote \"necessity is the mother of invention\", was written. The quote means that a lack of something should inspire someone to create something to fill that empty space. However, not all people believe that this is true. They think that too much of something can lead to an invention.\nMany inventions are just a variation of something that already exists.\n\nOther websites \n\n List of PCT (Patent Cooperation Treaty) Important Inventions  (on the WIPO web site)\n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":171,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":4,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":7714,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invention","title":"Invention","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (, P\u00ebtr Il'i\u010d \u010cajkovskij; ) (born Kamsko-Votkinsk, 7 May 1840; died St Petersburg, 6 November 1893; pronounced chai-KOV-skee) was a Russian composer who lived in the Romantic period. He is one of the most popular of all Russian composers. He wrote melodies which were usually dramatic and emotional. He learned a lot from studying the music of Western Europe, but his music also sounds very Russian. His compositions include 11 operas, 3 ballets, orchestral music, chamber music and over 100 songs. His famous ballets (Swan Lake, The Nutcracker  and Sleeping Beauty) have some of the best known tunes in all of romantic music. He is widely regarded as the greatest composer of ballets.\n\nEarly years \n\nTchaikovsky's father was a Ukrainian who worked as a mining engineer. His mother's grandfather was a Frenchman who had moved to Russia. She was a nervous woman and Tchaikovsky may have gotten his nervous character from her. Tchaikovsky was only five when he started taking piano lessons.  He was soon better than his teacher. The family had an orchestrion (a kind of musical box) which played some tunes from classical music by Mozart, Bellini, Donizetti and Rossini.\n\nIn 1848 the family moved to St. Petersburg. Tchaikovsky was unhappy and unsettled as he was often separated from his family who moved several times. In 1854 his mother died. He tried to comfort himself by playing music. He spent nine years at the School of Jurisprudence. When he left school, he had to get a job. For four years he worked as a clerk in the Ministry of Justice. Then the composer and pianist Anton Rubinstein helped him to become a music student at the newly opened conservatory in St. Petersburg. He learned to play the flute and the organ as well as the piano and learning all about composition. In 1866 he moved to Moscow where Nikolai Rubinstein, the brother of Anton, encouraged him to write music with a Russian character. He worked very hard, and was often exhausted, but he managed to finish his First Symphony, which was performed in 1868.\n\nTchaikovsky met some famous musicians including the French composer Berlioz who was visiting Moscow. He also became friendly with the Russian composer Mily Balakirev who was very helpful and persuaded him to rewrite one of his works several times until it was very good. he result was a piece for orchestra called Romeo and Juliet which soon became internationally known. Balakirev had four friends who were composers. This circle of friends is often called \"The Five\" or \"The Mighty Handful\". They were interested in using Russian folktunes in their music. Tchaikovsky was never a member of the group, although he liked their ideas. Tchaikovsky was different to them: he had learned music at the Conservatoire where he had studied Western music. The harmonies that he used in his works were often not suitable for Russian folktunes. He wrote many songs which are romantic in character. One of them, None But the Lonely Heart, is especially well known in English.\n\nBy now, Tchaikovsky was writing works which were to make him very famous. He wrote two more symphonies, and his First Piano Concerto, one of the most popular of all piano concertos, was given its first performance in Boston. He was also writing operas and chamber music.\n\nYears of fame \nIn 1875, Tchaikovsky began making a long tour of Europe. He liked Bizet's opera Carmen, but Wagner's operas from the Ring cycle bored him. In 1877 he finished Swan Lake, the first of his three ballets. The audience did not like it at first because the dancers were not very good.\n\nTchaikovsky was a closeted homosexual. In the summer of 1877 Tchaikovsky decided to marry. His wife was called Antonina Milyukova. The marriage was a disaster. A few weeks after the marriage, he ran away and never lived with her again.\n\nAnother woman was to become important in his life, but in a very different way. It was to be a very unusual relationship. Her name was Nadezhda von Meck. She was the wife of a rich man. She loved Tchaikovsky's music and promised him that she would pay him a lot of money every month so long as he promised her that he would never try to meet her.  Tchaikovsky no longer needed to work. He was able to give up his teaching job at the Conservatory. For several years he spent the winters in Europe and the summers in Russia.  Nadezhda and Tchaikovsky wrote long letters to one another, often quite passionate and dreamy they talked about love, life and how they wanted it to change, but they never saw one another. He had plenty of time to write music: he wrote several operas including Eugene Onegin and his Fourth and Fifth Symphonies, the Violin Concerto, the Serenade for Strings, Capriccio Italienne and the 1812 Overture. Tchaikovsky loved Nadezhda very much but never actually told her his true feelings.\n\nHis last years \n\nBy 1885, Tchaikovsky had tired of travelling around. He rented a country house in Klin, just outside Moscow. He lived a regular life, reading, walking in the forest, composing during the day and playing music with his friends in the evenings. He started to have more confidence as a conductor and toured Europe twice, conducting in Leipzig, Berlin, Prague, Hamburg, Paris and London. In 1889 he finished his second ballet, The Sleeping Beauty and the next year, while staying in Florence, he wrote his famous opera The Queen of Spades based on a story by Pushkin. Later that year Nadezhda von Meck wrote to him that she had lost nearly all her money and could not continue to support him.\n\nIn the spring of 1891 he was invited to conduct in New York where the Carnegie Hall was being opened. He also conducted concerts in Baltimore and Philadelphia. When he returned to Russia he wrote his last ballet The Nutcracker and his Sixth Symphony, known as the \"Path\u00e9tique\" which was dedicated to his nephew with whom he was passionately in love. This work is often considered his best. It was performed in St Petersburg on October 16 1893.  Five days later he suddenly became ill with cholera, a disease many people were catching in the city. Tchaikovsky died four days later. Many people think that he committed suicide by deliberately drinking contaminated water. He may have wanted to (or even been forced to) commit suicide in order to avoid a scandal because he was having a relationship with a nephew of an important aristocratic man. Exactly what happened is still a mystery.\n\nReferences \n\n1840 births\n1893 deaths\nLGBT composers\nRomantic composers\nRussian composers\nRussian LGBT people\nUnexplained deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":188,"dup_dump_count":92,"dup_details":{"2024-22":4,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":4,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":15071,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pyotr%20Ilyich%20Tchaikovsky","title":"Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Caching is a term used in computer science.  The idea behind a  cache (pronounced \"cash\"   ) is very simple: Very often, obtaining a result for a calculation is very time-consuming, so storing the result is generally a good idea. Two kinds of storage media are used: One is usually quite big, but accessing it is \"slow\"; the other one can be accessed much faster, but generally it is small. The very basic idea behind caching is to use the medium that is fast to access to have copies of data. There is no difference between the copy, and the original. Accessing the original data may take a long time, or it may be expensive to do (for example: the results of a difficult problem that take a long time to solve). For this reason, it is much \"cheaper\" to simply use the copy of the data from the cache. Put differently, a cache is a temporary storage area that has copies of data that is used often. When a copy of the data is in this cache, it is faster to use this copy rather than re-fetching or re-calculating the original data. This will make the average time needed to access the data shorter. Putting a new value into a cache often means that an older value needs to be replaced. There are different ideas (usually called \"strategies\") on how to select the value to replace. \n\nA buffer is very similar to a cache. It is different in that the client accessing the data in a buffer knows there is a buffer; the buffer is managed by the application. With a cache, the client accessing the data need not be aware there is a cache.\n\nTypical computer applications access data in very similar ways. Suppose the data is structured into \"blocks\", which can be accessed individually. When an application accesses a block it is also very likely to access (or reference) a block that is \"close\" to the original block. This is known as locality of reference. There are different kinds of such \"locality\".  Locality of reference is one of the reasons why caches work well in many areas of computing. \n\nIn order to work well, caches are small, compared to the whole amount of data. The bigger the cache, the longer it takes to lookup an entry. Bigger caches are also more expensive to build.\n\nHow caches work\n \n\nA cache is a block of memory for storing data which is likely used again. The CPU and hard drive often use a cache, as do web browsers and web servers.  \n\nA cache is made up of many entries, called a pool.  Each entry holds a datum (a bit of data) which is a copy of a datum in another place. Caches usually use what is called a backing store. Backing stores are slow or expensive to access, compared to the cache. A disk cache uses a hard disk as a backing store, for example. \nEach entry also has a little information attached, called a tag. This tag is used to find the location where the original data is stored.\n\nCaches for reading\nA client (a CPU, web browser, operating system) wants to access a bit of data, it believes to be in the backing store, it first checks to see if the datum can be found in the cache. If the data can be found in the cache, the client can use it and does not need to use the main memory. This is known as a cache hit. So, for example, a web browser program might check its local cache on disk to see if it has a local copy of the contents of a web page at a particular URL.  In this example, the URL is the tag, and the contents of the web page is the datum.\n\nThe other situation that can occur is that the datum with the tag cannot be found in the cache. This is known as cache miss. The datum needs to be fetched from the backing store. Usually, it is copied into the cache, so that the next time, it no longer needs to be fetched from the backing store.\n\nThe cache only has a limited size. To make room for the previously uncached entry, another cached entry may need to be deleted from the cache. Special rules are used to find the entry that should best be deleted. These rules are usually called Heuristics. Heuristics used to find the entry are called replacement policy. A very simple rule used is called Least recently used (or LRU). It simply takes the entry that was used the longest time ago. Other heuristics are listed at cache algorithm..\n\nCaches for writing\nCaches can also be used for writing data; the benefit of this is that the client can continue its operation once the entry has been written to the cache; it does not have to wait until the entry is written to the backing store. \n\nHowever, the entry must be written to the backing store at some point in time. The timing when this happens is controlled by the write policy.\n\nIn a write-through cache, each entry is  written to the backing store immediately, as well as being stored in cache. \n\nThe other option is to only write to cache, and write to the backing store later. This is known as write-back (or  write-behind) cache.  The cache marks the entries that have not yet been written to the backing store; the mark that is used is often referred to as dirty flag. Before the entries are deleted from the cache, they are written to the backing store. This is known as lazy write. A miss in a write-back cache (which requires a block to be replaced by another) will often need two memory accesses: one to get the needed datum, and another to write replaced data from the cache to the store.\n\nThe caching policy may also say that a certain datum must be written to cache. The client may have made many changes to the datum in the cache. After it is done, it may explicitly tell the cache to write back the datum. \n\nNo-write allocation is a cache policy where only reads are cached. This avoids the need for write-back or write-through caching. Writes are done to the backing store all the time. \n\nThe client is not the application that changes data in the backing store. If the data changed in the backing store, the copy in the cache will be out of date, or stale. Alternatively, when the client updates the data in the cache, copies of that data in other caches will become stale. There are special communication protocols that allow cache managers to talk to each other to keep the data meaningful. These are known as coherency protocols.\n\nSelecting the entry to replace \nA cache is small, and it will be full, or almost full, most of the time. So when a new value is added, an old one needs to be removed. There are different ways in which this selection can be done:\n First in First out: Simply replace the entry that was added to the cache the longest time ago\n Least recently used: This idea is similar to the FIFO above, but when an entry is used, its timestamp\/age is updated.\n Least frequently used: Again, similar to the FIFO case, instead of using a timestamp use a counter, which is incremented each time an entry is used\n Pick an entry at random\n\nHistory \nThe word cache was first used in computing in 1967, when a scientific article was prepared to be published in IBM Systems Journal. The article was about a new improvement of the memory in Model 85. Model 85 was a computer of the IBM System\/360 product line. The editor of the Journal wanted a better word for high-speed buffer, used in the article. He got no input, and suggested cache, from the French cacher, meaning \"to hide\". The article was published in early 1968, and the authors were honored by IBM. Their work was widely welcomed and improved.Cache soon became standard usage in computer literature.\n\nWhere caches are used\n\nCPU caches\n\nSmall memories on or close to the CPU chip can be made faster than the much larger main memory. Most CPUs since the 1980s have used one or more caches. Modern general-purpose CPUs inside personal computers may have as many as half a dozen. Each cache may be specialised to a different part of the task of executing programs.\n\nDisk caches\nCPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware, other caches are managed by a different kinds  of software. The operating system usually manages a page cache in main memory. Users outside computer science usually call this cache virtual memory. It is managed by the kernel of the operating system. \n\nModern hard drives have disk buffers. These are sometimes called \"disk cache\", but this is wrong. The main function of these buffers is to order disk writes, and to manage reads. Repeated cache hits are rare, because the buffer is very small compared to the size of the hard drive. \n\nLocal hard disks are fast compared to other storage devices, such as remote servers, local tape drives, or optical jukeboxes. Using local hard disks as caches is the main concept of hierarchical storage management.\n\nWeb caches\n\nWeb browsers and web proxy servers use caches to store previous responses from web servers, such as web pages.  Web caches reduce the amount of information that needs to be transmitted over the network. Information previously stored in the cache can often be re-used.  This reduces bandwidth and processing requirements of the web server, and helps to improve responsiveness for users of the web.\n\nModern web browsers use a built-in web cache, but some internet service providers or organizations also use a caching proxy server. This is a web cache that is shared between all users of that network.\n\nSearch engines also often  make web pages they have indexed available from their cache.  For example, Google provides a \"Cached\" link next to each search result.  This is useful when web pages are temporarily inaccessible from a web server.\n\nCaching with unreliable networks\nWrite-through operation is common in unreliable networks (like an Ethernet LAN). The protocol used to make sure the data in the write cache makes sense when several write caches are used is very complex, in such a case.\n\nFor instance, web page caches and client-side network file system caches (like those in NFS or SMB) are typically read-only or write-through  to keep the network protocol simple and reliable.\n\nThe difference between buffer and cache\n\nBuffer and cache are not mutually exclusive; they are also often used together. The reason why they are used is different, though. A buffer is a location in memory that is traditionally used because CPU instructions cannot directly address data stored in peripheral devices. Computer memory is used as an intermediate store. \n\nAdditionally such a buffer may be feasible when a large block of data is assembled or disassembled (as required by a storage device), or when data may be delivered in a different order than that in which it is produced.  Also a whole buffer of data is usually transferred sequentially (for example to hard disk), so buffering itself sometimes increases transfer performance. These benefits are present even if the buffered data are written to the buffer once and read from the buffer once.\n\nA cache also increases transfer performance. A part of the increase similarly comes from the possibility that multiple small transfers will combine into one large block. But the main performance gain occurs because there is a good chance that the same datum will be read from cache several times, or that written data will soon be read. The only purpose of Caches is to reduce accesses to the underlying slower storage. Cache is also usually an abstraction layer that is designed to be invisible from the perspective of neighboring layers. That way, the applications or clients may not be aware that there is a cache.\n\nReferences\n\nComputer science","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":65753,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cache%20%28computing%29","title":"Cache (computing)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An endorheic basin, also called an internal drainage system, is a drainage basin, or watershed, that does not flow to one of the Earth's major oceans. This is unlike normal basins that collect in rivers and flow to the ocean. Endorheic basins usually end in a saline lake or a salt flat. They can be found in all parts of the world, but usually in desert locations.\n\nList of major endorheic basins\n\nAntarctica\nEndorheic lakes in Antarctica are located in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Victoria Land, Antarctica, the largest ice-free area in Antarctica.\nDon Juan Pond in Wright Valley is fed by groundwater from a rock glacier and remains unfrozen throughout the year.\nLake Vanda in Wright Valley has a perennial ice cover, the edges of which melt in the summer allowing flow from the longest river in Antarctica, the Onyx River. The lake is over 70 m deep and is hypersaline.\nLake Bonney is in Taylor Valley and has a perennial ice over and two lobes separated by the Bonney Riegel. The lake is fed by glacial melt and discharge from Blood Falls. Its unique glacial history has resulted in a hypersaline brine in the bottom waters and fresh water at the surface.\nLake Hoare, in Taylor Valley, is the freshest of the Dry Valley lakes receiving its melt almost exclusively from the Canada Glacier. The lake has an ice cover and forms a moat during the Austral summer.\nLake Fryxell, in adjacent to the Ross Sea in Taylor Valley. The lake has an ice cover and receives its water from numerous glacial meltwater streams for approximately 6 weeks out of the year. Its salinity increases with depth.\n\nAsia\n\nMuch of western and Central Asia is a single, giant inland basin. It contains several lakes, including:\n The Central Asian Internal Drainage Basin, the largest of the three major basins covering Mongolia.\n The Caspian Sea, the largest lake on Earth. In fact, a large part of Eastern Europe drained by the Volga River also belongs to its basin.\n The Aral Sea, whose tributary rivers have been diverted, leading to a dramatic shrinkage of the lake. The resulting ecological disaster has brought the plight faced by internal drainage basins to public attention.\n Lake Balkhash (Kazakhstan)\n Lop Nur Basin, in the southeastern portion of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in northwestern China\n Issyk-Kul, Son-Kul and Chatyr-Kul lakes in Kyrgyzstan\n Sistan Basin covering areas of Iran and Afghanistan\n Tarim Basin in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region\n Uvs Nuur basin, Mongolia, Tuvan Republic of Russia\n The Dead Sea, the lowest surface point on Earth and one of its saltiest bodies of water, lies between Israel and Jordan.\n Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan, north-western India, is also the terminal point of an endorheic basin.\n Lake Van in Turkey is one of the world's largest endorheic lakes.\n\nAustralia\nAustralia, being very dry and having exceedingly low runoff ratios due to its ancient soils, has a great prominence of variable, endorheic drainages. The most important are:\n Lake Eyre Basin, which drains into the highly variable Lake Eyre and includes Lake Frome.\n Lake Torrens, to the west of the Flinders Ranges in South Australia.\n Lake Corangamite, a highly saline crater lake in western Victoria.\n Lake George, formerly connected to the Murray-Darling Basin\n\nAfrica\n Lake Turkana in Kenya\n The Okavango Delta, an endorheic inland delta in the Kalahari Desert of Botswana\n Lake Ngami in Botswana\n Lake Chad (between Chad and Cameroon), fed by the Chari and Logon rivers\n Etosha pan in Namibia's Etosha National Park\n Qattara Depression in Egypt\n Chott Melrhir in Algeria\n Lake Chilwa in Malawi\n Afar Depression in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djibouti\n Chott el Djerid in Tunisia\n\nNorth and Central America\n\n Lago de Atitl\u00e1n, in the highlands of Guatemala;\n Bols\u00f3n de Mapim\u00ed, in northern Mexico\n Crater Lake in Oregon\n Devil's Lake (North Dakota)\n Devil's Lake (Wisconsin)\n The Great Basin, which covers much of Nevada and Utah, includes:\n The Black Rock Desert in Nevada, location of the Thrust2 and ThrustSSC landspeed record runs, and the annual home to the Burning Man festival\nDeath Valley in California and Nevada, the lowest land point in the United States\n Groom Dry Lake in Nevada, location of the secret Area 51 base\n Utah's Great Salt Lake, the largest terminal lake in the Western Hemisphere\n Salton Sea in California, a lake accidentally created in 1905 when irrigation canals ruptured, filling a desert endorheic basin and recreating an ancient saline sea\n Utah's Sevier Lake\n Pyramid Lake in Nevada\n Mono Lake in California\n The Great Divide Basin in Wyoming, a small endorheic basin that straddles the Continental Divide.\nGuzm\u00e1n Basin, in northern Mexico and the southwestern United States;\nLittle Manitou Lake in Saskatchewan\nNew Mexico has a number of desert endorheic basins including:\n The Tularosa Basin, a rift valley;\n Zuni Salt Lake, a maar;\nRogers Lake, at Edwards Air Force Base in California\nTulare Lake, an endorheic basin at the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley fed by the Kings River, Tule River and Kaweah River; since the late 19th century the lake bed has been reclaimed and used as farmland, though it occasionally floods when rainfall is especially heavy\n The Valley of Mexico. In Pre-Columbian times, the Valley was substantially covered with five lakes, including Lake Texcoco, Lake Xochimilco, and Lake Chalco.\n\nMany small lakes and ponds in North Dakota and Manitoba are endorheic; some of them have salt encrustations along their shores.\n\nEurope\n Neusiedlersee\/Fert\u0151 t\u00f3 in Austria and Hungary\n Lake Trasimeno in Italy\n Lake Velence in Hungary\n Lake Prespa between Albania, Greece and the Republic of Macedonia\n Rahasane turlough, in Co. Galway, Republic of Ireland, is the county's largest and covers about 2.5 square kilometres.\nAll these lakes are drained, however, either through manmade canals or via karstic phenomena.\nMinor additional endorheic lakes exist throughout the Mediterranean countries Spain (e.g. Laguna de Gallocanta), Italy, Cyprus (Larnaca and Akrotiri salt lakes) and Greece.\n\nSouth America\n\nAltiplano basin, one of the largest and second highest in the world.\nLake Valencia (Spanish: Lago de Valencia) the second largest lake in Venezuela.\nSalar de Atacama, Atacama Desert, Chile (although close to the Altiplano it is not part of it)\nNorthwest Pampas Basins in the Dry Pampas of Argentina\nSouthwest Pampas Basins in the Dry Pampas of Argentina\nMeseta Somuncura in the Patagonia region of Argentina\n\nAncient\nSome of the Earth's ancient endorheic systems include:\n The Black Sea, until its merger with the Mediterranean\n The Mediterranean Sea itself and all its tributary basins, during its Messinian desiccation (5 m.y. BP aprox.) as it became disconnected from the Atlantic Ocean. \n Lake Lahontan in the western US\n Ebro and Duero basins, draining most of northern Spain during the Neogene and perhaps Pliocene.\n Lake Bonneville (Utah)\n\nRelated pages \nInland sea\n\nReferences\n\nDrainage basins\nLakes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":176405,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Endorheic%20basin","title":"Endorheic basin","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Agrikultur nya\u00e9ta pros\u00e9s pikeun ngahasilkeun pangan, parab, serat, jeung hasil-hasil s\u00e9j\u00e9n nu dipiharep tina budidaya sarupaning tutuwuhan jeung sato ingon-ingon. Agrikultur na istilah urang sarua jeung tatan\u00e9n.\n\nIhtisar \n\nTatan\u00e9n ngawengku kana hiji sistim pikeun ngahasilkeun kabutuhan pangan boh tina pepelakan anapon sato ingon-ingon, ieu kab\u00e9h\u00a0 ngamimitianna dina tar\u00e9kah yumponan pangabutuh rumah tangga sapopo\u00e9. Kiwari tatan\u00e9n geus jadi salah sahiji widang penting anu diajarkeun di sakola-sakola,\u00a0 kumaha prak-prakan ngolah taneuh tur miarana, sangkan ngaronjat hasil sarta kauntunganna. \n\nIncr\u00e9asingly, besides food for humans and animal feeds, agriculture produces goods such as cut flowers, ornamental and nursery plants, fertilizers, animal hides, leather, industrial chemicals (starch, ethanol, and plastics), fibers (cotton, wool, hemp, and flax), fuels (methane, biodiesel, biomass), and both legal and illegal drugs (biopharmaceuticals, tobacco, marijuana, opium, cocaine). Genetically engineered plants and animals produce specialty drugs.\n\nIn the Western world, use of improved genetics, better management of soil nutrients, and improved weed control have gr\u00e9atly incr\u00e9ased yields per unit ar\u00e9a. At the same time, use of mechanization has decr\u00e9ased labor requirements, rel\u00e9asing most of the populace from intense agricultural labor. The developing world is behind by Western m\u00e9asures of productivity, because of unavailability of the education, capital and technology base needed to sustain these advances, and usually ecoregion with less optimal climates and soils.\n\nmod\u00e9rn agriculture depends h\u00e9avily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences. Irrigation, drainage, conservation, and sanitary engineering\u2014\u00e9ach of which is important in successful farming\u2014are some of the fields requiring the specialized knowledge of agricultural engineers.\n\nAgricultural chemistry d\u00e9als with other vital farming concerns, such as the application of fertilizer, insecticides (see Pest control), and fungicides, soil makeup, analysis of agricultural products, and nutritional needs of farm animals.\n\nPlant breeding and genetics contribute imm\u00e9asurably to farm productivity. Genetics has also made a science of livestock breeding. Hydroponics, a method of soilless gardening in which plants are grown in chemical nutrient solutions, may help meet the need for gr\u00e9ater food production as the world's population incr\u00e9ases.\n\nThe packing, processing, and marketing of agricultural products are closely related activities also influenced by science. Methods of quick-freezing and dehydration have incr\u00e9ased the markets for farm products (see Food Processing and Preservation; M\u00e9at Packing Industry).\n\nMechanization, the outstanding characteristic of late 19th- and 20th-century agriculture, has \u00e9ased much of the backbr\u00e9aking toil of the farmer. More significantly, mechanization has enormously incr\u00e9ased farm efficiency and productivity (see Agricultural Machinery). Animals including horses, oxen, llamas, alpacas, and dogs, however, are still used to cultivate fields, harvest crops, and transport farm products to markets in many parts of the world.\n\nAirplanes and helicopters are used in agriculture for seeding, spraying operations for insect and dis\u00e9ase control, transporting perishable products, and fighting forest fires. Radio and television disseminate vital w\u00e9ather reports and other information such as market reports that concern farmers. Computers have become an essential tool for farm management.\n\nAnimal husbandry m\u00e9ans breeding and raising animals for m\u00e9at or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis.\n\nIn recent y\u00e9ars, some aspects of industrial intensive agriculture have been the subject of incr\u00e9asing discussion. The widening sphere of influence held by large seed and chemical companies and m\u00e9at packers has been a source of concern both within the farming community and for the general public. The patent protection given to companies that develop new types of seed using genetic engineering has allowed seed to be licensed to farmers in much the same way that computer software is licensed to users. This has changed the balance of power in favor of the seed companies, allowing them to dictate terms and conditions previously unh\u00e9ard of. Some argue these companies are guilty of biopiracy.\n\nSoil conservation and nutrient management have been important concerns since the 1950s, with the best farmers taking a stewardship role with the land they operate.\n\nIncr\u00e9asing consumer awareness of agricultural issues has led to the rise of community-supported agriculture, local food movement, slow food, and commercial organic farming, though these yet remain fledgling industries.\n\nSajarah \n\nNangtukeun asal-usul tatan\u00e9n bisa disebut h\u00e9s\u00e9 sabab geus aya m\u00e9m\u00e9h budaya tulisan. Sababaraha ahli keukeuh nyebutkeun y\u00e9n tatan\u00e9n geus aya leuwih ti 10000 taun katukang, sedengkeun nu s\u00e9j\u00e9n yakin y\u00e9n pepelakan nu sistimatis pangheubeulna teu leuwih ti 7000 taun katukang. Prakprakan tatan\u00e9n mindeng dipak\u00e9 pikeun ngab\u00e9dakeun jaman n\u00e9olitik ti jaman batu nu sam\u00e9m\u00e9hna. Palawija nu munggaran dibudidayakeun ku manusa di antarana gandum (einkorn jeung emmer) sarta barley. It is cl\u00e9ar that farming was invented at l\u00e9ast twice, probably more often: once in the Fertile Crescent during the Natufian culture, and the following Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and B periods, once in \u00e9ast Asia (wh\u00e9at and millet), and in Central America (maize). Most likely, there was a gradual transition from a hunter-gatherer economy to an agricultural one, via a lengthy period when some crops were deliberately planted, and other foods were gathered from the wild. The r\u00e9asons for the \u00e9arliest introduction of farming may have included climate change. Farming allows a much gr\u00e9ater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering.\n\nAfter 1492, the world's agricultural patterns were shuffled in the widespr\u00e9ad exchange of plants and animals known as the Columbian Exchange. Crops and animals that were previously only known in the Old World were now transplanted in the New, and vice versa.\n\nKawijakan \n\nKawijakan tatan\u00e9n mokuskeun kana tujuan jeung cara produksi tatan\u00e9n. Dina tingkat kawijakan, tujuna umum tatan\u00e9n di antarana:\n\n Kasalametan dahareun: Mastikeun sangkan asupan dahareun b\u00e9bas tina kontaminasi.\n Kaamanan dahareun: Mastikeun sangkan asupan dahareun saluyu jeung pangabutuh masarakat.\n Kualitas dahareun: Mastikeun sangkan asupan dahareun mibanda kualitas nu tetep tur bisa kaukur.\n Konservasi\n Environmental impact\n Stabiliti \u00e9konomi\n\nM\u00e9tode \n Hidroponik\n Tillage by plough\n Irigasi \n Pupuk \n Crop rotation\n Weed control\n Domestikasi\n Fencing\n Ranching\n Tatan\u00e9n organik\n\nCrops\n\nWorld production of major crops in 2002 \n\nIn millions of metric tons, based on USDA estimates:\n\nMaize 624\nWheat 570\nRice 381.1\nCotton 96.5\n\nPaddy rice is rice in its as-harvested state. Milled rice is rice after it is processed to remove the husk and, sometimes, polish the kernel. California is the major US producer of rice.\n\nCrop improvement \n\nDomestication of plants is done in order to incr\u00e9ase yield, dis\u00e9ase resistance, drought tolerance, \u00e9ase of harvest, and to improve the taste and nutritional value and many other characteristics. Centuries of careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant breeders use greenhouses and other techniques to get as many as three generations of plants per y\u00e9ar, so that they can mak\u00e9 improvements all the more quickly. Extensive radiation mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the mod\u00e9rn commercial varieties of grains such as wh\u00e9at, corn and barley.\n\nFor example, average yields of corn (maize) in the USA have incr\u00e9ased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t\/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001, primarily due to improvements in genetics. Similarly, worldwide average wh\u00e9at yields have incr\u00e9ased from less than 1 t\/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t\/ha in 1990. South American average wh\u00e9at yields are around 2 t\/ha, Afrika under 1 t\/ha, Mesir and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t\/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wh\u00e9at yield in countries such as Perancis is over 8 t\/ha. Higher yields are due to improvements in genetics, as well as use of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging).\n\n[Conversion note: 1 bushel (q) of wh\u00e9at = 60 pounds (lb) \u2248 27.215\u00a0kg. 1 bushel of corn = 56 pounds \u2248 25.401\u00a0kg]\n\nVery recently, genetic engineering has begun to be employed in some parts of the world to speed up the selection and breeding process. The most widely used modification is a herbicide resistance gene that allows plants to tolerate exposure to glyphosate. A less frequently used but more controversial modification causes the plant to produce a toxin to reduce damage from insects (c.f. Starlink).\n\nThere are specialty producers who raise less common types of livestock or plants.\n\nAquaculture, the farming of fish, shrimp, and algae, is closely associated with agriculture.\n\nApiculture, the culture of bees, traditionally for honey, incr\u00e9asingly for crop pollination.\n\nSee also : botany, List of domesticated plants, List of vegetables, List of herbs, List of fruit, List of domesticated animals\n\nMasalah lingkungan \n Surplus nitrog\u00e9n di walungan jeung situ.\n Pangaruh ngaruksak h\u00e9rbisida, fungisida, insektisida, jeung biosida s\u00e9j\u00e9nna.\n Konversi sagala rupa \u00e9kosistem alami into arable land.\n \u00c9rosi\n Weeds - Feral Plants and Animals\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n\n Agricultural and Food Research Council\n Agricultural science\n Agricultural sciences basic topics\n Arid-zone agriculture\n Community-supported agriculture\n International agricultural research\n List of farm implements\n List of subsistence techniques\n List of sustainable agriculture topics\n Timeline of agriculture and food technology.\n USA agriculture\n\nTumbu kaluar \n Agriculture of Pakistan, All Agricultural Information\n FAO of The UN's World Agricultural Information Centre\n FAO of The UN Statistical Databases \n U.S. Department of Agriculture's Foreign Agricultural Service : Current World Production, Market and Trade Reports\n U.S. Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service : USDA's In-house Research Arm\n U.S. Department of Agriculture's National Agricultural Library : Portal to USDA's National Agricultural Library\n Agriculture at the United States National Academies\n Agriculture Directory","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":55,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":3,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2}},"id":857,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agrikultur","title":"Agrikultur","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A composer is someone who writes (composes) music. Some composers work by writing music down on paper; this is called 'written notation'. Classical music writers work this way. Writers for TV and movie music also usually write this way, so that an orchestra or other players can read the music and play it.\n\nSome musicians are very good at improvisation. This means that they think up (invent) the music as they play it. Some church organists are good at improvising. During a service they may need to play some organ music to fill in the gaps while people are collecting money or taking communion. Jazz musicians are usually excellent at improvising. Improvisation is not written down, so each time it is different.\n\nPopular and rock or soul music writers are often not able to read and write music down. Many pop and rock composers compose their songs on a guitar or piano. Cole Porter and Irving Berlin usually composed at the piano.\n\nMany songs are written by two or more people. It is common for two people to work together to write songs. Sometimes, one person writes the music and one writes the words (the lyrics). Some songs such as folk songs were composed many years ago and no one knows who wrote them.\n\nRelated pages\n Composition (music)\n\n \nEntertainment occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":143,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":7687,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Composer","title":"Composer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The sex organs, which scientists call the genitalia or genitals, are the parts of the body that allow sexual reproduction (the making of young) to take place. They are also for urination (peeing), to remove waste products from the body. While all animals have sex organs, this article is about the sex organs of human beings.\n\nThe genitals are the main parts of the human body that make men and women different. Some parts of the genitals are outside the body, while other parts are inside. In a man, his external genitals are the penis and the scrotum (a bag that contains the testicles). Inside his body the testicles produce sperm and a substance called testosterone which makes a person grow into a man and feel like a man. Other glands produce a fluid called semen. The part of a woman's genitals that is outside her body is called the vulva. Inside her body is the vagina, which holds the penis during sexual intercourse; the uterus (womb), in which a baby grows when the woman is pregnant; the ovaries, which produce ova (egg cells) and a substance called estrogen which makes a person grow into a woman and to feel like a woman; and the Fallopian tubes, which connect the ovaries to the uterus.\n\nMany human societies believe that genitals should be hidden. For this reason, people call them private parts. This attitude has resulted in public indecency laws which make it a crime for genitals to be left uncovered in public except in special places called nudist colonies.\n\nSummary\nIf a man and a woman want to reproduce sexually, they have to engage in sexual intercourse. This involves placing the man's erect penis into the woman's vagina. The vagina rubs and puts pressure on the penis, which makes the man have an orgasm. During his orgasm, the man ejaculates, and his semen flows into the woman. If a sperm in the semen reaches the woman's Fallopian tubes and fuses with an ovum, this causes the woman to become pregnant. A man and woman can also have sexual intercourse for pleasure, without wishing to have a baby. Men and women, and gay couples (two women or two men) can also use their sex organs in other ways for pleasure.\n\nDescription\n\nThe sex organs are the parts of the body that allow sexual reproduction (the making of young) to take place. They are also for urination (peeing), to remove waste products from the body. All animals have some kind of sex organs. This article is about the sex organs of human beings. In humans, the sex organs are in the lower abdomen, at the part of the body where the legs join the torso.\n\nThe scientific name for the sex organs is genitalia or genitals. They are also commonly called the reproductive organs. The genitals include both organs that can be seen on the outside of the body (the primary genitalia or external genitalia), as well as internal organs (the secondary genitalia or internal genitalia). Sometimes, however, the words genitalia or genitals are used to refer only to the external sex organs. The sex organs are informally referred to as the private parts or privates.\n\nMales and females have different sex organs. In fact, the genitals are the main parts of the human body that make men and women different.\n\nMen\n\nA man's genitals are made up of many parts. The parts that can be seen on the outside of a man's body are his penis, which is shaped like a banana or a sausage; and his scrotum, which is a bag that hangs beneath the penis and contains the two testicles. A man's penis may be circumcised. A common slang, and slightly mean, word for the parts that can be seen outside the male body is \"junk\". For example, if a boy is naked, his sister might say, \"Can't you wear a towel? Nobody wants to see your junk.\"\n\nInside a man's body, the testicles make tiny cells called sperm, which are needed for sexual reproduction. The testicles also make a hormone called testosterone. This is a chemical that makes a person grow into a man and feel like a man. The testicles are glands, which are special parts of the body that make chemicals. Other glands that make up the genitals are the prostate, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands (also called the Cowper's glands). Together, these glands make a white, sticky fluid called semen that sperm float in. Finally, a man's body contains ducts (tubes) such as the two vasa deferentia or ducta deferentia, which carry sperm out of the testicles; and the urethra, which carries semen through the penis and out of the body. The urethra also carries urine away from the bladder.\nIn reproduction the job of the penis is to carry sperm from the testicles into a woman's body so that a sperm cell can join together with the woman's ovum (egg cell) to form a new cell that will grow into a baby. The process of fusion of a sperm and an ovum is called fertilization. \n\nA man's penis is usually soft, quite short, and hangs down. When a man becomes aroused (sexually excited), the inside of his penis fills with blood. This causes the penis to become bigger, thicker, and harder and to stand upright and is called having an erection. When a man has an erection, he is able to have sexual intercourse by putting his penis into a woman's vagina. During an erection, a valve stops urine from entering the urethra so that only semen flows along it. This is why it is very difficult for a man to urinate when he is having an erection.\n\nYoung boys can have erections, but their bodies do not start producing sperm until they have reached puberty. This usually happens when they are in their teens.\n\nWomen\n\nThe part of a woman's genitals that is on the outside of her body is called the vulva. The main parts of the vulva are two sets of fleshy \"lips\" called the labia. The outer labia can be seen at the front of the woman's body. On adult women, they are generally covered with some hair. Between the outer labia are the inner labia which do not have hair and are very sensitive. At the front of the inner labia is the outside part of the clitoris which is covered by the clitoral hood. During sexual intercourse, the clitoris gives feelings of pleasure to the woman.\n\nMost of a woman's genitals are tucked inside her body. Behind the labia is a tube called the vagina, which cannot be seen on the outside of the body. (People often incorrectly use the word vagina to refer to the vulva.) When a man and a woman have sexual intercourse, the man's penis is placed into the woman's vagina. When a woman menstruates (has her menstrual period), blood and other fluid from the uterus pass out from her body through the vagina. If a woman uses a tampon (a specially-made wad of material) to absorb this fluid, she puts it into her vagina. The vagina is also called the birth canal because when a pregnant woman has a baby, it passes through the vagina.\n\nLike a man, a woman has a tube called the urethra connecting the bladder to the vulva through which urine is removed from the body. The opening of the urethra is between the clitoris and the opening to the vagina.\n\nIn many women, the opening of the vagina is partly or completely blocked by a thin tissue called the hymen. Some women are born without a hymen. The hymen usually breaks when a woman has sexual intercourse for the first time, which may cause or not some bleeding depending particularly on each woman. In some cultures, a broken hymen is taken as a sign that a girl has had sex. However, a broken hymen is not a clear sign of sexual intercourse because other activities such as exercise can also cause the hymen to break. In some women, the hymen may remain unbroken even after sex.\n\nAt the top of the vagina is the cervix which is a ring of muscle separating the vagina from the uterus or womb. The cervix allows menstrual fluid to flow from the uterus into the vagina, and during sexual intercourse it allows semen from a man's penis to flow from the vagina into the uterus. The uterus is a very muscular and stretchy organ in which babies grow during pregnancy. When a woman is not pregnant, each month the lining of the uterus grows thicker, and then breaks down, causing her to menstruate. Connected to the top of the uterus are two Fallopian tubes, on the left and right. These tubes join the uterus to the two ovaries. The ovaries produce ova, or egg cells, that are needed for reproduction. Each month, an ovum travels from one of the ovaries into a Fallopian tube. If, after the woman has had sexual intercourse with a man, the ovum fuses with a sperm cell and implants in the wall of the uterus, the woman will become pregnant. The ovaries also produce the female hormone oestrogen which causes a person to grow into a woman and to feel like a woman.\n\nYoung girls do not start producing ova and menstruating until they have reached puberty. Like boys, this usually happens in their teens. Once a woman starts menstruating, she is capable of becoming pregnant. Males begin producing sperm a good deal before women begin releasing eggs.\n\nReproduction, sexual intercourse, and masturbation\n\nThe sex organs or genitals are used for sexual reproduction and for sexual intercourse. For sexual reproduction to happen, a man and a woman need to have sexual intercourse with each other. A man's penis becomes erect when he is aroused, for example when he sees a naked woman or is touched by her. When a woman is aroused, her clitoris and vulva also swell, and the inside of her vagina produces mucus, a substance that makes it slippery. To reproduce, the man places his penis inside the woman's vagina and moves it in and out (a movement called thrusting), while the woman moves her hips back and forth or in a circular motion. The friction caused by this movement, together with the warmth and pressure of the vagina, causes the man to have pleasurable feelings in the penis. As intercourse continues, these feelings grow stronger and stronger until the man reaches a sexual climax called an orgasm. At this point, the man's penis spasms and then contracts strongly again and again to push semen through the urethra. The semen then ejaculates or shoots out from the end of the penis into the woman's vagina. The woman may also have an orgasm, which causes the vagina to tense up and relax repeatedly. Scientists are not sure why women have orgasms. Some believe that the orgasm helps the sperm in the man's semen to swim up the vagina into the cervix so that it is more likely that a sperm cell will fuse with an egg cell. Others think that the female orgasm causes the vagina to grip the penis more tightly, which makes sex more exciting for the man and causes him to ejaculate more quickly or to produce more semen; or that it encourages a woman to have sex more often as it feels good. Both of these events would make pregnancy more likely to happen. After the man has ejaculated, the blood flows out of his penis and it becomes smaller and soft again.\n\nSometimes, a man and a woman may have sexual intercourse because it gives them pleasure, without wishing for the woman to become pregnant. They may try to stop fertilization from happening by using methods of contraception or birth control. Common methods of birth control include the man wearing a condom on his penis, and the woman taking birth control pills that stop her ovaries from releasing egg cells.\n\nApart from the man putting his penis into the woman's vagina, the sex organs can be used in other ways in sexual intercourse. The man and woman can rub each other's sex organs with their hands. They can use sex toys such as dildos or vibrators. They can also engage in oral sex. When a person uses his or her mouth, lips, and tongue to touch a woman's clitoris and vulva, this is called cunnilingus. When a person uses his or her mouth, lips, and\/or tongue to touch a man's penis, this is called fellatio. A man or a woman (using a strap-on dildo or harness) can also put the sexual organ into a person's anus, this is called anal sex.\n\nPeople who are gay or homosexual also use their genitals to have sexual intercourse with each other. Two women can rub each other's sex organs, put sex toys into them, or perform oral sex on each other. Two men can also rub each other's sex organs, or perform oral or anal sex on each other.\n\nWhen a man strokes his own penis or a woman rubs her clitoris and vulva in order to feel good or to reach orgasm, this is called masturbation.\n\nUrination\n\nThe sex organs are also used for urination, which is one of the ways in which the body removes waste products. Both men and women have a bladder, which is an organ that stores urine. In a man, a thin tube called the urethra passes from his bladder right through his penis. In a woman, the urethra opens into the vulva. When a person urinates, urine flows from the bladder through the urethra and out of the body.\n\nAdditional images\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n \n \n \n\nReproductive system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":226,"dup_dump_count":93,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":4,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":4,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":4,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6}},"id":24453,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sex%20organ","title":"Sex organ","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"This article is about the fictional from J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth universe. It includes major regions of the world, geographical features such as rivers, mountains  and mountain ranges. The article also included selection of various notable places which were created by Tolkien and used as setting in his many books.\n\nRegions of Middle-earth \nBeleriand: Beleriand was a large region in northwestern Middle-earth until the end of the First Age. It is between the sea in the west and south and the Blue Mountains in the east. At the end of the First Age, Beleriand was destroyed and covered by the sea.\nEriador: Eriador is a large region in Middle-earth. It is between the Blue Mountains in the west, the Misty Mountains in the east and the Ice-bay of Forochel in the north. The rivers Glanduin and Greyflood form the southern edge of Erindor. In the earlier part of the Third Age much of Eriador was part of the kingdom of Arnor. Apart from Arnor, other settlements in Eriador of the Third Age were Rivendell, Bree-land and the Shire.\nRhovanion: Rhovanion is a large region in Middle-earth. It is also called Wilderland. The region is east of the Misty Mountains and south of the Grey Mountains and the Iron Hills. The river Anduin flows through it from the Grey Mountains to the Emyn Muil. A big part of Rhovanion is covered by the forest of Mirkwood.\nRh\u00fbn: Rh\u00fbn is a large region in Middle-earth. It is east of Rhovanion. The regions is near Sea of Rh\u00fbn.\nHarad: Harad or Haradwaith is the lands south of Gondor and Mordor. The coasts of Harad were settled by the Black N\u00famen\u00f3reans. These people live in Harad. The were often influenced by Sauron and fought with the western realms. In the Fourth Age, the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor made peace with Harad. The elephant-like m\u00fbmakil (or oliphaunts) also live in Harad.\n\nMiddle-earth mountains\nAmon Hen: Amon Hen (Sindarin: Hill of the Eye) is a hill on the west side of the river Anduin. It is at the southern end of the long lake Nen Hithoel near the Falls of Rauros. On the eastern side of the lake is the hill Amon Lhaw. On Amon Hen, the Fellowship of the Ring was seperated and they went in different directions.\nEred Luin: Ered Luin (Sindarin: Blue Mountains), also known as Ered Lindon are a mountain range in the far west of Eriador. Until the end of the First Age, the Ered Luin separated Beleriand and Eriador. In the middle of the mountain range is a gap. It formed the Gulf of Lh\u00fbn\/Lune. The Grey Havens are located there.\nEred Mithrin: The Ered Mithrin (Sindarin: Grey Mountains) is a range of mountains to the north of Rhovanion. At the western end of the Grey Mountains is Mount Gundabad. It is a part of the Misty Mountains. The Iron Hills are east of this area.\nEred Nimrais: The Ered Nimrais (Sindarin: Whitehorn Mountains) or White Mountains are a mountain range between Gondor in the south and Rohan in the north. The western part the White Mountains are separated from the Misty Mountains by the Gap of Rohan. The gap is near the valley of Helm's Deep. The Path of the Dead run through the range. The mountain Mindolluin  is at the eastern edge of the range. The city of Minas Tirith is in this mountain.\n Misty Mountain: The Misty Mountains (or Sindarin Hithaeglir) are a great mountain range, between Eriador in the west and Rhovanion in the east. At the southern end of the Misty Mountains is Isengard, at the northern end is Mount Gundabad. Under the Misty Mountains is the old dwarven city Khazad-d\u00fbm.\n Mount Doom: Mount Doom (Sindarin: Amon Amarth) is a volcano in northeastern Mordor. It is also known as Orodruin (Sindarin: fiery mountain)  Inside the volcano are the Sammath Naur (or Cracks of Doom). This is where Sauron made the One Ring. It is also the only place where the Ring can be destroyed.\nWeathertop: Weathertop (Sindarin Amon S\u00fbl, Hill of Wind) is a hill in Eriador. It is the most southern peak of the Weather Hills. It is also the highest peak of the Weather Hills.  The Weather Hills are next to the Great East Road. They are about halfway between the Shire and Rivendell.  The Tower of Amon S\u00fbl was on Weathertop. It was a watch-tower built by the kingdom of Arnor. THe tower was destroying in year 1409 of the Third Age.  There are only ruins left of the tower.  In T.A. 3018, Aragorn and the hobbits camped on Weathertop. While they were camped there, they were attacked by the Ringwraiths. Frodo Baggins was wounded by a Morgul-blade.\n\nMiddle-earth rivers\nAnduin: The Anduin is the largest river in Middle-earth. It begins in the Grey Mountains and flows through Rhovanion and the Emyn Muil. From there, it goes through the rapids of Sarn Gebir and into the lake Nen Hithoel. After it leaves the lake, it falls down the Falls of Rauros. Once it is past the falls, the river flows between the White Mountains and the Mountains of Shadow. It then flows into the sea in a broad river delta. This delta is called the Mouths of Anduin or the Ethir Anduin.\nBruinen: Bruinen or Loudwater was a river in Eriador. It began in the Misty Mountains. It flowed south from the mountains through the valley of Rivendell. From there it flowed into the river Mitheithel.\nBaranduin: The Baranduin or Brandywine River is a river in Eriador. It begins at  Lake Evendim in northern Eriador and flows south. The river flows through the Shire and into the sea.\n\nOther Middle-earth locations\n\nArnor \nArnor was a human realm in Eriador. It was founded by Elendil and his people, who survived the Fall of N\u00famenor near the end of the Second Age. The peoples living in Arnor were the descendants of the N\u00famenorean survivors, and the indigenous human peoples who had lived there before. The capital of Arnor was the city Ann\u00faminas. It was on the shores of Lake Evendim in northern Eriador. Elendil was the first King of Arnor. After his death, his older son Isildur became king.\n\nAfter the death of E\u00e4rendur, the tenth king, in T.A. 861, his three sons split Arnor into three new lands. Each land a country ruled by one of the sons. These countries were: Arthedain in the west, Cardolan in the south, and Rhudaur in the north. Over time, all three of countries were destroyed in wars against the northern land Angmar. After the War of the Ring, the land again became part of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor. It as ruled by King Elessar Telcontar and his descendants.\n\nBree-land\nBree-land is a small region in Eriador, It  surrounded the Breehill. The region  has four villages. They are : Bree , Archet, Combe and Staddle. The peoples living in the villages of Bree-land are humans  and hobbits; This  is the only place where these two people live together. The only other place where hobbits live  is the Shire. Bree is at the meeting point of two large roads, the Great East Road and the North-South Road. It is an important center of trade and travel.\n\nErebor\nThe Lonely Mountain (Sindarin: Erebor) is a mountain in the northeast of Rhovanion. When the dwarves had to leave their ancient home Khazad-d\u00fbm, it became the new home of Durin's folk. They were led by Thr\u00e1in I, who became King under the Mountain. Later Erebor was attacked by the dragon Smaug, and the dwarves had to flee again. In the story told in The Hobbit, the dragon Smaug is killed and the dwarves again return to the Lonely Mountain. D\u00e1in II Ironfoot becomes new King under the Mountain.\n\nEsgaroth\nEsgaroth is a town in the northeast of Rhovanion. It is also known as Lake-town  It is built at the Long Lake. the town is south of the Lonely Mountain and east of Mirkwood. It was destroyed by the dragon Smaug during the events of The Hobbit but was rebuilt.\n\nFangorn\nFangorn or Fangorn Forest is a large forest on the eastern side of the southern end of the Misty Mountains. Fangorn is the home of the Ents. They are  a people of giant tree-like beings. The Sindarin word \"Fangorn\" translates to \"Beardtree\", Fangoen is also the Sindarin name of the Ent Treebeard.\n\nGondor\nGondor is a human realm in southeastern Middle-earth. It was founded by the brothers Isildur and An\u00e1rion and their people, who had survived the Fall of N\u00famenor near the end of the Second Age. During the Third Age, Gondor included the lands beween the sea in the south, the Mountains of Shadow in the east, and the White Mountains  in the north. In earlier times, The lands of Gondor reached farther north. The city Osgiliath was the capital of Gondor. It was built over the river Anduin.  Isildur also founded the city Minas Ithil. His brother An\u00e1rion founded the city Minas Anor west of the Anduin on the mountain Mindolluin.\n\nGondor has several regions. Ithilien is in the east, It is between the river Anduin in the west and the Mountains of Shadow in the east. An\u00f3rien was a small land north of the White Mountains. It is between the river Anduin in the east and Rohan in the west. Calenardhon is the land north of the White Mountains. It became Rohan in the 26th century T.A. Enedwaith was northwest of the White Mountains. This region was mostly abandoned in the later part of the Third Age. Between the coast and the White Mountains were several smaller regions. Near the seashore in the south were the regions Anfalas, Belfalas, Dor-en-Ernil, Lebennin, and Lossarnach. Along the Mountains in the north were the Morthond Vale,  Lamedon, and the Ringl\u00f3 Vale. Southeast of the Anduin was the region South Gondor.\n\nAfter the War of the Last Alliance of Elves and Men against Sauron, Isildur left to rule the northern kingdom Arnor. The son of An\u00e1rion stayed to rule Gondor. During a civil war In the 15th century,  the city Osgiliath was destroyed. Minas Anor became the new capital. The Ringwraiths captured Minas Ithil during the rule of King E\u00e4rnur.  They changed the name of the city to Minas Morgul. Minas Anor was renamed Minas Tirith (\"Tower of Guard\"). Both cities were always at war. Much of the fighting took place near the old capital of Osgiliath. During the War of the Ring, Sauron won control of Western Osgiliath. This made it possible for his forces to attack Minas Tirith. The Orcs attacked the city but were stopped by the Rohirrim. This let the defenders to charge the enemy. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields was won by the Men of Gondor and Rohan.\n\nThe last King, E\u00e4rnur, disappeared in 2050 T.A. After this, Gondor was ruled by the Stewards of Gondor instead of a king until the end of the Third Age. After the War of the Ring, the land became part of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor. It was ruled by King Elessar Telcontar and his descendants.\n\nGreat East Road\nThe Great East Road is an ancient road which was made by the dwarves. The road ran from western area of the region Beleriand, over the Ered Luin mountain range, through the Shire, to the Misty Mountains, and to the dwarven lands in the east.\n\nHelm's Deep\nHelm's Deep is a deep valley on the north side of the western part of the White Mountains. It is south to the Gap of Rohan. The valley was blocked by a series of hills called Helm's Dike. Helm's Deep is the location of the  fortress, Hornburg. The entrance to the Glittering Caves is at the end of the valley.\n\nIsengard\nIsengard is a fortress at the southern end of the Misty Mountains. It is in a small valley inside a ring-shaped wall. The wall is called, the Ring of Isengard. In the fortress is a tall black tower, Orthanc. Isengard belonged to Gondor but in the 28th century it was given to Saruman. The fortress has a palant\u00edr. A palantir is ball made of indestructible crystal that is used for communicating with other places.  In the War of the Ring, ring-wall was destroyed by the Ents. After the War, the tower Orthanc was given back to King Elessar and the Reunited Kingdom.\n\nKhazad-d\u00fbm\nKhazad-d\u00fbm was the ancient home of the Dwarves under the Misty Mountains. It was a large underground city. It also has a system of mines under it. The city was the only place in Middle-earth where the precious metal mithril could be found. This made the dwarves very rich. Khazad-d\u00fbm was founded by Durin the Deathless early in the First Age. \n\nIn the Third Age, the dwarves woke a Balrog deep in the mines of Khazad-d\u00fbm. The Balrog killed King Durin VI and many Dwarves. The dwarves that were not killed were forced to leave Khazad-d\u00fbm and find other places to life. Khazad-d\u00fbm got a new name, Moria. In Sindarin. Moria means \"dark pit\".\n\nLothl\u00f3rien\nLothl\u00f3rien was an elven realm. It was between the Misty Mountains and the Anduin. The realm was on the land between the rivers Anduin and Silverlode. It was close to the dwarven realm Khazad-d\u00fbm. Lothl\u00f3rien was founded in the Second Age. Amd\u00edr was the first King of Lothl\u00f3rien. The elves of Lothl\u00f3rien fought in the War of the Last Alliance of Elves and Men against Sauron. In the war, Amd\u00edr was killed. His son Amroth became king after him. Amroth later left Lothl\u00f3rien. After he left, the realm was ruled by Lord Celeborn and Lady Galadriel until the end of the Third Age. Caras Galadhon was the main city of Lothl\u00f3rien. Other names of Lothl\u00f3rien are the shortened name L\u00f3rien, and the names Laurelind\u00f3renan, Dwimordene (Rohirric), or The Golden Wood.\n\nMordor\nMordor (Sindarin: Black Land and Quenya: Land of Shadow) is a land in the southeastern part of Middle-earth. It is east of the Anduin. Mordor was the land of Sauron in the Second and Third Ages. Mordor is surrounded by mountain ranges. The Ered Lithui (Sindarin: \"Mountains of Ash\") is a range of mountains to the north of Mordor. The Ephel D\u00faath (Sindarin: Mountains of Shadow) is west of it, Another mountain range in the south. In the northwest is the plateau named Gorgoroth. Sauron's main fortress, Barad-d\u00fbr, is at the base of the Ered Lithui mountains. The volcano Mount Doom is south west of  Barad-d\u00fbr. Many parts of Mordor are a wasteland. The southern part of Mordor, around the Sea of N\u00farnen was more fertile. It was used as farmland to feed the armies of Sauron.\n\nMirkwood\nMirkwood is a large forest in Rhovanion. The forest was originally known as Greenwood the Great (Sindarin: Eryn Galen). \n\nIn the Second Age, an Elven people settled in the Greenwood. They created the Woodland Realm. The capital of the realm was on the hill Amon Lanc. After the Second Age, the Elves went  to live farther north. In the 11th century T.A., Sauron chose to live in the hill-fortress of Dol Guldur on Amon Lanc. It was in the south of the forest. His evil influence darkened the woods. It had less of an effect towards the north of the forest. After this, the Greenwood became known as Mirkwood. After the War of the Ring,  evil effects of Sauron's influence were removed from the forest. It known as Eryn Lasgalen (Sindarin: \"Wood of Greenleaves\").\n\nNorth-South Road\nThe North-South Road is a long road running from the realm of Arnor in the north to Gondor in the south. The road begins in the city Fornost Erain, the capital of Arthedain. It crossesthe Great East Road at Bree, and runs to the southern end of the Misty Mountains. There, the road turned east, towards the cities of Minas Tirith and Osgiliath in Gondor. The road ended at Minas Ithil. A part of the road south of Bree is also known as the Greenway.\n\nRivendell\nRivendell (Sindarin: Imladris, Westron: Karningul) was an elven city in eastern Eriador. It was founded in the Second Age by Elrond. He ruled it until the end of the Third Age.\n\nRohan\nRohan or the Riddermark (or The Mark) was a human realm in southeastern Middle-earth. It was north of Gondor. Rohan was north of the White Mountains, southeast of Isengard and southwest of the Emyn Muil. It began as a part of Gondor named Calenardhon. The capital of Rohan is Edoras. The king's hall, Meduseld, is at Edoras.\n\nA plague in 1636 T.A. and the later wars,  caused Calenardhon to be mostly empty. Very few people lived there. In 2509 T.A. the Rohirrim came south from the north, to help Gondor fight against an invasion of Men from the north-east and Orcs from Mordor. The Rohirrim helped Gondor win the Battle of the Field of Celebrant and the war. Steward Cirion of Gondor gave the land Calenardhon to the Rohirrim. The King of the Rohirrim, Eorl the Young, swore the Oath of Eorl. He said  that Rohan would come and help Gondor if it needed help in war. Afterwards, the people of the Rohirrim moved into their new land. They changed the name to the Riddermark or just The Mark. Gondor called the land Rohan (Sindarin: \"Land of the Horse-lords\").\n\nThe Shire\n\nThe Shire is a land in Eriador. It is settled by hobbits. Its name in Westron was S\u00fbza \"Shire\" or S\u00fbzat \"The Shire\". Its name in Sindarin was i Drann. The Shire was settled by the hobbits in the 24th century T.A. It is divided into four Farthings: the North-, West-, South- and Eastfarthing. The leaders of the Shire were the Mayor of Michel Delving, the Thain from Tuckborough and the Master of Buckland.\n\nN\u00famenor\nN\u00famenor was a huge star-shaped island west of Middle-earth in the Second Age. At the beginning of the Age it was given to the human peoples who had helped the elves in the wars against Morgoth. In the middle of the island was the mountain Meneltarma. It was a holy place for the N\u00famenoreans. N\u00famenor was divided into six regions. Each region was in one of each  of the five \"star-arm\" and one in the middle. The outer regions were Forostar (\"Northlands\"), Andustar (\"Westlands\"), Hyarnustar (\"Southwestlands\"), Hyarrostar (\"Southeastlands\") and Orrostar (\"Eastlands\") The central region was  Mittalmar (\"Inlands\"). In the eastern part of the central region was Arandor (\"Kingsland\"). the capital city Armenelos and the haven R\u00f3menna. \n\nTheir first king of N\u00famenor was Elros Tar-Minyatur. He was the brother of Elrond. N\u00famenor became the most powerful nation of Men. As time passed, many N\u00famenoreans, including their kings, became power-hungry. They became enemies of the elves. Towards the end of the Second Age, N\u00famenor was ruled by King Ar-Pharaz\u00f4n the Golden. During that time, the island was destroyed and sank in the sea. Only a group of N\u00famenoreans led by Elendil, the Elendili (\"Elf-friends\") or the Faithful, were not destroyed with the island. They came to Middle-earth and founded the realms Arnor and Gondor. The Akallab\u00eath is the story of N\u00famenor's history and downfall.\n\nSome of the many names of N\u00famenor were Westernesse, N\u00famen\u00f3r\u00eb (Quenya, the long form of N\u00famenor) and Anad\u00fbn\u00ea (Ad\u00fbnaic), both meaning \"West-land\"; Andor (Quenya) and Y\u00f4z\u00e2yan (Ad\u00fbnaic), which both mean \"the Land of the Gift\". Later it was also called Atalant\u00eb (Quenya) and Akallab\u00eath (Ad\u00fbnaic), both meaning \"the Downfallen\".\n\nRelated pages\n Middle-earth\n Middle-earth characters\n The Lord of the Rings (book series)\n The Lord of the Rings (movie series)\n The Hobbit (book)\n The Hobbit (movie series)\n The Silmarillion\n\nReferences\n\nLocations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":195,"dup_dump_count":15,"dup_details":{"2024-30":4,"2024-26":13,"2024-22":14,"2024-18":16,"2024-10":10,"2023-50":19,"2023-40":18,"2023-23":20,"2023-14":15,"2023-06":15,"2022-49":14,"2022-40":6,"2022-33":7,"2022-27":7,"2022-21":17}},"id":97074,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middle-earth%20locations","title":"Middle-earth locations","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Solomon ben Elijah Sharbit Ha-Zahab was a Jewish astronomer, poet, and grammarian; he lived at Salonica and later at Ephesus, in the second half of the fourteenth century.\n\nMoritz Steinschneider supposes that the name \"Sharbi\u1e6d ha-Zahab\" is the Hebrew equivalent of the Greek name \"Chrysakokka,\" borne by the translator of the Persian \"Astronomical Tables,\" which Solomon rendered into Hebrew, perhaps under the title \"Mahalak ha-Kokabim\" (Paris, Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale, MS. No. 1042; Vatican MS. No.393). Another of Solomon's translations from the Greek, still extant in manuscript in various libraries, is the treatise of Ptolemy on the astrolabe.\n\nIn addition to these translations, Solomon wrote \"\u1e24eshe\u1e33 Shelomoh,\" a grammatical treatise (Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale MS. No. 1042); a commentary written at the request of some prominent Jews of Ephesus on the \"Sefer ha-Shem\" of ibn Ezra; and a great number of liturgical poems, some of which are found in the Roman Ma\u1e25zor. Several of Solomon's poems (among which one on the alphabet, entitled \"Otiyyot ha-\u1e32odesh Meribot Zu 'im Zu,\" is a masterpiece of elegance) have been published by David Kohen (\"A\u1e25iasaf,\"1893).\n\nSolomon wrote also a commentary on the Pentateuch, in which he vehemently attacked Karaite Biblical interpretations. Against these attacks was directed the \"Iggeret ha-\u1e92om\" of Elijah Bashya\u1e93i.\n\nReferences \n Luzzatto, in Kerem \u1e24emed, iv. 39;\n Leopold Zunz, S. P. p.\u00a0372;\n Heinrich Gr\u00e4tz, Gesch. viii. 290;\n Julius F\u00fcrst, Gesch. des Kar\u00e4ert. ii. 306;\n Moritz Steinschneider, in Hebr. Bibl. xix. 58;\n idem, Hebr. Uebers. p.\u00a0536\n\nExternal links\n Source\n\nMedieval Jewish astronomers\nMedieval Hebraists\nJewish poets\n14th-century births\nYear of death unknown","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":152,"dup_dump_count":60,"dup_details":{"2022-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":5,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":6,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":3}},"id":11355460,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solomon%20ben%20Elijah%20Sharbit","title":"Solomon ben Elijah Sharbit","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) is a method for uniquely identifying the public identities of contributors to media content such as books, TV programmes, and newspaper articles. Such an identifier consistgits divided into four blocks.\n\nIt was developed under the auspices of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as Draft International Standard 27729; the valid standard was published on 15 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u091a 2012. The ISO technical committee 46, subcommittee 9 (TC 46\/SC 9) is responsible for the development of the standard.\n\nISNI can be used fo\n\nUses of an ISNI \nThe ISNI allows a single identity (such as an author's pseudonym or the imprint used by a publisher) to be identified using a unique number. This unique number can then be linked to any of the numerous other identifiers that are used across the media industries to identify names and other forms of identity.\n\nAn example of the use of such a number is the identification of a musical performer who is also a writer both of music and of poems. Where he or she might currently be identified in many different databases using numerous private and public identification systems, under the ISNI system, he or she would have a single linking ISNI record. The many different databases could then exchange data about that particular identity without resorting to messy methods such as comparing text strings. An often quoted example in the English language world is the difficulty faced when identifying 'John Smith' in a database. While there may be many records for 'John Smith', it is not always clear which record refers to the specific 'John Smith' that is required.\n\nIf an author has published under several different names or pseudonyms, each such name will receive its own ISNI.\n\nISNI can be used by libraries and archives when sharing catalogue information; for more precise searching for information online and in databases, and it can aid the management of rights across national borders and in the digital environment.\n\nORCID \nORCID (Open Researcher and Contributor ID) identifiers are reserved block of ISNI identifiers, for scholarly researchers. administered by a separate organisation. Individual researchers can create and claim their own ORCID identifier. The two organisations coordinate their efforts.\n\nISNI governance \nISNI is governed by an 'International Agency', commonly known as the ISNI-IA. This UK registered, not-for-profit company has been founded by a consortium of organisations consisting of the Conf\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale des Soci\u00e9t\u00e9s d\u00b4Auteurs et Compositeurs (CISAC), the Conference of European National Librarians (CENL), the International Federation of Reproduction Rights Organisations (IFRRO), the International Performers Database Association (IPDA), the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) and ProQuest. It is managed by directors nominated from these organisations and, in the case of CENL, by representatives of the Biblioth\u00e8que nationale de France and the British Library.\n\nISNI assignment \nISNI-IA uses an assignment system comprising a user interface, data-schema, disambiguation algorithms, and database that meets the requirements of the ISO standard, while also using existing technology where possible. The system is based primarily on the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) service, which has been developed by OCLC for use in the aggregation of library catalogues.\n\nAccess to the assignment system and database, and to the numbers that are generated as the output of the process, are controlled by independent bodies known as 'registration agencies'. These registration agencies deal directly with customers, ensuring that data is provided in appropriate formats and recompensing the ISNI-IA for the cost of maintaining the assignment system. Registration agencies are appointed by ISNI-IA but will be managed and funded independently.\n\nSee also \n Authority control\n Digital Author Identification (DAI)\n International Standard Text Code (ISTC)\n ResearcherID\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n \n\nISO standards\nUniversal identifiers\nLibrary cataloging and classification","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":154,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":5,"2018-17":7,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":6,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":8,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":6,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":5,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":6,"2017-09":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":5,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":583734,"url":"https:\/\/hi.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B2%20%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%20%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%20%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE","title":"\u0907\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0928\u0947\u0936\u0928\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0923\u094d\u0921\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e","language":"hi"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"New Year's Eve is the holiday before New Year's Day, on December 31, the last day of the current year. \n\nToday, Western countries usually celebrate this day with a party which ends with a group countdown to midnight. Party hats, noisemakers, fire crackers and drinking champagne are fairly common during this holiday.\n\nMany towns also have firework shows or other noisy ways to start the new year. Places like Berlin, Chicago, Edinburgh, Los Angeles, London, New York, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Sydney, Toronto,  and Tokyo are well known for their New Year's Eve celebrations.\n\nNew Year's Eve is also a work holiday in some countries, such as Australia, Argentina, Brazil, France, Mexico, the Philippines, and Venezuela.\n\nRelated pages\n\n Chinese New Year\n Omisoka (Japan)\n \u00c1ram\u00f3taskaupi\u00f0 (Iceland)\n\nNew Year","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":25233,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New%20Year%27s%20Eve","title":"New Year's Eve","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In the physical sciences, mass and weight are different. The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in the object. Weight is a measure of the force on the object caused by a gravitational field. In other words, weight is how hard gravity pulls on an object. This means the mass of an object will remain at wherever it is on the earth's surface, but if it is moved from the equator to the North Pole, its weight will grow by 0.5% because of the increase in the earth's gravitational field.\n\nMass is measured in kilograms or pounds. A one-liter volume of water has a mass of one kilogram. Weight is measured in newtons, the standard unit for force. A one-kilogram mass placed on  a bench presses down on the bench with almost ten newtons of force.\n\nOverview\nThe weight of something is the value measured at the Earth's surface. Unfortunately the common terms used to describe the weight of an object are units of mass such as kilograms or pounds. For almost all of human history weight has been measured on the surface of the Earth. Here, the weight is proportional to the mass. Objects which have the same mass have the same weight. An object with the twice the mass of another will also have twice the weight. As a consequence it is common practice to use the two words, mass and weight, as if they mean the same thing, and to use kilograms or pounds as the units for both mass and weight. Using the same terms to describe and measure the two different properties has led to confusion between these two properties, mass and weight. Mass and weight are not the same thing.\n\nGenerally, mass refers to how \"heavy\" something is. However, mass is really an inertial property; that is, the tendency of an object to remain at constant velocity unless acted upon by an outside force. According to Newton's second law of motion, as expressed in the formula an object with a mass, m, of one kilogram will accelerate, a, at one meter per second per second (about one-tenth the acceleration due to Earth's gravity) when acted upon by a force, F, of one newton.\n\nFeeling the difference\nIt is possible to feel the difference between weight and mass by suspending an object with a mass of over ten kilograms on a rope with a length of two or more meters. If a person pushes upwards against the underneath of the object with one finger they will feel the weight of the object. If they push momentarily against the side of the suspended object with one finger they will feel the mass of the object. (It is important that they do not push the object sideways far enough to begin to raise it.)\n\nMatter\nPhysics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":57,"dup_details":{"unknown":7,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-10":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5}},"id":235179,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass%20versus%20weight","title":"Mass versus weight","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The St John Passion (), BWV 245, is a musical composition by Johann Sebastian Bach. The words tell the story of Jesus's death on the cross as told in the Gospel of John in the Bible. The work is for a choir, solo voices and orchestra.\n\nThe St. John Passion was first performed in 1724 in the St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig. The words are from three sources: the Bible (telling the story), by two poets from  Hamburg, mostly by Barthold Heinrich Brockes, and from chorales which were well-known to German church goers at the time. There were other composers who also wrote works called St John Passion, the most famous being Heinrich Sch\u00fctz. However, Bach's St John Passion is thought by many musicians to be one of the greatest choral works ever written. Two other great choral works by Bach are his St Matthew Passion and Mass in B minor .\n\nPassions and oratorios by Johann Sebastian Bach\nChoral compositions","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":164519,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/St%20John%20Passion","title":"St John Passion","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"High-definition television (HDTV) is a television broadcasting system which uses a higher resolution than a normal television. With HDTV, people can see sharper pictures than with old television, giving a more vivid and clear screen.\n\nMost HDTV systems use digital signals with a 16:9 aspect ratio (width to height). This is different to SDTV (standard-definition television) which uses analog signals and a 4:3 aspect ratio.\n\nHDTV picture resolution is at least twice that of SDTV, so it can present a more vivid screen than analog television or DVD. HDTV can control resolution efficiently.\n\nSome videos on the website YouTube, a free video sharing website that lets people upload and view videos, are in HD.\n\nThere are different standards. Common ones are:\n2560\u00d71440, progressive scan, requiring about 3,68 Megapixels per frame. This is known as 1440p or WQHD. It is a new standard, which is slowly replacing many 1080p-computer-monitors in the household (everyday use).\n1920\u00d71080, progressive scan, requiring about 2,07 MPixels per frame. This is known as 1080p or FullHD. It has been used very frequently for different types of screens in the past few years. \n1920\u00d71080, interlaced, 1.04 MPixel per field. This is known as 1080i.\n1280\u00d7720, progressive, 0.92 MPixel per frame. This is known as 720p.\n\nAs a comparison, PAL plus is at 1024x576 pixels, and NTSC at 853x480 pixels.\n\nOther websites \n US Government HDTV and DTV official site \n Canadian Digital Television official website \n ATSC\n\nTelevision technology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":246,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":4,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":5,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":4,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":7,"2021-31":6,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":7,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":5,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":8,"2020-29":6,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":5,"2020-10":7,"2020-05":7,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":7,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":7,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":8,"2019-13":4,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1}},"id":37809,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High-definition%20television","title":"High-definition television","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Reformed churches are a group of Christian Protestant denominations that are historically related by a doctrine that is identical or similar to Calvinism. It developed in the Swiss Reformation led by Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, but soon afterwards appeared in nations throughout Western Europe. Each nation in which the Reformed movement was originally established had its own church government. Several of these local churches have expanded to worldwide denominations and most have experienced schisms into multiple denominations.\n\nHistory \nThe first Reformed Churches were established in Europe in the 1500s, in the wake of the Protestant Reformation.\n\nForm of doctrine \nReformed doctrine is expressed in various texts]. Some of them are used by many denominations. Different denominations use different confessions, usually based on historical reasons. Some of the confessions still commonly in use are (with year of writing):\n French Confession (1559),\n Scots Confession (1560), \n Three Forms of Unity\n Heidelberg Catechism (1563), \n Belgic Confession (1566), \n Canons of Dordrecht (1619), \n Second Helvetic Confession (1566)\n Westminster Standards \n Westminster Confession of Faith (1646)\n Westminster Shorter Catechism (1649)\n Westminster Larger Catechism (1649)\n Baptist\n London Baptist Confession of Faith (1689)\n\nForm of governance \nReformed churches have two main forms of ecclesiastical polity:\n Presbyterian polity or Synodal government - rule by assemblies of ordained officers.\n Congregationalist polity, e.g. Congregational churches\n\nOther websites \n World Communion of Reformed Churches\n * World list of Reformed Churches\n Alliance of Confessing Evangelicals\n Leben, a journal of Reformed Life\n Reformed Online - Comprehensive resource\n\nCalvinism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":100138,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reformed%20churches","title":"Reformed churches","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Eric X of Sweden (Erik Knutsson, c. 1180 - April 10, 1216) was the King of Sweden between 1208 and 1216.\n\nErik was the son of King Knut Eriksson of Sweden, but his mother is now unknown. In 1205 he escaped from the Battle of \u00c4lgar\u00e5s, where his three brothers were killed. He stayed for three years with family in Norway. He returned to Sweden in 1208 and defeated Sverker II of Sweden in the battle of Lena. He was married in 1210 to Rikissa of Denmark, the daughter of Valdemar I of Denmark and Sophia of Novgorod.\n\nEric was elected king, but the coronation took place only in November 1210, after the Battle of Gestilren where he again defeated and killed Sverker II. Sverker had attempted to regain the throne. King Erik's coronation is the earliest known coronation in Sweden. It was carried out by the bishop Valerius, a former supporter of King Sverker II.\n\nIn 1216, Pope Innocent III agreed that King Erik was King of Sweden, and also any other pagan lands he captured, probably Finland. Previously, Innocent III had supported Sverker II. Very little is known about King Erik's reign, but it is said that the crops were good while he was king.\n\nErik had several children: \n Sofia (died before 24 April 1241), married to Prince Burwin Henry III of Mecklenburg (d. 1277\/1278)\n Marianne, Pomeranian princess, also called Mariana or Marina\n Ingeborg Eriksdotter of Sweden, married Birger Jarl.\n Erik Eriksson, calledErik the Lisp and the Lame. He was born in 1216 after his father's death. The Karl Chronicle says that \"Erik Lisp and Lame\" also had a sister, Martha Farmer. This would have been Erik Knutsson's daughter. Historian Dick Harrison says that this is only political propaganda for Martha's cousin, Karl Knutsson (Bonde). This untrue connection would have made him a relative of the House of Eric.\n\nErik died of a fever in 1216 at Nas Castle in Visings\u00f6. He is buried in the Varnhems Church.\n\nReferences\n\nKings and Queens of Sweden\n1180 births\n1216 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":55,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-35":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":2}},"id":29752,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eric%20X%20of%20Sweden","title":"Eric X of Sweden","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A fuel tax (also known as a petrol, gasoline or gas tax,  or as a fuel duty) is an excise tax imposed on the sale of fuel. In most countries the fuel tax is imposed on fuels which are intended for transportation. Fuel tax receipts are often dedicated or hypothecated to transportation projects, in which case the fuel tax can be considered a user fee. In other countries, the fuel tax is a source of general revenue. Sometimes, a fuel tax is used as an ecotax, to promote ecological sustainability. Fuel taxes are often considered by government agencies such as the Internal Revenue Service as regressive taxes.\n\nFuels used to power agricultural vehicles, as well as home heating oil which is similar to diesel, are taxed at a different, usually lower rate. These fuels may be dyed to prevent their use for transportation.\n\nAviation fuel is typically charged at a different rate to fuel for ground-based vehicles. Jet fuel and avgas can attract different rates. In many jurisdictions such as the United States and the European Union, commercial aviation fuel is tax free.\n\nOther fuels such as gases, or solid fuels such as coal, may also be taxed.\n\nIn countries with a sales tax or a value added tax, these taxes may also be levied on top of fuel taxes. The rate can vary depending on the fuel.\n\nRole in energy policy\n\nTaxes on transportation fuels have been advocated as a way to reduce pollution and the possibility of global warming and conserve energy.  Placing higher taxes on fossil fuels makes petrol just as expensive as other fuels such as natural gas, biodiesel or electric batteries, at a cost to the consumer in the form of inflation as transportation costs rise to transport goods all over the country.\n\nProponents advocate that automobiles should pay for the roads they use and argue that the user tax should not be applied to mass transit projects.\n\nThe Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the International Energy Agency, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank have called on governments to increase gasoline tax rates in order to combat the social and environmental costs of gasoline consumption.\n\nTax rates\nInternational pump prices for diesel and gasoline are tracked by several websites, including Bloomberg L.P. Price differences mostly reflect differences in tax policy.\n\nA Nature study has shown that while gasoline taxes have increased in more countries than they have decreased in during the period 2003\u20132015, the global mean gasoline tax has decreased due to greater consumption in the low-tax countries.\n\nAsia\n\nChina\nChinese gasoline taxes have increased the most among the top twenty -emitting countries over the period 2003\u20132015.\n\nIn China, fuel tax has been a very contentious issue. Efforts by the State Council to institute a fuel tax in order to finance the National Trunk Highway System have run into strong opposition from the National People's Congress, largely out of concern for its impact on farmers.  This has been one of the uncommon instances in which the legislature has asserted its authority.\n\nHong Kong \nThe following is a list of fuel tax rates for different fuels in Hong Kong:\nAviation fuel: HK$6.51\nLight diesel oil: HK$2.89\nLeaded petrol: HK$6.82\nUnleaded petrol: HK$6.06\nUltra low sulphur diesel: HK$2.89\nEuro V diesel: HK$0\n\nSingapore \nThe following is a list of fuel tax rates for different fuels in Singapore:\n98 Octane and above petrol: S$0.79 per litre\n92 to 95 Octane petrol: S$0.66 per litre\n\nIndia\nIn India, the pricing of fuel varies by state, though central taxes still are part of the pump price of fuel. The Central and state government's taxes make up nearly half of petrol's pump price. The Central govt has different taxes, which amount to about 10\u201320% of the final cost. The states taxes vary, but on average end up making about 17\u201320% of the final cost. As a result, approximately 50% - 60% of the pump cost goes to the government in the form of different taxes.\n\nFor example, in Delhi, as of February 18, 2021, price of petrol is  per litre. Out of this  go to Central Govt of India in the form of excise and customs tax.  is collected by state government in the form of sales tax and entry tax. Thus, a total of  is collected due to various taxes (which accounts for around 58% of the total price).\n\nIsrael\nIn Israel, tax on fuel is 1.35 USD per liter which includes direct fuel tax and VAT. This totals to 78% of total pump price.\n\nEurope\n\nJet fuel tax is banned on commercial flights within the European Union, according to the 2003 Energy Taxation Directive. It can be levied on domestic flights or by agreement between Member States, however no such agreements exist.\n\nFrance\nAs of 2017, the excise tax on gasoline was \u20ac0.651 per liter (regional prices varied from \u20ac0.407 to \u20ac0.6682). With a VAT rate of 20%, the percent of the total price of gasoline that came from taxes was 63.9% The excise tax on diesel fuel was \u20ac0.531 per liter (\u20ac0.5307 to \u20ac0.5631). With the 20% VAT, 59.3% of the total cost of diesel fuel was taxes.\n\nPetroleum products destined for utilisation by aircraft engaged in commercial flights outside of the customs territory of continental France are exempt from all customs duties and domestic taxes. Recently, a rise of 23% in the diesel fuel tax has caused serious protests in major cities of France, leaving disruption and damage behind them. Before the protests, the French government expected to increase both the petrol and diesel taxes until they both reached \u20ac0.78 per liter in 2022.\n\nGermany\nFuel taxes in Germany are \u20ac0.4704 per litre for ultra-low sulphur Diesel and \u20ac0.6545 per litre for conventional unleaded petrol, plus Value Added Tax (19%) on the fuel itself and the Fuel Tax. That adds up to prices of  for ultra-low sulphur Diesel and  for unleaded petrol (December 2019).\n\nNetherlands\nThe sale of fuels in the Netherlands is levied with an excise tax. As of 2015, petrol excise tax is EUR0.766 per litre and diesel excise tax is EUR0.482 per litre, while LPG excise tax is EUR0.185 per litre. The 2007 fuel tax was . On top of that is 21% VAT over the entire fuel price, making the Dutch taxes one of the highest in the world. In total, taxes account for 68.84% of the total price of petrol and 56.55% of the total price of diesel. A 1995 excise was raised by Dutch gulden 25 cents (\u20ac0.11), the Kok Quarter (\u20ac0.08 raise per litre gasoline and \u20ac0.03 raise per litre diesel), by then Prime-Minister Wim Kok is now specifically set aside by the second Balkenende cabinet for use in road creation and road and public transport maintenance.\n\nNorway\nMotor fuel is taxed with both a road use tax and a CO2-tax. The road use tax on petrol is NOK 4.62 per litre and the CO2-tax on petrol is NOK 0.88 per litre. The road use tax on auto diesel is NOK 3.62 per litre mineral oil and NOK 1.81 per litre bio diesel. The CO2-tax on mineral oil is NOK 0.59 per litre.\n\nPoland\nIn Poland half of the end-user price charged at a petrol station goes towards 3 distinct taxes:\n akcyza (meaning excise)\n op\u0142ata paliwowa (meaning fuel tax)\n Value-added tax \"VAT\" at 23% (from summary of akcyza and op\u0142ata paliwowa, and the price of petrol)\nExcise and fuel tax are prescribed by European Commission law, and therefore cannot be lower in any EU nation. However it is even higher than this EU minimum in Poland, a policy pursued by the former Minister of finance.\n\nRussia\nTax on mineral resource extraction (2008\u20132009):\nOil: varies 1000 RUR\/t \u2013 13800 RUR\/t; middle MRET 3000 RUR\/t (0.058 \u20ac\/l = 0.284 $\/gal).\nNatural gas: 147 RUR\/1000m\u00b3 (4 \u20ac\/1000m\u00b3).\nPetroleum gas: no\n\nExcise tax on motor fuel 2008\u20132009:\nRON >80: 3629 RUR\/t. (0.071 \u20ac\/l = 0.343 $\/US gal)\nRON <=80: 2657 RUR\/t. (0.052 \u20ac\/l = 0.251 $\/US\n\nOther fuel (like avia gasoline, jet fuel, heavy oils, natural gas and autogas) prices has no excise tax.\n\nValue Added Tax \u2014 18% on fuel and taxes.\n\nFull tax rate is near 55% of motor fuel prices (ministry of industry and energy facts 2006).\n\nSweden\nThe fuel tax in Sweden comprises a carbon tax and an energy tax. The total tax (including value added tax) is, from July 1, 2018,  per liter petrol and  per liter diesel.\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nFrom 23 March 2011 the UK duty rate for the road fuels unleaded petrol, diesel, biodiesel and bioethanol is .\n\nValue Added Tax at 20% is also charged on the price of the fuel and on the duty. An additional vehicle excise duty, depending on a vehicle's theoretical  production per kilometre, which is applied regardless of the amount of fuel actually consumed, is also levied.\n\nDiesel for use by farmers and construction vehicles is coloured red (red diesel) and has a much reduced tax, currently .\n\nJet fuel used for international aviation attracts no duty, and no VAT.\n\nNorth America\n\nCanada\n\nFuel taxes in Canada can vary greatly between locales. On average, about one-third of the total price of gas at the pump is tax. Excise taxes on gasoline and diesel are collected both federal and provincial governments, as well as by some select municipalities (Montreal, Vancouver, and Victoria); with combined excise taxes varying from 16.2\u00a0\u00a2\/L (73.6\u00a0\u00a2\/imperial gal)) in the Yukon to 30.5 \u00a2\/L ($1.386\/imperial gal) in Vancouver. As well, the federal government and some provincial governments (Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Quebec) collect sales tax (GST and PST) on top of the retail price and the excise taxes.\n\nUnited States\n\nThe first U.S. state to enact a gas tax was Oregon in 1919. The states of Colorado, North Dakota, and New Mexico followed shortly thereafter. By 1929, all existing 48 states had enacted some sort of gas tax.  Today, fuel taxes in the United States vary by state. The United States federal excise tax on gasoline is  and  for diesel fuel. On average, as of July 2016, state and local taxes add 29.78 cents to gasoline and 29.81 cents to diesel for a total US average fuel tax of  for gas and  for diesel.\n\nThe state and local tax figures includes fixed-per-gallon taxes as well as variable-rate taxes such as those levied as a percentage of the sales price.  For state-level fuel taxes, nineteen states and the District of Columbia levy variable-rate taxes of some kind. The other thirty one states do not tie the per-gallon tax rate to inflation, gas prices, or other factors, and the rate changes only by legislation. As of July 2016, twenty one states had gone ten years or more without an increase in their per-gallon gasoline tax rate.\n\nBecause the fuel tax is universally styled as a \"road use\" tax, exempting off-road farming, marine, etc. use; states impose a tax on commercial operators traveling through their state as if the fuel used was bought there, wherever the fuel is purchased. While most commercial truck drivers have an agent to handle the required paperwork: what's reported is how much tax was collected in each state, how much should have been paid to each state, the net tax for each state and the combined net tax for all states to be paid by or refunded to the operator by their base jurisdiction where they file. The operator carries paperwork proving compliance. The member jurisdictions, the US states and the CA provinces, transmit the return information to each other and settle their net tax balances with each other either by a single transmittal through a clearinghouse set up by the IFTA and operated by Morgan Stanley, or by separate transfers with the other member jurisdictions.\n\nOceania\n\nAustralia\nThe fuel tax system in Australia is very similar to Canada in terms of featuring both a fixed and a variable tax, but varies in the case of exemptions including tax credits and certain excise free fuel.\n\nSince October 2018, the fuel tax in Australia is A$0.412 per litre for petrol and ultra-low sulphur diesel (conventional diesel being taxed at A$0.412 per litre) and the excise for LPG is $0.282 per litre. Since 2000, there is also the GST (goods and services tax) on top of the fuel tax and inflation calculated twice a year called CPI (consumer price index) into the fuel tax since 2015.\n\nNew Zealand\nFuel taxes in New Zealand are considered an excise applied by the New Zealand Customs Service on shipments brought into the country. A breakdown of the fuel taxes is published by the Ministry of Economic Development. Excise as at 1 August 2012 totals 50.524 cents per litre (NZ  on petrol. In addition the national compulsory Accident Compensation Corporation motor vehicle account receives a contribution of . The ethanol component of bio blended petrol currently attracts no excise duty. This was to be reviewed in 2012. Diesel is not taxed at the pump, but road users with vehicles over 3.5 tonne in Gross Laden Weight and any vehicles not powered wholly by any combination of petrol, LPG or CNG must pay the Road User Charge instead. The Goods and Services Tax (15%) is then applied to the combined total of the value of the commodity and the various taxes. On 25 July 2007 the Minister of Transport Annette King announced that from 1 July 2008 all fuel excise collected would be hypothecated to the National Land Transport Programme.\n\nAfrica\n\nSouth Africa\nSouth Africa imposes a fuel tax, in Dec 2020, per (unleaded 93 octane, inland) liter, composed of the Fuel Levy \u2013 R3,37, Road Accident Fund levy \u2013 R1,93, associated costs \u2013 R3,12, and the Basic Fuel Price \u2013 R5,81 for a total of R14.23. (R = South African Rand (ZAR) ~ R15 per US$ in Dec 2020)\n\nSee also\n Carbon fee and dividend\n Carbon tax\n Fuel taxes and rising oil prices \u2013 how the taxes of various countries could be used to mitigate the rise in oil prices since 2003\n Excise tax\n Vehicle miles traveled tax\n International Fuel Tax Agreement\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n International Fuel Prices 2009 with diesel and gasoline prices of 172 countries and information on fuel taxation for state financing\n 2012 NACS Retail Fuels Report\n Actual taxes on Unleaded and diesel Fuels in Europe\n Fuel Price in Gurgoan India\n\n \nEnvironmental tax\nPetroleum products\nEnergy economics\nTransport economics\nVehicle taxes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":129,"dup_dump_count":45,"dup_details":{"2022-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":4,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":4,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":6,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":6,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":9}},"id":360781,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuel%20tax","title":"Fuel tax","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A highway, also spelled \"hi-way\", is a road made for travel by the public between important places, such as cities, towns and landmarks. The word \"highway\" can be different between countries and also mean a road, freeway, superhighway, autoroute, autobahn, parkway, expressway, autostrasse, autostrada, byway or motorway.\n\nHighways come in many different designs. They can include many lanes of traffic, a median (strip of lane or barrier) between lanes of opposing traffic, and access control (ramps and bridges). Highways can also be as simple as a two-lane road.\n\nIn many countries, these roads are numbered to easily tell them apart. These numbered highways are usually called routes. The United States includes a system called the Interstate Highway system, controlled by AASHTO, where major north\/south routes are odd numbered and east\/west are even numbered. In Canada, routes that are in the 400s are freeways. In China, types of routes are separated by the first letter of the route; \"G\" for national road, \"S\" for provincial road and \"Y\" for rural roads.\n\nHighways are sometimes criticised because of the pollution cars make when driving highways. When too many cars travel along a highway, traffic slows down; this is known as a traffic jam. Public transportation (such as buses) and special lanes for those who have a given number of people in a car are used to help stop these problems.\n\nHighways","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":62838,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Highway","title":"Highway","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Natural history is the study of plants and animals in the wild, and the environments they live in. This includes the geology of the places in which they live.\n\nThe work of naturalists is observation, interpretation, collecting and classification, rather than experiments. People who study natural history are called naturalists. They were among the first to explore the world. They were the first to study the Amazon and other tropical places. Naturalists find new species and classify plants and animals. They study ecology.\n\nNaturalists developed some theoretical ideas which were valuable. They noticed that living things fitted the lives they led. This was adaptation. They noticed a struggle for existence between animals. They thought they could see a chain of being from lower animals to higher, which they thought was the work of God. The idea that such things might happen by natural means began to surface in the 18th century, and become the majority view in time of Charles Darwin.\n\nBefore Darwin, most naturalists did not think of themselves as scientists. When they looked at nature, perhaps as explorers, they looked at everything. They looked at the land, the people, the plants and animals. After Darwin, they did see themselves as scientists. Early on, Darwin called himself a geologist. Thomas Henry Huxley was an anatomist. Joseph Dalton Hooker was a botanist. Charles Lyell was a geologist. They changed the way in which they were educated as well. They often took degrees in science. That sort of education was rare before Darwin.\n\nNaturalists were educated amateurs; scientists are trained professionals. The change happened slowly, during the 19th century. The very word scientist was invented in 1837 by William Whewell. Before then, the term was natural philosopher (for the physical sciences) or natural historian (for the biological sciences and geology). Naturalist is short for natural historian.\n\nImportant naturalists \nSome of the people who are important because they were interested in natural history are:\n\nAristotle\nPliny the Elder\nConrad Gessner\nJohn Ray \nGeorges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon \nGilbert White \nAlexander von Humboldt \nCharles Darwin \nAlfred Russel Wallace\n\nReferences \n\nBiology\nGeology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":181,"dup_dump_count":92,"dup_details":{"unknown":4,"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":4,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":7,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":70459,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural%20history","title":"Natural history","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An algorithm is a set of instructions for solving logical and mathematical problems, or for accomplishing some other task. \n\nA recipe is a good example of an algorithm because it says what must be done, step by step. It takes inputs (ingredients) and produces an output (the completed dish).\n\nThe words 'algorithm' and 'algorism' come from the name of a Persian mathematician called Al-Khw\u0101rizm\u012b (Persian: \u062e\u0648\u0627\u0631\u0632\u0645\u06cc, c. 780\u2013850).\n\nInformally, an algorithm can be called a \"list of steps\". Algorithms can be written in ordinary language, and that may be all a person needs.\n\nIn computing, an algorithm is a precise list of operations that could be done by a Turing machine.\nFor the purpose of computing, algorithms are written in pseudocode, flow charts, or programming languages.\n\nComparing algorithms \nThere is usually more than one way to solve a problem. There may be many different recipes to make a certain dish which looks different but ends up tasting the same when all is said and done. The same is true for algorithms. However, some of these ways will be better than others. If a recipe needs lots of complicated ingredients that you do not have, it is not as a good as a simple recipe. When we look at algorithms as a way of solving problems, often we want to know how long it would take a computer to solve the problem using a particular algorithm. When we write algorithms, we like our algorithm to take the least amount of time so that we can solve our problem as quickly as possible.\n\nIn cooking, some recipes are more difficult to do than others, because they take more time to finish or have more things to keep track of.\nIt is the same for algorithms, and algorithms are better when they are easier for the computer to do.  The thing that measures the difficulty of an algorithm is called complexity.  When we ask how complex an algorithm is, often we want to know how long it will take a computer to solve the problem we want it to solve.\n\nSorting \nThis is an example of an algorithm for sorting cards with colors on them into piles of the same color:\n\n Pick up all of the cards.\n Pick a card from your hand and look at the color of the card.\n If there is already a pile of cards of that color, put this card on that pile.\n If there is no pile of cards of that color, make a new pile of just this card color.\n If there is still a card in your hand, go back to the second step.\n If there is not still a card in your hand, then the cards are sorted. You are done.\n\nSorting by numbers \n\nThese are examples of algorithms for sorting a stack of cards with many different numbers, so that the numbers are in order.\n\nPlayers start with a stack of cards that have not been sorted.\n\nFirst algorithm \nThis algorithm goes through the stack of cards, one card at a time. This card is compared to the next card in the stack. Please note that this position only changes in step 6.  This algorithm is called bubble sort. It is slow.\n\nIf the stack of cards is empty, or it only contains one card, it is sorted; you are done.\nTake the stack of cards. Look at the first card (the top) of the stack.\nThe card you are looking at is card A. The position where card A currently, is in stack P.\nIf there are no more cards in the stack after card A, go to step 8.\nThe next card in the stack is card B.\nIf card B has a lower number than card A, swap the positions of cards A and B. Remember you did this. When you swap cards, do not change the position P. \nIf there is another card in the stack after position P, look at it; go back to step 3.\nIf you did not swap the position of any cards in the last run, you are done; the stack of cards is sorted.\nOtherwise go back to step 2.\n\nStep-by-step example \n\nLet us take a stack of the cards with the numbers \"5 1 4 2 8\", and sort it from smallest number to biggest one using this algorithm. In each step, the algorithm compares the elements written in bold. The top of the stack of cards is on the left-hand side.\n\nFirst pass:\n( 5 1 4 2 8 )  ( 1 5 4 2 8 ) Here, the algorithm compares the first two elements, and swaps them.\n( 1 5 4 2 8 )  ( 1 4 5 2 8 )\n( 1 4 5 2 8 )  ( 1 4 2 5 8 )\n( 1 4 2 5 8 )  ( 1 4 2 5 8 ) These elements are already in order, so the algorithm does not swap them.\nSecond pass:\n( 1 4 2 5 8 )  ( 1 4 2 5 8 )\n( 1 4 2 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )\n( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )\n( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )\nNow, the stack of cards is already sorted, but our algorithm does not know this. The algorithm needs one whole pass without any swap to know it is sorted.\nThird pass:\n( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )\n( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )\n( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )\n( 1 2 4 5 8 )  ( 1 2 4 5 8 )\nFinally, the array is sorted, and the algorithm can stop.\n\nHistory \nThis is an easy-to-understand algorithm for sorting. Computer scientists called it Bubble sort, because smaller elements will rise to the top, changing their position in each run. Unfortunately, the algorithm is not very good, because it needs a long time (many passes through the stack of cards) to sort it.\n\nSecond algorithm \n\nThis algorithm uses another idea. Sometimes solving a problem is difficult, but the problem can be changed so it is made of simpler problems that are easier to solve. This is called recursion. It is more difficult to understand than the first example, but it will give a better algorithm.\n\nBasic idea \n\n If the stack has no cards in it, or it only has one card, it is sorted, and you are done.\nSplit the stack of cards into two halves of about the same size. If there is an odd number of cards, one of the two stacks will have one card more than the other. \nSort each of the two stacks using this algorithm (For each stack, start at item 1 of this list.)\nMerge the two sorted stacks together, as described below.\nThe result is a sorted stack of cards. You are done.\n\nMerging two stacks together \nThis works with two stacks of cards. One of them is called A, the other is called B. There is a third stack that is empty at the start, called C. At the end, it will contain the result.\nIf either stack A or stack B is empty, put all the cards of the stack that is not empty on top of stack C; you are done, stack C is the result of the merge. (Note: take the whole stack, and put it on stack C; doing it card-by-card will change the order and will not work as it should.)\nLook at the top cards of stack A and stack B. Put the one with the lower number on top of stack C. If stack C had no cards in it, it will now have one card.\nIf either stack A or stack B has cards left, go back to step 1 to sort them.\n\nHistory \nJohn von Neumann developed this algorithm in 1945. He did not call it Sorting by numbers, he called it Mergesort. It is a very good algorithm for sorting, compared to others.\n\nThird algorithm \n\nThe first algorithm takes much longer to sort the cards than the second, but it can be improved (made better). Looking at bubble sort, it can be noticed that cards with high numbers move from the top of the stack quite quickly, but cards with low numbers at the bottom of the stack take a long time to rise (move to the top).\nTo improve the first algorithm here is the idea:\nRather than comparing two cards that are next to each other, at the start a 'special' card is picked. All the other cards are then compared to this card.\n\nWe start out with a stack A. There will be two other stacks B and C, which will be created later.\nIf stack A has no cards, or it only has one card, we are done sorting.\nA card is picked from stack A, if possible at random. This is called a pivot.\nAll the remaining cards of stack A are compared to this pivot. Cards with a smaller number go to stack B, those with an equal or bigger number go to stack C.\nIf there are any cards in stacks B or C, these stacks need to be sorted with the same algorithm (Start at pos 1 of this list for both stack B and stack C in turn.)\nDone. The sorted stack of cards first has the sorted stack B, then the pivot, and then the sorted stack C.\n\nHistory \nThis algorithm was developed by C. A. R. Hoare in 1960. It is one of most widely used algorithms for sorting today. It is called Quicksort.\n\nPutting algorithms together \nIf players have cards with colors and numbers on them, they can sort them by color and number if they do the \"sorting by colors\" algorithm, then do the \"sorting by numbers\" algorithm to each colored stack, then put the stacks together.\n\nThe sorting-by-numbers algorithms are more difficult to do than the sorting-by-colors algorithm, because they may have to do the steps again many times. One would say that sorting by numbers is more complex.\n\nRelated pages\nThe Euclidean algorithm was found over 2000 years ago. It is able to find the greatest common divisor of two numbers.\n\nOther websites \n Algorithm -Citizendium \n\n \nRecursion","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":56,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2}},"id":170677,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithm","title":"Algorithm","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Harmony means playing several notes together to make \"chords\".  The word comes from the Greek harmonia meaning \"to join things up\" .  A tune by itself can sound nice, but it can be \"harmonized\" by adding an accompaniment of chords.  Studying how to do this is called harmonization.  Music students learn which chords sound nice after one another.  These are called \"chord progressions\".  Many music theorists have written books about harmony.\n\nMusic which is made of a tune with harmony underneath is called \"homophonic\".  In a way it is the opposite of polyphonic which means that each part (each voice) is a tune in itself. However, even polyphony needs to make pleasant harmony. Harmony as we know it in European music had become fully developed by the Baroque period (17th century).\n\nOne can play a chord with three notes using the 1st, 3rd and 5th notes of the scale of whatever key the music is in.  This gives a chord which sounds like the \"home chord\".  This means that at least three notes are needed for harmony.  In most homophonic music there are four: for example a choir will normally divide into soprano, alto, tenor and bass, or a string quartet will divide into violin 1, violin 2, viola and cello.\n\nHarmony which uses just the notes of the key (e.g. just using white notes for C major) is called \"tonal harmony\".\n\nHarmony which adds lots of extra sharps and flats is called \"chromatic harmony\".\n\nIf music is not in any key at all, like in some music by Arnold Schoenberg, it is \"atonal\".  Harmony can be atonal.\n\nmusic theory","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":29346,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harmony","title":"Harmony","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An HTTP cookie (usually just called a cookie) is a simple computer file made of text.  The information stored by cookies can be used to personalise the experience when using a website.  A website can use (the information used by) cookies to find out if someone has visited a website before and record information (data) about what they did.\n\nWhen someone is using a computer to browse a website, a personalised cookie file can be sent from the website's server to the person's computer.  The cookie is stored in the web browser on the person's computer. At some time in the future, the person may browse that website again. The website can send a message to the person's browser, asking if a cookie from the website is already stored in the browser.  If a cookie is found, then the data that was stored in the cookie before can be used by the website to tell the website about the person's previous activity.  Some examples where cookies are used include shopping carts, automatic login and remembering which advertisements have already been shown.\n\nCookies have been a problem for Internet privacy. This is because they can be used to track browsing behavior. Because of this, laws have been made in some countries to protect people's privacy. There are many other options than cookies, but each option has its own problems.\n\nCookies have often been mistaken for computer programs. But cookies cannot do much on their own. They are simply a piece of data. They are often called spyware or viruses, but they are not either of these.\n\nMost web browsers allow users to choose whether to accept cookies. If the user does not allow cookies, some websites will become unusable. For example, shopping baskets which use cookies do not work if the user does not allow cookies. \n\nInternet","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":173,"dup_dump_count":94,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":7,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":3,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":66923,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTTP%20cookie","title":"HTTP cookie","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An ambassador is a person sent by the government of a country to a different country. The ambassador is the official representative of their country.  The ambassador speaks to officials of the other country about any problems and issues between the two countries.\n\nIn past years, communication between countries could take days or weeks. It was necessary to have a person in each foreign capital to have meetings and make negotiations between countries. Nowadays, communication is much faster, and often governments can be in direct contact with each other.  However, it is still true that many problems need person-to-person meetings, so ambassadors are still needed.\n\nOften an ambassador will live in the foreign country for a number of years. An embassy is where the ambassador lives. Embassies are most often in the capital of the foreign country. An ambassador may bring people with him to help him and work at the embassy. Some of the high ranking people may be called embassy officials.\n\nIt is both tradition and law that the ambassador and many embassy officials have diplomatic immunity. They cannot be arrested or prosecuted in the foreign country. The only possibility is to send a person back to their own country.\n\nGovernment occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":4009,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ambassador","title":"Ambassador","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Infrastruktur nya\u00e9ta sakumpulan unsur-unsur struktural nu silisambung nu nyadiakeun framework pikeun ngarojong struktur sacara gembleng. Istilah ieu mindeng og\u00e9 dipak\u00e9 sacara abstrak.\n\nDefinition disputes \n\nIn national security, the term \"critical infrastructure\" is also extremely broad (although it should be less inclusive as not all infrastructure should be considered critical) and includes support, e.g. for banking, and other such processes of questionable merit.  One issue is the necessity of means of protection, and of akuntansi, in incr\u00e9asing ajen hirup.  Advocates of a broad definition usually argue that without these \"critical\" systems, the rest of the infrastructure is looted, burned, or not safe to use.\n\nAnother issue is whether means of persuasion, kawas tehnologi komputer or radio or televisi, can qualify as infrastructure in any sense, as it is more belief-sustaining than life-sustaining.  The arguments parallel those for m\u00e9ans of protection, with conservatives generally asserting that belief in a common view of r\u00e9ality, especially in emergency response, is critical to survival.\n\nUrban planning usage \n\nThe term is used most often in an urban planning context to denote the facilities that support specific land uses and built environment.  This article focuses on those, to avoid the more political issues above.\n\nTypically, infrastructure in this context denotes two general groups of support systems: transportation modalities (roads, rail, etc.) and utilities.  These typically compose both public and private systems, and some ambiguously held in common.\n\nInfrastructure may also refer to necessary municipal services, whether provided by the government or by private companies.  If provided by nature, e.g. the flow of a river, they are called nature's services and are distincted (at l\u00e9ast in economics) as the product of natural capital.  This may be augmented or directed by infrastructural capital, e.g. a dam or canal or irrigation ditch.  In general what is called infrastructure tends to be very embedded in the natural landscape and cannot be moved from place to place.  Even municipal services rely necessarily on fixed locations, e.g. fire stations in central positions in a city, transmission towers on tall buildings, etc..\n\nInfrastructure (in the civic sense) includes:\nAngkutan\nJalan\nJalanrayas\nJalur kar\u00e9ta\nAngkutan umum\nBandara\nRiver freight\nBike paths\nTrotoar\nUtilities\nListrik\nGas alam\nCoal delivery\nWater supply\nSewers\nTelephone service\nRadio and television bandwidth allocation\nCable service\nMunicipal services\nTrash collection\nPolice protection\nFire protection\nFlood protection\nPostal system\nMinting and backing currency\nSoft Infrastructure is a term that denotes institutions that maintain the h\u00e9alth and cultural standards of the population. Principally, this refers to\nPublic Education\nPublic Health Systems including Public Hospitals\n\nInfrastruktur\nMasarakat","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":1038,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrastruktur","title":"Infrastruktur","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A digital camera is a camera that stores pictures in electronic memory instead of film. Because of this, a digital camera can hold many more pictures than a traditional film camera. A digital camera can sometimes hold hundreds or thousands of pictures. Many use a memory card to store them. Most digital cameras can use a USB cable that connects into a computer to send pictures that are in the camera to the computer.\n\nDigital photography is a kind of photography where a digital camera is used to take photos. Digital cameras use an image sensor instead of photographic film. Very often, they also use a memory card to store the photos in a digital format. Most photography is digital, though some photographers still use the old film cameras. \n\nThe majority of cameras are part of a mobile phone, called a \"camera phone\". They can send their pictures to other phones and other devices. Most camera phones do not make as good pictures as larger separate cameras do, especially where light is not bright.\n\nMost digital cameras can serve as Video cameras. Some have a direct link to another computer where the data may be stored.\n\nData storage \nWhen you take a picture or a video, it is saved on a memory device. The memory device can be internal - flash memory inside the camera, or external - memory cards, microdrives and so on. The most used method for saving pictures and videos from a camera is a SD card.\n\nThe picture can be saved in a compressed file (JPEG, TIFF) or in an uncompressed, proprietary RAW file.  The compressed picture is lower quality but the RAW picture has to be processed with a special computer program.\n\nA video is usually saved as an AVI, MPEG or MOV file format (it depends on the producer of the camera).\n\nMost modern cameras also put Exif information in the picture file. This metadata information usually includes the date of taking the picture, the camera type, and its settings. Some cameras include GPS coordinates.\n\nGallery\n\nOther websites \n\nCameras\nElectronics\nData input","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4}},"id":8676,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital%20camera","title":"Digital camera","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Thomas Connor (1842 \u2013 Unknown) was a U.S. sailor stationed aboard the  during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Second Battle of Fort Fisher on January 15, 1865.\n\nMilitary service\nEmigrating from his native Ireland, Connor volunteered for service in the U.S. Navy and was assigned to the Union steam frigate . His enlistment is credited to the state of Maryland.\n\nOn January 15, 1865 the North Carolina Confederate stronghold of Fort Fisher was taken by a combined Union landing party of sailors, U.S. Marines, and soldiers under the command of Admiral David Dixon Porter and General Alfred Terry. Connor was one of nine crewmen from the USS Minnesota who received the Medal of Honor for their actions during the battle.\n\nMedal of Honor citation\n\"The President of the United States of America, in the name of Congress, takes pleasure in presenting the Medal of Honor to Ordinary Seaman Thomas Connor, United States Navy, for extraordinary heroism in action while serving on board the U.S.S. Minnesota, in action during the assault on Fort Fisher, North Carolina, 15 January 1865. Landing on the beach with the assaulting party from his ship, Ordinary Seaman Connor charged up to the palisades and, when more than two-thirds of the men became seized with panic and retreated on the run, risked his life to remain with a wounded officer. With the enemy concentrating his fire on the group, he waited until after dark before assisting in carrying the wounded man from the field.\"\n\nGeneral Orders: War Department, General Orders No. 59 (June 22, 1865)\n\nAction Date: January 15, 1865\n\nService: Navy\n\nRank: Ordinary Seaman\n\nDivision: U.S.S. Minnesota\n\nSee also\n\nList of Medal of Honor recipients\nList of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: A\u2013F\n\nNotes\n\nExternal links\n\n1842 births\n19th-century Irish people\nYear of death missing\nIrish emigrants to the United States\nPeople of Maryland in the American Civil War\nUnion Navy sailors\nUnited States Navy Medal of Honor recipients\nIrish-born Medal of Honor recipients\nAmerican Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":198,"dup_dump_count":36,"dup_details":{"2018-30":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":6,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":6,"2016-07":7,"2015-48":6,"2015-40":6,"2015-35":6,"2015-32":7,"2015-27":7,"2015-22":6,"2015-14":6,"2014-52":7,"2014-49":7,"2014-42":10,"2014-41":9,"2014-35":8,"2014-23":11,"2014-15":8,"2017-13":5,"2015-18":7,"2015-11":7,"2015-06":7,"2014-10":8,"2013-48":1}},"id":27344447,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thomas%20Connor","title":"Thomas Connor","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In analytical and organic chemistry, elution is the process of extracting one material from another by washing with a solvent; as in washing of loaded ion-exchange resins to remove captured ions.\n\nIn a liquid chromatography experiment, for example, an analyte is generally adsorbed (\"bound to\") an adsorbent in a liquid chromatography column. The adsorbent, a solid phase (stationary phase), is a powder which is coated onto a solid support. Based on an adsorbent's composition, it can have varying affinities to \"hold\" onto other molecules\u2014forming a thin film on the surface of its particles. Elution then is the process of removing analytes from the adsorbent by running a solvent, called an \"eluent\", past the adsorbent\/analyte complex. As the solvent molecules \"elute\", or travel down through the chromatography column, they can either pass by the adsorbent\/analyte complex or they can displace the analyte by binding to the adsorbent in its place. After the solvent molecules displace the analyte, the analyte can be carried out of the column for analysis. This is why as the mobile phase passes out of the column, it typically flows into a detector or is collected for compositional analysis. \n\nPredicting and controlling the order of elution is a key aspect of column chromatographic methods.\n\nEluotropic series\nAn eluotropic series is  listing of various compounds in order of eluting power for a given adsorbent. The \"eluting power\" of a solvent is largely a measure of how well the solvent can \"pull\" an analyte off the adsorbent to which it is attached. This often happens when the eluent adsorbs onto the stationary phase, displacing the analyte. Such series are useful for determining necessary solvents needed for chromatography of chemical compounds. Normally such a series progresses from non-polar solvents, such as n-hexane, to polar solvents such as methanol or water. The order of solvents in an eluotropic series depends both on the stationary phase as well as on the compound used to determine the order.\n\nEluent\nThe eluent or eluant is the \"carrier\" portion of the mobile phase. It moves the analytes through the chromatograph. In liquid chromatography, the eluent is the liquid solvent; in gas chromatography, it is the carrier gas.\n\nEluate\nThe eluate is the analyte material that emerges from the chromatograph. It specifically includes both the analytes and solutes passing through the column, while the eluent is only the carrier.\n\nElution time and elution volume\nThe \"elution time\" of a solute is the time between the start of the separation (the time at which the solute enters the column) and the time at which the solute elutes.  In the same way, the elution volume is the volume of eluent required to cause elution.  Under standard conditions for a known mix of solutes in a certain technique, the elution volume may be enough information to identify solutes.  For instance, a mixture of amino acids may be separated by ion-exchange chromatography.  Under a particular set of conditions, the amino acids will elute in the same order and at the same elution volume.\n\nAntibody elution\nAntibody elution is the process of removing antibodies that are attached to their targets, such as the surface of red blood cells. Techniques include using heat, a freeze\/thaw cycle, ultrasound, acids or organic solvents. No single method is best in all situations.\n\nSee also\n Chromatography\n Desorption\n Gradient elution in high performance liquid chromatography\n Leaching\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Chemistry glossary\n Eluotropic series\n\nAnalytical chemistry\nChromatography","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":54,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":3,"2023-06":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":5}},"id":14188019,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elution","title":"Elution","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Billboard Hot 100 is a list of the current most well-liked music made by Billboard magazine. Rankings are based on radio play and sales; the tracking week for sales is each Monday to Sunday, while for radio play it is Wednesday to Tuesday. A new chart is compiled and officially released to the public by Billboard on Thursday. Each chart is dated with the \"week-ending\" date of the Saturday two weeks after. Example:\n Monday, January 1 \u2013 sales tracking-week begins\n Wednesday, January 3 \u2013 airplay tracking-week begins\n Sunday, January 7 \u2013 sales tracking-week ends\n Tuesday, January 9 \u2013 airplay tracking-week ends\n Thursday, January 11 \u2013 new chart released, with issue date of Saturday, January 20.\n\nThe first number one song of the Hot 100 was \"Poor Little Fool\" by Ricky Nelson on August 4, 1958. As of the issue for the week ending April 9, 2023, the Hot 100 has had 1,143 different number-one hits. Its current number one is \"Like Crazy\" by Jimin.\n\n History \nWhat has always been known as the Hot 100 existed for nearly 15 years as numerous charts, tracking and ranking the most popular singles of the day in several areas. During the 1940s and 1950s, popular singles were ranked in three significant charts:\n Best Sellers In Stores\u2014ranked the biggest selling singles in retail stores, as reported by merchants surveyed throughout the country (20 to 50 positions).\n Most Played By Jockeys\u2014ranked the most played songs on United States radio stations, as reported by radio disc jockeys and radio stations (20 to 25 positions).\n Most Played In Jukeboxes\u2014ranked the most played songs in jukeboxes across the United States (20 positions).  This was one of the main outlets of measuring song popularity with the younger generation of music listeners, as many radio stations resisted adding rock 'n roll music to their playlists for many years.\n\nAlthough officially all three charts had equal importance, many chart historians refer to the Best Sellers In Stores chart when referring to a song's performance prior to the creation of the Hot 100.  Billboard eventually created a fourth singles popularity chart that combined all aspects of a single's performance (sales, airplay and jukebox activity), based on a point system that typically gave sales (purchases) more weight than radio airplay.  On the week ending November 12, 1955, Billboard published The Top 100 for the first time.  The Best Sellers In Stores, Most Played By Jockeys and Most Played In Jukeboxes charts continued to be published concurrently with the new Top 100 chart.\n\nOn June 17, 1957, Billboard discontinued the Most Played In Jukeboxes chart, as the popularity of jukeboxes waned and radio stations incorporated more and more rock-oriented music into their play lists. The week ending July 28, 1958 was the final publication of the Most Played By Jockeys and Top 100 charts, both of which had Perez Prado's instrumental version of \"Patricia\" ascending to the top.\n\nOn August 4, 1958, Billboard premiered one main all-genre singles chart: the Hot 100'''.  Although similar to the Top 100, the first Hot 100 chart reset all songs' \"weeks on chart\" status to \"1\". The Hot 100 quickly became the industry standard and Billboard discontinued the Best Sellers In Stores chart on October 13, 1958.\n\nThe Billboard Hot 100 is still the standard by which a song's popularity is measured in the United States. The Hot 100 is ranked by radio airplay audience impressions as measured by Nielsen BDS, sales data compiled by Nielsen Soundscan (both at retail and digitally) and streaming activity provided by online music sources.\n\nThere are several component charts that contribute to the overall calculation of the Hot 100.  The most significant ones are shown below.\n Hot 100 Airplay\u2014(per Billboard) approximately 1,000 stations, \"composed of adult contemporary, R&B, hip-hop, country, rock, gospel, Latin and Christian formats, digitally monitored 24 hours per day, seven days a week.  Charts are ranked by number of gross audience impressions, computed by cross-referencing exact times of radio airplay with Arbitron listener data.\"\n Hot 100 Singles Sales\u2014(per Billboard) \"the top selling singles compiled from a national sample of retail store, mass merchant and internet sales reports collected, compiled, and provided by Nielsen SoundScan.\"\n Hot Digital Songs\u2014Digital sales are tracked by Nielsen SoundScan and are included as part of a title's sales points.\n\n Policy changes \n\nThe methods and policies for obtaining and compiling data changed many times throughout the chart's history.\n\nThe advent of a music single song chart spawned chart historians and chart-watchers and greatly affected pop culture and produced countless bits of trivia. The main purpose of the Hot 100 is to aid those within the music industry \u2013 to reflect the popularity of the \"product\" (the singles, the albums, etc.) and to track the trends of the buying public. Billboard has many times changed its methodology and policies to give the better reflect what is popular. \n\nA basic example is the weight given to sales versus airplay. Initially, singles were the leading way by which people bought music. When singles sales were robust, more weight was given to a song's retail points than to its radio airplay. In later decades, the recording industry concentrated more on album sales and musicians eventually released more full-length albums than singles, and by the 1990s many record companies stopped releasing singles (see Album Cuts, below). Eventually a song's airplay points were weighted more than its sales. Billboard adjusted the sales\/airplay ratio many times to more accurately reflect the true popularity of songs.\n\n Double-sided singles Billboard also changed its Hot 100 policy regarding \"two-sided singles\" several times. The pre-Hot 100 chart \"Best Sellers in Stores\" listed popular A- and-B-sides together, with the side that was played most often (based on its other charts) listed first. One of the most notable of these, but far from the only one, was Elvis Presley's \"Don't Be Cruel\" \/ \"Hound Dog.\" During the Presley single's chart run, top billing was switched back and forth between the two sides several times. But on the concurrent \"Most Played in Juke Boxes,\" \"Most Played by Jockeys\" and the \"Top 100,\" the two songs were listed separately, as was true of all songs. With the initiation of the Hot 100 in 1958, A- and-B-sides charted separately, as they had on the former Top 100.\n\nStarting with the Hot 100 chart for the week ending November 29, 1969, this rule was altered; if both sides received significant airplay, they were listed together. This started to become a moot point by 1972, as most major record labels solidified a trend they had started in the 1960s by putting the same song on both sides of the singles it serviced to radio.\n\nMore complex issues began to arise as the typical A-and-B-side format of singles gave way to 12 inch singles and maxi-singles, many of which contained more than one B-side. Further problems arose when, in several cases, a B-side would eventually overtake the A-side in popularity, thus prompting record labels to release a new single, featuring the former B-side as the A-side, along with a \"new\" B-side.\n\nThe inclusion of album cuts on the Hot 100 put the double-sided hit issues to rest permanently.\n\n Album cuts \nA longstanding policy of the Hot 100 chart was that songs must be sold as a single. However, during the 1990s major record labels claimed that singles reduced album sales, so they were phased out. They increasingly promoted songs to radio without releasing them as singles. Labels often held off a single from release until airplay peaked, thus prompting a high debut. Often, a label deleted a single from its catalog after only one week, thus allowing the song to enter the Hot 100, make a high debut and then decline in position as the one-time production of the retail single sold out. Accusations were made that these practices manipulated the charts.\n\nSeveral popular hits were never listed on the Hot 100 chart, or charted well after their airplay declined. During the period when they were not released as singles, the songs were not eligible to chart.  Many of these songs dominated the Hot 100 Airplay chart for long periods:\n\n 1995 The Rembrandts \u2013 \"I'll Be There For You\" (number one for eight weeks)\n 1996 No Doubt \u2013 \"Don't Speak\" (number one for 16 weeks)\n 1997 Sugar Ray featuring Super Cat \u2013 \"Fly\" (number one for six weeks)\n 1997 Will Smith \u2013 \"Men in Black\" (number one for four weeks)\n 1997 The Cardigans \u2013 \"Lovefool\" (number two for eight weeks)\n 1998 Natalie Imbruglia \u2013 \"Torn\" (number one for 11 weeks)\n 1998 Goo Goo Dolls \u2013 \"Iris\" (number one for 18 weeks)\n\nIn response to debate, conflicts and requests by the music artists and insiders, Billboard included airplay-only singles (or \"album cuts\") in the Hot 100. On December 5, 1998, the Hot 100 changed from being a \"singles\" chart to a \"songs\" chart.\n\n EPs \nExtended play (EP) releases were listed by Billboard on the Hot 100 and in pre-Hot 100 charts (Top 100) until the mid-to-late 1960s.  With the growing popularity of albums, it was decided to move EPs (which typically contain four to six tracks) from the Hot 100 to the Billboard 200, where they are included to this day.\n\n Paid digital downloads \nSince February 12, 2005, the Billboard Hot 100 tracks paid digital downloads from such internet services as iTunes, Napster, Musicmatch, and Rhapsody. With paid digital downloads added to the airplay\/sales formula of the Hot 100, many songs benefited on the charts from the change. Billboard initially started tracking downloads in 2003 with the Hot Digital Tracks chart. However, these downloads did not count towards the Hot 100 and that chart (as opposed to Hot Digital Songs) counted each version of a song separately (the chart still exists today along with Hot Digital Songs).  This is the first major overhaul of the Hot 100's chart formula since December 1998.\n\nThe change in formula has shaken up the chart considerably, with some songs debuting on the chart strictly with robust online sales and others making drastic leaps. In recent years, several songs have been able to achieve 80-to-90 position jumps in a single week as their digital components were made available at online music stores.  Since 2006, the all-time record for the biggest single-week upward movement was broken nine times.\n\nIn the issue dated August 11, 2007, Billboard began incorporating weekly data from Streaming media and On-demand services into the Hot 100. The first two major companies to provide their statistics to Nielsen BDS on a weekly basis are AOL Music and Yahoo! Music, with more to follow in the future.\n\n Remixes \nA growing trend in the early first decade of the 21st century was to issue a song as a \"remix\" that was so drastically different in structure and lyrical content from its original version that it was essentially a whole new song.  Under normal circumstances, airplay points from a song's album version, \"radio\" mix and\/or dance music remix, etc. were all combined and factored into the song's performance on the Hot 100, as the structure, lyrics and melody remained intact.  Criticisms began when songs were being completely re-recorded to the point that they no longer resembled the original recording.  The first such example of this scenario is Jennifer Lopez' \"I'm Real\".  Originally entering the Hot 100 in its album version, a \"remix\" was issued in the midst of its chart run that featured rapper Ja Rule.  This new version proved to be far more popular than\nthe album version and the track was propelled to number one.\n\nTo address this issue, Billboard now separates airplay points from a song's original version and its remix, if the remix is determined to be a \"new song\".  Since administering this new chart rule, several songs have charted twice, normally credited as \"Part 1\" and \"Part 2\".  The remix rule is still in place.\n\n Recurrents Billboard, in an effort to allow the chart to remain as current as possible and to give proper representation to new and developing artists and tracks, has (since 1991) removed titles that have reached certain criteria regarding its current rank and number of weeks on the chart. Recurrent criteria have been modified several times and currently (as of 2010), a song is permanently moved to \"recurrent status\" if it has spent 20 weeks on the Hot 100 and fallen below position number 50. Exceptions are made to re-releases and sudden resurgence in popularity of tracks that have taken a very long time to gain mainstream success.  These rare cases are handled on a case-by-case basis and ultimately determined by Billboard's chart managers and staff.\n\nThe most notable exception to the recurrent entry policy applies to holiday-themed releases, which are commonly reissued year after year in anticipation of Christmas purchasing.  After its initial chart run, a holiday entry cannot re-enter the Hot 100 in subsequent years.\n\n Year-end charts Billboards \"chart year\" runs from the first week of December to the final week in November.  This altered calendar allows for Billboard to calculate year-end charts and release them in time for its final print issue on the last week of December.  Prior to Nielsen SoundScan, year-end singles charts were calculated by an inverse-point system based solely on a song's performance on the Hot 100 (for example, a song would be given one point for a week spent at position 100, two points for a week spent at position ninety-nine and so forth, up to 100 points for each week spent at number one).  Other factors including the total weeks a song spent on the chart and at its peak position  were calculated into its year-end total.\n\nAfter Billboard began obtaining sales and airplay information from Nielsen SoundScan, the year-end charts are now calculated by a very straightforward cumulative total of yearlong sales and airplay points.  This gives a more accurate picture of any given year's most popular tracks, as a song that hypothetically spent nine weeks at number one in March could possibly have earned fewer cumulative points than a song that spent six weeks at number three in January.  Songs at the peak of their popularity at the time of the November\/December chart-year cutoff many times end up ranked on the following year's chart as well, as their cumulative points are split between the two chart-years, but often are ranked lower than they would have been had the peak occurred in a single year.\n\n Limitations \nThe limitations of the Hot 100 have become more pronounced over time. Since the Hot 100 was based on singles sales, as singles have themselves become a less common form of song release, the Hot 100's data represented a narrowing segment of sales until the December 1998 change in the ranking formula.\n\nFew music historians believe that the Hot 100 has been a perfectly accurate gauge of the most popular songs for each week or year. For example, during the 1950s and 1960s, payola and other problems skewed the numbers in largely undetectable ways.\n\nFurther, the history of popular music shows nearly as many remarkable failures to chart as it does impressive charting histories. Certain artists (such as Pink Floyd and Led Zeppelin) had tremendous album sales while being oblivious to the weekly singles charts. Business changes in the industry also affect artists' statistical \"records.\" Single releases were more frequent and steady, and were expected to have much shorter shelf lives in earlier decades, making direct historical comparisons somewhat specious. Of the sixteen singles to top the Billboard chart for more than ten weeks since 1955, just one was released before 1992. During the first forty years of the rock era, no song had ever debuted at number one; since a 1995 change in methodology, nineteen songs have.\n\nStrategizing also plays a role. Numerous artists have taken deliberate steps to maximize their chart positions by such tactics as timing a single's debut to face the weakest possible competition, or massively discounting the price of singles to the point where each individual sale represented a financial loss. Meanwhile, other artists would deliberately withhold even their most marketable songs in order to boost album sales. Particularly in the 1990s, many of the most heavily played MTV and radio hits were unavailable for separate purchase. Because of such countervailing strategies, it cannot be said that a Hot 100 chart necessarily lists the country's 100 most popular or successful songs. Strategies like these were the main reason behind the December 1998 change in the charts.\n\nSome critics have argued that an overemphasis on a limited number of singles has distorted record industry development efforts, and there are nearly as many critics of the Hot 100 as there are supporters. Certain of these criticisms, however, are becoming less and less germane as digital downloads have revitalized the concept of \"singles sales.\"\n\nThe Billboard charts have endured as the only widely circulated published report on songs that have been popular across the United States over the last half-century. Competing publications such as Cash Box, Record World, Radio & Records and most recently Mediabase have offered alternate charts, which sometimes differed widely.\n\n Use in media \nThe Hot 100 served for many years as the data source for the weekly radio countdown show American Top 40. This relationship ended on November 30, 1991, as American Top 40 started using the airplay-only side of the Hot 100 (then called Top 40 Radio Monitor). The ongoing splintering of Top 40 radio in the early 1990s led stations to lean into specific formats, meaning that practically no station would play the wide array of genres that typically composed each weekly Hot 100 chart.\n\nSimilar charts\nA new chart, the Pop 100, was created by Billboard in February 2005 to answer criticism that the Hot 100 was biased in favor of rhythmic songs, as throughout most of its existence, the Hot 100 was seen predominantly as a pop chart. It was discontinued in June 2009 due to the charts becoming increasingly similar.\n\nThe Canadian Hot 100 was launched June 16, 2007. Like the Hot 100 chart, it uses sales and airplay tracking compiled by Nielsen SoundScan and BDS.\n\nThe Japan Hot 100 was launched in the issue dated May 31, 2008, using the same methodologies as the Hot 100 charts for the U.S. and Canada, utilizing sales and airplay data from SoundScan Japan and radio tracking service Plantech.\n\n Sources \n Fred Bronson's Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits, 5th Edition ()\n Christopher G. Feldman, The Billboard Book of No. 2 Singles ()\n Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2008, 12 Edition ()\n Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Pop Charts, 1955\u20131959 ()\n Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Sixties ()\n Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Seventies ()\n Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Eighties ()\n Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Nineties ()\n Additional information obtained can be verified within Billboard's'' online archive services and print editions of the magazine.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Billboard website\n Current Billboard Hot 100\n\nBillboard charts","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":184,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2024-10":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":4,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":4,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":4,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":6,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5}},"id":128360,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Billboard%20Hot%20100","title":"Billboard Hot 100","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sir John Vanbrugh (; 24 January 1664 (baptised)\u00a0\u2013 26 March 1726) was an English architect, dramatist and herald, perhaps best known as the designer of Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard. He wrote two argumentative and outspoken Restoration comedies, The Relapse (1696) and The Provoked Wife (1697), which have become enduring stage favourites but originally occasioned much controversy. He was knighted in 1714.\n\nVanbrugh was in many senses a radical throughout his life. As a young man and a committed Whig, he was part of the scheme to overthrow James II and put William III on the throne. He was imprisoned by the French as a political prisoner. In his career as a playwright, he offended many sections of Restoration and 18th century society, not only by the sexual explicitness of his plays, but also by their messages in defence of women's rights in marriage. He was attacked on both counts, and was one of the prime targets of Jeremy Collier's Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage.\n\nIn his architectural career, he created what came to be known as English Baroque. His architectural work was as bold and daring as his early political activism and marriage-themed plays, and jarred conservative opinions on the subject.\n\nEarly life and background\nBorn in London and baptised on 24 January 1664, Vanbrugh was the fourth child (of 19), and eldest surviving son, of Giles Vanbrugh, a London cloth-merchant of Flemish descent (as evident in the name, contracted from \"Van Brugh\") and Protestant background, and his wife Elizabeth, widow of Thomas Barker (by whom Vanbrugh's mother had the first of her twenty children, Vanbrugh's elder half-sister, Elizabeth), and daughter of Sir Dudley Carleton, of Imber Court, Thames Ditton, Surrey. He grew up in Chester, where his family had been driven by either the major outbreak of the plague in London in 1665, or the Great Fire of 1666. It is possible that he attended The King's School in Chester, though no records of his being a scholar there survive. Another candidate would have been the school at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, founded by Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon. It was also not uncommon for boys to be sent to study at school away from home, or with a tutor.\n\nArchitectural historian Kerry Downes is sceptical of earlier historians' claims of a lower middle-class background, and writes that a 19th-century suggestion that Giles Vanbrugh was a sugar-baker has been misunderstood. \"Sugar-baker\" implies wealth, as the term refers not to a maker of sweets but to the owner of a sugar house, a factory for the refining of raw sugar from Barbados. Sugar refining would normally have been combined with sugar trading, which was a lucrative business. Downes' example of one sugar baker's house in Liverpool, estimated to bring in \u00a340,000 a year in trade from Barbados, throws a new light on Vanbrugh's social background, one rather different from the picture of a backstreet Chester sweetshop as painted by Leigh Hunt in 1840 and reflected in many later accounts.\n\nTo dispel the myth of Vanbrugh's humble origins, Downes took pains to explore Vanbrugh's background, closely examining the family and connexions of each of his four grandparents: Vanbrugh, Jacobs or Jacobson, Carleton, and Croft, summing up the characteristics of each line and concluding that, far from being of lower middle class origins, Vanbrugh was descended from Anglo-Flemish or Netherlandish Protestant merchants who settled in London in the 16th and 17th centuries, minor courtiers, and country gentry. The complex web of kinship Downes' research shows that Vanbrugh had ties to many of England's leading mercantile, gentry, and noble families. These ties reveal the decidedly Protestant and sometimes radical milieu out of which Vanbrugh's own political opinions came. They also gave him a very wide social network that would play a role in all sections of his career: architectural, ceremonial, dramatic, military, political, and social.\n\nTaken in this context, though he has sometimes been viewed as an odd or unqualified appointee to the College of Arms, it is not surprising, given the social expectations of his day, that by descent his credentials for his offices there were sound. His forebears, both Flemish\/Dutch and English, were armigerous, and their coats of arms can be traced in three out of four cases, revealing that Vanbrugh was of gentle descent (Jacobson, of Antwerp and London [the family of his paternal grandmother Maria daughter of Peter brother to Philip Jacobson, jeweller and financier to successive English kings, James I, and Charles I, and monied backer of the Second Virginia Company and the East India Company]; Carleton of Imber Court; Croft of Croft Castle).\n\nAfter growing up in a large household in Chester (12 children of his mother's second marriage survived infancy), the question of how Vanbrugh spent the years from age 18 to 22 (after he left school) was long unanswered, with the baseless suggestion sometimes made that he had been studying architecture in France (stated as fact in the Dictionary of National Biography).\nIn 1681 records name a 'John Vanbrugg' working for William Matthews, Giles Vanbrugh's cousin. It was not unusual for a merchant's son to follow in his father's trade and seek similar work in business, making use of family ties and connections. However, Robert Williams proved in an article in the Times Literary Supplement (\"Vanbrugh's Lost Years\", 3 September 1999) that Vanbrugh was in India for part of this period, working for the East India Company at their trading post in Surat, Gujarat where his uncle, Edward Pearce, had been Governor. However, Vanbrugh never mentioned this experience in writing. Scholars debate whether evidence of his exposure to Indian architecture can be detected in any of his architectural designs.\n\nThe picture of a well-connected youth is reinforced by the fact that Vanbrugh in January 1686 took up an officer's commission in his distant relative the Earl of Huntingdon's foot regiment. Since commissions were in the gift of the commanding officer, Vanbrugh's entry as an officer shows that he did have the kind of family network that was then essential to a young man starting out in life. Even so in August 1686 he left this position when the regiment was ordered to help garrison Guernsey.\n\nIn spite of the distant noble relatives and the lucrative sugar trade, Vanbrugh never seemed to possess any capital for business ventures (such as the Haymarket Theatre), but always had to rely on loans and backers. The fact that Giles Vanbrugh had twelve children to support and set up in life may go some way towards explaining the debts that were to plague John all his life.\n\nConnections\n\nSome of Vanbrugh's kinsmen \u2013 as he addressed them in his letters:\n The Earl of Arran (1639\u20131686). His wife (from 1673) was Vanbrugh's first-cousin, Dorothy n\u00e9e Ferrers\n The 3rd Earl of Berkshire (1619\u20131706). Frances n\u00e9e Harrison, Countess of Berkshire. Vanbrugh's grandfather's sister, Elizabeth Carleton married John Harrison, uncle of the Countess of Berkshire and in addition the Countess's aunt, Anne Garrard, married Dudley Carleton, Viscount Dorchester, uncle to Vanbrugh's same grandfather. Frances was (half) second cousin to Vanbrugh's mother.\n The 3rd Earl of Carlisle (1669\u20131738) of Castle Howard. Carlisle's grandmother, Lady Anne Howard, Countess of Carlisle, was first cousin to the 3rd Earl of Berkshire\n The Duke of Devonshire (1640\u20131707). His Duchess was the Earl of Arran's sister\n The 2nd Earl of Chesterfield (1634\u20131714). His Countess was the Earl of Arran's sister. His uncle Ferdinando Stanhope married Lettice Ferrers, aunt of the Countess of Arran\n The 7th Earl of Huntingdon (1650\u20131701). Vanbrugh's mother was his (half) third cousin.\n\nVanbrugh's younger brothers, Charles MP and Philip, Governor of Newfoundland Colony, were naval commanders.\n\nVanbrugh's own first and second cousins included Sir Humphrey Ferrers (1652\u20131678), Sir Herbert Croft Bt (1652\u20131720), Sir Roger Cave Bt (1655\u20131703) and Cave's sister, wife of Sir Orlando Bridgeman Bt (1650\u20131701).\n\nPolitical activism and the Bastille\n\nFrom 1686, Vanbrugh was working undercover, playing a role in bringing about the armed invasion by William of Orange, the deposition of James II, and the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He thus demonstrates an intense early identification with the Whig cause of parliamentary democracy, with which he was to remain affiliated all his life. Returning from bringing William messages at The Hague, Vanbrugh was arrested at Calais on a charge of espionage (which Downes concludes was trumped-up) in September 1688, two months before William invaded England. Vanbrugh remained in prison in France for four and a half years, albeit in reasonable comfort. In 1691 he requested to be moved from Calais to Vincennes, at his own expense, where his treatment deteriorated enough to suffice his writing to Louis XIV, leading to his eventual transfer to the Bastille in February 1692. This raised the profile of his case once more, finally prompting his release in November of the same year, in an exchange of political prisoners.\n\nHis life is sharply bisected by this prison experience, which he entered at age 24 and emerged from at 29, after having spent, as Downes puts it, half his adult life in captivity. It seems to have left him with a lasting distaste for the French political system but also with a taste for the comic dramatists and the architecture of France.\n\nThe often-repeated claim that Vanbrugh wrote part of his comedy The Provoked Wife in the Bastille is based on allusions in a couple of much later memoirs and is regarded with some doubt by modern scholars (see McCormick). After being released from the Bastille, he had to spend three months in Paris, free to move around but unable to leave the country, and with every opportunity to see an architecture \"unparalleled in England for scale, ostentation, richness, taste and sophistication\". He was allowed to return to England in April 1693; once he returned to England he joined the Navy and took part in an unsuccessful naval attack against the French at Brest. At some point in the mid-1690s, it is not known exactly when, he exchanged army life for London and the London stage.\n\nPublic life\n\nLondon \nVanbrugh's London career was diverse and varied, comprising playwriting, architectural design, and attempts to combine these two overarching interests. His overlapping achievements and business ventures were sometimes confusing even to Vanbrugh himself.\n\nThe Kit-Cat Club\nA committed Whig, Vanbrugh was a member of the Kit-Cat Club\u00a0\u2013 and particularly popular for \"his colossal geniality, his great good humour, his easy-going temperament\". The Club is best known today as an early 18th-century social gathering point for culturally and politically prominent Whigs, including many artists and writers (William Congreve, Joseph Addison, Godfrey Kneller) and politicians (the Duke of Marlborough, Charles Seymour, the Earl of Burlington, Thomas Pelham-Holles, Sir Robert Walpole and Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham who gave Vanbrugh several architectural commissions at Stowe).\n\nPolitically, the Club promoted the Whig objectives of a strong Parliament, a limited monarchy, resistance to France, and primarily the Protestant succession to the throne. Yet the Kit-Cats always presented their club as more a matter of dining and conviviality, and this reputation has been successfully relayed to posterity. Downes suggests, however, that the Club's origins go back to before the Glorious Revolution of 1689 and that its political importance was much greater before it went public in 1700, in calmer and more Whiggish times. Downes proposes a role for an early Kit-Cat grouping in the armed invasion by William of Orange and the Glorious Revolution. Horace Walpole, son of Kit-Cat Sir Robert Walpole, claims that the respectable middle-aged Club members generally mentioned as \"a set of wits\" were originally \"in reality the patriots that saved Britain\", in other words were the active force behind the Glorious Revolution itself. Secret groups tend to be poorly documented, and this sketch of the pre-history of the Club cannot be proved. But as we have seen, young Vanbrugh was indeed in 1688 part of a secret network working for William's invasion. If the roots of the Club go back that far, it is tempting to speculate that Vanbrugh in joining the club was not merely becoming one of a convivial London \"set of wits\" but was also linking up with old friends and co-conspirators. A hero of the cause who had done time in French prison for it, could have been confident of a warm welcome.\n\nThe Haymarket theatre\n\nIn 1703, Vanbrugh started buying land and signing backers for the construction of a new theatre, the Queen's Theatre, in Haymarket, designed by himself and managed by Vanbrugh along with Thomas Betterton and his associate William Congreve. It was intended for the use of an actors' cooperative (see The Provoked Wife below) and hoped to improve the chances of legitimate theatre in London. Theatre was under threat from more colourful types of entertainment such as opera, juggling, pantomime (introduced by John Rich), animal acts, travelling dance troupes, and famous visiting Italian singers. They also hoped to make a profit, and Vanbrugh optimistically bought up the actors' company, making himself sole owner. He was now bound to pay salaries to the actors and, as it turned out, to manage the theatre, a notorious tightrope act for which he had no experience. The often repeated rumour that the acoustics of the building Vanbrugh had designed were bad is exaggerated (see Milhous ), but the more practical Congreve had become anxious to extricate himself from the project, and Vanbrugh was left spreading himself extremely thin, running a theatre and simultaneously overseeing the building of Blenheim, a project which after June 1705 often took him out of town.\n\nUnsurprisingly under these circumstances, Vanbrugh's management of the Queen's Theatre in Haymarket showed \"numerous signs of confusion, inefficiency, missed opportunities, and bad judgment\". Having burned his fingers on theatre management, Vanbrugh too extricated himself, expensively, by selling the business in 1708 to Owen Swiny., though without ever collecting much of the putative price. He had put a lot of money, his own and borrowed, into the theatre company, which he was never to recover. It was noted as remarkable by contemporaries that he continued to pay the actors' salaries fully and promptly while they were working for him, just as he always paid the workmen he had hired for construction work; shirking such responsibilities was close to being standard practice in early 18th century England. Vanbrugh himself never seems to have pursued those who owed him money, and throughout his life his finances can at best be described as precarious.\n\nThe College of Arms\nVanbrugh's introduction and advancement in the College of Arms remain controversial. On 21 June 1703 the obsolete office of Carlisle Herald was revived for Vanbrugh. This appointment was followed by a promotion to the post of Clarenceux King of Arms in March 1704. In 1725 he sold this office to Knox Ward, and he told a friend he had \"got leave to dispose in earnest, of a place I got in jest\". His colleagues' opposition to an ill-gotten appointment ought to have been directed to Lord Carlisle, who as Deputy Earl Marshal, arranged both appointments and against whose wishes they were powerless. Vanbrugh went on to make more friends than enemies at the College, however. The pageantry of state occasions appealed to his theatrical sense, his duties were not difficult, and he appears to have performed them well. In the opinion of a modern herald and historian, although the appointment was \"incongruous\", he was \"possibly the most distinguished man who has ever worn a herald's tabard.\" In May 1706 Lord Halifax and Vanbrugh \u2013 representing the octogenarian Garter King of Arms, Sir Henry St George \u2013 led a delegation to Hanover to confer the Order of the Garter on Prince George, later to become King George II. Vaughan Hart has shown how Vanbrugh's interest in arms and heraldry found expression in, and gave meaning to, his architecture.\n\nMarriage and death\n\nIn 1719, at St Lawrence's Church, York (since rebuilt), Vanbrugh married Henrietta Maria Yarburgh of Heslington Hall, York, aged 26 to his 55. In spite of the age difference, this was by all accounts a happy marriage, which produced two sons. Unlike that of the rake heroes and fops of his plays, Vanbrugh's personal life was without scandal.\n\nVanbrugh died \"of an asthma\" on 26 March 1726, in the modest town house designed by him in 1703 out of the ruins of Whitehall Palace and satirised by Swift as \"the goose pie\". His married life, however, was mostly spent at Greenwich (then not considered part of London at all) in the house on Maze Hill now known as Vanbrugh Castle, a miniature Scottish tower house designed by Vanbrugh in the earliest stages of his career. A Grade I listed building, and formerly a RAF Boys' School, it is today divided into private apartments.\n\nPlaywright\n\nVanbrugh arrived in London at a time of scandal and internal drama at London's only theatre company, as a long-running conflict between pinchpenny management and disgruntled actors came to a head and the actors walked out. A new comedy staged with the makeshift remainder of the company in January 1696, Colley Cibber's Love's Last Shift, had a final scene that to Vanbrugh's critical mind demanded a sequel, and even though it was his first play he threw himself into the fray by providing it.\n\nThe Relapse\nCibber's Love's Last Shift\nColley Cibber's notorious tear-jerker Love's Last Shift, Or, Virtue Rewarded was written and staged in the eye of a theatrical storm. London's only and mismanaged theatre company, known as the United Company, had split in two in March 1695 when the senior actors began operating their own acting cooperative, and the next season was one of cutthroat rivalry between the two companies.\n\nCibber, an inconspicuous young actor still employed by the parent company, seized this moment of unique demand for new plays and launched his career on two fronts by writing a play with a big, flamboyant part for himself: the Frenchified fop Sir Novelty Fashion. Backed up by Cibber's own uninhibited performance, Sir Novelty delighted the audiences. In the serious part of Love's Last Shift, wifely patience is tried by an out-of-control Restoration rake husband, and the perfect wife is celebrated and rewarded in a climactic finale where the cheating husband kneels to her and expresses the depth of his repentance.\n\nLove's Last Shift has not been staged again since the early 18th century and is read only by the most dedicated scholars, who sometimes express distaste for its businesslike combination of four explicit acts of sex and rakishness with one of sententious reform (see Hume). If Cibber indeed was deliberately attempting to appeal simultaneously to rakish and respectable Londoners, it worked: the play was a great box-office hit.\n\nSequel: The Relapse\nVanbrugh's witty sequel The Relapse, Or, Virtue in Danger, offered to the United Company six weeks later, questions the justice of women's position in marriage at this time. He sends new sexual temptations in the way of not only the reformed husband but also the patient wife, and allows them to react in more credible and less predictable ways than in their original context, lending the flat characters from Love's Last Shift a dimension that at least some critics are willing to consider psychological (see Hume ).\n\nIn a trickster subplot, Vanbrugh provides the more traditional Restoration attraction of an overly well-dressed and exquisite fop, Lord Foppington, a brilliant re-creation of Cibber's Sir Novelty Fashion in Love's Last Shift (Sir Novelty has simply in The Relapse bought himself the title of \"Lord Foppington\" through the corrupt system of Royal title sales). Critics of Restoration comedy are unanimous in declaring Lord Foppington \"the greatest of all Restoration fops\" (Dobr\u00e9e), by virtue of being not merely laughably affected, but also \"brutal, evil, and smart\" (Hume ).\n\nThe Relapse, however, came very close to not being performed at all. The United Company had lost all its senior performers, and had great difficulty in finding and keeping actors of sufficient skills for the large cast required by The Relapse. Members of that cast had to be kept from defecting to the rival actors' cooperative, had to be \"seduced\" (as the legal term was) back when they did defect, and had to be blandished into attending rehearsals which dragged out into ten months and brought the company to the threshold of bankruptcy. \"They have no company at all\", reported a contemporary letter on 19 November 1696 \"and unless a new play comes out on Saturday revives their reputation, they must break\". That new play, The Relapse, did turn out a tremendous success that saved the company, not least by virtue of Colley Cibber again bringing down the house with his second impersonation of Lord Foppington. \"This play (the Relapse)\", writes Cibber in his autobiography forty years later, \"from its new and easy Turn of Wit, had great Success\".\n\nThe Provoked Wife\n\nVanbrugh's second original comedy, The Provoked Wife, followed soon after, performed by the rebel actors' company. This play is different in tone from the largely farcical The Relapse, and adapted to the greater acting skills of the rebels. Vanbrugh had good reason to offer his second play to the new company, which had got off to a brilliant start by premi\u00e8ring Congreve's Love for Love, the greatest London box-office success for years. The actors' cooperative boasted the established star performers of the age, and Vanbrugh tailored The Provoked Wife to their specialities. While The Relapse had been robustly phrased to be suitable for amateurs and minor acting talents, he could count on versatile professionals like Thomas Betterton, Elizabeth Barry, and the rising young star Anne Bracegirdle to do justice to characters of depth and nuance.\n\nThe Provoked Wife is a comedy, but Elizabeth Barry who played the abused wife was especially famous as a tragic actress, and for her power of \"moving the passions\", i.e., moving an audience to pity and tears. Barry and the younger Bracegirdle had often worked together as a tragic\/comic heroine pair to bring audiences the typically tragic\/comic rollercoaster experience of Restoration plays. Vanbrugh takes advantage of this schema and these actresses to deepen audience sympathy for the unhappily married Lady Brute, even as she fires off her witty ripostes. In the intimate conversational dialogue between Lady Brute and her niece Bellinda (Bracegirdle), and especially in the star part of Sir John Brute the brutish husband (Betterton), which was hailed as one of the peaks of Thomas Betterton's remarkable career, The Provoked Wife is something as unusual as a Restoration problem play. The premise of the plot, that a wife trapped in an abusive marriage might consider either leaving it or taking a lover, outraged some sections of Restoration society.\n\nOther works\n Aesop (1697)\n The False Friend (1702)\n Squire Trelooby (1704)\n The Confederacy (1705)\n The Mistake (1705)\n\nChanging audience taste\nIn 1698, Vanbrugh's argumentative and sexually frank plays were singled out for special attention by Jeremy Collier in his Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage, particularly for their failure to impose exemplary morality by appropriate rewards and punishments in the fifth act. Vanbrugh laughed at these charges and published a joking reply, where he accused the clergyman Collier of being more sensitive to unflattering portrayals of the clergy than to real irreligion. However, rising public opinion was already on Collier's side. The intellectual and sexually explicit Restoration comedy style was becoming less and less acceptable to audiences and was soon to be replaced by a drama of sententious morality. Colley Cibber's Love's Last Shift, with its reformed rake and sentimental reconciliation scene, can be seen as a forerunner of this drama.\n\nAlthough Vanbrugh continued to work for the stage in many ways, he produced no more original plays. With the change in audience taste away from Restoration comedy, he turned his creative energies from original composition to dramatic adaptation\/translation, theatre management, and architecture.\n\nArchitect\nThe precise reasons and motivations behind Vanbrugh's change in career remain unclear, but the decision was sudden enough even to be remarked upon by commentators of his time:\n\nVan's genius, without thought or lecture,\nIs hugely turn'd to architecture.\n\nJonathan Swift, in this quote, suggests that Vanbrugh had no previous training in, nor studied architecture, but applied himself to the discipline whole-heartedly.\n\nAs an architect (or surveyor, as the term then was) Vanbrugh is thought to have had no formal training (see \"Early life\" above). To what extent Vanbrugh's exposure to contemporary French architecture during years of imprisonment in France affected him is hard to gauge, in April 1691 he was transferred to Ch\u00e2teau de Vincennes in the months he spent as a prisoner there he would have got to know the architect Louis Le Vau's grand classical work (1656\u201361) in the ch\u00e2teau well. On his release from prison (he was at the Bastille by then) on 22 November 1692 he spent a short time in Paris, there he would have seen much recent architecture including Les Invalides, the Coll\u00e8ge des Quatre-Nations and the east wing of the Louvre Palace. His inexperience was compensated for by his unerring eye for perspective and detail and his close working relationship with Nicholas Hawksmoor. Hawksmoor, a former clerk of Sir Christopher Wren, was to be Vanbrugh's collaborator in many of his most ambitious projects, including Castle Howard and Blenheim. During his almost thirty years as a practising architect, Vanbrugh designed and worked on numerous buildings. More often than not his work was a rebuild or remodel, such as that of Kimbolton Castle, where Vanbrugh had to follow the instructions of his patron. Consequently these houses, which often claim Vanbrugh as their architect, do not best display his own architectural concepts and ideas. In the summer of 1699 as part of his architectural education Vanbrugh made a tour of northern England, writing to Charles Montagu, 1st Duke of Manchester, (he was still an Earl at the time) on Christmas Day of that year: 'I have seen most of the great houses in the North, as Ld Nottings (sic): Duke of Leeds Chattesworth (sic) &C.' This itinerary likely included many of the great Elizabethan houses, including: Burghley House, Wollaton Hall, Hardwick Hall and Bolsover Castle, whose use of towers, complex skylines, bow widows and other features would be reinterpreted in Vanbrugh's own buildings.\n\nThough Vanbrugh is best known in connection with stately houses, the parlous state of London's 18th-century streets did not escape his attention. It was reported in the London Journal of 16 March 1722\u201323:\n\nVanbrugh's chosen style was the baroque, which had been spreading across Europe during the 17th century, promoted by, among others, Bernini and Le Vau. The first baroque country house built in England was Chatsworth House, designed by William Talman three years before Castle Howard. In the contest for the commission of Castle Howard, the untrained and untried Vanbrugh astonishingly managed to out-charm and out-clubman the professional but less socially adept Talman and to persuade the Earl of Carlisle to give the great opportunity to him instead. Seizing it, Vanbrugh instigated European baroque's metamorphosis into a subtle, almost understated version that became known as English baroque. Four of Vanbrugh's designs act as milestones for evaluating this process:\n Castle Howard, commissioned in 1699;\n Blenheim Palace, commissioned in 1704;\n Kings Weston House, begun in 1712;\n Seaton Delaval Hall, begun in 1718.\n\nWork on each of these projects overlapped with that on the next, providing a natural progression of thoughts and style.\n\nCastle Howard\n\nCharles Howard, 3rd Earl of Carlisle, a fellow member of the Kit-Cat Club, commissioned Vanbrugh in 1699 to design his mansion, often described as England's first truly baroque building. The baroque style at Castle Howard is the most European that Vanbrugh ever used.\n\nCastle Howard, with its immense corridors in segmental colonnades leading from the main entrance block to the flanking wings, its centre crowned by a great domed tower complete with cupola, is very much in the school of classic European baroque. It combined aspects of design that had only appeared occasionally, if at all, in English architecture: John Webb's Greenwich Palace, Wren's unexecuted design for Greenwich, which like Castle Howard was dominated by a domed centre block, and of course Talman's Chatsworth. A possible inspiration for Castle Howard was also Vaux-le-Vicomte in France.\n\nThe interiors are extremely dramatic, the Great Hall rising 80\u00a0feet (24\u00a0m) into the cupola. Scagliola, and Corinthian columns abound, and galleries linked by soaring arches give the impression of an opera stage-set\u00a0\u2013 doubtless the intention of the architect.\n\nCastle Howard was acclaimed a success. This fantastical building, unparalleled in England, with its facades and roofs decorated by pilasters, statuary, and flowing ornamental carving, ensured that baroque became an overnight success. While the greater part of Castle Howard was inhabited and completed by 1709, the finishing touches were to continue for much of Vanbrugh's lifetime. The west wing was finally completed after Vanbrugh's death, to an altered design. The acclaim of the work at Castle Howard led to Vanbrugh's most famous commission, architect for Blenheim Palace.\n\nRegarding the commission, William Talman, an already established architect and Comptroller of the King's Works had initially been the architect of choice, charging more than the Lord had thought reasonable. Vanbrugh's charm, and Talman's lack thereof, may have been enough to convince the patron to change his architect. However, it remains unknown how Vanbrugh, totally untrained and inexperienced, persuaded Earl Carlisle to grant the responsibility of architect to him. The design process began in the summer of 1699, before the end of the year the model for Castle Howard was under construction, stone was being quarried and foundations discussed.\n\nIt appears that the early drawings of the design for Castle Howard were made by Nicholas Hawksmoor, and in 1700 he was formally introduced by Vanbrugh into the project as draughtsman and clerk of works. Designs varied and evolved until 1702, the pair working together.\n\nVanbrugh's House\n\nIn July 1700 the King granted Vanbrugh permission to build on the ruins of Whitehall at his own expense. Brick and stone from the ruins of the Palace of Whitehall were used and the house was sited on what was the Vice-Chamberlain's lodgings. The small, two storied house was unique in design, though its size and proportions led to it being called, unflatteringly, a 'goose-pie' by Swift.\n\nThe house was demolished in 1898 to make way for the Old War Office Building.\n\nBlenheim Palace\n\nThe Duke of Marlborough's forces defeated King Louis XIV's army at Blenheim, a village on the Danube in 1704. Marlborough's reward, from a grateful nation, was to be a splendid country seat, and the Duke himself chose fellow Kit-Cat John Vanbrugh to be the architect. Work began on the palace in 1705, though as Vanbrugh wasn't a trained architect he worked alongside Nicholas Hawksmoor on the project.\n\nBlenheim Palace was conceived to be not only a grand country house, but a national monument. Consequently, the light baroque style used at Castle Howard would have been unsuitable for what is in effect a war memorial. It is in truth more of a castle, or citadel, than a palace. As it was designed as a national monument first and a comfortable family home second, Vanbrugh had many arguments with the Duchess who wanted the Palace to be a comfortable country house for her family, I made Mr. Vanbrugh my enemy by the constant disputes I had with him to prevent his extravagance As a result of these arguments Vanbrugh resigned before the palace was completed in November 1716.You have your end Madam, for I will never trouble you more Unless the Duke of Marlborough recovers so far, to shelter me from such intolerable Treatment.\n\nThe qualities of the building are best illustrated by the massive East Gate (illustration, below, left), set in the curtain wall of the service block, it has been described as resembling an impregnable entrance to a walled city. The gate, its tapering walls creating an illusion of greater height, also serves as water tower for the palace, thus confounding those of Vanbrugh's critics, such as the Duchess, who accused him of impracticability.\n\nBlenheim, the largest non-royal domestic building in England, consists of three blocks, the centre containing the living and state rooms, and two flanking rectangular wings both built around a central courtyard: one contains the stables, and the other the kitchens, laundries, and storehouses. If Castle Howard was the first truly baroque building in England, then Blenheim Palace is the most definitive. While Castle Howard is a dramatic assembly of restless masses, Blenheim is altogether of a more solid construction, relying on tall slender windows and monumental statuary on the roofs to lighten the mass of yellow stone.\n\nThe suite of state rooms placed on the piano nobile were designed to be overpowering and magnificent displays, rather than warm, or comfortable. Cosy, middle class comfort was not the intention at Versailles, the great palace of Marlborough's foe, and it was certainly not deemed a consideration in the palace built to house the conqueror of Versailles' master.\n\nAs was common in the 18th century, personal comfort was sacrificed to perspective. Windows were to adorn the facades, as well as light the interior. Blenheim was designed as a theatre piece both externally and also from the 67\u00a0foot (20\u00a0m) high great hall, leading to the huge frescoed saloon, all designed on an axis with the 134\u00a0foot (41\u00a0m) high column of victory in the grounds, with the trees planted in the battle positions of Marlborough's soldiers. Over the south portico (illustrated right), itself a massive and dense construction of piers and columns, definitely not designed in the Palladian manner for elegant protection from the sun, a huge bust of Louis XIV is forced to look down on the splendours and rewards of his conqueror. Whether this placement and design was an ornamental feature created by Vanbrugh, or an ironic joke by Marlborough, is not known. However, as an architectural composition it is a unique example of baroque ornament.\n\nAt Blenheim, Vanbrugh developed baroque from the mere ornamental to a denser, more solid, form, where the massed stone became the ornament. The great arched gates and the huge solid portico were ornament in themselves, and the whole mass was considered rather than each facade. As the palace is still treated as an important part of English heritage, it became a World Heritage Site in 1987.\n\nKings Weston House\n\nKings Weston House in Bristol was built between 1712 and 1719 for Edward Southwell on the site of an earlier Tudor house. A significant architectural feature is the grouping of all the chimneys into a massive arcade. The Kings Weston estate possesses one of the largest collections of buildings designed by Sir John Vanbrugh in the UK. Whilst the house and the majority of the estate buildings are still standing others have been demolished or been heavily altered. Bristol is the only UK city outside London to possess buildings designed by Vanbrugh.\n\nOn 29 April Edward Southwell wrote in his journal at Kings Weston, \"Upwards of 60 men preparing stones and digging the foundation of the new house,\" and on 16 June 1712 work formally began on building the new house by John Vanbrugh. His client, Edward Southwell, did not desire a house on a monumental scale. The result was one of Vanbrugh's smaller houses. It is also his severest in style, obtaining high architectural drama by the well judged disposition of elements that are few in number, and simple in their nature.  The exterior of the house would have been at the point of completion in 1717, the date on the contract for one of the parapet vases. The interior would have been virtually complete by 1719, when the design for inlay on the stair landings was drawn up. Two of the fa\u00e7ades have since been remodelled, by Robert Mylne, who remodelled the interior in the 1760s. The stone, which was quarried on the site, was originally ochre in colour but has weathered to an orange-pink.\n\nThe arcade formed by linking the chimneys, which rises above the roof, is a notable external feature of the building, reminiscent of the belvederes of Blenheim Palace and producing a 'castle air'.[18] It is square in shape and open on the northeast. The current structure is the result of a rebuilding in 1968, using Bath Stone.\n\nThe entrance front, on the southwest, has a centre containing six Corinthian pilasters, with those at each side paired to produce three bays, each of which contains a round arched window. The pediment has a central lunette, and each side consists of two bays in which the windows have wide flat surrounds. There are four parapet vases. The steps originally had low flank walls perpendicular to the facade, which were removed in the later remodelling.\n\nOn the southeast facade, the centre has a Doric temple front with open pediment, which surrounds the doorway. The centre has an attic as its upper storey, topped by a blocking course with scrolled supports at each end. A design with a pediment was prepared for this front, but is thought never to have been built. Though the only decoration is the rustication on the Doric temple's pilasters, a remarkably rich effect is achieved.\n\nThe northeast and northwest facades of Vanbrugh's original design were entirely undecorated, and a consequent lack of popular appeal may be the reason why they were largely destroyed in later remodelling.\n\nVanbrugh's northwest facade consisted of a single flat surface, in which a Venetian window on each floor filled the central space between two shallow projections. Perhaps to improve the view down to Avonmouth, the centre was remodelled by Mylne with a canted bay window, at odds with the tautness of Vanbrugh's overall design of the house, in which all planes were parallel or perpendicular to the walls. On the northeast the wall was moved forward during nineteenth-century remodelling, destroying an aesthetically significant alignment between wall projections and the break in the roof arcade, which had been present in Vanbrugh's design.\n\nSeaton Delaval Hall\n\nSeaton Delaval Hall was Vanbrugh's final work, this northern, seemingly rather bleak country house is considered his finest architectural masterpiece;\nby this stage in his architectural career Vanbrugh was a master of baroque, he had taken this form of architecture not only beyond the flamboyant continental baroque of Castle Howard, but also past the more severe but still decorated Blenheim. Ornament was almost disguised: a recess or a pillar was not placed for support, but to create a play of light or shadow. The silhouette of the building was of equal, if not greater, importance than the interior layout. In every aspect of the house, subtlety was the keyword.\n\nBuilt between 1718 and 1728 for Admiral George Delaval, it replaced the existing house on the site. It is possible that the design of Seaton Delaval was influenced by Palladio's Villa Foscari (sometimes known as \"La Malcontenta\"), built circa 1555. Both have rusticated facades and similar demilune windows over a non-porticoed entrance. Even the large attic gable at Villa Foscari hints at the clerestory of Seaton's great hall.\n\nThe design concept Vanbrugh drew up was similar to that employed at Castle Howard and Blenheim: a corps de logis between two flanking wings. At Seaton Delaval the wings have a centre projection of three bays, crowned by pediment, either side of which are 7 bays of sash windows above a ground floor arcade. However, Seaton Delaval was to be on a much smaller scale. Work began in 1718 and continued for ten years. The building is an advancement on the style of Blenheim, rather than the earlier Castle Howard. The principal block, or corps de logis, containing, as at Blenheim and Castle Howard, the principal state and living room, forms the centre of a three-sided court. Towers crowned by balustrades and pinnacles give the house something of what Vanbrugh called his castle air.\n\nSeaton Delaval is one of the few houses Vanbrugh designed alone without the aid of Nicholas Hawksmoor. The sobriety of their joint work has sometimes been attributed to Hawksmoor, and yet Seaton Delaval is a very sombre house indeed. Whereas Castle Howard could successfully be set down in Dresden or W\u00fcrzburg, the austerity and solidity of Seaton Delaval firmly belongs in Northumberland landscape. Vanbrugh, in the final stage in his career, was fully liberated from the rules of the architects of a generation earlier. The rustic stonework is used for the entire facade, including on the entrance facade, the pairs of twin columns supporting little more than a stone cornice. The twin columns are severe and utilitarian, and yet ornament, as they provide no structural use. This is part of the furtive quality of the baroque of Seaton Delaval: the ornamental appears as a display of strength and mass.\n\nThe likewise severe, but perfectly proportioned, garden facade has at its centre a four-columned, balcony-roofed portico. Here the slight fluting of the stone columns seems almost excessive ornament. As at Blenheim, the central block is dominated by the raised clerestory of the great hall, adding to the drama of the building's silhouette, but unlike Vanbrugh's other great houses, no statuary decorates the roof-scape here. The decoration is provided solely by a simple balustrade hiding the roof line, and chimneys disguised as finials to the balustrading of the low towers. The massing of the stone, the colonnades of the flanking wings, the heavy stonework and intricate recesses all create light and shade which is ornament in itself.\n\nAmong architects, only Vanbrugh could have taken for his inspiration one of Palladio's masterpieces, and while retaining the humanist values of the building, alter and adapt it, into a unique form of baroque unseen elsewhere in Europe.\n\nArchitectural reputation\nVanbrugh's prompt success as an architect can be attributed to his friendships with the influential of the day. No less than five of his architectural patrons were fellow members of the Kit-Cat Club. In 1702, through the influence of Charles Howard, Earl of Carlisle, Vanbrugh was appointed Comptroller of the King's Works. This entitled him to a house at Hampton Court Palace, which he let out. In 1703, he was appointed commissioner of Greenwich Hospital, which was under construction at this time, and succeeded Wren as the official architect (or Surveyor), while Hawksmoor was appointed Site Architect. Vanbrugh's small but conspicuous final changes to the nearly completed building were considered a fine interpretation of Wren's original plans and intentions. Thus what was intended as an infirmary and hostel for destitute retired sailors was transformed into a magnificent national monument. His work here is said to have impressed both Queen Anne and her government, and is directly responsible for his subsequent success.\n\nVanbrugh's reputation still suffers from accusations of extravagance, impracticability and a bombastic imposition of his own will on his clients. Ironically, all of these unfounded charges derive from Blenheim\u00a0\u2013 Vanbrugh's selection as architect of Blenheim was never completely popular. The Duchess, the formidable Sarah Churchill, particularly wanted Sir Christopher Wren. However, eventually a warrant signed by the Earl of Godolphin, the parliamentary treasurer, appointed Vanbrugh, and outlined his remit. Sadly, nowhere did this warrant mention Queen, or Crown. This error provided the get-out clause for the state when the costs and political infighting escalated.\n\nThough Parliament had voted funds for the building of Blenheim, no exact sum had ever been fixed upon, and certainly no provision had been made for inflation. Almost from the outset, funds had been intermittent. Queen Anne paid some of them, but with growing reluctance and lapses, following her frequent altercations with her one time best friend, Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough. After the Duchess's final argument with the Queen in 1712, all state money ceased and work came to a halt. \u00a3220,000 had already been spent and \u00a345,000 was owing to workmen. The Marlboroughs went into exile on the continent, and did not return until after Queen Anne's death in 1714.\n\nThe day after the Queen's death the Marlboroughs returned, and were reinstated in favour at the court of the new King George I. The 64-year-old Duke now decided to complete the project at his own expense; in 1716 work restarted and Vanbrugh was left to rely entirely upon the means of the Duke of Marlborough himself. Already discouraged and upset by the reception the palace was receiving from the Whig factions, the final blow for Vanbrugh came when the Duke was incapacitated in 1717 by a severe stroke, and the thrifty (and hostile) Duchess took control. The Duchess blamed Vanbrugh entirely for the growing extravagance of the palace, and its general design: that her husband and government had approved them, she discounted. (In fairness to her, it must be mentioned that the Duke of Marlborough had contributed \u00a360,000 to the initial cost, which, supplemented by Parliament, should have built a monumental house.) Following a meeting with the Duchess, Vanbrugh left the building site in a rage, insisting that the new masons, carpenters and craftsmen were inferior to those he had employed. The master craftsmen he had patronised, however, such as Grinling Gibbons, refused to work for the lower rates paid by the Marlboroughs. The craftsmen brought in by the Duchess, under the guidance of furniture designer James Moore, completed the work in perfect imitation of the greater masters, so perhaps there was fault and intransigence on both sides in this famed argument.\n\nVanbrugh was deeply distressed by the turn of events. The rows and resulting rumours had damaged his reputation, and the palace he had nurtured like a child was forbidden to him. In 1719, while the duchess was \"not at home\", Vanbrugh was able to view the palace in secret; but when he and his wife, with the Earl of Carlisle, visited the completed Blenheim as members of the viewing public in 1725, they were refused admission to even enter the park. The palace had been completed by Nicholas Hawksmoor.\n\nThat Vanbrugh's work at Blenheim has been the subject of criticism can largely be blamed on those, including the Duchess, who failed to understand the chief reason for its construction: to celebrate a martial triumph. In the achievement of this remit, Vanbrugh was as triumphant as was Marlborough on the field of battle.\n\nAfter Vanbrugh's death Abel Evans suggested this as his epitaph:\n\nUnder this stone, reader, survey\nDead Sir John Vanbrugh's house of clay.\nLie heavy on him, Earth! For he\nLaid many heavy loads on thee!\n\nVanbrugh was buried in the church of St Stephen Walbrook in the City of London, but his grave is unmarked and the above epitaph is as yet unused.\n\nThroughout the Georgian period reaction to Vanbrugh's architecture varied. Voltaire, who visited Blenheim Palace in the autumn of 1727, described it as 'a great mass of stone with neither charm nor taste' and thought that if the apartments 'were but as spacious as the walls thick, the house would be commodious enough'.\n\nIn a letter dated 10 March 1740, the German Jacob Friedrich, Baron Bielfeld had this to say about Vanbrugh:\n\nThis building (Blenheim) has been severely censured, and I agree that it is not entirely exempt from rational censure as it is too much loaded with columns and other heavy ornaments. But if we consider that Sir John Vanbrugh was to construct a building of endless duration, that no bounds were set to expense, and that an edifice was required that should strike with awe and surprise even at a distance; the architect may be excused for having sacrificed, in some degree, the elegance of design to multiplicity of ornament. All the several parts are moreover exactly calculated, all the rules of art are well observed, and this immense fabric reminds us, on the first glance, of the majesty and state of those of Greece and ancient Rome. When we behold it a distance, it appears not as a single palace, but as an entire city. We arrive at it by a stately bridge of a single arch, and which is itself a masterpiece of architecture. I have contracted a very intimate friend ship with the son of Sir John Vanbrugh, who has lately obtained a company in the foot guards, and is a young gentleman of real merit. He has shown me, not only all the designs of his father, but also two houses of his building, one near Whitehall, and the other at Greenwich. They are indeed mere models of houses, but notwithstanding their confined situation,  there are everywhere traces of a master to be discovered in their execution. The vulgar critic finds too many columns and ornaments; but the true connoisseur sees that all these ornaments are accompanied with utility, and that an inventive genius is visible in every part. This architect was likewise author of several comedies, which are indeed written in a style that is rather licentious, but at the same time are resplendent with wit and vivacity. So true it is, that genius is not confined to one subject, but wherever exercised, is equally manifest.\n\nIn 1766 Lord Stanhope described the Roman amphitheatre at N\u00eemes as 'Ugly and clumsy enough to have been the work of Vanbrugh if it had been in England.' In 1772 Horace Walpole described Castle Howard thus:\n\nNobody had informed me that I should at one view see a palace, a town, a fortified city, temples on high places, woods worthy of being each a metropolis of the Druids, vales connected to hills by other woods, the noblest lawn in the world fenced by half the horizon, and a mausoleum that would tempt one to be buried alive; in short I have seen gigantic places before, but never a sublime one.'\n\nWalpole was not as complimentary of Blenheim, describing it as 'execrable within, without & almost all round' and went on 'a quarry of stone that looked at a distance like a great house'. In 1773 Robert Adam and James Adam in the preface to their Works in Architecture wrote that:\n\nSir John Vanbrugh's genius was of the first class; and, in point of movement, novelty and ingenuity, his works have not been exceeded by anything in modern times. We should certainly quote Blenheim and Castle Howard as great examples of these perfections in preference to any work of our own, or of any other modern architect; but unluckily for the reputation of this excellent artist, his taste kept no pace with his genius, and his works are so crowded with barbarisms and absurdities, and so born down by their own preposterous weight, that none but the discerning can separate their merits from their defects. In the hands of the ingenious artist, who knows how to polish and refine and bring them into use, we have always regarded his productions as rough jewels of inestimable value'.\n\nIn 1786 Sir Joshua Reynolds wrote in his 13th Discourse '...in the buildings of Vanbrugh, who was a poet as well as an architect, there is a greater display of imagination, than we shall find perhaps in any other.' In 1796 Uvedale Price described Blenheim as 'uniting in one building the beauty and magnificence of Grecian architecture, the picturesqueness of the Gothic, and the massive grandeur of a castle.' In his fifth Royal Academy lecture of 1810, Sir John Soane said that 'By studying his works the artist will acquire a bold flight of irregular fancy', calling him 'the Shakespeare of architects'. Sir Robert Smirke was less complimentary 'Heaviness was the lightest of (Vanbrugh's) faults... The Italian style...which he contrived to caricature...is apparent in all his works; he helped himself liberally to its vices, contributed many of his own, and by an unfortunate misfortune adding impurity to that which was already greatly impure, left it disgusting and often odious'. Charles Robert Cockerell had this to say about Castle Howard: \"great play & charm in Hall. I could not leave it. Vast effect, movement in staircases &c. good effect of long passages on entering.\"\n\nLegacy\n\nVanbrugh is remembered today for his vast contribution to British culture, theatre, and architecture. An immediate dramatic legacy was found among his papers after his sudden death, the three-act comedy fragment A Journey to London. Vanbrugh had told his old friend Colley Cibber that he intended in this play to question traditional marriage roles even more radically than in the plays of his youth, and end it with a marriage falling irreconcilably apart. The unfinished manuscript, today available in Vanbrugh's Collected Works, depicts a country family travelling to London and falling prey to its sharpers and temptations, while a London wife drives her patient husband to despair with her gambling and her consorting with the demi-monde of con men and half-pay officers. As with The Relapse at the outset of Vanbrugh's dramatic career, Colley Cibber again became involved, and this time he had last word. Cibber, now a successful actor-manager, completed Vanbrugh's manuscript under the title of The Provoked Husband (1728) and gave it a happy and sententious ending in which the provocative wife repents and is reconciled: a eulogy of marriage which was the opposite of Vanbrugh's declared intention to end his last and belated \"Restoration comedy\" with marital break-up. Cibber considered this projected outcome to be \"too severe for Comedy\".\n\nOn the 18th-century stage, Vanbrugh's Relapse and Provoked Wife were only considered possible to perform in bowdlerised versions, but as such, they remained popular. Throughout Colley Cibber's long and successful acting career, audiences continued to demand to see him as Lord Foppington in The Relapse, while Sir John Brute in The Provoked Wife became, after being an iconic role for Thomas Betterton, one of David Garrick's most famous roles.\n\nWith the completion of Castle Howard, English baroque came into fashion overnight. It had brought together the isolated and varied instances of monumental design, by, among others, Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren. Vanbrugh thought of masses, volume and perspective in a way that his predecessors had not.\n\nHe was adept at delivering buildings for his clients, that successfully met their requirements. His reputation has suffered because of his famed disagreements with the Duchess of Marlborough, yet, one must remember his original client was the British Nation, not the Duchess, and the nation wanted a monument and celebration of victory, and that is what Vanbrugh gave the nation.\n\nNicholas Hawksmoor, Vanbrugh's friend and collaborator on so many projects continued to design many London churches for ten years after Vanbrugh's death. Vanbrugh's pupil and cousin the architect Edward Lovett Pearce rose to become one of Ireland's greatest architects. His influence in Yorkshire can also be seen in the work of the amateur architect William Wakefield, who designed several buildings in the county that show Vanbrugh's influence.\n\nVanbrugh is commemorated throughout Britain, by inns, street names, a university college (York) and schools named in his honour. His architectural works have been described as \"the architectural equivalent of the heroic play, theatrical, grandiose, a dramatic grouping of restless masses with little reference to function.\"\n\nArms\n\nSee also \n List of works by John Vanbrugh\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nReferences\n Berkowitz, Gerald M., Sir John Vanbrugh and the End of Restoration Comedy, Editions Rodopi (January 1981), .\n \n \n \n Dobr\u00e9e, Bonamy (1927). Introduction to The Complete Works of Sir John Vanbrugh, vol. 1. Bloomsbury: The Nonesuch Press.\n Downes, Kerry (1987). Sir John Vanbrugh:A Biography. London: Sidgwick and Jackson.\n \n Green, David (1982). Blenheim Palace. Oxford: Alden Press.\n Halliday, E. E. (1967). Cultural History of England. London: Thames and Hudson.\n Hart, Vaughan (2003). '\"A Pretty Impudent Countenance\": John Vanbrugh's Seaton Delaval', Architectural Research Quarterly, vol.7 no.3\/4, pp.\u00a0311\u201323.\n Hart, Vaughan (2008). Sir John Vanbrugh: Storyteller in Stone, London and New Haven: Yale University Press.\n Hume, Robert D. (1976). The Development of English Drama in the Late Seventeenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press.\n Hunt, Leigh (ed.) (1840). The Dramatic Works of Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh and Farquhar.\n \n Mallgrave, Harry Francis. (2005). Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673\u20131968. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .\n McCormick, Frank (1991). Sir John Vanbrugh: The Playwright as Architect. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press.\n Milhous, Judith (1979). Thomas Betterton and the Management of Lincoln's Inn Fields 1695\u20141708. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press.\n \n Sherwood,  Jennifer and Pevsner, Nikolaus (1974) Oxfordshire (London: Penguin; )\n Watkin, David (1979). English Architecture. London: Thames and Hudson.\n\nFurther reading\n Cordner, Michael. \"Playwright versus priest: profanity and the wit of Restoration comedy\". In Deborah Payne Fisk (ed.) (2000), The Cambridge Companion to English Restoration Theatre, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\n Cropplestone, Trewin (1963). World Architecture. Hamlyn.\n Dal Lago, Adalbert (1966). Ville Antiche. Milan: Fratelli Fabbri.\n Harlin, Robert (1969). Historic Houses. London: Cond\u00e9 Nast.\n Vanbrugh, John (1927). The Complete Works, vols 1\u20135 (ed. Bonamy Dobr\u00e9e and Geoffrey Webb). Bloomsbury: The Nonesuch Press.\n Whistler, Laurence (1938). Sir John Vanbrugh, Architect & Dramatist, 1664\u20131726. London.\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n Vanbrugh, The Provoked Wife. Use with caution, this is an abridged and bowdlerised text.\n Colley Cibber, Apology, vol. 1\n Colley Cibber, Apology, vol. 2\n Castle Howard\n Blenheim Palace\n Kings Weston House\n Seaton Delaval Hall\n Vanbrugh Castle\n\n \n1664 births\n1726 deaths\nEnglish Baroque architects\nEnglish landscape architects\nEnglish officers of arms\nPeople from Chester\nPeople from Westminster\nArtists from London\nArchitects from Cheshire\nArchitects from London\nBurials at St Stephen Walbrook\nMale feminists\n17th-century English dramatists and playwrights\n17th-century male writers\n17th-century English architects\nEnglish people of Dutch descent\nEnglish male dramatists and playwrights\nKnights Bachelor\nPrisoners of the Bastille\nEnglish people of Flemish descent","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":2}},"id":143283,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John%20Vanbrugh","title":"John Vanbrugh","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Benjamin Ryan Tillman (August 11, 1847\u00a0\u2013 July 3, 1918) was a politician of the Democratic Party who served as governor of South Carolina from 1890 to 1894, and as a United States Senator from 1895 until his death in 1918. A white supremacist who opposed civil rights for black Americans, Tillman led a paramilitary group of Red Shirts during South Carolina's violent 1876 election. On the floor of the U.S. Senate, he defended lynching, and frequently ridiculed black Americans in his speeches, boasting of having helped kill them during that campaign.\n\nIn the 1880s, Tillman, a wealthy landowner, became dissatisfied with the Democratic leadership and led a movement of white farmers calling for reform. He was initially unsuccessful, though he was instrumental in the founding of Clemson University as an agricultural land-grant college. In 1890, Tillman took control of the state Democratic Party, and was elected governor. During his four years in office, 18 black Americans were lynched in South Carolina; in the 1890s, the state had its highest number of lynchings of any decade. Tillman tried to prevent lynchings as governor but also spoke in support of the lynch mobs, alleging his own willingness to lead one. In 1894, at the end of his second two-year term, he was elected to the U.S. Senate by vote of the state legislature, who elected senators at the time.\n\nTillman was known as \"Pitchfork Ben\" because of his aggressive language, as when he threatened to use a pitchfork to prod that \"bag of beef\", President Grover Cleveland. Considered a possible candidate for the Democratic nomination for president in 1896, Tillman lost any chance after giving a disastrous speech at the convention. He became known for his virulent oratoryespecially against black Americansbut also for his effectiveness as a legislator. The first federal campaign finance law, banning corporate contributions, is commonly called the Tillman Act. Tillman was repeatedly re-elected, serving in the Senate for the rest of his life. One of his legacies was South Carolina's 1895 constitution, which disenfranchised most of the black majority and many poor whites, and ensured white Democratic Party rule for more than six decades into the 20th century.\n\nEarly life and education \nBenjamin Ryan Tillman Jr. was born on August 11, 1847, on the family plantation \"Chester\", near Trenton, in the Edgefield District, sometimes considered part of upcountry South Carolina. His parents, Benjamin Ryan Tillman Sr. and the former Sophia Hancock, were of English descent. In addition to being planters with 86 slaves, the Tillmans operated an inn. They owned 2500 acres of land and were among the largest slaveholders in the district. Benjamin Jr. was the last-born of seven sons and four daughters.\n\nThe Edgefield District was known as a violent place, even by the standards of antebellum South Carolina, where matters of personal honor might be addressed with a killing or duel. Before Tillman Sr.'s death from typhoid fever in 1849, he had killed a man and been convicted of rioting by an Edgefield jury. One of his sons died in a duel; another was killed in a domestic dispute. A third died in the Mexican\u2013American War; a fourth at the age of 15 from disease. Of Benjamin Jr.'s two surviving brothers, one died of Civil War wounds after returning home, and the other, George, killed a man who accused him of cheating at gambling. Convicted of manslaughter, George continued to practice law from his jail cell during his two-year sentence, and was elected to the state senate while still incarcerated. He later served several terms in Congress.\n\nFrom an early age, Ben showed a developed vocabulary. In 1860, he was sent to Bethany, a boarding school in Edgefield where he became a star student, and he remained there after the American Civil War began. In 1863, he came home for a year to help his mother pay off debts. He returned to Bethany in 1864, intending a final year of study prior to entering the South Carolina College (today, the University of South Carolina). The South's desperate need for soldiers ended this plan. In June 1864, not yet 17, Tillman withdrew from the academy, making arrangements to join a coastal artillery unit. These plans were scuttled as well when he fell ill at home. A cranial tumor required the removal of his left eye. It was not until 1866, months after Confederate forces had disbanded, that Ben Tillman was again healthy.\n\nAfter the war, Ben Tillman, his mother, and his wounded brother James (who died in 1866) worked to rebuild Chester plantation. They signed the plantation's freedmen as workers. They were confronted with the circumstance of several men refusing to work for them and legally leaving the plantation. From 1866 to 1868, Ben Tillman went with several workers from the plantation to Florida, where a new cotton cultivation belt had been established. The Tillmans purchased land there. Tillman was unsuccessful in Florida: after two marginal years, the 1868 crop was destroyed by caterpillars.\n\nDuring his convalescence, Tillman had met Sallie Starke, a refugee from Fairfield District. They married in January 1868 and she joined him in Florida. The Tillmans returned to South Carolina, where the following year they settled on  of Tillman family land, given to him by his mother. They would have seven children together: Adeline, Benjamin Ryan, Henry Cummings, Margaret Malona, Sophia Oliver, Samuel Starke, and Sallie Mae.\n\nThough he was not very religious, Tillman was a frequent churchgoer as a young adult. He was a Christian, but did not identify with a particular sect; as a result, he never formally joined a church. His religious skepticism also led to his avoidance of any further churchgoing almost immediately following his becoming a politician.\n\nTillman proved an adept farmer, who experimented with crop diversification and took his crops to market each Saturday in nearby Augusta, Georgia. In 1878, Tillman inherited  from Sophia Tillman, and purchased  at Ninety Six, some  from his Edgefield holdings. Having inherited a large library from his uncle John Tillman, he spent part of his days reading.\n\nAlthough his workers were no longer slaves, Tillman continued to apply the whip to them. By 1876, Tillman was the largest landowner in Edgefield County. He rode through his fields on horseback like an antebellum overseer, and stated at the time that it was necessary that he do so to \"drive the slovenly Negroes to work\".\n\nRed Shirts and Reconstruction\n\nResistance to Republican rule \n\nWith the Confederacy defeated, South Carolina ratified a new constitution in 1865 that recognized the end of slavery, but basically left the pre-war elites in charge. African-American freedmen, who were the majority of South Carolina's population, were given no vote, and their new freedom was soon restricted by Black Codes that limited their civil rights and required black farm laborers to bind themselves with annual labor contracts. Congress was dissatisfied with this minimal change and required a new constitutional convention and elections with universal male suffrage. As African Americans generally favored the Republican Party at the time, their votes resulted in that party controlling the biracial state legislature beginning with the 1868 elections. That campaign was marked by violence; 19 Republican and Union League activists were killed in South Carolina's 3rd congressional district alone.\n\nIn 1873, two Edgefield lawyers and former Confederate generals, Martin Gary and Matthew C. Butler, began to advocate what became known as the \"Edgefield Plan\" or \"Straightout Plan\". They believed that the previous five years had shown it was not possible to outvote African Americans. Gary and Butler deemed compromises with black leaders to be misguided; they believed that white men must be restored to their antebellum position of preeminent political power in the state. They proposed that white men form clandestine paramilitary organizations\u2014known as \"rifle clubs\"\u2014and use force and intimidation to drive African Americans from power. Members of the new white groups became known as Red Shirts. Tillman was an early and enthusiastic recruit for his local organization, dubbed the Sweetwater Sabre Club. He became a devoted prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of Gary.\n\nFrom 1873 to 1876, Tillman served as a member of the Sweetwater club, members of which assaulted and intimidated black would-be voters, killed black political figures, and skirmished with the African-American-dominated state militia. Economic coercion was used as well as physical force: most Edgefield planters would not employ black militiamen or allow them to rent land, and ostracized whites who did.\n\nHamburg massacre; campaign of 1876 \n\nIn 1874, a moderate Republican, Daniel Henry Chamberlain, was elected South Carolina's governor, attracting even some Democratic votes. When Chamberlain sought re-election in 1876, Gary recruited Wade Hampton\u00a0III, a Confederate war hero who had moved out of state, to return and run for governor as a Democrat. That election campaign of 1876 was marked by violence, of which the most notorious occurrence was what became known as the Hamburg massacre. It occurred in Hamburg, a mostly black town across the Savannah River from Augusta, in Aiken County, bordering Edgefield County. The incident grew out of a confrontation on July 4 when a black militia marched in Hamburg and two white farmers in a buggy tried to ride through its ranks. Both sides filed criminal charges against the other, and dozens of armed out-of-uniform Red Shirts, led by Butler, traveled to Hamburg on the day of the hearing, July 8. Tillman was present, and the subsequent events were among his proudest memories.\n\nThe hearing never occurred, as the black militiamen, outnumbered and outgunned, refused to attend court. This upset the white mob, which expected an apology. Butler demanded that the militiamen give one, and as part of the apology, surrender their arms. Those who attempted to mediate found that neither Butler nor the armed men who backed him were interested in compromise. If the militiamen surrendered their arms, they would be helpless before the mob; if they did not, Butler and his men would use force. Butler brought additional men in from Georgia, and the augmented armed mob, including Tillman, went to confront the militiamen, who were barricaded in their drill room, above a local store. Shots were fired, and after one white man was killed, the rest stormed the room and captured about thirty of the militia. Five were murdered as having white enemies; among the dead was a town constable who had arrested white men. The rest were allowed to flee, with shots fired after them. At least seven black militiamen were killed in the incident. On the way home to Edgefield, Tillman and others had a meal to celebrate the events at the home of the man who had pointed out which African Americans should be shot.\n\nTillman later recalled that \"the leading white men of Edgefield\" had decided \"to seize the first opportunity that the Negroes might offer them to provoke a riot and teach the Negroes a lesson\" by \"having the whites demonstrate their superiority by killing as many of them as was justifiable\". Hamburg was their first such opportunity. Ninety-four white men, including Tillman, were indicted by a coroner's jury, but none was prosecuted for the killings. Butler blamed the deaths on intoxicated factory workers and Irish-Americans who had come across the bridge from Augusta, and over whom he had no control.\n\nTillman raised his profile in state politics by attending the 1876 state Democratic convention, which nominated Hampton as the party's candidate for governor. While Hampton presented a fatherly image, urging support from South Carolinians, black and white, Tillman led fifty men to Ellenton, intending to join more than one thousand rifle club members who slaughtered thirty militiamen, with the survivors saved only by the arrival of federal authorities. Although Tillman and his men arrived too late to participate in those killings, two of his men murdered Simon Coker, a black state senator who had come to investigate reports of violence. They shot him as he knelt in final prayer.\n\nOn Election Day in November 1876, Tillman served as an election official at a local poll, as did two black Republicans. One arrived late and was scared off by Tillman. As there was as yet no secret ballot in South Carolina, Tillman threatened to remember any votes cast for the Republicans. That precinct gave 211 votes for the Democrats and 2 for the Republicans. Although almost two-thirds of those eligible to vote in Edgefield were African Americans, the Democrats were able to suppress the (Republican) African-American vote, reporting a win for Hampton in Edgefield County with over 60 percent of the vote. Bolstered by this result, Hampton gained a narrow victory statewide, at least according to the official returns. The Red Shirts used violence and fraud to create Democratic majorities that did not exist, and give Hampton the election.\n\nTillman biographer Stephen Kantrowitz wrote that the unrest in 1876 \"marked a turning point in Ben Tillman's life, establishing him as a member of the political and military leadership\". Historian Orville Vernon Burton stated that the violence \"secured his prominence among the state's white political elite and proved to be the deathblow to South Carolina's Republican Reconstruction government.\" The takeover, by fraud and terror, of South Carolina's government became known to whites as the state's \"Redemption\".\n\nIn 1909, Tillman addressed a reunion of Red Shirts in Anderson, South Carolina, and recounted the events of 1876:\n\n\"Agricultural Moses\" \n\nStarting with the election of Hampton as governor in 1876, South Carolina was ruled primarily by the wealthy \"Bourbon\" or \"Conservative\" planter class that had controlled the state before the Civil War. In the 1880s, though, the Bourbon class was neither as strong nor as populous as before. The agenda of the Conservatives had little to offer the farmer, and in the hard economic times of the early 1880s, there was discontent in South Carolina that led to some electoral success for the short-lived Greenback Party.\n\nHaving risen to the rank of captain in the rifle club before the end of the 1876 campaign, Tillman spent the next several years managing his plantations. He played a modest role in Edgefield's political and social life, and in 1881 was elected second in command of the Edgefield Hussars, a rifle club that had been made part of the state militia. He supported Gary's unsuccessful candidacy for the Democratic nomination for governor in 1880, and after Gary's death in 1881, as a delegate to the 1882 Democratic state convention Tillman backed former Confederate general John Bratton for the nomination, again unsuccessfully. By then, Tillman was dissatisfied with the Conservative leaders he had helped gain power; he believed they were ignoring the interests of farmers and of poor mill workers, and had been responsible for denying office to Gary\u2014the former Red Shirt leader had twice sought to be senator, and once governor, and was each time denied. Tillman never forgot what he deemed the \"betrayal\" of Gary.\n\nStruggle for the farmer \nIn an attempt to better conditions for the farmer (by which Tillman always meant white males only), in 1884 he founded the Edgefield Agricultural Club. It died for lack of members. Undeterred, Tillman tried again in January 1885, beginning the Edgefield County Agricultural Society. Its membership also dwindled, but Tillman was elected one of three delegates to the August joint meeting of the state Grange and the state Agricultural and Mechanical Society at Bennettsville, and was invited to be one of the speakers.\n\nWhen Tillman spoke at Bennettsville, he was not widely known except as the brother of Congressman George Tillman. Ben Tillman called for the state government to do more for farmers, and blamed politicians and lawyers in the pay of financial interests for agricultural problems, including the crop lien system that left many farmers struggling to pay bills. He assailed his listeners for letting themselves be duped by hostile interests, and told of the farmer who was elected to the legislature, only to be dazzled and seduced by the elite. According to an account the next day in the Columbia Daily Register, Tillman's speech \"electrified the assembly and was the sensation of the meeting\". Lindsey Perkins, in his journal article on Tillman's oratory, wrote that \"Tillman's losses in the agricultural depression of 1883\u20131898 forced him to begin thinking and planning economic reforms. The result was Bennettsville.\" Tillman later stated that he began his advocacy after a few bad years in the early 1880s forced him to sell some of his land. The speech was printed in several newspapers, and Tillman began to receive more invitations to speak. According to Zach McGhee in his 1906 article on Tillman, \"from that day to this he has been the most conspicuous figure in South Carolina\".\n\nWithin two months of the Bennettsville speech, Tillman was being talked of as a candidate for governor in 1886. He continued to speak to audiences, and was dubbed the \"Agricultural Moses\". He made political demands, such as primary elections to determine who would get the Democratic nomination (then tantamount to election) rather than the leaving the decision to the Bourbon-dominated state nominating convention. He principally promoted the establishment of a state college for the education of farmers, where young men could learn the latest techniques. Kantrowitz pointed out that the term \"farmer\" is flexible in meaning, allowing Tillman to overlook distinctions of class and unite most white men in predominantly rural South Carolina under a single banner. During these years, cartoonists began depicting Tillman with pitchfork in hand, symbolizing his agriculture-based roots and tendency to take jabs at opponents. This was a source of his nickname, \"Pitchfork Ben\".\n\nHistorian H. Wayne Morgan noted that \"Ben Tillman's venom was not typical, but his general feeling represented that of southern dirt farmers.\" According to E. Culpepper Clark in his journal article on Tillman,\n\nTillman spoke widely in the state in 1885 and after, and soon attracted allies, including a number of Red Shirt comrades, such as Martin Gary's nephews Eugene B. Gary and John Gary Evans. He sought to mold local farmers' groups into a statewide organization to be a voice for agriculturalists. In April 1886, a convention called by Tillman met in Columbia, the state capital. The goal of what became known as the Farmer's Association or Farmer's Movement was to control the state Democratic Party from within, and to gain reforms such as the agricultural college. He initially was unsuccessful, though he came within thirty votes of controlling the 1886 state Democratic convention. The lack of success caused Tillman, in late 1887, to announce his retirement from politics, though there was widespread speculation he would soon be back.\n\nTillman had met, in 1886, with Thomas G. Clemson, son-in-law of the late John C. Calhoun, to discuss a bequest to underwrite the cost of the new agricultural school. Clemson died in 1888, and his will not only left money and land for the college, but made Tillman one of seven trustees for life, who had the power to appoint their successors. Tillman stated that this provision, which made the lifetime trustees a majority of the board, was intended to forestall any attempt by a future Republican government to admit African Americans. Clemson College (later Clemson University) was authorized by the legislature in December 1888.\n\nThe Clemson bequest helped revitalize Tillman's movement. The targets of Tillman's oratory were again politicians in Columbia and the Conservative elements based in Charleston and elsewhere in the lowcountry of South Carolina. Through letters to newspapers and stump speeches, he decried the state government as a pit of corruption, stating that officials displayed \"ignorance, extravagance and laziness\" and that Charleston's The Citadel was a \"military dude factory\" that might profitably be repurposed as a school for women.\n\nGovernor John P. Richardson had been elected in 1886; in 1888 he sought re-nomination, to be met with opposition from Tillman's farmers. As had been done to Republican rallies in 1876, Tillman and his followers attended campaign events and demanded that he be allowed equal time to speak. Tillman was a highly talented stump speaker, and when given the opportunity to debate, accused Richardson of being irreligious, a gambler and a drunkard. Even so, Richardson was easily re-nominated by the state Democratic convention, which turned down Tillman's demand for a primary election. Tillman proposed the customary gracious motion that Richardson's nomination be made unanimous.\n\n1890 gubernatorial campaign \n\nOne factor that helped Tillman and his movement in the 1890 campaign was the organization of many South Carolina farmers under the auspices of the Farmers' Alliance. The Alliance, which had spread through much of the agricultural South and West since its origin in Texas, sought to get farmers to work together cooperatively and seek reform. From that organization would come the People's Party (better known as the Populists). Although the Populist Party played a significant role in the politics of the 1890s, it did not do so in South Carolina, where Tillman had already channeled agricultural discontent into an attempt to take over the Democratic Party. The Alliance in South Carolina generally backed Tillman, and its many local farmers' organizations gave Tillman new venues for his speeches.\n\nIn January 1890, Tillmanite leader George Washington Shell published what came to be known as the \"Shell Manifesto\" in a Charleston newspaper, setting forth the woes of farmers under the Conservative government, and calling for them to elect delegates to meet in March to recommend a candidate for governor. Both Tillman supporters and Conservatives realized the purpose was to pre-empt the Democratic convention's choice, and fresh, acrimonious debate over the merits of Tillman and his methods began. He and his supporters were often attacked in the newspapers by the Conservatives, but such invective by the hated elites only tended to endear Tillman the more to the farmers who saw him as their champion. Conservatives were certain that once Tillman's voters understood how wealthy he was while speaking for debt-ridden farmers, they would abandon him; they did not.\n\nAt the \"Shell Convention\", state Representative John L. M. Irby nominated Tillman, stating \"shame on the [Democratic] party for stabbing Gary, a man who had saved us in '76\u00a0... we could now make the amends honorable and choose B.\u00a0R.\u00a0Tillman\". Although many delegates voted to make no endorsement, Tillman gained a narrow victory for the convention's recommendation. Tillman spent the summer of 1890 making speeches and debating two rivals (former general Bratton and state Attorney General Joseph H. Earle) for the nomination, as the Democratic leadership watched with increasing consternation. Given Tillman's strength at the grassroots level, he was likely to be the choice of the Democratic convention in September. Accordingly, the party's Bourbon-controlled state executive committee tried to use the brief August convention (called to set the rules for the September one) to change the nomination method to a primary, in which the anti-Tillman forces would unite behind a single candidate. When the August convention was held, the Tillmanites had a large majority, which they used to oust the executive committee and install one loyal to Tillman. The convention also passed a new party constitution calling for a primary, beginning in 1892. Tillman was duly nominated in September as the Democratic candidate for governor, with Eugene Gary as his running mate for lieutenant governor.\n\nAfter the convention many Conservative Democrats, though not happy at Tillman's victory, acknowledged him as head of the state party. Those who submitted to Tillman's rule included Hampton and Butler, the state's two U.S. senators. In his campaign, Tillman promoted support for Clemson, establishment of a state women's college, reapportionment of the state legislature (then dominated by the lowcountry counties), and ending the influence of corporation lawyers in that body.\n\nThose Democrats who could not abide Tillman's candidacy held an October meeting with 20 of South Carolina's 35 counties represented, and nominated Alexander Haskell for governor. The announcement that Haskell would run caused a closing of Democratic ranks against him, lest white unity be sundered. The Charleston News and Courier, not always a friend to Tillman, urged, \"stand by the ticket, not for the ticket's sake, but for the party and the State\". Even most Conservatives would not support a bolt from the party, and Kantrowitz suggested that Haskell and his supporters hated Tillman so much that his nomination caused them to commit political suicide. The Haskell campaign reached out to black voters, pledging that he would not disturb the limited political role played by African Americans in the state, a promise Tillman was unlikely to make.\n\nDuring Tillman's five years of agricultural advocacy, he had rarely discussed the question of the African American. With blacks given control of one of South Carolina's seven congressional districts, the question of black influence in state politics seemed settled and did not play a significant role in the campaign for the Democratic nomination for governor. Haskell's appeals for support, added to speculation that Tillman was trying to form a biracial coalition through the Farmers' Alliance (which, though segregated, had a parallel organization for black farmers) made race an issue. Tillman boasted of his deeds at Hamburg and Ellenton, but it was Gary who made race the focus of his campaign. Urging segregation of railroad cars, Gary asked, \"what white man wants his wife or sister sandwiched between a big bully buck and a saucy wench\"?\n\nAlthough Tillman fully expected to win, he warned that should he be defeated by ballot-box stuffing, there would be war. On Election Day, November 4, 1890, Tillman was elected governor with 59,159 votes to 14,828 for Haskell. With no Republican to support (none had run for governor since 1878), black leaders had been divided as to whether to endorse Haskell; in the end the only two counties won by him were in the lowcountry and heavily African-American. The losing candidate and his white supporters were quickly consigned to political oblivion, with some mocking them as \"white Negroes\".\n\nGovernor (1890\u20131894)\n\nInauguration and legislative control \nTillman was sworn in as governor in Columbia on December 4, 1890, before a crowd of jubilant supporters, the largest to see South Carolina's governor inaugurated since Hampton's swearing-in. In his inaugural address, Tillman celebrated his victory, \"the citizens of this great commonwealth have for the first time in its history demanded and obtained for themselves the right to choose her Governor; and I, as the exponent and leader of the revolution which brought about the change, am here to take the solemn oath of office\u00a0... the triumph of democracy and white supremacy over mongrelism and anarchy, of civilization over barbarism, has been most complete.\"\n\nTillman made it clear he was not content that African Americans were allowed even a limited role in the political life of South Carolina:\n\nThe legislature, at Tillman's recommendation, reapportioned itself, costing Charleston County four of its twelve seats, and other lowcountry counties one each, with the seats going to the upcountry. Although Tillman sought to reduce public expenditures, he was not successful in doing so as his reform program required spending, and the legislature could find few savings to make. Construction of Clemson College was slowed, and subsidies for fairs were cut.\n\nAmong the matters before the new, Tillman-controlled legislature was who should fill the Senate seat held by Hampton, whose term expired in March 1891\u2014until 1913, state legislatures elected senators. There was a call from many in the South Carolina Democratic Party to re-elect Hampton, who had played a major role in the state for the past thirty years, in war and peace. Tillman was embittered against Hampton for a number of slights, including the senator's neutrality in the race against Haskell. The legislature retired Hampton, who received only 43 of 157 votes, and sent Irby to Washington in his place. The ouster of Hampton was controversial, and remained so for decades afterwards; according to Simkins (writing in 1944), \"to future generations of South Carolinians, Tillman's act was a ruthless violation of cherished traditions of which Hampton was a living symbol\".\n\nPolicies and events as governor\n\nLynching and race \nTillman as governor initially took a strong stand against lynching. The Shell Manifesto, in reciting the ills of Conservative government, had blamed the Bourbons for encouraging lynching through bad laws and poor administration. Although Governor Richardson, Tillman's predecessor, had taken action to prevent such murders, they still occurred, with no one being prosecuted for them. In about half of the lynchings in South Carolina between 1881 and 1895, there were claims that the black victim had raped or tried to rape a white woman, though studies have shown that lynchings were tied instead to economic and social issues. More lynchings took place in South Carolina in the 1890s than in any other decade, and in Edgefield and several other counties, such killings outnumbered lawful executions.\n\nDuring Tillman's first year in office there were no lynchings, compared with 12 in Richardson's last year, which Simkins attributed to Tillman's \"vigorous attitude towards law enforcement\". Tillman called out the militia multiple times to prevent lynchings, and corresponded with sheriffs, passing along information and rumors of contemplated lynchings. The governor pressed for a law requiring the segregation of railroad cars: opposed by railroad companies and the few black legislators, the bill passed the state House of Representatives but failed in the Senate. Tillman's calls to redistrict away the one congressional district dominated by African Americans, and for a constitutional convention to disenfranchise them also fell in the Senate, where the convention proposal failed to attract the necessary two-thirds majority. The only enactment that struck at the African American in Tillman's first term imposed a prohibitive tax on labor agents, who were recruiting local farm hands to move out of state.\n\nIn December 1891, soon after the first anniversary of Tillman's taking office, a black Edgefield man named Dick Lundy was charged with murdering the sheriff's son, and was taken from the jail and lynched. Tillman sent the state solicitor to Edgefield to investigate the matter, and ridiculed the coroner's jury verdict. As usual in cases of lynching, it stated the deceased had been killed by persons unknown. Tillman said, \"the law received a wound for every bullet shot into Dick Lundy's body.\" The News and Courier opined that had he been present \"with true Edgefield instinct, [Tillman] would probably have been hanging around on the edge of the mob\".\n\nIn April 1893, Mamie Baxter, a fourteen-year-old girl in Denmark, Barnwell County, alleged that an African American unknown to her had attempted to attack her. About twenty black men were detained and paraded before her; she stated that Henry Williams looked something like the man she had seen. Placed on what passed for a trial by the mob that took him from the jail, Williams produced several respected white men to support his alibi. A majority of the mob voted against killing him, and Williams was returned to jail. More searches were made for Baxter's attacker. A suspect in the case, John Peterson, appealed to Tillman for protection, fearing he would be lynched if taken to Denmark, and stating he could prove his innocence. Tillman sent Peterson to Denmark with a single guard. He was taken by the mob, put on \"trial\", and after the mob found him guilty, was murdered. There was widespread outrage among both races across the country, both at the actions of the lynchers and at what Tillman had done. The governor said, in response, that he had assumed that, as the mob had been convinced by Williams' defense, it would allow Peterson to prove his innocence as well. He thereafter ignored the issue of the Denmark lynching.\n\nThere were five lynchings in South Carolina during Tillman's first term, and thirteen during his second. Tillman had to walk a narrow line in the debates over lynching, since most of his supporters believed in the collective right of white men in a community to dispense mob justice, especially in cases of alleged rape. Yet as governor, he was sworn to uphold the rule of law. He attempted to finesse the matter by seeking to appeal to both sides, demanding that the law be followed, but that he would, as he stated in 1892, \"willingly lead a mob in lynching a Negro who had committed an assault on a white woman\". Under criticism, he amended this to a willingness to lead the lynching of \"a man of any color who assaults a virtuous woman of any color\"\u2014the adjective \"virtuous\" limiting the commitment, in Tillman's view, to assaults on white women.\n\nDuring Tillman's second term, he had the legislature pass a bill to abolish elected local government, in favor of gubernatorial appointment of municipal and county officials. Tillman used this law to oust black officials even where that race held a voting majority. In September 1893, South Carolina was hit by storms. Tillman discouraged northerners from sending aid to African Americans, fearing it would result in \"lazy, idle crowds [wanting to] draw rations, as in the days of the Freedmen's Bureau\u00a0... They cannot be treated as we would white people.\"\n\nDuring the 1895 South Carolina state constitutional convention, however, Tillman supported a provision that permitted the removal from office of sheriffs who through negligence or connivance permitted a lynching. He also supported a provision that held the county where the lynching occurred liable for damages of $2,000 or more to be paid to the heirs of the victim.\n\nAlcohol and the dispensary \n\nThe question of prohibition of alcohol was a major issue in South Carolina during Tillman's governorship. Tillman opposed banning alcohol, but was careful to speak well of temperance advocates, many of whom were women. The concern Tillman had with alcohol issues was that they divided the white community, leaving openings for black Republicans to exploit.\n\nIn the 1892 election, South Carolinians passed a non-binding referendum calling for prohibition. Bills were introduced into both houses of the state legislature that December to accomplish this, and passed the House of Representatives. Before the House bill could be passed by the Senate, Tillman sent a proposal in the form of an amendment, with instructions to pass the amended bill, and enact nothing else on the subject. Based on a system that had been successful in Athens, Georgia, the bill banned the private sale of alcohol, setting up a system of dispensaries that would sell alcohol in sealed containers\u2014sale by the drink, and consumption on the premises, would not be permitted. Both houses passed Tillman's amendment, though there was opposition both within and outside the legislature. The dispensary system went into effect on July 1, 1893.\n\nThe new law was met with considerable resistance, especially in the towns and cities, where Tillman had less support. Dozens of clandestine saloons opened, fueled by barrels of illicit liquor, often transported by railroad. Tillman appointed dispensary constables, who tried to seize such shipments, to be frustrated by the fact that the South Carolina Railroad was in federal receivership, and state authorities could not confiscate goods entrusted to it. All of Tillman's constables were white, placing him at a disadvantage in dealing with the alcohol trade among African Americans. Some of the constables tried going undercover by blacking their faces like minstrels; later, Tillman hired an African-American detective from Georgia.\n\nThe small city of Darlington became a center of the bootlegging trade, with many illegal saloons. Tillman repeatedly warned the local mayor to crack down; when this did not occur, in April 1894, Tillman sent a train full of constables and other enforcement personnel to Darlington. They were repelled by gunfire, with dead on both sides. Tillman called out the state militia, which put down the unrest, though some units refused to serve. After the incident, Tillman disbanded the units of the militia that had refused his orders, and organized new companies to serve in their place. The Darlington riot divided the state politically as Tillman prepared to seek Butler's seat in the Senate, which would be filled by the legislature in December 1894.\n\nOnly weeks after the Darlington affair, the South Carolina Supreme Court declared the act creating the dispensary system in violation of the state constitution on the grounds that the government had no right to run a profit-making business. The vote was 2\u20131, with Justice Samuel McGowan in the majority. McGowan was a lame duck in office; Lieutenant Governor Gary had been elected to fill his seat effective August 1, 1894. Tillman closed the dispensaries temporarily, resulting in prohibition in South Carolina, and fired the constables. He had taken the precaution, once the court agreed to take the dispensary case, of having the 1893 legislature pass a revised dispensary law. When Gary took the bench, the Tillmanites would have a majority on the state Supreme Court, and Tillman instructed trial justices not to hear challenges to the 1893 law until after August 1. Tillman kept the law suspended until then, afterwards reopening the dispensaries under that statute. The high court declared the 1893 act constitutional on October 8, 1894, 2\u20131, with Gary voting in the majority.\n\nAgriculture and higher education \n\nElected with support from the Farmers' Alliance and as a result of agricultural protest, Tillman was thought likely to join the Populists in their challenge to the established parties. Tillman refused, and generally opposed Populist positions that went beyond his program of increasing access to higher education and reform of the Democratic Party (white supremacy was not a Populist position). The Alliance (and Populists) demanded a system of subtreasuries under the federal government, that could accept farmers' crops and advance them 80 percent of the value interest-free. Tillman, not wanting more federal officeholders in the state (that in Republican administrations might be filled by African Americans), initially opposed the proposal. Many farmers felt strongly about this issue, and in 1891, Tillman was censured by the state Alliance for his opposition. Attuned to political necessities, Tillman gradually came to support the subtreasuries in time for his re-election campaign in 1892, though he was never an active proponent.\n\nTillman spoke at the opening of Clemson College on July 6, 1893. He fulfilled his campaign promise to start a women's college. In 1891, the legislature passed a bill creating the South Carolina Industrial and Winthrop Normal College (today Winthrop University). He took a personal interest in the bidding by various towns around the state for the new school, and supported the successful candidate, the progressive town of Rock Hill, on the state's northern border. Rock Hill officials had offered land, cash, and building materials. The school, then admitting only white women, opened in October 1895, after Tillman had become a senator.\n\nRe-election in 1892 \n\nTillman sought election to a second two-year term in 1892, presenting himself as a reforming alternative to the Conservatives. In the campaign, Tillman was a strong supporter of free silver or bimetallism, making silver legal tender at the historic ratio to gold of 16:1. Such a policy would inflate the currency, and Tillman felt that would make it easier for the farmer to repay debts. The rhetoric of free silver suited Tillman as well, as he could make himself appear the champion of the farmer against the powerful interests that had committed the \"Crime of '73\" (as silver supporters termed the act ending bimetallism in the United States).\n\nAnnouncing that a primary for 1892, as had been prescribed two years before, was anti-reform, Tillman put off the first Democratic gubernatorial primary in the state until 1894. Thus, the nominee would be chosen by a convention, and mid-1892 saw a lengthy series of debates between Tillman and his challenger, former governor John C. Sheppard. The bitter campaign was marked by violence, often set off by provocative language from the candidates. According to Kantrowitz, Tillman \"sought to prolong the confrontation, to take the crowd up to the edge of violence, demonstrating his identification with his farmers without quite provoking them to murder\". When former senator Hampton attempted to speak on Sheppard's behalf, he was shouted down by Tillman partisans; opponents complained that Tillman's supporters had formed a mob, and that the governor was a true son of violent Edgefield.\n\nAs the likely Democratic presidential candidate for 1892, former president Grover Cleveland, was a staunch opponent of free silver, Tillman attacked Cleveland. Most of the South Carolina delegation, including Tillman, voted against Cleveland at the convention, but when the former president was nominated, the governor worked to deliver South Carolina for Cleveland by an overwhelming margin. Cleveland was elected, but the new president was offended by Tillman's earlier attacks, and denied the governor any role in patronage in South Carolina, entrusting it to Senator Matthew Butler and other remaining Conservatives. Tillman's inability to provide federal jobs for supporters made it more difficult for him to hold his coalition together. Tillman continued his verbal assaults, stating that Cleveland \"is an old bag of beef and I am going to Washington with a pitchfork and prod him in his old fat ribs\"\u2014thus popularizing Tillman as \"Pitchfork Ben\".\n\nDuring the 1892 campaign, Tillman called for the defeat in the Democratic primary for the legislature of most of the men elected as his supporters, urging the selection of more loyal men. Tillman urged the voters, \"turn out this cattle, these driftwood legislators, and send me a legislature that will do what I say, and I'll show you reform.\" South Carolinians dutifully voted out their representatives as Tillman requested. Although no primary for governor was permitted, the delegates to the nominating convention were elected by the Democratic voters, and Tillman won an overwhelming victory over Sheppard, who took only four of 35 counties. The convention was mostly Tillmanite, and gave the governor an easy triumph. The Conservatives had agreed not to bolt the party, and Tillman won uncontested re-election.\n\nSenate election of 1894 \n\nTillman had long seen a Senate seat as a logical next step once he concluded his time as governor. Senator Butler, whose term expired in March 1895, had soon after the 1890 election begun to shift his positions towards Tillman's, hoping to retain Conservative backing while appealing to the governor's supporters. The senator signed on to most demands of the Farmers' Alliance, and did not support the forces trying to prevent Tillman's re-nomination in 1892. Butler's seeming apostasy disheartened Conservatives, who did not bother to run candidates for the legislature in many counties in 1894, abandoning the field (and Butler's Senate seat) to the Tillmanites. The governor took nothing for granted, seeing to it that popular candidates, loyal to him, ran for the legislature. In addition to electing Tillman to the Senate, these legislators could help preserve his gubernatorial legacy, including the dispensary.\n\nButler was aware of the uphill struggle he faced, and called for a primary for senator, with all Democratic legislators committed to vote to elect the winner. Tillman, who had already finalized his plans to win in the legislature, refused. The series of debates that marked a campaign summer in South Carolina began on June 18, 1894. Butler believed he could still win by appealing to the electorate in the same manner as Tillman; the senator thought he understood the lessons of 1876 as well as anyone. In the debates, Butler and Tillman matched slander for slander, with Butler claiming that at Hamburg, when the shooting started, Tillman was \"nowhere to be found\". Tillman shot back that when Butler had testified before Congress about Hamburg, he had downplayed his role in the events. According to Kantrowitz, \"their struggle over the legacy of 1876 was in part over who could more legitimately claim to have murdered\" African Americans. Tillman's partisans shouted down Butler when he tried to speak at some debates. Although this tactic had been used by Butler and other Democrats against the Republicans in 1876, Butler now decried it as \"not Christian civilization to howl anyone down\".\n\nBalked again, Butler attempted to turn the campaign personal, calling Tillman a liar and trying to strike him. Tillman warned that Butler's tactics risked sundering white unity, stating to a questioner who asked why he did not meet Butler's insults with violence, \"Yes, I tell you, you cowardly hound, why I took them [the insults], and I'll meet you wherever you want to. I took them because I, as governor of the State, could not afford to create a row at a public meeting and have our people murder each other like dogs.\"\n\nBy early July, Butler had realized the futility of his race, and took to ignoring Tillman in his speeches, which the governor reciprocated, taking much of the drama from the debates. The two men even rode in the same carriage on July 4. Nevertheless, Butler refused to surrender, even after the primary for the legislature was overwhelmingly won by the Tillmanites, threatening action in the courts and an election contest before the Senate. On December 11, 1894, Benjamin Tillman was elected to the Senate by the new legislature with 131 votes. Butler received 21 and three votes were scattered.\n\nSenator (1895\u20131918)\n\nDisenfranchising the African American: 1895 state constitutional convention \nThroughout his time as governor, Tillman had sought a convention to rewrite South Carolina's Reconstruction-era constitution. His main purpose in doing so was to disenfranchise African Americans. They opposed Tillman's proposal, as did others, who had seen previous efforts to restrict the franchise rebound against white voters. Tillman was successful in getting the legislature to place a referendum for a constitutional convention on the November 1894 general election ballot. It passed by 2,000 votes statewide, the narrow margin gained, according to Kantrowitz, most likely through fraud. John Gary Evans was elected Tillman's successor as governor.\n\nOpponents sued in the courts to overturn the referendum result; they were unsuccessful. During the convention, Tillman hailed it as \"a fitting capstone to the triumphal arch which the common people have erected to liberty, progress, and Anglo-Saxon civilization since 1890\". To assure white unity, Tillman allowed the election of Conservatives as about a third of delegates. The convention assembled in Columbia in September 1895, consisting of 112 Tillmanites, 42 Conservatives, and six African Americans. Tillman called black disenfranchisement \"the sole cause of our being here\".\n\nTillman was the dominant figure of the convention, chairing the Committee on the Rights of Suffrage, which was to craft language to accomplish the disenfranchisement. Constrained by the requirement of the federal Fifteenth Amendment that men of all races be allowed to vote, the committee sought language that, though superficially nondiscriminatory, would operate or could be used to take the vote from most African Americans.\n\nTillman spoke to the convention on October 31. In addition to supporting the provisions of the draft document, he recalled 1876:\n\nThe adopted provisions, which came into force after the new constitution was ratified by the convention in December 1895, set a maze of obstacles before prospective voters. Voters had to be a resident of the state two years, the county one year, and the precinct for four months. Many African Americans were itinerant laborers, and this provision disproportionately affected them. A poll tax had to be paid six months in advance of the election, in May when laborers had the least cash. Each registrant had to prove to the satisfaction of the county board of elections that he could read or write a section of the state constitution (in a literacy or comprehension test), or that he paid taxes on property valued at $300 or more. This allowed white registrars ample discretion to disenfranchise African Americans. Illiterate whites were shielded by the \"understanding\" clause, that allowed, until 1898, permanent registration to citizens who could \"understand\" the constitution when read to them. This also allowed officials great leeway to discriminate. Even if an African American maneuvered past all of these obstacles, he still faced the manager of the polling place, who could demand proof he had paid all taxes owed\u2014something difficult to show conclusively. Conviction of any of a long list of crimes that whites believed prevalent among African Americans was made the cause of permanent disenfranchisement, including bigamy, adultery, burglary, and arson. Convicted murderers not in prison had their franchise undisturbed.\n\nTillman defended this on the floor of the Senate:\n\nIn my State there were 135,000 negro voters, or negroes of voting age, and some 90,000 or 95,000 white voters.... Now, I want to ask you, with a free vote and a fair count, how are you going to beat 135,000 by 95,000? How are you going to do it? You had set us an impossible task.We did not disfranchise the negroes until 1895. Then we had a constitutional convention convened which took the matter up calmly, deliberately, and avowedly with the purpose of disfranchising as many of them as we could under the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments. We adopted the educational qualification as the only means left to us, and the negro is as contented and as prosperous and as well protected in South Carolina to-day as in any State of the Union south of the Potomac. He is not meddling with politics, for he found that the more he meddled with them the worse off he got. As to his \"rights\"\u2014I will not discuss them now. We of the South have never recognized the right of the negro to govern white men, and we never will.... I would to God the last one of them was in Africa and that none of them had ever been brought to our shores.\n\n1896 presidential bid \n\nBy early 1896, many in the Democratic Party were bitterly opposed to President Cleveland and his policies. The United States was by then in the third year of a deep recession, the Panic of 1893. Cleveland was a firm supporter of the gold standard, and soon after the recession began forced through repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which he believed had helped cause it. Sherman's act, although not restoring bimetallism, had required the government to purchase and coin large quantities of silver bullion, and its repeal outraged supporters of free silver. Other Cleveland policies, such as his forcible suppression of the Pullman strike, led to the Democrats losing control of both houses of Congress in the 1894 midterm elections, and to a revolt against him by silver supporters within his party.\n\nFrom the time of his swearing-in in December 1895 (when Congress began its annual session), Tillman was seen as the voice of the dissatisfied in the nation; the New York Press stated Tillman would voice the concerns of \"the masses of the people of South Carolina far more faithfully than did the Bourbon politician Butler\". He shocked the Senate with dramatic attacks on Cleveland, calling the president \"the most gigantic failure of any man who ever occupied the White House, all because of his vanity and obstinacy\". The New York Times deemed Tillman \"a filthy baboon, accidentally seated in the Senate chamber\".\n\nTillman believed that the nation was on the verge of major political change, and that he could be elected president in 1896, uniting the silver supporters of the South and West. He was willing to consider a third party bid if Cleveland kept control of the Democratic Party, but felt the Populists, by allowing African Americans to seek office, had destroyed their credibility among southern whites. The stinging oratory of the South Carolina senator brought him national prominence, and with the 1896 Democratic National Convention in Chicago likely to be controlled by silver supporters, Tillman was spoken of as a possible presidential candidate along with others, such as former Missouri representative Richard P. Bland, Texas Governor Jim Hogg, and former Nebraska congressman William Jennings Bryan.\n\nTillman was his state's favorite son candidate, and its representative on the Committee on Resolutions (often called \"the Platform Committee\"). The platform had the support of the pro-silver majority of the committee, but the gold minority, led by New York Senator David B. Hill, opposed its support of free silver, and wanted to take the disagreement to the convention floor. With one hour and fifteen minutes allocated to each side, Tillman and Bryan were selected as the speakers in favor of the draft platform. Bryan asked Tillman if he wanted to open or close the debate; the senator wanted to close, but sought fifty minutes to do so. The Nebraskan replied that Hill would oppose such a long closing address, and Tillman agreed to open the debate, with Bryan to close it.\n\nWhen the platform debate began in the Chicago Coliseum on the morning of July 9, 1896, Tillman was the opening speaker. Although met with applause and shouts of his name, he \"spoke in the same manner that had won him success in South Carolina, cursing, haranguing his enemies, and raising the specter of sectionalism. He, however, thoroughly alienated the national audience\". According to Richard Bensel in his study of the 1896 convention, Tillman gave \"by far, the most divisive speech of the convention, an address that embarrassed the silver wing of the party as much as it enraged the hard-money faction\". He deemed silver a sectional issue, pitting the wealthy East against the oppressed South and West. This upset delegates, who wished to view silver as a patriotic, national issue, and some voiced their dissent, disagreeing with Tillman. The senator alternately offended, confused, and bored the delegates, who shouted for Tillman to stop even though less than half of his time had expired. Beset by shouting delegates and one of the convention bands, which unexpectedly appeared and began to play, Tillman nevertheless pressed on, \"the audience might just as well understand that I am going to have my say if I stand here until sundown.\" By the time he had his say, he had \"effectively destroyed his chances to become a national candidate\". With Tillman's candidacy stillborn (only his home state voted for him), Bryan seized the opportunity to deliver an address in support of silver that did not rely on sectionalism. His Cross of Gold speech won him the presidential nomination.\n\nAfter Tillman returned from Chicago to South Carolina, he suggested he had delivered an intentionally radical speech so as to allow Bryan to look statesmanlike by comparison. This interpretation was mocked by his enemies. Tillman is not known to have otherwise discussed his feelings at the failure of his presidential bid, and the political grief was likely overwhelmed by personal sadness a week after the convention when his beloved daughter Addie died, struck by lightning on a North Carolina mountain. Tillman campaigned for Bryan, but was a favorite target of cartoonists denigrating the Democratic candidate and supporting the Republican, former Ohio governor William McKinley. Bryan had also been nominated by the Populists, who selected their own vice presidential candidate, Georgia's Thomas E. Watson. Tillman was active in efforts to get Watson to withdraw, having a 12-hour meeting with the candidate, apparently without result. Tillman traveled widely to speak on Bryan's behalf, and drew large crowds, but his speeches were of little significance. Despite undertaking an arduous campaign, Bryan lost the election. Simkins suggested that Tillman, by helping forge an image of the Democratic Party as anarchic, contributed to Bryan's defeat.\n\nWild man of the Senate: Tillman-McLaurin fistfight \nKantrowitz deemed Tillman \"the Senate's wild man\", who applied the same techniques of accusation and insinuation that had served him well in South Carolina. In 1897, Tillman accused the Republicans, \"I certainly do not want to attack any member of the committee who does not deserve to be attacked [but] nobody denies that there have been rooms occupied for two months by the Republicans on the Senate Finance Committee at the Arlington Hotel\u00a0... in easy reach of the sugar trust\". Simkins, though, opined that Tillman's speeches in the Senate were only inflammatory because of his injection of personalities, and if that is disregarded, his speeches, when read, come across as well-reasoned and even conservative.\n\nIn 1902, Tillman accused his junior colleague from South Carolina, John L. McLaurin, of corruption in a speech to the Senate. McLaurin, who had been a Tillmanite before breaking from him after being elected to the Senate, called him a liar, whereupon Tillman rushed across the Senate floor and punched McLaurin in the face; McLaurin responded by punching Tillman in the nose before the Sergeant at Arms and other Senators intervened. The body immediately went into closed session, and held both men in contempt.\n\nThe Senate considered suspending them, but Tillman argued that it was unfair to deprive South Carolina of her representation, though the body could have also expelled the two men, knowing he had enough Democratic votes to prevent this. In the end, both men were censured, and later that year, Tillman arranged for McLaurin, whose term ended in 1903, to not be re-elected.\n\nThe fracas with McLaurin caused President Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded the assassinated McKinley in 1901, to withdraw an invitation to dinner at the White House. Tillman never forgave this slight, and became a bitter enemy of Roosevelt.\n\nTillman was inclined to oppose Roosevelt anyway, who soon after becoming president, dined at the White House with Booker T. Washington, an African American. Tillman responded by saying \"the action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South before they learn their place again.\"\n\nRace relations \n\nTillman believed, and often stated as senator, that blacks must submit to either white domination or extermination. He was reluctant to undertake the latter, fearing hundreds of whites would die accomplishing it. He campaigned in the violent 1898 North Carolina elections, in which white Democrats were determined to take back control from a biracial Populist-Republican coalition elected in 1894 and 1896 on a fusion ticket. He spoke widely in North Carolina in late 1898, often to crowds wearing red shirts, disheartening his Populist supporters. On October 20, 1898, Tillman was the featured speaker at the Democratic Party's Great White Man's Rally and Basket Picnic in Fayetteville. Tillman spoke furiously to the crowd of white men, asking them why North Carolina had not rid itself of black office holders as South Carolina had in 1876. He chastized the audience for not lynching Alex Manly, the black editor of the Wilmington Daily Record. Tillman was one of many prominent Democrats advocating use of violence to win the 1898 election. The resulting coup expelled opposition black and white political leaders from Wilmington, destroyed the property and businesses of black citizens built up since the Civil War, including the only black newspaper in the city, and killed an estimated 60 to more than 300 people. Terror and intimidation again won the day for the Democrats, who were elected statewide. South Carolina saw violence as well: an effort to register black voters in Phoenix led whites to provoke a confrontation, after which a number of African Americans were murdered. Tillman warned African Americans and those who might combine with them that black political activism would provoke a murderous response from whites.\n\nBeginning in 1901, Tillman joined the Chautauqua circuit, giving well-paid speeches throughout the nation. Tillman's reputation, both for his views and his oratory, attracted large crowds. Tillman informed them that African Americans were inferior to the white man, but were not baboons, though some were \"so near akin to the monkey that scientists are yet looking for the missing link\". Given that in Africa, they were an \"ignorant and debased and debauched race\" with a record of \"barbarism, savagery, cannibalism and everything that is low and degrading\", it was the \"quintessence of folly\" to believe that the black man should be placed on an equal footing with his white counterpart. Tillman \"embraced segregation as divinely imperative\".\n\nTillman told the Senate, \"as governor of South Carolina, I proclaimed that, although I had taken the oath of office to support the law and enforce it, I would lead a mob to lynch any man, black or white, who ravished a woman, black or white.\" He told his colleagues, \"I have three daughters, but, so help me God, I had rather find either one of them killed by a tiger or a bear [and die a virgin] than to have her crawl to me and tell me the horrid story that she had been robbed of the jewel of her womanhood by a black fiend.\" In 1907, he told the senators about the Ellenton riot of 1876, \"it was then that we shot them; it was then that we killed them; it was then that we stuffed the ballot-boxes.\" \n\nAs South Carolina's economy changed in the early 20th century, with textile mills being built, Tillman complained that some African Americans were evading the supervision they would have on the farm, fearing the threat to white women. He admitted that it would be unjust to kill all of these workers, \"because we might kill some innocent men, but we can keep them on the chain gang\".\n\nLegislative activities and re-elections \n\nTillman was an early and fervent backer of war with Spain in 1898. However, he opposed taking the Spanish colonies such as Puerto Rico and the Philippines, both because he considered it wrong to annex people to the United States without their consent, and out of opposition to adding territories with large numbers of non-whites. Tillman mocked the Republicans, most of whom supported annexation rather than self-determination, stating that it was that party that since 1860 had claimed \"that all men, including the Negro, are free and equal,\" and was annoyed when they refused to admit their positions were inconsistent.\n\nIn 1906, Roosevelt backed the Hepburn Bill, imposing railroad regulation. Many Republicans initially wanted nothing to do with the bill, and Senate Republican leader Nelson Aldrich entrusted management of the bill to Tillman. Aldrich hoped the outspoken South Carolinian would cause the defeat of the bill. To Aldrich's surprise, Tillman soberly and competently conducted the bill through much of the legislative process. Tillman withdrew from the bill (though he voted for it) after Roosevelt got a provision for federal court review of agency decisions included, which Tillman opposed. The president and the southern senator ended on worse terms than before, but there was great public attention on the Hepburn Bill, and Tillman gained considerable respect for his role.\n\nThis activity caused a public reassessment of Tillman, who was best known for giving speeches that shocked the North and made even southerners cringe. Writers suggested he was merely presenting an image as \"Pitchfork Ben\", that he could turn on and off as needed. He came to be regarded in the North as acceptable and even respectable, with some suggesting he had matured during his time in the Senate. The Saturday Evening Post compared Tillman with a coconut; hard, rough, and shaggy on the outside, but within, \"the milk of human kindness\".\n\nTillman was the primary sponsor of the Tillman Act, the first federal campaign finance reform law, which was passed in 1907 and which banned corporate contributions in federal political campaigns. Justice Clarence Thomas has suggested that Tillman's motivation in introducing this legislation was to reduce the power of corporations which tended to favor Republicans and African Americans.\n\nWhen Tillman entered the Senate in 1895, he was opposed to expansion of the United States Navy, fearing the expenditure would cause the issuance of bonds by the president, which he felt would only enrich the wealthy. Tillman sat on the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs, and soon came to understand that South Carolina could benefit from naval appropriations steered towards her. A flow of federal funds to his home state resulted, beginning in 1900, followed by the establishment, in 1909, of the Charleston Naval Shipyard. Once Democrats took control of the Senate for the first time in Tillman's tenure, in 1913, he became chairman of the committee and allied with others from the southeast (such as Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels, a North Carolinian) to see that the bulk of naval appropriations would be spent there. In 1912 Tillman requested the US Navy determine the maximum size of battleship that could be produced. Over the next four years, the Navy developed a series of designs, called the Tillman battleship or maximum battleship, that were significantly larger and more powerful than any battleship in service in the world. The Navy submitted the Tillman IV-2 design to Congress, but the US entry into World War I and the Washington Naval Treaty afterward put an end to such fantastic designs.\n\nTillman also served as chairman of the Committee on Revolutionary Claims (57th through 59th Congresses) and on the Committee on Five Civilized Tribes of Indians (61st and 62nd Congresses). Strokes in 1908 and 1910 decreased his influence and ability in the Senate; his seniority entitled him to become Senate Appropriations Committee chairman in 1913, but his health did not permit it.\n\nPresident Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated in 1913, the first Democrat to hold the office since Cleveland. Tillman supported Wilson's legislation in the Senate, except on women's suffrage, where he was a strong opponent. He was uneasy when Wilson's Secretary of State, Bryan, tried to prevent war through treaty-making, describing the former presidential candidate as the \"evangel of peace at any price\". When the United States entered World War I, Tillman was a strong supporter, seeing the conflict as democratic nations against German \"slaves\u00a0... and not free men at all\". Although he urged vigilance against spies, once he was satisfied that the accusations against German-born Friedrich Johannes Hugo von Engelken, president of the Federal Land Bank at Columbia, were unfounded, he spoke in support of the man.\n\nTillman had been re-elected in 1901 and 1907. By 1912, the Democratic nominee, who would be elected by the overwhelming Democratic majority in the legislature, was determined by a primary. A primary was also used for governor, and Tillman ran at the same time as Governor Cole Blease, who also sought re-election. Blease, also an outspoken white supremacist, had entered politics as a Tillmanite legislator in 1890, and breaking from him, adopted similar techniques to Tillman's to appeal to poor farm workers and mill hands. Tillman faced two opponents in his re-nomination bid\u2014his control over South Carolina politics had deteriorated over the years, and he had moved towards the Conservatives. He had not endorsed Blease in 1910. The two men reached an agreement that Tillman would remain neutral in the governor's race in 1912, but Tillman became convinced Blease could not win against former state chief justice Ira B. Jones. Both sides claimed to have letters from Tillman endorsing their candidate, but three days before the primary, Tillman condemned Blease and endorsed Jones. Blease, outraged, alleged betrayal, accused Tillman of \"insane jealousy\", and said of the senator, \"possibly his mind has become more diseased of late than it was when I had my last talk with his confidential physician\". Both men were re-elected.\n\nFinal years and death\n\nThe Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, gave the people the right to elect senators, but this made little difference in South Carolina, where the Democratic primary remained decisive. Tillman in 1914 announced plans to retire when his term expired in 1919, but the war and the threat that Blease would win the open seat caused him to announce his candidacy for a fifth term in March 1918. Tillman remained for the most part in Washington, and did not campaign, but came to Columbia for the state Democratic convention in May to discredit rumors about his health, which was indeed poor. He got Wilson to persuade one of his rivals, Congressman Asbury F. Lever, to abandon the race, and considered how to do the same to Blease. These plans had not yet come to fruition when Tillman was stricken by a cerebral hemorrhage at the end of June, and died July 3, 1918, in Washington, D.C. He is buried in Ebenezer Cemetery, Trenton, South Carolina.\n\nTillman's death generated a large number of tributes to him in the Senate, which were afterwards collected in book form. One copy came into the hands of Blease, who was angry that Tillman was being lauded, and stated that the late senator was not what he had seemed. He wrote in front of the volume, \"Don't believe me, but look up his life & see.\" When Manly, who had barely escaped the Wilmington Insurrection, read of his death in 1918, he said to his wife, \"I wonder who is making hash out of him in hell tonight.\"\n\nLegacy and historical view \n\nAccording to Orville Burton, \"Tillman's legacy for South Carolina and the nation is controversial and disturbing. White and black South Carolinians interpret Tillman's accomplishments in contradictory ways.\" A national hero to white supremacists, according to an article on Tillman for The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, \"for African Americans, he was the 'devil incarnate. No African American was elected to Congress under the 1895 constitution until the civil rights movement, nor were any elected to statewide or county office after 1900.\n\nSimkins, a son of Edgefield, while recognizing faults in Tillman's racial policies, stated that \"no South Carolinian, with the single exception of Calhoun, has ever made a profounder impression on his generation than Tillman.\" The late senator's supporters and prot\u00e9g\u00e9s remained long in South Carolina, encouraging a view of Tillman as a great man in state and national history. James F. Byrnes, for example, repeated Tillman's themes of race war on the floor of the House of Representatives in 1919. In 1940, Byrnes, by then a senator and soon to sit on the U.S. Supreme Court, dedicated a statue of Tillman outside the South Carolina State House and called him the state's \"first New Dealer\". Protestors have since asked for that statue to be removed. Others who knew and at one time admired Tillman included Strom Thurmond, son of Tillman's Edgefield attorney, who saw and was inspired by Tillman's campaigning style as a boy. Other Southerners were highly negative: Lyndon B. Johnson said of Tillman, \"He might have been president. I'd like to sit down with him and ask how it was to throw it away for the sake of hating.\"\n\nSimkins noted that Tillman \"rose above the handicap of his radical views, his obstreperousness, and the insularity of his issues to become a considerable force in national politics\". Historian I. M. Newby deemed Tillmanism the closest thing to a mass movement in the history of white South Carolinians, and one that dominated the state for a generation. \"To students of black history and racial equality its most striking features are the extent to which it expressed the desire of white Carolinians to dominate blacks and the fact that much of its unity and force derived from its antiblack racial policies.\" Tillman's movement took power from the Bourbon Democrats in South Carolina, but a greater price was paid, electorally and in lives, by African Americans.\n\nIn 1962, Main Building on the campus of Winthrop College was renamed Tillman Hall in his honor. On June 19, 2020, Winthrop University's Board of Trustees passed unanimously a resolution requesting South Carolina state legislators to consider amending the Heritage Act of 2000 to \"allow Winthrop to restore Tillman Hall to its original name of Main Building.\" Clemson University also has a Tillman Hall, though efforts have been made to change the name, and on June 12, 2020, the university's board of trustees requested the legislature to authorize a name change back to \"Main Building\". Kantrowitz argued that Tillman deserves little credit for what have become important Southern schools, integrated and coeducational:\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading \n  New social history; online edition \n Krause, Kevin Michael. \"A Different State of Mind: Ben Tillman and the Transformation of State Government in South Carolina, 1885\u20131895\" (PhD. Diss. University of Georgia, 2014.) online\n  This is an expanded edition of Logan's 1954 book The Negro in American Life and Thought: The Nadir, 1877\u20131901.\n\nExternal links \n\n \"Their own Hotheadedness\": Tillman speech in Senate advocating disenfranchisement of blacks and lynching of those who protested\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n1847 births\n1918 deaths\n19th-century American politicians\n20th-century American politicians\nAmerican people of English descent\nAmerican politicians with disabilities\nCensured or reprimanded United States senators\nClemson University trustees\nDemocratic Party governors of South Carolina\nDemocratic Party United States senators from South Carolina\nHistory of racism in the United States\nNeo-Confederates\nPeople from Trenton, South Carolina\nPeople of the Philippine\u2013American War\nPeople of the Reconstruction Era\nPolitical violence in the United States\nUniversity of South Carolina trustees\nWilmington insurrection of 1898","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2023-50":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":4,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":4,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2}},"id":200643,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benjamin%20Tillman","title":"Benjamin Tillman","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Opera buffa is an Italian term meaning \"comic opera\".  It is mainly used for 18th century Italian comic operas.  Opera buffa contrasts with opera seria (\"serious opera\") in which the story was a tragedy.  Opera seria was supposed to be \"serious\", while opera buffa was an entertaining musical comedy.  Like the opera seria, everything was sung, there was no spoken dialogue.  This was different from comic opera in other countries.  The story in opera buffa is told in recitative and then there were arias for the characters to show their feelings and show off their voices.  \n\nAlthough we use the term \"opera buffa\" today, in the 18th century they called such operas by other names, e.g. \"commedia in musica\", \"dramma giocosa\", \"operetta\", \"burlesca\" etc.  An opera buffa was usually a full length work: one which would fill a whole evening's entertainment.  It was different from an \"intermezzo\" or \"farsa\" which was a short musical comedy that was performed during the intervals of a musical tragedy, although the difference between the two is not always obvious.  The intermezzo became longer and longer during the 18th century and gradually developed into opera buffa.  Pergolesi's La Serva Padrone was an intermezzo which became very famous after Pergolesi's death.  It influenced opera buffa.  \n\nOpera buffa always included a lot of caricature.  The characters showed human weaknesses such as , ,  and  (people who were pretending to be wise and important).  They often poked fun at the ruling classes.\n\nIn opera buffa the acting was always very important.  It was a very lively show, with a lot happening very quickly.  At the end of each act all the main characters sang together: this is called an \"ensemble\" (the French word for \"together\").\n\nOpera buffa started in Naples and gradually spread to other parts of Italy.  It was particularly popular at carnival time.  Important composers of opera buffa include Carlo Goldoni and Baldassare Galuppi.\n\nBy the end of the 18th century it was not always possible to tell the difference between an opera buffa and an opera seria.  Mozart's opera Don Giovanni, for example, has a lot of comedy, but there is also a serious side.\n\nOpera genres","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":73407,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Opera%20buffa","title":"Opera buffa","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Classical music is a very general term which normally refers to the standard music of countries in the western world. It is music that has been composed by musicians who are trained in the art of writing music (composing) and written down in music notation so that other musicians can play it. Classical music may also be described as \"art music\" although that term also includes types of serious modern music which are not classical. Classical music differs from pop music because it is not made just in order to be popular for time or just to be a commercial success. It is different from folk music which is generally made up by ordinary members of society and learned by future generations by listening, dancing and copying.\n\nMeaning of \"classic\" \n\nThe word \"classic\" tends to mean: an art which is so good that it will always be enjoyed by future generations. It is something that has become a model for future artists. The period of Ancient Greece and Rome is known as the Classical Period because, many centuries later, people looked back to those ancient civilizations and thought they were perfect. In recent European history the 18th century was known as the Classical Period because musicians, artists, writers and philosophers were inspired by the art forms of the Classical Period of Ancient Greece and Rome. Something that is a \"classic\" is therefore something that will always be remembered as something great. Famous books such as the novels of Charles Dickens are called \"classics\". \"Classical music\" therefore tends to mean music that will not be forgotten soon after it is written, but is likely to be enjoyed by many future generations.\n\nContrast with pop music and jazz \n\nAlthough people sometimes think of classical music as the opposite of pop music, it can still be very popular. Like all kinds of music, classical music can be in many different moods: happy, sad, scary, peaceful, thoughtful, simple etc. Mozart wrote his serenades and divertimentos to entertain people at parties. Classical pieces of music can be quite short, but they can also be very long, like a big, musical story. A symphony by Mahler or Shostakovich can last for nearly an hour, and an opera is a whole evening's entertainment also Classical music is nowadays fused with Rock music and EDM music and even some Rap music which also have subgenres related to pop music.\n\nClassical music is also different from jazz because true jazz is improvised. However, the differences are not always obvious. Classical music has often been inspired by jazz, and jazz by classical music. George Gershwin wrote music which is both jazz and classical. Classical music, too, can be improvised. The great composers Bach, Mozart and Beethoven often improvised long pieces of music on the organ, harpsichord or piano. Sometimes they wrote these improvistions down. They were, in effect, compositions which were composed in one go.\n\nReligious and non-Religious music \n\nIn Western countries a vast amount of music was written for Christian worship in churches and cathedrals. This is called \"sacred\" (religious) music. All other music is \"secular\" music. The word \"secular\" means things that are not sacred. Sacred and secular music have influenced one another in many ways during the course of music history. Secular music was largely influenced by dance, and this in turn changed the style of sacred music. For example: the church music of the 16th century composer Giovanni da Palestrina has nothing to do with dance music, but both the sacred and secular music of Johann Sebastian Bach two centuries later is full of dance rhythms. At some times in music history there have been different styles of composing for sacred and for secular music. Claudio Monteverdi uses two different styles for his church and for his non-church music. When composers were experimenting with new ways of writing music they usually did this with secular music, and sacred music caught up later, Sacred classical music is used in a lot of different video games in order to show tonal themes and intensity as to whether something is good or bad is about to happen.\nThe Legend of Zelda series relies heavily on Religious classical music to convey the various goddesses of Hyrule and Thier prominence and influence in the society.\n\nUse of the term \"classical music\" \n\nThe term \"classical music\" was not used until the early 19th century. People then started talking about classical music in order to praise the great composers such as Bach, Mozart and Beethoven. In the 20th century many different ways of composing were used, including music played by electronic instruments or very modern music using strange sounds (experimental or \"avant garde\" music), for example the music of John Cage. Some people feel that this kind of music cannot really be described as \"classical music\".\n\nInstruments used \n\nClassical music can be for instruments or for the voice. The symphony orchestra is the most common group of instruments for the playing of classical music. It has four families of instruments: the string instruments which include the violins, violas, cellos and piano, the woodwind instruments which include flutes, oboes,clarinets and bassoons together with related instruments of different sizes, the brass instruments: trumpet, trombone, tuba and French horn, and percussion instruments which nearly always includes timpani as well as many other possible instruments which are hit or shaken. This is very different from a typical rock band which has a drummer, a guitarist, one or two singers and an electric bass and keyboard. Instruments that play classical music are not normally amplified electronically.\n\nThe same applies to the voice. Singers may be sopranos, altos, tenors or basses, depending on their vocal range. Their voices are not amplified. Opera singers, in particular, have to develop very powerful voices which will be heard over the orchestra and project right to the back of an opera house.\n\nThe instruments used in classical music developed at different times. Some of the earliest were known in Medieval music. The trombone and the triangle have hardly changed for hundreds of years, but the violin family developed from folk instruments such as fiddles and gradually replaced the viols to form the basis of the modern orchestra. This was happening by the beginning of the 17th century, which was the time when opera was invented.\n\nIn general, musical instruments have become louder as concert halls have become bigger. Violins are louder than viols. Modern violins are louder than the early 17th century violins, largely because of they have metal strings instead of gut strings. The piano developed from the clavichord which was very quiet indeed. Woodwind instruments developed from Renaissance instruments, while the clarinet was invented in the middle of the 18th century, and the saxophone and tuba came even later. Modern trumpets sound much brighter than the straight trumpets of the 18th century.\n\nForm (shape) of classical music pieces \nMost popular music is based on song form, but classical music has many different forms, some of which can be used over a long time span to make big compositions. Classical music can have many forms, including the symphony, concerto, oratorio, opera, sonata, fugue or any combination of dance movements such as suites. In many of the longer compositions, short tunes are developed and changed during the course of the piece. Beethoven's Fifth Symphony is a good example of a piece which develops from just four notes into a large piece lasting about half an hour.\n\nMusical training and general use of classical music \n\nPeople who want to be good at performing classical music have to practice hard for many years. They normally have formal training at a music college or conservatoire and have lessons from well-known music teachers.\n\nClassical musicians often spend a lot of time thinking carefully about pieces of music, especially about pieces of music that they perform. They study such things as harmony and counterpoint to help them understand the way that the composers were thinking when they put the piece together. When they look at pieces of music in this way this is called \"musical analysis\". People who specialize in thinking and writing about music may become professors or lecturers of music at universities.\n\nClassical music is often heard in popular culture. It is used as background music for movies, television programs, advertisements and even for mobile phone ringing tones. Most people in the Western world recognize many classical tunes, possibly without even realizing it. Some classical pieces of music have become enormously popular, e.g. the song Nessun dorma from Giacomo Puccini's opera Turandot which was sung by the three tenors Luciano Pavarotti, Pl\u00e1cido Domingo and Jos\u00e9 Carreras, and used as the theme tune for the 1990 Soccer World Cup. This made many people who had never been interested in opera start to become curious about it.\n\nOutline of the history of classical music\n\nMiddle Ages \n\nThe history of classical music really started in the late Middle Ages. Music written for the church was almost always vocal (singing),  because instruments were thought to be wicked. This is because the devil played them, and because they were used for dancing. There was a lot of dance music, but most of it is lost because it was never written down.\n  \nMedieval composers who are remembered today include L\u00e9onin, P\u00e9rotin and Guillaume de Machaut\n\nRenaissance \nThe Renaissance was from the 15th century until the 17th century. This period saw a massive increase in the composition of music, both sacred and secular. Many great cathedrals had been built in Europe and composers wrote music for them, mostly vocal music. Secular music also became extremely popular, especially songs and madrigals, which would sometimes be accompanied by instruments.\n\nThe greatest composers of this period include: Giovanni da Palestrina, Orlando di Lasso, Thomas Tallis and William Byrd.\n\nBaroque period \nThe Baroque period was from about the 17th century until the mid-18th century. This was the time when the modern orchestra was formed, more or less as we know it. It was also the time when opera was invented. Most musicians worked either for the church or for rich people who had their own orchestras. Many of them also started to work for opera houses.\n\nThe greatest composers of this time include: Claudio Monteverdi, Heinrich Sch\u00fctz, Henry Purcell, Antonio Vivaldi, George Frideric Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach, Domenico Scarlatti and Georg Philipp Telemann\n\nClassical period \nThe years between 1760 - 1825 was known as the Classical period. Composers thought a lot about the forms of their pieces and were influenced by the classical art of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. The symphony was invented and various forms of chamber music including the string quartet.\n\nThe greatest composers include: Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Antonio Salieri, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert .\n\nRomantic period \nFrom 1820 to 1910 was known as the Romantic period. Composers continued to use the forms that had been invented in the 18th century, but they also thought that personal feeling and emotion were very important. Music for orchestra sometimes told a story (programme music). Musicians who played their instruments brilliantly (such as Paganini) were worshipped like heroes. Beethoven and Schubert belong, in many ways, to this period as well as to the Classical period. It was a time when there were a lot of changes in society. After the wars that Napoleon had waged, there were not so many ruling aristocratic families. There was a lot of feeling of nationalism as countries united. 19th century music is often nationalistic: composers wrote music that was typical of their own country.\n\nSome of the greatest composers include: Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Hector Berlioz, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Chopin, Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn, Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Edward Elgar, Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss.\n\n20th century \nWhat is known as 20th century classical music (or \"modern music\") is music from about 1910 onwards. At this time many composers felt that everything had already been done by the composers of the past, so they wanted to find new ways of composing. Claude Debussy, Arnold Schoenberg and Igor Stravinsky, in particular, found new ways of writing music which was not necessarily tonal (in any particular key). Classical music was influenced by jazz, especially with American composers. Later in the century people such as Pierre Boulez and Karlheinz Stockhausen experimented in many other ways, including with electronic music (tape recorders etc.). Today's composers have combined some of these ideas to develop their own styles.\n\nSome of the most important composers are: Claude Debussy, Jean Sibelius, Maurice Ravel, Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, B\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k, Aaron Copland, Benjamin Britten, Dmitri Shostakovich, Leonard Bernstein, Philip Glass, Dmitri Kabalevsky, James MacMillan, Judith Weir, Peter Maxwell Davies\n\nConclusion \nIt has never been possible to say exactly what is meant by \"classical music\". Many different kinds of music influence one another. Since 1970 it has been even harder to make clear dividing lines between rock, pop, classical, folk, jazz and world music. This shows that classical music, like other kinds of music, continues to develop and reflect the society from which it comes.\n\nReferences \nThe New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980; \n\nMusic genres","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":190,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5}},"id":5022,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classical%20music","title":"Classical music","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Serialism is a way of composing music using a series of notes in a particular order and using this to build up a whole piece of music. These series and patterns can also be applied to other parts of music (like how loud or soft it is).\n\nA simple example\n\nTo show how serialism works we can take a very simple example.  Let us use just five notes from the white notes of a keyboard.  We can use the notes A, B, C, D and E.  We are going to make a \"tune\" using all these five notes, but not repeating any until all five have been used (although we are allowed to repeat the note we have just had).\nFor example: we might have D, C, A, A, A, A, B, E.  This is what we call our \"row\" or \"series\", although usually one would expect a row of twelve different notes.  It is the one we start off with, so we can call it our tone row.\n\nWe can change the tone row by playing it backwards.  This is called retrograde.  So we now get E, B, A, A, A, A, C, D.\n\nWe can also change it by playing it upside down.  This means that instead of going up one step we go down one step, or instead of going up two steps we go down two steps etc.  If we start on the same note D we now get: D, E, G, G, G, G, F, C.  This is called inversion.\nWe can make it go backwards and upside down.  So we get: C, F, G, G, G, G, E, D.  This is called retrograde inversion.\n\nWe now have four ways of playing our row: tone row, retrograde, inversion, retrograde inversion.\n\nThese can now be transposed to create many more options.\n\nSchoenberg's twelve-tone series\n\nIn 1923 the composer Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951) developed what he called the \"twelve-tone system\".  Instead of using just five notes as in our example, he used all 12 notes in the octave (5 black and 7 white notes on the piano keyboard).  Most music we listen to is in a particular key (tonality).  This is called \"tonal\" music.  For example: if we start \"Twinkle, twinkle little star\" on a C we finish on a C at the end and the piece sounds finished. It is \"tonal\" (in a particular key).  In twelve-tone music all 12 notes are equal, there is no \"key note\" (it is \"atonal\").  This makes the music very hard to understand and it took people a long time to get used to the sound of Schoenberg's new music.\n\nSchoenberg was not the only composer to use this way of composing.  His pupils Alban Berg (1885-1935) and Anton Webern (1883-1945) also wrote twelve-tone music. Schoenberg, Webern & Berg are sometimes called the \"Second Viennese School\"-The first was Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven a hundred years before. The composers Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and Aaron Copland (1900-1990) started to write twelve-tone music when they were quite old.  Composers such as Benjamin Britten (1913-1976) used it occasionally, often putting it together with music which was tonal (listen to Britten's opera \"Midsummer Night's Dream\").  When contrasted with tonal music in this way it can be very beautiful.\n\nIn the 1950s and 1960s some composers like Pierre Boulez (b.1925) and Karlheinz Stockhausen (b.1928) wrote music which was not only twelve-tone, but serial in other ways as well.  For example: they organized levels of dynamics (from very quiet to very loud) in a series, and the lengths of notes (from very short to very long), and even timbre (the sound quality).  By combining all these things their music became very complicated indeed.  When all these things were used for the whole piece of music it was called \"total serialism\".  Boulez's Structures I is an example of a piece which uses \"total serialism\".  A lot of people criticized this music, saying that it was too mathematical instead of being expressive.  Such music can be hard to understand. \nMusical movements","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":28509,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Serialism","title":"Serialism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Whisky, or whiskey, is an alcoholic drink distilled from grain and aged in wooden .\n\nThe name comes from a gaelic word. In Ireland, it is called whiskey, with an added letter 'e'. Whiskey made in the United States often uses the Irish spelling.\n\nThere are many kinds of whisky, of which most important are:\n\n Single malt: All of the whisky has been made from single batch of malt in one single distillery. They have been matured in oak barrels, usually 6 to 24 years. Glenfiddich is the world's best-selling single malt whisky. It comes from Speyside in the Scottish Highlands, and accounts for 35% of world sales. The Glenlivet comes second, from the same area. Thus, despite all attempts at competition, this small area near the Spey River still dominates the world market for single malt whisky. Other well-known single malts are Laphroaig, Lagavulin, Bowmore, Ardbeg and Talisker. Most single malts come from Scotland, either Lowlands, Highlands or Scottish Isles. Nikka Yoichi comes from Japan.\n Blended whisky or Scotch: A Scotch is a mixture of various single malts. This is the most common type of whisky. Famous blended whiskys are Johnnie Walker, Chivas Regal, Ballantines, J&B, The Famous Grouse and Vat-69. In the United States the word \"scotch\" refers to the blended whiskys of Scotland. Blenders do not distill whisky, but mix various single malts.\n Irish whiskey: These are blended whiskeys from Ireland. While Scottish whiskys are distilled twice, Irish whiskeys are distilled three times before they are matured. Famous Irish whiskeys are Jameson's and Bushmill's.\n Bourbon whiskey: Bourbon is American whiskey which contains maize. It may all be made from maize (corn whiskey) or it may also contain barley malt. Famous bourbons are Four Roses, Jim Beam and Kentucky Gentleman. The name comes from Bourbon county, Kentucky.\n Rye: As name implies, rye whiskey is made from rye malt. These are especially popular in Canada. Famous Canadian rye whiskeys are Canadian Club and Alberta Premium\n\nMost whiskys contain around 40% alcohol.\n\nScotch whisky \nScotch whisky is legally defined by Scotch Whisky Order of 1990 (UK), and the Scotch Whisky Act of 1988,.\n\nThese say that Scotch whisky must:\n Must be distilled at a Scottish  from water and malted barley, to which only other whole grains may be added, have been processed at that distillery into a mash, converted to a fermentable substrate only by endogenous enzyme systems, and fermented only by the addition of yeast,\n Must be distilled to an alcoholic strength of less than 94.8% by volume so that it retains the flavour of the raw materials used in its production,\n Must be matured in Scotland in oak casks for no less than three years,\n Must not contain any added substance other than water and caramel colouring, and\n May not be bottled at less than 40% alcohol by volume.\n\nAlcohol is a favorite way to collect tax (called excise duty) in the United Kingdom. When Gordon Brown, a Scot, became Chancellor of the Exchequer, he concentrated on taxing beers and wines, and did not increased the duty on whisky. This, he said, was to help the Scotch whisky industry to recover, increase exports and make more money.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"unknown":8,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":4,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3}},"id":80605,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Whisky","title":"Whisky","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Turki (basa Turki: T\u00fcrkiye), resmina R\u00e9publik Turki (), nya\u00e9ta hiji nagara di Eurasia nu ngampar sapanjang semenanjung Anatolia di Asia kulon kidul sarta wewengkon Balkan ti \u00c9ropa w\u00e9tan kidul. Wates-wates Turki nya\u00e9ta dalapan nagara: \n Bulgaria di beulah kulon kal\u00e9r; \n Yunani di beulah kulon; \n Georgia di beulah w\u00e9tan kal\u00e9r; \n Arm\u00e9nia, Iran jeung exclave Nakhichevan ti Azerbaijan di beulah w\u00e9tan; \n Irak jeung Syria di beulah w\u00e9tan kidul. \nMinangka tambahan, Turki diwawatesanan ku Laut Hideung di beulah kal\u00e9r; Laut Aegean jeung Laut Marmara di beulah kulon; sarta Laut M\u00e9diterania di beulah kidul.\n\nR\u00e9publik Turki netepkeun dirina minangka r\u00e9publik nu d\u00e9mokratis, s\u00e9kul\u00e9r, jeung konstitusional nu mana sistim pulitikna diadegkeun dina taun 1923. Turki mangrupa nagara anggota PBB, NATO, OSCE, OECD, OKI, sarta D\u00e9wan \u00c9ropa. Og\u00e9 mangrupa nagara calon pikeun ngagabung jeung Uni \u00c9ropa. Alatan lokasina nu strat\u00e9gis, ngajagangan \u00c9ropa jeung Asia sarta aya di antara tilu sagara, Turki geus jadi jalan nyabrang bersajarah antara budaya w\u00e9tan jeung kulon. Turki mangrupa tempat keur sababaraha peradaban sarta jadi tempat bitotama antar maran\u00e9hannana.\n\nThe Politics of Turkey takes place in a framework of a secular parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Turkey is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.\n\nExecutive branch\nThe function of H\u00e9ad of State is performed by the President (Cumhurba\u015fkan\u0131). A pr\u00e9sid\u00e9nt is elected every seven y\u00e9ars by the Grand National Assembly. The pr\u00e9sid\u00e9nt does not have to be a member of parliament. The current pr\u00e9sid\u00e9nt Ahmet Necdet Sezer, was elected by Parliament on May 16, 2000.  \nExecutive power rests in the Prime Minister (Ba\u015fbakan) and the Council of Ministers (Bakanlar Kurulu). The Ministers have to be members of Parliament; however, the Prime Minister is no longer required to be an MP. The Prime Minister is elected by the parliament through a vote of confidence in his government. The Prime Minister is Recep Tayyip Erdo\u011fan, whose Islamic conservative AKP won a majority of parliamentry s\u00e9ats in the  2002 general elections.  \nThe Chairman of the Parliament is B\u00fclent Ar\u0131n\u00e7 from the same party. The current pr\u00e9sid\u00e9nt of the Constitutional Court is Mustafa Bumin.\n\nLegislative branch\n\nLegislative power is invested in the 550-s\u00e9at Grand National Assembly of Turkey (T\u00fcrkiye B\u00fcy\u00fck Millet Meclisi), representing 81 provinces. The members are elected for a five y\u00e9ar term by mitigated proportional representation with an election threshold of 10 %. To avoid fragmentation of parliament, a party must win at l\u00e9ast 10% of the national vote in a national parliamentary election to gain parliamentary representation. Independent candidates may run, and to be elected, they must only win 10% of the vote in the province from which they are running.  The Turkish military plays an informal political role, seeing itself as the guardian of the secular, unitary nature of the republic.  Political parties deemed anti-secular or separatist by the judiciary can be banned. Turkey has a multi-party system, with several strong parties..\n\nForeign Relations\n\nTurkish-EU relations\n\nTurkey's main political, economic and military relations remain rooted within Western Europe and the United States. An associate member of the Europ\u00e9an Union since 1964, Turkey is currently in the process of accession pending the completion of negotiations. A major source of tension in its EU aspirations is the issue of Cyprus, a member of the EU which Turkey does not recognise, but inst\u00e9ad supports the de facto independent  Turkish Cypriot north. Other factors include Turkey's human rights record, its relatively large population, its relatively poor (although fast growing) economy and proximity to the volatile Middle \u00e9ast. Based on what it views as lukewarm support for its accesion to the EU and alleged double standards in its negotiations (France and Austria have indicated they will hold referendums on Turkey's membership) the Turkish public has become incr\u00e9asingly euroskeptic in recent times. A mid-2006 Eurobarometer survey rev\u00e9aled that 43% of Turkish citizens view the EU positively; just 35% trust the EU, 45% support enlargement and just 29% support an EU constitution <ref>New Eurobarometer poll results show a drop in Turkish support for the EU  ''Hurriyet Sunday, July 09, 2006<\/ref>. It is believed that the accession process would take at l\u00e9ast 10 y\u00e9ars which would m\u00e9an that Turkey would enter the EU in 2015 at the \u00e9arliest.\n\nTurkish-American relations\n\nTurkey has remained a close ally of the United States, supporting it in the war on terror in the post September 11th climate. However, the Iraq war faced strong domestic opposition in Turkey and as such, the Turkish parliament voted against allowing US troops to attack Iraq from its south-\u00e9astern border. This led to a period of cooling in relations, but soon regained momentum through diplomatic, humanitarian and indirect military support. Turkey is particularly cautious about an independent Kurdish state arising from a destabilised Iraq. Turkey has fought an insurgent war against the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), that seeks Kurdish independence, in which some estimated 30,000 p\u00e9ople have lost their lives. This has led Ankara to pressure the US into clamping down on guerrilla training camps in northern Iraq, though it remains reluctant due to its relative stability compared to the rest of Iraq. Turkey must therefore balance domestic pressures with commitments to its strongest ally.\n\n Greco-Turkish relations \n\nHistorically, relations with neighbour Greece have been strained and occasionally close to war. The antagonism can be traced all the way back to centuries of Ottoman Turkish rule over the Greek p\u00e9ople and consequent struggle by the latter for the cr\u00e9ation of a Greek nation state. The last one emerged over the Cyprus dispute and conflicts on the status of the Aegean Sea are the current main points of contention. Cyprus remains divided between a Greek Cypriot south, and a Turkish Cypriot north recognized only by Turkey. Efforts to reunite the island under the auspices of the United Nations have failed thus far. As far as the Aeg\u00e9an S\u00e9a is concerned, Ankara considers it strategically important for \u00e9asy passage of Turkish vessels. Turkey does not recognise the extension of Greek territorial waters to 12-mile around the islands of the Aeg\u00e9an. Ankara argues that the Turkish Aeg\u00e9an coasts would then be blocked by Greek territorial waters, despite the innocent passage of vessels that is universally recognised within the territorial waters of any state according to the Law of the Sea. Turkey has warned that such an act would be considered a casus belli or an act of war on Turkey.\n\nNonetheless, following consecutive \u00e9arthquakes in both Turkey and Greece and the prompt response of aid and rescue t\u00e9ams from both sides, the two nations have entered a much more positive period of relations, with Greece actively supporting Turkey's struggle to enter the European Union. A cl\u00e9ar sign of improved relations was visible in the response to a mid air collision by Greek and Turkish fighter jets in the southern Aeg\u00e9an. While the Turkish pilot ejected safely, the Greek pilot lost his life. However, both countries agreed that the event should not affect their bilateral relations.\n\n Military \n\nThe Turkish Armed Forces (Turkish: T\u00fcrk Silahl\u0131 Kuvvetleri or abbreviated as TSK) consists of the Army, Navy (includes Naval Air and Naval Infantry) and Air Force. The Gendarmerie and Coast Guard operate as the part the Department of Internal Affairs in p\u00e9acetime and are subordinate to the Army and Navy Commands respectively. In wartime, both have law enforcement and military functions. The Turkish Armed forces, with a combined troop strength of 1,043,550 p\u00e9ople, is the second largest standing force in NATO after the United States. Currently, 36,000 troops are stationed in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Every fit male Turkish citizen has to serve military service for varying time periods ranging between 1 month to 15 months depending on his education, job location, and occasional paid options. The Turkish Armed Forces became a member of the NATO Alliance on February 18, 1952.\n\nIn 1998, Turkey announced a mod\u00e9rnisation programme worth some $31 billion over a period of ten y\u00e9ars including tanks, helicopters and assault rifles. Turkey is also a level three contributor to the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program, gaining an opportunity to develop and influence the cr\u00e9ation of the next generation fighter sp\u00e9arh\u00e9aded by the United States.\n\nThe Armed forces have traditionally been a politically powerful institution,  considering itself the guardian of Atat\u00fcrk's legacy. They have staged three coups between 1960 and 1980, whilst also influencing the removal of the Islam-oriented government of Necmettin Erbakan in 1997. Through the National Security Council, the army has influenced policy on issues it deems a thr\u00e9at to the country, including those relating to Kurdish insurgency and Islamism. In recent y\u00e9ars, reforms have seen an incr\u00e9ased civilian presence on the NSC and a decline in the military's influence as it attempts to comply with the EU's Copenhagen criteria. Despite its influence in civilian affairs, the military continues to enjoy strong support from the nation, frequently seen as Turkey's most trusted institution.\n\nThe Commander of The Turkish Armed Forces is The Chief of the General Staff General Ya\u015far B\u00fcy\u00fckan\u0131t who succeeded General Hilmi \u00d6zk\u00f6k on August 30, 2006. The pr\u00e9sid\u00e9nt, as the H\u00e9ad of State, is The Commander in Chief, in times of p\u00e9ace. The Chief of the General Staff becomes the Commander in Chief, on behalf of the pr\u00e9sid\u00e9nt, in times of war.\n\nGeography\n\nThe territory of Turkey extends from 36\u00b0 to 42\u00b0 N and from 26\u00b0 to 45\u00b0 E in Eurasia. It is roughly rectangular in shape and is 1,660 kilometers (1,031\u00a0mi) wide.  Turkey's ar\u00e9a inclusive of lakes is 814,578 square kilometres (314,510\u00a0sq\u00a0mi), of which 790,200 square kilometres (305,098\u00a0sq\u00a0mi) occupies the Anatolian peninsula (also called Asia Minor) in Western Asia, and 3% or 24,378 square kilometres (9,412\u00a0sq\u00a0mi) are located in Europe.  Many g\u00e9ographers consider Turkey politically in Europe, although it is rather a transcontinental country between Asia and Europe. The land borders of Turkey total 2,573 kilometres (1,599\u00a0mi), and the coastlines (including islands) total another 8,333 kilometres (5,178\u00a0mi).\n\nTurkey is generally divided into seven regions: the Marmara, the Aegean, the Mediterranean, Central Anatolia, \u00e9ast Anatolia, South\u00e9ast Anatolia and the Black Sea region. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the Black Sea resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately 1\/6 of Turkey's total land ar\u00e9a. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian plat\u00e9au becomes incr\u00e9asingly rugged as it progresses \u00e9astward\n\nTurkey forms a bridge between Europe and Asia, with the division between the two running from the Black Sea (Karadeniz) to the north down along the Bosporus (Istanbul Bo\u011faz\u0131) strait through the Sea of Marmara (Marmara Denizi) and the Dardanelles (\u00c7anakkale Bo\u011faz\u0131) strait to the Aeg\u00e9an S\u00e9a (Ege Denizi) and the larger Mediterran\u00e9an S\u00e9a (Akdeniz) to the south. The Anatolian peninsula or Anatolia (Anadolu) consists of a high central plat\u00e9au with narrow coastal plains, in between the K\u00f6ro\u011flu and \u00e9ast-Black S\u00e9a mountain range to the north and the Taurus Mountains (Toros Da\u011flar\u0131) to the south. To the \u00e9ast is found a more mountainous landscape, home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates (F\u0131rat), Tigris (Dicle) and the Araks (Aras), as well as Lake Van (Van G\u00f6l\u00fc) and Mount Ararat (A\u011fr\u0131 Da\u011f\u0131), Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,853\u00a0ft).\n\nTurkey's varied landscapes are the product of complex \u00e9arth movements that have shaped the region over thousands of y\u00e9ars and still manifest themselves in fairly frequent \u00e9arthquakes and occasional volcanic eruptions. The Bosporus and the Dardanelles owe their existence to the fault lines running through Turkey, l\u00e9ading to the cr\u00e9ation of the Black S\u00e9a. There is an \u00e9arthquake fault line across the north of the country from west to \u00e9ast.\n\nThe climate is a Mediterran\u00e9an temperate climate, with hot, dry summers and mild, wet and cold winters, though conditions can be much harsher in the more arid interior. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterran\u00e9an influences from extending inland, giving the interior of Turkey a continental climate with distinct s\u00e9asons. The central Anatolian Plat\u00e9au is much more subject to extremes than are the coastal ar\u00e9as. Winters on the plat\u00e9au are especially severe. Temperatures of -30\u00a0\u00b0C to -40\u00a0\u00b0C can occur in the mountainous ar\u00e9as in the \u00e9ast, and snow may lie on the ground 120 days of the y\u00e9ar. In the west, winter temperatures average below 1\u00a0\u00b0C. Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures above 30\u00a0\u00b0C. Annual precipitation averages about 400 millim\u00e9ters, with actual amounts determined by elevation. The driest regions are the Konya plain and the Malatya plain, where annual rainfall frequently is less than 300 millim\u00e9ters. May is generally the wettest month and July and August, the driest.\n\n Administrative divisions \n\nTurkey is subdivided into 81 provinces (iller in Turkish; singular il). \u00e9ach province is divided into subprovinces (il\u00e7eler; singular il\u00e7e). The province usually b\u00e9ars the same name as the provincial capital, also called the central subprovince; exceptions are Hatay (capital: Antakya), Kocaeli (capital: \u0130zmit) and Sakarya (capital: Adapazar\u0131). Major provinces include: \u0130stanbul 11 million, Ankara 4 million, \u0130zmir 3.5 million, Bursa 2.1 million, Konya 2.2 million, Adana 1.8 million.\n\nCities\n\nThe capital city of Turkey is Ankara, but the historic capital \u0130stanbul remains the financial, economic and cultural centre of the country. Other important cities include \u0130zmir, Bursa, Adana, Trabzon, Malatya, Gaziantep, Erzurum, Kayseri, \u0130zmit (Kocaeli), Konya, Mersin, Eski\u015fehir, Diyarbak\u0131r, Antalya and Samsun. An estimated 68% of Turkey's population live in urban centers. In all, 12 cities have populations exceeding 500,000 and 48 cities have more than 100,000 p\u00e9ople.Major Cities :Note:Population figures given are those according to the 2000 census\n\u0130stanbul - 10,041,000\nAnkara -  4,319,000\n\u0130zmir -  2,409,000\nBursa - 1,195,000\nAdana - 1,131,000\nGaziantep - 854,000\nKonya - 743,000\nAntalya - 603,000\n\n Economy \n\nTurkey's economy is a complex mix of mod\u00e9rn industry and commerce along with a traditional agriculture sector that in 2005 still accounted for 30% of employment. Turkey has a strong and rapidly growing private sector, yet the state still plays a major role in basic industry, banking, transport, and communications.\n\nTurkey began a series of reforms in the 1980s designed to shift the economy from a statist, insulated system to a more private-sector, market-based mod\u00e9l. The reforms spurred rapid growth, but this growth was punctuated by sharp recessions and financial crises in 1994, 1999, and 2001. Turkey's failure to pursue additional reforms, combined with large and growing public sector deficits, widespr\u00e9ad corruption resulted in high inflation, incr\u00e9asing macroeconomic volatility, and a w\u00e9ak banking sector.\n\nCurrent GDP per capita  soared by 210% in the Seventies. But this proved unsustainable and growth scaled back sharply to 70% in the Eighties and a disappointing 11% in the Nineties.\n\nThe Ecevit government, in power from 1999 through 2002, restarted structural reforms in line with ongoing economic programs under the standby agreements signed with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), including passage of social security reform, public finance reform, state banks reform, banking sector reform, incr\u00e9asing transparency in public sector, and also introduction of related legislation to liberalize telecom, and energy markets. Under the IMF program, the government also sought to use exchange rate policies to curb inflation.\n\nIn the 1990s, Turkey's economy suffered from a series of coalition governments with w\u00e9ak economic policies, l\u00e9ading to a boom-and-bust cycle culminating in a severe banking and economic crisis in 2001 and a deep economic downturn (GNP fell 9.5% in 2001) and incr\u00e9ase in unemployment.\nThe government was forced to float the lira and adopt a more ambitious economic reform program, including a very tight fiscal policy, enhanced structural reforms, and unprecedented levels of IMF lending.\n\nLarge IMF loans tied to implementation of ambitious economic reforms, enabled Turkey to stabilize interest rates and the currency and to meet its debt obligations. In 2002 and 2003, the reforms began to show results. With the exception of a period of market jitters in the run-up to the Iraq war, inflation and interest rates have fallen significantly, the currency has stabilized, and confidence has begun to return. Turkey's economy grew an average of 7.5% per y\u00e9ar from 2002 through 2005 - one of the highest sustained rates of growth in the world, rivaling countries like China and India. Inflation and interest rates have fallen significantly, the currency has stabilized, government debt has declined to more supportable levels, and business and consumer confidence have returned. At the same time, the booming economy and large inflows of portfolio investment have contributed to a growing current account deficit. Though Turkey's economic vulnerabilities have been gr\u00e9atly reduced, the economy could still face problems in the event there is a sudden change in investor sentiment that l\u00e9ads to a sharp fall in the exchange rate. Continued implementation of reforms, including tight fiscal policy, is essential to sustain growth and stability.\n\n On 1 January 2005, the Turkish Lira was replaced by the New Turkish Lira by dropping six zeroes. That is, 1 new lira is equal to 1,000,000 old lira.\n\nTurkey has a number of bilateral investment and tax tr\u00e9aties, including with the United States, that guarantee free repatriation of capital in convertible currencies and eliminate double taxation. After y\u00e9ars of low levels of foreign direct investment (FDI), in 2005 Turkey succeeded in attracting $9.6 billion in FDI and is expected to attract a similar level in 2006. A series of large privatizations, the stability fostered by the start of Turkey's EU accession negotiations, strong and stable growth, and structural changes in the banking, retail, and telecommunications sectors have all contributed to the rise in foreign investment.\n\nTurkey seeks to improve its investment climate through administrative str\u00e9amlining, an end to foreign investment screening, and strengthened intellectual property legislation. However, a number of disputes involving foreign investors in Turkey and certain policies, such as high taxation of cola products and continuing gaps in the intellectual property regime, inhibit investment. The Turkish privatization board is in the process of privatizing a series of state-owned companies, including the state alcohol and tobacco company and the oil refining parastatal. In 2004, the Privatization Board privatized the telephone company and some of the state-owned banks. The government also committed in the World Trade Organization to liberalize the telecommunications sector at the beginning of 2004.\n\nSociety\n Demographics \n\nThe legal use of term \"Turkish\" (a citizen of Turkey) is different from the ethnic definition (an ethnic Turk). However, the majority of the Turkish population are of Turkish ethnicity. Besides the minorities that have legal status as defined and internationally recognized by the Treaty of Lausanne; namely Greeks, Armenians and Jews; ethnic groups include Abkhazians, Albanians, Arabs, Bosniaks, Chechens, Circassians, Georgians, Hamshenis, Kabardin, Kurds, Laz, Ossetians, Pomaks, Roma and Zazas, the largest non-Turkic ethnicity being the Kurds, a distinct ethnic group concentrated in the south\u00e9ast. While the term \"minority\" itself remains a sensitive issue in Turkey, it is to be noted that the degree of assimilation within various ethnic groups outside the recognized minorities is high, the following generations generally adding into the melting-pot of the Turkish main body. Within that main body, certain distinctions based on diverse Turkic origins could be made as well by taking account of the same tendency as mentioned.\n\nThough Turkish is the sole official language throughout Turkey, broadcasts in local languages and dialects on State media outlets include Arabic, Bosnian (essentially Serbo-Croatian), Circassian and Kurdish. Radio broadcasts are 60 minutes a day, five hours a week, 45 minutes a day, and four hours a week on television.\n\nThe Turkish population is relatively young with over a quarter falling within the [0-14] age bracket. Life expectancy stands at 70.2 y\u00e9ars for males and 75.2 y\u00e9ars for females, giving an overall 72.6 y\u00e9ars for the populace. Due to a demand for an incr\u00e9ased labour force in Post-World War II Europe, many Turkish citizens emigrated to Western Europe (particularly West Germany), forming a significant overs\u00e9as population.\n\nEducation\n\nEducation is compulsory and free from ages 7 to 15. There are around 820 higher education institutes including universities, with a total student enrollment of over 1 million. The 15 main universities are in Istanbul and Ankara. Tertiary education is the responsibility of the Higher Education Council, and funding is provided by the state. From 1998 the universities were given gr\u00e9ater autonomy, and were encouraged to raise funds from partnerships with industry.\n\nThere are approximately 85 universities in Turkey. There are two types of universities, state and (private) foundational. State universities charge very low fees and foundationals are highly expensive with fees up to $15 000 or sometimes even more. The capacity in total of Turkish universities is approximately 300.000. Some universities can compete with the best world universities wher\u00e9as some are unable to provide the necessary educational standards due to underfunding. However, university students are a lucky minority in Turkey. Universities provide either two or four y\u00e9ars of education for undergraduate studies. For graduate studies, two further y\u00e9ars is necessary, as is typical throughout the world.\n\nThe Scientific and Technical Res\u00e9arch Council of Turkey coordinates basic and applied res\u00e9arch and development. There are 64 res\u00e9arch institutes and organisations. R&D strengths include agriculture, forestry, h\u00e9alth, biotechnology, nucl\u00e9ar technologies, minerals, materials, IT, and defence.\n\nCulture\n\nTurkey has a very diverse culture derived from various elements of the Ottoman Empire, Europ\u00e9an, and the Islamic traditions. As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-driven former Ottoman Empire into a mod\u00e9rn nation-state with a very strong separation of state and religion, the incr\u00e9ase in the methods of artistic expression followed. During the first y\u00e9ars of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources into the fine arts, such as paintings, sculptures and architecture amongst other things.  This was done as both a process of mod\u00e9rnisation and of cr\u00e9ating a cultural identity. Today the Turkish economy is diverse enough to subsidise individual artists with gr\u00e9at freedom.\n\nBecause of different historical factors playing an important role in defining a Turkish identity, the culture of Turkey is an interesting combination of cl\u00e9ar efforts to be \"modern\" and Western, combined with the necessity felt to maintain traditional religious and historical values.\n\nTurkish cuisine is one of the world's most famous, blending ingredients and recipes inherited from the territories covered by the Ottoman Empire. Turkish Cuisine generally consists of sauced dishes prepared with cer\u00e9als, various vegetables and some m\u00e9at (usually Lamb), soups, cold dishes cooked with olive oil and pastry dishes.\n\nReligion\n\nNominally, 99% of the population is Muslim. Most belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. About 15-20% of the population are Alevi Muslims. There is also a small but significant Twelver Shi'a minority, mainly of Azeri descent.\n\nThe remaining 1% of the population are of other religions, mostly Christian (Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic (Gregorian), Syriac Orthodox, Molokans, Roman Catholics and Protestants), Jewish, Bah\u00e1'\u00eds and Yezidis.\n\nUnlike in other Muslim-majority countries, there is a strong tradition of secularism in Turkey. Even though the state does not have any\/or promote any religion, it actively monitors the ar\u00e9a between the religions. The constitutional rule that prohibits discrimination on religious grounds is taken very seriously. The Turkish constitution recognises freedom of religion for individuals, and the religious communities are placed under the protection of state, but the constitution explicitly states that they cannot become involved in the political process, by forming a religious party for example. No party can claim that it represents a form of religious belief. However, the religious sensibilities are generally represented through conservative parties.\n\nThe mainstr\u00e9am Hanafite school of Sunni Islam is largely organised by the state, through the Diyanet \u0130\u015fleri Ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 (Department of Religious Affairs). The Diyanet is the main Islamic framework established after abolition of the Ulama and Seyh-ul-Islam of the old r\u00e9gime. As a consequence, they control all mosques and Muslim clerics. Imams are trained in Imam Hatip schools and at th\u00e9ology departments at universities.  The department is criticized by some Alevi Muslims for not supporting their beliefs and inst\u00e9ad favoring the Sunni faith.\n\nThe Orthodox Patriarch (Patrik) is the h\u00e9ad of the Greek-Orthodox Church in Turkey and serves as the spiritual leader of all Orthodox churches throughout the world. The Armenian Patriarch is the h\u00e9ad of the Armenian Church in Turkey, while the Jewish community is led by the Hahambasi, Turkey's Chief Rabbi, based in \u0130stanbul.\n\nImages of Turkey\n\nSee also\n\nFestivals in Republic of Turkey\nHolidays in Turkey\nHuman rights in Turkey\nGay rights in Turkey\nLaicism\nList of Turkey-related topics\nMedia in Republic of Turkey\nMuseums in Republic of Turkey\nPeoples of the Caucasus in Turkey\nSports in Turkey\nT\u00fcrkiye \u0130zcilik Federasyonu\nMusic of Turkey\nTurkish pop music\nAnatolian rock\nTurkish Grand Prix\n\nReferences\n\nExternal linksOfficial Web Pages Presidency of the Republic of Turkey \nThe Grand National Assembly of Turkey\nThe Prime Minister's Office \nOfficial website of the National Security Council \nTurkish Armed Forces\nTurkish Embassy in Washington D.C.\nMinistry of Culture and Tourism \nNational Ministry of Foreign Affairs\nNational Ministry of DefensePublic OfficesMinistry of Interior Affairs\nCentral Bank of the Republic of Turkey\nCompetition Authority\nDirectorate General of Press And Information\nForeign Trade \nNational Intelligence Organisation\nState Planning Organisation \nTurkish Standards Institution \nTurkish Treasury \nUndersecretariat of Customs \nThe Scientific and Technological Research Council Online ProfilesBBC News country profile\nCIA Factbook \nEconomist.com country briefing\nTurkey Economy and StatisticsNewsHurriyet\nSabah\nThe New Anatolian\nTurkish Daily News \nCumhuriyet Online\nZaman Online\nInformation about Turkey in Turkish languageTravellers sites'''\nHRH Princess Michael of Kent recalls her discovery of Turkey \nCultural Exchange Programs in Turkey\nTurkey Pictures\nVisiting Scientist Travel Grants by The Scientific and Technological Research Council - In Turkish, for Foreign Scientists who should contact their hosting academic study counterpart \n\n -->\n\nNagara dua buana\n \nNagara D8","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":4,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":5997,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turki","title":"Turki","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The BSD licence is named after the group that first used the licence, the University of California, Berkeley, where the BSD operating system was first made. Since they are in the United States, BSD uses the U.S. spelling BSD license.\n\nThe licence \nThe words of the BSD licence are public domain and can be changed however people want. To be useful for people or groups, people need to change 'Regents of the University of California', 'University of California, Berkeley', and 'Regents' to their name. A basic BSD licence looks like this:\n\n * Copyright (c) 1994, Regents of the University of California\n * All rights reserved.\n * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without\n * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:\n *\n *     * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright\n *       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.\n *     * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright\n *        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the\n *       documentation and\/or other materials provided with the distribution.\n *     * Neither the name of the University of California, Berkeley nor the\n *       names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products\n *       derived from this software without specific prior written permission.\n *\n * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS \"AS IS\" AND ANY\n * EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED\n * WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE\n * DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY\n * DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES\n * (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES;\n * LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND\n * ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT\n * (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS\n * SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.\n\nThis means that any person who uses the licensed software can do anything with it, but the person cannot say it is all their work or say that the first makers of the software support the person's new software in any way. It also stops people from suing the first makers if something goes wrong with it.\n\nRelated pages\n Software licence\n\nSoftware licences\nBSD","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":20060,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BSD%20licence","title":"BSD licence","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Monophyly means common descent from a single ancestor.\nBiologists have introduced  a kind of taxonomy called cladistics. The aim of this is to make biological classification fit what we know about the way organisms evolved.\n\nIf there is a group made of a common ancestor, and all its descendants, that group is monophyletic.  (Greek: \"of one race\").\n\nA group which contains organisms, without their common ancestor, is called polyphyletic. Convergent evolution is a usual cause of such groups. If a group contains the common ancestor, but leaves out some of its descendants, it is called paraphyletic. All living things on this planet are thought, on the basis of DNA analysis, to be monophyletic, that is, to have one origin, not many.\n\nExample: all species in the genus Homo have come from the same ancestral form in the family Hominidae, and no other descendants are known. Thus the genus Homo is monophyletic.\n\nIf, on the other hand, it were discovered that Homo habilis had developed from a different ancestor from Homo sapiens, and this ancestor were not included in the genus, then the genus would be polyphyletic. Since biologists by and large tend to prefer monophyletic groups, in this case, they would likely either split the genus or broaden it to include the additional forms.\n\nExample of polyphyletic group: Sea slugs.\n\nPolyploidy \nSometimes taxonomists are frustrated fitting plant species into a monophyletic group because of polyploidy. There is clear evidence that some polyploid plant species are of multiple origins (the species has arisen more than once). For example, Salsify, the hybrid goat's-beard, (Tragopogon miscellus) has formed as many as 20 times in eastern Washington.\n\nAlso, it can happen that hybrids between two close plant species undergo polyploidy, and the polyploids continue as a new and distinct species. Situations like this are outside the normal rules of descent, and are dealt with by special decisions, guided by the International Commission of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).\n\nReferences\n\nCladistics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":240,"dup_dump_count":93,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":5,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5}},"id":63097,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monophyly","title":"Monophyly","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Booting is what happens when a computer starts. This happens when the power is turned on. It is called \"reboot\" if it happens at other times. When you boot a computer, your processor looks for instructions in system ROM (the BIOS) and executes them. They normally 'wake up' peripheral equipment and search for the boot device. The boot device either loads the operating system or gets it from somewere else.\n\nPeople use the word \"boot\" to mean \"to start a computer\" or other device with electronics built in. For example, if a person wants to ask a friend to turn on a satellite phone, they would say \"could you boot up the satellite phone?\".\n\nMost operating systems call the first data storage device it uses a boot device.  It may also be called a bootstrap loader. This is because the computer is making itself go, as in the idiom.  When we start a computer, we can often see the simple instructions the computer uses to start, then more complicated pictures or software. \n\nThe phrase \"to boot\" in this meaning is short for \"to bootstrap\".  This use is part of net jargon along with similar multi-use words like Internet or web.  Often the computer is just called a box, so a phrase like \"to boot the box\" means \"to start the computer\".\n\nThe term \"reboot\" can also be used in a different context to mean a restarting of a storyline established in previous iterations of a series of fiction.\n\nComputing\nSoftware","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":6364,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Booting","title":"Booting","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The question mark (?)  is a punctuation mark that is used at the end of a sentence when asking a question.\n\nThe symbol is thought to come from the Latin qu\u00e6stio, meaning \"question\", which was shortened to Qo. The uppercase Q was written above the lowercase o, and this mark was turned into the symbol that we use today.\n\nAnother guess about where question mark comes from says that it comes from the 9th century, when it was a point followed by the curved part written slanted.\n\nSome writers put a space between the end of their sentence and the question mark. This is thought to come from a French practice and is called French spacing. In French a space is always put before question marks, exclamation marks, colons, and semicolons. In English, however, using this space is thought of as bad form. Some English books do have these spaces, but are often a very thin space, which are not full spaces but an attempt to make the words easier to read.\n\nComputing \nIn computing, the question mark character is represented by ASCII code 63, and is located at Unicode code-point U+003F. The full-width (double-byte) equivalent, ?, is located at Unicode code point U+FF1F.\n\nExamples of the question mark being used \n\"What time is it?\"\n\"How are you doing?\"\n\"Why did that happen?\"\n\nSources\nLupton, Ellen and Miller, J. Abbott, \"Period styles: a punctuated history\", in The Norton Reader 11th edition, ed. Linda H. Peterson, Norton, 2003 Online excerpt (at least) \n Parkes, M.B., Pause and Effect: an Introduction to the History of Punctuation in the West, University of California Press, 1993\nTruss, Lynne, Eats, Shoots & Leaves Gotham Books, NY, p.\u00a0139\n\nReferences \n\nPunctuation\nTypography","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":59795,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Question%20mark","title":"Question mark","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 1452 \u2013 2 May 1519) was an Italian polymath who lived during the Renaissance.  He is famous for his paintings. He was also a scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, sculptor, architect, botanist, musician, and writer.\n\nLeonardo wanted to know everything about nature, and wanted to know how everything worked. He was very good at studying, as well as designing and making all sorts of inventions.\n\nThe art historian Helen Gardner said that no-one has ever been quite like him because he was interested in so many things that he seems to have had the mind of a giant, and yet what he was like as a person is still a mystery.\n\nLeonardo was born in Vinci, a small town near Florence, Italy. He was trained to be an artist by the sculptor and painter Verrocchio. He spent most of his life working for rich Italian noblemen. In his last years, he lived in a beautiful home given to him by the King of France.\n\nTwo of his paintings are among the best-known in the world: the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. He did many drawings. His best-known drawing is Vitruvian Man. Leonardo often thought of new inventions. He kept notebooks with notes and drawings of these ideas. Most of his inventions were never made. Some of his ideas were a helicopter, a tank, a calculator, a parachute, a robot, a telephone, evolution, and solar power.\n\nLife\n\nChildhood, 1452\u20131466 \n\nLeonardo was born on 15 April 1452, in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the valley of the Arno River. His grandfather, Antonio da Vinci, wrote down the details of the birth. Leonardo's parents were not married. His father was a Notary, Ser Piero da Vinci. His mother, Caterina, was a servant. She may have been a slave from the Middle East. or from China. His father later took custody of Leonardo, and his mother remarried and had 5 more children. Leonardo's full name was \"Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci\", which means \"Leonardo, the son of Messer (Mister) Piero da Vinci\".\n\nLeonardo spent his first five years living in a farmhouse with his mother. After that, he lived in Vinci with his father, his father's new wife Albiera, his grandparents, and uncle Francesco.  When Leonardo grew up, he only wrote down two memories from his childhood. He remembered that when he was lying outside in his cradle, a large bird flew from the sky and hovered over him. Its tail feathers brushed his face. Leonardo's other important memory was when he found a cave while exploring in the mountains. He was terrified that some great monster might be hiding there, but he was also very excited and wanted to find out what was inside.\n\nLeonardo started painting while he was still a boy. Giorgio Vasari wrote about Leonardo's life shortly after his death. He tells many interesting stories about how clever Leonardo was. He says that Leonardo painted a round wooden shield with a picture of snakes spitting fire. Messer Piero took his son's painting to Florence and sold it to an art dealer.\n\nVerrocchio's workshop, 1466\u20131476 \nIn 1466, when Leonardo was fourteen, his father took him to Florence, to be an apprentice to the artist Verrocchio.\n\nFlorence was an exciting place for a young person who wanted to be an artist. Many famous artists had lived in Florence, starting with Cimabue and Giotto in the 1200s. Everywhere a person looked, there were famous and beautiful artworks. The huge cathedral had an enormous new dome. The church of St John had doors that gleamed with gold and were said to be the most beautiful doors in the world. Another church had statues all around it by the most famous sculptors, including one by Leonardo's teacher Verrocchio.\n\nIf an artist was lucky, they would find a rich patron who would buy lots of their paintings. The richest family in Florence were the Medici. They had built themselves the finest palace in Florence, and liked buying paintings, statues and other beautiful things. They were also interested in the study of literature and philosophy. Many young artists hoped to get work from the Medici and their friends.\n\nVerrocchio had a big workshop that was one of the busiest in Florence. Leonardo was learning to be an artist, so he had to learn drawing, painting, sculpting and model-making. While he was at the workshop, he learned many other useful skills: chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry.\n\nLeonardo was not the only young painter at Verrocchio's workshop. Many other painters trained there, or often visited. Some of them later became famous: Ghirlandaio, Perugino and Botticelli. These artists were all a few years older than Leonardo.\n\nGiorgio Vasari tells an interesting story from this time in Leonardo's life. Verrocchio was painting a large picture of the Baptism of Christ. He gave Leonardo the job of painting one of the angels holding Jesus' robe on the left side of the picture. Vasari said that Leonardo painted the angel so beautifully that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again. When the painting is examined closely, it is possible to see that many other parts of the picture, such as the rocks, the brown stream and the background may have been painted by Leonardo as well. Verrocchio made a bronze statue of David at this time. It is believed that he used Leonardo as his model.\n\nIn about 1472, when he was twenty, Leonardo joined the Guild of St Luke, an organization of artists and doctors of medicine. Even after his father set him up in his own workshop, Leonardo still enjoyed working at Verrocchio's workshop. Leonardo's earliest known work is a drawing in pen and ink of the Arno River valley. It has the date 5 August, 1473. It is now in the Uffizi Gallery.\n\nWorking life 1476\u20131499 \n\nWhen Vasari writes about Leonardo, he uses words like \"noble\", \"generous\", \"graceful,\" and \"beautiful\". Vasari tells us that as an adult, Leonardo was a tall handsome man. He was so strong that he could bend horseshoes with his bare hands. His voice was so beautiful that it charmed everyone that heard it. Almost everyone wanted to be his friend. He loved animals, was a vegetarian and would buy birds at the market to set free.\n\nVery little is known about Leonardo's life and work between 1472 and 1481. He was probably busy in Florence. In 1478, he had an important commission to paint an altarpiece for the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. The painting was to be the Adoration of the Magi (The Three Wise Men). The painting was never finished because Leonardo was sent away to Milan.\n\nLeonardo was a very talented musician. In 1482, he made a silver lyre (a musical instrument) in the shape of a horse's head. At that time there was a new ruler in the city of Milan, in the north of Italy. Duke Ludovico il Moro was making other rulers nervous. Lorenzo Medici sent Leonardo to Milan as an ambassador. Lorenzo de' Medici wanted Leonardo to give Ludovico the lyre as a present from him. Leonardo wrote a letter to the Duke of Milan, telling him about all the clever and useful things that he could do, like making war machines. He wrote in the letter that he could \"also paint\". Leonardo did not know at the time that it was for painting that he would be mostly remembered. Leonardo stayed in Milan and worked for the Duke between 1482 and 1499. Part of his work was to design festivals and carnival processions. In Leonardo's note books are drawings of theatre costumes, amazing helmets and scenes that might be for the theatre.\n\nLeonardo, like most other well-known artists of his time, had servants, young students and older assistants in his workshop. One of his young students was a boy whose name was Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno. He was a handsome boy with beautiful long golden curls. He looked perfect as an artist's model for an angel. But he was such a difficult and dishonest boy that Leonardo called him \"Salai\" or \"Salaino\" which means \"the little devil\". Leonardo wrote in his notebook that Salai was very greedy, that he was a liar and that he had stolen things from the house at least five times. Salai stayed in Leonardo's household for thirty years as a pupil and a servant.\n\nGran Cavallo \nLeonardo's most important work for Duke Ludovico was to make a huge statue of the previous ruler, Francesco Sforza, on horseback. He started with the horse. After studying horses and drawing designs, he made a huge horse of clay. It was called the \"Gran Cavallo\". It was going to be cast in bronze. It was going to be the biggest bronze horse made in more than a thousand years. Unfortunately, the bronze horse was never made. In 1494, Ludovico had the bronze made into cannons because the French army was invading Milan. The huge clay horse was still standing when the French army invaded again in 1499. It was used for target practice and completely destroyed.\n\nThe Virgin of the Rocks \nWhile Leonardo was working for Duke Ludovico, he had two important painting commissions. One was an oil painting to go in a big altarpiece for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. Leonardo did the painting twice. He left one with the monks in Milan, and took the other painting to France. It is now displayed in the Louvre Museum. Both paintings are called the Virgin of the Rocks. They show a scene of the Virgin Mary and the child Jesus in a rocky mysterious landscape. Mary and Jesus are meeting with John the Baptist. There is a story (which is not in the Bible but is part of Christian tradition) about how the baby John and the baby Jesus met on the road to Egypt. In this scene John is praying and the baby Jesus raises his hand to bless John. The paintings have a strange eerie light with soft deep shadows. In the background is a lake and mountains in the mist. No paintings like this had ever been done before.\n\nThe Last Supper \n\nLeonardo's other important painting in Milan is even more famous: The Last Supper. The painting shows the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples, before his capture and death. Leonardo chose to paint the moment when Jesus said \"one of you will betray me\". Leonardo tells the story of the surprise and upset that this caused to the twelve followers of Jesus. He shows this through the actions and faces of the people in the painting. Some are talking, some have stood up, and some are raising their hands in horror.\n\nThe novelist Matteo Bandello saw Leonardo at work. Bandello wrote that on some days he would paint from morning till night without stopping to eat. Then for three or four days he would not paint at all. He would often just stand and look at the painting. Vasari said that the prior of the convent was very annoyed. He asked Ludovico to tell Leonardo to work faster. Vasari said that Leonardo was worried because he did not think that he could paint the face of Jesus well enough. Leonardo told the Duke that he might use the face of the prior as his model for Judas, the traitor.\n\nWhen it was finished, everyone that saw it said that the painting was a masterpiece. But Leonardo had not used proper fresco for the painting. He had used tempera over gesso, which is not usually used for wall painting. Soon the painting started to grow mold and flake off the wall. In a hundred years it was \"completely ruined\".\nEven though in some places the paint has fallen right off the wall, the painting is so popular that it is printed and copied more that any other religious painting in the world.\n\nWorking life 1499\u20131513 \n\nIn 1499, Ludovico il Moro was overthrown. Leonardo left Milan with his servant Salai and a friend, Luca Pacioli, a mathematician. They went to Venice, where Leonardo worked as a military architect and engineer. Because Venice is a city on many islands, Leonardo tried to think of ways to defend the city from a naval attack.\n\nIn 1500, Leonardo went back to Florence, taking his \"household\" of servants and apprentices with him. The monks from the monastery of The Holy Annunciation gave Leonardo a home and a large workshop. In 2005 when some buildings which were used by the Department of Military Geography were being restored, the restorers discovered that part of the building used to be Leonardo's studio.\n\nThe Virgin and Child with St Anne and John the Baptist \n\nLeonardo started work on a new painting. He drew a large \"cartoon\" (a drawing that is a plan for the painting).  The cartoon showed the Virgin Mary sitting on the knee of her mother, St Anne. Mary holds the baby Jesus in her arms. Jesus stretches out his hands to his young cousin John the Baptist. Vasari says that everyone was so amazed by the beautiful drawing that \"men and women, young and old\" came in large groups to see it \"as if they were attending a great festival\". The drawing is now in the National Gallery, London. Even though it is old, faded, and kept in a dark room, people go to the gallery to sit in front of it every day.\n\nThe Battle of Anghiari \n\nIn 1502 and 1503, Leonardo worked for Cesare Borgia, a powerful noble who was the son of Pope Alexander VI. Leonardo travelled around Italy with Borgia as a military architect and engineer. Late in 1503, Leonardo returned to Florence. He rejoined the Guild of St Luke.\n\nHe was given a very important commission. The Signoria (Town Council) of the City of Florence wanted two large frescos painted on the walls of the most important room of the Signoria Palace. Michelangelo was to paint The Battle of Cascina and Leonardo was to paint The Battle of Anghiari.  Leonardo began the project by studying and drawing the faces of angry men and fighting horses. These drawings can still be seen in his notebooks. But unfortunately, this was to be another failure for Leonardo. When he painted the picture on the wall, instead of using fresco, he mixed the paints with oil. The paint would not dry. Leonardo lit some fires to dry it, and the painting melted. Peter Paul Rubens drew a copy of the middle part. After a time, the town council covered it up and got somebody else to paint the wall. Michelangelo did not finish his painting either, because the Pope called him to Rome.\n\nMona Lisa \n\nIn about 1503 Leonardo began painting the portrait of a woman known as Mona Lisa, the most famous portrait that has ever been painted. He continued working on it for many years. It is a small picture, painted in oil on a wooden panel. It shows the face, upper body and hands of a woman. She is very plainly dressed. For a portrait, a woman would usually put on her best clothes and jewellery. Mona Lisa has a dark dress and a fine black veil over her head. Leonardo often left symbols in his paintings that give clues about the person. The unusual thing about this picture is the smile. The smile is the clue to her name: Mona Lisa Giacondo. Giacondo means \"the joking one\". (Mona is short for Madonna which means \"My Lady\".)\n\nThe reason why the painting is so famous is that it seems to be full of mystery. Mona Lisa's eyes look out at the viewer. But no-one can guess what she is thinking. Her eyes and her mouth seem to be smiling. This is very unusual in a portrait painting. Most people in portraits look very serious. It is hard to tell what Mona Lisa's exact expression is. When a person wants to read another person's feelings, they look at the corners of their mouth and eyes. But Leonardo has painted soft shadows in the corners of Mona Lisa's mouth and eyes, to disguise her expression. The soft shadows are also found on the sides of her face, her neck and hands. The way that Leonardo uses shadow is called \"sfumato\" (which is an Italian word for \"smoke\"). Vasari said that the picture was so beautifully painted that every other artist who looked at it thought that they could never paint so well.\n\nWorking life, 1506\u20131516 \nIn 1506, Leonardo went back to Milan with his pupils, and lived in his own house in Porta Orientale. D'Oggione made several copies of the Last Supper. Luini made a copy of the Virgin of the Rocks. Boltraffio (and the others) painted many Madonna and Child pictures which can still be seen in art galleries and churches. One of pupils was a young nobleman called Count Francesco Melzi. Melzi never became a very good painter, but he loved Leonardo and stayed with him until the day he died.\n\nIn September 1513 Leonardo went to Rome and lived there until 1516. He lived in the Vatican. The three greatest painters of the High Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael were all working in Rome at the same time. Even though their names are often said together as if they were friends, they were not. Leonardo at this time was in his sixties, Michelangelo was middle-aged. He was not friendly to either Leonardo or Raphael. Raphael was a very clever young painter who learnt a lot by looking at the pictures painted by Leonardo and Michelangelo. But neither of them was ever his teacher.\n\nIn October 1515, King Francis I of France captured Milan. On December 19, there was a meeting of Francis I and Pope Leo X, in Bologna. Leonardo went to the meeting with Pope Leo.\nLeonardo made an amazing toy to entertain King Francis. It was a life-sized mechanical lion that could walk. It had doors in its chest which opened, and a bunch of lilies came out. Lilies were the royal symbol of the French Kings.\n\nOld age, 1516\u20131519 \n\nIn 1516, Francis I invited Leonardo to go to France with him. He gave Leonardo a beautiful house called Clos Luc\u00e9 (sometimes called \"Cloux\"). It is near the king's palace, Chateau Amboise. Leonardo spent the last three years of his life at Clos Luc\u00e9, with his faithful friend and apprentice, Count Melzi. The king gave Leonardo a pension of 10,000 scudi. One of the last paintings that Leonardo did was a picture of John the Baptist. His model was Salai, with his beautiful long curling hair.\n\nWhen Leonardo was dying, he asked for a priest to come, so that he could make his confession and receive Holy Communion.\nLeonardo died at Clos Luc\u00e9, on May 2, 1519. King Francis had become a close friend. Vasari says that the King held Leonardo's head in his arms as he died. In his will, he asked that sixty beggars should follow his casket in procession. He was buried in the Chapel of the Chateau Amboise.\n\nLeonardo had never married and had no children of his own. In his will, he left his money, his books and most of his paintings to Count Melzi. Leonardo also remembered his other pupil Salai and his servant Battista di Vilussis, who each received half of Leonardo's vineyards near Milan. Leonardo's left to his serving woman a black cloak with a fur edge. Salai was the owner of Leonardo's most famous oil painting, the Mona Lisa. He still owned it a few years later when he died, after fighting in a duel.\n\nKing Francis said: \"There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great philosopher.\"\n\nDrawings \nLeonardo did not paint very many pictures. But he drew hundreds of quick sketches, plans, maps and detailed drawings. This is how he recorded all the interesting things that he saw, studied and thought about.\n\nSome of Leonardo's drawings are \"studies\" for paintings. In these drawings Leonardo planned the things he was going to paint. Some studies are plans for whole paintings. One of these paintings is the large beautiful drawing of the Madonna and Child with St Anne and St John the Baptist that is now in the National Gallery, London.\n\nMany of the studies show \"details\" that Leonardo wanted to get just right. One study shows a very detailed perspective drawing of the ruined buildings in the background of the painting of the Magi. Other studies show hands, faces, drapery, plants, horses and babies.\nThe earliest drawing by Leonardo that has a date on it, is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the mountains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail.\n\nLeonardo's notebooks \n\nLeonardo studied things throughout his life. He did not go to university to study. He studied by observing things in the world around him, to see how they were made and how they worked. He drew things that he saw and discoveries he made into his notebooks. Many of his notebooks are now in museums. There are about 13,000 pages of notes and drawings in his notebooks, which are mostly scientific studies.\n\nLeonardo's notebooks are hard to read because he wrote backwards in \"mirror writing\". Some people think that perhaps he was trying to keep his work secret. This is not true. Leonardo wrote (and sometimes drew) with his left hand. In those days pens were made from a quill (a large feather) that was cut with a pen-knife on the end. It is hard for a left-handed person to write with a quill in the ordinary way, but quite easy to write backwards.\n\nIt is likely that Leonardo planned to publish the studies in his notebooks. He organized many pages carefully, with one study taking up the front and back of each page. There is a page with drawings and writing about the human heart and a page about the womb and the fetus. One page shows drawings of the muscles of a shoulder and another page shows how an arm works.\n\nThe notebooks were not published in Leonardo's lifetime. After he died, they were divided between different people who had known him. They are nearly all in museums or libraries such as Windsor Castle, the Louvre, and the British Library. The Biblioteca Ambrosiana (a library) in Milan has the twelve-volume Codex Atlanticus.\n\nStudies \nSome of the things that Leonardo studied are: \n The geology of the Earth, with its mountains, valleys, rivers and rocks.\n The anatomy of the human body with its skeleton, muscles, veins and internal organs. Leonardo was given dead bodies by a hospital. He \"dissected\" (cut up) thirty dead bodies and carefully drew many of the parts. His drawings of bones and muscles were to help other artists to paint the human body properly.\n The anatomy of horses, cows, dogs, and bears.\n The expressions on human faces.\n The flight of birds .\n The weather and its phenomena.\n The way that water flows.\n The botany of plants.\n Light, shadows, mirrors and lenses.\n Perspective and the way to make things look near or far.\n The geometry of solid objects. He drew many careful pictures which were used by the mathematician Luca Pacioli in a book called De Divina Proportione.\n\nDesigns and inventions \nMany of the drawings and notes in Leonardo's notebooks are designs, plans and inventions.\n\nSome of the things that Leonardo designed are: \n Costumes for parades, carnivals and theatre. These were probably for Duke Federico's court. They include armour, and a ferocious dragon.\n War machines such as an armour-plated tank, an enormous cross bow and a horrible horse-driven leg-chopper. None of these things were ever made in Leonardo's lifetime.\n Dams and canals for rivers.\n A wooden bridge that could be carried flat on wagons and unfolded and put together at the river.\n Flying things with wings that flapped, a helicopter, a parachute and a hang glider. One of Leonardo's servants was injured, trying out the hang glider. The parachute has been made and tested in modern times, and it does work.\n Church (building) and castles. It is possible that the Castle of Locarno, in the south of Switzerland was designed by Leonardo. No other building that he designed was built.\n\nLeonardo's studies, designs and inventions\n\nRelated pages\nSalvator Mundi of Lecco (Lake Como)\n Renaissance\n Italian Renaissance art\n Lady with an Ermine\n List of Renaissance artists\n Michelangelo\n Raphael\n List of Italian painters\n\nReferences\n\nMore reading \n \n \n \n \n \n \n  ISBN 0-486-22573-9. 2 volumes. A reprint of the original 1883 edition.\n \n \n \n Silvia e Luca Guagliumi, \"Leonardo e l'architettura\", Silvia Editrice, Aprile 2015\n\n Silvia Guagliumi,Expo 2015:\nLeonardo da Vinci e l'architettura lombarda.Saggio pubblicato su Il Giornale dell'Ingegnere (Organo ufficiale dell'Ordine degli Ingegneri e Architetti di Milano),\nN.4 - Aprile 2015.\n Silvia Guagliumi, In ricordo di Leonardo, Rivista In Arte, Aprile\/Maggio\/Giugno 2019.\n\nOther websites \n\n \n Leonardo da Vinci: Experience, Experiment, Design (review) \n \n \n Complete text & images of Richter's translation of the Notebooks\n Vasari Life of Leonardo : in Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects.\n Web Gallery of Leonardo Paintings\n Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci\n Da Vinci Decoded Article from The Guardian\n The true face of Leonardo Da Vinci?\n Leonardo da Vinci's Ethical Vegetarianism \n Leonardo da Vinci, a biography with description of his major works, written for children; Tamsyn Taylor, 2020\n\n1452 births\n1519 deaths\nInventors\nItalian mathematicians\nItalian architects\nItalian sculptors\nBotanists\nPeople from Florence\n15th-century Italian painters\nAnatomists\nPolymaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":242,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":7,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":3,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":4,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":6,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":7,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":5,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":5,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":6}},"id":4654,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leonardo%20da%20Vinci","title":"Leonardo da Vinci","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In Hinduism and Hindu mythology, Mantra means a group of words. There are many such groups of words. Some mantras have meanings. However, there are many mantras which are just syllables, with or without any words. Such mantras do not carry meanings. From the ancient times, Hindus, as well as in many cases, texts of Buddhism and Jainism contain many mantras.\n\nTraditionally, people associate the mantras with various powers. However, it is more a matter of individual faith and experience than a fact of science.\n\nThe earliest examples of mantras are many hymns and verses of Vedas. People read them aloud. They thought that by doing so they would get the blessings of the gods and other beings. The system continued in Hindu practices of worship and meditation. Even now, many Hindus believe in the power of mantras to gain health and wealth. Mantras may form part of worship or people may simply recite them loudly or slowly. Some time no recitation may take place, and the person would just think of the mantra silently for long time.\n\nReferences \n\nDictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend () by Anna Dallapiccola\nhttps:\/\/vedic7.blogspot.com\/2022\/12\/mantras.html \n\nHinduism\nHindu mythology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":33852,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mantra","title":"Mantra","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A weapon is an object that can be used to attack or injure a person or animal. People have used weapons since very ancient times. While other animals use weapons, in most cases they are attached to the animal (teeth, claws, tusks, etc.). In man's case they are detached and constantly selected for the purpose at hand. Man has been constantly developing newer and better weapons ever since he picked up the first rock.\n\nHistory \n \nSome of the oldest remains that we have of ancient people are weapons made of stone. Ancient people also used spears. Bows and arrows were in use by about 20,000 BC. During the Bronze age people learned to make things of metal, many people used swords. People also built huge machines which could throw rocks to destroy the defensive walls of enemy cities. Some of these machines were called catapults or siege engines. Later, gunpowder was invented in China and the Europeans began using it to make guns and cannons. These weapons were much better than the older weapons, and helped the Europeans to conquer people in many parts of the world. People in many parts of the world used guns such as rifles and shotguns for hunting animals, and handguns for shooting other people.\n \nPeople continued to invent new weapons. In 1884 the machine gun was invented, which could shoot many bullets very fast. Soldiers began to use land mines, a bomb hidden in the ground, which explodes when someone walks on it.  Small submarines were able to use torpedos to attack bigger ships and hide under the ocean.  When airplanes were invented, people began to use them to shoot enemies and to drop bombs on them. They built tanks which had big guns and strong armor.  Poison gas was used in World War I but was outlawed and rarely used afterwards. \n\nIn World War II, cities were heavily bombed from the air and Nazi Germany used V-2 missiles to carry bombs to England. Both sides used many firebombs. At the end of World War II, the United States used atomic bombs (nuclear bombs) to destroy the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. \n \nAfter World War II, people continued to develop new weapons, including intercontinental ballistic missiles. People became concerned about weapons of mass destruction, weapons that can kill many people very fast, and are usually cheap and easy to make and use. One kind of weapon of mass destruction is poison gas. New kinds of poison gas, such as nerve gas, are much more powerful than the old kinds. Another kind of weapon of mass destruction is disease germs, which could be used to make many people sick and maybe kill them.\n\nLaws  \nOld-fashioned weapons still kill many people in wars and fighting. In wars in Africa in the 1990s and early 21st century, many people were killed with machetes (big knives). People sometimes try to make laws, treaties, and international agreements to try to control weapons because they are worried about all the killing done with them. Laws vary from country to country, for example, in the United States, the \"right to keep and bear arms\" is guaranteed to all citizens by the Constitution. A country may say that people in that country cannot keep or use guns, or only when the government allows it. The laws of war forbid certain weapons, and countries may agree with each other that they should not use certain weapons against each other, or should not have more than a certain number of particular kinds of weapons.\n\nTypes of weapons \nThings specifically made as weapons that most ordinary people can carry, include non lethal:\n Pepper spray or tear gas\n electric shocking devices\n\nWeapons that soldiers or police personnel carry, include:\n Portable firearms like pistols, rifles, and shotguns\nPortable firearms are also used by for hunting and for marksmanship practice. \n Some types of sticks\n Swords and most types of knives\n\nWeapons that the defense people of a national government have, include:\n Explosive bombs of any type, grenades\n Rockets for carrying bombs\n Boats, vehicles, and aircraft with attached firearms, such as warships, tanks, and fighter and bomber aircraft.\n\nOther types of weapons include:\n Sling\n slingshot\n Spear\n Bow and arrow\n Flamethrower\n Biological weapon\n\nRelated pages\n War\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":176,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":3286,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weapon","title":"Weapon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In music, a bow is a stick which is strung with hair.  It is used to pull across the strings of a string instrument such as a violin, viola, cello or double bass.\n\nBow construction\n\nThe wood used for good quality bows is usually pernambuco wood from Brazil.  Some bows nowadays are made from carbon fiber.  They are often cheaper and still of very good quality.  The bow has to be slightly curved so that it straightens out a bit as the hairs are tightened (this is like the bow of 'bow and arrow' where letting go of the tension of the bent bow makes the arrow fly off). \n\nHorsehair is used for the hairs of the bow.  These hairs gradually fall out when the bow is used a lot.  When a lot of the hairs have fallen out the player can have the bow re-haired.  When the bow is new, or when it has just been re-haired, it will not make any sound until the hairs have been well rubbed with rosin (also called \"colophony\").  The rosin makes the hair grip the string as it is drawn across.  Every violinist needs to keep a piece of rosin (called a \"cake of rosin\") in his or her violin case.  They may need to rosin the bow for a short while each time they play.  There is a screw at the end of the bow for tightening the hairs.  After playing, the bow hairs should be slackened again before the bow is put away.  This is to stop the wood from warping (bending out of shape).\n\nThe black bit near the heel of the bow (the end where the player holds it) is called the frog.  This holds the hair in place.  The frog may be made of ebony, but sometimes it is made of ivory or tortoiseshell.  Near the frog is the grip, which is made of leather or sometimes snakeskin.  Expensive bows sometimes have a tip made of silver.\n\nThere are other instruments which use bows.  In the Renaissance the viols were played with a bow which was held with the palm upwards.  Some double bass players still hold the bow in this way (this is called the German method.  The overhand method is called the French method.)\n\nThe kind of bow in use today was developed by the bow-maker Fran\u00e7ois Tourte in 19th century France.\n\nThere are other cultures which have bows with only one thick hair.\n\nBowing techniques\n\nPeople who learn to play the violin, viola, violoncello, and double bass spend a very long time learning the technique of bowing.  They have to learn to control the bow so that it makes a lovely sound on the string.  They learn to control the bow with strong fingers, but never to hold the bow tightly.  Sometimes they are asked to pluck the string instead of bowing it.  This is called \"pizzicato\".\n\nThe bow is held in the right hand.  The left hand makes the different notes by putting the fingers firmly down on the fingerboard.\n\nWhen string players talk about \"putting in the bowing\" they mean: writing in the music for each note whether it is played with an upbow or downbow.   A downbow is when the player starts at the heel (the end that he is holding) and finishes at the tip.  An upbow is when the bow travels in the direction  tip to  heel.  A player does not always have to use \"whole bows\" (from the heel to the tip).  In fast music he may only use a small part of the bow.  A downbow feels stronger than an upbow, so it is usually used for the first beat of the bar.  Downbows and upbows may be used for alternate notes, but often two or more notes are taken in one bow-stroke.  This is shown in the music by a slur (a short curved line like a phrase mark over or under the notes to be slurred).\n\nThe bow generally should touch the part of the string mid-way between the end of the fingerboard and the bridge (see the article violin).  To play quietly the bow should be nearer the fingerboard.  To play loudly it should be nearer the bridge.\n\nWhen the players have been plucking (pizzicato) and they need to start bowing again, the word arco is put in the music.  This is the Italian word for bow.\n\nSpecial effects can be made with the bow.  These include: \nsul ponticello which means that the bow is playing towards the bridge.  This produces a glassy, stratching kind of sound, full of dissonant harmonics.  \nSul tasto means that the bow is over the fingerboard, producing a very quiet, muffled sound.\ncol legno (literally: with the wood) means that the players have to turn the bow over and hit the string with the wood.  Players with expensive bows often do not like doing this and bring a cheaper bow to play those bits.\nOn the string bowing means: keeping the bow in contact with the string between the notes.  \nOff the string bowing means lifting or bouncing the bow.\nSpiccato means making the bow bounce so that the notes are staccato (short and detached).\nRicochet bowing is making the bow bounce of its own accord very quickly in the upper half of the bow (near the tip).  Each bounce may be for a different note.  This is a very advanced technique.\nTwo strings can be played at once so that two notes sound.  This is called double stopping.\nThree or four strings can be played at once, but only at very high dynamic levels and with a very loose bow - sometimes the effect of a chord is produced by double stopping quickly on two strings and then on the other two.\n\nOther types of bow\n\nThe Chinese yazheng and yaqin, and Korean ajaeng zithers are generally played by \"bowing\" with a rosined stick, which rubs against the strings without any horsehair.  The hurdy-gurdy, an instrument known in medieval Europe, has strings which are bowed by a \"rosin wheel,\" which is turned by a handle.\n\nString instrument construction","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":39238,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bow%20%28music%29","title":"Bow (music)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A county town is the most important town of any county in Britain and Ireland. In the United States the town is called the county seat. \n\nIt can be the place where the headquarters of the county council is based, or the place where the courts are. It has usually been the county town for hundreds of years. It could also be the biggest or most important town in the county. There is often a university in or near the county town. Cities can also be county towns, such as Hereford, or Durham City.\n\nSome examples of county towns today in England:\n\nAylesbury of Buckinghamshire\nIpswich of Suffolk\nBedford of Bedfordshire\nChelmsford of Essex\nChester of Cheshire\nExeter of Devon\nGuildford of Surrey\nHereford of Herefordshire\nShrewsbury of Shropshire\nStafford of Staffordshire\nTruro of Cornwall\nWarwick of Warwickshire\n\nRelated pages\nCounty seat","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":5}},"id":7323,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/County%20town","title":"County town","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The United States dollar (or American dollar) is the official currency (money) of the United States of America. It is also used in some other countries outside the US. It is the standard currency for international markets selling goods such as gold and oil (petrol). When writing, the symbol for the American dollar is the dollar sign ($). Dollars can also be known as USD (standing for 'U.S. dollar').\n\nDenominations and value \n\nThe American one dollar bill has a picture of George Washington. There are currently paper bills (currency) of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 dollars. \n\nAll U.S. dollar currency has been the same size, shape and general design since 1928. This is unlike some countries where bank notes with different values have different sizes.\n\nThe U.S. also has dollar coins. Some are silver colored and some are gold colored. Vending machines often give dollar coins as change, since it is easier for the machines to give out coins than paper money. Some of the more advanced vending machines give out paper money as change. Paper dollars are much more common than dollar coins.\n\nThe US dollar in subdivided into cents, and 100 cents equals 1 US dollar. One cent can be written as either $0.01 or 1\u00a2. The cent or \"penny\" (not to be confused with the English penny sterling) is the least worth coin used in the U.S.. There are several different coins with different cent values of different materials and sizes. There is the penny (1\u00a2 or $0.01), nickel (5\u00a2 or $0.05), dime (10\u00a2 or $0.10), quarter (25\u00a2 or $0.25), and the much rarer half-dollar (50\u00a2 or $0.50). All coins and paper bills have the faces of famous Americans on the front side.\n\nFederal Reserve \nThe paper \"dollar bill\" is actually called a \"Federal Reserve Note\".  Federal Reserve notes are legal tender currency notes. The twelve Federal Reserve Banks issue them into circulation pursuant to the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. A commercial bank belonging to the Federal Reserve System can obtain Federal Reserve notes from the Federal Reserve Bank in its district whenever it wishes by paying for them in full, dollar for dollar, from its account with Federal Reserve Bank.\n\nFederal Reserve Banks get the notes from the U.S.\u00a0Bureau of Engraving and Printing\u00a0(BEP). It pays the BEP for the cost of producing the notes.\n\nCongress has specified that a Federal Reserve Bank must hold collateral equal in value to the Federal Reserve notes that the Bank receives. This collateral is chiefly gold certificates and United States securities. This provides backing for the note issue. \n\nFederal Reserve notes are not redeemable in gold, silver or any other commodity, and receive no backing by anything. This has been the case since 1933. The notes have no value for themselves, but for what they will buy. \n\nThe\u00a0Coinage Act of 1965 titled \"Legal tender\" states: \"United States coins and currency (including Federal reserve notes and circulating notes of Federal reserve banks and national banks) are legal tender for all debts, public charges, taxes, and dues\".\n\nThis statute means that all United States money as identified above are a valid and legal offer of payment for debts when tendered to a creditor. There is no Federal statute saying a person or organization must accept currency or coins as payment for goods and\/or services. Private businesses are free to develop their own policies on whether or not to accept cash. But there might be a State law which says otherwise. For example, a bus line may prohibit payment of fares in pennies or dollar bills. In addition, movie theaters, convenience stores and gas stations may refuse to accept large denomination currency (usually notes above $20) as a matter of policy.\n\nMeeting the variable demand for cash\n\nThe public typically obtains its cash from banks by withdrawing cash from automated teller machines (ATMs) or by cashing checks. The amount of cash that the public holds varies seasonally, by the day of the month, and even by the day of the week. For example, people demand a large amount of cash for shopping and vacations during the year-end holiday season. Also, people typically withdraw cash at ATMs over the weekend, so there is more cash in circulation on Monday than on Friday.\n\nTo meet the demands of their customers, banks get cash from Federal Reserve Banks. Most medium- and large-sized banks maintain reserve accounts at one of the 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks, and they pay for the cash they get from the Fed by having those accounts debited. Some smaller banks maintain their required reserves at larger, \"correspondent,\" banks. The smaller banks get cash through the correspondent banks, which charge a fee for the service. The larger banks get currency from the Fed and pass it on to the smaller banks.\n\nWhen the public's demand for cash declines\u2014after the holiday season, for example\u2014banks find they have more cash than they need and they deposit the excess at the Fed. Because banks pay the Fed for cash by having their reserve accounts debited, the level of reserves in the nation's banking system drops when the public's demand for cash rises; similarly, the level rises again when the public's demand for cash subsides and banks ship cash back to the Fed. The Fed offsets variations in the public's demand for cash that could introduce volatility into credit markets by implementing open market operations.\n\nThe popularization of the ATM in recent years has increased the public's demand for currency and, in turn, the amount of currency that banks order from the Fed. Interestingly, the advent of the ATM has led some banks to request used, fit bills, rather than new bills, because the used bills often work better in the ATMs.\n\nMaintaining a cash inventory\nEach of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks keeps an inventory of cash on hand to meet the needs of the depository institutions in its District. Extended custodial inventory sites in several continents promote the use of U.S. currency internationally, improve the collection of information on currency flows, and help local banks meet the public's demand for U.S. currency. Additions to that supply come directly from the two divisions of the Treasury Department that produce the cash: the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, which prints currency, and the United States Mint, which makes coins. Most of the inventory consists of deposits by banks that had more cash than they needed to serve their customers and deposited the excess at the Fed to help meet their reserve requirements.\n\nWhen a Federal Reserve Bank receives a cash deposit from a bank, it checks the individual notes to determine whether they are fit for future circulation. About one-third of the notes that the Fed receives are not fit, and the Fed destroys them. As shown in the table below, the life of a note varies according to its denomination. For example, a $1 bill, which gets the greatest use, remains in circulation an average of 5.9 years; a $100 bill lasts about 15 years.\n\nGallery\n\nOther websites\n\nReferences\n\nCurrency of the United States","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":51,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":4,"2024-18":5,"2024-10":1,"2021-25":4,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":6,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":4,"2022-40":5,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":7,"2022-21":4,"2022-05":7,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":5,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":4,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":5,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1}},"id":2684,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United%20States%20dollar","title":"United States dollar","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A cafeteria, sometimes called a canteen outside the U.S. and Canada, is a type of food service location in which there is little or no waiting staff table service, whether in a restaurant or within an institution such as a large office building or school; a school dining location is also referred to as a dining hall or lunchroom (in American English). Cafeterias are different from coffeehouses, although the English term came from the Spanish term cafeter\u00eda, which carries the same meaning.\n\nInstead of table service, there are food-serving counters\/stalls or booths, either in a line or allowing arbitrary walking paths. Customers take the food that they desire as they walk along, placing it on a tray. In addition, there are often stations where customers order food, particularly items such as hamburgers or tacos which must be served hot and can be immediately prepared with little waiting. Alternatively, the patron is given a number and the item is brought to their table. For some food items and drinks, such as sodas, water, or the like, customers collect an empty container, pay at check-out, and fill the container after check-out. Free unlimited-second servings are often allowed under this system. For legal purposes (and the consumption patterns of customers), this system is rarely, if at all, used for alcoholic drinks in the United States.\n\nCustomers are either charged a flat rate for admission (as in a buffet) or pay at check-out for each item. Some self-service cafeterias charge by the weight of items on a patron's plate. In universities and colleges, some students pay for three meals a day by making a single large payment for the entire semester.\n\nAs cafeterias require few employees, they are often found within a larger institution, catering to the employees or clientele of that institution. For example, schools, colleges and their residence halls, department stores, hospitals, museums, places of worship, amusement parks, military bases, prisons, factories, and office buildings often have cafeterias. Although some of such institutions self-operate their cafeterias, many outsource their cafeterias to a food service management company or lease space to independent businesses to operate food service facilities. The three largest food service management companies servicing institutions are Aramark, Compass Group, and Sodexo.\n\nAt one time, upscale cafeteria-style restaurants dominated the culture of the Southern United States, and to a lesser extent the Midwest. There were numerous prominent chains of them: Bickford's, Morrison's Cafeteria, Piccadilly Cafeteria, S&W Cafeteria, Apple House, Luby's, K&W, Britling, Wyatt's Cafeteria, and Blue Boar among them. Currently, two Midwestern chains still exist, Sloppy Jo's Lunchroom and Manny's, which are both located in Illinois. There were also several smaller chains, usually located in and around a single city. These institutions, except K&W, went into a decline in the 1960s with the rise of fast food and were largely finished off in the 1980s by the rise of all-you-can-eat buffets and other casual dining establishments. A few chains\u2014particularly Luby's and Piccadilly Cafeterias (which took over the Morrison's chain in 1998)\u2014continue to fill some of the gap left by the decline of the older chains. Some of the smaller Midwestern chains, such as MCL Cafeterias centered in Indianapolis, are still in business.\n\nHistory\n\nPerhaps the first self-service restaurant (not necessarily a cafeteria) in the U.S. was the Exchange Buffet in New York City, which opened September 4, 1885, and catered to an exclusively male clientele. Food was purchased at a counter and patrons ate standing up. This represents the predecessor of two formats: the cafeteria, described below, and the automat.\n\nDuring the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, entrepreneur John Kruger built an American version of the sm\u00f6rg\u00e5sbords he had seen while traveling in Sweden. Emphasizing the simplicity and light fare, he called it the 'Cafeteria' - Spanish for 'coffee shop'. The exposition attracted over 27 million visitors (half the U.S. population at the time) in six months, and it was because of Kruger's operation that the United States first heard the term and experienced the self-service dining format.\n\nMeanwhile, in the mid-scale United States, the chain of Childs Restaurants quickly grew from about 10 locations in New York City in 1890 to hundreds across the U.S. and Canada by 1920. Childs is credited with the innovation of adding trays and a \"tray line\" to the self-service format, introduced in 1898 at their 130 Broadway location. Childs did not change its format of sit-down dining, however. This was soon the standard design for most Childs Restaurants, and many ultimately the dominant method for cafeterias.\n\nIt has been conjectured that the 'cafeteria craze' started in May 1905, when Helen Mosher opened a downtown L.A. restaurant where people chose their food at a long counter and carried their trays to their tables. California has a long history in the cafeteria format - notably the Boos Brothers Cafeterias, and the Clifton's and Schaber's. The earliest cafeterias in California were opened at least 12 years after Kruger's Cafeteria, and Childs already had many locations around the country. Horn & Hardart, an automat format chain (different from cafeterias), was well established in the mid-Atlantic region before 1900.\n\nBetween 1960 and 1981, the popularity of cafeterias was overcome by fast food restaurants and fast casual restaurant formats.\n\nOutside the United States, the development of cafeterias can be observed in France as early as 1881 with the passing of the Ferry Law. This law mandated that public school education be available to all children. Accordingly, the government also encouraged schools to provide meals for students in need, thus resulting in the conception of cafeterias or cantine (in French). According to Abramson, before the creation of cafeterias, only some students could bring home-cooked meals and be properly fed in schools.\n\nAs cafeterias in France became more popular, their use spread beyond schools and into the workforce. Thus, due to pressure from workers and eventually new labor laws, sizable businesses had to, at minimum, provide established eating areas for their workers. Support for this practice was also reinforced by the effects of World War II when the importance of national health and nutrition came under great attention.\n\nOther names\n\nA cafeteria in a U.S. military installation is known as a chow hall, a mess hall, a galley, a mess deck, or, more formally, a dining facility, often abbreviated to DFAC, whereas in common British Armed Forces parlance, it is known as a cookhouse or mess. Students in the United States often refer to cafeterias as lunchrooms, which also often serve school breakfast. Some school cafeterias in the U.S. and Canada have stages and movable seating that allow use as auditoriums. These rooms are known as cafetoriums or All Purpose Rooms. In some older facilities, a school's gymnasium is also often used as a cafeteria, with the kitchen facility being hidden behind a rolling partition outside non-meal hours. Newer rooms which also act as the school's grand entrance hall for crowd control and are used for multiple purposes are often called the commons.\n\nCafeterias serving university dormitories are sometimes called dining halls or dining commons. A food court is a type of cafeteria found in many shopping malls and airports featuring multiple food vendors or concessions. However, a food court could equally be styled as a type of restaurant as well, being more aligned with the public, rather than institutionalized, dining. Some institutions, especially schools, have food courts with stations offering different types of food served by the institution itself (self-operation) or a single contract management company, rather than leasing space to numerous businesses. Some monasteries, boarding schools, and older universities refer to their cafeteria as a refectory. Modern-day British cathedrals and abbeys, notably in the Church of England, often use the phrase refectory to describe a cafeteria open to the public. Historically, the refectory was generally only used by monks and priests. For example, although the original 800-year-old refectory at Gloucester Cathedral (the stage setting for dining scenes in the Harry Potter movies) is now mostly used as a choir practice area, the relatively modern 300-year-old extension, now used as a cafeteria by staff and public alike, is today referred to as the refectory.\n\nA cafeteria located within a movie or TV studio complex is often called a commissary.\n\nCollege cafeteria\n\nIn American English, a college cafeteria is a cafeteria intended for college students. In British English, it is often called the refectory. These cafeterias can be a part of a residence hall or in a separate building.  Many of these colleges employ their students to work in the cafeteria.  The number of meals served to students varies from school to school but is normally around 21 meals per week.  Like normal cafeterias, a person will have a tray to select the food that they want, but (at some campuses) instead of paying money, pays beforehand by purchasing a meal plan. \n\nThe method of payment for college cafeterias is commonly in the form of a meal plan, whereby the patron pays a certain amount at the start of the semester and details of the plan are stored on a computer system. Student ID cards are then used to access the meal plan. Meal plans can vary widely in their details and are often not necessary to eat at a college cafeteria. Typically, the college tracks students' plan usage by counting the number of predefined meal servings, points, dollars, or buffet dinners. The plan may give the student a certain number of any of the above per week or semester and they may or may not roll over to the next week or semester.\n\nMany schools offer several different options for using their meal plans. The main cafeteria is usually where most of the meal plan is used but smaller cafeterias, caf\u00e9s, restaurants, bars, or even fast food chains located on campus, on nearby streets, or in the surrounding town or city may accept meal plans. A college cafeteria system often has a virtual monopoly on the students due to an isolated location or a requirement that residence contracts include a full meal plan.\n\nTaiwanese cafeteria\nThere are many self-service bento shops in Taiwan. The store will put the dishes in the self-service area for the customers to pick them up by themselves. After the customers choose, they will go to the cashier to check out; many stores will use the staff to visually check the amount of food when assessing the price, and some stores will use the method of weighing.\n\nSee also\n Automat\n Coffee service\n Coffeehouse\n Food court\n Hawker centre\n List of cafeterias\n Mess\n Refectory\n\nReferences\n\nRooms\nRestaurants by type","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":133,"dup_dump_count":57,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"unknown":18,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":5}},"id":554471,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cafeteria","title":"Cafeteria","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The National Archaeological Museum of Naples (, abbr. MANN) is an important Italian archaeological museum, particularly for ancient Roman remains. Its collection includes works from Greek, Roman and Renaissance times, and especially Roman artifacts from the nearby Pompeii, Stabiae and Herculaneum sites. From 1816 to 1861, it was known as Real Museo Borbonico (\"the Royal Bourbon Museum\").\n\nBuilding \n\nThe building was built as a cavalry barracks in 1585. From 1616 to 1777 it was the seat of the University of Naples. During the 19th century, after it became a museum, it suffered many changes to the main structure.\n\nCollections\nThe museum hosts extensive collections of Greek and Roman antiquities. Their core is from the Farnese Collection, which includes a collection of engraved gems (including the Farnese Cup, a Ptolemaic bowl made of sardonyx agate and the most famous piece in the \"Treasure of the Magnificent\", and is founded upon gems collected by Cosimo de' Medici and Lorenzo il Magnifico in the 15th century) and the Farnese Marbles. Among the notable works found in the museum are the Menologium Rusticum and the Herculaneum papyri, carbonized by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, found after 1752 in Villa of the Papyri.\n\nMarbles \n\nThe greater part of the museum's classical sculpture collection largely comes from the Farnese Marbles, important since they include Roman copies of classical Greek sculpture, which are in many cases the only surviving indications of what the lost works by ancient Greek sculptors such as Calamis, Kritios and Nesiotes looked like. Many of these works, especially the larger ones, have been moved to the Museo di Capodimonte for display in recent years.\n\n The Farnese Hercules, which fixed the image of Hercules in the European imagination.\n The Farnese Atlas is the oldest extant depiction of Atlas from Greek mythology, and the oldest view of the Western constellations, possibly based upon the star catalog of Hipparchus\n The Farnese Bull, widely considered the largest single sculpture ever recovered from antiquity.\nThe group Harmodius and Aristogeiton, a Roman copy of a bronze work that once stood in the Agora of Athens\nThe Aphrodite Kallipygos\nThe Farnese Artemis, again a Roman copy of a Greek original\na collection of busts of Roman emperors\nanother set of Roman sculptures (again mainly copies of Greek work) that (like the Hercules) once stood in the Baths of Caracalla in Rome.\n\nBronzes from the Villa of the Papyri\nA major collection of ancient Roman bronzes from the Villa of the Papyri is housed at the museum. These include the Seated Hermes, a sprawling Drunken Satyr, a bust of Thespis, another variously identified as Seneca or Hesiod, and a pair of exceptionally lively runners.\n\nMosaics\nThe museum's Mosaic Collection includes a number of important mosaics recovered from the ruins of Pompeii and the other Vesuvian cities. This includes the Alexander Mosaic, dating from , originally from the House of the Faun in Pompeii. It depicts a battle between the armies of Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia. Another mosaic found is that of the gladiatorial fighter depicted in a mosaic found from the Villa of the Figured Capitals in Pompeii.\n\nEgyptian Collection\nWith 2,500 objects, the museum has one of the largest collection of Egyptian artifacts in Italy, smaller only than those in Turin, Florence and Bologna. It is made up primarily of works from two private collections, assembled by Cardinal Stefano Borgia in the second half of the 18th century, and Picchianti in the first years of the 19th. Since the recent rearrangement of the galleries, these two cores of the collection have been exhibited separately, while other items are on display in the connecting room, including Egyptian and \"pseudo-Egyptian\" artefacts from Pompeii and other Campanian sites. The collection provides an important record of Egyptian civilization from the Old Kingdom (2700-2200 B.C.) up to the Ptolemaic-Roman era.\n\nSecret Cabinet\nThe Secret Cabinet (Gabinetto Segreto) (Gabbinete) or Secret Room is the name the Bourbon Monarchy gave the private rooms in which they held their fairly extensive collection of erotic or sexual items, mostly deriving from excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Access was limited to only persons of mature age and known morals. The rooms were also called Cabinets of matters reserved or obscene or pornographic. After the revolution of 1848, the government of the monarchy even proposed the destruction of objects, fearful of the implications of their ownership, which would tarnish the monarchy with lasciviousness. The then director of the Royal Bourbon Museum instead had access to the collection terminated, and the entrance door was provided with three different locks, whose keys were held respectively by the Director of the Museum, the Museum Controller, and the Palace Butler. The highlight of the censorship occurred in 1851 when even nude Venus statues were locked up, and the entrance walled up in the hope that the collection would vanish from memory.\n\nIn September 1860, when the forces of Garibaldi occupied Naples, he ordered that the collection be made available for the general public to view. Since the Royal Butler was no longer available, they broke into the collection. Limiting viewership and censorship have always been part of the history of the collection. Censorship was restored during the era of the Kingdom of Italy, and peaked during the Fascist period, when visitors to the rooms needed the permission of the Minister of National Education in Rome. Censorship persisted in the postwar period up to 1967, abating only after 1971 when the Ministry was given the new rules to regulate requests for visits and access to the section. Completely rebuilt a few years ago with all of the new criteria, the collection was finally opened to the public in April 2000. Visitors under the age of 14 can tour the exhibit only with an adult.\n\n The Placentarius, the small bronze statue represents a distinctly ithyphallic old nude man who, on the palm of his hand, holds a little silver tray.\n\nGallery\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n  \n\nMuseums in Naples\nArt museums and galleries in Campania\nArchaeological museums in Italy\nNational museums of Italy\nMuseums of ancient Rome in Italy\nMuseums of ancient Greece in Italy\n \n1750s establishments in Italy\nFarnese Collection","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":54,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2023-23":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2020-45":4,"2020-24":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":3,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":7,"2014-15":2}},"id":1408754,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National%20Archaeological%20Museum%2C%20Naples","title":"National Archaeological Museum, Naples","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"News is when people talk about current events (things that are happening right now). News Media is a portrayal of current affairs, perspectives and social influence. News can be given in newspapers, television, magazines, or radio. There are several news channels on cable television that give news all day long, such as Fox News and CNN.  There are several news magazines, such as Time, The Economist, and Newsweek. A newsman is a person who helps out with the news. For example, Brian Gotter is a  newsman. News Media can be viewed in many forms, such as newspaper, television and radio. \n\nNews\nCommunication","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":49,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":6,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":5,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2}},"id":21119,"url":"https:\/\/ang.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The%20-%20-%20-%20-","title":"The - - - -","language":"ang"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sophism can mean two very different things. In Ancient Greece, sophism was practiced by sophists, who were a group of teachers of philosophy and rhetoric. In the modern definition, a sophism is a confusing or slightly incorrect argument used for deceiving someone.\n\nEtymology \nThe word \"sophism\" originated from the Greek word \u03c3\u03cc\u03c6\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03b1, \"sophisma\" (from \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b6\u03c9, \"sophizo\" meaning \"I am wise\"). \n\nThe similar Greek word \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c2, \"sophist\u0113s\" means \"wise-ist, one who does wisdom, one who makes a business out of wisdom\" while \u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03cc\u03c2, \"soph\u00f3s\" means a \"wise man\".\n\nHistory \nThe ancient Greek philosopher Protagoras \n(ca. 490\u2013420\u00a0BC) is often said to be the first of the sophists. Others include: Gorgias, Prodicus, Hippias, Thrasymachus, Lycophron, Callicles, Antiphon, and Cratylus.\n\nPlato opposed those sophists because they only abused wisdom for their own interest and refused the truth and justice.\n\nModern usage\nIn modern usage, sophism, sophist, and sophistry are derogatory terms, due the influence of many philosophers in the past. Sophism and platonism were rival schools, as enemies of each other.\n\nA sophism is a statement to deceive someone in a debate or conversation. It might be made to seem to make sense when really being wrong, or it might use difficult words and complicated sentences to intimidate the audience into agreeing.  An argument ad hominem is an example of sophistry.\n\nA sophist is a person who uses sophisms. Sophistry means using sophisms for subtly deceptive reasoning or argumentation.\n\nReferences \n\nPhilosophy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":133020,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sophism","title":"Sophism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Church music is music that is intended to be part of Christian worship in churches, chapels,  cathedrals or anywhere Christians meet to worship.  Church music is sacred (religious) music, but not all religious music is church music.  Some music may be inspired by religion, but it may not be church music.  For example, some songs are about religion, but they may not be church music.  Although it uses the words of the Requiem mass,  Verdi's Requiem, was composed for performance in a concert hall.  Britten's War Requiem was written for performance in a cathedral, but it was not meant to be part of a service of worship, so it would not usually be thought of as \"church music\".\n\nChurch music has varied enormously during the history of Christianity as different churches kept changing their ideas about what part music should have in religious worship.  Most church music is based on singing.  Music written for church choirs mostly used the words of the liturgy (the words used in services).  The organ is the most important musical instrument in church music, although from time to time many other instruments have been used as well.\n\nDuring  many periods in history composers writing for the church used traditional music rather than the newest fashions.  This was particularly the case in the early 17th century when composers such as Claudio Monteverdi often wrote in two different styles: the old style for church music (which, at the time, they called \"stilo antico\") and the new style for secular (non-religious) music (which they called \"stilo moderno\").\n\nMusic in the early history of the church \nDuring the early history of Christian worship the churches were spread through many countries in the Roman Empire.  The musical traditions that already existed in these countries were used, so there was great variety.  Musical instruments were associated with the devil and with dancing, and so they were thought to be wicked and were not allowed in churches.   The only music that was allowed in churches was singing.  In the 4th century Bishop Ambrosius of Milan introduced the antiphon and encouraged newly composed hymns.  Psalms were an important part of the early Christian worship.  Responsorial psalms were psalms which were sung by one person (who may have been called a \"reader\"), and the congregation may have responded at the end of a verse with something simple such as \"Alleluia\".  Gradually \"antiphonal psalmody\" was developed. This meant that the choir stands on opposite sides facing one another and they sing the verses of the psalm alternately (first one side has a turn, then the other). Antiphonal psalm singing can still be heard today in Anglican cathedrals.\n\nThe kind of music heard in the Catholic Church was known as chant or plainchant, often known as \"Gregorian chant\" (after St Gregory the Great, who was Pope from 590-604).   The text (the words that were sung) were the standard words of the liturgy.  The words of the Mass were set to music by many composers.  Music for the dead was called Requiem Mass. There was also music for Vespers and the Compline.  Until the 16th century the organ was only used to accompany the singing.  In the Renaissance period many great composers such as Giovanni da Palestrina and Orlande de Lassus wrote polyphonic music for the Catholic Church.  They often wrote motets: short pieces based on texts which were not part of the liturgy.\n\nDuring the period called Reformation some Protestant groups broke away from the Catholic Church.  From this time on Catholic and Protestant music developed in different ways.\n\nProtestant Church Music \nMartin Luther started the Protestant movement in Germany.  In the Lutheran church the chorale was the most important part of the musical worship.  Luther himself composed many chorale tunes.  These are like hymns.  The great Johann Sebastian Bach based much of his organ music on the chorale (these pieces are called Chorale Preludes).  The choir often sang a motet.  Sometimes these choir pieces became very long and turned into cantatas.  The words were not from the liturgy but made up by poets or taken from the Bible. Bach wrote about 200 cantatas for the church. He also wrote two great passions which tell the story of Jesus dying on the cross.  Other composers who have contributed to Protestant church music in Europe include Heinrich Sch\u00fctz, Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck,  Dietrich Buxtehude, Johann Pachelbel, and Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy.\n\nCatholic Church Music \nMusic for the Catholic Church includes instrumental music such as \"church cantatas\".  Arcangelo Corelli and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote many examples of these.  Mozart also wrote several masses.  Great Italian composers of the 16th and 17th centuries who wrote church music include Giovanni Gabrieli and  Claudio Monteverdi.  In the 19th century Rheinberger and  Max Reger wrote music in the Romantic style.  French composers of this time wrote in a style which was similar to secular music.\n\nChurch Music in England \nWhen King Henry VIII broke away from the Catholic Church he founded his own church, known as the Anglican church.  Many great composers wrote music for the Anglican service.  Their music for choirs was mostly service settings and anthems.  They also wrote many hymn tunes.  Important composers include  William Byrd (who also wrote Catholic church music) and Thomas Tallis in the Renaissance, Orlando Gibbons and Henry Purcell in the Baroque period, and in later periods Samuel Sebastian Wesley, Charles Stanford, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Edward Bairstow, William Mathias and John Rutter.\n\nChurch Music in the United States \nChurch music in American churches developed, at first, in a similar way to European music.  The Book of Common Prayer was the basis of American worship.  Both Puritans and Baptists thought that congregational singing was important.  In the 18th century Singing Masters from Singing Schools in the north eastern states used to travel around to try to teach people in church to sing properly.  The most famous of these singing masters was William Billings.   Because most people could not read, a system called Lined-out Hymnody developed, in which the priest sang a line and the congregation copied him.  Later in the century, during the \"First Great Awakening\", the hymn tunes of English composers such as Isaac Watts and Charles Wesley became popular.\n\nIn the 19th century people from different churches met at Camp Meetings.  These were led by Evangelists.  The songs reflect the belief that sinners can be saved by repenting.  The music of  black people and of folk music became important influences.  Songs became tuneful and often had refrains.  In the middle of the century Sunday Schools for children became extremely popular and many songs were written for them.  Gospel songs and negro spirituals also became very widely used and influenced the development of church music in America.\n\nThe rock and roll music of the 1950s was opposed by many churchs because it was believed to encourage sin. But as churches tried to appeal to more people, they changed by adopting the sounds of this popular style. This became known as contemporary Christian music. As a result of the Jesus movement revival in the latter 1960s and early 1970s, it was originally called Jesus music. \"About that time, many young people from the sixties' counterculture began to believe in Jesus.\n\nBy the 21st century, many churches of all denominations began to have \"contemporary\" services in which the new music was performed by a \"praise band\" using drums and guitars. Often the same church would have a \"traditional\" service at a different time in which the older hymns were sung.\nBy this method the church tried to attract people who liked either type of music. Some Christian radio stations also began to use contemporary music, while others kept to the old style of hymns and gospel songs.\n\nChurch Music in the Orthodox Church \nChurch music in the Orthodox Church in East European countries is always sung.  It is based on the Byzantine musical tradition.\n\nOther websites \nCatholic church music \n\nChristian music","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1}},"id":93102,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Church%20music","title":"Church music","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A telephone numbering plan is a system used in telecommunications to give telephone numbers to customers and to route telephone calls in a telephone network. A closed numbering plan imposes a fixed length to numbers, such as in North America (10-digit). An open numbering plan may have telephone numbers that vary in length.\n\nA dial plan establishes the type of telephone number in a given area.  This includes country codes, access codes, area codes and all combinations of digits dialed. For instance, the North American public switched telephone network (PSTN) uses a phone numbers with a 3-digit area code and a 7-digit telephone number.\n\nTelephone numbers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":277017,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telephone%20numbering%20plan","title":"Telephone numbering plan","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A tenor is a man with a high singing voice. When writing four-part choir music the tenor line will be the third line down, between alto and bass. It is usually written in the treble clef, but will sound an octave lower than written.  Sometimes, it is written in the \"C-clef\", which is also called a tenor clef.\n\nIn opera the role of the young male is usually sung by a tenor.  Depending on characteristics such as: volume, color and style, the tenor voice is classified in following groups:\n\n The light tenor. This is also called tenor leggero. An example is Peter Pears, who sang the tenor solos in Benjamin Britten's operas. \n The lyric tenor. The lyric tenor is a tenor with a well timbered voice, such as \"The Three Tenors\" (Luciano Pavarotti, Jose Carreras and Pl\u00e1cido Domingo).\n The spinto tenor. They have special abilities in the high tones, such as Franco Corelli and Enrico Caruso.\n The dramatic tenor. They have a high volume and a dark voice. An example is Mario Del Monaco.\n\nA \"Heldentenor\" (German for \"hero tenor\") is someone with a big tenor voice. This is suitable for heroic parts like the heroes in most of Wagner's operas. Lauritz Melchior, Max Lorenz and Jonas Kaufmann are famous heroic tenors.\n\nThe Mozart tenor with characteristics including all of the previous mentioned must be able to perform within the strict borders which are laid out by the Mozart style. Anton Dermota, Fritz Wunderlich and Francisco Araiza are the three leading people as Mozart tenor.\n\nIn barbershop singing, the tenor part is a harmony part sung predominantly higher than the melody.\n\nVocal ranges","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":29497,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tenor","title":"Tenor","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Alcibiades, son of Clinias,  c. 450\u2013404 BC), was a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general. He was the last famous member of his mother's aristocratic family, which fell from power after the Peloponnesian War. He played a major role later in that conflict as a strategic advisor, military commander, and politician.\n\nDuring the course of the Peloponnesian War, Alcibiades changed sides on several occasions. In his native Athens in the early 410s BC, he advocated an aggressive foreign policy, and spoke in favor of an invasion of Sicily. He fled to Sparta after his political enemies brought charges of sacrilege against him.\n\nIn Sparta, he served as a strategic adviser, proposing or supervising several major campaigns against Athens. In Sparta too, however, Alcibiades soon made powerful enemies and was forced to defect to Persia. There he served as an adviser to the satrap Tissaphernes until his Athenian political allies brought about his recall. He then served as an Athenian general for several years, but his enemies eventually succeeded in exiling him a second time.\n\nThe Sicilian Expedition to Magna Graecia was Alcibiades' idea but his enemies prevented him from commanding. His rival Nicias took command, and the expedition failed disastrously. In the years that he served Sparta, Alcibiades played a role in Athens' undoing; the capture of Decelea and the revolts of several critical Athenian subjects occurred either at his suggestion or under his supervision.\n\nOnce restored to his native city, however, he played a crucial role in a string of Athenian victories that eventually brought Sparta to seek a peace with Athens. He favored unconventional tactics, frequently winning cities over by treachery or negotiation rather than by siege.p151 Alcibiades' military and political talents frequently proved valuable to whichever state he worked for. His talent for making powerful enemies ensured that he never remained in one place for long. By the end of the war (which he had helped rekindle in the early 410s) his days of political power were a bygone memory.\n\nIn his youth Alcibiades had been a pupil of Socrates. This was something which told against Socrates at his trial.\n\nReferences \n\n450s BC births\n404 BC deaths\nAncient Greek generals\nAncient Greek politicians\nPeople from Athens","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":307119,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alcibiades","title":"Alcibiades","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Hittites were an ancient Armenian people from Anatolia who spoke an Indo-European language.  They wrote with cuneiform script.  They established a kingdom centered at Hattusha in north-central Anatolia from the 18th century BC.\n\nAt its peak, the Hittite Empire covered most of modern Turkey and Syria. This was under the reigns of Suppiluliuma I (~1350\u20131322) and Mursili II (~1321\u20131295 BC). They had up-and-down relationships with Ancient Egypt to the south, and the Assyrian Empire in Mesopotamia. They were a party to the first known peace treaty, which was made with Ramesses II of Egypt by Hattusili III in 1258 BC.\n\nAfter 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent \"Neo-Hittite\" city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC.\n\nEmpire of Suppiluliuma and Mursili II \nThe Hittite Kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of Suppiluliuma I (~1350\u20131322). The kingdom of Mitanni, wracked by civil war, was unable to withstand the Hittite onslaught. Suppiluliuma swiftly attacked the Mitanni heartland, capturing and plundering the Mitanni capital of Washshuganni. He then turned west, recrossed the Euphrates and captured all the Syrian kingdoms which were vassals to the Mitanni, including Aleppo, Mukish, Niya, Qatna, Upi (Upina), and Kadesh. Other kingdoms such as Ugarit and Amurru (an Egyptian vassal) voluntarily became vassal states of the Hittites.  \n\nWhen hostilities flared up once more with Mitanni, Tulipinu, Suppiluliuma's son and viceroy at Aleppo invaded Carchemish but was unable to take the city. Suppiluliuma met with his son and then invaded Syria himself, laying siege to the city of Carchemish. Suppiluliuma broke the siege on the eighth day, installing his son Piyassili as viceroy of the kingdom. With his sons as viceroys of Aleppo and Carchemish, Suppiluliuma had cemented his rule over Syria and brought the empire of Mitanni to an end. The Mitanni King was assassinated soon after.\n\nThe murdered prince \nWhen Tutankhamun, the Egyptian Pharaoh died,his widow asked to marry one of Suppiluliuma's sons.  He agreed, and sent his son Zannanza to Egypt to marry the queen.  However, Zannanza was assassinated en route to Egypt. Suppiluliuma was furious and blamed the new Egyptian Pharaoh Ay for his son's death. A Hittite army under crown prince Arnuwanda invaded Egyptian territory from Syria, pillaging and taking many prisoners. These prisoners brought with them a plague which ravaged the Hittite Kingdom continuing well into Mursili's reign and may have killed Suppiluliuma himself.\n\nMursili II \nMursili II was young and inexperienced, but he proved to be a strong king. In the first years of his reign he carried out punitive campaigns against several kingdoms. In Syria the Nuhashshi king Tette rebelled and was joined by Egyptian troops. Troubles in Syria continued when Mursili's brothers Tulipinu and Piyassili both died. The loss of his Syrian viceroys led to rebellion and even the invasion of Carchemish by Assyria. Leaving his generals to deal with Syria and Haysa, Mursili invaded Carchemish and drove out the Assyrians. Later in his reign Mursili II campaigned against the Kaska once again retaking the Hittite holy city of Niniveh. He also decisively defeating the King of Tummanna.\n\nOther websites \n\nHattusas\/Bogazk\u00f6y  \nThe Hittite Home Page  \nArzawa, to the west, throws light on Hittites \n Pictures of Bo\u011fazk\u00f6y, one of a group of important sites\n Pictures of Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya, one of a group of important sites\n Pictures of Alacah\u00f6y\u00fck, one of a group of important sites\nDer Anitta Text (at TITUS) \nEncyclopaedia of Turkey : Hittite relief at Karabel \nTahsin Ozguc \nHittites.info\nHittite Period in Anatolia\npictures \nHethitologieportal Mainz, by the Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mainz, corpus of texts and extensive bibliographies on all things Hittite\n\nReferences \n\n \nMesopotamia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":5,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2}},"id":72611,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hittites","title":"Hittites","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Mass media are media like radio, television, internet or other things that reach many people.  Television is most used.  We can see and hear  news from around the world.  Radio also brings music and news.  Books supply older and more detailed material.  The internet is also important.  We can search for all the news and information.  Websites like Wikipedia and about.com give information about many things.  Libraries are also important.  In libraries we can read books and listen to music.\n\nThe term was coined in the 1920s with the advent of nationwide radio networks, mass-circulation newspapers and magazines, although mass media (like books and manuscripts) were present centuries before the term became common.\n\nRelated pages \n Journalism\n Media studies\n Associated Press","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2}},"id":93642,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass%20media","title":"Mass media","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Humidity means water vapor in the air, but not to liquid droplets in fog, clouds, or rain.  Deserts usually have low humidity, and tropical regions have high humidity. The word \"humid\" often means that the humidity is high, which gives the feeling of being very damp (wet air), stuffy, or even sweltering when the temperature is also high. When the humidity is low, the air can be said to be \"not humid\" or \"dry.\"\n\nHigher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin.\n\nThe term \"relative humidity\" is used to note the amount of humidity as a percent, from 0-100%. Meteorologists use  hygrometers to measure the humidity in the air.\n\nHumidity affects the rate of evaporation. With a higher humidity, the rate of evaporation is less.\n\nRelated pages\n Dew point\nRelative humidity\n\nMeteorology\nWeather measurements","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2}},"id":7127,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Humidity","title":"Humidity","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Belfast (Irish: B\u00e9al Feirste) is the capital of Northern Ireland. It is the second largest city in Ireland, after Dublin. About 270,000 people live in the city. It became capital of Northern Ireland when Northern Ireland was created in 1921. A lot of famous ships were built by the Belfast shipyard Harland and Wolff. In 1911 they built the RMS Titanic.\n\n \nCapital cities in Europe","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":8561,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Belfast","title":"Belfast","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The pipe organ is a keyboard instrument in which the sound is made by air blowing through pipes. A person who plays the organ is called an organist. The organist plays the instrument using both the hands and the feet. The hands play the keyboards (called manuals), while the feet play pedals which also make notes.\n\nOrgans have been made for many centuries. They are usually found in places for Christian worship such as churches and cathedrals, although they may also be found in places like town halls and concert halls or even large private houses. Very small organs can be called \"chamber organs\". Organs in large churches, cathedrals or halls are very large instruments indeed, and are built especially for the building they are in. They are called \"pipe organs\" to distinguish them from modern \"electronic organs\".\n\nNo two organs are ever quite the same, and they vary greatly from one country to another and one historical period to another. The information here is about organs from Europe, Great Britain and America.\n\nHow an organ works\n\nA description of the organ\n\nIn a pipe organ, the musical notes are made by blowing air through pipes. Every organ must have pipes, something to blow the air and a way of controlling which pipes are played.\n\nThe pipes are made of metal or wood. They are lined up in rows in the \"organ case\" which can be as big as a room. The metal pipes are round tubes. They can be made of different types of metal, but the most common type is an alloy (or mixture of metals) of tin and lead called \"spotted metal\" because it has round shiny spots on it. This alloy makes pipes sound good as the harder tin provides clarity and definition while the softer lead produces tonal warmth. Very small pipes can sometimes be made of silver, like flutes. Some organs also have some pipes made of brass that sound like trumpets. Most organs have a lot of wooden pipes. The wooden pipes have four flat sides and make a sound different from that of the \"spotted metal\" pipes. They are not usually seen; they are neatly lined up behind the large metal pipes at the front of the organ which are sometimes painted with colours and patterns. All the pipes have to be made with an end that tapers at the bottom where the air blows in.\n\nEach pipe can play only one note which depends on its size. The small pipes play high notes and the large pipes play low notes. Each pipe has its own special sound which depends on the material it is made from (whether it is wood or brass or spotted metal) and on the shape of the pipe. The pipes are arranged in \"ranks\" so that all the pipes of the same shape and material can be controlled to play a tune together, without all the others.\n\nTo blow air through the organ, there are boxes called \"wind chests\". When the organist is playing, he\/she can see a little gauge that tells whether there is enough air. The wind chests can be kept full in two ways. The old-fashioned way is to have an enormous set of \"bellows\" (see the picture) which are pumped up and down by a person using a large handle. This sucks in air and fills the wind chest. Pumping the bellows of a large pipe organ is heavy work. For this reason, most organs nowadays have an electric motor and a large fan which fills the wind chest.\n\nThe organist uses keyboards like those on a piano to play the organ. A small organ may have just one keyboard, but many organs have two keyboards and a very big one may even have five. Organists do not call them keyboards; they call them \"manuals\". An organist will talk about \"a four-manual organ\" (which means it is a large one). The manuals are arranged on the organ \"console\", and the organist sits on a bench in front of the console to play. Apart from the manuals there are two other important parts of the console. There are a set of long wooden pedals which the organist can play with his\/her feet. Each pedal plays a different note.\n\nOn either side of the manuals there are rows of \"stops\" which look like knobs. The stops can be pulled out or pushed in. When a stop is pulled out, it turns on some sets of pipes. The organist can choose whether to play loud pipes or soft pipes, flute-sounding pipes or brassy pipes, sweet pipes or harsh-sounding pipes. As the organist plays, he\/she does not just have to think about the right notes. He\/she also has to think about the sort of \"voice\" that the organ should play in. He\/she can play different ranks of pipes together by pulling out several stops. Some pipes, usually the biggest decorated pipes at the very front of the organ, are used only for the grandest music. By tradition, these pipes are the symbol of the \"Voice of God\".\n\nWhen the organist presses the keys of the organ, the sound comes from the air blowing through the pipes. This is because a valve (an opening with a one-way door) opens up to let the air into the pipe, and closes again when the organist stops pressing that key. This can happen in several ways. Traditional organs have what is called a \"tracker action\". The trackers are thin wooden rods and wires which move backwards and forwards, opening and shutting all the valves. They are worked by levers under the keyboard. A tracker action organ has to have the console right near the organ, usually under the big front pipes.\n\nA more modern development was to have a \"tubular pneumatic\" action, in which the console could be away from the organ, but connected to it by tubes through which air could be pushed to open the valves. In the most modern pipe organs, the manual is connected to the organ pipes by electric wires. The power to open and shut the valves is controlled by electro-magnetic switches. The console does not have to be close to the organ. This makes it possible for the organist to sit in a position where he\/she has good contact with the people in the church, or with other musicians.\n\nThe technical details\n\nThe manuals\nA very small organ may only have one manual (keyboard). Most organs have at least two. In English and American Organs the lower manual is the main one and is called the Great. The upper manual is called the Swell because it operates pipes which are inside a \"swell box\" which has shutters that can be opened or closed. This makes the music get louder or quieter (crescendo or diminuendo). The organist operates the swell box with a pedal which pivots (rocks to and fro). It is in the centre just above the pedal board. On old English organs the swell box is operated by a lever at the side. This is quite difficult to use. Most of these have now been replaced by central swell boxes.\n\nIf there is a third manual, it is called the Choir in English-speaking countries. Originally the English called them \"chair organs\" because they were a separate instrument. The organist had to turn round and face the other way to play it. It is thought that the word \"chair\" gradually changed to \"choir\" because it was often used to accompany the choir. In German organs the third manual was called the \"Positiv\". The name \"R\u00fcckpositiv\" (\"back positive\") was used because the pipes were behind the organist's back as he\/she sat facing the main organ. These started to become popular again with organ builders in the 1950s when it was felt that the Romantic organ was not suitable for old music, and some organ builders started using Baroque principles again so that the music of composers such as Bach could sound like it used to. The Choir manual is nearest to the player, the Great is in the middle and the Swell is farthest away. The Choir or Positiv often contains soft stops which are suitable for accompanying the choir. On French organs from the late 19th century onwards, the three manuals are arranged differently: the Great (\"Grande Orgue\") is nearest to the player, the \"Positif\" is the middle manual and is like a smaller version of the Great, and the Swell (\"Recit\") is the top manual. This makes it easy for the organist to build up the music, getting louder gradually, by starting at the top and gradually coming down.\n\nThe fourth manual is called the Solo because the stops on this manual are used to play out the tune as a solo. This manual is even farther away from the player than the Swell. Large cathedral organs usually have four manuals. The Solo will probably have a very loud stop indeed called the \"Tuba\" or \"Tuba Mirabilis\".\n\nIf there is a fifth manual it may be called the Echo because it has very quiet stops that echo. Alternatively, especially on American organs, it might be a Bombarde. The Bombarde usually contains loud, bold reed stops, including stops called 'Bombarde'. For instance: a State Trumpet or Pontifical Trumpet might be placed on this manual which can be heard above all the other stops playing. The Bombarde is borrowed from French Organs where it is a standard stop on nearly all the manuals and pedals. Having a Bombarde Manual is something of a luxury for an organist. It can be found, for example, on the organ of Westminster Abbey.\n\nIt is extremely unusual to have more than five manuals, but in America there are a few very large organs. The Wanamaker organ at Macy's store in Philadelphia has six manuals. The world's largest organ is in the Atlantic City Convention Hall. It has seven manuals and over 33,000 pipes. However, the largest organ in the world does not work since it would be too expensive to run it.\n\nUsing the manuals\nHaving two or three manuals makes it possible to have quick changes of sound during a piece. The player can also play on two manuals at once: one with the left hand and one with the right. This is particularly useful to make a tune louder than the accompaniment (on a piano this can be done by pressing harder). The manuals can also be coupled together, for example, pulling out the \"Swell to Great\" stop will make all the sounds from the Swell come out on the Great as well. On an organ with mechanical action the keys of the Swell will be seen \"playing by themselves\" like a pianola, but on some older organs it can be hard work for the organist's fingers when the manuals are coupled as it makes the action very heavy.\n\nThe pedals\n\nThe notes on the pedals are arranged like the notes on a keyboard, but are obviously much bigger. The player needs to learn to play by 'feel', otherwise he will have to spend all his time looking at his feet. He plays each note, either with the toe or the heel and either on the inside of the foot or the outside. The American and British Standard organ contains 30 notes giving a range of nearly 2  octaves (C to F, or sometimes C to G: 32 notes). They are not quite in a straight line but fan out a little to make it easier to play (it is called a \"radiating, concave pedalboard\"). In German and French organs and organs built before 1920, the pedalboard will be straight without any fan curvature to it. Many organists find that this makes it more difficult to play. Organists need a good pair of shoes: ones which have good narrow heels and preferably pointed toes. The soles need to be fairly slippery, but not too much, so that the player can slide the foot from one pedal to another. Organists usually like to keep a pair of shoes which are worn only for playing the organ so that the soles do not have grit or dirt from the street.\n\nThe stops\nThe stops on an organ console give different sounds, like the instruments of an orchestra, and have names which tell the organist what kind of sound they will produce. The stops are usually to the left and right of the organist and they are pulled out (\"drawstops\" or \"pulls\" because they are \"drawn\" i.e. pulled). Some organs have \"tab stops\" or \"rocker stops\" which are in front of the player and can be rocked forwards and backwards for on\/off.\n\nThe stops of an organ can be divided into families.\n\nThe chorus stops are the foundation stops, the basic ones which are good for building up the big, solid sound. A diapason or principal is a chorus stop.\n\nThe flute stops sound like flutes in an orchestra. They are gentler than the diapasons and sound good for very quick and light music.\n\nThe reeds are stops like the oboe, clarinet, trumpet, fagotto, trombone. Each pipe has a reed inside. Their sound is very strong and nasal (like speaking through the nose).\n\nThe strings are quiet stops which sound like string instruments. These are stops like the violone and gamba.\n\nThere is another way of grouping the stops. Each stop will have a number underneath the name. The number may be 16, 8, 4, 2, 1 or even 2 2\/3 or 1 3\/5. If the number is 8 this is called an \"eight foot stop\". This is the normal pitch: the note will sound as it is written, e.g. when playing Middle C the sound will be Middle C. A 4-foot stop will sound an octave higher than written, a 2-foot stop will be two octaves higher. A 16-foot stop will sound an octave lower than an 8-foot stop. 8\u00a0foot is therefore the normal pitch, and the others are added to it to make a larger, brighter sound. 16\u00a0foot stops are normal in pedal parts.\n\nMutation stops are stops in which a note does not sound a whole number of octaves above the normal pitch. Examples are the Tierce 1 3\/5 (which sounds 2 octaves and a third above) and the Nazard or Twelfth 2 2\/3 (one octave and a fifth).\n\nUsing the stops\n\nAn organist needs to learn which combinations of stops sound good together and how to balance them well. Each organ is different and has its own character.\n\nThe combination of stops that an organist chooses for a particular piece of music is called the \"registration\". The list of all the stops that a particular organ has is called the \"specification\". The specification of an organ shows the names of the stops for each of the manuals and for the pedals, as well as the list of couplers.\n\nOrgans also have buttons called \"pistons\" which help to change the registration in the middle of a piece. There are \"toe pistons\" operated by the feet, and \"thumb pistons\" which are placed just below each manual so that they can be pushed by the thumb while the fingers keep playing. Large organs often have \"general pistons\" which change any combination of stops across the organ. These are often be computerised so that players can set them up differently depending on the music they are going to play. If several players regularly use the instrument they can each have their own personal settings for the pistons which they can lock so that no one else can change them.\n\nThe pipes\nEach stop controls a row of pipes, called a \"rank\". Each rank makes a different sound (one row for the \"diapason\" sound, another row for the \"flute\", another for the \"trumpet\" and so on). The stops control the air flow through the ranks. Some stops may control more than one rank. For instance, a Mixture stop of three ranks will have 182 pipes (3 ranks of 61 pipes each) and in some organs the Celeste is a 2 rank stop. The celeste pipes are tuned slightly sharper than the rest of the organ so that, when played together with another quiet stop such as the Salicional, there will be a pleasant throbbing beat because two pipes are slightly out of tune with one another. Organ Pipes are normally made of metal or wood. High quality metal organ pipes usually contain 75 percent tin or more, and the rest is lead. The Pipes are placed on windchests inside an \"organ case\" in a special room called an Organ chamber. A windchest is a box-like device which contains pallets that are opened and closed to admit air to a pipe so that it sounds. The pallets are operated by pull wires and rollers in the case of a tracker instrument but may also be operated by pneumatics or direct electric action using magnets.\n\nThere is always air being pumped into the windchest when the organ is switched on. In the days before electricity someone (an organ blower) had to pump the air into the windchest using bellows. This was hard work. Large organs would have needed more than one organ blower to do this job.\n\nThe history of the pipe organ\n\nNo other instrument has developed in such a wide variety of ways as the organ. If Bach, who lived in the early 18th century, had gone from his home in Germany to France, he would have found it impossible to play his music properly on French organs. If Couperin, who lived at the same time, had gone from his home in France to Germany, he would not have been able to play his music on the organs that Bach was using. Neither of them could possibly have played on an organ in England at the time. For one thing, English organs in the 18th century still had no pedals. This means that organists need to know a lot about what organs were like in other countries in other centuries in order to know what registrations to use when playing music by composers of the past.\n\nThe earliest organs\n\nThe earliest organs were water organs invented in Ancient Greece. The Romans used them in circuses and gladiator combats because they were loud. They were still popular in some countries a few hundred years ago, for example, in pleasure gardens.\n\nThe organ in the Middle Ages\n\nIn the Middle Ages large organs were built in the huge Gothic cathedrals in Britain. These instruments did not have different stops: all the ranks sounded at once. They were played by a slider mechanism. Only in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries did they start to use a keyboard. The so-called Mixture Organ (or Blockwerk) still sounded several pitches at once. Very small organs called portatives (because they could be carried) were used in processions. Positives were a bit bigger and were used to accompany singing in the church. The Regal was like a portative but it had reeds and no pipes. It could be put on a table. The world's oldest organ is generally agreed to be the one built at Sion, Switzerland in the 15th century. the organ.\n\nThe organ in the Renaissance (about 1450-1600)\nBy about 1450, the organs that were being built in Germany and the Netherlands had two or three manuals and pedals. There were stops so that the player could choose which ranks he wanted to sound. The collection of pieces called the Buxheimer Orgelbuch (about 1470), is one of the first collections we have of organ music. French organs, too, were developing. In England, organs were quite small. Composers like John Bull, William Byrd and Orlando Gibbons wrote music for chamber organs. In the Netherlands Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck was a very famous organist and teacher.\n\nThe organ in the Baroque period (about 1600-1750)\nThe Baroque period was a great period for organ music in Germany. Organs there were built on the Werkprinzip (literally: work principle) which meant that each keyboard with its pipes was built separately, like two or three different organs, although they were played from the same console. Organs like these were built by the famous Arp Schnitger (1648-1719). Many famous German composers wrote organ music, especially Johann Pachelbel (1653-1709) in South Germany and (Dietrich Buxtehude) (1637-1707) in North Germany. The great composer Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) learnt from these composers and wrote some of the most famous organ music of all times. The great organ builder Gottfried Silbermann (1683-1753) lived during this time and built organs with a very beautiful tone. Instead of a keyboard called a Choir (or Chair Organ) he built an Oberwerk which was above the Hauptwerk (Great).\n\nFrench organ builders at this time were very interested in colour (meaning: different sounds). Many stops had names like Cornet, Tierce and Prestant. When all the stops of the Principal chorus played together it was called the Plein jeux. This was like the medieval Blockwerk. All the reed chorus together was called Grand jeux. This would have sounded very loud and was used for dialogues and fugues. Composers included Nicolas de Grigny (1672-1703), Louis Marchand (1669-1732), Louis Nicolas Cl\u00e9rambault (1676-1749), Louis Claude Daquin (1694-1772) and Fran\u00e7ois Couperin (1683-1733).\n\nIn England there was not much interest in developing the organ. It was used for accompanying the choir. There were no pedals. Pieces for organ were called voluntaries. Henry Purcell wrote a few organ pieces.\n\nThe organ in the Classical period: about 1750-1840\nOrgan composition reached a great peak in the work of J.S.Bach, but then people started to lose interest. Not many developments took place in organ-building during the Classical music period. Although Mozart played the organ and called it the \"King of Instruments\" he did not often write music for it. Among the organ builders at this time were Joseph and Claude-Ignace Callinet who built the organ at Notre-Dame's (St. Etienne, Loire) in 1837.\n\nThe organ in the Romantic period\nThe organ in 19th century Germany started to be used for imitating the sound of an orchestra. People also started to be interested in playing the music of J.S. Bach. Many Classical organs were re-built and sometimes they lost their original character. Organs in different countries started to sound the same.\n\nGradually, composers started writing for the organ again. Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847) wrote some excellent sonatas and preludes and fugues which were inspired by Bach's music and made other composers want to write organ music. Robert Schumann (1810-1856) and Franz Liszt (1811-1886) wrote for the organ and later in the century Max Reger (1873-1916) and Sigfrid Karg-Elert (1877-1933).\n\nIn France, the organ builder Aristide Cavaill\u00e9-Coll (1811-1899) was a real genius. His organs had lots of new ideas including the Barker lever (which made it easier to play on coupled manuals) and placing families of stops on to separate chests. Organists could change their registrations quickly, pushing in or pulling out the stops that they needed. Composers included C\u00e9sar Franck (1822-1890), Charles-Marie Widor (1845-1937) and Louis Vierne (1870-1937). The last two wrote long works in several movements which they called Symphonies because they were full of colourful sounds like those in a symphony orchestra. There were usually three manuals called Grand, Positif and R\u00e9cit placed in that order (with Grand nearest to the player). The Grand had warm foundation stops and big reeds (it was like combining the classical plein jeux and grand jeux). The Positif had string stops as well as a solo reed, and the R\u00e9cit had lighter reeds.\n\nIn England, Samuel Wesley (1766-1837) wrote some important organ music inspired by J.S. Bach, and his son Samuel Sebastian Wesley (1810-1876) was influenced by Continental Romantic composers such as Mendelssohn. In 1851, the organ builder Henry Willis built a large organ for Crystal Palace Exhibition. It had three manuals and a pedal board. This set the standard in English organ building for the future.\n\nThe organ in the Twentieth century\n\nDuring the 20th century organ builders became more and more interested in returning to some of the ideas of the Baroque and Classical periods. Many organs now have electric action, but a good mechanical action has the advantage that the player feels more close to the instrument that he is playing. Some large 20th century organs are able to play many kinds of organ music. Other 20th century organs were built as copies of Baroque or Classical instruments, but this means these instruments are mainly suitable for Baroque or Classical music, and are not well suited for music of the 19th and 20th centuries.\n\nIn the 19th century, many organs in England and America were placed in corners of churches where they could not be heard very well. In the 20th century, organ builders thought more about the best position for the organ, so that the sound would fill the main part of the church, the nave.\nAmong the most famous 20th century organ composers are Marcel Dupr\u00e9 (1886-1971), Jehan Alain (1911-1940) and Olivier Messiaen (1908-1992) in France, Paul Hindemith (1895-1963) in Germany, and Edward Elgar (1857-1934) and Herbert Howells (1892-1983) in England. The Czech composer Petr Eben (1929-2007) was one of the most important organ composers at the end of the 20th century, writing in an individual style.\n\nThe organ as an accompanying instrument\nAs well as the obvious use of the organ for accompanying church choirs and congregational singing the organ has often been used to accompany instruments. In the Baroque period small organs were used to accompany solo instruments or small groups of instruments or orchestras. This kind of accompaniment was called continuo. Occasionally composers have written organ concertos in which the organ is the solo instrument and the orchestra accompanies. Handel wrote several of these. In modern times Francis Poulenc wrote an organ concerto. There is an important organ solo in Symphony no 3 by Saint-Sa\u00ebns. Other orchestral works sometimes have organ parts. Organists have often made organ \"transcriptions\", i.e. arranged music written for other instruments so that it can be played on the organ.\n\nRelated pages\n Electronic organ\n Water organ\n Organ (music)\n Organ tablature\n\nFootnotes\n\nReferences\n \"Organ\" by Arthur Wills, London 1984 ()\n\nOther websites\n Pipedreams Listen to pipe organ music, organ pictures and other information\n Sacred Classics  Online radio program of pipe organ and choral music\n The Pipe Organ\n Organlive.com Listen to streaming pipe organ music from a library of more than 7700 tracks.\n\nKeyboard instruments\nFormer good articles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":129,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":24403,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pipe%20organ","title":"Pipe organ","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Teatro alla Scala, usually known as La Scala, is one of the most famous opera houses in the world. It is in Milan, Italy, which is the country where opera started at the beginning of the 17th century. The theatre opened on 3 August 1778. At first it was called Nuovo Regio Ducal Teatro alla Scala. The first opera to be performed there was Salieri's Europa riconosciuta.\n\nBuilding of the theatre \nThere had been a theatre there before, called Teatro Ducale, but it had been destroyed by fire in 1776. The new theatre was built where there had been a church called Santa Maria della Scala. This is how the theatre got its name.\n\nThe theatre had more than 3,000 seats arranged in six tiers (six storeys) of boxes, and above that the two 'loggione' or galleries. It has a very large stage. The money for the building was found by selling the 'palchi' (boxes) to wealthy noblemen and other rich people in Milan. In the 'platea' (the main floor) there were no seats and the audience there stood up to watch, like they do today in the Royal Albert Hall at the Proms. The orchestra could be seen very well as they were not in an orchestra pit like they are today.\n\nAbove the boxes, La Scala has always had a gallery where people who are not so rich can watch. This is still there today. It is called the loggione. Some people in the loggione, known as the Claque, are known to applaud wildly if they like a singer, or boo loudly if they do not like a singer. During La Scala's history this has often been because of bribery or blackmail.\n\nLa Scala was originally lit with 84 oil lamps mounted on the palcoscenico (ceiling) and another thousand in the rest of theater. In case they ever caught fire, several rooms were filled with hundreds of water buckets. Later, oil lamps were replaced by gas lamps. In 1883 electric lights were put in.\n\nThe building was renovated in 1907. After that it had 2,800 seats as it does today. In 1943, during World War II, La Scala was badly damaged by bombing. It was rebuilt and reopened on 11 May 1946, with a brilliant concert conducted by Arturo Toscanini, with a soprano solo by Renata Tebaldi.\n\nVerdi \nMany famous operas were first performed at La Scala, including some by Giuseppe Verdi. For several years, however, Verdi did not allow his music to be played here because he did not like the way the orchestra had played it. However the composer later conducted his Requiem there on May 25, 1874, and in 1886 announced that La Scala would host the premiere of his opera Otello. The first performance of his last opera, Falstaff was also given in this theatre.\n\nToday \n\nLa Scala's season traditionally opens on 7 December, Saint Ambrose's Day, Milan's patron saint. All performances must end before midnight; long operas start earlier in the evening if necessary.\n\nThere is also a La Scala Museum (Museo Teatrale alla Scala) which has an extraordinary collection of paintings, drafts, statues, costumes, and other documents about opera and La Scala's history.\n\nRecently there have been more renovations to La Scala. Some people were worried that it would spoil the historic building, but the opera company were very pleased when the work was done. There was a new stage and lots more room behind the stage. The heavy red carpets were taken away and the sound was better. The seats include monitors so that the audience can follow the words in English or Italian if it is in a foreign language (not Italian).\nThe renovated opera house was opened on 7 December 2004 with the same opera by Salieri that had opened it in 1778. The conductor was Riccardo Muti.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n La Scala official website\n\nScala, La\nBuildings and structures in Milan\n1778 establishments\n18th-century establishments in Italy\n1770s establishments in Europe","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":74803,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/La%20Scala","title":"La Scala","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A ladder is a tool which is made for people to climb up or down. Ladders have two vertical supports that go along the whole length of the ladder. Between these supports are the horizontal rungs. The rung is what the climber can put his foot on. The climber can use his hands to hold on to the rungs above him, or to the supports at the side.\n\nSome ladders are made in one piece. They can be carried around and made to lean against something such as the wall of a house. There should be a good distance between the bottom of the ladder and the wall so that the ladder is not too vertical, otherwise the ladder might fall backwards and the climber would fall off. Sometimes these ladders are extension ladders. Extension ladders are made in two or more sections so that the ladder can fold up to make it easier to carry about and to store. To open up the ladder, each section slides up almost to the top of the next section.\n\nStep ladders are useful in the home or the garden to reach things that are not too high, e.g. ceilings or the tops of hedges. They have two parts which are joined by a hinge, so that they are shaped like an upside down V. There is usually a platform at the top to stand on, but this can be dangerous unless great care is taken that the ladder will not wobble or fall down.\n\nSome ladders are vertical (they go straight up or down). These are fixed onto something. Examples are: ladders in a swimming pool for climbing in and out of the water, small ladders to climb up to a top bunk bed, ladders at the side of a big boat or at the side of a canal lock or of any other high or low construction where workmen may need to get up or down to do repairs.\n\nFire engines always have ladders. They often have a turntable ladder which makes it possible for the ladder to be facing in any direction.\n\nRope ladders can be folded away easily. They may be used for climbing trees or for rock climbing or in caves.\n\nReferences \n\nTools\nConstruction","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":3862,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ladder","title":"Ladder","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Balboa Park is a  historic urban cultural park in San Diego, California, United States. In addition to open space areas, natural vegetation zones, green belts, gardens, and walking paths, it contains museums, several theaters, and the San Diego Zoo. There are also many recreational facilities and several gift shops and restaurants within the boundaries of the park. Placed in reserve in 1835, the park's site is one of the oldest in the United States dedicated to public recreational use. Balboa Park is managed and maintained by the Parks and Recreation Department of the City of San Diego.\n\nBalboa Park hosted the 1915\u201316 Panama\u2013California Exposition and 1935\u201336 California Pacific International Exposition, both of which left architectural landmarks. The park and its historic Exposition buildings were declared a National Historic Landmark and National Historic Landmark District in 1977, and placed on the National Register of Historic Places.\n\nPark attractions\nBalboa Park contains museums, gardens, attractions, and venues.\n\nMuseums\n\nCentro Cultural de la Raza\nComic-Con Museum\nGeorge W. Marston House\nMingei International Museum\nMuseum of Photographic Arts\nMuseum of Us (formerly the Museum of Man)\nReuben H. Fleet Science Center\nSan Diego Air & Space Museum\nSan Diego Art Institute \nSan Diego Automotive Museum\nSan Diego History Center\nSan Diego Model Railroad Museum\nSan Diego Museum of Art\nSan Diego Natural History Museum\nTimken Museum of Art\nVeterans Museum and Memorial Center\n\nGardens\n\n1935 (Old) Cactus Garden\nAlcazar Garden\nAustralian Garden\nBotanical Building\nCalifornia Native Plant Garden\nCasa del Rey Moro Garden\nDesert Garden\nFlorida Canyon Native Plant Preserve\nMarston House Garden\nGeorge Washington Carver Children's Ethnobotany Garden\nInez Grant Parker Memorial Rose Garden\nJapanese Friendship Garden\nLily Pond\nPalm Canyon\nTrees for Health Garden\nVeterans Memorial Garden\nZoro Garden\n\nAttractions and venues\n\n Balboa Park Activity Center \n Balboa Park Carousel, built in 2010 and located in Balboa Park since 1922. It was originally in the location where the Fleet Science Center is now, and was moved to its current spot near the Zoo entrance in 1968. It retains most of its 100-year-old original equipment: 52 hand-carved wooden animals and four chariots, a 10-horsepower General Electric motor, same music, same oil paintings.\n Balboa Park Club\n Balboa Park Lawn Bowling Greens\n Rube Powell Archery Range\n Balboa Stadium\n Casa de Balboa\n Casa del Prado\nhome of San Diego Youth Symphony and the San Diego Junior Theatre\n Electriquettes (1915 electric-powered wicker carts)\n House of Pacific Relations International Cottages\n Morley Field Sports Complex\n Balboa Park Golf Course\n Bud Kearns Memorial Swimming Pool\n Morley Field Archery Range\n Morley Field Ballpark & baseball\/softball complex\n Morley Field Bocce Ball Courts\n Morley Field Cross Country Course \n Morley Field Disc Golf Course\n Morley Field Dog Park\n Morley Field Petanqueodrome\n Morley Field Remote Control Race Car Track\n Morley Field Tennis Stadium & Balboa Tennis Club complex\n San Diego Velodrome\n Municipal Gymnasium\n Old Globe Theatre\n Palisades Building\nhome of Recital Hall and the Marie Hitchcock Puppet Theater\n San Diego Zoo\n the Zoo operates the Balboa Park Miniature Train ( gauge)\n Spanish Village Art Center\n home of the San Diego Mineral and Gem Society\n Spreckels Organ Pavilion\n Starlight Bowl\n War Memorial Building\n WorldBeat Cultural Center\n\nGeography\n\nThe park is essentially rectangular, bounded by Sixth Avenue to the west, Upas Street to the north, 28th Street to the east, and Russ Boulevard to the south. The rectangle has been modified by the addition of the Marston Hills natural area in the northwest corner of the park, while the southwest corner of the rectangle is occupied by a portion of the Cortez Hill neighborhood of Downtown San Diego and San Diego High School, both of which are separated from the park by Interstate 5. Also encroaching on the northern perimeter of the park is Roosevelt Middle School.\n\nTwo north-south canyons\u2014Cabrillo Canyon and Florida Canyon\u2014traverse the park and separate it into three mesas. The Sixth Avenue Mesa is a narrow strip bordering Sixth Avenue on the western edge of the park, which provides areas of passive recreation, grassy spaces, and tree groves, and a camp for Camp Fire. The Central Mesa is home to much of the park's cultural facilities, and includes scout camps, the San Diego Zoo, the Prado, and Inspiration Point. East Mesa is home to Morley Field and many of the active recreation facilities in the park.\n\nThe park is crossed by several freeways, which take up a total of  once designated for parkland. In 1948, State Route 163 was built through Cabrillo Canyon and under the Cabrillo Bridge. This stretch of road, initially named the Cabrillo Freeway, has been called one of America's most beautiful parkways. A portion of Interstate 5 was built in the park in the 1950s.\n\nSurrounding the park are many of San Diego's older neighborhoods, including Downtown, Bankers Hill, North Park, and Golden Hill.\n\nPark layout\n\nBalboa Park is a primary attraction in San Diego and the region. Its many mature, and sometimes rare, trees and groves comprise an urban forest. Many of the original trees were planted by the renowned American landscape architect, botanist, plantswoman, and gardener Kate Sessions. An early proponent of drought tolerant and California native plants in garden design, Sessions established a nursery to propagate and grow for the park and the public.\n\nThe park's gardens include Alcazar Garden, Botanical Building, Desert Cactus Garden, Casa del Rey Moro Garden, Inez Grant Parker Memorial Rose Garden, Japanese Friendship Garden, Bird Park, George W. Marston House and Gardens, Palm Canyon, and Zoro Garden.\n\nThe main entrance to the park is via the Cabrillo Bridge and through the California Quadrangle. That entry is currently a two-lane road providing vehicle access to the park. A plan to divert vehicle traffic around to the south of the California Quadrangle, so as to restore it as a pedestrian-only promenade, was dropped after legal challenges, but was reapproved after the legal challenges failed and was scheduled for completion in 2019.\n\nEl Prado, a long, wide promenade and boulevard, runs through the park's center. Most of the buildings lining this street are in the Spanish Colonial Revival architecture style, a richly ornamented mixture of European Spanish architecture and the Spanish Colonial architecture of New Spain-Mexico. Along this boulevard are many of the park's museums and cultural attractions, including the Museum of Us, the San Diego Museum of Art, the Museum of Photographic Arts, the San Diego Art Institute, the San Diego Model Railroad Museum, the San Diego Natural History Museum, the San Diego History Center, the Reuben H. Fleet Science Center, and the Timken Museum of Art. Other features along El Prado include the Reflection Pond, the latticed Botanical Building, and the Bea Evenson Fountain. Next to the promenade are the San Diego Air & Space Museum and the San Diego Automotive Museum.\n\nTheatrical and musical venues include the Spreckels Organ Pavilion, featuring one of the world's largest outdoor pipe organs; the Old Globe Theatre complex, which includes a replica of Shakespeare's Globe Theatre as well as an outdoor stage and a theatre in the round; and the Starlight Bowl \u2013 an outdoor amphitheatre. The Casa Del Prado Theater is the home of San Diego Junior Theatre, the country's oldest children's theatre program. The House of Pacific Relations International Cottages collected on El Prado offer free entertainment shows.\n\nThe Botanical Building, designed by Carleton Winslow, was the largest wood lath structure in the world when it was built in 1915 for the Panama-California Exposition. It contains large specimen palms and other plants and sits next to a long reflecting pool on the El Prado side.\n\nLocated in the eastern third of the park is the Morley Field Sports Complex, which includes the Balboa Park Golf Complex, which contains a public 18-hole golf course and 9-hole executive course; the San Diego Velodrome; baseball and softball fields; cross country running course; the USTA-honored Balboa Tennis Club and tennis courts; archery ranges; the Bud Kearn public swimming pool; and a disc golf course.\n\nAmong the institutions and facilities within the park's borders but not administered by the city's Parks Department are the San Diego Zoo, the Naval Medical Center San Diego (NMCSD), and San Diego High School. Other attractions in various areas of the park include chess and bridge outdoor tables, horseshoe pits, playgrounds, walking and jogging trails, sports fields and courts, and picnic areas. Clubs and facilities for p\u00e9tanque and lawn bowling are based in the park. There is also Spanish Art Village which consists of art shops.\n\nHistory\n\nKumeyaay village and native Californian\/Baje\u00f1o neighborhood \nPrior to the establishment of the park, the area was home to a Kumeyaay village informally known as Hatam's Village (or Hata'am) in Florida Canyon just south of what is now the Naval Medical Center. Its existence survived the 1852 effort to remove Kumeyaay villages within half a mile of the city. The village was kept active under Jo\u015be Manuel Polton, also known as Hatam, who transformed the village into an urban Native American neighborhood for urbanized Native Californians and Baja Californians in San Diego seeking jobs. The neighborhood lasted into the 1890s through the advocacy of Hatam and his successor Juan Gonzales before it was dismantled and became Balboa Park.\n\nLand reserved\n\nSpain and later Mexico made a practice of setting aside large tracts of land for the common use of citizens. In 1835, the Alta California authorities set aside a  tract of pueblo land in San Diego to be used for the public's recreational purposes. This land included the site of present-day Balboa Park, making it one of the oldest places in the United States dedicated to public recreational usage.\n\nNo further activity took place until 1845, when a survey was done by Henry D. Fitch to map the 47,000 acres. Three years later, the Mexican government was forced by the Mexican\u2013American War to cede Alta California, including San Diego, to the United States.\n\nOn February 15, 1868, the city's Board of Trustees was asked to create a public park out of two  plots of land just northeast of the growing urban center of \"New Town\"\u2014present-day Downtown San Diego. The request was made by one of the Trustees, E. W. Morse, who had picked the site in coordination with real estate developer Alonzo Horton. There is a sculptural group of Horton, Marston, and Morse  by Ruth Hayward in the park.\n\nPark establishment\n\nSubsequently, a resolution to set aside for a large city park not just two plots of land, but nine plots totaling , was approved by the city's Board of Trustees on May 26, 1868. Then in 1870, a new law called the \"Act to Insure the Permanency of the Park Reservation\", was passed by the state legislature, which said, \"These lands (lots by number) are to be held in trust forever by the municipal authorities of said city for the purpose of a park\".\n\nIt was around this time that San Diego residents were developing fondness for the park, as illustrated by their insistence on keeping the park intact when in 1871 there was an attempt to overturn the state law so as to allow for private purchase of some of the park land. At the urging of would-be land speculators and the city attorney, State Senator James McCoy quietly introduced a bill in the California state legislature to repeal the 1870 law. A San Diego resident learned of the plan and informed higher powers at the state level in Sacramento, California.  The conspiracy was leaked to the press, exposing the city officials involved. A public safety committee formed and collected signatures supporting the current existence of the park. Their plea was successful and the bill was killed in the legislature. San Diego was the second city in the U.S. to dedicate a large park after New York City's 1858 establishment of Central Park.\n\nA City Park: 1872\u20131909\n\nFor the first few decades of its existence, \"City Park\" remained mostly open space. The land, lacking trees and covered in native wildflowers, was home to bobcats, rattlesnakes, coyotes, and other wildlife. Numerous proposals, some altruistic, some profit-driven, were brought forward for the development and use of the land during this time, but no comprehensive plan for development was adopted until 1902.\n\nNevertheless, some buildings were constructed, including an orphanage and women's shelter (later burned down), a high school (Russ High School \u2013 later San Diego High School), and several gardens maintained by various private groups.  One of the most celebrated of these early usages was a 36-acre nursery owned and maintained by local horticulturist and botanist Kate Sessions, who is often referred to as \"the mother of Balboa Park.\" Although owned by Sessions, by agreement with the city the nursery was open to the public, and Sessions donated trees and plants to the city every year for its beautification.  Sessions is responsible for bringing in many of the different varieties of native and exotic plants in the park.  Her work was so progressive that she was in fact the first woman awarded the Meyer Medal for \"foreign plant importation\" by the American Genetic Association.\n\nOther developments from this time include two reservoirs, an animal pound in Pound Canyon (later renamed Cabrillo Canyon), and a gunpowder magazine in the area now known as Florida Canyon. The earliest recreational developments in the park were in the \"Golden Hill Park\" area off 25th street. The National Register listed the rustic stone fountain designed by architect Henry Lord Gay as the oldest surviving designed feature in the park.  Other attractions in the area included a children's park, walking trails, and a redwood bird aviary.\n\nIndigenous Californians and Bajenos began to flock to the Kumeyaay village in Florida Canyon looking for work in San Diego during this period. A Native Californian urban exclave was built up in the canyon, which lasted up until the 1900s when the neighborhood was torn down in preparation for the Panama\u2013California Exposition.\n\nPreparation for the 1915 Expo: 1910\u20131914\n\nSource:\n\nPreparations for the 1915 Panama\u2013California Exposition created much of the park's present-day look-and-feel and designed amenities.\n\nBeginning in 1909, San Diego Chamber of Commerce president G. Aubrey Davidson suggested that the park hold an expo to coincide with the 1915 opening of the Panama Canal. Davidson believed an expo would help improve commerce (it would advertise that San Diego was the first U.S. port of call vessels encountered after passing through the canal and sailing north), build the city's population, and expand the infrastructure of the park. He later explained the significance of holding the expo in San Diego:\n\nAfter a 1910 contest to rename City Park, the park was named after Vasco N\u00fa\u00f1ez de Balboa, the first European to cross Central America and see the Pacific Ocean.\n\nSan Diego would be the smallest city to ever hold a World's Fair; its population at the time was less than 40,000. The expo was organized by a group of San Diego business leaders, including Ulysses S. Grant Jr., and was funded at an initial cost of $5 million (including $1 million from voter-approved bonds for landscaping). Developer and civic leader D. C. Collier was chosen as General Director of the expo; he made major decisions such as locating the expo on the park's central mesa, using California Mission Revival Style architecture for the buildings, and featuring \"human progress\" as the theme. A similar fair, the 1915 Panama\u2013Pacific International Exposition, was also planned in \"far to the north\" San Francisco to celebrate the canal opening. Although $5 million had been set aside by Congress for celebrations of the Panama Canal opening, the majority of the funds went to the San Francisco expo.\n\nIn anticipation of the exposition, many of San Diego's business and city leaders began to develop separate plans for the park. John D. Spreckels, owner of the San Diego Electric Railway, wanted to shift the location of the main public plaza to add room for exhibitors \u2014 and to allow his streetcar system to traverse the park and extend to the North Park and University Heights neighborhoods.\n\nThe Exposition's lead designer and site planner was architect Bertram Goodhue, well known for his Gothic Revival Style churches in New York and Boston, who sought a regionally appropriate aesthetic to use in Southern California. Goodhue and associate architect Carleton Winslow chose to use the styles of highly ornamented Spanish Baroque architecture with the Spanish Colonial architecture created during the Spanish colonization era in New Spain-Mexico and the lower Americas, with Churrigueresque and Plateresque detailing \"updating\" the already popular Mission Revival Style\u2014to create the Spanish Colonial Revival Style.\n\nThe buildings and the style were extremely well received by the public and design professionals in California and nationally, becoming a reigning style for decades, and still the primary vernacular style in much of California.  Goodhue's associate architect was Carleton M. Winslow, who is solely credited with the lattice-work Botanical Building and other structures.  Goodhue's team, which included Kate Sessions and Lloyd Wright for landscape design, had won out over the local and more modernist Irving Gill to get the commission. One of the most significant improvements to the park from that time was the construction of the Cabrillo Bridge across a major canyon in the city. The bridge connects the main portion of the park with the western portion and with Laurel Street.\n\nA lavish groundbreaking ceremony for the fair's construction was held in July 1911.\n\nThe Panama-California Exposition: 1915\u20131916\n\nOn December 31, 1914, the Panama-California Exposition opened, with Balboa Park \"crammed full\" of spectators. President Woodrow Wilson pushed a telegraph button in Washington, D.C., to symbolically open the ceremonies by turning on the power at the park. Yellow and red were the themed colors of the event and were displayed throughout. All of the employees, workers, security people, and management staff were dressed in period Spanish and Mexican military uniforms, and much of the park was filled with plantings of exotic plants.  Over 40,000 red Poinsettia plants, all in full bloom, were used.  The event attracted the national attention organizers had sought.  Even Pennsylvania's Liberty Bell made a brief three-day appearance in November 1915. The event was such a success the fair was extended through 1916.  Over the two years, it drew more than 3.7 million visitors, including Henry Ford, William Jennings Bryan, Thomas Edison, Theodore Roosevelt, and William Howard Taft. The expo actually turned a slight profit, which was donated to the San Diego Museum in the park.\n\nRoosevelt, approving of the buildings' architecture, recommended that the \"buildings of rare phenomenal taste and beauty\" be left as permanent additions. The majority of the buildings were only supposed to remain standing through 1916 and were not constructed with long-lasting materials. When the expo ended, several city discussions were held to determine what to do with the buildings. Goodhue recommended demolishing the buildings, saying \"They are now crumbling, disintegrating and altogether unlovely structures, structures that lack any of the venerability of age and present only its pathos, and the space they occupy could readily be made into one of the most beautiful public gardens in the New World.\" Joseph W. Sefton Jr., president of the Society of Natural History, also called for their demolition, citing fire hazards: \"All those old exposition buildings are nothing but fire traps. ... They are pretty to look at, but we may wake up any morning and find them gone, and our million dollars['] worth of exhibits with them.\" However, a city-appointed committee hired an architect to review the buildings, and he determined that they could be restored by a slight margin over any costs to demolish the buildings. The necessary funds and materials for restoration were donated by San Diegans and the labor was financed by the federal government. Some of the buildings and infrastructure constructed for the Panama-California Exposition that still exist include:\nCabrillo Bridge (completed April 12, 1914)\nCalifornia State Building and Quadrangle (completed October 2, 1914 \u2013 now the Museum of Us)\nAdministration Building (completed March 1912 \u2013 now: offices of the Museum of Us)\nBotanical Building\nCalifornia Bell Tower (completed 1914)\nNew Mexico Building (now: Balboa Park Club)\nSpreckels Organ Pavilion (dedicated December 31, 1914)\n\nCalifornia Pacific International Exposition: 1935\u20131936\n\nBalboa Park's second big event, the California Pacific International Exposition, came in 1935. This Exposition was intended to promote the city and remedy San Diego's Great Depression ills. Balboa Park was reconfigured by San Diego architect Richard S. Requa, who also oversaw the design and construction of many new buildings, some to be permanent. Facilities added at that time and still in use include the Old Globe Theatre, the International Cottages, and the Spanish Village.\n\nThe 1935 Exposition left behind colorful stories of its exhibits and entertainments. The Gold Gulch was a forerunner of the many \"frontier town\" themed areas of later amusement parks. The controversial Zoro Garden Nudist Colony,  \"Midget Village\", and sideshow entertainments including fan dancer Sally Rand added to the lore. The Exposition also provided visitors with early glimpses of 'Alpha', a walking silver robot; and a strange new electrical device called a \"television\".\n\nLike the first exposition, the 1935 Fair was so successful it was extended for a second year. Opening ceremonies for the second season began when President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressed a gold telegraph key in the White House to turn on the exposition's lights. He later visited the exposition; other notable guests included Herbert Hoover, Mae West, and Jack Dempsey. Funded at $20 million, the 1935\u20131936 event counted 6.7 million visitors\u2014almost double the total of the 1915\u201316 exposition.\n\nAt the conclusion of the expo, San Diegans voted again on what to do with the park and its buildings. Banker Joseph Sefton Jr. called for the buildings' removal, \"They are hideous and badly placed. Had we torn out the 1915 exposition buildings and landscaped the park we would have a beautiful place there now and not a long row of ramshackle firetraps.\" Several proposals were developed for converting buildings to museums and several groups attempted to have some of the park land sold to finance other projects.\n\nWorld wars\n\nDuring both the Great War and World War II, the park was handed over to the Department of the Navy to be used as a barracks and training ground and was an extension of Naval Medical Center San Diego. By 1917, after $30,000 in repairs and modifications were made to the original buildings, over 5,000 U.S. troops were using the park for training.\n\nCoinciding with the Panama\u2013California Exposition, the Commandant of the Marine Corps instructed 2nd Battalion of the newly established 4th Marines to represent the Marine Corps at the event. On December 19, 1914, Marine Barracks, Balboa Park, was established as the second, and during its period, and only Marine base in San Diego. It was established by Marines under the command of Colonel Pendleton. It remained in place until 1921, when a more permanent base was established in Dutch Flats, itself a predecessor of Marine Corps Recruit Depot, San Diego. Under the conditions of usage, upon closing, the Marine Corps returned the buildings they had used in the exact condition that they had received them. Although some buildings were scheduled to be demolished due to disrepair, several San Diego groups organized to ensure the buildings were kept.  Donated funds allowed for improvements to the buildings' integrity and interiors.\n\nDuring World War II, the park was renamed Camp Kidd, after Rear Admiral Isaac Kidd. Buildings within the park were used for multiple purposes, including hospital wards, training facilities, and barracks. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, many of the wounded were transported to Camp Kidd's hospital wards. Camp Kidd also served as a Reception Center for sailors until 1944, when those activities were transferred to Camp Elliott; this allowed for additional hospital expansion. It was returned to civilian authority in 1946, and repair costs to return the buildings and infrastructure to their pre-war status totaled $840,000, with the majority reimbursed by the Navy. In 1948, the funds were used to restore seven buildings that were deemed unsafe.\n\nPost-war 20th century\n\nA new addition to the park during the post-war 1940s was the carillon in the California Tower (1946), which chimes the time every quarter-hour. The San Diego Junior Theater, a program of the Old Globe Theatre, was established in 1948, performing in the Prado Theatre. The amphitheater formerly known as the Ford Bowl became the Starlight Bowl, home of the Starlight Musical Theater (also known as the San Diego Civic Light Opera and as Starlight Opera), which performed Broadway musicals outdoors in the summer.\n\nIn 1959, the city hired an architectural firm to map out a plan for the park based on the suggestions of San Diegans along with the firm's recommendations. The initial review called for 13 of the original 1915 buildings to remain while replacing 11 others with new buildings in their place. The plan also called for adjusted roadways, additional landscaping, and improvements in parking. By 1967, the city and private charities such as the Committee of 100 undertook a major effort to restore the park's historic buildings. Most of the original Exposition buildings were continuing to deteriorate with some lacking foundations and minimal structural support. By the 1990s some of the Prado buildings were deteriorating so badly that \"pieces of plaster regularly fell off the walls.\" Several crumbling buildings were torn down and replaced with permanent structures which were carefully detailed to maintain the original appearance. The Science and Education Building and the Home Economy Building were demolished to make room for the expansion of two new wings for the Timken Museum of Art. The loss of these two buildings along with the Casa de Balboa, the House of Charm, and the House of Hospitality, resulted in the formation of the independent organization, Committee of One Hundred, to attempt to preserve the exhibition buildings.\n\nSeveral new museums opened during the 1960s and 1970s: the Timken Museum of Art in 1965, the Centro Cultural de la Raza in 1970, and the Reuben H. Fleet Science Center in 1973. The 1915\u20131916 exposition's Food and Beverage Building was rebuilt and reopened in 1971 as Casa del Prado.\n\nBalboa Park, and the historic Exposition buildings, were declared a National Historic Landmark and National Historic Landmark District in 1977, and placed on the National Register of Historic Places. The following year two historic park structures burned down in two separate arson fires: the Aerospace Museum in the former Electric Building, and the 1935 Old Globe Theatre. The Aerospace Museum (now the San Diego Air and Space Museum) lost over $4 million in exhibits, and was reopened after moving into the old Ford Building. The Old Globe Theatre produced its 1978 season on a temporary outdoor stage, which was later upgraded to become one of the Globe's three theaters. The Old Globe Theatre itself was rebuilt and reopened in 1981. Queen Elizabeth II presented at the dedication ceremony for the theatre in 1983.\n\nThroughout the 1980s, there were multiple reports throughout Balboa Park of vandalism, murder, rape, arson, and minor petty crimes. The resulting negative publicity during this period inspired Bruce Springsteen to write a song entitled \"Balboa Park\" focusing on the unpleasant aspects of the park. One of the Old Globe Theatre's starring actors was stabbed to death in the middle of the day in February 1985. A 36-year-old woman was gang-raped and murdered in the park in June 1986. To counter the increase in crime, city officials expanded police patrols in the park, and many of the individual museums hired security guards. After two murders in 1993 and the shooting of a young drama student walking across the Cabrillo Bridge in 1994, nighttime lighting in the park was increased, and video cameras were installed in several locations to allow park rangers and police to better monitor the area.\n\nIn 1998, the Reuben H. Fleet Science Center opened a larger building at its present location. The following year, the Hall of Champions Sports Museum moved to the old Federal Building.\n\n21st century\n\nBy 2001, over 12 million people visited the park each year.\n\nThe Balboa Park Conservancy, a non-profit group to preserve and promote the park, was proposed in 2009 and was officially launched on September 14, 2010.\n\nOn the night between August 11 and 12, 2012, the 100-year-old Lily Pond at Balboa Park was vandalized overnight. Officials said the water level in the pond was reduced to 2 inches and a pipe was broken. No fish or turtles were killed, but damage to the pond and surrounding landscaping was estimated at several thousand dollars. There had been reports of a \"midnight water gun fight\" planned for that night, and a video of such an event was later uploaded to YouTube. In early 2013, work began on repairing the Lily Pond, including removing the fish and plants to temporary homes, draining the pond, and repairing the concrete lining. In addition, plumbing repairs were completed, and 27 new plant platforms were constructed to hold the lilies in place. After the reservoir was filled with water and the fish were re-introduced, the Lily Pond opened once again to the public in late February, 2013.\n\nIn 2017, the State of California designated Balboa Park as a cultural district, given its central role in the culture of San Diego.\n\nCentennial\nAs the centennial of the 1915 exposition approached, there was talk of a grand year-long celebration \"on the scale of the 1915 and 1935 fairs\".  A nonprofit organization, Balboa Park Celebration Inc., was formed in 2011 to organize the festivities and \"reintroduce Balboa Park to the world.\" However, fundraising faltered and plans failed to materialize. In March 2014 the nonprofit organization disbanded, turning over its records and responsibilities to the city less than a year before the celebrations were supposed to start. Mayor Kevin Faulconer and City Council President Todd Gloria, who had been major proponents of a large-scale celebration, expressed disappointment with the group's \"lack of significant progress achieving its goals\" and said they would work together to \"move forward with a more practical and realistic celebration.\" A City Council committee ordered an audit of the organization's finances to find out what became of the $2.8 million in public funds allocated to it by the council.\n\nThe 2015 \"Celebration\" of the Centennial became a grassroots movement with all the Parks's institutions celebrating with special exhibits and events. On Dec. 31 Carol Williams, with special guests, ushered in the year with an evening of music at the Spreckels Organ Pavilion.  On Saturday, May 9, The Garden Party of the Century invited Garden enthusiasts from throughout the county to come enjoy the park. A floral wagon parade highlighted the event.\n\nFor the Centennial the Park's Department working together with Friends of Balboa Park created an Adopt-a-Plot program.  Throughout the park various volunteer organizations have adopted garden areas and have started a transformation to enhance the park's beauty for the next 100 years.\n\nIn 2016, the Electriquettes returned to Balboa Park.  They had been planned for the Centenniel celebration and several were on display in 1915, but it took until the Spring of 2016 for them to return to be driven on the Prado.  They are electric-powered wicker carts which can be rented and driven in the main Prado area of the park.\n\nIn 2017, it was announced that San Diego Comic-Con would be opening a museum in the park, displacing the San Diego Hall of Champions, which will move to Petco Park.\n\nTraffic rerouting and parking changes\nIn August 2010 a proposal was unveiled by then-Mayor Jerry Sanders and philanthropist Irwin M. Jacobs to divert traffic away from the central Prado areas of the park, such as the Plaza de Panama in front of the Art Museum and the California Quadrangle in front of the Museum of Us, and restore the areas to pedestrian use. The plan would provide replacement parking via a two-level parking garage at the site of the current Spreckles Organ Pavilion parking lot. The plan also called for changes in access to the park via the Cabrillo Bridge. The bridge would become eastbound only so that people could enter the park via the Cabrillo Bridge but could exit only via Park Boulevard. Inbound traffic would be deflected via a new bridge offramp through the current Alcazar Gardens parking lot toward the new parking garage. The Alcazar Gardens parking lot would be for disabled parking only and for loading and unloading of passengers. The new parking garage would house 750\u2013900 cars and would be landscaped on top. The plan became controversial because of its alteration to the appearance of the bridge and the possibility of charging for parking in the parking garage. In July 2012 the City Council voted to proceed with the Jacobs plan. Construction was due to begin in October 2012 and be completed in time for the park's centennial in 2015. However, the scheduled start of construction was pushed back to February 2013 due to a legal challenge from the Save Our Heritage Organisation (SOHO). In February 2013 a judge voided the project, after which Jacobs withdrew his offer to finance it. Since the Park's master plan already called for removing the 67-space parking lot from the Plaza de Panama, the city went ahead with that portion of the proposal removing all parking from the plaza and converting it into a pedestrian area with tree planters, seats, and tables.\n\nEventually the courts ruled against the challengers and in 2016 the City Council re-approved the project with its original cost estimate of $45 million now expanded to $79 million. The project will remove all traffic from the Plaza de Panama and the California Quadrangle, diverting it toward a 3-level underground parking garage with a rooftop garden and 797 paid parking spaces. All other parking in Balboa Park will remain free. The cost of the project will be divided between the city, which plans to use the parking lot as a revenue source, and private philanthropy. The proposed completion date is July 2019.\n\nIn December 2016, opponents of the traffic redirect and its associated 'bypass bridge' sued to stop it from moving forward on the grounds that it would fundamentally change the historic monument. City Attorney Mara Elliot called this an \"unjustified attempt\" to delay the project, but SOHO claimed it would have adverse effects on the park and its historic integrity.\n\nSpecial events\nBalboa Park frequently holds events throughout its museums, venues, and plazas. These events include free weekly concerts at the Spreckles Organ Pavilion each Sunday at 2:00\u00a0p.m., guest speakers, and annual parades, cultural festivals, and fairs. The festival \"December Nights\" (originally called \"Christmas on the Prado\") takes place in Balboa Park on the first full weekend in December each year. EarthFair, described as one of the largest free annual environmental fairs in the U.S., is held in the park every April. The event celebrates Earth Day, and includes a parade, musical performances, children's area, international food, exhibit booths and information on various topics related to the environment. In 2010, over 70,000 people attended the fair. The two-day San Diego Pride Festival is held in the Marston Point area of Balboa Park each July; the 2011 event was attended by more than 150,000 people. In 2016, WikiConference North America was held at the park. A cherry blossom festival is also celebrated annually in March in the Japanese Friendship Garden.\n\nEach summer, free outdoor concerts are performed Monday through Thursday at the Spreckels Organ Pavilion. Free organ concerts are held each Sunday at 2:00\u00a0p.m., year round.\n\nSeveral races and marathons include the park in the courses. The Foot Locker Cross Country Championships are held in Balboa Park annually. First started in 1979, the race is held in Morley Field. Marathons such as the San Diego Rock 'n' Roll Marathon and the America's Finest City Half Marathon, as well as the American Cancer Society \"Making Strides Against Breast Cancer\" walk, and the Susan G. Komen \"Race for the Cure\" and other annual events begin or end in Balboa Park.\n\nFlixBus services the park with a stop on Presidents Way near Pan American Plaza.\n\nCultural references\n\n The 1915 silent film Fatty and Mabel at the San Diego Exposition takes place at the 1915 Exposition and stars Roscoe \"Fatty\" Arbuckle and Mabel Normand.\n Citizen Kane has scenes from Charles Kane's mansion \"Xanadu\" filmed at buildings in Balboa Park, with the San Diego Zoo standing in for Kane's private bestiary.\n Portions of the 1979 movie Scavenger Hunt were filmed in and around Balboa Park and the San Diego Zoo.\n MyNetworkTV's Desire filmed a 2006 episode scene in the Spreckels Organ Pavilion.\n The California Tower appears in the film Almost Famous.\n Scenes from The Samuel Project were filmed in Balboa Park.\n The video games Tony Hawk's Underground and Midnight Club 3: DUB Edition use Balboa Park for their San Diego levels.\n The internet series Mega64 often films their sketches at Balboa Park.\n Bruce Springsteen's album The Ghost of Tom Joad includes a song about Balboa Park.\n The cover photo of the Beach Boys' album Pet Sounds was taken at the San Diego Zoo's children's petting zoo.\n The 2003 movie National Lampoon Presents Dorm Daze'''s exterior shots of the \"college campus\" are from Balboa Park.\nThe 2nd copy of the iconic statue from the film Rocky III is featured in the San Diego Hall of Champions.\n The 1995 Chuck Norris film Top Dog was set in Balboa Park.\n Balboa Park is prominently featured as a setting for the 2007 naval thriller, Defiance'', by Don Brown.\n\nSee also\n\nCalifornia native plants\nCentral San Diego\nHistory of San Diego\nList of parks in San Diego\nPark Conservancy\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\n Official San Diego Parks Department \u2013  Balboa Park website\n Balboa Park Master Plan\n Balboa Park Foundation\n Balboa Park Cultural Partnership\n The Committee of One Hundred: dedicated to preserving Balboa Park's Spanish Colonial Architecture\n Friends of Balboa Park\n\n \n1868 establishments in California\nHistoric districts in San Diego\nHistoric districts on the National Register of Historic Places in California\nHistory of San Diego\nCulture of San Diego\nLandmarks in San Diego\nMunicipal parks in California\nNational Historic Landmarks in California\nNational Register of Historic Places in San Diego\nParks in San Diego\nParks on the National Register of Historic Places in California\nSpanish Colonial Revival architecture in California\nSpanish Revival architecture in California\nUrban public parks\nWorld's fair architecture in California\nWorld's fair sites in California","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":50,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":5,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":5,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":5,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":8,"2014-15":3}},"id":30428033,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Balboa%20Park%20%28San%20Diego%29","title":"Balboa Park (San Diego)","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Judeo-Arabic languages are a collection of Arabic language dialects spoken by Jews living or formerly living in Arabic-speaking countries.  Just as with the rest of the Arab world, Arabic-speaking Jews had different dialects for the different regions where they lived.  Most Jud\u00e6o-Arabic dialects were written in modified forms of the Hebrew alphabet, often including consonant dots from the Arabic alphabet to accommodate phonemes that did not exist in the Hebrew alphabet.\n\nIn retaliation for 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Jews in Arab countries became subject to increasingly insufferable discrimination and violence, causing virtually all of them to flee en masse to Israel.  Their dialects of Arabic did not thrive in Israel, and most became extinct, replaced by the Modern Hebrew language.\n\nIn the Middle Ages, Jews in the Islamic diaspora spoke a dialect of Arabic, which they wrote in a mildly adapted Hebrew script  (rather than using Arabic script).\n\nThis phenomenon is called Judaeo-Arabic and may be compared to both Ladino (Judaeo-Spanish) and Yiddish (Judaeo-German).\n\nSome of the most important books of medieval Jewish though were originally written in Judaeo-Arabic, as well as certain halakhic works and biblical commentary.  Only later were they translated into medieval scientific Hebrew so that they could be read by the Ashkenazic Jews of Europe.  These include:\n\n Saadia Gaon's Emunot ve-Deot, his Tafsir (biblical commentary and translation), and his siddur (the explanatory parts, not the prayers themselves)\n Solomon ibn Gabirol's Tikkun Middot ha-Nefesh\n Bahya ibn Pakuda's Hovot ha-Levavot\n Judah Halevi's Kuzari\n Maimonides' Commentary on the Mishnah, Sefer ha-Mitzvot, Guide to the Perplexed, and many of his letters and shorter essays.\n\nReferences \n\nJudaism\nMiddle East\nSemitic languages","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":60,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6}},"id":68143,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Judeo-Arabic%20dialects","title":"Judeo-Arabic dialects","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The kilometre is a common unit used for longer distances on Earth. The international unit for measuring distances is the metre and a kilometre is 1000 metres. It is used in most countries for measuring road and sea distances. In the UK and the USA, the statute mile is used more than kilometres for road distances and the nautical mile for sea distances.\n\nIt is often used to measure the speed of cars, planes and boats by saying how many kilometres it can travel in an hour. This is shown as km\/h.\n\nIt is also spelled kilometer. This spelling is used in American English.\n\nOne kilometre is 0.6214 miles (1093 yards or 3280.84 feet). This means that one mile is 1.6093 kilometres.\n\nOne kilometre is the approximate distance a healthy adult human being can walk in ten minute\n\nA kilometer is sometimes called a klick\n\nRelated pages\n Yard (unit of length)\n\nUnits of length","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":228,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":4,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":5,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":6,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":5,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":6,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":4,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":5,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":5,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":4,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":417,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kilometre","title":"Kilometre","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A blast furnace is a special type of furnace for smelting iron from ore. Blast furnaces are very large. They can be up to  tall and  in diameter. The blast furnace is the biggest chemical reactor. Blast furnaces are also called high ovens.\n\nA blast furnace is usually built with a steel case and bricks made of magnesium oxide or other refractory material inside the case. The hot furnace cannot melt these bricks. The furnace is cooled with water running inside part of the case and bricks.\n\nThe process of making iron is simple. Iron ore is basically iron oxide.  Iron is made by removing the oxygen. This leaves crude iron called pig iron. This process of removing oxygen is called smelting. Carbon is used in the reduction process, with the ore heated to a high temperature. Carbon easily takes the oxygen off the ore in high temperatures.\n\nProcess \nOre, limestone and carbon in the form of coke are put into the top of the blast furnace in layers. At the same time, hot air called \"wind\" is blown inside the furnace. Special nozzles called \"tuyeres\" are used to put the air in the furnace. The nozzles are at the bottom of the furnace. This process is called \"blasting\". It is why it is called a \"blast furnace\". The coke ignites (lights on fire) and burns. This creates carbon monoxide because there is not enough oxygen to make carbon dioxide. The carbon monoxide then reduces the metal oxide to the metal and makes carbon dioxide. This process is used to make iron. The limestone forms a substance called slag with the rock of the iron ore.\n\nThe bottom part of the furnace is called the hearth. When it has filled with liquid pig iron and slag, the slag is removed. This is called skimming. Slag is lighter than iron and does not mix with iron. It floats on top of the iron. A hole is made in the hearth at the level of the slag with a special drill.  The liquid slag moves out through the hole into a container called slag pot. The iron is then drained from the hearth. This is called tapping. A hole is made at the bottom and the liquid pig iron comes out.  It is either used directly for steelmaking, put into a special railway wagon called torpedo car or made into molds. When all the pig iron has been removed, fire-resistant clay is used to close the two holes. The clay becomes solid very quickly because of the high heat. \n\nThe pig iron contains some 4% of carbon and it would be too hard and too brittle to use. The extra carbon must first be burned away. The pig iron is refined into steel by decarburizing (burning the extra carbon off of) it. A modern method for decarburizing the pig iron and refining it into steel is basic oxygen furnace. Historically there has been other methods as well, such as Bessemer converter, open hearth furnace and puddling furnace.\n\nThe gases rise up and are collected on the top of the furnace. As the gas contains a lot of carbon monoxide, it is a valuable fuel. The gas collected on the top of the blast furnace is called blast furnace gas. It is then washed and dried and all solid particles such as soot or ore dust are collected. The gas is then burned in special ovens called Cowper stoves or hot blast stoves into carbon dioxide. The heat from burning the blast furnace gas is then used to pre-heat the blasting air, \"wind\", which in turn is blasted into the blast furnace itself.\n\nThe slag is not waste. It can be used in various ways. It can be made into bricks and used for construction, or it can be mixed with concrete. Concrete which contains blast furnace slag is stronger than ordinary concrete and is almost pure white, where normal concrete is dirty grey.\n\nA blast furnace can usually work for 10 to 20 years without stopping. This is called a \"campaign.\"\n\nChemical example \nAt the temperature of 900-1600\u00b0C, a reduction with carbon occurs:\n\nNow iron has been made.\n\nOres\nChemical processes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":267660,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blast%20furnace","title":"Blast furnace","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Divine Comedy is an epic poem written by Dante Alighieri. It is about a trip through the afterlife. The poem has three parts: Inferno (Hell), Purgatorio (Purgatory), and Paradiso (Paradise, or Heaven). The Divine Comedy is a piece of world literature.\n\nInferno is the most famous section of the poem. The poem is about the travels of a man through Christian hell, purgatory, and heaven. Note that \"comedy\" does not mean funny here, but rather that it has a positive ending.\n\nInferno\nThe narrator, Dante Alighieri, is lost in a forest in front of a giant mountain which symbolizes sin, and is harassed by a lion, leopard and she-wolf. He finds the Roman poet Virgil, who has to lead him through the nine circles of hell so Dante can be saved.\n\nFirst circle (Limbo)\nSouls that did not accept Christ are here. This includes atheists, pagans, and the unbaptized. They did not actively sin, but they could not enter Heaven because of their lack of faith and even Hell would not allow them to enter very far.\n\nThe punishment for the souls is not physical, but that they have no hope of seeing Christ, so they are mentally punished.\n\nBeyond the first circle, souls are assigned their place by Minos, who wraps his tail around his body a corresponding number of times, and forces them to descend to their appropriate circle.\n\nSecond circle (Lust)\nIn this circle souls who succumb to lust. They are the first ones to be truly punished in Hell. These souls are blown around in a giant storm which will last forever. This symbolizes the power of lust to blow one about aimlessly.\n\nThird circle (Gluttony)\nThis circle is guarded by Cerberus. The gluttons are punished here, lying in cold mud. While in life they were provided with warmth and comfort from their food, in Hell the souls are punished with cold and heavy rain. Cerberus claws at the spirits, rips at their skin, and bites holes.\n\nFourth circle (Greed)\nIn life the sinners miserly hoarded their money greedily, while the prodigal spent their money foolishly. Both groups are pushing and pulling great bags of gold as they did in life. The greedy are guarded by Plutus, god of riches and wealth.\n\nFifth circle (Wrath)\nIn the river Styx the wrathful fight each other on the surface. The river surrounds the city of Dis, where active sinners are located. When Virgil tries to enter, the angels of Hell slam the door in his face. He and Dante proceed to the gate where Christ entered Hell during his three-day trip to release a select few people. During Christ's Harrowing of Hell he broke the door so it could never close again.\n\nSixth circle (Heresy)\nThe heretics are trapped in red-hot iron tombs.\n\nSeventh circle (Violence)\nThis circle holds those who were violent in their lives. The people who were violent to people and property are in a river of fire. The depth of their placement in the river corresponds to how much you damaged in life. For example, Alexander the Great is immersed up to his eyebrows. The violent against self are turned into plants and are pecked at and ripped apart by birds. The violent to God and the violent to nature are also here. They have to walk on flaming sand for eternity.\n\nEighth circle (Fraud)\nPimps, seducers, flatterers, simonists, sorcerers, fortune-tellers, false prophets, corrupt politicians, hypocrites, thieves, schismatics, alchemists, and counterfeiters are in this circle. Each punishment is the opposite of what they did in life. Fortune-tellers, who tried to see things ahead of time, are forced to walk backwards.\n\nNinth circle (Treachery)\nThe traitors to family are immersed in ice up to their faces. Traitors to political entities are also here. Traitors to guests lie in the ice, which covers them completely except for their faces. Traitors to their lords and benefactors are completely buried in ice in various positions.\n\nIn the very center of Hell, because he sinned the ultimate sin (treachery against God), lies Satan. Satan is described as a beast with three faces, six wings, and is eternally weeping from his six eyes. Each of Satan's mouths chews on a famous traitor from history. Brutus and Cassius are being chewed feet-first. The center mouth is chewing on Judas Iscariot. His head is being chewed on by Satan, and his back is being skinned by Satan's claws. \n\nDante and Virgil escape by climbing down Satan's fur through the center of the earth and out the other hemisphere, where they will climb Mount Purgatory.\n\nReferences \n\nEpic poems\n14th-century books\nAfterlife\nItalian literature","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"unknown":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1}},"id":17865,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Divine%20Comedy","title":"Divine Comedy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Seafloor spreading happens at the bottom of an ocean as tectonic plates move apart. The seafloor moves and carries continents with it. At ridges in the middle of oceans, new oceanic crust is created. The motivating force for seafloor spreading ridges is tectonic plate pull rather than magma pressure, although there is typically significant magma activity at spreading ridges.   \n \nAt the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (and other places), material from the upper mantle rises through the faults between oceanic plates. It forms new crust as the plates move away from each other. The new crust then slowly moves away from the ridge. It is a place of earthquakes and volcanoes. Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in plate tectonics. At oceanic trenches, seafloor crust slides down and under continental crust.\n\nEarlier theories (e.g. by Alfred Wegener) of continental drift were that continents 'plowed' through the ocean. The modern idea is that the ocean floor itself moves and carries the continents with it as it expands from a mid-ocean ridge. Today, it is accepted. The phenomenon is caused by convection in the weak upper mantle, or asthenosphere.\n\nAdditionally spreading rates determine if the ridge is a fast, intermediate, or slow. As a general rule, fast ridges see spreading rate of more than 9 cm\/year. Intermediate ridges have a spreading rate of 4-9 cm\/year while slow spreading ridges have a rate less than 4 cm\/year.\n\nMid-ocean ridge \nA mid-ocean ridge is an underwater mountain system. This consists of mountain chains, with a  rift valley running along its spine, formed by plate tectonics. A mid-ocean ridge marks the boundary between two tectonic plates which are moving apart. A mid ocean ridge is made by a divergent boundary.\n\nThe mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every ocean. The mid-oceanic ridge system is the longest mountain range in the world. The continuous mountain range is  long. It is several times longer than the Andes, the longest continental mountain range. The total length of the oceanic ridge system is  long.\n\nHow it works \nMid-ocean ridges are geologically active, with new magma constantly emerging onto the ocean floor and into the crust at and near rifts along the ridge axes. The crystallized magma forms new crust of basalt and gabbro.\n\nThe rocks making up the crust below the seafloor are youngest at the axis of the ridge and age with increasing distance from that axis. New magma of basalt composition emerges at and near the axis because of decompression melting in the underlying Earth's mantle.\n\nThe oceanic crust is made up of rocks much younger than the Earth itself: oceanic crust in the ocean basins is everywhere less than 200 million years old. The crust is in a constant state of 'renewal' at the ocean ridges. Moving away from the mid-ocean ridge, ocean depth progressively increases; the greatest depths are in ocean trenches. As the oceanic crust moves away from the ridge axis, the peridotite in the underlying mantle cools and becomes more rigid. The crust and the relatively rigid peridotite below it make up the oceanic lithosphere. \n\nSlow spreading ridges like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge have large, wide rift valleys, sometimes as big as 10-20 km wide and very rugged terrain at the ridge crest. By contrast, fast spreading ridges like the East Pacific Rise are narrow, sharp incisions surrounded by generally flat topography that slopes away from the ridge over many hundreds of miles.\n\nReferences \n\nOceanography\nPlate tectonics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":57,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-40":3,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2017-13":2}},"id":76856,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seafloor%20spreading","title":"Seafloor spreading","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In chemistry, a silicate is a chemical compound consisting of one or more central silicon atoms that are surrounded by electronegative anions.\n\nThe most common silicate species consist of silicon with oxygen as the anion. Silicate anions, with a negative net electrical charge, must have that charge balanced by other cations to make an electrically neutral compound.\n\nSilicate rock\nIn geology and planetary science, the term silicate is used to denote types of rock that consist predominantly of silicate minerals.\n\nOn Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations as a result of the processes that form and re-work the crust. These processes include partial melting, crystallization, fractionation, metamorphism, weathering and diagenesis. Living things also contribute to the silicate cycle near the Earth's surface. A type of plankton known as diatoms construct their exoskeletons, known as tests, from silica. The tests of dead diatoms are a major constituent of deep ocean sediment\n\nChemical compounds\nGeology\nIons","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":3}},"id":49515,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silicate","title":"Silicate","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Georgia Totto O'Keeffe' (November 15, 1887\u2014March 6,1986) was an American artist. She is associated with the American Southwest, where she found artistic inspiration, and particularly New Mexico, where she settled late in life. O'Keeffe has been a major figure in American art since the 1920s.  She is chiefly known for paintings in which she synthesized abstraction and representation in paintings of flowers, rocks, shells, animal bones and landscapes. Her paintings present crisply contoured forms that are replete with subtle tonal transitions of varying colors.  She often transformed her subject matter into powerful abstract images.\t\n\nEarly life\nO'Keeffe was born in a farmhouse in Sun Prairie, Wisconsin.  Her parents, Francis Calyxtus O'Keeffe and Ida Totto O'Keeffe, were dairy farmers. Her father was of Irish descent.  Ida Totto's father, George, for whom Georgia was named, was a Hungarian immigrant. Through her mother, Georgia O'Keeffe was also related to Edward Fuller, one of the passengers on the Mayflower and a signer of the Mayflower Compact. O'Keeffe's maternal connection was descended from Edward Fuller's son  Matthew. \n\nShe was the first girl and the second of seven O'Keeffe children. She attended Town Hall School in Wisconsin and received art instruction from local watercolorist Sara Mann. She attended high school at Sacred Heart Academy in Madison, Wisconsin, as a boarder between 1901 and 1902. In fall 1902 the O'Keeffes moved from Wisconsin to Williamsburg in coastal Virginia. Georgia stayed in Wisconsin with her aunt and attended Madison High School, and joined her family in Williamsburg in 1903. She completed high school as a boarder at Chatham Episcopal Institute in Virginia (now Chatham Hall), and graduated in 1905.  Education for women was a family tradition. Georgia's mother Ida had been educated in the East. All the daughters but one became professional women, attesting to her influence on them.\n\nIn 1905, O'Keeffe enrolled at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. In 1907, she attended the Art Students League in New York City, where she studied with William Merritt Chase. In 1908, she won the League's William Merritt Chase still-life prize for her oil painting mona shehab (Dead Rabbit with Copper Pot). Her prize was a scholarship to attend the League's outdoor summer school at Lake George, New York.  While in the city in 1908, O'Keeffe had attended an exhibition of Rodin's watercolors at the 291, owned by her future husband, photographer Alfred Stieglitz.\n \nIn the fall of 1908, discouraged with her work, O'Keeffe did not return to the League but moved to Chicago and found work as a commercial artist.  During this period Georgia did not pick up a brush, and she said that the smell of turpentine made her sick.  She became an elementary school art teacher near Amarillo in the Texas Panhandle.  She was inspired to paint again in 1912, when she attended a class at the University of Virginia Summer School, where she was introduced to the innovative ideas of Arthur Wesley Dow by Alon Bement.  Dow's teachings encouraged artists to express themselves through harmonious compositions and contrasts of light and dark.  Dow's teaching strongly influenced O'Keeffe's thinking about the process of making art.  She served as a Teaching Assistant to Bement for several years, before returning to Texas to teach in the art department of the fledgling West Texas A&M University (then West Texas State Normal College) in Canyon just south of Amarillo.  She was inspired to go there because of the natural beauty of the nearby large Palo Duro Canyon, carved by wind and water.\n\nNew York\n\nEarly in 1916, Anita Pollitzer took some of O'Keeffe's drawings to Alfred Stieglitz at his 291 gallery. He told Anita the drawings were the \"purest, finest, sincerest things that had entered 291 in a long while.\", and that he would like to show them. O'Keeffe had first visited 291 in 1908, but had never talked with Stieglitz, although she had high regard for his opinions as a critic. In April 1916 Stieglitz exhibited ten of her drawings. O'Keeffe had not been consulted before the exhibit and only learned about it through an acquaintance. She confronted Stieglitz for the first time over the drawings. She agreed to let them hang. Georgia O'Keeffe's first solo show opened at 291 in April 1917. Most of the exhibit were the watercolors from Texas. \n\nShortly after her arrival in New York, Stieglitz took O'Keeffe to the Stieglitz family home at Lake George in the Adirondack Mountains. They would return to the lake home each summer for years to come. Georgia produced many paintings of the Lake George countryside during these years.\n\nStieglitz arranged for O'Keeffe to live in his niece's unoccupied studio apartment. By July, he and O'Keeffe had fallen deeply in love.  He left his wife Emmeline Obermeyer Stieglitz to live with O'Keeffe. After he was divorced in 1924, O'Keeffe and Stieglitz married.  They spent winter and spring in Manhattan and summer and fall at the Stieglitz family house at Lake George. \n\nStieglitz had started photographing O'Keeffe when she visited him in New York to see her 1917 exhibition.  He continued making photographs of her, taking more than 300 portraits between 1918 and 1937. Most of the more erotic poses were from the first few years of their marriage.  In February, 1921, forty-five of Stieglitz's photographs, including many of O'Keeffe and some in the nude, were exhibited in a retrospective exhibition at the Anderson Galleries.  The photographs of O'Keeffe created a public sensation. \n\nDuring her early years in New York City, O'Keeffe grew to know the many early American modernists who were part of Stieglitz's circle of friends, including Charles Demuth, Arthur Dove, Marsden Hartley, Paul Strand and Edward Steichen.  Strand's photography, as well as that of Stieglitz and his many photographer friends, inspired O'Keeffe's work.  Soon after she moved to New York, she began working primarily in oil, which represented a shift away from her having worked in watercolor in the 1910s.  By the mid-1920s, O'Keeffe began making large-scale paintings of natural forms at close range, as if seen through a magnifying lens.  \n\nDuring the 1920s, O'Keeffe made both natural and architectural forms the subject of her work.  In 1924 she painted her first large-scale flower painting Petunia, No. 2,, which was first exhibited in 1925.  She quickly completed a significant body of paintings of New York buildings, such as City Night and New York--Night, 1926, and Radiator Bldg--Night, New York, 1927. \n\nBeginning in 1923, Stieglitz organized annual exhibitions of O'Keeffe's work.  By the mid-1920s, O'Keeffe had become known as one of America's most important artists. Her work commanded high prices; in 1928 six of her calla lily paintings sold for $25,000 US dollars, which was the largest sum ever paid for a group of paintings by a living American artist. This drew media attention to O'Keeffe as never before.\n\nNew Mexico\n\nBy 1928, O'Keeffe began to feel the need to travel and find other sources for painting. The demands of an annual show needed new material. Friends returning with stories from the West stimulated O'Keeffe's desire to see and explore new places. In May 1929, she set out by train with her friend Beck Strand to Taos, New Mexico. They went to Santa Fe and then to Albuquerque. Soon after their arrival, O'Keeffe and Strand were invited to stay at Mabel Dodge Luhan's ranch outside of Taos for the summer. O'Keeffe went on many pack trips exploring the rugged mountains and deserts of the region. On one trip she visited the D. H. Lawrence ranch and spent several weeks there.\n\nWhile in Taos, New Mexico in 1929, O'Keeffe visited the historical mission church at Ranchos de Taos. Although many artists had made paintings of the church, O'Keeffe's painting of a fragment of the mission wall silhouetted against the dark blue sky captured it in a different way. \n\nBetween 1929 and 1949, O'Keeffe spent part of nearly every year working in New Mexico. During her second summer there, she began collecting and painting bones, and started  painting the area's distinctive architectural and landscape forms.  Each fall she returned to New York. \n\nIn 1932 O'Keeffe suffered a nervous breakdown following an uncompleted Radio City Music Hall mural project that had fallen behind schedule. She was hospitalized in early 1933 and did not paint again until January 1934. In the spring of 1933 and 1934, O'Keeffe recuperated in Bermuda and she returned to New Mexico in the summer of 1934.  That summer, she discovered Ghost Ranch, an area north of Abiquiu, whose varicolored cliffs inspired some of her most famous landscapes. In 1940 she purchased a house on the ranch property. \n\nA loner, O'Keeffe explored this place she loved on her own. She bought a Model A Ford and asked others to teach her how to drive. After one particularly exasperating moment, one of her teachers declared that she was unable to learn the art of driving. Only her determination was to lead to mastering her machine.  \n\nIn June 1934 O'Keeffe visited Ghost Ranch for the first time and decided immediately to live there. The ranch is located in a remote area approximately 120 miles north of Albuquerque. Among guests to visit her at the ranch were D. H. Lawrence, Charles and Anna Lindbergh, and Ansel Adams.\n\nIn the 1930s and 1940s, O'Keeffe's reputation and popularity continued to grow, earning her numerous commissions.  Her work was included in exhibitions in and around New York. In 1936, Summer Days, a painting featuring a cattle skull adorned with various wildflowers, against a desert background, was completed. It would become one of her most famous and well-known works. In the 1940s, O'Keeffe had two one-woman retrospectives, the first at the Art Institute of Chicago in 1943 and the second in 1946 at the Museum of Modern Art in New York.  It was the first retrospective MOMA held for a woman artist.  O'Keeffe also was awarded honorary degrees by numerous universities, the first by the College of William and Mary in 1938.  In the mid-1940s, the Whitney Museum of American Art sponsored a project to establish the first catalogue of her work.\n\nIn 1945, O'Keeffe bought a second home, an abandoned hacienda in Abiquiu, some 16 miles (26 km) south of Ghost Ranch.  The Abiquiu house was renovated through 1948 and became the setting for many later paintings.\n\nWhile O'Keeffe was spending the summer of 1946 in New Mexico, Stieglitz suffered a cerebral thrombosis. She quickly flew to New York to be with him.  He died on July 13, 1946. She took his ashes to Lake George and buried them at the foot of a tall pine tree beside the lake. Although separated for long periods through the years, Stieglitz had taken care of many business details for O'Keeffe.  She now had to take on these responsibilities.\n\nIn 1949 O'Keeffe moved to New Mexico permanently.  During the 1950s, O'Keeffe produced a series of paintings featuring the architectural forms --patio wall and door--of her adobe house in Abiquiu. Another distinctive painting of the decade was Ladder to the Moon, 1958.  From her first world travels in the late 1950s, O'Keeffe produced an extensive series of paintings of clouds, such as Above the Clouds I, 1962\/1963.  These were inspired by her views from the windows of airplanes. Below is an external link to a color image of one of these aerial cloudscape canvases.\n\nIn 1962, O'Keeffe was elected to the fifty-member American Academy of Arts and Letters. In the fall of 1970, the Whitney Museum of American Art mounted the Georgia O'Keeffe Retrospective Exhibition'', the first major showing of her work since 1946, the year Stieglitz died.  This exhibit did much to revive her public career.  It brought O'Keeffe to the attention of a new generation of women raised on the principles of feminism.\n\nIn 1971 Georgia became aware that her eyesight was failing. At the age of 84, she was losing her central vision and only had peripheral sight, an irreversible eye degeneration disease. She stopped painting in 1972. Juan Hamilton, a young potter, appeared at Georgia's ranch house in 1973 looking for work. She hired him for a few odd jobs and soon employed him full time. He became her closest confidante, companion, and business manager until her death.\n\nO'Keeffe dabbled in pottery herself, and had a large kiln installed at the ranch for firing pots. Even with her dimming eyesight, she was inspired by Hamilton and others to paint again. She hired a studio assistant to execute some of her ideas. During this time she agreed to accept interviews and other opportunities. In 1976 she wrote a book about her art, with Hamilton's help.  She also allowed a film crew to do a documentary at Ghost Ranch.\n\nO'Keeffe became increasingly frail in her late 90's.  She moved to Santa Fe where she died on March 6, 1986, at the age of 98. Per her instructions, she was cremated the next day. Juan Hamilton walked to the top of the Pedernal Mountain and scattered her ashes to the wind, over her beloved \"faraway.\"\n\nLegacy   \nFollowing O'Keeffe's death her family contested her will because codicils to it made in the 1980s had left all of her estate to Hamilton. The case was ultimately settled in July 1987 . The case, which was settled out of court, became famous as case law in estate planning. A substantial part of her estate's assets were transferred to the Georgia O'Keeffe Museum, established in Santa Fe in 1997 to perpetuate O'Keeffe's artistic legacy. These assets included a large body of her work, photographs, archival materials, and her Abiquiu house, library, and property.\n\nThe Georgia O'Keeffe Home and Studio was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1998.\n\nThe 1993 Warren Zevon song \"Splendid Isolation\" mentions how Zevon, in his search for solitude wants to \"be like Georgia O'Keeffe\"\n\nNotes\nThe Georgia O'Keeffe Foundation to Transfer Assets to Georgia O'Keeffe Museum, Press Release. May 31, 2005.\n\nSee also\nAerial landscape\nCloudscape (art)\nWomen artists\n\nReferences\nRoxana Robinson. 2000. O'Keeffe, Georgia. American National Biography Online\nRoxana Robinson. 1990. Georgia O'Keeffe: A life. Bloomsbury, London. ISBN 0-7475-0557-8\nBarbara Buhler Lynes.  1999.  Georgia O'Keeffe: Catalogue Raisonn\u00e9.  London.  ISBN 0300081766 \nLisa Mintz Messinger. 2001. Georgia O'Keeffe. Thames & Hudson, London. ISBN 0-500-20340-7\nGeorgia O'Keeffe Museum. About Georgia O'Keeffe\nMargret Dreikausen. \"Aerial Perception: The Earth as Seen from Aircraft and Spacecraft and Its Influence on Contemporary Art\" (Associated University Presses: Cranbury, NJ; London, England; Mississauga, Ontario: 1985) ISBN 0-87982-040-3 (contains extensive discussion of O'Keeffe's aerial landscapes and cloudscapes)\n\nExternal links\n\n O'Keeffe Gallery (221 paintings) at artst.org\n Georgia O'Keeffe Museum\n\n  Circle's Edge\n Documentary Film, Georgia O'Keeffe\n COLOR IMAGE of aerial-view cloudscape by Georgia O'Keeffe\n Exclusive video of Georgia O'Keeffe's \"Circling Around Abstraction\" exhibit on uVu\n Georgia O'Keeffe Gallery at MuseumSyndicate\n\n\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940, \u0936\u0940\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0935 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\nAmerican painters\nFlower artists\nMembers of Art Students League of New York\nModern painters\nNew Mexico artists\nUnited States National Medal of Arts recipients\nPresidential Medal of Freedom recipients\nWomen artists\nPeople from Wisconsin\nHungarian-Americans\nIrish-Americans\nSchool of the Art Institute of Chicago alumni\nUniversity of Virginia alumni\n\u0967\u096e\u096e\u096d\u092f\u094d \u092c\u0941\u0917\u0941\n\u0967\u096f\u096e\u096c\u092f\u094d \u092e\u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\nPeople from Amarillo, Texas","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":5,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":6,"2018-39":6,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":117,"url":"https:\/\/new.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%20%E0%A4%93%27%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AB","title":"\u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0913'\u0915\u0940\u092b","language":"new"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Fecund universes is a multiverse theory of Lee Smolin.  It relies on models of our universe and statistics from astrophysics but is more correctly a theory of cosmology.\n\nIn this theory, collapsing stars, or black holes, are always creating new universes with slightly different laws of physics.  Because these laws are only slightly different, each is assumed to be like a mutation of the original universe, as if each universe was a kind of single-celled organism.  It would reproduce by \"splitting\" in some sense.\n\nThis theory relies on many models of our universe to model these \"mutated\" alternative universes, the ones that Smolin supposes are generated or \"spun off\" by black holes. \n\nNo human can ever be part of any of these \"other\" universes.  Observations from astrophysics can only say if the black holes exist or are common, and give some idea of how much the laws of physics can vary and still let the new universes produce new black holes.  \n\nSmolin predicts that there would be many black holes in the universe humans can see, since they are likely in a very late born universe, by simple probability.  If there are many black holes, that is evidence for his theory, \n\nAs this shows, cosmology has a very different standard of evidence and burden of proof than is required for models of our universe only, which humans (using mathematics) can observe and exchange knowledge on.\n\nIt is hard to separate science from religion on such questions.  It may be a simple matter of preference whether one wants to see one's universe as part of a system like biology or like mechanics - clockwork.  Smolin's theory is important mostly because it challenges the mechanistic paradigm.  \n\nEven if it is wrong, it raises the idea that living beings might have to see their universe as also living to be able to understand or care about it at all.  Some compare Smolin's theory to Gaia philosophy which combines biology, geology and ecology to explain the Earth, our planet, as a living thing.  If both are right, humans are on a living planet in a living universe.  This idea is very appealing - which does not mean it is really \"right\".\n\nCosmology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":138,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6}},"id":278,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fecund%20universes","title":"Fecund universes","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, \u039a\u03bb\u03b5\u03bf\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1 \u03a6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03c1; (Late 69 BC \u2013 August 12, 30 BC), kent tae history as Cleopatra, wis last the pharaoh o Auncient Egyp.\n\nShe wis a member o the Ptolemaic dynasty o Ancient Egyp, an therefore wis a descendant o ane o Alexander the Great's generals who haed seisit control ower Egyp efter Alexander's daith. Maist Ptolemeis spoke Greek an refused tae learn Egyptian, which is the raison that Greek as well as Egyptian leids wur uised on offeecial court documents lik the Rosetta Stane. Bi contrast, Cleopatra learned Egyptian an representit hersel as the reincarnation o an Egyptian Goddess.\n\nCleopatra oreeginally ruled jointly wi her faither Ptolemy XII Auletes an later wi her brithers, Ptolemy XIII an Ptolemy XIV, whom she marriet as per Egyptian custom, but eventually she became sole ruler. As pharaoh, she consummatit a liaison wi Gaius Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne. She later elevatit her son wi Caesar, Caesarion, tae co-ruler in name.\n\nEfter Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, she aligned wi Mark Antony in opposition tae Caesar's legal heir, Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus (later kent as Augustus). Wi Antony, she bore the twins Cleopatra Selene II an Alexander Helios, an anither son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. Her unions wi her brithers produced nae childer. Efter losin the Battle o Actium tae Octavian's forces, Antony committit suicide. Cleopatra follaed suit, accordin tae tradeetion killin hersel bi means o an asp bite on 12 August 30 BC. She wis briefly ootlived bi Caesarion, who wis declared pharaoh, but he wis suin killed on Octavian's orders. Egyp became the Roman province o Aegyptus.\n\nTho Cleopatra bore the auncient Egyptian title o pharaoh, the Ptolemaic dynasty wis Hellenistic, haein been foundit 300 years afore bi Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general o Alexander the Great. As sic, Cleopatra's leid wis the Greek spoken bi the Hellenic aristocracy, tho she wis reputit tae be the first ruler o the dynasty tae learn Egyptian. She an' a' adoptit common Egyptian beliefs an deities. Her patron deity wis Isis, an sicweys, durin her reign, it wis believed that she wis the re-incarnation an embodiment o the goddess. Her daith merked the end o the Ptolemaic Kinrick an Hellenistic period an the beginnin o the Roman era in the eastren Mediterranean.\n\nTae this day, Cleopatra remains a popular figure in Wastren cultur. Her legacy survives in numerous wirks o airt an the mony dramatizations o her story in literature an ither media, includin William Shakespeare's tragedy Antony and Cleopatra, Jules Massenet's opera Cl\u00e9op\u00e2tre an the 1963 film Cleopatra. In maist depictions, Cleopatra is put forrit as a great beauty an her successive conquests o the warld's maist pouerful men ar taken tae be proof o her aesthetic an sexual appeal. In his Pens\u00e9es, philosopher Blaise Pascal contends that Cleopatra's classically bonnie profile changed warld history: \"Cleopatra's nose, haed it been shorter, the whole face o the warld woud hae been chyngit.\"\n\nBiography\n\nAccession tae the throne \nThe identity of Cleopatra's mither is unkent, but she is generally believed tae be Cleopatra V Tryphaena of Egypt, the sister or cousin and wife of Ptolemy XII, or possibly anither Ptolemaic faimily member who wis the dochter of Ptolemy X and Cleopatra Berenice III Philopator if Cleopatra V wis nae the dochter of Ptolemy X an Berenice III. Cleopatra's faither Auletes wis a direct descendant of Alexander the Great's general, Ptolemy I Soter, son of Arsinoe and Lacus, baith of Macedon.\n\nCentralization o pouer an corruption led the uprisings in an the losses of Cyprus and Cyrenaica, makin Ptolemy's reign the end o the maist calamitous o the dynasty. When Ptolemy went tae Roum wi Cleopatra, Cleopatra VI Tryphaena seized the croun but died shortly afterwards in suspicious circumstances. It is believed, tho nae proven bi historical soorces, that Berenice IV pushiont her sae she coud acome the sole ruler. Regairdless o the cause, she did till Ptolemy Auletes returned in 55 BC, wi Roman support, capturing Alexandria aided bi Roman general Aulus Gabinius. Berenice wis imprisoned and executit shortly efterwards, her aid allegedly bein sent tae the royal court on the decree of her faither, the keeng. Cleopatra wis nou, at age 14, put as jynt regent and deputy tae her faither, awtho her power wis likely tae hae been severely leemitit.\n\nPtolemy XII died on Mairch 51\u00a0BC, sicweys bi his will makin the 18-year-auld Cleopatra and her brither, the 10-year-auld Ptolemy XIII jynt monarchs. The first three years of thair reign war difficult, due tae economic difficulties, faimin, deficient floods o the Nile, and poleetical conflicts. Awtho Cleopatra wis mairit tae her young brither, she quickly made it clear that she haed no intention of sharin power with0 him.\n\nIn August 51 BC, relations atween Cleopatra and Ptolemy completely broke doun. Cleopatra dropped Ptolemy's name frae offeecial documents and her face appeared alone on coins, which went against Ptolemaic tradeetion of female rulers bein subordinate tae male co-rulers. In 50 BC Cleopatra came intae a serious conflict wi the Gabiniani, powerful Roman troops of Aulus Gabinius who haed left them in Egypt tae pertect Ptolemy XII efter his restoration tae the throne in 55 BC. This conflict wis ane o the main causes of Cleopatra's faw frae power shortly afterward.\n\nThe sole reign of Cleopatra wis finally ended bi a cabal of courtiers, lead bi the eunuch Pothinus, removing Cleopatra frae power and makin Ptolemy sole ruler in circa 48\u00a0BC (or possibly earlier, as a decree exists frae 51\u00a0BC wi Ptolemy's name alone). She tried tae stairt a rebellion aroond Pelusium, but she wis suin forced tae flee wi her anly remainin sister, Arsino\u00eb.\n\nRelations wi Rome\n\nAssassination o Pompey \nWhile Cleopatra wis in exile, Pompey became embroiled in the Roman ceevil war. In the hairst o 48\u00a0BC, Pompey fled frae the forces o Caesar tae Alexandria, seekin sanctuary. Ptolemy, anerlie thirteen year auld at that time, haed set up a throne for hissel on the harbour, frae whaur he watcht as on September 28, 48 BC, Pompey wis murthert bi ane o his umwhile officers, nou in Ptolemaic service. He wis beheidit in front o his wife an childer, who wur on the ship frae which he haed juist disembarked. Ptolemy is thocht tae hae ordered the daith tae ingratiate hissel wi Caesar, sicweys becomin an ally o Roum, tae which Egyp wis in debt at the time, tho this act proved a miscalculation on Ptolemy's pairt. When Caesar arrived in Egyp twa days later, Ptolemy presentit him wi Pompey's severed heid; Caesar wis enraged. Awtho he wis Caesar's poleetical enemy, Pompey wis a Roman consul an the widower o Caesar's anerlie legitimate dochter, Julia (who dee'd in childbirth wi Pompey's son). Caesar seized the Egyptian caipital an imposed hissel as airbiter atween the rival claims o Ptolemy an Cleopatra.\n\nRelationship wi Julius Caesar \n\nEager tae tak advantage o Julius Caesar's anger toward Ptolemy, Cleopatra haed hersel smuggled secretly intae the palace tae meet wi Caesar. Ane legend claims she entered past Ptolemy's guards rolled up in a cairpet. She became Caesar's mistress, an nine month efter thair first meetin, in 47 BC, Cleopatra gae birth tae thair son, Ptolemy Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion, which means \"little Caesar\".\n\nAt this pynt Caesar abandoned his plans tae annex Egyp, instead backin Cleopatra's claim tae the throne. Efter a war lastin sax month atween the pairty o Ptolemy XIII an the Roman airmy o Caesar, Ptolemy XIII wis drouned in the Nile an Caesar restored Cleopatra tae her throne, wi anither younger brither Ptolemy XIV as her new co-ruler.\n\nAwtho Cleopatra wis 21 year auld whan thay met an Caesar wis 52, thay became lovers durin Caesar's stay in Egyp atween 48\u00a0BC an 47\u00a0BC. Cleopatra claimed Caesar wis the faither o her son an wished him tae name the boy his heir, but Caesar refused, chuisin his grandnephew Octavian instead. Durin this relationship, it wis an aa rumored that Cleopatra introduced Caesar tae her astronomer Sosigenes o Alexandria, who first proposed the idea o leap days an leap years.\n\nCleopatra, Ptolemy XIV an Caesarion visitit Roum in simmer 46\u00a0BC, whaur the Egyptian queen residit in ane o Caesar's kintra hooses. The relationship atween Cleopatra an Caesar wis obvious tae the Roman fowk an it wis a scandal, acause the Roman dictator wis awready marriet tae Calpurnia Pisonis.  But Caesar even erectit a gowden statue o Cleopatra representit as Isis in the temple o Venus Genetrix (the meethical ancestress o Caesar's faimily), which wis situatit at the Forum Julium.  The Roman orator Cicero said in his preserved letters that he hatit the foreign queen. Cleopatra an her entourage wur in Roum whan Caesar wis assassinatit on 15 Mairch 44 BC. She returned wi her relatives tae Egyp. When Ptolemy XIV dee'd \u2013 allegedly pushiont bi his aulder sister \u2013 Cleopatra made Caesarion her co-regent an successor an gae him the epithets Theos Philopator Philometor (= Faither- an mitherlovin God).\n\nCleopatra in the Roman Ceevil War \nIn the Roman ceevil war atween the Caesarian pairty, led bi Mark Antony an Octavian, an the pairty o the assassins o Caesar, led bi Marcus Junius Brutus an Gaius Cassius Longinus, Cleopatra sidit wi the Caesarian pairty acause o her past. Brutus an Cassius left Italy an sailed tae the East o the Roman Empire, whaur thay conquered lairge auries an established military bases. At the beginnin o 43 BC, Cleopatra formed an alliance wi the leader o the Caesarian pairty in the East, Publius Cornelius Dolabella, who recognised Caesarion as her co-ruler. But suin, Dolabella wis encircled in Laodicea an committit suicide (Julie 43 BC).\n\nCassius then wantit tae invade Egyp tae seize the treasures o that kintra an tae punish the queen for her refusal tae send him supplies an her support for Dolabella. Egyp seemed an easy target acause the land did no hae strang land forces an thare wis faimin an an epidemic. Cassius an aa wantit tae prevent Cleopatra frae bringin reinforcements for Antony an Octavian. But he coud no execute an invasion o Egyp, acause at the end o 43 BC Brutus summoned him back tae Smyrna. Cassius tried tae blockade Cleopatra's route tae the Caesarians. For this purpose Lucius Staius Murcus moved wi 60 ships an a legion o elite troops intae poseetion at Cape Matapan in the sooth o the Peloponnese.  Nivertheless, Cleopatra sailed wi her fleet frae Alexandria tae the wast alang the Libian coast tae jyne the Caesarian leaders, but she wis forced tae return tae Egyp acause her ships wur damaged bi a violent storm an she became ill.  Staius Murcus learned o the queen's misfortune an saw wreckage frae her ships on the coast o Greece. He then sailed wi his ships intae the Adriatic Sea.\n\nCleopatra an Mark Antony \n\nIn 41\u00a0BC, Mark Antony, ane o the triumvirs who ruled Roum in the pouer vacuum follaein Caesar's daith, sent his intimate friend Quintus Dellius tae Egyp. Dellius haed tae summon Cleopatra tae Tarsus tae meet Antony an answer questions aboot her lealty. Durin the Roman ceevil war she allegedly haed peyed muckle money tae Cassius. It seems that in reality Antony wantit Cleopatra's promise tae support his intendit war against the Parthians. Cleopatra arrived in great state, an sae charmed Antony that he chuise tae spend the winter o 41\u00a0BC\u201340\u00a0BC wi her in Alexandria.\n\nTae safeguard hersel an Caesarion, she haed Antony order the daith o her sister Arsinoe, who wis livin at the temple o Artemis in Ephesus, which wis unner Roman control. The execution wis carried oot in 41\u00a0BC on the steps o the temple, an this violation o temple sanctuary scandalised Roum. Cleopatra haed an aa executit her strategos o Cyprus, Serapion, who haed supportit Cassius against her wishes.\n\nOn 25 December 40 BC, Cleopatra gae birth tae twins faithered bi Antony, Alexander Helios an Cleopatra Selene II. Fower years later, Antony visitit Alexandria again en route tae mak war wi the Parthians. He renewed his relationship wi Cleopatra, an frae this pynt on Alexandria wad be his hame. He marriet Cleopatra accordin tae the Egyptian rite (a letter quotit in Suetonius suggests this), awtho he wis at the time marriet tae Octavia Minor, sister o his fellae triumvir Octavian. He an Cleopatra haed anither bairn, Ptolemy Philadelphus.\n\nAt the Donations o Alexandria in late 34\u00a0BC, follaein Antony's conquest o Armenie, Cleopatra an Caesarion wur crouned co-rulers o Egyp an Cyprus; Alexander Helios wis crouned ruler o Armenie, Media, an Parthie; Cleopatra Selene II wis crouned ruler o Cyrenaica an Libie; an Ptolemy Philadelphus wis crouned ruler o Phoenicie, Sirie, an Cilicie. Cleopatra wis an aa gien the title o \"Queen o Keengs\" bi Antonius. Her enemies in Roum feared that Cleopatra \"wis plannin a war o revenge that wis tae array aw the East against Rome, establish hersel as empress o the warld at Rome, cast juistice frae Capitolium, an inaugurate a new universal kinrick.\" Caesarion wis no anerlie elevatit haein coregency wi Cleopatra, but an aa proclaimed wi mony titles, includin god, son o god an keeng o keengs, an wis depictit as Horus. Egyptians thocht Cleopatra tae be a reincarnation o the goddess Isis, as she cried hersel Nea Isis.\n\nRelations atween Antony an Octavian, disintegratin for several years, feenally broke doun in 33\u00a0BC, an Octavian convinced the Senate tae levy war against Egyp. In 31 BC Antony's forces faced the Romans in a naval action aff the coast o Actium. Cleopatra wis present wi a fleet o her awn. Popular legend states that whan she saw that Antony's poorly equipped an manned ships wur losin tae the Romans' superior vessels, she teuk flicht an that Antony abandoned the battle tae follae her, but nae contemporary evidence states this wis the case. Follaein the Battle o Actium, Octavian invadit Egyp. As he approached Alexandria, Antony's airmies desertit tae Octavian on 1 August 30\u00a0BC.\n\nDaith \nThe auncient soorces, parteecularly the Roman anes, are in general agreement that Cleopatra killed hersel bi inducin an Egyptian cobra tae bite her. The auldest soorce is Strabo, who wis alive at the time o the event, an micht even hae been in Alexandria. He says that thare are twa stories: that she applee'd a toxic ointment, or that she wis bitten bi an asp. Several Roman poets, writin athin ten years o the event, aw mention bites bi twa asps, as daes Florus, a historian, some 150 years later. Velleius, saxty years efter the event, an aa refers tae an asp. Ither authors hae questioned thir historical accoonts, statin that it is possible that Augustus haed her killed.\n\nIn 2010, the German historian Christoph Schaefer challenged aw ither theories, declarin that the queen haed actually been pushiont an dee'd frae drinkin a mixture o poisons. Efter studyin historical texts an consultin wi toxicologists, the historian concludit that the asp coud no hae caused a slow an pain-free daith, syne the asp (Egyptian cobra) venom paralyses pairts o the body, stairtin wi the een, afore causin daith. Schaefer an his toxicologist Dietrich Mebs decidit Cleopatra uised a mixture o hemlock, wolfsbane an opium.\n\nPlutarch, writin aboot 130\u00a0years efter the event, reports that Octavian succeedit in capturin Cleopatra in her mausoleum efter the daith o Antony. He ordered his freedman Epaphroditus tae guard her tae prevent her frae committin suicide, acause he allegedly wantit tae present her in his triumph. But Cleopatra wis able tae deceive Epaphroditus an kill hersel nivertheless. Plutarch states that she wis foond deid, her handmaiden Iras dyin at her feet, an anither handmaiden, Charmion, adjusting her croun afore she hersel fell. He then goes on tae state that an asp wis concealed in a basket o figs that wis brocht tae her bi a rustic, an, fyndin it efter eatin a few figs, she held oot her airm for it tae bite. Ither stories state that it wis hidden in a vase, an that she poked it wi a spindle till it got angry enough tae bite her on the airm. Feenally, he indicates that in Octavian's triumphal mairch back in Roum, an effigy o Cleopatra that haed an asp clingin tae it wis pairt o the parade.\n\nSuetonius, writin aboot the same time as Plutarch, an aa says Cleopatra dee'd frae an asp bite.\n\nShakespeare gae us the feenal pairt o the image that haes come doun tae us, Cleopatra clutchin the snake tae her breast. Afore him, it wis generally agreed that she wis bitten on the airm.\n\nPlutarch tells us o the daith o Antony. When his airmies desertit him an jynt wi Octavian, he cried oot that Cleopatra haed betrayed him. She, fearing his wrath, locked hersel in her monument wi anerlie her twa handmaidens an sent messengers tae tell Antony that she wis deid. Believin them, Antony stabbed hissel in the painch wi his swuird, an lay on his couch tae dee. Instead, the bluid flow stopped, an he begged ony an aw tae finish him aff. Anither messenger came frae Cleopatra wi instructions tae bring him tae her, an he, rejoicin that Cleopatra wis still alive, consentit. She wadna open the door, but tossed ropes oot o a windae. Efter Antony wis securely trussed up, she an her handmaidens hauled him up intae the monument. This nearly feenished him aff. Efter draggin him in throu the windae, thay laid him on a couch. Cleopatra tore aff her claes an covered him wi them. She raved an cried, beat her breasts an engaged in sel-mutilation. Antony tauld her tae calm doun, asked for a gless o wine, an dee'd upon finishin it.\n\nThe site o thair mausoleum is uncertain, tho it is thocht bi the Egyptian Antiquities Service, tae be in or near the temple o Taposiris Magna soothwast o Alexandria.\n\nCleopatra's son bi Caesar, Caesarion, wis proclaimed pharaoh bi the Egyptians, efter Alexandria fell tae Octavian. Caesarion wis captured an killed, his fate reportedly sealed whan ane o Octavian's advisers paraphrased Homer: \"It is bad tae hae ower mony Caesars.\" This endit no juist the Hellenistic line o Egyptian pharaohs, but the line o aw Egyptian pharaohs. The three childer o Cleopatra an Antony wur spared an taken back tae Roum whaur thay wur taken care o bi Antony's wife, Octavia Minor. The dochter, Cleopatra Selene, wis marriet throu arrangements o Octavian tae Juba II o Mauretanie.\n\nCharacter an cultural depictions \n\nCleopatra wis regardit as a great beauty, even in the auncient warld. In his Life of Antony, Plutarch remarks that \"judgin bi the proofs which she haed haed afore this o the effect o her beauty upon Caius Caesar an Gnaeus the son o Pompey, she haed hopes that she wad mair easily bring Antony tae her feet. For Caesar an Pompey haed kent her when she was still a girl an inexperienced in affairs, but she wis goin tae visit Antony at the vera time when weemen hae the maist brilliant beauty\". Later in the wirk, housomeivver, Plutarch indicates that \"her beauty, as we are tauld, was in itsel no aathegither incomparable, nor such as tae strike those who saw her.\" Rather, what ultimately made Cleopatra attractive wur her wit, chairm an \"sweetness in the tones o her voice.\"\n\nCassius Dio an aa spoke o Cleopatra's allure: \"For she wis a wumman o surpassin beauty, an at that time, when she wis in the prime o her youth, she wis maist strikin; she an aa possessed a maist chairmin voice an knawledge o hou tae make hersel agreeable tae ivery ane. Being brilliant tae look upon and to listen to, wi the pouer tae subjugate ivery ane, even a love-satit man awready past his prime, she thought that it wad be in keepin wi her role tae meet Caesar, an she reposed in her beauty aw her claims tae the throne.\"\n\nThir accoonts influenced later cultural depictions o Cleopatra, which teepically present her uisin her chairms tae influence the maist pouerful men in the Wastren warld.\n\nReferences\n\nFreemit airtins\n\nGeneral \nCleopatra VII\u00a0(VI) at LacusCurtius \u2013 Chapter\u00a0XIII of E.\u00a0R.\u00a0Bevan's House of Ptolemy, 1923\nCleopatra , a Victorian childer's beuk bi Jacob Abbott, 1852, Project Gutenberg edition.\nJames Grout: Cleopatra pairt o the Encyclop\u00e6dia Romana\n\"Mysterious Death of Cleopatra\"  at the Discovery Channel \nCleopatra VII at BBC History\n\nPaintins \nSir Thomas Browne: Of the Picture describing the death of Cleopatra (1672)\nJohn Sartain: On the Antique Portrait of Cleopatra (1818)\n\n69 BC births\n30 BC daiths\nEgyp\n1st-century BC female rulers\nAuncient Egyptian queens consort\nAuncient Egyptian weemen in warfare\nDaiths due tae snake bites\nEgyptian queens regnant\nFemale Shakespearean chairacters\nPharaohs o the Ptolemaic dynasty\nRyal suicides in the clessical warld\nWeemen in Hellenistic warfare","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":127,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":11129,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cleopatra","title":"Cleopatra","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"People with color blindness cannot tell the difference between certain colors. They may not see colors at all. \n\nMost color blindness is inherited, usually as simple Mendelian inheritance. Sometimes, it is the result of damage to the eyes, nerves, or the brain. It can be caused by coming into contact with certain chemicals. \n\nMost color blindness is permanent. Some conditions can lead to temporary color blindness. During certain kinds of migraine, some people are unable to tell the difference between certain colors. There is no treatment cure for permanent color blindness.\n\nMany more males are color blind than females. Between five and eight percent of males, but less than one percent of females, are color blind.\n\nPeople usually think of color blindness as a disability. However, people who are color blind have one advantage: they are sometimes better at seeing through some types of camouflage.\n\nHistory\nIn 1798, English chemist John Dalton published the first scientific article about color blindness. That was after he found out that he was color blind. The article was called \"Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours [sic]\". Because of this, the condition is sometimes called daltonism. As of 2009, the word daltonism is used only for the type of color blindness called deuteranopia.\n\nSeeing color\nThere are three steps in the process of telling the difference between colors:\nLight hits specialized nerve cells in the eye. Those cells are called receptors. Some of them are stimulated and create an electrical signal.\nThe signals move along nerves to special parts of the brain.\nThose parts of the brain interpret the signals. The signals are changed into an image. This image is then carefully looked at to separate different objects, to see shapes and sometimes colors, and to link these to other kinds of information.\n\nHow the human eye sees colors \n\nInside the human eye is a part called the retina. The retina receives the images that the eye sees. It sends the images to the brain. The retina has two types of cells: Rod cells and Cone cells. They work in different types of light. \n\nRod cells receive the images that the eye sees when the light is dim, at night, or in a dark room. \nCone cells receive the images that the eye sees in normal daylight or in bright light. There are three types of cone cells. Each type has a different chemical photopsin and reacts to a different spectrum of light. One is specially sensitive to short wavelengths. Another is sensitive to medium wavelengths. The third is sensitive to long wavelengths. These wavelengths cover much of the visible light. Each color is \"seen\" as a result of how much each of the receptors is stimulated.\n\nHow the brain works out the colors \nParts of the thalamus and the visual cortex in the brain are involved in seeing, also seeing colors. Color blindness can therefore also result if these areas of the brain, the optic nerve or the retina have been damaged. These types of color blindness happen because of an accident. They are not inherited. Inherited forms of color blindness affect the retina only. \n\nThat way it is possible that only a part of the visual field is affected by color blindness, but in the rest, there is no color blindness. \n\nSome types of color blindness, but not inherited color blindness, can be cured.\n\nCauses of color blindness\nThere are several different problems that can cause color blindness. \nIf a person's eye has no cone cells, then they cannot see any color at all. They can only see shades of dark and light. \nThere are three types of cone cells in the human eye. If there are two types, a person will have a hard time to tell certain colors apart. If there is only one type, a person will not see color at all. \nSometimes cone cells change. This means that they no longer react to those wavelengths they should. A person will need more of a certain color to see this color. They see colors differently, and may not be able to tell certain colors apart. Most of these people do not know they are color blind, as they have little difficulty telling colors apart in most cases. \nThere may be nothing wrong with the eye, but the nerves that transport the information or the area in the brain that interprets it may be damaged. This means that the signal is interpreted the wrong way. The damage may be permanent, or it may be temporary. Certain conditions of the brain, like a migraine can change the way people see colors.\n\nDifferent types of color blindness\n\nTotal color blindness\nTotal color blindness is very rare. People who suffer from it can only see in black, gray and white. They can perceive only differences in brightness and do not see color.  This is called monochromacy.\n \nThere are two main types of total color blindness:\n Rod monochromacy (achromatopsia): The retina has no cone cells. This makes it difficult to see even lights of a normal level; this means that people who suffer from it are almost blind. It occurs almost only on the island of Pingelap, a part of the Pohnpei state in the Federated States of Micronesia. There it is called maskun: about one person in 12 of the population has it. The island was hit by a storm in the 18th century. Very few men survived the storm. One of them carried a gene for rod monochromacy. Today, several hundred people live on the island, about 30% have this gene.\n Cone monochromacy: The retina has both rods and cones, but only one type kind of cone. People who suffer from this will be able to see patterns well, in normal daylight, but they will not see hues.\n\nRed\/green color blindness\nThere are two kinds of red-green color blindness: protanopia or deuteranopia. Deuteranopia is the most common form of color blindness; between five and ten percent of males suffer from it. It is called Daltonism because John Dalton discovered it. Those affected have trouble telling the difference between red and green. As seen by protanopes (people suffering from protanopia), red is darkened. Most often, this is because they lack the receptors for long (protanopia) or medium (deuteranopia)-length light waves or because these receptors have changed their sensitivity.\n\nBlue\/yellow color blindness\nAlthough the name is blue-yellow color blindness (tritanopia), people affected by this type of color blindness can usually tell the difference between blue and yellow. Instead they cannot tell the difference between blue and green, and also yellow and violet.  It is different from the other types of color blindness because it is not linked to sex.  It is equally possible for males or females to develop blue-yellow color blindness. It is caused by having few or no cones in the retina which can sense short wavelength light.\n\nOther causes of color blindness\nSometimes, people do not have problems seeing color, but their brain has trouble \"telling\" the color, and interprets it wrong. It is also possible that only certain parts of the eye have color blindness; people may become color blind because of other diseases, but after the disease goes away, see normally again. This seems to be the case with certain forms of migraine.\n\nHow color blindness is inherited\nMales have one X and one Y chromosome; females have two X chromosomes. Many of the genes involved in making color vision work are on the X chromosome: they are sex linked. For this reason, men are more often affected by color blindness than women. \n\nThe \"color blind\" gene allows non-color blind people to see the difference between red and green. The gene is located on the X chromosome.  This means that a male will be color blind if the single X he inherits from his mother contains the color blind version of the \"color blind\" gene. A female will inherit color blindness only if she inherits two X chromosomes containing defective (mutant) color gene alleles. In other words, a female needs to inherit \"color blind\" genes from both parents in order to be color blind.\n\nTesting someone for color blindness\n\nThe Ishihara plate test has been in use since 1917.  Each plate has an image with dots of different size and color. People will then see different images (most often numbers). Those with certain types of color blindness will see different numbers from those not affected by color blindness. \n\nBecause many young children have not learned numbers yet, other tests have been developed. They use symbols, like a square, a circle or a car instead of numbers.\n\nDesign changes\nA color code is when there is much information in the color of certain item. Such codes cannot be understood easily by those who are color blind. For this reason, color should not be used alone to give information.  Good graphic design avoids using color coding or color differences alone to give information. This does not only help color blind people, but also normally sighted people.\n\nCascading Style Sheets can be used on web pages. They allow to give a different color scheme for color blind people. Certain color scheme generators help graphic designers see color schemes as eight types of color blind people see them.   \n\nColor blindness is very sensitive to changes in material. A red-green color blind person may be unable to see the difference between colors on a map printed on paper. The same map on a computer screen or television may appear normally. In addition, some color blind people find it easier to tell the difference between colors on artificial materials, such as plastic or in acrylic paints, than on natural materials, such as paper or wood. Thirdly, for some color blind people, color can only be distinguished if there is enough color: thin lines might appear black, but a thicker line of the same color can be seen in the correct color.\n\nIn certain cases when it is important to understand information very quickly, the visual system may drop the colors, and only work in shades of gray. This is important to know when designing the interfaces for objects that need to be used in an emergency situation, like emergency brakes, or emergency telephones. \n\nBecause color blind people may not see the difference between colors such as red and green, some countries, such as Romania have refused to give them driving licenses. In Romania, people have started to change the laws so that color blind people will also be able to drive legally.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, electricity wires in houses used to be red, black and green. They were changed to brown, blue and green\/yellow to help color blind people see the difference between the \"live\" and \"earth\" wires.\n\nWhat color blindness is not\nMany people do not understand color blindness. People who are color blind never swap the colors they are blind to.  They may have trouble telling two colors from one another. That way they may have a problem finding the right kind of apple in the supermarket. The image below first shows the way that two apples look to a person with normal vision, and then the way it looks to a person with red-green color blindness. The left apple is a Braeburn; it is red in color. The apple on the right is a Granny Smith; it is green. To someone with red-green blindness, the apples look like they are almost the same color.\n\nReferences\n\nDiseases and disorders of the eye\nGenetic disorders\nTests","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":166,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":6,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5}},"id":9386,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Color%20blindness","title":"Color blindness","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Plumbing (which comes from the Latin word plumbum, which means lead, as pipes were once made from lead) is the job of working with pipes, tubing and plumbing fixtures for drinking water systems and getting rid of waste. A plumber is someone who fixes or puts in piping systems, plumbing fixtures and equipment such as water heaters. Many plumbers are construction workers. The plumbing industry is an important part of every developed economy because people need clean water and safe ways to move and store waste.\n\nPlumbing also refers to a system of pipes and fixtures put in a building to move water and the get rid of waste that is in water. Plumbing is different from water and sewage systems because plumbing system serves one building, while water and sewage systems serve a group of buildings or a city.\n\nHistory \n\nPlumbing was very rare until modern cities grew in the 19th century. At about the same time, public health leaders began wanting better systems to get rid of waste. Before this, people got rid of waste by collecting it and dumping it onto the ground or into rivers. However, there were some plumbing pipes in the city settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 B.C. Plumbing was also used during the ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese civilizations as they built public baths and needed drinking water, and somewhere to drain waste. The Romans used pipe inscriptions to stop people from stealing water. \n\nThese systems did not improve much over the years. There were almost no improvements from the time of the Roman aqueducts and sewers until the 19th century. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems got rid of open sewage ditches and cesspools. Most large cities today send solid wastes through pipes to sewage treatment plants. Treatment separates water from waste and makes the water more pure before it goes into streams or other bodies of water. Most places stopped using lead for drinking water after World War II because of the dangers of lead poisoning. At this time, copper piping was started because it was safer than using lead pipes.\n\nMaterials \nWater systems in ancient times used gravity to move water. They used pipes or channels usually made of clay, lead, bamboo or stone. Today, water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and pipes are now made of copper, brass, plastic, or other nontoxic material. Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast-iron, and lead. Lead is not used in pipes today because it can be poisonous.\n\nThe 'straight' sections of plumbing systems are of pipe or tube.  A pipe is usually made by casting or welding, where a tube is made through extrusion.  Pipe usually has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded, where tubes have thinner walls, and needs special joining techniques such as 'brazing', 'compression fitting', 'crimping', or for plastics, 'solvent welding'.\n\nAs well as the straight pipe or tubing, many fittings are required in plumbing systems, such as valves, elbows, tees, and unions.\n\nPlumbing fixtures are designed for the people who use the water.  Some examples of fixtures include water closets (also known as toilets), urinals, bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks, drinking fountains, ice makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and eye wash stations.\n\nRegulation \nMuch of the plumbing work in places where many people live is done under government rules. Putting in plumbing and fixing plumbing generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes to protect the people who live or work in the buildings.\n\nReferences \n\nWater infrastructure\nWaste\nEngineering","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":146289,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plumbing","title":"Plumbing","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Danger (also risk or peril) is the possibility of something bad happening. A situation in which there is a risk of something bad happening, is called dangerous, risky or perilous.\n\nPeople often take risks, or do things that might hurt them. An example of this is crossing the road without looking carefully. There is a risk that you might get hit by a car.  \n\nAnything that involves a risk of injury or to health can be described as dangerous. Smoking is dangerous to health.  Being around some animals is dangerous because they might attack humans.\n\nMeasuring danger \nThere are a few different ways that danger can be quantified - put into numbers.\n\nProbability \nprobability measures how dangerous something is.  It uses a math equation to find the risk that a certain event might happen.  In epidemiology, risk is defined as the number of events that did happen, divided by the number of events that could have happened. For example, if the risk of babies dying after birth in a population is reported as 1\/1000, it means that out of every 1000 babies born, 1 is likely to die.\n\nRisk and prevalence \nPrevalence is the number of people in a population that have a certain disease.\n\nRisk is the number of new cases of disease, divided by the number of people who could get the disease.  For example, during an outbreak of the flu, risk would be the number of people who get the flu, divided by the number of people who were exposed to the flu virus.\n\nRisk assessment \nA risk assessment is a list of things that could go wrong. In many Western countries, when teachers take children on an outing, they may have to fill in a risk assessment form which lists the possible dangers and says what they should do to stop bad things from happening (e.g. accidents or children getting lost).\n\nRelated pages \n\nAdventure\nThreat\nSafety\n\nEpidemiology\nSafety","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":49,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":4,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":1}},"id":322486,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Danger","title":"Danger","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Eastern Orthodox Church, officially the Orthodox Church, is a Christian church. Their type of Christianity is also called Orthodox Christianity or Orthodoxy. Their members are called Orthodox Christians, although there is another group of Churches called Oriental Orthodox that is not in communion with the Orthodox Church. There are about 300 million Orthodox Christians in the world. Most Orthodox Christians are found in Eastern Europe and the Middle East.\n\nThe Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the Church started by Jesus Christ in his instructions to the Apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith and maintains the sacred tradition passed down from the apostles.\n\nThe worship service is known as the Divine Liturgy. The beliefs and rituals of the service are similar to the Eucharist in the Roman Catholic Church.\n\nHistory \nIn 395, the Roman Empire was split into a western part and an eastern part. The western part lasted to the 5th or 6th century. \u03a4he exact dates are a point of debate. The eastern part, which is commonly called Byzantine Empire, lasted until the 15th century. The split of the Roman Empire also affected the church, which developed differently in both parts. In 1054, there was the Great Schism. The western part developed what is now the Roman Catholic Church, and the eastern part is now called Eastern Orthodox Church. In the west, there is the Patriarch of Rome, who is commonly called the Pope. In the east, there is the Patriarch of Constantinople. Because of historical developments, many Eastern Orthodox churches also have a local Patriarch. In the west, the Pope is an absolute leader. The Patriarch of Constantinople is the \"first among equals\"; his power is not absolute, as seen when meeting with other Patriarchs. His power is the same of all bishops.\n\nImportant things to know about the Orthodox Churches \nSome holidays include Christmas and Easter.\n\nOrthodox believe in everything in the Nicene Creed:\nI believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, Creator of heaven and earth and of all things visible and invisible.\nAnd in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all ages.\nLight of Light, true God of true God, begotten not created, of one essence with the Father through whom all things were made.\nFor us men and for our salvation He came down from heaven and was incarnate with the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary and became man.\nHe was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and He suffered and was buried.\nOn the third day He rose according to the Scriptures.\nHe ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father.\nHe will come again in glory to judge the living and dead. His kingdom shall have no end.\nAnd in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of life, who proceeds from the Father, who together with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified, who spoke through the prophets.\nIn One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church.\nI acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins.\nI expect the resurrection of the dead.\nAnd the life of the ages to come. Amen.\nIn summary, they believe in one God. He has three parts (Father, Son & Spirit) which are one and the same (of one essence). As the Son (Jesus), he arrived from Heaven, died, and resurrected. He will eventually return as a Judge for all of humanity, as mentioned in the Bible.\n\nThe Church Today \n\nThe many churches of the Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist in full communion with one another. Most of these churches are led by patriarchs. Most patriarchs recognize the Patriarch of Constantinople as their spiritual leader.\n\nThe following listing contains a selection of Eastern Orthodox Churches. Unless otherwise stated, they are in communion:\n Mount Athos (a community of monasteries)\n Albanian Orthodox Church\n Antiochian Orthodox Church\n Bulgarian Orthodox Church\n Greek Orthodox Church\n Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria\n Church of Mount Sinai (one monastery)\n Russian Orthodox Church\n Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia\n Romanian Orthodox Church\n\nIn the 17th century a group of people split from the Eastern Orthodox Church because they did not agree with some changes that were introduced. These people are known as Old Believers today. There are two big groups of Old Believers and a few smaller ones. Old Believers are not in communion with the other Eastern Orthodox Churches.\n\nRelated pages\n Christianity\n Eastern Christianity\n History of Christianity\n Old Calendarists\n Oriental Orthodox Church\n\nReferences \nThe Orthodox Church; 455 Questions and Answers. Harakas, Stanley H. Light and Life Publishing Company, 1988. ()\n\nThe Orthodox Church New Edition Publisher: Penguin (Non-Classics); 2 edition\n\nOther websites\n\n OrthodoxWiki\n Orthodox Research Institute\n List of most patriarchates \n Directory of Orthodox Internet Resources \n PATRIARCHIA.RU","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":201,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-26":3,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":4,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":5,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":6,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":8,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":6,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":5,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":5,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":5,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":5,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2}},"id":7270,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eastern%20Orthodox%20Church","title":"Eastern Orthodox Church","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An orchestra is a group of musicians playing instruments together. They make music. A large orchestra is sometimes called a \"symphony orchestra\" and a small orchestra is called a \"chamber orchestra\". A symphony orchestra may have about 100 players, while a chamber orchestra may have 30 or 40 players. The number of players will depend on what music they are playing and the size of the place where they are playing. The word \"orchestra\" originally meant the semi-circular space in front of a stage in a Greek theatre which is where the singers and instruments used to play. Gradually the word came to mean the musicians themselves.\n\nThe conductor \n\nThe orchestra is directed by a\u00a0conductor. He\/she helps the players to play together, to get the right balance so that everything can be heard clearly, and to encourage the orchestra to play with the same kind of feeling. Some small chamber orchestras may play without a conductor. This was usual until the\u00a019th century\u00a0when the orchestras got very big and needed a conductor who made decisions and stood in front so that all the players could see him.\n\nThe instruments \n\nThe instruments of the orchestra are divided into districts: the strings, woodwind, brass and percussion. Each section (group of instruments) will have a player who is the \"Boss\". The principals will make decisions about seating arrangements, and about technical ways of playing the music: for example the principal of the string sections will make sure all the players move their bows up and down in the same direction. The violins are divided into first and second violins. The first violins usually have the tune while the seconds, most of the time, are part of the accompaniment. The principal of the first violin is the leader (or concertmaster) of the orchestra. In a professional orchestra they will be the most highly paid member of the orchestra.\n\nThe string family \n\nThe strings are the biggest section, although there are only five kinds of instruments: violin, viola, cello, double bass, and harp. This is because they are playing most of the time and usually form the basis of the music. If they are not playing the tune they will probably be accompanying. The first and second violins play different notes: the firsts usually have the tune. The strings sit at the front of the stage in a fan-shape in front of the conductor. The first violins are on the conductor's left, then come the second violins, then the violas and then the cellos. The double basses are behind the cellos. Some conductors prefer to have the second violins on their right and the cellos between the first violins and violas (see image of the Dohnanyi Orchestra).\n\nThe woodwind family \n\nThe woodwind sit in one or two rows (depending on the size of the orchestra) behind the strings. There are five main woodwind instruments: flute, oboe, clarinet, saxophone, and bassoon. Each of these instruments also come in different versions:\n\nThe flute has a small version called the piccolo which plays an octave higher. It is the highest instrument in the orchestra. Occasionally there is an alto flute which is longer and plays a fifth (half an octave) lower than the flute. Most woodwind instruments need a reed, but the flute does not have a reed.\n\nThe bassoon has a larger version: the contrabassoon or double bassoon which sounds an octave lower. It is one of the lowest instruments in the orchestra.\n\nThe clarinet has a larger version as well; the bass clarinet. It reaches the same depth as a bassoon. Usually only one is found in a modern orchestra. There is also an alto clarinet but because it plays the same part an alto saxophone plays, it is typically regarded as an unnecessary instrument.\n\nA formal orchestra will always consist of two of the four main instruments. The variations of the instruments are used where the piece asks for it. Usually, the newer pieces written after 1850 will have more instruments.\n\nSometimes a player will double on these extra instruments, for example: one of the flute players may also play the piccolo in the same piece. It depends on the piece of music. Obviously a player cannot play the flute and piccolo at the same time. If the two instruments do play at the same time an extra player will be needed for the piccolo.\n\nThe brass family \n\nThe brass section has four sections: trumpet, trombone, French horn, and tuba. Some of these come in several sizes. The article on transposing instruments explains more about it. The trumpet may have several slightly different sizes. The lowest kind is a bass trumpet. The trombone may be an alto, tenor, bass or contrabass trombone. The French horn, like the other brass instruments, has changed over the years. Modern horns have at least three valves and are usually in F. They often sit in a different place to the other brass. The tuba comes in different sizes and the player or conductor must decide which to use for the piece they are playing. There are large ones called contrabass tubas. A small tuba is commonly also seen and is called a euphonium or a baritone horn.\n\nThe percussion family \n\nThe percussion section has the largest variety of instruments. such as: the tambourine, the triangle, the fabulous loud gong, the crashing cymbals and the ringing bell. The timpani (or \"kettle drums\") can be tuned to particular notes. They are the most common percussion instrument. Composers such as Haydn and Mozart nearly always used them, even with their small orchestras. This is the most commonly used percussion instruments and is used in almost all pieces.\n\nThe rest of the percussion section can include tuned percussion instruments like the xylophone. Non-tuned percussion can be other kinds of drum like bass drum, snare drum, and a variety of others: simple to name the most common ones. The principal percussion player will have to decide which player will play which instrument(s). The percussionists have to work well together as a team so all parts can be covered.\n\nThe history of the orchestra \n\nIt is difficult to say when the orchestra was invented because instruments have played together for many centuries. If we say that an orchestra is a group of string instruments with several players playing the same part, and that there may be wind instruments (i.e. woodwind and brass) or percussion playing as well, then the 17th century is the time that orchestras started. In Paris in 1626 King Louis XIII had an orchestra of 24 violins (called \"24 Violons du Roi\"). Later in the century the English king Charles II wanted to be like the French king and so he, too, had a string orchestra. Gradually the other instruments were added. At this time there was usually someone playing the harpsichord (the continuo part). It was often the composer himself, who would have conducted from the keyboard at important moments like the beginning and end of the piece.\n\nClarinets came into the orchestra at the end of the 18th century, and trombones at the beginning of the 19th century. Orchestras were still quite small, though. The saxophone was invented in the middle of the 19th century, but although they started to use it in orchestras, it soon became an instrument that was used in wind bands and later jazz bands. The opera composer Richard Wagner made the orchestra much bigger because he kept asking for extra instruments. He asked for a bass clarinet in his opera Lohengrin, and for his cycle of four operas called The Ring of the Nibelung he asked for an exact number of players: 16 first violins, 16 second violins, 12 violas, 12 cellos, 8 double basses, 3 flutes and piccolo, 3 oboes and cor anglais, 3 clarinets and bass clarinet, 3 bassoons, 3 trumpets and bass trumpet, 3 tenor trombones and a double bass trombone, 8 horns with 4 of them playing a specially designed tuba, a bass tuba, percussion, and 6 harps.\n\nNot all pieces written after that need quite such a large orchestra, but concert halls had become bigger and composers had got used to a bigger variety of sounds. Later composers sometimes added all sorts of unusual instruments: wind machine, sandpaper block, bottles, typewriter, anvils, iron chains, cuckoo, Swannee whistle etc. None of these are normal orchestral instruments. Sometimes a piano is used in the percussion section, e.g. Igor Stravinsky used one in Petrouchka. Sometimes voices are also used.\n\nThe orchestra today \n\nToday orchestras can usually be heard in concert halls. They also play in opera houses for opera and ballet, or in a large stadium for huge open-air concerts. Orchestras may record in studios for making CDs or recording music for movies. Many of them can be heard easily and cheaply every summer in London at the BBC Proms.\n\nSome of the greatest orchestras today include: the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra, the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra, the Singapore Symphony Orchestra, the St Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra, the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, and the NHK Symphony Orchestra (Tokyo). Opera houses usually have their own orchestra, e.g. the orchestras of the Metropolitan Opera House, La Scala, or the Royal Opera House.\n\nIn many countries there are opportunities for school-age children who play instruments well to play in youth orchestras in their areas. In Britain some of the very best are selected to play in the National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain. Other world-famous youth orchestras include the Orquesta Sinf\u00f3nica Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar, Gustav Mahler Youth Orchestra, the European Union Youth Orchestra and the West-Eastern Divan Orchestra.\n\nReferences \n The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 1980; ed. Stanley Sadie; \n Orchestration by Walter Piston, London 1965.\n\nRelated pages \nOrchestration","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":175,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-18":4,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":6,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":4,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":7690,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Orchestra","title":"Orchestra","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Achille-Claude Debussy (born St Germain-en-Laye, 22 August 1862; died Paris, 25 March, 1918) was a French composer. He was one of the most important composers of the early 20th century. Most of his compositions are for orchestra or for piano. He also wrote some songs, chamber music and one opera. He made his music very different from the Romantic style that other composers were using at the time. He is often called an Impressionistic composer because he was influenced by the group of painters called \"Impressionists\". They were not so much interested in making their paintings look exactly like the real world, but preferred to paint things such as the effect of the sunlight shining on water. Debussy often did this in his music, which creates a special atmosphere.\n\nLife \nClaude Debussy did not have an easy childhood. His father was a travelling salesman and his mother worked as a seamstress. He learned the piano when he was young and was inducted into the Paris Conservatoire at age 11. For a time it seemed that he would become a concert pianist, but he did not do well enough in his examination. After winning an important prize, the Prix de Rome, he went to Rome for two years but he did not enjoy it. He visited Bayreuth in 1888 and 1889 to hear Wagner's operas but he did not like them. He preferred sounds like that of the Javanese gamelan which he heard in Paris at the World Exhibition.\n\nIn 1899 he married a young woman named Rosalie Texier. He got a job as music critic of a journal called La revue blanche. He wrote his opera P\u00e9lleas et M\u00e9lisande which was performed at the Op\u00e9ra-Comique. It was extremely successful and was performed 100 times there during the next ten years. He wrote exciting music for orchestra: F\u00eates galantes and a work called La Mer (The Sea) which he worked at while staying in Brighton on the south coast of England. It is one of the most exciting pieces of music about the sea.\n\nDebussy was starting to become very famous. His personal life changed. He left his wife because he had fallen in love with Emma Bardac who was an amateur singer for whom Gabriel Faur\u00e9 had written a song cycle La Bonne Chanson. Her husband was a banker. She bought an apartment and Debussy lived with her there for the rest of his life. They had a daughter called Chou-Chou, born in 1905. They married in 1908.\n\nDebussy's next orchestral work was called Images. He began composing a set of preludes for piano. Other works followed: Khamma, Le martyre de St S\u00e9bastian and the ballet Jeux, which was produced in 1913 by Dyagilev's company. People soon forgot about this work because only two weeks later the same ballet company produced Stravinsky's Rite of Spring which caused a riot.\n\nBy this time Debussy was ill with colorectal cancer. His visit to London in 1914 was his last trip to another country. He wrote more piano works: a set of \u00c9tudes and a piano duet called En blanc et noir (In white and black). He planned to write six sonatas, each for a different group of instruments, but he only wrote three of them: one for cello and piano, one for flute, viola and harp and one for violin and piano. The Sonata for violin and piano (1917) was the last work he played in public (he played the piano part). He died of colorectal cancer in 1918.\n\nHis music \n\nSaint-Sa\u00ebns, for example, did not understand the way that the musical ideas flowed gently into one another. He was always an enemy of Debussy.\n\nThere is a lot of variety in Debussy's piano music. Some of it is very difficult to play, e.g. the \u00c9tudes and pieces such as L'isle joyeuse (The happy island). Other collections are much simpler, e.g. Suite bergamasque which includes the very popular piece called Clair de lune (Moonlight). He wrote two books of preludes. Each of the pieces has a title, but the titles are printed at the end of each piece, as if he did not want the listener to know what it was about until afterwards.\n\nDebussy wrote wonderfully for the voice, making the music just right for the rhythm of the French language. This can be heard in his songs and his opera. Using melodies and harmonies which are often quite simple he creates a special kind of dream-world which can be very powerful. He often uses the whole tone scale and the pentatonic scale which give the music a hazy feeling because it does not seem to be clearly in one particular key. He liked to use unusual chords just for their own sake, not in order to make them lead to a particular key. He also used the old scales known as the church modes.\n\nDebussy's music had a great influence on many composers in the 20th century. John Cage, Olivier Messiaen, Pierre Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen and Frederico Mompou all learned from listening to his music.\n\nReferences \nGroves Dictionary of Music Online\n\nCancer deaths in France\nDeaths from colorectal cancer\n20th-century French composers\n1862 births\n1918 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":144,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":27374,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Claude%20Debussy","title":"Claude Debussy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A trait, or character, in biology is a feature of a living thing. It is part of an organism's phenotype.\n\nEvery living thing, from tiny organisms like bacteria, to plants, animals and humans, has some characteristics which make it special. Thus an elephant has tusks, large size and weight, large ears and very large molar teeth (et cetera). These are typical characters of the African and Indian elephants.\n\nBiologists call those traits. The living thing is built in a certain way; this is its anatomy, its structure or body. The physical structure works in a certain way; this is its function, the way its body works. An animal also acts in a certain way; this is its behavior.\n\nThe way that a living thing is structured, the way its body works and the way that it acts are all traits. The basic traits are shared by all the members of the group, that is why they are put in the same group. Other traits are only shared by a small number of the group.\n\nFor example: \n It is an anatomical trait of giraffes to have long necks. All giraffes have this trait. \n It is a physiological function of birds to lay eggs to produce their young. All birds have this trait. \n It is part of the behaviour of wolves to live and hunt in packs; it is part of the behaviour of cats to live alone or in small family groups, and to hunt alone. These characteristic behaviours are also traits.\n\nTraits are heritable: they can be passed on from one generation to the next by genes. Mendel's work involved the inheritance of traits on pea plants. The whole group of traits of an organism is its phenotype.\n\nTrait versus character \nDifferent sources use the term differently. 'Trait' competes with the term 'character'.\n\nSynonyms \nAccording to some authorities, trait and character are synonyms:\nThe Dictionary of Genetics: \"For trait, see character\" and \"Character: any detectable phenotypic property of an organism; synonymous with phenotype, trait\".\n\n'Trait'  as a sub-character \nSome sources use both terms:\n\"Any detectable variation of an inherited character. It is the expression of genes as part of the phenotype\".\n\nThis works well with Mendelian characters. In such cases, a character is a feature of a species which may present as various traits. Examples:\nEye color = character\nBlue eye color = trait1\nBrown eye color = trait2\nAppearance of pea = character\nwrinkled = trait1\nsmooth = trait2\n\nBut not all characters are inherited in the simple manner of Mendel's pea characters. For example, an animal's weight is a character, but many genes contribute to it, and so does the animal's environment from birth. Weight is a) continuous rather than discrete (separate steps), b) polygenic (controlled by a number of genes), and c) because weight is influenced by both heredity and environment.\n\nOnly 'character' used \nTo avoid this issue, some sources use only the term character. Futuyma uses this system for Mendelian characters:\nEye color = character\nBlue eye color = character state1\nBrown eye color = character state2\nAppearance of pea = character\nwrinkled = character state1\nsmooth = character state2\nThis use of 'character state' allows Futuyma to use terms such as 'ancestral state' and 'derived state' when talking about the evolution of characters.\n\nReferences \n\nEvolutionary biology\nClassical genetics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":133,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1}},"id":505697,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trait","title":"Trait","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Rencana ini merupakan senarai pemilihan angkasawan mengikut tahun, individu dipilih untuk latihan program penerbangan angkasa manusia untuk mengarah, menerbangkan, atau berkhidmat sebagai seorang anak kapal serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. Sehingga masa kini, para angkasawan ditaja dan dilatih secara eksklusif oleh kerajaan, sama ada oleh pihak tentera atau oleh agensi angkasa awam. Walau bagaimanapun, dengan penerbangan sub-orbit pertama SpaceShipOne yang dibiayai secara peribadi pada tahun 2004, kategori angkasawan baru diciptakan - angkasawan komersial.\n\nSementara terma angkasawan kadangkala merujuk kepada sesiapa yang menjelajah ke angkasa, termasuk para saintis, ahli politik, wartawan dan para pelancong, artikel ini hanya menyenaraikan angkasawan profesional. A list of everyone who has flown in space can be found at List of space travelers by name.\n\nSetakat 2008, lebih daripada 480 orang telah dilatih menjadi angkasawan\n\n\n\n1957 \n - Man In Space Soonest Kumpulan 1 - USA\n\nNeil A. Armstrong, Albert S. Crossfield, Iven C. Kincheloe, John B. McKay, Joseph A. Walker, Alvin S. White, Robert M. White\n\nNota: Pada 1957, tujuh juruterbang ujian dari National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), United States Air Force (USAF), dan North American Aviation (NAA) telah dipilih untuk projek Man In Space Soonest, inisiatif tentera U.S. untuk menghantar manusia ke angkasalepas. Ketika projek aspek penerbangan angkasa dibatalkan, 2 angkasawan kemudiannya telah sampai ke angkasalepas, Joe Walker sebagai sebahagian daripada program X-15 dan Neil Armstrong sebagai sebahagian daripada program Gemini dan Apollo.\n\n1958 \n - Man In Space Soonest Kumpulan 2 - USA\n\nForrest S. Peterson, Robert A. Rushworth\n\nNota: Rushworth telah dimasukkan bagi menggantikan Iven Kincheloe dari pemilihan tahun 1957 yang telah mati dalam penerbangan ujian.\n\n1959 \nApril 9 - NASA Group 1 - Mercury Seven - USA\n\nScott Carpenter, Gordon Cooper, John Glenn, Gus Grissom, Wally Schirra, Alan Shepard and Deke Slayton. \n\nNote: The first group of astronauts selected by NASA were for Project Mercury in April 1959. All seven were military test pilots, a requirement specified by President Eisenhower to simplify the selection process. All seven eventually flew in space, although one, Deke Slayton, did not fly a Mercury mission due to a medical disqualification, instead flying later on the Apollo-Soyuz mission. The other six each flew one Mercury mission. For two of these, Scott Carpenter and John Glenn, the Mercury mission was their only flight in the Apollo era (Glenn later flew on the Space Shuttle). Three of the Mercury astronauts, Gus Grissom, Gordon Cooper and Wally Schirra, also each flew a mission during the Gemini program. Alan Shepard was slated to fly Mercury 10 before its cancellation and was the original commander for the Gemini 3 mission, but did not fly due to a medical disqualification.  After surgery to correct the problem, he later flew as commander of Apollo 14. He was the only Mercury astronaut to go to the Moon. Wally Schirra also flew on Apollo as commander of Apollo 7, as well as Mercury and Gemini, the only astronaut to fly on all three types of spacecraft. (Gus Grissom was scheduled to fly the first Apollo flight, but died in a fire on the launch pad during training.  It is also widely assumed that had he lived, he would have been the first man to walk on the moon.)  Gordon Cooper was a backup commander for Apollo 10, the \"dress rehearsal\" flight for the lunar landing, and would have commanded another mission (likely to have been Apollo 13, according to the crew rotation), but was bumped from the rotation after a disagreement with NASA management.\n\nAt least one member of the Mercury Seven flew on every NASA class of manned spacecraft of the 20th century, from Mercury, through Gemini and Apollo, and ending with John Glenn's flight on the STS-95 Space Shuttle mission.\n\n1960 \nMac 7 - Kumpulan Tentera Udara 1 - USSR\n\nIvan Anikeyev, Pavel Belyayev, Valentin Bondarenko, Valery Bykovsky, Valentin Filatyev, Yuri Gagarin, Viktor Gorbatko, Anatoli Kartashov, Yevgeny Khrunov, Vladimir Komarov, Aleksei Leonov, Grigori Nelyubov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, Mars Rafikov, Georgi Shonin, Gherman Titov, Valentin Varlamov, Boris Volynov, and Dmitri Zaikin.\n\nNota: Kumpulan awal kosmonot Soviet telah dipilih dari juruterbang jet Tentera Udara Soviet (Soviet Air Force).\n\nApril - Kumpulan Dyna-Soar 1 - USA\n\nNeil Armstrong, Bill Dana, Henry C. Gordon, Pete Knight, Russell L. Rogers, Milt Thompson, dan James W. Wood. \n\nNota: Dalam bulan April 1960, tujuh lelaki telah dipilih secara rahsia untuk program Dyna-Soar. Armstrong sebelumnya merupakan sebahagian daripada program MISS. Armstrong dan Dana meninggalkan program tersebut pada musim panas tahun 1962.\n\n1962 \nMarch 12 - Female Group - USSR\n\nTatyana Kuznetsova, Valentina Ponomaryova, Irina Solovyova, Valentina Tereshkova, and Zhanna Yorkina.\n\nNote: On March 12, 1962, a group of five civilian women with parachuting experience was added to the cosmonaut training program. Only Tereshkova would fly. A leading Soviet high-altitude parachutist, 20-year-old Tatyana Kuznetsova was, and remains, the youngest person ever selected to train for spaceflight. \n\nSeptember 17 - NASA Group 2 - The Next Nine (Also: The Nifty Nine, The New Nine) - USA\n\nNeil Armstrong, Frank Borman, Charles Conrad, Jim McDivitt, Jim Lovell, Elliott See, Tom Stafford, Ed White and John Young. \n\nNote: A second group of nine astronauts was selected by NASA in September 1962. All of this group flew missions in the Gemini program except Elliott See, who died in a flight accident while preparing for the Gemini 9 flight.  All of the others also flew on Apollo, except for Ed White, who died in the Apollo 1 launchpad fire.  Three of this group, McDivitt, Borman and Armstrong, made single flights in both Gemini and Apollo.  Four others, Young, Lovell, Stafford and Conrad, each made two flights in Gemini and at least one flight in Apollo.  Young and Lovell both made two Apollo flights.  Conrad and Stafford also made second flights in Apollo spacecraft, Conrad on Skylab 2 and Stafford in Apollo-Soyuz.  Six of this group, Borman, Lovell, Stafford, Young, Armstrong and Conrad, made flights to the Moon.  Lovell and Young went to the Moon twice.  Armstrong, Conrad, and Young walked on the Moon.  McDivitt was later Apollo Program Director and became the first general officer and would have been either the prime LM Pilot or backup commander for Apollo 14, but left NASA due to a conflict between Alan Shepard and Deke Slayton.  John Young also later flew on the Space Shuttle (STS-1 and STS-9) and would retire from NASA in 2004.  He was both the first and last of his group to go into space.\n\nSeptember 19 - Dyna-Soar Group 2 - USA\n\nAlbert Crews\n\nNote: On September 19, 1962, Crews was added to the Dyna-Soar program and the names of the six active Dyna-Soar astronauts were announced to the public.\n\n1963 \nJanuari 10 - Kumpulan 2 Tentera Udara - USSR\n\nYuri Artyukhin, Eduard Buinovski, Lev Demin, Georgi Dobrovolski, Anatoli Filipchenko, Aleksei Gubarev, Vladislav Gulyayev, Pyotr Kolodin, Eduard Kugno, Anatoli Kuklin, Aleksandr Matinchenko, Vladimir Shatalov, Lev Vorobyov, Anatoli Voronov, Vitali Zholobov\n\nOktober 17 - Kumpulan 3 NASA - The Fourteen - USA\n\nBuzz Aldrin, William Anders, Charles Bassett, Alan Bean, Eugene Cernan, Roger Chaffee, Michael Collins, Walter Cunningham, Donn Eisele, Theodore Freeman, Richard Gordon, Russell Schweickart, David Scott, Clifton Williams\n\nNota: Kesemua kumpulan ketiga (kecuali mereka yang telah mati) terbang di dalam program Apollo - Aldrin, Bean, Cernan dan Scott berjalan di atas bulan.  Lima daripada mereka (Aldrin, Cernan, Collins, Gordon dan Scott) juga melaksanakan beberapa misi ketika program Gemini.  Cernan mungkin satu-satunya angkasawan dari kumpulan ini yang terbang ke bulan sebanyak dua kali (Apollo 10 dan Apollo 17), sementara Bean akan mengemudi misi Skylab 3.\n\nBassett, Chaffee, Freeman dan Williams telah mati sebelum sempat mereka terbang ke angkasa - Chaffee di dalam kebakaran Apollo 1, yang lain-lain di dalam kemalangan kapal terbang.\n\n1964 \nJanuary 25 - Air Force Group 2 Supplemental - USSR\n\nGeorgi Beregovoi\n\nMay 26 - Voskhod Group (Medical Group 1) - USSR\n\nVladimir Benderov, Georgi Katys, Vasili Lazarev, Boris Polyakov, Aleksei Sorokin, Boris Yegorov\n\nJune 11 - Civilian Specialist Group 1 - USSR\n\nKonstantin Feoktistov\n\n1965 \nJune 1 - Journalist Group 1 - USSR\n\nYaroslav Golovanov, Yuri Letunov, Mikhail Rebrov\n\nNote: In 1965, three civilian journalists were selected for cosmonaut training in preparation for flight on a Voskhod mission. When the Voskhod program was canceled, Golovanov and Letunov were dismissed. Rebrov, on the other hand, stayed with the space program as a journalist until 1974.\n\nJune 1 - Medical Group 2 - USSR\n\nYevgeni Illyin, Aleksandr Kiselyov, Yuri Senkevich\n\nNote: These physicians were selected for the long-duration Voskhod flights, all of which were subsequently canceled to make way for the Soviet Moon program. All three were dismissed at the beginning of the following year.\n\nJune 28 - NASA Group 4 - The Scientists - USA\n\nOwen Garriott, Edward Gibson, Duane Graveline, Joseph Kerwin, Curt Michel, Harrison Schmitt\n\nNote: Graveline and Michel left NASA without flying in space. Schmitt walked on the Moon on Apollo 17. Garriott, Gibson and Kerwin all flew to Skylab. Garriott also flew on the Space Shuttle and was the first Amateur radio operator to operate from orbit.\n\nOctober 28 - Air Force Group 3 - USSR\n\nBoris Belousov, Vladimir Degtyarov, Anatoli Fyodorov, Yuri Glazkov, Vitali Grishchenko, Veygeni Khludeyev, Leonid Kizim, Pyotr Klimuk, Gennadi Kolesnikov, Aleksandr Kramarenko, Mikhail Lisun, Aleksandr Petrushenko, Vladimir Preobrazhensky, Valeri Rozhdestvensky, Gennadi Sarafanov, Ansar Sharafutdinov, Vasili Shcheglov, Aleksandr Skvortsov, Eduard Stepanov, Valeri Voloshin, Oleg Yakovlev, Vyacheslav Zudov\n\nNote: This group of cosmonauts was selected for participation in five separate Soyuz programmes that the USSR was running. These included military programs (with and without the Almaz\/Salyut space stations) and two lunar programs (only one of which aimed at an actual lunar landing). In the end, only the orbital program and the space station program went ahead, and few of the cosmonauts from this group ever were given the chance to fly.\n\nNovember - USAF MOL Group 1 - USA\n\nMichael J. Adams, Albert H. Crews Jr., John L. Finley, Richard E. Lawyer, Lachlan Macleay, Francis G. Neubeck, James M. Taylor, Richard H. Truly. \n\nNote: This group was selected for training for the U.S. Air Force's Manned Orbiting Laboratory program. Of this group, only Truly transferred to NASA after the cancellation of the MOL program and later flew on the Space Shuttle. In 1989, Truly became the first astronaut to be NASA Administrator.\n\n1966 \nApril 4 - NASA Group 5 - The Original 19 - USA\n\nVance Brand, John S. Bull, Gerald Carr, Charles Duke, Joseph Engle, Ronald Evans, Edward Givens, Fred Haise, James Irwin, Don Lind, Jack Lousma, Ken Mattingly, Bruce McCandless II, Edgar Mitchell, William Pogue, Stuart Roosa, John Swigert, Paul Weitz, Alfred Worden. \n\nNote: This group -- except John Bull, who left NASA due to a medical disqualification; Edward Givens, who died; Joseph Engle, who was bumped from Apollo 17 for Harrison Schmitt; and Bruce McCandless and Don Lind, who were candidates for one of the canceled Apollo flights -- flew on all Apollo flights after Apollo 12.  Fred Haise and John Swigert flew on Apollo 13, the latter replacing Ken Mattingly after he was scrubbed due to measles exposure although he later flew on Apollo 16.  Edgar Mitchell and Stuart Roosa both flew on Apollo 14 with Alan Shepard, while Alfred Worden and James Irwin flew with David Scott on Apollo 15.  Charles Duke, who was CAPCOM for Apollo 11, flew on Apollo 16 with John Young and Mattingly, while Ron Evans served as Command Module Pilot with Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt on Apollo 17.  Paul Weitz, Jack Lousma, Gerald Carr and William Pogue flew aboard Skylab while Vance Brand, a backup Skylab astronaut, flew aboard ASTP with Thomas Stafford and Deke Slayton in 1975.  Joseph Engle and Fred Haise, in 1977, commanded crews on the Space Shuttle Enterprise landing tests, with Engle, Mattingly, Bruce McCandless, and Don Lind later flying actual Space Shuttle flights.  Engle, with MOL transferee Richard H. Truly, would command the last all-rookie US spaceflight crew (STS-2) in November, 1981, as current NASA policy requires that the Shuttle commander be an experienced astronaut. \n\nMay 23 - Civilian Specialist Group 2 - USSR\n\nSergei Anokhin, Vladimir Bugrov, Gennadi Dolgopolov, Georgi Grechko, Valeri Kubasov, Oleg Makarov, Vladislav Volkov, Aleksei Yeliseyev\n\nJune 30 - USAF MOL Group 2 - USA\n\nKarol Bobko, Robert Crippen, Gordon Fullerton, Henry Hartsfield, Robert Overmyer. \n\nNote: This group was selected for training for the U.S. Air Force's Manned Orbiting Laboratory program. All transferred to NASA after the MOL program was canceled and all five flew on the Space Shuttle as pilot astronauts.\n\n1967 \nJanuary 31 - Civilian Specialist Group 2 Supplemental - USSR\n\nNikolai Rukavishnikov, Vitali Sevastyanov\n\nMay 7 - Air Force Group 4 - USSR\n\nVladimir Alekseyev, Vladimir Beloborodov, Mikhail Burdayev, Sergei Gaidukov, Vladimir Isakov, Vladimir Kovalyanok, Vladimir Kozelsky, Vladimir Lyakhov, Yuri Malyshev, Viktor Pisarev, Nikolai Porvatkin, Mikhail Sologub\n\nMay 22 - Academy of Sciences Group - USSR\n\nMars Fathulin, Rudolf Gulyayev, Ordinard Kolomitsev, Vsevolod Yegorov, Valentin Yershov\n\nJune - USAF MOL Group 3 - USA\n\nJames Abrahamson, Robert Herres, Robert H. Lawrence Jr, Donald Peterson. \n\nNote: This group was selected for training for the US Air Force's Manned Orbiting Laboratory program.  Lawrence was the first African-American to be chosen as an astronaut, but was killed in a jet accident before the MOL program was canceled in 1969 (had Lawrence not died, he would have been, if accepted by NASA, the first African-American astronaut for the agency, pre-dating Guion Bluford by nine years).  Peterson transferred to NASA in 1969 after the MOL cancellation and would fly on the Space Shuttle.  Herres would later become the first Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff under the Goldwater-Nichols Act in 1987.  \n\nOctober 4 - NASA Group 6 - XS-11 (The Excess Eleven) - USA\n\nJoseph Allen, Philip Chapman, Anthony England, Karl Henize, Donald Holmquest, William B. Lenoir, Anthony Llewellyn, Story Musgrave, Brian O'Leary, Robert Parker, William Thornton. \n\nNote: This second group of scientist-astronauts were assigned as backup crew members for the last three Apollo missions or as backup crew members for Skylab. Except for Chapman, Holmquest, Llewellyn, and O'Leary, the group members eventually flew as Mission Specialists during the Space Shuttle program. With his flight on STS-61 (a Hubble Space Telescope repair flight) at the age of 58, Musgrave held the title of \"oldest astronaut\" prior to John Glenn's second flight.\n\n1968 \nMay 27 - Civilian Specialist Group 3 - USSR\n\nVladimir Fartushny, Viktor Patsayev, Valeri Yazdovsky\n\n1969 \nAugust 14 - NASA Group 7 - USA\nKarol Bobko, Robert Crippen, Gordon Fullerton, Henry Hartsfield, Robert Overmyer, Donald H. Peterson, Richard Truly.\n\nNote: This group is all USAF Manned Orbiting Laboratory astronauts who transferred to NASA after the cancellation of the MOL program in 1969. All flew on early Space Shuttle flights.  Truly, in 1989, would become the first astronaut to become NASA Administrator, holding the position until 1992.\n\nSeptember 10 - Civilian Engineer Group - USSR\n\nAnatoli Demyanenko, Valeri Makrushin, Dmitri Yuyukov\n\n1970 \nApril 27 - Air Force Group 5 - USSR\n\nAnatoli Berezovoi, Aleksandr Dedkov, Vladimir Dzhanibekov, Nikolai Fefelov, Valeri Illarianov, Yuri Isaulov, Vladimir Kozlov, Leonid Popov, Yuri Romanenko\n\n1971 \nFebruary 25 - 1971 Scientific Group - USSR\n\nGurgen Ivanyan\n\nMay - Shuguang Group 1970 - China\n\nChai Hongliang, Dong Xiaohai, Du Jincheng, Fang Guojun, Hu Zhanzi, Li Shichang, Liu Chongfu, Liu Zhongyi, Lu Xiangxiao, Ma Zizhong, Meng Senlin, Shao Zhijian, Wang Fuhe, Wang Fuquan, Wang Quanbo, Wang Rongsen, Wang Zhiyue, Yu Guilin, Zhang Ruxiang\n\n1972 \nMarch 22 - Civilian Specialist Group 4 - USSR\n\nBoris Andreyev, Valentin Lebedev, Yuri Ponomaryov\n\nMarch 22 - Medical Group 3 - USSR\n\nGeorgi Machinski, Valeri Polyakov, Lev Smirenny\n\n1973 \nMarch 27 - Civilian Specialist Group 5 - USSR\n\nVladimir Aksyonov, Vladimir Gevorkyan, Aleksandr Ivanchenkov, Valeri Romanov, Valery Ryumin, Gennady Strekalov\n\n1974 \nJanuary 1 - Physician Group - USSR\n\nZyyadin Abuzyarov\n\n1976 \nAugust 23 - Air Force Group 6 - USSR\n\nLeonid Ivanov, Leonid Kadenyuk, Nikolai Moskalenko, Sergei Protchenko, Yevgeni Saley, Anatoly Solovyev, Vladimir Titov, Vladimir Vasyutin, Alexander Volkov\n\nNovember 25 - 1976 Intercosmos Group - USSR\n\nMiroslaw Hermaszewski, Zenon Jankowski, Sigmund J\u00e4hn, Eberhard K\u00f6llner, Oldrich Pelcak, Vladim\u00edr Remek\n\n1978 \nJanuary 16 - NASA Group 8 - TFNG (Thirty-Five New Guys) - USA\n\nPilots: Daniel Brandenstein, Michael Coats, Richard Covey, John Creighton, Robert Gibson, Frederick D. Gregory, Frederick Hauck, Jon McBride, Francis \"Dick\" Scobee, Brewster Shaw, Loren Shriver, David Walker, Donald Williams\n\nMission specialists: Guion Bluford, James Buchli, John Fabian, Anna Fisher, Dale Gardner, S. David Griggs, Terry Hart, Steven Hawley, Jeffrey Hoffman, Shannon Lucid, Ronald McNair, Richard Mullane, Steven Nagel, George Nelson, Ellison Onizuka, Judith Resnik, Sally Ride, Rhea Seddon, Robert Stewart, Kathryn D. Sullivan, Norman Thagard, James van Hoften\n\nDue to the long delay between the last Apollo mission and the first flight of the Space Shuttle in 1981, few astronauts from the older groups stayed with NASA. Thus in 1978 a new group of 35 astronauts was selected after 9 years without new astronauts, including the first female astronauts, and also the first black astronauts Guion Bluford and Frederick D. Gregory. Bob Stewart was the first Army astronaut to be selected (almost 19 years after the original Mercury Seven). Since then, a new group has been selected roughly every two years. \n\nTwo different astronaut groups were formed: pilots and mission specialists. Additionally the shuttle program has payload specialists who are selected for a single mission and are not part of the astronaut corps - among them were mostly scientists, also a few politicians and many international astronauts. \n\nOf the first of the post-Apollo group, Sally Ride would become the first American woman in space (STS-7). Later, she would fly with Kathryn Sullivan on a Shuttle flight, in which Sullivan would become the first American woman to perform an EVA. Dr. Thagard, who flew with Ride on STS-7, would later become the first American to be launched on a Russian rocket (Soyuz TM-18 or \"Mir-18\") to the Mir space station, while Shannon Lucid would serve on the Mir for slightly over 6 months, breaking all American space duration records (both the Skylab 4 record and Thagard's) in 1996-97 until Sunita Williams (who was selected 20 years later) broke Lucid's record. Of this group, Scobee, Resnik, Onizuka, and McNair would perish in the Challenger Disaster.  Of the astronauts chosen, only Anna Fisher still remains on active duty (although her tenure included an extended leave of absence from 1989 to 1996), while Robert Gibson and Rhea Seddon became the first active duty astronauts to marry (both are now retired).  Although classed as inactive, Shannon Lucid continues to serve as CAPCOM to shuttle missions .  After the Challenger Disaster, Sally Ride would serve on both the Rogers Commission and the Columbia Accident Investigation Board.\n\nMarch 1 - 1978 Intercosmos Group - USSR\n\nAleksandr P. Aleksandrov, Dumitru Dediu, Jose Lopez Falcon, Bertalan Farkas, Maidarzhavyn Ganzorig, J\u00fcgderdemidiin G\u00fcrragchaa, Georgi Ivanov, Bela Magyari, Arnaldo Tamayo M\u00e9ndez, Dumitru Prunariu \n\nMay 1 - Spacelab Payload Specialists Group 1 - ESA\n\nUlf Merbold, Claude Nicollier, Wubbo Ockels, Franco Malerba\n\n1979 \nAugust - USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer - Group 1\n\nFrank J. Casserino, Jeffrey E. Detroye, Michael A. Hamel, Terry A. Higbee, Daryl J. Joseph, Malcolm W. Lydon, Gary E. Payton, Jerry J. Rij, Paul A. Sefchek, Eric E. Sundberg, David M. Vidrine, John B. Watterson, Keith C. Wright\n\nApril 1 - 1979 Intercosmos Group - USSR\n\nTu\u00e2n Pham, Thanh Liem Bui\n\n1980 \nMay 29 - NASA Group 9 - USA\n\nPilots: John Blaha, Charles Bolden, Roy Bridges, Guy Gardner, Ronald Grabe, Bryan O'Connor, Richard N. Richards, Michael J. Smith\n\nMission specialists: James Bagian, Franklin Chang-Diaz, Mary Cleave, Bonnie Dunbar, William Fisher, David Hilmers, David Leestma, John Lounge, Jerry Ross, Sherwood Spring, Robert Springer \n\nInternational mission specialists: Claude Nicollier, Wubbo Ockels\n\nOf this group, Franklin Chang-Diaz would become the first Hispanic-American in space, Michael Smith would perish in the Challenger Disaster, while John Blaha would fly aboard the Mir space station.  Both Jerry Ross and Chang-Diaz currently jointly hold the record of number of manned spaceflights flown at seven.  Bolden, the second African-American to be selected as a NASA astronaut and the first as a pilot astronaut (Bluford was selected as a mission specialist astronaut), was chosen on May 23, 2009, to become the second NASA astronaut and the first African-American to the post of NASA Administrator on a full-time basis (although Frederick Gregory, who is also African-American and a former Shuttle commander, held the post on a temporary basis between the departure of Sean O'Keefe and the appointment of Michael Griffin in 2005).  The announcement, made a day before the conclusion of the STS-125 flight to the Hubble Space Telescope, was coincidental, because Bolden was the pilot on the telescope's deployment flight in 1990.\n\n 1980 - 1980 CNES Group - \nJean-Loup Chr\u00e9tien and Patrick Baudry would become the first Frenchmen in space. Chr\u00e9tien flight with Soviets to Salyut 7 in 1982, and Baudry on the STS-51-G flight in 1985.  Chr\u00e9tien would later fly to the Space Station Mir and would become a regular Mission Specialist astronaut for NASA in the 1990's.\n\n1982 \nAugust - USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer - Group 2\n\nJames B. Armor, Jr., Michael W. Booen, Livingston L. Holder, Jr., Larry D. James, Charles E. Jones, Maureen C. LaComb, Michael R. Mantz, Randy T. Odle, William A. Pailes, Craig A. Puz, Katherine E. Roberts, Jess M. Sponable, W. David Thompson, Glenn S. Yeakel\n\nJones was killed on September 11, 2001, as a passenger aboard American Airlines Flight 11.\n\nDecember 1 - Spacelab Payload Specialists Group - Germany\n\nReinhard Furrer, Ernst Messerschmid\n\n1983 \nDecember - NRC Group - Canada\n\nRoberta Bondar, Marc Garneau, Steve MacLean, Kenneth Money, Robert Thirsk, and Bjarni Tryggvason\n\nThis first Canadian astronaut group was selected by the National Research Council of Canada and were transferred to the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) when it was created in 1989.  All the astronauts flew on the U.S. Space Shuttle by 1997 except Kenneth Money, who resigned from CSA in 1992.\n\n1984 \nMay 23 - NASA Group 10 - The Maggots - USA\n\nPilots: Kenneth Cameron, John Casper, Frank Culbertson, Sidney Gutierrez, Blaine Hammond, Michael McCulley, James Wetherbee\n\nMission specialists: James Adamson, Ellen Baker, Mark Brown, Sonny Carter, Marsha Ivins, Mark Lee, David Low, William Shepherd, Kathryn Thornton, Charles Veach\n\nOf this group, William Shepherd would become the commander of the first International Space Station crew (Expedition 1). James Wetherbee would become the only person to command five spaceflight missions. Sonny Carter died in 1991 in a plane crash while on NASA business.\n\n1985 \nJune 4 - NASA Group 11 - USA\n\nPilots: Michael A. Baker, Robert D. Cabana, Brian Duffy, Terence Henricks, Stephen Oswald, Stephen Thorne\n\nMission Specialists: Jerome Apt, Charles Gemar, Linda Godwin, Richard Hieb, Tamara Jernigan, Carl Meade, Rodolfo Neri Vela, Pierre Thuot\n\nNote: Thorne was killed in the crash of a private airplane before his first flight assignment.\n\nJuly 19 - NASA Teacher in Space Program - USA\n\nChrista McAuliffe, Barbara Morgan\n\nNote: McAuliffe and Morgan were selected as the prime and backup Payload Specialists for the STS-51-L mission in 1985. McAuliffe was killed in the Challenger Disaster, 73 seconds after lift-off.  Morgan would later join the NASA Astronaut Corps in 1998. She flew on the STS-118 mission in 2007, 21 years after Challenger.\n\nAugust 1 - 1985 NASDA Group - Japan\n\nMamoru Mohri, Chiaki Mukai, Takao Doi\n\nAugust - USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer - Group 3\n\nJoseph J. Caretto, Robert B. Crombie, Frank M. DeArmond, David P. Staib, Jr., Teresa M. Stevens\n\n1987 \nJune 5 - NASA Group 12 - The GAFFers - USA\n\nPilots: Andrew M. Allen, Kenneth Bowersox, Curtis Brown, Kevin Chilton, Donald McMonagle, William Readdy, Kenneth Reightler\n\nMission specialists: Thomas Akers, Jan Davis, Michael Foale, Gregory Harbaugh, Mae Jemison, Bruce Melnick, Mario Runco, James Voss\n\nThe group's informal nickname is an acronym for \"George Abbey Final Fifteen\".  Of this group, Mae Jemison would become the first female African-American in space, while Michael Foale would fly aboard the Mir space station.  At the time of the Columbia accident in 2003, William Readdy was Associate Administrator for Space Flight and Kenneth Bowersox was commanding the Expedition 6 crew on the ISS.  Chilton, after leaving NASA, became the first NASA astronaut to become a full General in the U.S. Air Force (Lt. Gen. Thomas Stafford, USAF, and VADM Richard Truly, USN were three-star officers) and is currently the commander of U.S. Strategic Command. \n\nAugust 3 - 1987 German Group\n\nRenate Br\u00fcmmer, Hans Schlegel, Gerhard Thiele, Heike Walpot, Ulrich Walter\n\n1990 \nJanuary 17 - NASA Group 13 - The Hairballs - USA\n\nPilots: Kenneth Cockrell, Eileen Collins, William G. Gregory, James Halsell, Charles Precourt, Richard Searfoss, Terrence Wilcutt\n\nMission specialists: Daniel Bursch, Leroy Chiao, Michael Clifford, Bernard Harris, Susan Helms, Thomas David Jones, William McArthur, James Newman, Ellen Ochoa, Ronald Sega, Nancy Currie, Donald A. Thomas, Janice Voss, Carl E. Walz, Peter Wisoff, David Wolf\n\nCollins would go on to be the first female shuttle pilot, the first female shuttle commander, and then commander of the second \"Return to Flight\" mission in 2005. The \"Hairballs\" nickname, according to Jones in his book \"Sky Walking,\" came after the group, the 13th NASA astronaut class, put a black cat on its group patch.\n\nOctober 8 - 1990 German Group\n\nReinhold Ewald, Klaus-Dietrich Flade\n\n1992 \nMarch 31 - NASA Group 14 - The Hogs - USA\n\nPilots: Scott Horowitz, Brent Jett, Kevin Kregel, Kent Rominger\n\nMission specialists: Daniel T. Barry, Charles Brady, Catherine Coleman, Michael Gernhardt, John Grunsfeld, Wendy Lawrence, Jerry Linenger, Richard Linnehan, Michael Lopez-Alegria, Scott Parazynski, Winston Scott, Steven Smith, Joseph Tanner, Andy Thomas, Mary Weber\n\nInternational mission specialists: Marc Garneau (Canada), Chris Hadfield (Canada), Maurizio Cheli (Italy), Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Clervoy (France), Koichi Wakata (Japan)\n\nBeginning with this NASA Group, non-US astronauts representing their home country's space agencies were brought in and trained alongside their NASA counterparts as full-fledged mission specialists, eligible to be assigned to any shuttle mission.\n\nApril - 1992 NASDA Group - Japan\n\nKoichi Wakata\n\nJune - CSA Group 2 - Canada\n\nDafydd Williams, Julie Payette, Chris Hadfield and Michael McKay\n\nThe second Canadian astronaut group were selected by CSA.  All the astronauts flew on the U.S. Space Shuttle except Michael McKay who resigned due to medical reasons.\n\nMay 15 - 1992 ESA Group - ESA\n\nMaurizio Cheli (Italy), Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Clervoy (France), Pedro Duque (Spain), Christer Fuglesang (Sweden), Marianne Merchez (Belgium), Thomas Reiter (Germany)\n\n1994 \nDecember 12 - NASA Group 15 - The Flying Escargot - USA\n\nPilots: Scott Altman, Jeffrey Ashby, Michael Bloomfield, Joe Edwards, Dominic Gorie, Rick Husband, Steven Lindsey, Pamela Melroy, Susan (Still) Kilrain, Frederick Sturckow\n\nMission specialists: Michael Anderson, Robert Curbeam, Kalpana Chawla, Kathryn Hire, Janet Kavandi, Edward Lu, Carlos Noriega, James Reilly, Stephen Robinson\n\nInternational mission specialists: Jean-Loup Chr\u00e9tien (France), Takao Doi (Japan), Michel Tognini (France), Dafydd Williams (Canada)\n\nHusband, Anderson, and Chawla were crewmembers on the final Columbia mission.  Chr\u00e9tien trained as a backup Spacelab crew member in the 1980s and flew on both U.S. and Soviet\/Russian spacecraft, along with being the first non-U.S. or Soviet\/Russian astronaut to perform an space walk.\n\n1996 \nFebruary 9 - Cosmonaut Group MKS\/RKKE-12 - Russia\nOleg Kononenko, Oleg Kotov, Konstantin Kozeyev, Sergei Revin,Yuri Shargin\n\nMay 1 - NASA Group 16 - The Sardines - USA\n\nPilots: Duane Carey, Stephen Frick, Charles Hobaugh, James M. Kelly, Mark Kelly, Scott Kelly, Paul Lockhart, Christopher Loria, William McCool, Mark Polansky\n\nMission Specialists: David Brown, Daniel Burbank, Yvonne Cagle, Fernando Caldeiro, Charles Camarda, Laurel B. Clark, Michael Fincke, Patrick Forrester, John Herrington, Joan Higginbotham, Sandra Magnus, Michael Massimino, Richard Mastracchio, Lee Morin, Lisa Nowak, Donald Pettit, John Phillips, Paul Richards, Piers Sellers, Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper, Daniel Tani, Rex Walheim, Peggy Whitson, Jeffrey Williams, Stephanie Wilson\n\nInternational mission specialists: Pedro Duque (Spain), Christer Fuglesang (Sweden), Umberto Guidoni (Italy), Steven MacLean (Canada), Mamoru Mohri (Japan), Soichi Noguchi (Japan), Julie Payette (Canada), Philippe Perrin (France), Gerhard Thiele (Germany)\n\nBrown, Clark, and McCool were crewmembers on the final Columbia mission. Mark and Scott Kelly are twin brothers, James Kelly is not related. Loria resigned from his shuttle mission due to injury and never flew before retiring from the astronaut corps.  Nowak, who flew on STS-121, was arrested on February 5, 2007 after confronting a woman entangled in a love triangle with a fellow astronaut.  She was dismissed by NASA on March 6, the first astronaut to be both grounded and dismissed (prior astronauts who were grounded due to non-medical issues usually resigned or retired).\n\nJune - NASDA Group - Japan\n\nSoichi Noguchi\n\nOctober - China Group 1996 - China\n\nLi Qinglong, Wu Jie\n\n1997 \nIsrael\n\nYitzhak Mayo, Ilan Ramon\n\nRamon was the first Israeli astronaut to fly in space and also a Payload Specialist on the final Columbia mission.\n\n1998 \nJanuary - Chinese Group 1 - China\n\nChen Quan \u9648\u5168, Deng Qingming \u9093\u6e05\u660e, Fei Junlong \u8d39\u4fca\u9f99, Jing Haipeng \u666f\u6d77\u9e4f, Liu Boming \u5218\u4f2f\u660e, Liu Wang \u5218\u65fa, Nie Haisheng \u8042\u6d77\u80dc, Pan Zhanchun \u6f58\u5360\u6625, Yang Liwei \u6768\u5229\u4f1f, Zhai Zhigang \u7fdf\u5fd7\u521a, Zhang Xiaoguan \u5f20\u6653\u5149, Zhao Chuandong \u8d75\u4f20\u4e1c\nIn October 2003, Yang Liwei became the first man to be sent into space by the space program of China, and his mission, Shenzhou 5, made the PRC the third country to independently send people into space.\n\nJune 4 - NASA Group 17 - The Penguins - USA\n\nPilots: Lee Archambault, Christopher Ferguson, Kenneth Ham, Gregory C. Johnson, Gregory H. Johnson, William Oefelein, Alan Poindexter, George Zamka\n\nMission Specialists: Clayton Anderson, Tracy Caldwell, Gregory Chamitoff, Timothy Creamer, Michael Foreman, Michael E. Fossum, Stanley Love, Leland Melvin, Barbara Morgan, John D. Olivas, Nicholas Patrick, Garrett Reisman, Patricia Robertson, Steven Swanson, Douglas Wheelock, Sunita Williams, Neil Woodward\n\nInternational Mission Specialists: L\u00e9opold Eyharts (France), Paolo Nespoli (Italy), Marcos Pontes (Brazil), Hans Schlegel (Germany), Robert Thirsk (Canada), Bjarni Tryggvason (Canada), Roberto Vittori (Italy)\n\nNote: Group includes Barbara Morgan, who was the backup \"Teacher-In-Space\" for Christa McAuliffe for the ill-fated Challenger Disaster in 1986. While often referred to as an Educator Astronaut, Morgan was selected by NASA as a Mission Specialist, before the Educator Astronaut Project was formed. \nPatricia Robertson (n\u00e9e Hilliard) was killed in the crash of a private airplane before she was assigned to a Shuttle mission.\n\nOctober 7 - 1998 ESA Group - ESA\n\nFrank De Winne, L\u00e9opold Eyharts, Andr\u00e9 Kuipers, Paolo Nespoli, Hans Schlegel, Roberto Vittori\n\n1999 \nFebruary - 1999 NASDA Group - Japan\n\nSatoshi Furukawa, Akihiko Hoshide, Naoko Sumino\n\n2000 \nJulai 26 - Kumpulan 18 NASA - The Bugs - USA\n\nJuruterbang: Dominic A. Antonelli, Eric A. Boe, Kevin A. Ford, Ronald J. Garan, Jr., Terry W. Virts, Jr., Barry E. Wilmore, Douglas G. Hurley\n\nPakar Misi: Michael R. Barratt, Robert L. Behnken, Stephen G. Bowen, B. Alvin Drew, Andrew J. Feustel, Michael T. Good, Timothy L. Kopra, K. Megan McArthur, Karen L. Nyberg, Nicole P. Stott\n\n2003 \nSeptember 11 - SpaceShipOne - USA\nBrian Binnie, Mike Melvill, Doug Shane, Peter Siebold\n\nNota: Ini merupakan kumpulan pertama angkasawan komersil.\n\n2004 \nMei 6 - Kumpulan 19 NASA - The Peacocks - USA\n\nJuruterbang: Randolph Bresnik, James Dutton\n\nPakar Misi: Thomas Marshburn, Christopher Cassidy, R. Shane Kimbrough, Jose Hern\u00e1ndez, Robert Satcher, Shannon Walker\n\nPengajar Pakar Misi: Joseph M. Acaba, Richard R. Arnold, Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger\n\nPakar Misi Antarabangsa: Satoshi Furukawa (Jepun), Akihiko Hoshide (Jepun), Naoko Yamazaki (Jepun)\n\nNota: Kumpulan ini merupakan kumpulan pertama yang memasukkan Educator mission specialists. Berdasarkan jadual persaraan Space Shuttle pada 2010, ini merupakan latihan yang terakhir angkasawan NASA dilatih untuk penerbangan Shuttle.\n\n2006 \nMarch 30 - Virgin Galactic Astronaut Pilots Group - UK\n\nSteve Johnson, Alistair Hoy, David MacKay\n\nSeptember 4 - Angkasawan Group - Malaysia\n\nSheikh Muszaphar Shukor, Faiz Khaleed, Siva Vanajah, Mohammed Faiz Kamaluddin\n\nNote: In 2006, four Malaysians were chosen to train for a flight to the International Space Station through the Angkasawan program. Sheikh Muszaphar became the first Malaysian in space when he flew aboard Soyuz TMA-11.\n\nOctober 11 - Cosmonaut Group - Russia\n\n Aleksandr Misurkin, Oleg Novitskiy, Aleksey Ovchinin, Maksim Ponomaryov, Sergey Ryzhikov, Yelena Serova, Nikolai Tikhonov\n\nDecember 25 - Korean Astronaut Program Group\n\nYi So-yeon, Ko San\n\nNote: Ko San was chosen as the prime candidate over Yi So-yeon in September 2007.   Yi So-yeon became prime candidate in March 2008.\n\n2009 \nFebruary 25 - JAXA Group - Japan\n\nTakuya Onishi, Kimiya Yui\n\nMay 13 - CSA Group - Canada\n\nJeremy Hansen, David Saint-Jacques\n\nMay 20 - ESA Group - ESA \n\nSamantha Cristoforetti (Italy), Alexander Gerst (Germany), Andreas Mogensen (Denmark), Luca Parmitano (Italy), Timothy Peake (United Kingdom), Thomas Pesquet (France)\n\nJune 29 - NASA Group 20 - Chumps - USA\n\nPilots: Jack D. Fischer, Scott D. Tingle, Gregory R. (Reid) Wiseman\nMission Specialists: Serena M. Au\u00f1\u00f3n, Jeanette J. Epps, Michael S. Hopkins, Kjell N. Lindgren, Kathleen (Kate) Rubins,  Mark T. Vande Hei\nInternational Mission Specialists: Samantha Cristoforetti, (Italy), Alexander Gerst, (Germany), Jeremy Hansen, (Canada), Andreas Mogensen, (Denmark), Takuya Onishi, (Japan), Luca Parmitano (Italy), Timothy Peake, (United Kingdom), Thomas Pesquet, (France), David Saint-Jacques (Canada), Kimiya Yui (Japan)\n\nNote: NASA selected the nine members of Group 20 from over 3,500 applicants.\n\nSeptember 8 - JAXA Group - Japan\n\nNorishige Kanai\n\nLihat juga \n\nNASA Astronaut Groups\n\nRujukan \n\nSelection","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":54,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-39":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2019-43":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":174468,"url":"https:\/\/ms.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Senarai%20angkasawan%20mengikut%20tahun%20pemilihan","title":"Senarai angkasawan mengikut tahun pemilihan","language":"ms"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In Egyptian mythology, Sekhmet was the goddess of the sun, fire plagues, healing and war. She had the head of a lioness and the body of a woman.  She was married to Ptah, the god of healing. They balanced each other. It was believed that her breath created the desert.\nSometimes known as sister to Bastet\/Bast, a goddess who protected pregnant women and children.\n\nPhysical appearance \nSekhmet had the head of a lioness and the body of a woman. She was usually depicted with a sun disc on top of her head. Many historians argue that she was from Sudan, since lions were plentiful there. When she was seated, she usually held the ankh of life, but when she was standing, she held a papyrus scepter, the symbol of Lower Egypt.\n\nPower \nSekhmet's breath represented a hot desert wind, and her body was the glare of the midday sun. She was created when Hathor came down to earth to take vengeance on man. Sekhmet became the destructive eye of the sun, and a solar goddess, and was named \"Eye of Ra.\" The ancient Egyptians knew that the sun could bring life, (Hathor), but also death. (Sekhmet). Her name translates as \"The Powerful One.\" Sekhmet used her power destructively and brutally\n\nThe ancient Egyptians believed that Sekhmet took over sun and then the next morning she gave birth to the moon.\n\nFear of Sekhmet \nPeople were afraid of Sekhmet because along with her healing and protective powers, she was also destructive and retaliating. The ancient Egyptians believed that the \"Seven Arrows of Sekhmet\" would bring bad luck, so they used many charms and spells to protect themselves. There was a  \"Book of the Last Day of the Year\" which they recited over a piece of cloth and wore around their neck at the end of the year. This was considered to be a dangerous time. On the first day of the New Year (Wep Ronpet), people would exchange amulets in the form of Sekhmet to keep the goddess happy.\n\nWorship \nSekhmet had an unusual form of worship. She was worshipped evenly with her husband, Ptah, and her son, Nefertem. Her main cult center was in Memphis. Many priests recited complicated prayers, used to avert the rage of Sekhmet. A well-known prayer was called \"The Last Day of the Year,\" and it was chanted while wearing a piece of cloth around one's head. The last day of the year was considered to be a dangerous period for the people, because Sekhmet usually attacked then.\n\nSekhmet was the Egyptian goddess of war and destruction. HELP ME. She was bloodthirsty, out of control, and the Egyptians thought she represented natural disasters. Her husband, Ptah, and her son, Nefertem were closely worshipped. Sekhmet was known as the lady of life, and the lady of terror. In one myth, Sekhmet terrorized the country of Egypt, crazy and thirsty for blood. Ra, the sun god, sent many swift-footed messengers to outsmart her. She saw through all, and then saw love through everything, and Sekhmet in her happiness, embraced it. She lay back and later turned into Hathor, the goddess of love.\n\nCult Center \nSekhmet's main cult center was located in Memphis. When Amenemhat officially moved the capital of Egypt to Itjtawy, her cult center moved too. Her large similarity to Hathor brought the special erection of dual temples where citizens could worship Sekhmet and Hathor. Hundreds of jahovas were set up during the reign of Amenhotep III. At their bases, they emphasize Sekhmet's savagery and brutal myths.\n\nResources \nAncient Egypt. Oakes, Lorna, & Gahlin, Lucia. 268-269\n\nOther websites \nhttp:\/\/gwydir.demon.co.uk\/jo\/egypt\/hathor.htm \nhttp:\/\/www.ancientegyptonline.co.uk\/Sekhmet.html\nhttp:\/\/www.philae.nu\/akhet\/NetjeruS.html#Sekhmet \nhttp:\/\/www.touregypt.net\/godsofegypt\/sekhmet2.htm\nhttp:\/\/www.touregypt.net\/godsofegypt\/sekhmet.htm\n\nEgyptian gods and goddesses","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":60714,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sekhmet","title":"Sekhmet","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Weather is the day-to-day or hour-to-hour change in the atmosphere. Weather includes wind, lightning, storms, hurricanes, tornadoes (also known as twisters), rain, hail, snow, and lots more. Energy from the Sun affects the weather too. \nClimate tells us what kinds of weather usually happen in an area at different times of the year. \nChanges in weather can affect our mood and life. We wear different clothes and do different things in different weather conditions. We choose different foods in different seasons.   \n\nWeather stations around the world measure different parts of weather. Ways to measure weather are wind speed, wind direction, temperature and humidity. People try to use these measurements to make weather forecasts for the future.  These people are  scientists that are called meteorologists. They use computers to build large mathematical models to follow weather trends.\n\nSevere weather can hurt people and their property. It can also just be a bother. Some examples of severe weather are:\n Tropical cyclones\n Rainstorms\n Drought\n Heat waves\n Tornadoes\n\nCauses of weather\nWeather happens because different parts of the Earth get different amounts of heat from the Sun. This makes different climates. The tropics get the most heat because the Sun shines straight down on them, while the poles get the least heat because the Sun shines on them from a low angle. Warmer air is lighter than cooler air and rises higher in the sky by convection.\n\nThe air always has some water mixed with it. This is called humidity. When it cools, the water can change from a gas to a liquid through condensation. Then the water can fall from the sky as rain or snow. After the air rises, it gets colder and goes back towards the ground. Because the air lost its water before, it is dry when it comes back to the ground. When two air masses of different temperatures meet, this is called a warm front or cold front. The ways that the air moves around the Earth are called atmospheric circulation.\n\nOther websites \n\n Weather\n Internet Geography's weather page\n The Weather Channel\n National Weather Service\n\n \nNatural events\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":5,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2}},"id":3399,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weather","title":"Weather","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A bank is a financial institution where customers can save or borrow money. Banks also invest money to build up their reserve of money. What they do is regulated by laws. Those laws differ in different countries. The people who work at a bank are called bank employees. Certain banks deal directly with the public and they are the only ones which an ordinary person will deal with. Other banks deal with investments and international currency trading.\n\nCustomer's money may be placed in the bank for safe keeping. Banks may give loans to customers under an agreement to pay the money back to the bank at a later time, with interest. An example is getting a mortgage to buy a house or apartment. Banks also can use the money they have from deposit accounts to invest in businesses in order to make more money.\n\nIn most countries the rules for banks are made by the government acting through laws. A central bank (such as the Bank of England) adjusts how much money is issued at a particular time. This is a factor in the economy of a country, and the government takes the big decisions. These \"banks of issue\" take in, and issue out, coins and banknotes.\n\nHistory \nThe word bank comes from an Italian word banco, meaning a bench, since Italian merchants in the Renaissance made deals to borrow and lend money  beside a bench. They placed the money on that bench.\n\nElementary financial records are known from the beginning of history. Baked clay records were done before the invention of writing.\n\nIn the 17th century, merchants started storing their gold with goldsmiths in London. The goldsmiths had their own vaults, and charged a fee for storing the merchants' gold. The goldsmiths eventually started loaning money using the gold left to them, and also paid interest on the gold.\n\nThe Bank of England began issuing banknotes in 1695.  The oldest bank still in existence is Monte dei Paschi di Siena in Siena, Italy, which started in 1472.\n\nBanking activities\nA bank usually provides the following services:\n Checking account\n Cheque books\n Savings account\n Money market account\n Certificate of deposit (CD)\n Individual retirement account (IRA)\n Credit card\n Debit card\n Mortgage\n Mutual fund\n Personal loan\n Time deposit\n Automated teller machine\n Transactional account\n\nTypes of banks\n Community development bank: regulated banks that provide financial services and credit to under-served markets or populations.\n Land development bank: The special banks providing long-term loans are called land development banks, in the short, LDB. The history of LDB is quite old. The first LDB was started at Jhang in Punjab in 1920. The main objective of the LDBs are to promote the development of land, agriculture and increase the agricultural production. The LDBs provide long-term finance to members directly through their branches.\n Credit union or Co-operative bank: not-for-profit cooperatives owned by the depositors and often offering rates more favorable than for-profit banks. Typically, membership is restricted to employees of a particular company, residents of a defined area, members of a certain union or religious organizations, and their immediate families.\n Postal savings: savings banks associated with national postal systems.\n Offshore bank: banks located in jurisdictions with low taxation and regulation. Many offshore banks are essentially private banks.\n Savings bank: focuses on accepting savings deposits and paying interest on deposists.\n Building society and Landesbanks: institutions that conduct retail banking.\n A Direct or internet-only bank is a banking operation without any physical bank branches, conceived and implemented wholly with networked computers.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":144,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":5,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1}},"id":3942,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank","title":"Bank","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Flatworms (Platyhelminthes, Greek \"platy\"': flat; \"helminth\": worm) are a phylum of invertebrates. They are relatively simple animals. They have soft bodies. \n\nWith about 25,000 known species, they are the largest phylum of animals without a body cavity.  Flatworms can be found in marine, freshwater, and even damp terrestrial environments. \n\nA troublesome terrestrial example is the New Zealand flatworm, Arthurdendyus triangulatus.  It is an invasive species which colonized large areas of Ireland and Scotland. It was brought there by accident in the 1960s. Since then, it has destroyed most of the indigenous earthworms.\n\nMost free-living flatworms found in Britain are very small ranging from 5mm to less than 1\u00a0cm. They are usually black and can easily be mistaken for debris. These are mostly found in freshwater rivers or streams and are of the Turbellaria class.\n\nMost flatworms (over 50%) are parasitic on other animals. There are four classes: \nTrematoda (Flukes): internal parasites.\nCestoda (Tapeworms): internal parasites.\nMonogenea: external parasites.\nand \nTurbellaria: free-living flatworms, sometimes called 'Planarians'. Planaria is actually a genus.\n\nFlatworms are one of the invertebrate groups which are studied in school biology. The main reason for this is that they may infect humans, pets and farmyard animals. Some do enormous harm to humans and their livestock. Schistosomiasis, caused by one genus of trematodes, is the second most devastating of all human diseases caused by parasites, surpassed only by malaria.  Effective treatments are now available for these infections. Also, in first-world countries, regulations on domestic cattle prevent infected meat from reaching the human hosts.\n\nRelated pages \n List of animal phyla\nFasciola hepatica\nPlanaria\n\nReferences \n\nFlatworms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-10":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":5,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":42265,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flatworm","title":"Flatworm","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Benthos: the flora and fauna found at the bottom of the sea or lake. Covers quite a wide range of uses, for instance, animals in rock pools are benthic, though only a few inches below the surface. In the ocean, used to contrast organisms in the sea depths (though not actually on the bottom), with plankton, living in the upper pelagic zone. The problem is addressed by extending the pelagic zone down below the light to the bathypelagic and abyssopelagic zones. These terms, however, are mostly not used.\n\nOceanography\nBiomes","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":156,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5}},"id":219237,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benthos","title":"Benthos","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"For other meanings of the word \"canon\" see canon.\n\nA canon is a piece of voices (or instrumental parts) that sing or play the same music starting at different times. A round is a type of canon, but in a round each voice, when it finishes, can start at the beginning again so that the piece can go \"round and round\". Perhaps the most well-known canon is the Pachelbel Canon written by Johann Pachelbel.\n\nDifferent types of canon\n\nThere are different kinds of canon.  Canons can be described according to distances between the entries of the voices.  If the second voice starts one bar (one measure) after the first voice, this is called a \"canon at the bar\".  If it starts after only half a bar, it is called a \"canon at the half-bar\".  It is even possible to have very close canons, e.g. \"canon at the quaver (eighth note)\".  Olivier Messiaen wrote a 3 part canon at the quaver in his ''' for violin and piano.  The pianist's right hand (playing chords), his left hand and the violinist are the three parts.\n\nCanons can also be described according to the intervals between two voices.  If one voice starts on a C and the next voice starts the same tune on an F above this is a \"canon at the fourth\" (because the interval (distance) from C to F is called a \"perfect fourth\").  If the second voice has the tune upside down (inversion) this is called \"canon in inversion\".  If the second voice has the tune at half the speed (each note being twice as long) this is a \"canon in augmentation\" or an \"augmented canon\".  The opposite is a \"canon in diminution\".\n\n\"Strict canon\" means a canon where each voice imitates the first voice exactly all the way through the piece.  If this does not happen (i.e. if it starts off as a canon but then becomes freer) it is \"free canon\".   A canon may start off sounding like a fugue, but fugues have their own form and rules.\n\nCanons in the history of music\n\nCanons were already popular in the 14th century when composers enjoyed writing music for several voices in which each voice has a share of melody (this is called polyphonic music.)   Composers like Guillaume de Machaut wrote canonic music.  His Sanz cuer m'en vois is a three-part canon in which each part has different words.\n\nProbably the greatest writer of canons in the eighteenth century was Johann Sebastian Bach.  Many of his organ works have canons.  He wrote a famous set of Canonic Variations on \"Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her\" which have several canons at different intervals and inversions.  He probably  wrote this to show young composers how to write good canons.  Bach also wrote a work called the Musical Offering'' which has what he calls a \"canon per augmentationem contrario motu\" (canon in augmentation and contrary motion i.e. backwards) as well as a \"canon per tonos\".  This last one is a modulating canon which means that the tune changes key.  This is hard to compose well so that it sounds good because when the first voice has just changed key the other one is still catching up in the other key.\n\nBach was a great master at writing canons and other very complicated musical forms.  After 1750 composers became less interested in writing music which was all polyphonic, although many composers still showed an interest in counterpoint.  Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote canons and even Romantic composers like Schumann and  Brahms showed an interest.  C\u00e9sar Franck wrote a canon for the fourth movement of his Sonata for Violin and Piano.  It is quite easy to hear this canon, because the violin plays the tune an octave higher than the piano, and the piano holds on to a long note every other bar while the violin catches up.\n\nIn the 20th century composers such as  Schoenberg who wrote serial music were fond of canons.  Modern composers like Pierre Boulez have written rhythmic canons: canons in which, for example, the rhythm of one part is the retrograde (backwards) version of another.\n\nReferences\nThe New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians ed. Stanley Sadie: \n\nMusical forms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":46180,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canon%20%28music%29","title":"Canon (music)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Midsummer Night's Dream is a play by William Shakespeare. The exact date the play was written is unknown. It is generally accepted that the play was written in 1595 or 1596. It was first printed in 1600. In 1623, the play was printed in the First Folio, a collection of all of Shakespeare's plays. \n\nShakespeare's sources include works by Plutarch, Apuleius, Ovid,  Geoffrey Chaucer, and Edmund Spenser. He found a description of Puck in Reginald Scot's The Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584). It is generally believed that the play was written for the festivities surrounding the aristocratic marriage of either Elizabeth Vere, Lord Burghley's granddaughter, in 1595, or Elizabeth Carey, daughter of Sir George Carey, in 1596.\n\nThe play is about four confused young lovers, a group of clumsy workmen, the royal court of Duke Theseus, and the royal fairy court of King Oberon and Queen Titania.  The play is set mostly at night in the woods near Athens. \n\nThe play has been made into movies on numerous occasions. One movie stars Mickey Rooney as the fairy Puck. Benjamin Britten wrote an opera based on the play, George Balanchine and Frederick Ashton have both made ballets about it, and Felix Mendelssohn wrote many pieces of music for the play which include an \"Overture\" and a \"Wedding March\".\n\nCharacters\n\nThe Court at Athens:\n Theseus, Duke of Athens, engaged to Hippolyta\n Hippolyta, Queen of the Amazons, engaged toTheseus \n Philostrate, Master of the Revels at the Court\n Egeus, father of Hermia\n\nThe Lovers:\n Hermia, Egeus' daughter; loved by Lysander\n Lysander; loved by Hermia\n Helena; loves Demetrius\n Demetrius; loves Hermia, whose father wants them to marry\n\nThe Fairies:\n Oberon, King of the Fairies\n Titania, Queen of the Fairies\n Puck, Oberon's servant\n Peaseblossom, a fairy serving Titania\n Moth, a fairy serving Titania\n Cobweb, a fairy serving Titania\n Mustardseed, a fairy serving Titania\n\nThe Rustics:\n Nick Bottom, a weaver\n Peter Quince, a carpenter\n Robin Starveling, a tailor\n Francis Flute, a bellows mender\n Snug, a joiner\n Tom Snout, a tinker\n\nStory\nEgeus wants his daughter Hermia to marry Demetrius. Hermia does not want to marry him. She loves another man named Lysander. Hermia and Lysander decide to run away. Demetrius follows them. Helena, Hermia's best friend, is in love with Demetrius. She follows him. All four become lost in the woods near Athens.\n \nMeanwhile, Oberon and Titania are having an argument. Oberon decides to teach Titania a lesson. He puts a love potion into her eyes while she is asleep. This potion will make her fall in love with the first thing she sees when she wakes.  \n\nOberon finds Helena and Demetrius. He tells Puck to give Demetrius some of the love potion so that he will love Helena. Puck makes a mistake and puts the potion in Lysander's eyes. When Lysander wakes up, he loves Helena instead of his real sweetheart Hermia. \n\nThe workmen are practicing a play in the woods for the upcoming marriage of Theseus and Hippolyta. Puck plays a trick on Nick Bottom by giving him a donkey head. The other actors run away, so Bottom goes to sleep. He is sleeping near Titania. After Oberon puts love potion in her eyes, she wakes up and falls in love with him.\n\nOberon realises everything is all mixed up. He gives some of the love potion to Demetrius. Now Demetrius and Lysander both love Helena. Sad and confused, all the lovers fall asleep. At last, Puck rights all the wrongs. He makes Lysander love Hermia again, and makes Demetrius love Helena. Everyone is happy.\n\nThe workmen perform their play for the wedding of Theseus and Hippolyta. Lysander and Hermia also get married, and so do Demetrius and Helena. Titania once again loves Oberon, not the donkey-headed Nick Bottom. They are happy with each other again. The fairies use their magic to bless all the lovers.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n David Strathairn Online: A Midsummer Night's Dream\n MIT html version .\n First Folio Facsimile  \u2013 HTML diplomatic transcription of 1623 text.\n Midsummer Night's Dream \u2013 plain vanilla text from Project Gutenberg.\n The Sources and Analogues of 'A Midsummer Night's Dream', 1908 publication compiled by Frank Sidgwick, from Project Gutenberg.\n\nPlays by William Shakespeare\n1590s plays","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"unknown":26,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":31121,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A%20Midsummer%20Night%27s%20Dream","title":"A Midsummer Night's Dream","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bullfighting is an old sport. Today it is mostly done in Spain, and in Portugal, and some countries of South America.\n\nThe largest bullring is the Plaza M\u00e9xico in central Mexico City, which seats 48,000 people, and the oldest is the La Maestranza in Seville, Spain, which was first used for bullfighting in 1765.\n\nThe Spanish bullfight (Corrida de toros) is a fight to the death. The modern bullfight has a ritual. It has three distinct stages, the start of each being signalled by a trumpet. The bullfighters (Toreros) enter the arena in a parade, to Paso doble music. The rules, costumes and traditions were sorted out by Paquiro (Francisco Montes Reina, 13 January 1804  4 April 1851, the greatest matador of his time.\n\nA team of bullfighters is seven men. The leader is the matador, and he has six assistants, who play roles in the drama. Bullfighters' costumes are inspired by 18th century Andalusian clothing. Matadores ('those who kill the bull') are easily seen by the gold of their traje de luces ('suit of lights').\n\nAt the end comes the tercio de muerte ('the third of death'). The matador re-enters the ring alone with a small red cape, and a sword. The cape called a muleta. The matador uses his cape to attract the bull in a series of passes. The faena is the performance with the cape. The faena ends with a final series of passes in which the bullfighter tries to move the bull into position. He then stabs it between the shoulder blades and through the aorta or heart. The act of thrusting in the sword is called an estocada.\n\nIf the matador gets it wrong, he may be gored by the bull's horns, and killed. This does happen: some very famous matadors have died in the ring. When the great matador Manolete was killed in the ring at the age of 31, three days of official national mourning were held. Bullrings do have an infirmary with an operating room, for the immediate treatment of bullfighters with horn wounds.\n\nThere is great opposition to the bullfight from animal welfare organisations. There are also versions of the bullfight in which the animal is unharmed.\n\nArt\nBullfighting has influenced all forms of art and culture. Ernest Hemingway said of bullfinghting: \"Bullfighting is the only art in which the artist is in danger of death and in which the degree of brilliance in the performance is left to the fighter's honour\". Spanish dance and musical forms such as the paso doble and flamenco are heavily influenced by the spectacle of the bullfight.\n\nReferences \n\nSport in Spain\nAnimal rights\nSports involving animals\nSpanish culture","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":147,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3}},"id":256183,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bullfighting","title":"Bullfighting","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A kernel is the central part of an operating system. It manages the operations of the computer and the hardware, most notably memory and CPU time. Kernels also provide services which programs can use through system calls. \n\nThere are five types of kernels:\n A micro kernel - A kernel which only contains the basic functionality;\n A monolithic kernel - A kernel which contains many device drivers. The Linux kernel is an example of a monolithic kernel.\nHybrid Kernel - The Microsoft Windows NT kernel is an example of a hybrid kernel.\nExokernel\nNanokernel\n\nA typical computer user never interacts directly with the kernel. It runs behind the scenes and cannot be seen, except for the text logs that it prints.\n\nOperations of kernel \nThe kernel is the most fundamental part of an operating system. It can  be thought of as the program which controls all other programs on the computer. When the computer starts, it goes through some initialization (booting) functions, such as checking memory. It is responsible for assigning and unassigning memory space which allows software to run.\n\nThe kernel provides services so programs can request the use of the network card, the disk or other pieces of hardware. The kernel forwards the request to special programs called device drivers which control the hardware. It also manages the file system and sets interrupts for the CPU to enable multitasking. Many kernels are also responsible for ensuring that faulty programs do not interfere with the operation of others by denying access to memory that has not been allocated to them and restricting the amount of CPU time they can consume.\nIt is the heart of the operating system.\n\nMicro kernels and monolithic kernels \nOperating systems commonly use monolithic kernels. In Linux, for example, device drivers are often part of a kernel (specifically Loadable Kernel Modules). When a device is needed, its extension is loaded and 'joined' onto the kernel making the kernel larger. Monolithic kernels can cause trouble when one of these drivers is faulty, such as if a beta driver is downloaded. Because it is part of the kernel the faulty driver can override the mechanisms that deal with faulty programs (see above). This can mean that the kernel, and thus the entire computer, can cease to function. If there are too many devices, the kernel can also run out of memory causing a system crash or making the computer very slow.\n\nMicrokernels are a way of solving this problem. In a microkernel operating system, the kernel deals only with critical activities, such as controlling the memory and CPU, and nothing else. Drivers and other functions that monolithic kernels would normally include within the kernel are moved outside the kernel, where they are under control. Instead of being an uncontrollable part of the kernel the beta driver is, therefore, no more likely to cause a crash than a beta web browser. That is, if a driver goes wrong it can simply be restarted by the kernel. Unfortunately, creating microkernel based operating systems is very difficult and there are no common microkernel operating systems. Minix and QNX are both microkernel operating systems.\n\nReferences \n\nComputer science","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":159,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":5,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":21869,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel%20%28computer%20science%29","title":"Kernel (computer science)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom are as follows:\n\nPrefixes\n\n01 and 02 - Geographic Numbers\nNumbers beginning 01 or 02 are normal phone numbers for home and business telephone lines. \nThese numbers are always split into two parts:\n The area code comes first, and is linked to a specific part of the country. For example, the 020 area code is for London and the 0121 code is for Birmingham. When calling between two phones that have the same area code, this part is optional. It is sometimes shown inside brackets to make this clear. The area code can be two to five digits long.\n The second part, usually separated from the code by a space, is known as the 'local number' or 'subscriber number'. It is normally 6, 7 or 8 digits long but can sometimes be only 4 or 5 digits long. This is always unique within an area code. For example, only one person in Manchester could have the number 9460018. \nExamples: (020) 7946 0018, (0117) 504 1102, (01632) 402881, (01647) 61321, (015394) 52749, (016977) 3789.\n\n03 - UK-Wide Numbers\nNumbers beginning with 03 are for businesses, government and other organisations that need a number not linked to any single part of the country. The law says they must always cost the same to call as normal 01 and 02 phone numbers from fixed telephones and from mobiles and be included in all call package bundles.\n\n05 - Businesses and Internet Phones\n 055 numbers are used by big businesses that need a lot of numbers for their own private phone networks\n 056 numbers are used for internet phone services and let people call an internet phone from a normal telephone. Internet phones can also use other types of numbers\n 0500 numbers are free to call from fixed telephones.\n\n07 - Mobile and Personal Numbers\nThese numbers are for mobile phones and similar mobile services:\n 070 numbers are 'personal numbers' that people and business use to forward calls as they move around between different phones and can be very expensive to call\n 076 numbers are for pagers (except for 07624 which is mobile phones)\n All other numbers beginning 07 are for mobile phones.\n\n08 - Special Rate\nThese are numbers that are charged at a different price to normal phone calls.\n 0800 and 0808 numbers are free to call from fixed telephones. Except for a few specific charity and helpline numbers, calls from mobile phones are not free.\n Numbers starting with 084 are revenue-share numbers and impose a Service Charge of 1 to 5 pence per minute on the caller\n Numbers starting with 087 (except for 0870) are revenue-share numbers and impose a Service Charge of 5 to 10 pence per minute on the caller\n The Service Charge is related to the first six digits of the telephone number called\n Landline providers add an Access Charge of 0 to 10 pence per minute when calling 084 and 087 numbers\n Mobile providers add an Access Charge of 20 to 40 pence per minute when calling 08 numbers. The total price paid can be up to 45 pence per minute and 08 numbers are never included within call packages.\n\n09 - Premium Rate\nThese are more expensive revenue-share numbers with a Service Charge of up to \u00a31.50 per minute. These numbers are used to pay for services, for recorded information, for dating and for voting in competitions. The caller also pays an Access Charge to their own phone network and this varies from network to network.\n\nSpecific Numbers\nOperator: 100\n\nPolice (non-emergency): 101\n\nNational Health Service (non-emergency): 111\n\nCurrent time: 123 (not available from some mobiles)\n\nEmergency services: 999 or 112\n\nTelephone numbers in Overseas Territories\nTelephone numbers in British Overseas Territories do not come under the UK telephone numbering plan. These calls are treated as international calls. Below are the access codes for the overseas territories:\n\nNorth American Numbering Plan\n Anguilla +1-264\n Bermuda +1-441\n British Virgin Islands +1-284\n Cayman Islands +1-345\n Montserrat +1-664\n Turks and Caicos Islands +1-649\n\nOthers\n British Indian Ocean Territory +246\n Falkland Islands +500\n Gibraltar +350\n Saint Helena and Tristan da Cunha +290\n Ascension Island +247\n Akrotiri and Dhekelia +357 (Shared with Cyprus)\n Pitcairn Islands +64 (Shared with New Zealand)\n\nOther websites \nList of telephone area codes\n UK Numbering Policy section of Ofcom's website\n\nTelephone numbers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":109219,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telephone%20numbers%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom","title":"Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The peach is a species of the Prunus persica, and is a fruit tree of the rose family Rosaceae. They grow in the warm regions of both the northern and southern hemispheres.\n\nDescription \n\nPeach blossoms are small to medium-sized. The tree is sometimes up to 6.5 m (21 feet) in height. When it is grown by people, the height it is usually kept between 3 and 4 m (10 and 13 feet) by pruning. Its leaves are green and pointy. They usually have glands that make a liquid to attract insects.\n\nPeaches are also called stone fruits because they have a shell of hard wood around their seed, called a stone or a pit. The skin of a peach is an orange or yellow color, and it is covered in small hairs called peach fuzz. A peach without the fuzz is usually called a nectarine. The inside of a peach is a golden color. It tastes sweet and sticky. Because of this, peaches are often part of desserts.\n\nSymbolism \n\nThe peach first came from China. It has been grown from at least since 1000 B.C.E. In Chinese culture, the peach tree is considered to be the tree of life and peaches are symbols of immortality. Peach blossoms are carried by Chinese brides. It is also considered as the \"National fruit of Afghanistan\" and the \"Provincial fruit of Balochistan, Pakistan\" respectively.\n\nLifespan of a peach \n\nBecause of the cold winter, diseases, and pests, peach trees can usually only live about 10 to 12 years. However, if a peach tree is fertilized properly, and taken care of in the right way, it may live more years.\n\nPests\n\nBrown rot \nBrown rot is a very dangerous kind of peach disease. It can attack the blossoms and stop the fruit from developing. If it is not stopped quickly, good quality fruit can not be produced from the peach tree.\n\nPeach leaf curl \nPeach leaf curl, which is another very serious disease, makes the leaves curl up and begin to die in spring. It can be stopped if it meets fungicide.\n\nBacterial spot \nBacterial spot gives harm to the leaves, twigs and fruit. By the time the disease is recognized, it is often too late to stop it. However, some kind of sprays may be used early in the next season to protect the peach tree.\n\nCankers \nCankers is a kind of disease that infects the twigs and branches. They make large amounts of amber-colored gum spill out from the infected branch. Later, the bark will crack open completely and the tissue of the twig turns black. Cankers can be removed by pruning.\n\nInsects \nThere are several kinds of insect pests that can be great trouble to the peach. The Oriental fruit moth can make the peaches filled with worms and young growing tips may die. The plum curculio lays its eggs on the fruit, and makes them drop off or become filled with worms. Insects like the tarnished plant bug and the stink bug eat up the fruit that is still developing. Borers attack the base of the trunk and the branches.\n\nGallery\n\nReferences \n\nPrunus\nFruits\nPlants of Pakistan\nNational symbols of Afghanistan","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":4,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":15727,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peach","title":"Peach","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Figure skating is both an art and a sport, in which people skate around on ice, doing jumps and spins. It is done at the Winter Olympics, and it has its own world championships. The name means to make figures or patterns on the ice. People skate with music.\n\nIn figure skating, sometimes women or men skate alone, or they skate in couples. Couples dancing includes pairs and ice dancing. Pairs skating has jumps, and sometimes the man lifts the woman in the air. These things are not done in ice dancing. In ice dancing, the woman must be held in the man's arms. Another kind of figure skating is synchronized skating done in groups.\n\nHistory \nThe first ever figure skating club was started in 1742 in Edinburgh, Scotland. World Championships began in 1896 (the first in St. Petersburg, Russia). Before the Winter Olympic Games were started, competitions in figure skating were part of the Summer Olympic Games, in 1908 and 1920.\n\nRules \nThe International Skating Union (ISU) made the rules.\n\nSingles Skating \nSingles skating is composed of a Short Program and a Free Skate. Both of them have a technical score and a presentation score.\n\n The Short Program (SP) must include 2 solo jumps, a jump combination consisting of two jumps, 3 spins and one Step Sequence fully utilizing the ice surface.\n Free Skate (FS) contains jump elements, jump combinations or jump sequences.  The Free Skate also has 3 spins, one Step Sequence fully utilizing the ice surface and a choreographic sequence.\n\nJudges \nUnder the ISU Judging System the Judges focus entirely on evaluating the quality of each element performed (technical aspect) and the quality of the performance. There will be a panel of 9 Judges per segment. Out of these 9 scores, the highest and lowest score of each element or program component are ignored and the average will be taken.\n\nTechnical Score \nThe score for the element is composed of a \"Base Value\" of each element and the \"Grade of Execution - GOE\". GOE is that the Judge grades the quality of the element on a scale of +5 to -5. The total of all the elements scores gives the Technical Score.\n\nPresentation Score \nThe Judges award points on a scale from 0.25 to 10.00 with increments of 0.25 for the Presentation Score to grade the overall presentation of the performance. There are five items in the Presentation Score.\n\nSkating Skills\nOver all skating quality\nTransitions, Linking Footwork and Movement\nThe varied and\/or intricate footwork, positions, movements, and holds that link all elements. This also includes the entrances and exits of technical elements.\nPerformance\/Execution\nThe physical and emotional involvement of the skater\/couple as they translate the intent of the music and choreography\nChoreography\/Composition\nThe arrangement of all movements according to the principles of proportion, space and music \nInterpretation\nThe translation of the music to movement on ice\n\nJumps \nThere are six types of jump that ISU decides to score. The following items are listed in order of the score (difficulty). There are two types of jumps: edge jump and toe jump. The Axel, loop,  and Salchow are edge jumps and the lutz, flip and toe loop are toe jumps.\nAxel\nThis is the only jump where a skater takes off while skating forward. It's the most difficult jump of the six.\nLutz\nThe skater takes off from the back outside edge of the left or right foot and pokes the ice with the opposite toe.\nFlip\nThe skater takes off from the back inside edge of the left or right foot and pokes the ice with the opposite toe.\nLoop\nThe skater takes off from the back outside edge of the right or left foot. This jump is often used in second jump of combination jump.\nSalchow\nThe skater takes off from the back inside edge of the right or left foot. \nToe Loop\nThe skater takes off from the back outside edge of the right or left foot and pokes the ice with the opposite toe. This is the easiest jump and it is often used in second jump of combination jump.\n\nSpins \nSpins are classified as Sit spins, Upright spins or Camel spin. Each of them has various variations. Any position which is not basic is a non-basic position.\n\nSit spin\n\nThe position of this spin is that the upper part of the skating leg is at least parallel to the ice.\nthere are 3 categories based on position of free leg\nSit Forward (with leg forward)\nSit Sideways (with leg sideways)\nSit Behind  (with the leg behind)\nUpright spin\n\nThe position of this spin is any position with the skating leg is extended or slightly bent which is not a camel position.\nthere are 4 categories based on position of the torso.\nUpright Forward (with torso leaning forward)\nUpright Straight or Sideways (with torso straight up or sideways)\nUpright Biellmann (in Biellmann position)\nUpright Layback\nCamel spin\n\nThe position of this spin is any position where the  free leg backwards and the knee is higher than the hip level, however Layback, Biellmann and similar variations are still considered  upright spins.\nThere are 3 categories based on the direction of the belly button.\nCamel Forward (with belly button facing forward)\nCamel Sideways (with belly button facing sideways)\nCamel Upward (with belly button facing upward)\n\nTurns and Steps \nTurns\nthree turns, twizzles, brackets, loops, counters, rockers\nTurns must be executed on one foot. If a turn is \"jumped \", it is not counted as performed. \nSteps\ntoe steps, chasses, mohawks, choctaws, change of edge, cross rolls\nSteps must be executed on one foot whenever possible.\n\nSome well-known figure skaters \n\nPairs:\n Emilie Rotter & Laszlo Szolas (Hungary)\n Maxi Herber & Ernst Baier (Germany)\n Barbara Wagner & Robert Paul (Canada)\n Ludmila Belousova & Oleg Protopopov (USSR)\n Irina Rodnina & Alexei Ulyanov (USSR)\n Irina Rodnina & Alexander Zaitsev (USSR)\n Ekaterina Gordeeva & Sergei Grinkov (USSR)\n Xue Shen & Hongbo Zhao (China)\n Tatiana Totmianina & Maxim Marinin (Russia)\n Dorota Siudek & Mariusz Siudek (Poland)\nAljona Savchenko & Robin Szolkowy (Germany)\nAljona Savchenko & Bruno Massot (Germany)\nSui Wenjing & Han Cong (China)\n\nIce dance:\n Jean Westwood & Lawrence Demmy (Britain)\n Eva Romanova & Pavel Roman (Czechoslovakia)\n Diane Towler & Bernard Ford (Britain)\n Lyudmila Pakhomova & Alexander Gorshkov (USSR)\n Jayne Torvill & Christopher Dean (Britain)\n Natalia Bestemianova & Andrei Bukin (USSR)\n Isabelle Duchesnay & Paul Duchesnay (France\/Canada)\n Marina Klimova & Sergei Ponomarenko (Russia)\n Oksana Grishuk & Evgeny Platov (Russia)\n Tatiana Navka & Roman Kostomarov (Russia)\n Tanith Belbin & Benjamin Agosto (United States)\n Meryl Davis & Charlie White (United States)\n Tessa Virtue & Scott Moir (Canada)\nGabriella Papadakis & Guillaume Cizeron (France)\n\nRelated pages \nIce dancing\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\nImages for figure skating\nFigure Skating TV Schedule\nVideos for figure skating\n\n \nWinter Olympic sports","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-06":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":16947,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Figure%20skating","title":"Figure skating","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A house is a building that is made for people to live in. It is a \"permanent\" building that is meant to stay standing. It is not easily packed up and carried away like a tent, or moved like a caravan. If people live in the same house for more than a short stay, then they call it their \"home\". Being without a home is called homelessness. Houses are usually numbered, but sometimes, can also be named.\n\nHouses are usually occupied by a single family or housemates, like in the cases of group homes and boarding houses.\n\nHouses come in many different shapes and sizes. They may be as small as just one room, or they may have hundreds of rooms. They also are made many different shapes, and may have just one level or several different levels. A house is sometimes joined to other houses at the sides to make a \"terrace\" or \"row house\" (a connected row of houses).\n\nA big building with many levels and apartments is called \"a block of flats\" (British) or an apartment building. One of the differences between a house and an apartment is that a house has a front door to the outside world, whereas the main door of an apartment usually opens onto a passage or landing that can be used by other people in the building.\n\nHouses have a roof to keep off the rain and sun, and walls to keep out the wind and cold. They have window openings to let in light, and a floor. Houses of different countries look different to each other, because of different materials, climate, and styles.\n\nIf a house is important and historic enough, it can be a museum showcasing how the house's residents lived.\n\nTypes \n\nA house is a building for people to live in. It is usually built for a family (parents and their children).\n\nMost modern houses have special areas or rooms for people to do the things that they need to live comfortably. A modern house has a place to cook food, a place to eat, places to sleep and a place to wash. These things are usually done in separate rooms, which are called the kitchen, the sitting room, the bedrooms, the bathroom, the toilet (or lavatory). Many houses have a separate dining room for eating meals and a separate laundry. In some houses the toilet is in the bathroom, and in other houses it is separate. Many houses may also have a \"study\" or computer room and a \"family room\" where the children can play games and watch television.\n\nDetached house \nIn some countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand many families live in a \"detached house\" which is separate from other buildings and surrounded by its own yard, but is close enough to town to have shops, good transport and entertainment nearby. In many other countries, including most of Europe, owning a house like this is something that only the richer families can afford, and is just a dream for most people.\n\nHouses in very poor places \nIn many very poor countries, a lot of people live crowded in houses with only one room. They often have to share a toilet with many other families, and have to do the cooking outside. The house might be made of materials that can be found nearby like mud bricks and grass or from second-hand materials like corrugated iron and cardboard boxes. In many cities there are thousands of small houses crowded together with narrow alleys between them.\n\nCottage \nA small house is often called a cottage. Apart from it, its also called small space. In England, where this word comes from, it is used to mean a house that has one main storey, with a second, lower storey of bedrooms which fit under the roof upstairs. Cottages are usually found in villages or in the countryside. They are nearly always built from material that can be found nearby. In many places the word cottage is used to mean a small old-fashioned house. In the United States the word cottage is often used to mean a small holiday home.\n\nTiny\nA tiny house is one that's usually 500sqft\\48sqm in size and typically built on a trailer or barge and thus portable. Tiny houses can also be built on smaller versions of conventional foundations.\n\nSemi-detached or duplex \n\nA semi-detached house is a building that has two houses side by side and covered over by just one big roof. Each house has a pathway to one side, leading from the front to the backyard. Semi-detached houses are very common in some cities, and can be single storey or several storeys high.\n\nTerraced houses \nA row or terraced house (see the picture in the introduction) is a house that is part of a row of houses joined at the side walls. Many cities and towns have thousands of row houses because they are a good way to build lots of houses close together. Many row houses have two rooms downstairs and two rooms upstairs, with a kitchen or wash area at the back. Houses like this were built for poor factory workers and coal miners in many cities and towns.  \"Terrace houses\" are a type of row house where each house has a similar front to its neighbours.\n\nRow houses are not always small. Some cities have large beautiful row houses, such as the Royal Crescent, which was built 200 years ago at Bath in England and is a famous example of Georgian architecture.\n\nBungalow \n\nIn some places, the word \"bungalow\" is used for any house that is all on one level. The word came from India and for a long time was used for a house that is built all on one level and has a verandah where people can sit or work outdoors, but under a shady roof. A bungalow often has a hall down the middle of the house to let the breeze blow through. Bungalows are often seen in countries with hot summers, in India, South East Asia, South Africa, parts of the United States, South America, Australia and New Zealand. In regions with flooding, a bungalow is often built up on wooden \"stilts\" or a high basement. In the 1800s, bungalows were nearly always built of wood, but from the 1920s it became fashionable to build them of brick as well.\n\nFarmhouse \nA farmhouse may look like a cottage, a bungalow or a mansion, but in many countries a farmhouse can look quite different to a house in a town, because, as well as having a place for people to live, it also has a place for animals. Three typical types of farmhouses are found. Many farm houses are long and have two doors. One door leads to the rooms used by the family. The other door opens into a stable for the cows, sheep and chickens. The stable part often has a loft where hay can be kept to feed the animals in the winter. Another type of farmhouse has two storeys with a big stable and storeroom underneath, with the rooms for the family on the upper floor. Another type of farmhouse has buildings such as the family house, the barn and the stable all joined around a central courtyard. Old farmhouses of these three types can be found in many parts of Europe and Great Britain.\n\nMansion \n\nA mansion is a big grand house, usually with two stories and sometimes more. A mansion often has beautiful architecture, and shows that the person for whom it was designed and built was rich. Mansions often have beautiful gardens. Sometimes a mansion does not belong to a private family, but to a town council, to a big business company, to a church or college and is a place for a person with an important job to live and to entertain guests. A mansion often has rooms which are not found in ordinary houses, such as a drawing room, a ballroom, a library and a music room. Mansions often need servants to help keep them in order and there are often special rooms where the servants do particular jobs such as cleaning the silver tableware. Well-known mansions are the White House in Washington, D.C. where the President of the United States lives and Mansion House in London where the Lord Mayor of London lives.\n\nCastle\nA castle is a fortified house constructed in the medieval period, or a house constructed to look like a medieval fortification. Castles protected feudal lords from their attacking enemies. In later periods, castles were built as part of romanticist revival movements of the 19th and early 20th centuries.\n\nPalace \nA palace is a house that is very grand for people like Kings and Queens,or other rich people. Many palaces are homes of royal or aristocratic people. Some old palaces been changed by people who lived there over many hundreds of years.\n\nOne of the best-known palaces in the world is Buckingham Palace, a royal palace in London. The largest palace in the world is the Louvre which was built in Paris for the Kings of France. It now holds a famous art gallery.\n\nWhat are houses built from? \nHouses are usually built from types of material that can easily be made or bought near the place where the house is built. Because of this, old houses in different towns and different villages look quite different to each other, even in the same country. In modern times building materials can be transported easily and this means that a builder has much more choice about the types of material to use for a house.\n\nMud and clay \n\nIn many parts of the world, mud or clay are the main building materials. Clay is a type of soil that sticks together more strongly than most other types of soil. There are three main ways of building walls with mud and clay.\n One way to make a house of clay is simply to pile up the mud or wet clay with the hands, and flatten it into a wall shape. Often animal hair, straw and dung is mixed with the mud so that the fibres (stringy bits) help hold it together. Some wooden beams and thin wooden slats are used to hold the roof, which is also made of mud or clay. The roof is flat and strong enough to walk on, but must slope a bit, in case of rain. The walls are often protected from rain with plaster and paint. In many countries the walls are usuallly white, but in other places all the houses are painted different bright clolours. These types of houses are only found in very dry countries. Houses built in this way give good protection against the very hot sun and hot dry winds of the dessert. In the cold nights they stay quite warm.\n A second way to make the walls of a house out of mud of clay is \"wattle and daub\". \"Wattle\" is weaving from sticks. First, long sticks are stuck into the ground and then very thin sticks are woven through them, like making a basket. The thin wattle wall is then \"daubed\" or stuck all over on the inside and the outside with damp clay, mud or plaster, usually with some chopped straw or animal hair to help it stick together. \"Wattle and daub\" are often found in quite damp places where bendy willow trees or acacias (also called \"wattle trees\") grow. The walls need good protection from the rain, so houses like this often have roofs that have big \"eaves\"; the roof sticks out all around the house so that the water does not run down the walls. \"Wattle and daub\" houses often have big roofs made of straw, reeds, banana leaves, palm leaves, wooden shingles or big sheets of bark.\n Another way to make a house of mud or clay is to shape the wet soil into bricks before building the walls. The bricks can be shaped by hand, but more often they are shaped in boxes or \"moulds\" so that all the bricks are just the same size and shape. They are left in the hot sun until they have dried hard. Then walls can be made which are the same thickness all the way up. Clay bricks that are dried in the sun were used in Egypt and Mesopotamia for thousands of years.\n\nFired bricks \nIt was discovered that if clay was used, rather than mud, very strong bricks could be made by \"firing\" (or baking) them in a \"kiln\" (a special oven). \"Fired\" bricks were like pottery; they did not wash away easily in rain and would sometimes last for thousands of years. The bricks were joined to each other with a type of cement called \"mortar\". Some houses built by the Ancient Romans are still standing 2000 years later.\n\nBricks became one of the most common building materials. In most cities, nearly all the houses are built of bricks because they are long lasting, they do not need repairing very often. Brick houses are generally made strong by having all the main walls two bricks thick. Two walls are built side by side which are \"bonded\" (or joined to each other) by having some bricks set so they make a bridge between the two layers. The pattern of the bonded bricks can be seen from the outside. The two main patterns are called \"Flemish Bond\" and \"British Bond\".\n\nBecause brick walls are heavy, a brick house needs to have a very firm base or \"foundation\" to sit on. This often means digging deep into the ground to lay a foundation before a brick house can be built.\nHouses with brick walls often have tiled roofs, because the tiles can often be made at the brick factory.\nModern bricks and tiles come in a big range of colours, because different materials can be transported from different areas. People who are employing a builder to build a home are nowadays often shown pictures of all the colours of bricks and tiles that are available. This means that although in old towns, every house is made of the same type of bricks, in a modern suburb every house may look quite different. The bricks range from white through shades of red, yellow and brown and are sometimes very patterned, while the roof tiles include blue, green and yellow as well as the traditional red, orange and brown.\n In some countries, the clay for bricks does not set very hard, and washes away more easily. If the bricks are not very hard, then it is usual to cover them with plaster or cement, which can then be painted. In other places, brick walls are not very fashionable so the walls are plastered and made more elegant with decoration. Plastering or cementing over brickwork is called \"render\" or \"stucco\". In many countries such as Austria, Italy and Spain, the brick houses are usually covered with stucco and are often painted cream, yellow, orange, pink, red or \"orchre\" (which is a mustard colour).\n\nTimber \nHouses made of timber are found wherever there are, or there has once been big forests. Timber houses are also often found in seaside towns where the sea air makes brick and stone houses feel cold and damp.\n\n One of the oldest ways to make a timber house is to cut tree-trunks into logs. The logs are then split in half so that there is a flat side for the inside of the wall and a round side for the outside. The logs then have big \"notches' or holes cut into the ends, so that when they are piled up, the logs lock together at the corners of the building without any nails. These log cabins can be seen in Canada, in Switzerland, in Scandinavia, in Eastern Europe and in Japan.\n Many houses are made with a wooden \"frame\" or skeleton. On the outside of the frame, to keep out the weather, rows of flat boards are nailed, which overlap each other so that the rain cannot come in. Walls like this are called \"clapboard\" or \"weatherboard\". Clapboard houses are generally painted to preserve the timber. In England and some parts of the United States, they are nearly always painted white. In Australia where \"weatherboard\" houses are very common, they are usually painted in bright colours. In England and Australia, clapboard houses are usually quite small, but in the United States there are very many grand mansions that are built in this way.\n Some houses with a wooden frame have a brick wall on the outside and a wall of plastered board on the inside. This is called \"brick veneer\".\n\nHalf-timbered houses \nA well-known type of old-fashioned house is the \"half-timbered\" house. These are seen in the British Isles, France, and across northern Europe and the Alps. These houses date mainly from about 1200 to about 1800.\n Half-timbered houses are houses that have a wooden frame built up of lots of thick timber pieces that are generally quite short. The timbers are arranged in a pattern with lots of diagonal pieces to act as braces. The strong wooden frame is then filled in with all sorts of other material. In some houses the \"infil\" is mainly of brick. In other houses, \"wattle and daub\" is used between the timber. Other houses have infill of \"rubble\" (rough stones) in clay or mud. The \"infil is generally plastered over and painted white (or in some places a colour) while the timbers are often stained black. If they are not stained, they turn pale silvery grey. Hundreds of these houses exist, including some that are quite grand. In the 1800s and early 1900s, there was a fashion to copy \"half-timbering\" on modern brick houses.\n\nStone houses \nIn places where there is lots of stone, many houses are built of it. In many parts of the world, little cottages are built of stone. Many mansions and palaces are also built of stone, as are nearly all castles.\n\n Some of the oldest houses in the world are made of stone. They are circular houses with walls of flat stone slabs laid carefully on each other. The walls sloped gently inwards to meet in a stone roof. Other prehistoric stone houses had roofs of thatch.\n In parts of the world where there is stone that can be broken into flat slabs, then walls can be built up without any \"mortar\" to join the stones together. But the wind blows through the gaps, so the walls need timber or render on the inside, to keep out the weather. Stone houses of this type often have roofs made of flat stones as well. Stone roofs are very heavy and are laid on very thick beams.\n Many stone cottages are built of flint or \"rubble\" or \"cobble\". These are broken stones that are brought from nearby hills, or stones picked up from the farmer's fields, or gathered from a river bed. The walls are built up with stones and mortar. In some places where flint is used, the hard stones are split or \"knapped\" so that when they are placed on the outside of the wall, they show a shiny flat surface which is more attractive than the dull lumpy outside of a flintstone.\n Some types of stone, particularly limestone and sandstone, can easily be cut into big blocks that can be built up like bricks. It can also be \"dressed\" or smoothed on its surfaces. In villages that are near a limestone or sandstone quarry where the stone is cut, many of the cottages are built of neatly cut stones. But in towns that are far away from the quarries, it is only the mansions and palaces that are built of stone, because it is very heavy and expensive to carry across the country.\n The good thing about the types of stone that are used for grand houses is that they can easily be carved into decoration. Grand houses often have decorative carvings around the doors and windows. The building stones may also have special textures at the basement or the corners of the building.\n Grand stone houses often have roofs of thin stone called slate. They also have roofs of expensive materials like copper and lead.\n\nMaking modern houses \n\nModern houses are often made of \"pre-fabricated\" parts that are partly built in a factory, and are easy to put together at the site of the building.\nMany different types of materials for making houses have been developed in the 20th century.\n Many houses are now made with steel frames put together with rivets and bolts.\n Walls and roofs can be made of boards that combine fibre with cement. These boards are thin, light in weight to transport, easy to put on the frame, and much cheaper than bricks or timber. A similar material can be made into roof tiles.\n Metal roofing can be rolled into thin sheets, and made in many different colours, with matching gutters and downpipes.\n\nNotes and references \n Nicholas Pevsner, An Outline of European Architecture, Pelican, ISBN\n Trewin Copplestone, Ed., World Architecture, Paul Hamlyn, ISBN\n John Summerson, Architecture in Britain, Pelican, \n Trevor Yorke, Tracing the History of Villages, Countryside Books, \n Richard Reid, The Book of Buildings, the Architecture of Europe and North America, Peerage Books, \n R. Apperly, R. Irving and P.Reynolds, A Pictorial Guide to Identifying Australian Architecture, Angus and Robertson's, \n W.R. Dalziel, All-Colour Guide to Architecture, Grosset and Dunlap, \n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":232,"dup_dump_count":95,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":4,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":4,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":5,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":7,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":5,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":4,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":4900,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/House","title":"House","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A mobile phone (also known as a hand phone, cell phone, or cellular telephone) is a small portable radio telephone.\n\nThe mobile phone can be used to communicate over long distances without wires. It works by communicating with a nearby base station (also called a \"mobile tower\") which connects it to the main phone network. When moving, if the mobile phone gets too far away from the cell it is connected to, that cell sends a message to another cell to tell the new cell to take over the call. This is called a \"hand off,\" and the call continues with the new cell the phone is connected to. The hand-off is done so well and carefully that the user will usually never even know that the call was transferred to another cell.\n\nAs mobile phones became more popular, they began to cost less money, and more people could afford them. Monthly plans became available for rates as low as US$30 or US$40 a month. Cell phones have become so cheap to own that they have mostly replaced pay phones and phone booths except for urban areas with many people.\n\nIn the 21st century, a new type of mobile phone, called smartphones, have become popular. Since the 2010s, more people use smartphones than the old kind of mobile phone, which are called feature phones.\n\nHistory \nMobile phones in the 1950s through 1970s were large and heavy, and most were built into cars. In the late 20th century technology improved so people could carry their phones with ease.\n\nAlthough Dr. Martin Cooper from Motorola made the first call using a mobile phone in 1973 (using a handset weighing  2 kilograms), it did not use the type of cellular mobile phone network that we use today.\n\nThe first cellular mobile phone networks were created in 1979 in Japan. Now almost all urban areas, and many country areas, are covered by mobile phone networks.\n\nTechnology \nA cell phone combines technologies, mainly telephone, radio, and computer. Most also have a digital camera inside.\n\nCell phones work as two-way radios. They send electromagnetic microwaves from base station to base station. The waves are sent through antennas. This is called wireless communication.\n\nEarly cell telephones used analog networks. They became rare late in the 20th century. Modern phones use digital networks.\n\nThe first digital networks are also known as second generation, or 2G, technologies. The most used digital network is GSM (Global System for Mobile communication). It is used mainly in Europe and Asia, while CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access) networks are mainly used in North America. The difference is in communication protocol. Other countries like Japan have different 2G protocols. A few 2G networks are still used. 3G are more common, and many places have 4G.\n\nThe radio waves that the mobile phone networks use are split into different frequencies. The frequency is measured in Hz. Low frequencies can send the signal farther. Higher frequencies provide better connections and the voice communications are generally clearer. Four main frequencies are used around the world: 850, 900, 1800 and 1900\u00a0MHz. Europe uses 900 and 1800\u00a0MHz and North America uses 850 and 1900\u00a0MHz.\n\nToday there are mobile phones that work on two, three or four frequencies. The most advanced phones  work on all frequencies. They are called 'world' phones and can be used everywhere.\n\nShapes \n\nThere are different kinds of phones. A flip phone flips open, and is best for calling. A bar phone is shaped like a candy bar, and the keys and screen are on one face. A slate phone is a phone that has almost no buttons, and uses a touchscreen. Most smartphones are slates. A slider phone slides on rails. It can slide out number keys or a mini keyboard, but some do both. A swivel spins on an axle.\n\nHow mobile phones work \n\nWhen a mobile phone is switched on, its radio receiver finds a nearby mobile phone network base station, and its transmitter sends a request for service. Computers in the base station check if the phone is allowed to use the network. The base station covers an area called a cell. A phone can move between different cells, but will only communicate with one cell at a time. This is why mobile communications are sometimes called cellular communications.\n\nOnce connected to a station, the mobile phone can make calls. Because the network knows that the phone is connected to that particular cell, it can also route calls to the mobile phone. Sometimes the radio connection to the cell is lost, for example when you go underground. This means the phone cannot make or receive calls until the connection is made again.\n\nNetworks and payment \n\nThe network is the company that provides the phone service. In most areas there will be more than one mobile network. Customers choose networks based on how well the different networks work in their area, or by price.\n\nThere are two main ways to pay for mobile phone calls:            \n\n Contract\n If you pay by contract you will pay the network money every month so that you can make calls. Usually you can talk for a lot of time for the monthly fee, but if you do not use the phone a lot you still pay the same money.\n Pay as you use\n If you pay as you use, you will pay for a fixed amount of call time credit which you then use up when phoning people. Once the credit is used up you must buy some more to use the phone. This can be cheaper if you do not use the phone a lot.\n\nMobile phones use different technical standards. GSM phones need a separate microchip, called a Subscriber Identity Module or SIM card, to work. The SIM has information like the phone number and payment account and this is needed to make or receive calls. The SIM may be supplied by the same company as the phone, or a different one. Sometimes you can change the network by using a SIM from another network, but some companies do not want this to happen and they lock the phone so that you have to use their SIM.  \n\nThe others have a special radio inside them that only makes phone calls when the phone is activated. When someone buys a contract, the network gives them a code, that if they enter it into the phone, the phone will then make calls. It is usually impossible to switch to a different network's code on this type of phone. The majority of these CDMA phones are used in the United States and nearby countries.\n\nSmartphones \nMain page: Smartphone\n\nA majority of new mobile phones from the 21st century are smartphones. These phones are basically  small computers. Besides calling, they can be used for email, browsing the internet, showing local maps, playing music and games, and many other functions that computers can perform. \n\nMost smartphones run a common mobile operating system. This allows developers to make mobile apps that work on many different phones without needing to change the code. Examples of smartphones include Apple's iPhone (which uses iOS software) and Samsung's Galaxy series, one of many phones that use the Android platform made by Google.\n\nMobile case \n\nCases, which are designed to attach to, support, or otherwise hold a smartphone, are popular accessories. Some have a keyboard built in. Case measures are based on the display inches (e.g. 5 inch display). There are different types:\n\n Pouches and sleeves\n Holsters\n Shells\n Skins\n Bumpers\n Flip cases and wallets\n Leather case\n Screen protectors and body films\n\nIn the 21st century, a new type of mobile phone, called smartphones, have become popular. More people are using smartphones than the old kind of mobile phone, which are called feature phones covers\n\nHolsters are commonly used alone for devices that include rubberized padding, and\/or are made of plastic and without exposed rigid corners. Heavy duty cases are designed to protect from drops and scratches.\n\nRelated pages \n 4G\n 5G\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":199,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":5,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":5,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":6,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":6,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":6,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":4,"2019-09":5,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":7,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":26786,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile%20phone","title":"Mobile phone","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Charles Robert Darwin (12 February 1809 \u2013 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist. He was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire. He is famous for his work on the theory of evolution.\n\nHis book On the Origin of Species was published in 1859. In this book, he put forward much evidence that evolution had occurred. He also proposed natural selection as the way evolution had taken place.\n\nDarwin did not know about genetics: he never read the work of Gregor Mendel. Nevertheless, Darwin's explanation of evolution was fundamentally correct. In contrast to Lamarck, Darwin's idea was that the giraffe's neck became longer because those with longer necks survived better.p177\/9 These survivors passed their genes on, and in time the whole species got longer necks.\n\nVoyage of the  Beagle \n\nDarwin spent almost five years on board a Royal Navy exploring ship, the HMS Beagle. He was the guest naturalist, which meant that he was responsible for making collections and notes about the animals, plants, and the geology of the countries they visited. The ship's crew made charts of all the coastal areas, which could be used by the navy wherever it went in the world. At the time, Britain had by far the largest navy in the world, and an empire which was global.\n\nDarwin collected everywhere the ship landed. He found huge fossils of recently extinct mammals, experienced an earthquake in Chile, and noticed the land had been raised. He knew of raised beaches elsewhere, high in the Andes, with fossil seashells and trees which had once grown on a sandy beach. Obviously the Earth was constantly changing, with land rising in some places, and sinking in others. He collected birds and insects, and sent shipments back to Cambridge for experts to identify.\n\nDarwin was the first dedicated naturalist to visit the Galapagos Islands, off the west coast of Ecuador. He noticed that some of the birds were like mockingbirds on the mainland, but different enough to be placed in separate species. He began to wonder how so many new species came to be on these islands.\n\nWhen Darwin got back to England, he edited a series of scientific reviews of the voyage, and wrote a personal journal which we know as The Voyage of the Beagle. It is one of the great natural history travel diaries.\n\nIn 1843 Darwin, who already had two children with his wife Emma, bought Down House in the village of Downe, Kent. He lived there for the rest of his life, and today the house and contents are open to the public.\n\nEvolution \nWhile on the H.M.S. Beagle, and later back home in London, Darwin had come across the ideas of the Rev. T.R. Malthus. Malthus had realised that, although humans could double their population every 25 years, it did not happen in practice. He thought the reason was that a struggle for existence (or resources) limited their numbers. If numbers increased, then famine, wars and diseases caused more deaths. Darwin, who knew that all living things could, in principle, increase their numbers, began to think about why some survived, while others did not.p264-268 His answer took years to develop.\n\nThe theory of evolution says that all living things on Earth, including plants, animals and microbes, come from a common ancestor by slowly changing throughout the generations. Darwin suggested that the way living things changed over time is through natural selection. This is the better survival and reproduction of those that best fit their environment. Fitting into the place where you live is called adapting. Those who fit best into the place where they live, the best adapted, have the best chance to survive and breed. Those who are less well-adapted tend not to survive. If they do not survive well enough to raise young, this means they do not pass on their genes. In this way, the species gradually changes.\n\nThe first chapter of the Origin deals with domesticated animals, such as cattle and dogs. Darwin reminded readers of the huge changes mankind had made in its domestic animals, which were once wild species. The changes were brought about by selective breeding \u2013 choosing animals with desirable characters to breed from. This had been done generation after generation, until our modern breeds were produced. Perhaps what man had done deliberately, might happen in nature, where some would leave more offspring than others.\n\nDarwin noticed that although young plants or animals are very similar to their parents, no two are exactly the same and there is always a range of shape, size, colour, and so on. Some of these differences the plant or animal may have got from their own ancestors, but some are new and caused by mutations. When such differences made an organism more able to live in the wild, it would have a better chance to survive, and would pass on its genes to its offspring, and they to their offspring. Any difference that would cause the plant or animal to have less of a chance to live would be less likely to be passed on, and would eventually die out altogether. In this way groups of similar plants or animals (called species) slowly change in shape and form so that they can live more successfully and have more offspring who will survive them. So, natural selection had similarities to selective breeding, except that it would happen by itself, over a much longer time.\n\nHe first started thinking about this in 1838, but it took a full twenty years before his ideas became public. By 1844 he was able to write a draft of the main ideas in his notebook. Historians think that he did not talk about his theory because he was afraid of public criticism. He knew his theory, which did not discuss religion, raised questions about the literal truth of the Book of Genesis. Whatever the reason, he did not publish his theory in a book until 1859. In 1858 he heard that another biologist, Alfred Russel Wallace, had the same ideas about natural selection. Darwin and Wallace's ideas were first published in the Journal of the Linnaean Society in London, 1858. Then, Darwin published his book the next year. The name of the book was On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. This is usually called The Origin of Species.\n\nOther works \nDarwin wrote a number of other books, most of which are also very important.\n\nHis books \n\n 1838-43: Zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle: published between 1839 and 1843 in five Parts (and nineteen numbers) by various authors, edited and superintended by Charles Darwin, who contributed sections to two of the Parts:\n 1838: Part 1 No. 1 Fossil Mammalia, by Richard Owen (Preface and Geological introduction by Darwin)\n 1838: Part 2 No. 1 Mammalia, by George Robert Waterhouse (Geographical introduction and A notice of their habits and ranges by Darwin)\n 1839: Journal and remarks (The Voyage of the Beagle)\n 1842: The structure and distribution of Coral Reefs\n 1844: Geological observations of volcanic islands\n 1846: Geological observations on South America\n 1849: Geology from A manual of scientific enquiry; prepared for the use of Her Majesty's Navy: and adapted for travellers in general. ed. John Herschel.\n 1851: A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with figures of all the species. The Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes. Living barnacles.\n 1854: A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with figures of all the species. The Balanidae (or Sessile Cirripedes); the Verrucidae, etc.\n 1851: A Monograph on the Fossil Lepadidae, or, Pedunculated Cirripedes of Great Britain. Fossil barnacles.\n 1854: A Monograph on the Fossil Balanid\u00e6 and Verrucid\u00e6 of Great Britain\n 1859: On the Origin of Species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life\n 1862: On the various contrivances by which British and foreign Orchids are fertilised by insects (Fertilisation of orchids)\n 1865: On the movements and habits of climbing plants (Linnean Society paper, published in book form in 1875)\n 1868: The variation of animals and plants under domestication\n 1871: The Descent of Man, and selection in relation to sex\n 1872: The expression of emotions in Man and animals\n 1875: Insectivorous plants\n 1876: The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom\n 1877: The different forms of flowers on plants of the same species\n 1880: The power of movement in plants\n 1881: The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms.\n\nThe original manuscript books of the Origin of Species were returned to Cambridge University library in 2020. They were stolen 22 years before.\n\nRelated pages \n Erasmus Darwin\n Alfred Russel Wallace\n Charles Lyell\n Charles Darwin's books\n Darwin Day\n Darwinism\n Evolution\n\nReferences \n\n1809 births\n1882 deaths\n \n \nAgnostics\nAlumni of the University of Cambridge\nBritish abolitionists\nBritish zoologists\nDeaths from heart failure\nEnglish activists\nEnglish Anglicans\nEnglish botanists\nEnglish evolutionary biologists\nEnglish geologists\nEnglish naturalists\nEnglish science writers\nPeople buried in Westminster Abbey\nPeople from Shropshire","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":5121,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles%20Darwin","title":"Charles Darwin","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The London Borough of Croydon is a London Borough. It is in south London. The borough is the farthest south of Greater London, with the M25 circle motorway touching it at the bottom. In North Croydon the borough mainly borders the London Borough of Bromley to the east as well as the London Boroughs of Southwark and Lambeth to the north. The boroughs of Sutton and Merton are west of Croydon.\n\nCroydon's main town centre is Croydon itself. The town offers the most office space in Southeast England apart from Central London. There are two shopping centres in Croydon which are named Centrale and the Witgift Centre. Croydon was named the 20th best shopping town in the UK. Croydon is currently being modernised (meaning new buildings are being built). Croydon College and John Ruskin College are the only schools for people over 16 years old.\n\nThe London Borough of Croydon asked the government for city status in 2000 and again in 2002 but it failed. If the government said yes it would have been the third council in Greater London to hold that status, the others being the City of London and the City of Westminster.\n\nThe borough is the home of two football clubs, Crystal Palace F.C. who are in the Football League Championship and Croydon F.C. who are in the Ryman League. Croydon is also known for having a lot of parks and open spaces like Mitcham Common and South Norwood Lakes.\n\nCroydon is a tourist attraction in London. One of the reasons is because it is close to Gatwick Airport and because it has lots of entertainment and historic facilities including the Fairfield Halls, Warehouse Theatre, Croydon Airport (disused), Shirley Windmill, Croydon Palace and the Croydon Clocktower.\n\nPlaces \n\nThe borough includes the following areas:\n Addington\n Addiscombe\n Ashburton\n Broad Green\n Coombe\n Coulsdon\n Croydon\n Crystal Palace\n Forestdale\n Hamsey Green\n Kenley\n New Addington\n Norbury\n Purley\n Sanderstead\n Selhurst\n Selsdon\n Shirley\n South Croydon\n South Norwood\n Thornton Heath\n Upper Norwood\n Waddon\n West Croydon\n Woodside\n Whyteleafe\n\nAttractions \n\nCroydon has many places that people enjoy visiting. There are a lot of places of interest such as Croydon Airport, which was the largest airport in London until its closure in September 1959. It was closed because of it was too small to handle the growing number of flights to Croydon so Heathrow and Gatwick took over. It has become a great place for air plane shows and sometimes is hosts along with Biggin Hill. Addington Palace is an 18th-century mansion that was the home of six archbishops.\n\nCroydon Clocktower is an arts facility in Central Croydon that includes a cinema, library, museum and conference room. The building links into the official Town Hall of Croydon Council and some areas of the building, most notably the Braithwaite Hall, are part of the original complex. The Clocktower is the tower of the Town Hall. New buildings were built alongside the Town Hall and were opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994. Croydon Palace is where Archbishops of Canterbury used to stay during the summer. It is more than 500 years old.\n\nThe Warehouse Theatre is a professional producing producing studio theatre with up to a hundred seats in the centre of Croydon based in an oak-beamed former Victorian cement warehouse. The Fairfield Halls is an arts centre in Croydon which opened in 1962. It contains a concert hall, the Ashcroft Theatre (named for local actress Dame Peggy Ashcroft), the Arnhem Gallery civic hall (Croydon is twinned with Arnhem, a city in The Netherlands) and an art gallery. The large concert hall is used by the BBC for recordings.\n\nOther websites \n Croydon Council - London Borough of Croydon\n Croydon Online - Website about area","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":58849,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/London%20Borough%20of%20Croydon","title":"London Borough of Croydon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"P versus NP is one of the Millennium Problems, and of great interest to people working with computers and in mathematics. One way of asking it is, \"Can every solved problem whose answer can be checked quickly by a computer, also be quickly solved by a computer?\" Math problems are referred to as P or NP, whether they are solvable in a given finite set of time with the problem itself being the upper limit. P problems have their solution time bound to a polynomial and so are relatively fast for\u00a0computers\u00a0to solve, and so are considered \"easy\". NP problems are fast (and so \"easy\") for a computer to check, but are not necessarily easy to solve.\n\nIn 1956, Kurt G\u00f6del wrote a letter to John von Neumann. In this letter, G\u00f6del asked whether a certain NP complete problem could be solved in quadratic or linear time. In 1971, Stephen Cook introduced the precise statement of the P versus NP problem in his article \"The complexity of theorem proving procedures\".\n\nToday, many people consider this problem to be the most important open problem in computer science. It is one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems selected by the Clay Mathematics Institute to carry a US$1,000,000 prize for a solution that invites a published recognition by the Clay Institute, and presumably one(s) that changes the whole of mathematics.\n\nBecause many of these problems touch upon related issues, and it is the dream of many mathematicians to invent unifying theories, many hope the Millennium Problems are interconnected.\n\nClarifications \nA computer may be able to tell if an answer is right, but take longer to get the answer. For some interesting, practical questions of this kind, difficult answers are possible to check quickly. So NP problems may be thought of as being like riddles: it may be hard to come up with an answer to a riddle, but once one hears the answer, the answer seems obvious. In this comparison (analogy), the basic question is: are riddles really as hard as we think they are, or are we missing something? Is there a secret to always having an answer?\n\nBecause these kinds of P versus NP questions are so practically important, many mathematicians, scientists, and computer programmers want to prove the general proposition, that every quickly-checked problem can also be solved quickly. This question is important enough that the Clay Mathematical Institute will give $1,000,000 to anyone who successfully provides a proof or a valid explanation that disproves it.\n\nDigging a little deeper, we see that all P problems are NP problems: it is easy to check that a solution is correct by solving the problem and comparing the two solutions. However, people want to know about the opposite: Are there any NP problems other than P problems, or are all NP problems just P problems? If NP problems are really not the same as P problems (P \u2260 NP), it would mean that no general, fast ways to solve those NP problems can exist, no matter how hard we look. However, if all NP problems are P problems (P = NP), it would mean that new, very fast problem-solving methods do exist. We just have not found them yet.\n\nSince the best efforts of scientists and mathematicians have not found general, easy methods for solving NP problems yet, many people believe that there are NP problems other than P problems (that is, that P \u2260 NP is true). Most mathematicians also believe this to be true, but currently no one has proven it by rigorous mathematical analysis. If it can be proven that NP and P are the same (P = NP is true), it would have a huge impact on many aspects of day-to-day life. For this reason, the question of P versus NP is an important and widely studied topic.\n\nExample \nSuppose someone wants to build two towers, by stacking rocks of different mass. One wants to make sure that each of the towers has exactly the same mass. That means one will have to put the rocks into two piles that have the same mass. If one guesses a division of the rocks that one thinks will work, it would be easy for one to check if one was right.  (To check the answer, one can divide the rocks into two piles, then use a balance to see if they have the same mass.) Because it is easy to check this problem, called 'Partition' by computer scientists\u2014easier than to solve it outright, as we will see\u2014it is not a P problem.\n\nHow hard is it to solve, outright? If one starts with just 100 rocks, there are 2^{100-1}-1 = 633,825,300,114,114,700,748,351,602,687, or about 6.3 x 10^{29} possible ways (combinations) to divide these rocks into two piles. If one could check one unique combination of rocks every day, it would take 1.3 x 10^{22} or 1,300,000,000,000,000,000,000 years of effort. For comparison, physicists believe that the universe is about 1.4 x 10^{10} years old (450,000,000,000,000,000 or about 4.5 x 10^{17} seconds, or about one trillionth as old as the time it would take for our rock piling effort. That means that if one takes all of the time that has passed since the beginning of the universe, one would need to check more than two trillion (2,000,000,000,000) different ways of dividing the rocks every second, in order to check all of the different ways.\n\nIf one programmed a powerful computer, to test all of these ways to divide the rocks, one might be able to check  combinations per second using current systems. This means one would still need  very powerful computers, working since the origin of the universe, to test all the ways of dividing the rocks.\n\nHowever, it may be possible to find a method of dividing the rocks into two equal piles without checking all combinations. The question \"Does P equal NP?\" is a shorthand for asking if any method like that can exist.\n\nWhy it matters \nThere are many important NP problems that people don't know how to solve in a way that is faster than testing every possible answer.  Here are some examples:\n\n A travelling salesman wants to visit 100 cities by driving, starting and ending his trip at home. He has a limited supply of gasoline, so he can only drive a total of 10,000 kilometers.  He wants to know if he can visit all of the cities without running out of gasoline.\n A school offers 100 different classes, and a teacher needs to choose one hour for each class' final exam. To prevent cheating, all of the students who take a class must take the exam for that class at the same time. If a student takes more than one class, then all of those exams must be at a different time. The teacher wants to know if he can schedule all of the exams in the same day so that every student is able to take the exam for each of their classes.\n A farmer wants to take 100 watermelons of different masses to the market. She needs to pack the watermelons into boxes. Each box can only hold 20 kilograms without breaking.  The farmer needs to know if 10 boxes will be enough for her to carry all 100 watermelons to market. (This is trivial, if no more than one watermelon weighs more than 2\u00a0kg then any 10 can be placed in each of the crates, if no more than ten watermelons weighs more than 2\u00a0kg then one of each of them can be placed in each crate, etc., to a fast solution; observation will be the key to any rapid solution such as this or the number set problem).\n A large art gallery has many rooms, and each wall is covered with many expensive paintings. The owner of the gallery wants to buy cameras to watch these paintings, in case a thief tries to steal any of them. He wants to know if 100 cameras will be enough for him to make sure that each painting can be seen by at least one camera.\n The clique problem: The principal of a school has a list of which students are friends with each other. She wants to find a group of 10% of the students that are all friends with each other.\n\nExponential Time\nIn the example above, we see that with  rocks, there are  ways to partition the set of rocks. With  rocks, there are  combinations. The function  is an exponential function. It's important to NP because it models the worst-case number of computations that are needed to solve a problem and, thus, the worst-case amount of time required.\n\nAnd so far, for the hard problems, the solutions have required on the order of  computations. For any particular problem, people have found ways to reduce the number of computations needed. One might figure out that a way to do just 1% of the worst-case number of computation and that saves a lot of computing, but that is still  computations. And every extra rock still doubles the number of computations needed to solve the problem. There are insights that can produce methods to do even fewer computations producing variations of the model: e.g. . But the exponential function still dominates as  grows.\n\nConsider the problem of scheduling exams (described above). But suppose, next, that there are 15000 students. There's a computer program that takes the schedules of all 15000 students. It runs in an hour and outputs an exam schedule so that all students can do their exams in one week. It satisfies lots of rules (no back-to-back exams, no more than 2 exams in any 28 hour period, ...) to limit the stress of exam week. The program runs for one hour at mid-term break and everyone knows his\/her exam schedule with plenty of time to prepare.\n\nThe next year, though, there are 10 more students. If the same program runs on the same computer then that one hour is going to turn into  hours, because every additional student doubles the computations. That's  weeks! If there were 20 more students, then\n\n hours =  hours ~  days ~  years\n\nThus, for  students, it takes one hour. For  students, it takes  years.\n\nAs you can see, exponential functions grow really fast. Most mathematicians believe that the hardest NP problems require exponential time to solve.\n\nNP-complete problems \nMathematicians can show that there are some NP problems that are NP-Complete.  An NP-Complete problem is at least as difficult to solve as any other NP problem. This means that if someone found a method to solve any NP-Complete problem quickly, they could use that same method to solve every NP problem quickly. All of the problems listed above are NP-Complete, so if the salesman found a way to plan his trip quickly, he could tell the teacher, and she could use that same method to schedule the exams. The farmer could use the same method to determine how many boxes she needs, and the woman could use the same method to find a way to build her towers.\n\nBecause a method that quickly solves one of these problems can solve them all, there are many people who want to find one. However, because there are so many different NP-Complete problems and nobody so far has found a way to solve even one of them quickly, most experts believe that solving NP-Complete problems quickly is not possible.\n\nBasic Properties \nIn computational complexity theory, the complexity class NP-complete (abbreviated NP-C or NPC), is a class of problems having two properties:\n It is in the set of NP (non-deterministic polynomial time) problems: Any given solution to the problem can be verified quickly (in polynomial time).\n It is also in the set of NP-hard problems: Those which are at least as hard as the hardest problems in NP. Problems that are NP-hard do not have to be elements of NP; indeed, they may not even be decidable.\n\nFormal overview \nNP-complete is a subset of NP, the set of all decision problems whose solutions can be verified in polynomial time; NP may be equivalently defined as the set of decision problems solved in polynomial time on a machine. A problem p in NP is also in NPC if and only if every other problem in NP is transformed into p in polynomial time. NP-complete was to be used as an adjective: problems in the class NP-complete were as NP+complete problems.\n\nNP-complete problems are studied because the ability to quickly verify solutions to a problem (NP) seems to correlate with the ability to quickly solve problem (P). It is found every problem in NP is quickly solved\u2014as called the P = NP: problem set. The single problem in NP-complete is solved quickly, faster than every problem in NP also quickly solved, because the definition of an NP-complete problem states every problem in NP must be quickly reducible to every problem in NP-complete (it is reduced in polynomial time).\n\nExamples \nThe Boolean satisfiability problem is known to be NP complete. In 1972, Richard Karp formulated 21 problems that are known to be NP-complete. These are known as  Karp's 21 NP-complete problems. They include problems such as the Integer programming problem, which applies linear programming techniques to the integers, the knapsack problem, or the vertex cover problem.\n\nReferences\n\nConjectures\nTheoretical computer science","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-26":3,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2}},"id":181453,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/P%20versus%20NP%20problem","title":"P versus NP problem","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Crosby, Stills & Nash (CSN) was an American folk rock supergroup made up of David Crosby, Stephen Stills and Graham Nash. They are known as Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young (CSNY) when joined by occasional fourth member Neil Young, who is from Canada.\n\nTheir songs include \"Marrakesh Express\", \"Suite: Judy Blue Eyes\", \"Teach Your Children\", \"Ohio\" (a protest song, against the Kent State shootings in early 1970), and \"Just A Song Before I Go\".\n\nComing together \nIn the 1960s, Stephen Stills and Neil Young were members of another band, called Buffalo Springfield. Crosby was a founding member of The Byrds, and British-born Graham Nash was a member of The Hollies. Crosby was fired from the Byrds late in 1967, and the Buffalo Springfield disbanded the next year. Nash went to California, where the others lived and worked, when the Hollies visited there in 1968. Nash and Crosby had met earlier in England, and got back in touch in California. Crosby and Stills had worked together on two songs, called \"Wooden Ships\" and \"You Don't Have To Cry\". Performing \"You Don't Have To Cry\" for Nash, he joined in on harmonies, and the three noticed they had a special sound together. Nash moved to California, and the three formed a band. They signed a recording contract with Atlantic Records.\n\nStills and Crosby were free to work together, and record for Atlantic, but Nash still belonged to the Hollies, who had a contract with Epic Records. A trade was worked out, between Atlantic and Epic. In exchange for losing Nash, Epic Records got to sign up another Atlantic band, Poco, formed by Richie Furay from the Buffalo Springfield.\n\nCSN's first album was released in the spring of 1969, and quickly became a hit. The cover showed Crosby, Stills and Nash sitting on a couch outside an abandoned house. (They did not sit in their name order; they had not yet named the group. When they decided on their name, they wanted to take another picture sitting in order, but the house had already been torn down.) Stephen Stills had played most of the instruments on the album, with Dallas Taylor playing drums. This worked fine for recordings, but not for live appearances. More musicians were needed. A keyboardist and bass guitarist were hired.\n\nAtlantic Records president Ahmet Erteg\u00fcn suggested Neil Young, who now had his own band called Crazy Horse, as another guitarist for the group. Stills wasn't sure if Young would work out, but gave him a chance. He fit in so well that CSN made him a full-time member, and added his name to theirs. Young was able to both play with CSN, and keep his own place with Crazy Horse. Their second show as a quartet was at the Woodstock Festival, in August 1969. They toured for the next several months, and released a second album, D\u00e9j\u00e0 Vu, early the next year. They made another performing tour, to support the album, which was also a huge hit.\n\nComing apart \nThe group was very successful, but its members had many different ideas, and could not always work well together. Tension grew between them, and they nearly disbanded. Young left to return to Crazy Horse, and tour with them on his own. Each of the four recorded a solo album during 1971, though, and each album became a hit. Nash and Crosby toured together, and Stills formed another band, called Manassas, with Chris Hillman of the Byrds. Another round of solo and duo albums was released during 1972, with Young's Harvest and its single \"Heart Of Gold\" becoming the biggest hits. Albums by the other members were not as successful, though they still sold well. Crosby and Nash got along very well, and worked together as a duo, while Stills joined Young and Crazy Horse to record Young's \"War Song\". Crosby also rejoined the Byrds, but the album they recorded together, Byrds, was not a hit.\n\nThe four tried to reunite in Hawaii during 1973 to make a new album, Human Highway, but things did not work out. Finally the next year, they reformed and started another tour, with a compilation album, So Far, issued to give them something new to promote. Their shows ran longer than three hours, and there was sometimes trouble. Stills was abusing cocaine, and it made him hard to get along with. The same old tensions also came back. A new CSN&Y project was dashed when Stills and Young erased Crosby and Nash's vocals from the master tapes. Crosby and Nash went off on their own. Stills and Young formed The Stills\/Young Band, and released an album, but even that did not work out.\n\nStills and Young toured together during 1975 and 1976. In July 1976, Young left suddenly between shows, sending Stills a telegram that expressed his unhappiness, and told Stills to \"Eat a peach.\" Stills and Young each had to complete tour dates separately. Meanwhile, Nash and Crosby kept recording and performing together. They also sang background vocals for other artists, including James Taylor (\"Mexico\") and Joni Mitchell (\"Free Man In Paris\").\n\nBack together \nDuring one of their shows, Crosby and Nash were joined onstage by Stills, to perform \"Teach Your Children\". The three worked things out, and reformed their trio. CSN was released in 1977, and \"Just A Song Before I Go\" became a new hit single.\n\nIn the next years, the trio worked together off and on, and also as solo artists. Young's music had become very different from that of the other band members, and he mostly worked with Crazy Horse, but he did collaborate now and then with CSN. Crosby had his own cocaine problems during the 1980s, and ended up serving a prison sentence. He was able to stop abusing cocaine, as Stills had earlier. CSN's later songs included \"Wasted On The Way\". Nash rejoined the Hollies for a reunion album in 1984, and played shows with them, but the reunion was not a success.\n\nCSN played in Berlin, Germany at the time the Berlin Wall was torn down, at the end of the 1980s. They also played shows during the 1990s and early 2000s, and their 2000 tour was called the \"CSNY2K\" tour. They recorded other albums, but they were not nearly the hits their early ones had been, and they worked with outside writers, instead of writing all their own songs. Atlantic Records cancelled their contract.\n\nCrosby, Stills and Nash still work together and apart, with Crosby and Nash having the longest and strongest partnership. Neil Young continues on as a solo artist, with and without Crazy Horse, exploring many different kinds of music.\n\nDiscography \n 1969: Crosby, Stills & Nash (CSN)\n 1970: D\u00e9j\u00e0 Vu (CSNY)\n 1971: 4 Way Street (CSNY) (live)\n 1974: So Far (CSNY)\n 1977: CSN (CSN)\n 1982: Daylight Again (CSN)\n 1983: Allies (CSN) (live and studio)\n 1988: American Dream (CSNY)\n 1990: Live It Up (CSN)\n 1994: After the Storm (CSN)\n 1999: Looking Forward (CSNY)\n 2008: D\u00e9j\u00e0 Vu Live (CSNY) (live)\n\nAmerican rock bands\nFolk music groups\nMusical groups from California\nMusical groups established in 1968\n1968 establishments in the United States\n1960s establishments in California\nMusical groups disestablished in 1970\n1970 disestablishments in the United States\n1970s disestablishments in California\nMusical groups established in 1974\n1974 establishments in California\nMusical groups disestablished in the 1970s\n1974 disestablishments in the United States\nMusical groups established in 1977\n1977 establishments in the United States","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":127178,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crosby%2C%20Stills%2C%20Nash%20%26%20Young","title":"Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"This article is about the drink, for the plant see yerba mate. \n\n \n\nMate is a traditional drink in some countries in South America, especially in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, Chile, Bolivia and Brazil. The drink, which contains mateine (an analog of caffeine), is made by an infusion of dried leaves of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis). It is usually drunk with friends and served in a hollow calabash gourd with a \"Bombilla\", a special metallic drinking straw. The straw is also called a bomba in Portuguese, and a bombija in Arabic. It is traditionally made of  silver. The gourd is known as a mate or a guampa. In Brazil it called a cuia. Even if the water comes in a very modern thermos, the drink is traditionally drunk from mates or cuias. There are now modern \"tea-bag\" type infusions of mate called mate cocido which have been sold in Argentina for many years. They are drunk from a cup. They are sold under such trade names as \"Cruz de Malta\" (Maltese Cross) and in Brazil under the name \"Mate Le\u00e3o\" (Lion Mate).\n \nLike other brewed herbs, yerba mate leaves are dried, chopped, and ground into a powder called yerba. The bombilla is both a straw and a sieve. The end which is placed in the drink is wider, with small holes or slots that let the brewed liquid in, but block the chunky matter that makes up much of the mixture. A modern bombilla uses a straight tube with holes, or spring sleeve to act as a sieve. Bombilla means \"light bulb\" in Spanish, but locally it is \"little pump\" or \"straw\".\n\nIn some areas of the Middle Eastern countries of Syria and Lebanon it is also common to drink mate. The custom of drinking mate came from Arab emigrants from South America.  Syria is the world's biggest importer of yerba mate in the world, importing 15,000 tons of yerba mate a year.\n\nHow to prepare mate\nMate is made differently in different places, with many arguments about which way is the best. In nearly all methods, the gourd is nearly filled with yerba, and hot water (typically at 70\u201380\u00a0\u00b0C [160\u2013180\u00a0\u00b0F] and never boiling) is added.\n\nArranging the yerba\nThe most common way to make mate involves a careful arrangement of the yerba in the gourd before adding hot water. The gourd is filled one-half to three-quarters of the way with yerba. Extra herbs may be added for either health or flavor benefits. This is most often done in Paraguay, where people get herbs from a local yuyera (herbalist). The mate is used as a base for their herbal infusions. When the gourd is filled, the preparer typically grasps it with their full hand. They  cover the opening  and roughly seal it with their palm.  Then the mate is turned upside-down, and shaken vigorously, but briefly and with gradually decreasing force, in this inverted position causing the finest, most powdery particles of the yerba to settle toward the preparer's palm and the top of the mate.\n\nOnce the yerba is settled, the mate is carefully brought to a near-sideways angle, with the opening tilted just slightly upward of the base.  The mate is then shaken very gently  with a side-to-side motion.  This further settles the yerba inside the gourd so that the finest particles move toward the opening and the yerba is  layered along one side.  The largest stems and other bits create a partition between the empty space on one side of the gourd and the lopsided pile of yerba on the other.\n\nAfter arranging the yerba along one side of the gourd, the mate is carefully tilted back onto its base, minimizing further disturbances of the yerba as it is re-oriented to allow consumption.  Some avalanche-like settling is normal, but is not desirable.  The angled mound of yerba should remain, with its powdery peak still flat and mostly level with the top of the gourd.  A layer of stems along its slope will slide downward and accumulate in the space opposite the yerba (though at least a portion should remain in place).\n\nAll of this careful settling of the yerba ensures that each sip contains as little particulate matter as possible, creating a smooth-running mate. The finest particles will then be as distant as possible from the filtering end of the bombilla.  With each draw, the smaller particles would inevitably move toward the bombilla, but the larger particles and stems filter much of this out.  A sloped arrangement provides consistent concentration and flavor with each filling of the mate.\n\nInsertion of the bombilla\n\nNow the mate is ready to receive the bombilla.  Many people choose to pour warm water into the mate before adding the bombilla, while others insist that the bombilla is best inserted into dry yerba.  Wetting the yerba by gently pouring cool water into the empty space within the gourd until the water nearly reaches the top, and then allowing it to be absorbed into the yerba before adding the bombilla, allows the preparer to carefully shape and \"pack\" the yerba's slope with the bombilla's filtering end, which makes the overall form of the yerba within the gourd more resilient and solid.  Dry yerba, on the other hand, allows a cleaner and easier insertion of the bombilla, though care must be taken so as not to overly disturb the arrangement of the yerba.  Such a decision is entirely a personal or cultural preference.  The bombilla is inserted with your thumb on the upper end of the bombilla, at an angle roughly perpendicular to the slope of the yerba, so that its filtering end travels into the deepest part of the yerba and comes to rest near or against the opposite wall of the gourd.\n\nBrewing\nNow the yerba may be brewed.  If the bombilla was inserted into dry yerba, the mate must first be filled once with warm water as above, then be allowed to absorb it completely (which generally takes no more than two or three minutes).  Treating the yerba with cool water before the addition of hot water is essential, as it protects the herb from being scalded and from the chemical breakdown of some of its desirable nutrients.  Hot water may then be added by carefully pouring it, as with the cool water before, into the cavity opposite the yerba, until it reaches almost to the top of the gourd when the yerba is fully saturated.  Care should be taken to maintain the dryness of the swollen top of the yerba beside the edge of the gourd's opening.\n\nOnce the hot water has been added, the mate is ready for drinking. It may be refilled many times before becoming washed out (lavado) and losing its flavor. When this happens, the mound of yerba can be pushed from one side of the gourd to the other, allowing water to be added along its opposite side; this revives the mate for additional re-fillings.\n\nDrinking the mate\nMate is traditionally drunk in a particular social setting, such as family gatherings or with friends. One person (known in Spanish as the cebador) assumes the task of server. Typically, the cebador fills the gourd and drinks the mate completely to ensure that it is free of particulate matter and of good quality. The server subsequently refills the gourd and passes it to the next drinker who likewise drinks it all, without thanking the server. The ritual proceeds around the circle in this fashion until the mate becomes lavado (\"washed out\" or \"flat\"), typically after the gourd has been filled about ten times or more depending on the yerba used (well-aged yerba mate is typically more potent, and therefore provides a greater number of refills). When one has had his fill of mate,  he or she politely thanks the cebador passing the mate back at the same time.\n\nThe drink has a pungent taste like a cross between green tea and coffee, with hints of tobacco and oak. Some drinkers like to add sugar or honey, creating mate dulce (sweet mate), instead of sugarless mate amargo (bitter mate). It is considered bad for the gourd (especially for the natural (squash or wood) ones) to be used for mate dulce so it is normal for households with drinkers of both kinds to have two separate gourds.\n\nTraditionally, natural gourds are used, though wood vessels, bamboo tubes and gourd-shaped mates, made of ceramic or metal (stainless steel or even silver) are also common.  Gourds are commonly decorated with silver, sporting decorative or heraldic designs with floral motifs.\n\nBoth the wood vessels and the gourds must undergo curing to get a better taste before being used for the first time and to ensure the long life of the gourd.  Typically, to cure a gourd, the inside is first scraped with the tip of a bombilla to remove loose gourd particles. Mate herb and hot water is added next, and the mixture poured into the gourd. The mixture is left to sit overnight and the water is topped off periodically through the next 24 hours as the gourd absorbs the water. Finally the gourd is scraped out, emptied, and put in sunlight until completely dry.\n\nIt is common for a black mold to grow inside the gourd when it is stored. Some people will clean this out, others consider it an enhancement to the mate flavor.\n\nLegendary Origins\nThe Guaran\u00ed people started drinking mate in the region that now includes Paraguay, southern Brazil,Uruguay, and north-east Argentina. The Guaran\u00ed have a legend that says that the Goddesses of the Moon and the Cloud came to the Earth one day to visit it but they instead found a Yaguaret\u00e9 (a kind of jaguar) that was going to attack them. An old man saves them, and, in compensation, the Goddesses gave the old man a new kind of plant, from which he could prepare a \"drink of friendship\".\n\nVariants and trivia\n\nThere is another drink that can be prepared with specially cut dry leaves, very cold water and, optionally, lemon or another fruit juice, called terer\u00e9. It is very common in Paraguay.  Drinking and harvesting of Mate started in Paraguay in pre-Hispanic times. (Notice its scientific name, Ilex paraguayensis.)\n\nIn Brazil the traditional mate or cuia is usually big with a corresponding large hole. In Uruguay and Argentina (especially in the capital, Buenos Aires) the mate is small and has a small hole, and people sometimes add sugar for flavor. In Bolivia and Peru, mate de coca is often sipped instead of ordinary mate.\n\nIn Uruguay there is even a national law that prohibits drinking mate while driving, because it caused many accidents of people getting scalded with hot water while driving.  For the same reason, there is also a \"forbidden to drink mate\" sign in all public transportation buses.\n\nIn Uruguay and in the northeast of Argentina it is not uncommon to see people walking around the streets toting a mate and a thermos with hot water. In Montevideo, Uruguay's capital, it is possible to see some construction worker drinking mate while riding his bicycle early in the morning, on his way to work. In some parts of Argentina, gas stations sponsored by yerba mate producers provide free hot water to travellers, specifically for the purpose of drinking during the journey. There are disposable mate sets with a plastic mate and bombilla, and sets with a thermos flask and stacking containers for the yerba and sugar inside a fitted case.\n\nIn Brazil, traditionally prepared mate is known as chimarr\u00e3o, although in areas near the border with Uruguay the word mate is also used. Nowadays, in Brazil,  mate is often toasted with sugar and prepared in a similar manner to tea, a custom that originated in Paraguay. Supermarkets, restaurants and fast food chains sell \"tea bags\" and prepacked \"iced tea\" packages and bottles. In Argentina, mate cocido (cooked mate) is made with a teabag or leaves and drunk from a cup or mug, with or without sugar and milk.\n\nAt the beginning of the 21st century most urban Chileans are not mate drinkers, but travel narratives such as Maria Graham's Journal of a Residence in Chile [2003(1824):8], show that there is a long history of mate drinking in central Chile. Many rural Chileans drink mate, in particular in the southern regions, particularly Chilo\u00e9 and Magallanes, perhaps due to the influence of neighboring areas of Argentina.\n\nAccording to a major retailer of mate in San Luis Obispo, California, by 2004 mate had grown to about 5% of the overall natural tea market in North America  . Bottled iced mate is widely available in California.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \nPreparing the mate in 8 steps \nYerba Mate Association of the Americas (YMAA)\n\nDrinks\nArgentine food\nChilean food","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":126,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":61662,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mate%20%28drink%29","title":"Mate (drink)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A computer network is a group of two or more computers that are linked together. Networks are usually used to share resources, exchange files or communicate with other users.\n\nA network is a set of nodes connected by communication links.  A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving data from or to the other node in the network.\n\nOther devices are often needed for the network to work correctly.  Examples for such devices include hubs and switches.  Different kinds of network can be connected to each other with a router.  In general, networks that use cables to connect can operate at higher speeds than those using wireless technology.\n\nComputers in a network can be near each other, or far. A Local Area Network (LAN) connects computers which are close together.  Building a LAN is easier than connecting different networks (by a Wide Area Network).  The largest Wide Area Network is the Internet.\n\nComputers can be part of several different networks. Networks can also be parts of bigger networks. The local area network in a small business is usually connected to the corporate network of the larger company.  These connections may allow access to the Internet.  For example, a shop may use it to show merchandise on its Web site through a web server, or to convert received orders into shipping instructions.\n\nA network must be connected with appropriate hardware. This can be wired or wireless. For a simple LAN, computers, media and peripherals are sufficient. WANs (wide area networks) and some large LANs (local area networks) need some additional devices like a bridge, gateway or router to connect different small or large networks.\n\nA network needs a communication protocol (a system for exchanging messages between computing systems.) Microsoft Windows, Linux and most other operating systems use TCP\/IP. Apple Macintosh computers used Appletalk in the 20th century, but use TCP\/IP now.\n\nNetwork models\n\nOne large network of communication technology would be difficult to implement. As a result, we split up various components of the network into smaller modules or layers. The standard model of a network is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model set by the International Organization Standard (ISO).\n\nOther network models exist, though they are all split into similar layers. Each layer uses the services that the layer below provides, while providing services for the layer above it. Each layer can only communicate with the same layer on the destination device.\n\nOSI model \nOSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is a 7-layer network model specified by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) norm and is widely used all around the world. The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work  of Charles Bachman, Honeywell information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN and CYCLADES networks and the work in IFIP WG6.1.\n\nLayer 1 \n\nThe physical layer defines electrical and physical specifications for devices. It also specifies modulated and baseband transmission.\n\nBaseband \nBaseband is digital data in their raw form (in binary, the language understood by the computer in the form of 0s and 1s - 1001 1101 1010 0011).  This allows very fast and reliable transmission over short distances; however, the media tend to make the bits interfere with each other, the range of baseband transmission is very limited.  It becomes worse with increasing speed.  Baseband technology is frequently used on LAN.\n UTP cable \u2013 max 100 m on 100 Mbit\/s speed without repeater\n Optical fiber \u2013 max 1\u00a0km on 100 Mbit\/s speed without repeater\nTypical technology: Ethernet cables\n\nModulated transmission \nIn telecommunications, modulation is the process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. The device that provides modulation of the baseband signal is called a modulator, and the device that provides demodulation of the modulated signal back to baseband is called a demodulator. Today, the modulator and demodulator are integrated into one device called Modem (modulator-demodulator). Frequently used on WAN, WLAN, WWAN.\n\nTypical technology: WI-FI, ADSL, cable TV connection (CATV)\n\nLayer 2 \nThe data link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the physical layer.\n\nLayer 3 \nThe network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a different network using the IP address.\n\nIP address \nAn Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. At present there are two versions of protocols in use \u2013 IPv4 and IPv6.\n IPv4 uses 32-bit addressing which limits address space up to 4294967296 (232) possible unique addresses.\nExample: IP-192.168.0.1 mask-255.255.255.0 means that the network address is 192.168.0.0 and the device address is 192.168.0.1\n IPv6 uses 128-bit addressing which limits address space up to 2128 possible addresses. It is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future. Full IPv6 support is still in the implementation phase.\n\nLayer 4 \nThe transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within OSI.\n TCP (transmission control protocol) provides reliable, ordered delivery of a stream of bytes from a program on one computer to another program on another computer. TCP is used for applications that strictly require reliable transfer (e-mail, WWW, file transfer (FTP), ...)\n UDP (user datagram protocol) uses a simple transmission model without implicit handshaking dialogues for providing reliability, ordering, or data integrity. UDP is used in applications where we require reduced latency over reliability (stream videos, VOIP, online games,...)\n\nLayers 5-7 \nCommonly united into one layer in simplified network models, its main purpose is to interact with applications, encrypting and establishing dedicated connections if necessary.\n\nNetworking terms\n\nLatency \nLatency, incorrectly called ping, is a value that measures how much time packets need to travel to their destination. It is measured in milliseconds (ms). The tool that measures latency is called ping, commonly using special ICMP packets which are smaller than standard data packets so they do not weight the network by their presence.\n Immediate latency is measured every X seconds and immediately displayed. Its value constantly changes due to the natural properties of packet-switching network technology. High latency peaks have negative effects on most network applications which can adapt to average latency by allocating corresponding size of memory as buffer. High latency peaks lead to emptying of this buffer and to temporary freezing of applications. This freezing is commonly called lag.\n Average latency is the sum of immediate latency measured Y times every X seconds divided by Y. Average latency is used to estimate size of the buffer, mainly because it does not change so often. Buffer enables some applications such as stream videos to run smoothly even with high average latency, but it cannot protect us from high latency peaks.\n\nCapacity (bandwidth) \nCapacity is a measure of transfer capacity of a network and is measured in bits per second (bps or b\/s), today commonly Mbps or Mb\/s. It shows us how many data units are transferred each second. At present, the average bandwidth is far higher than is necessary and it is not a limiting factor in most cases.\n Uplink is how much bandwidth is used for transferring data from user to server (usually lower for end users).\n Downlink is how much bandwidth is used for transferring data from server to user (usually higher for end users).\n\nBroadcast \nBroadcast is a special transmission that is not meant for a single device but is addressed to all devices in specific network. It is mostly used to automatically issue IP addresses to devices by a DHCP server and to create an ARP table that maps the network and speeds up the traffic.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":5,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2}},"id":316702,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer%20network","title":"Computer network","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Midway Atoll is an island in the Pacific Ocean and was the site of a famous battle in World War II, the Battle of Midway. The United States of America took control of the atoll in 1867 when nobody lived there. In the 21st century about 40 people live there, mostly working for the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.\n\nWildlife \n\nMidway Atoll is now home to 67-70% of the world's Laysan Albatross population, and 34-39% of the global Black-footed Albatross.\n\nWhile Midway supports nearly three million birds, each seabird species has carved out a specific site on the atoll in which to nest.  Seventeen different species of seabird can be found, the rarest of which is the Short-tailed Albatross, otherwise known as the \"Golden Gooney.\"  Fewer than 2,200 are believed to exist due to excessive feather hunting in the late nineteenth century.\n\nOver 250 different species of looli marine life are found in the  of lagoon and surrounding waters. The critically endangered Hawaiian monk seals raise their pups on the beaches. Monk seals are benthic foragers and rely on the Midway Atoll's reef fish, squid, octopus and crustaceans. Green sea turtles, another threatened species, occasionally nest on the island. The first was found in 2006 on Spitsy Rinaia Island and another in 2007 on Sand Island. A resident pod of 300 spinner dolphins live in the lagoons and nearshore waters.\n\nOther websites \n\n Satellite Map and NOAA Chart of Midway  on BlooSee\n AirNav - Henderson Field Airport : Airport facilities and navigational aids.\n Diary from the middle of nowhere BBC's environment correspondent David Shukman reports on the threat of plastic rubbish drifting in the North Pacific Gyre to Midway. Accessed 2008-03-26.\n Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge (this article incorporated some content from this public domain site)\n NOAA Midway Island Hawaiian Monk Seal Captive Care & Release Project\n The Battle of Midway: Turning the Tide in the Pacific, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan\n Marines at Midway: by Lieutenant Colonel R.D. Heinl, Jr., USMC Historical Section, Division of Public Information Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps 1948,\n Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary\n Past residents of Midway Discussion of Midway related topics by former residents and those interested in Midway.\n U.S. Unincorporated Possessions. Accessed 2008-03-26.\n\nAtolls\nUnited States Minor Outlying Islands\nPolynesia\nPacific islands\nIslands of Oceania","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":16785,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Midway%20Atoll","title":"Midway Atoll","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is a book written by C. S. Lewis. It is set in an imaginary place called Narnia, where the main characters who are brothers and sisters are led into by the back of a wardrobe (closet). It is the second book by order in the Narnia series after The Magician's Nephew, but is the first book published in the series.\n\nSummary \nPeter, Susan, Edmund and Lucy Pevensie leave London during World War II to live in the country. While playing in the house, Lucy hides in a wardrobe. She finds that it leads to a different land. There, she meets a faun (half-goat, half-man) named Mr. Tumnus. While having tea, he tells her that the land is called Narnia. It is ruled by the White Witch, who makes it always winter, but never Christmas. When Lucy returns to the wardrobe after many hours, she finds that only a few seconds have passed in England. Her brothers and sister do not believe her and the wardrobe has closed so they cannot go into Narnia. \n\nMany weeks later, Lucy comes back to the wardrobe during a game of hide-and-seek. Edmund follows her into Narnia, but cannot find her. Instead, he meets a lady. She says she is the Queen of Narnia and gives him Turkish Delight. She promises to make him prince if he will bring the other children to her castle. After she leaves, Edmund finds Lucy. When she talks about the White Witch, he thinks that it is the lady he met. When they get back to England, Edmund lies to Peter and Susan and says they did not go to Narnia. This makes Lucy upset.  \n\nLater, they are all hiding from the housekeeper and go into the wardrobe. This time they all go into Narnia. When Lucy leads them to Tumnus's cave, they find that he is arrested and his cave destroyed. Two talking beavers shelter the children. They also tell them about a prophecy that the witch will fail when two Sons of Adam (human males) and two Daughters of Eve (human females) sit on the thrones at Cair Paravel, Narnia's ruling castle. The beavers also tell them about Aslan, the true king of Narnia. He is a great lion and has been gone for many years, but has come back. \n\nEdmund sneaks away to go to the witch. When they find out, the children and beavers go to find Aslan. The witch is mean to Edmund because he did not bring his siblings and leaves to chase them. The winter is starting to warm into spring and she is stopped by the thaw. The children find Aslan and rescue Edmund just before the witch kills him. He is very sorry for following her. The witch says that Edmund must be given back to her because of an old law. The law says that all traitors (people who break trust) belong to her. Aslan gives himself in place. He is killed, but comes back to life through an even older law. This one says that if someone who has not committed the crime willingly takes the punishment, he will come back to life. \n\nIn a big fight, the witch is killed by Aslan. The children are kings and queens in Narnia for 15 years, growing into adults. Then they return to England through the wardrobe and are kids again. No time has passed.\n\nMain Characters\n\nPeter Pevensie \nPeter Pevensie is the oldest Pevensie. He does not believe about Narnia until he sees it. He receives a sword and shield from Father Christmas. He kills a wolf, Maugrim, the head of the witch's police. He is call \"Sir Peter, Wolf's-Bane\" because of this. In the end, he is High King of Narnia. He is called King Peter the Magnificent (grand).\n\nSusan Pevensie \nSusan Pevensie is second oldest. Like Peter, she does not believe in Narnia until they go there. She receives a gift from Father Christmas, a magical horn along with a bow and arrow that is promised to never miss if she trusts in them. At the end of the book, she is called Queen Susan the Gentle. She is the prettiest.\n\nEdmund Pevensie \nEdmund Pevensie is the third child. He likes the White Witch because she gives him sweets and promises to make him prince. He is sorry for that. When he is King, he is known as King Edmund the Just.\n\nLucy Pevensie \nLucy Pevensie is the youngest Pevensie child. She is the first to find Narnia. She is very good friends with Mr.Tumnus. She receives a knife and a fire flower potion, which can heal any wound. At the end of the book she is known of Queen Lucy the Valiant (brave).\n\nWhite Witch \nThe White Witch is the false queen of Narnia. She makes it always winter, but never Christmas. She can turn things to stone. She is afraid of the children and Aslan, because they should be the rulers.\n\nAslan \nAslan is the true king of Narnia and a lion. He gives himself to save Edmund, but comes back to life through an old law called the \"Deeper Magic\". In the battle, he kills the witch. He leaves after the children are crowned. Aslan also supports Partick Thistle.\n\nOther characters \n Mr. Tumnus is a faun (half-goat\/half-man). Lucy meets him on her first trip into Narnia. He gives her tea and tells her about the land. He is arrested by the White Witch for helping Lucy. She turns him to stone. In the end, Aslan turns him back.\n Professor Digory Kirke lets the Pevensie children live with him. He is the only one who believes that Lucy went into Narnia. In The Magician's Nephew, he had seen Aslan first make Narnia.\n\nThe Chronicles of Narnia\n1950 books","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-21":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6}},"id":229424,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The%20Lion%2C%20the%20Witch%2C%20and%20the%20Wardrobe","title":"The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An LP record (or long-play record) is a type of gramophone record. It is a 33\u2153\u00a0rpm vinyl disc with little lines called grooves that go around the center. It is generally either 10- or 12-inches in diameter. They are played by a turntable. A turntable spins the record while a lever with a small needle on the bottom. The needle goes in between the little grooves.  When this happens, music is played.\n\nThe LP record was introduced by Colombia Records in 1948. It then became the new way the music industry released recordings. In the 1960s, cassettes were introduced. This was a cheaper way to record music and not hear the noise that came from the LP record. However, the LP record continued to be more popular until the 1970s when the compact disc was introduced.\n\nThe long-playing record is an analog recording format. The digital recording of sound was only made practical by the technical advances in microprocessors and computing which occurred in the 1970s and 1980s. LP's sound quality, it contains more distortion than many other modern music formats.\n\nAudio disc","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":6}},"id":307197,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LP%20record","title":"LP record","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Events \n January 11 \u2013 In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the first American life insurance company is incorporated.\n January 13 \u2013 The T\u00e1vora family is executed following the accusation of attempted regicide on Joseph I of Portugal\n January 15 \u2013 The British Museum opens\n April 13 \u2013 a French army defeats Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick at Brunswick\n June 27 \u2013 British Troops under Jeffrey Amherst take Fort Ticonderoga\n July 25 \u2013 Seven Years' War (French and Indian War): In Canada, British forces capture Fort Niagara from French, who subsequently abandon Fort Rouill\u00e9.\n August 1 \u2013 Battle of Minden \u2013 Anglo-Hanoverian forces under Ferdinand of Brunswick defeat the French army of the Duc de Broglie, but due to the disobedience of the English cavalry commander Lord George Sackville, the French are able to withdraw unmolested.\n August 10 \u2013 Ferdinand VI of Spain dies and is succeeded by his half-brother Charles III. Charles resigns the thrones of Naples and Sicily to his third son, Ferdinand IV.\n August 12 \u2013 Battle of Kunersdorf \u2013 Frederick the Great is rebuffed in bloody assaults on the combined Austro-Russian army of Peter Soltikov and Gideon von Loudon. This is one of Frederick's greatest defeats.\n August 18 \u2013 Battle of Lagos \u2013 The British fleet of Edward Boscawen defeats a French force under Commodore de la Clue off the Portuguese coast.\n September 10 \u2013 Battle of Pondicherry \u2013 An inconclusive naval battle is fought off the coast of India between the French Admiral d'Ach\u00e9 and the British under George Pocock. The French forces are badly damaged and returned home, never to return.\n September 13 \u2013 Seven Years' War (French and Indian War): Quebec falls to British forces following General Wolfe's victory in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham just outside the city. Both the French Commander (the Marquis de Montcalm) and the British General James Wolfe are fatally wounded.\n November 20 \u2013 Battle of Quiberon Bay \u2013 The English fleet of Sir Edward Hawke defeats a French fleet under Marshal de Conflans near the coast of Brittany. This is the decisive naval engagement of the Seven Years' War \u2013 after this, the French are no longer able to field a significant fleet.\n November 21 \u2013 Battle of Maxen \u2013 the Austrian army of Marshal von Daun cuts off and foces the surrender of a Prussian force under Friedrich von Finck.\n December 6 \u2013 The Germantown Union School (now called \"Germantown Academy\"), America's oldest nonsectarian day school, is founded.\n George Washington marries Martha Dandridge Custis\n Adam Smith publishes Theory of Moral Sentiments, embodying some of his Glasgow lectures\n Publication of Voltaire's Candide\n The town of Egedesminde (modern Aasiaat) is founded in Greenland.\n Guinness Brewery founded in Dublin.\n\n January 25 \u2013 Robert Burns, Scottish poet (d. 1796)\n April 27 \u2013 Mary Wollstonecraft, feminist writer (d. 1797)\n May 28 \u2013 William Pitt the Younger, statesman and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1806)\n August 24 \u2013 William Wilberforce, British abolitionist (d. 1833)\n October 25 \u2013 William Wyndham Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1834)\n November 10 \u2013 Friedrich Schiller, German writer (d. 1805)\n\n April 14 \u2013 George Frideric Handel, German composer (b. 1685)\n August 10 \u2013 King Ferdinand VI of Spain (b. 1713)\n\n \n\nnv:1751 \u2013 1800","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":20085,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1759","title":"1759","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Maximillian \"Max\" Alberto George, born 6 September 1988 (age 24), grew up with his family in Manchester.[12] Before music, he had been a football player with Preston North End and was on the verge of signing a two-year deal with them, whilst he has been a Manchester City supporter since a young age.[13] Previously he was a member of Avenue, a five-piece boy band made up of Jonathan Lloyd, Scott Clarke, Ross Candy and Jamie Tinkler in addition to George. They entered the third series[14] of The X Factor in 2006 and made it to Louis Walsh's bootcamp, but media reports exposed that Avenue had not strictly adhered to the rules, having been signed by an earlier music X Factor director to a deal. They were banned from participation for having professional representation rather than being specifically formed for the competition.[15][16][17] Avenue admitted they had failed to duly report their engagements and George admitted it was \"not The X Factor's fault\"[18] in the video showing their disqualification in Walsh's office. With Andrew (Andy) Brown joining as a member of Avenue replacing Jamie Tinkler, the band went on to have some success beyond their X Factor appearances with their debut single \"Last Goodbye\", reaching number 50 on the UK Singles Chart. They had a follow up release with \"Can You Feel It?\". Avenue disbanded in April 2009. In 2008, while still a member of Avenue, George appeared naked on cover of British gay magazine AXM's \"Naked Issue\" in support of cancer research.\nGeorge was engaged to actress Michelle Keegan after meeting her at one of The Wanted's concerts,[19] but he recently revealed that the engagement has been broken off.[20]","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2023-50":1,"2022-40":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-29":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5}},"id":42451,"url":"https:\/\/si.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%B6%AF%20%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%8A","title":"\u0daf \u0dc0\u0ddd\u0db1\u0dca\u0da7\u0da9\u0dca","language":"si"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A borough is an administrative division in many countries.  It is a kind of local government. \n\nThe term borough can means a self-governing township. \n\nIn medieval times, boroughs were settlements with some self-government. Boroughs were particularly common in England, Germany and Scotland. In medieval England, boroughs had also the right to elect members of parliament. (The Borough in Southwark, London is thought to have been the original 'borough' of which all others come from.)\n\nUsually a borough is a single town with its own local government. \nBut in some cities it is a sub-division of the city (e.g. London, New York City, Toronto, Montreal). In such cases the borough will normally have either limited powers delegated to it by the city's local government or no powers at all. At certain times London has had no overall city government and London boroughs were the main unit of local government for Londoners. \n\nIn other places, such as Alaska, a borough does not mean a single township, but a whole region - in other words, it is similar to a county.  In Australia borough can mean a town and its surrounding area, e.g. the Borough of Queenscliffe.  Boroughs exist in United Kingdom, more specifically in England and Northern Ireland, in the Canadian province of Quebec, in several U.S. states, in Israel, and formerly they also existed in New Zealand. \n\nAt the end of a word, -borough (or -brough) is found in the name of many towns and cities in England; in southern England it is usually spelt -bury.  The suffix -bury is also used in the New England region of the United States, while -burg (or -burgh) is more common in Scotland and the American South and West.\n\n \nTypes of settlements","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":4,"2019-30":5,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":4,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":26904,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Borough","title":"Borough","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sacara harti sajarah, watesan bisnis nunjukkeun aktivitas atawa karesep. Kecap ieu hartina beuki ngalegaan jadi (dimimitian dina abad ka-18) sarua jeung \"an individual commercial enterprise\". og\u00e9 dina harti nu leuwih umum \"a nexus of commercial activities\".\n\nP\u00e9ople establish businesses in order to perform economic activities. With some exceptions (such as cooperatives, corporate bodies, non-profit organizations and institutions of government), businesses exist to produce profit. In other words, the owners and operators of a business have as one of their main objectives to receive or generate a financial return for their time, effort and capital.\n\nOne can classify businesses in many different ways. Service businesses offer intangible products and typically have different, usually smaller, capital requirements than manufacturers. Distributors will have different inventory control needs than a retailer or manufacturer.\n\nMost legal jurisdictions specify the forms that a business can take, and a body of commercial law has developed for \u00e9ach type. Some common types include partnerships, corporations (also called limited liability companies), and sole proprietorships.\n\nAn industry can consist of a group of related businesses, such as the entertainment industry or the dairy industry. This definition resembles one of the more general m\u00e9anings of \"business\", and the terms business and industry sometimes app\u00e9ar interchang\u00e9able. Thus a fisherman might say either (more colloquially) that he is in the \"fishing business\" or (somewhat grandiosely) that he works in the \"fishing industry\". Similarly, the word \"trade\" may serve as an equivalent of both \"business\" and \"industry\": Victorians might despise those \"in trade\", and one can still refer to working \"in the rag trade\", for example.\n\nJejer bisnis \n\nWikip\u00e9dia boga leuwih ti 1200 artikel bisnis jeung \u00e9konomi, jadi teu sadayana dib\u00e9r\u00e9nd\u00e9lkeun di dieu. Di dieu didaptarkeun sababaraha cabang bisnis nu utama. Pikeun jejer nu leuwih husus, tempo di subdaptarna.\n\n Accounting\n List of accounting topics\n Advertising\n Banking\n Big Business\n Business intelligence\n Business schools\n Capitalism\n Commerce\n Commercial law\n List of business law topics\n Companies\n List of companies\n Competition\n Consumer electronics\n Economics\n Financial economics\n Home economics\n List of economics topics\n Electronic commerce\n Ethics\n List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics\n Finance\n List of finance topics\n Industry\n Intellectual property\n International trade\n List of international trade topics\n Insurance\n Investment\n Equity investment\n Institutional Fund Management\n List of business theorists\n List of corporate leaders\n List of commercial pairs\n List of popular business books\n Organizational development\n List of human resource management topics\n Administrative Assistant\n Management\n List of management topics\n Management information systems\n List of information technology management topics\n Manufacturing\n List of production topics\n Marketing\n List of marketing topics\n Mass media\n Process management\n List of process management topics\n Project management\n List of project management topics\n Real Estate\n List of real estate topics\n Small business\n Tax\n Theory of constraints\n List of theory of constraints topics\n\nBisnis\nDaptar jejer","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":974,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bisnis","title":"Bisnis","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A particle is a tiny bit of matter that makes up everything in the universe. In particle physics, an elementary particle is a particle which cannot be split up into smaller pieces.\n\nThere are many different types of particles, with different particle sizes and properties.\n\nMacroscopic particles are particles that are larger than atoms or molecules. They have volume and shape. Powder and dust are some examples of macroscopic particles. Nanoparticles are an intermediate size, being a very fine powder but much larger than atoms.\n\nAtoms and molecules are called microscopic particles. Subatomic particles are particles that are smaller than atoms. The proton, the neutron, and the electron are subatomic particles. These are the particles which make atoms. The proton has a positive charge (a + charge). The neutron has a neutral charge. The electron has a negative charge (a - charge), and it is the smallest of these three particles. In atoms, there is a small nucleus in the center, which is where the protons and neutrons are, and electrons orbit the nucleus.\n\nProtons and neutrons are made up of quarks. Quarks are subatomic particles, but they are also elementary particles because we do not know if they are made up of even smaller particles. There are six different types of quarks. These are the up quark, the down quark, the strange quark, the charm quark, the bottom quark, and the top quark. A neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark. The proton is made up of two up quarks and one down quark.\n\nChemistry\nNuclear physics\nMatter","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":4,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1}},"id":13990,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particle","title":"Particle","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Beer Hall Putsch was a failed coup d'\u00e9tat in Munich, Germany between the evening of 8 November and the morning of 9 November 1923. The Nazi Party under Adolf Hitler tried to take over the government of Bavaria, a state in Germany. They began trying to do this by taking several hundred people hostage in a beer hall (a large building where people got together to drink beer and sometimes listen to political speeches). Several Nazis died when they got into a gun fight with police officers in another part of Munich, and Hitler then went to prison for eight months.\n\nReasoning \nHitler chose to do this for many reasons. The Weimar Republic of Germany was weak because of fighting between right and left-wing parties. Inflation had also left the Weimar Republic with very little support from the people, or money to keep working (paying bills, or even paying pensions and wages). This happened because when Germany lost World War I, other countries made Germany pay for the entire war, and Germany had to make taxes very high so it could pay for the war. This hurt the economy of Germany.\n\nThe Nazi Party was getting very strong. Hitler was a strong leader. In 1923, the year when the Weimar Republic was least popular, the Nazi Party grew from 6,000 members to 55,000 members.\n\nHitler also wanted to copy Mussolini, who had taken power in Italy by marching into Rome.\n\nAttempted coup \n\n8 November 1923 - Hitler and his men charged into the Beer Hall and forced the people there to support him. Hitler's men, the SA, took over the Army Headquarters, but forgot to take over the telegraph office. This meant that anybody could call in the police.\n\n9 November 1923 - 16 Nazis and 4 Bavarian State Police officers were killed in a gunfight between the Nazis and the police in Residenzstra\u00dfe. Hitler was arrested two days later.\n\nResults \nHitler and several of his friends were taken to court for treason, because they took up arms against the government. In the end, Hitler was sent to prison for about eight months, and the Nazi Party broke up (however, it would later get back together).\n\nMore people learned about Hitler. Before this happened, he was unknown. But after this, he was a hero to many. Many Germans at that time wanted a strong leadership after the governments of the Weimar Republic.\n\nHitler also took the time he had to spend in prison to write a book, called Mein Kampf or \"My Struggle\". It sold millions and told people about his ideas. Mein Kampf also made Hitler popular. (Hitler did not actually write the words down himself. Instead, he told another Nazi, Rudolf Hess, what to write down, and Hess wrote the words down.)\n\nHitler also had to re-think his strategy. He realised he could not take power the same way that Mussolini had done. Instead, he had to get power through being elected.\n\nCausalities \nThe people who died during the Putsch are seen as the first to die for the Nazi Party and are mentioned in Mein Kampf as Martyrs.\n Felix Alfarth\n Andreas Bauriedl\n Theodor Casella\n William Ehrlich\n Martin Faust\n Anton Hechenberger\n Oskar K\u00f6rner\n Karl Kuhn\n Karl Laforce\n Kurt Neubauer\n Klaus von Pape\n Theodor von der Pfordten\n Johann Rickmers\n Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter\n Lorenz Ritter von Stransky\n Wilhelm Wolf\n\nOther websites\n A revision site for IGSCE students\n Events of the Putsch in detail\n Events of the Beer Hall Putsch before and after \n\n1923 in Europe\n1920s in Germany\n20th-century rebellions\nCoups d'\u00e9tat\n20th century in Munich\nNazi Party\nRebellions in Europe\nNovember events\nAdolf Hitler","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":19949,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Beer%20Hall%20Putsch","title":"Beer Hall Putsch","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Hosios Loukas () is a historic walled monastery situated near the town of Distomo, in Boeotia, Greece. Founded in the mid-10th century, the monastery is one of the most important monuments of Middle Byzantine architecture and art, and has been listed on UNESCO's World Heritage Sites since 1990, along with the monasteries of Nea Moni and Daphnion.\n\nHistory \nThe monastery of Hosios Loukas is situated at a scenic site on the slopes of Mount Helicon. It was founded in the early 10th century AD by the hermit, Venerable (Greek: Hosios) Luke of Steiris (Greek: Lukas), whose relics are kept in the monastery to this day. St Luke (not to be confused with the Evangelist author of the Gospel of Saint Luke), was a hermit who died on 7 February 953. He is famous for having predicted the conquest of Crete by Emperor Romanos. It was unclear if he was referring to Romanos I, the emperor at the time.  However the island was actually reconquered by Nicephorus Phocas under Romanos II. It is believed that it was during the latter's reign (959-963) that the monastery's Church of the Theotokos (Panagia) was constructed.\n\nThe main shrine of the monastery is the tomb of St. Luke, originally situated in the vault, but later placed at the juncture of the two churches. The monastery derived its wealth (including funds required for construction) from the fact that the relics of St. Luke were said to have exuded myron, a sort of perfumed oil which produced healing miracles. Pilgrims hoping for miraculous help were encouraged to sleep by the side of the tomb in order to be healed by incubation. The mosaics around the tomb represent not only St. Luke himself, but also hegumen Philotheos offering a likeness of the newly built church to the saint.\n\nThe saint Nicholas the Pilgrim, a local shepherd, lived for some time in the second half of the eleventh century in the monastery until he was expelled due to his abnormal behaviour. Under the Latin Empire in 1206, the legate Benedict of Porto gave Hosios Loukas to the canons of the Holy Sepulchre.\n\nArchitecture\n\nThe church \n\nThe Hosios Loukas, the oldest in the complex, is the only church known with certainty to have been built in the tenth century in its site in mainland Greece. This centralized parallelogram-shaped building is the oldest example of the cross-in-square type in the country; its plan closely follows that of Lips Monastery in Constantinople. The walls are opus mixtum (part brick, part stone, part marble) and display curious pseudo-kufic patterns.\n\nThe Hosios Loukas adjoins a larger cathedral church, or Katholikon, tentatively dated to 1011-12. The Katholikon is the earliest extant domed-octagon church, with eight piers arranged around the perimeter of the naos (nave). The hemispherical dome (without a drum) rests upon four squinches which make a transition from the octagonal base under the dome to the square defined by the walls below. The main cube of the church is surrounded by galleries and chapels on all four sides.\n\nDecoration \nHosios Loukas is the largest of three monasteries surviving from the Middle Byzantine period in Greece. It differs from the Daphnion and Nea Moni in that it is dedicated to a single military saint. St. Lukes' prophecy about the reconquest of Crete is commemorated by the image of Joshua on the exterior wall of the Panagia church: Joshua was considered a model \"warrior of the faith\", whose help was especially effective in the wars waged against the Arabs. The Katholikon contains the best preserved complex of mosaics from the period of the Macedonian Renaissance. However, the complex is not complete: the original image of Christ Pantocrator inside the dome is missing, as are the figures of archangels normally placed between the upper windows.\n\nThere is evidence that the monastery was reputed all over Byzantium for its lavish decoration, liberally applied to all surfaces. Apart from revetment, carving, gold and silver plate, murals, and mosaics (especially imposing on curving surfaces), the interior featured a choice assortment of icons, chandeliers, silk curtains, and altar cloths. Only a fraction of these items are still in situ, most notably colored marble facings and window grilles. Notwithstanding the losses, the Katholikon \"gives the best impression available anywhere today of the character of a church interior in the first centuries after the end of Iconoclasm\".\n\nThe Burial Crypt \nBeneath the great domed Katholikon is a burial crypt, accessible only by a stairwell on the southern side.\n\nThe crypt has three distinct areas: the entrance way; the main interior space which includes nine groin-vaulted bays and a sanctuary with a vaulted bay and an apse; and three vaulted passages, referred to formerly as bone vaults.\n\nThe crypt's frescoes were until recently covered in hundreds of years of dust and hidden but in the 1960s the crypt underwent a cleaning by the Greek Archaeological Service which revealed their remarkably well preserved state with the exceptions of the apse which has lost most of its plaster exposing brick and stone, as well as the entrance vault and groin vaults which have suffered slight damage from water seepage and minor vandalism, mostly on the lower lunettes near the entrance.\n\nThe crypt contains frescoes on the entryway and its vault, eight lunettes around the walls with depictions of Christ's Passion and Resurrection, and forty medallion portraits of apostles, martyrs and holy men, abbots including Philotheos, as well as numerous inscriptions. C.L. Connor claims it has \"the most complete programme of wall paintings surviving from the Middle Byzantine period.\"\n\nIt is believed that most if not all of the crypt frescoes were painted after 1048 AD and the death of Theodore Leobachus, a wealthy, government elite believed to have been one of the prominent patrons and who later in life became the abbot of Hosios Loukas.\n\nThe sanctuary of the crypt contains a prosthesis niche, an altar, and a chancel barrier which all indicate that the Eucharist was likely celebrated here as part of the services of burial and commemoration of revered religious figures, or as part of the ceremonies relating to the healing cult of Saint Luke.\n\nWhen Hosios Loukas was frequented by pilgrims or members of Saint Luke's healing cult, visitors would sleep not only in the Katholikon, but in the crypt itself where the tomb was kept along with two others, believed to be abbots. Saint Luke was believed to have been a miraculous healer, levitator, miraculous feeder and prophesier during his lifetime; after his death, all of the miracles associated with him involved the healing power of his tomb. Connor says that accounts in The Vita of St. Luke, written by an anonymous monk, indicate that \"healing agents\" associated with the tomb include but are not limited to exposure to \"oil from the lamp above the tomb, moisture exuded from the tomb, and dreams experienced when sleeping near the tomb in the practice called incubation.\" The tomb was frequented before and after the completion of the complex, but following completion it became the focal point of the miracle cult of Saint Luke. There is evidence that some wishing for miracles stayed for periods of up to six days near the tomb or in adjacent rooms.\n\nGallery\n\nSee also \n Macedonian art (Byzantine)\n History of Roman and Byzantine domes\n\nReferences\n\nSources \n Efthalia Rentetzi, Il Monastero di Hosios Lukas in Focide, in \u0395\u03b9\u03c1\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2, n. 1, 2004, \u0391\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03ba\u03ae \u0394\u03b9\u03b1\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03af\u03b1, pp.\u00a0227\u2013382, ISSN 1109-9135 (Weblink).\n Efthalia Rentetzi, Elements of Classical Style in the mosaic decoration of Hosios Lukas Monastery Phocis, Greece in ANISTORITON: Art History, Volume 9, June 2005, Section O052 (Weblink).\n Efthalia Rentetzi, Mosaici del monastero di Hosios Lukas in Focide e della basilica marciana: parentele stilistiche, in Arte - Documento, n. 16, 2002, pp.\u00a066\u201371, ISSNT IT 1121-0524.\n Demus, Otto, Byzantine Mosaic Decoration: Aspects of Monumental Art in Byzantium, Boston, MA: Boston Book and Art Shop, 1955.\n Ousterhout, Robert, \"Churches and Monasteries,\" in The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies, edited by Robin Cormack, Elizabeth Jeffreys and John Haldon.  New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.\n Cormack, Robin, \"Wall Paintings and Mosaics,\" in The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies, edited by Robin Cormack, Elizabeth Jeffreys and John Haldon.  New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.\n Oikonomides, Nicholas. \"The First Century of the Monastery of Hosios Loukas,\" in Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 46 (1992).\n\nExternal links \n\n Official Web Site of Hosios Loukas Monastery \n Hosios Loukas\n Photographs of mosaics\n High-resolution 360\u00b0 Panoramas of Hosios Loukas | Art Atlas\n\nChristian monasteries established in the 10th century\n11th-century Eastern Orthodox church buildings\nByzantine church buildings in Central Greece\nMonasteries in Central Greece\nEastern Orthodox church buildings\nWorld Heritage Sites in Greece\nBuildings and structures in Boeotia\nTourist attractions in Central Greece\nMacedonian Renaissance architecture\n11th-century churches in Greece\nByzantine monasteries in Greece\nChurch buildings with domes\n11th-century establishments in the Byzantine Empire","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":3,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":3,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":7059778,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hosios%20Loukas","title":"Hosios Loukas","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Moulin Rouge! is a 2001 Academy Award-winning Australian-American romantic drama musical movie directed by Baz Luhrmann. It stars Nicole Kidman and Ewan McGregor. The movie is set in Paris, France in 1900. It tells the story of a young British writer called Christian, who falls in love with an actress called Satine, the leading lady of the famous nightclub, the Moulin Rouge.\n\nMoulin Rouge! was mostly filmed at Fox Studios in Sydney, Australia. It was nominated for eight Oscars. It won two; for art direction and costume design. In 2006 it was ranked #25 on the American Film Institute's list of best musicals.\n\nBackground\n\nThe \"Moulin Rouge\" \nThe \"Moulin Rouge\" is a famous nightclub with a cabaret (or dance show). The name \"Moulin Rouge\" means \"Red Windmill\". In the late 1800s there was a real windmill where the nightclub stands near Montmartre in Paris. Now there is a large model of a windmill on the roof of the building. Since 1889 this nightclub has been famous for its dancing, in particular for the \"can-can\", a very lively dance in which the dancers, wearing long frilly skirts, kick their legs very high and show their underwear. (In the 1890s, women wore long dresses, to their ankles.) Even though this entertainment was not thought of as very polite, it was very popular and the \"can-can\" became a symbol of Paris. The \"Moulin Rouge\" is still very popular.\n\nBohemians \nThe word Bohemian was first used in Paris to mean a gypsy because many people thought that gypsies came from Bohemia. The word was then used for poor artists and writers, who often travelled to Paris from other towns and tried to earn money by their painting or writing. Paris was a famous city for both painters and writers to gather, to learn from each other and to enjoy the life of the city. Many of them lived at Montmartre, not far from the \"Moulin Rouge\". One of the most famous painters to live in Montmartre was Henri Toulouse-Lautrec. He loved to paint the can-can dancers and prostitutes. He did many posters to advertise the nightclubs. The posters are now famous works of art.\n\n\"La boheme\" \nLa boh\u00e8me means \"the Bohemian\". It is the name of a famous opera written by Giacomo Puccini. It is about a young man who lives in a group of poor artists and writers, and who meets and falls in love with a beautiful girl. The opera is very well known and Baz Luhrmann deliberately used parts of the story in his movie. The plot of the movie is very much like another opera called La traviata written by Giuseppe Verdi. It is also thought that Luhrmann may have got the idea to make Moulin Rouge! after watching Dil Se. This movie was made in 1998 and directed by Mani Ratnam. It is a love story set in India.\n\nOther movies \nThere have been four previous movies called Moulin Rouge. The earliest was a silent movie made in 1928. The latest was made in 1956 and was about the life of the painter, Toulouse-Lautrec. Baz Luhrmann used Toulouse-Lautrec as an important character in his movie.\n\nThe movie\n\nIdea \nBaz Luhrmann had directed another movie in which a love story is set against a background of dance, costumes and colourful scenes. This is Strictly Ballroom made in 1992. In Moulin Rouge!, he chose the colourful life of Paris in a time often called \"the Naughty Nineties\" as a background. But Lurhmann's plan was not to make a movie about history. He wanted to make a movie that the people of today would enjoy, just as much as the people of Paris had enjoyed the can-can in the 1890s. So Luhrmann did not use the music, dance-styles and lighting of the 1890s. He used popular modern music that young people already knew, and he used modern lighting, special effects and costume ideas to create a movie that young people would think was very entertaining.\n\nProduction \n\nKate Winslet, Charlize Theron, Renee Zellweger, and Catherine Zeta-Jones were all thought of for the part of Satine. Courtney Love was almost cast in the role, but lost out to Kidman at the last minute because Luhrmann felt that Love would not fit into the movie well. Heath Ledger, Hugh Jackman, and Russell Crowe were all considered for the part of Christian.\n\nProduction on the movie began in November 1999 and was finished in May 2000, with a budget of just over $50 million. Nicole Kidman reportedly wasn't interested in doing the musical until she heard Baz Luhrmann would be directing it. Filming generally went smoothly, with the only major problem being when Nicole Kidman injured her knee while filming one of the more complicated dance sequences. The production also overran in its shooting schedule and had to be out of the Fox Studios in Sydney to make way for Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones (in which Ewan McGregor also starred). This meant some parts had to be filmed in Madrid, Spain.\n\nCast \n Nicole Kidman as Satine\n Ewan McGregor as Christian\n John Leguizamo as Toulouse-Lautrec\n Jim Broadbent as Harold Zidler\n Richard Roxburgh as The Duke\n Kylie Minogue as The Green Fairy\n\nPlot summary \nThe movie is set in the year 1900. Christian (played by Ewan McGregor) is a British writer who came to the village of Montmartre in Paris in 1899, when the Bohemian movement was at its most popular. He sits in a flat looking down on the closed-down theatre called the Moulin Rouge while writing on a typewriter.  The story he is writing is about the woman he loved, Satine (played by Nicole Kidman).\n\nIn 1899, Christian arrives in Paris, and makes friends with a group of Bohemians who visit the Moulin Rouge regularly. They are trying to produce a musical called \"Spectacular Spectacular\", which the owner of the Moulin Rouge, Harold Zidler (played by Jim Broadbent), plans to show at the cabaret.  The Bohemians' leader, Toulouse-Lautrec (played by John Leguizamo), is pleased with Christian's talent at writing and insists that he write their musical, \"Spectacular Spectacular\". Once they find out that Christian is an amazing writer, they come up with an complicated plan of presenting Christian to Satine, who is a beautiful courtesan, in the hopes that she will be impressed with him and persuade Zidler to hire Christian as the writer of the musical.\n \nSatine understands what her work involves, although she hopes of leaving the Moulin Rouge to become a \"real\" actress.  Through a series of misunderstandings, she mistakes Christian for the rich and powerful Duke who will invest in the musical, \"Spectacular Spectacular\". She is enchanted by his poetry. She declares that she has fallen in love with him, but is shocked to realize he's actually a poor Bohemian poet.\n\nAfter a bit, the real Duke (played by Richard Roburgh) finds Christian and Satine together. They manage to trick him into believing that they were working on the musical, \"Spectacular Spectacular\".  The main cast arrive and improvise the plot of the show on the spot: a beautiful Indian courtesan has her kingdom invaded by an \"evil maharaja\". She sets out to seduce him to save her kingdom, but accidentally seduces and then falls in love with a penniless sitar player.  The two must hide their love and avoid the maharaja, though it is implied that one of them may die at the end of the story. (It is soon realized that the theme of their play foreshadows what happens in the movie's plot.)  The Duke agrees to support the show. But, he quickly shows that he is a violently jealous man who will shut down the Moulin Rouge if he does not get Satine to himself.  Nevertheless, he accepts that Satine will be busy with rehearsals and in close contact with Christian, the writer of the musical.\n\nChristian and Satine fall in love, while Zidler struggles to keep the Duke interested in the musical \"Spectacular Spectacular\" even though Satine has not yet slept with him. Harold Zidler also discovers that Satine is dying of a disease called tuberculosis, but does not tell anyone because of his motto, \"The show must go on\". Meanwhile, Christian continues to work on the play, in which the courtesan and the penniless sitar player end up together. The Duke, however, does not appreciate the ending and tells the cast that the courtesan must end up with the maharaja. To convince the Duke to change his mind, Satine finally agrees to spend the night with him. Christian is overcome with jealousy while Satine has dinner with the Duke, who offers her everything she has dreamt of. However, when Satine spots Christian on the street below, she refuses the Duke's offer, and he tries to rape her. After she escapes, Satine and Christian plan to run away.\n\nBy now, the Duke has realized Satine's tricks, and tells Zidler that, if the \"maharaja\" does not get his \"courtesan\", he will have the \"penniless sitar player\" killed. Nonetheless, Zidler must inform Satine of her final condition before she agrees to give up on the escape plan. She goes to Christian and lies to him, convincing him that her love was an act in the hopes that this will make him want to leave Paris and therefore save his life.\n\nAs the show opens, Satine performs tiredly, knowing that her life is almost up. Christian, refusing to give up on Satine, confronts her backstage. When she tries to force him off again, he takes the place of the show's hero, throwing money at her feet to \"pay his whore\", and storming off the stage. Satine confesses her love for him in the form of his secret song, and Christian and Satine get back together in full view of the audience and the Duke. The Duke attempts to shoot Christian, but Zidler forces him off. The audience applauds what they think is a good drama, but backstage, Satine is overcome by her illness and dies in Christian's arms. As her final wish, she asks Christian to tell their story.\n\nA year later, still in his flat overlooking the empty red windmill, Christian finally types the last page of his work, ending it with the couplet, \"The greatest thing you will ever learn, is just to love, and be loved in return.\"\n\nSoundtrack \n\nThe following is a list of some of the songs featured in the movie along with the artist that popularized them.\n \"The Sound of Music\" - Mary Martin (and later by Julie Andrews) (from the Rodgers & Hammerstein musical of the same name)\n \"The Lonely Goatherd\" - also from The Sound of Music (but heard as instrumental)\n \"Lady Marmalade\" - Labelle (and later by All Saints, covered for the movie, by Christina Aguilera, Lil' Kim, M\u00fda and Pink)\n \"Because We Can\" - Fatboy Slim\n \"Nature Boy\" - Eden Ahbez (and later by Nat King Cole)\n \"Complainte De La Butte\" - Georges Van Parys, Jean Renoir\n \"Rhythm of the Night\" - DeBarge\n \"Material Girl\" - Madonna\n \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\" - Nirvana\n \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend\" - Carol Channing (later, and notably by Marilyn Monroe)\n \"Diamond Dogs (song)|Diamond Dogs\" - David Bowie (and later by Beck)\n \"Galop Infernal (Can-can)\" - Jacques Offenbach (tune for Spectacular, Spectacular)\n \"One Day I'll Fly Away\" - The Crusaders, later Randy Crawford among others\n \"Children of the Revolution\" - T. Rex (Covered by Bono, Gavin Friday and Maurice Seezer)\n \"Gorecki\" - Lamb\n \"Come What May\" - Ewan McGregor & Nicole Kidman (written by David Baerwald)\n \"Roxanne\" - The Police (Title in movie: \"El Tango de Roxanne\")\n \"Tanguera\" - Mariano Mores\n \"The Show Must Go On\" - Queen\n \"Like a Virgin\" - Madonna\n \"Your Song\" - Elton John\n\nElephant Love Medley\n \"Love Is Like Oxygen\" - Sweet\n \"Love Is A Many-Splendored Thing\" - The Four Aces\n \"Up Where We Belong\" - Joe Cocker and Jennifer Warnes\n \"All You Need Is Love\" - The Beatles\n \"Lover's Game\" - Chris Isaak\n \"I Was Made For Lovin' You\" - Kiss\n \"One More Night\" - Phil Collins\n \"Pride (In The Name Of Love)\" - U2\n \"Don't Leave Me This Way\" - Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes (later Thelma Houston, The Communards, among others)\n \"Silly Love Songs\" - Paul McCartney and Wings\n (Repeated) \"Up Where We Belong\"\n \"Heroes\"  - David Bowie (and later by The Wallflowers)\n \"I Will Always Love You\" - Dolly Parton (and later by Whitney Houston)\n \"Your Song\" - Elton John\n\nTwo soundtrack albums were released, with the second coming after the huge success of the first one. The first volume featured the smash hit single \"Lady Marmalade\", performed by Christina Aguilera, Lil' Kim, M\u00fda and Pink. The first soundtrack, Moulin Rouge! Music From Baz Luhrmann's Film, was released in May 2001, with the second Moulin Rouge! Music From Baz Luhrmann's Film, Vol. 2 following in 2002.\n\nAwards \nAward wins:\n Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy\n Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Nicole Kidman)\n Academy Award for Art Direction-Set Decoration (Catherine Martin & Brigitte Broch)\n Academy Award for Costume Design (Catherine Martin & Angus Strathie)\n Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score - Motion Picture (Craig Armstrong)\n Producers Guild of America's Award for Best Picture\n National Board of Review's Award for Best Picture\n\nAward nominations:\n Academy Award for Best Picture\n Academy Award for Best Actress (Nicole Kidman)\n Academy Award for Best Cinematography (Donald McAlpine)\n Academy Award for Film Editing (Jill Bilcock)\n Academy Award for Makeup (Maurizio Silvi & Aldo Signoretti)\n Academy Award for Sound (Andy Nelson, Anna Behlmer, Roger Savage, Guntis Sics)\n Golden Globe Award for Best Director - Motion Picture (Baz Luhrmann)\n Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Ewan McGregor)\n Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song - Motion Picture (David Baerwald - song \"Come What May\")\n Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media\n\nTrivia \n The large red \"L'amour\" sign seen on the side Christian's building was part of the set of Baz Luhrmann's production of \"La boh\u00e8me\" for the Australian Opera. It also appeared in Romeo + Juliet (1996).\n The movie is dedicated to Baz Luhrmann's father, Leonard Luhrmann, who died just as filming was about to begin.\n Jake Gyllenhaal auditioned several times for the part of Christian, but was ultimately deemed too young to play opposite Nicole Kidman.\n The word \"love\" and its variations (loved, loves, loving, lover and lovers) appears in this movie 143 times.\n During Satine's trapeze entrance, blue light was used due to Nicole Kidman's pale skin tone, the director found that the blue light made her almost \"glow\" and therefore stood out during the scene.\n The Paris landscape was digitally produced and the two longest visual effects shots to date appear in this movie.\n\nRelated pages\n Bohemianism\n Moulin Rouge\n Montmartre\n Henri Toulouse-Lautrec\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\nOfficial site \n\n2000s musical movies\n2001 romantic drama movies\n20th Century Fox movies\nAcademy Award winning movies\nAlternate history movies\nAmerican musical movies\nAmerican romantic drama movies\nAustralian drama movies\nAustralian romance movies\n2000s English-language movies\nGolden Globe Award winning movies\nMovies about prostitution\nMovies set in Paris\nMovies set in the 1890s\nMovies set in the 1900s\nFormer good articles\nMovies directed by Baz Luhrmann\u200f\u200e","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":88464,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moulin%20Rouge%21","title":"Moulin Rouge!","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Charles-Fran\u00e7ois Gounod (born in Paris, 17 June 1818; died in Saint-Cloud, 17 October 1893) was a French composer. Gounod (pronounce: \"Goo \u2013 no\") wrote many different kinds of pieces, but he is best known today for his operas Faust and Rom\u00e9o et Juliette and, especially, for the very popular \"Ave Maria\" which is a melody that goes with a prelude by Johann Sebastian Bach.\n\nEarly life\nGounod was born in Paris. His father was a painter and engraver. His mother was his first piano teacher. When his father died in 1823 his mother started a school to teach the piano. Gounod soon showed musical talent and went to study at the Paris Conservatoire. He studied with three teachers, all of whom died soon after Gounod became their pupil. The first time he competed for the Prix de Rome he did not get it, but the third time, in 1839, he was successful. This meant that he could go to Rome to learn more about music.\n\nIn Rome he liked the religious music of the 16th century by composers such as Palestrina. He did not much like the modern opera composers such as Donizetti and Bellini. Gounod also spent some of the year in Austria and Germany. He passed through Leipzig where he met Mendelssohn, whose music made a big impression on him.\n\nGounod returned to Paris where he got a job as director of music at a church. He thought of becoming a priest, but then he changed his mind. He left his job in the church. Some time later he became friends with the singer Pauline Viardot and her husband Louis. He spent some time at their house composing the opera Sapho.\n\nHe composed the Messe Sollennelle, also known as the Saint Cecilia Mass. Two fragments of this work were first performed in London during 1851 and it helped him to become famous. By this time he was married. He had a job in charge of several choirs. He started to write a lot of choral music.\n\nHe wrote two symphonies in 1855, the 1st Symphony in D major, and the 2nd Symphony in E flat, although they are not often played today.\n\nMiddle period\nIn 1856 he started to write the opera by which he is now best remembered: Faust (1859), based on the first part of the play Faust by Goethe. The opera was produced in 1859 and soon was performed in many countries, especially in Germany. The composer Richard Wagner was the most important opera composer in Germany and his operas were quite different, so he said that Gounod's operas were silly.\n\nWhen the Franco-Prussian war broke out in 1870 Gounod went to live in England. He stayed there for five years becoming the first conductor of what is now the Royal Choral Society. Gounod wrote a lot of music for choirs at this time, including a motet composed especially for the grand opening of the Royal Albert Hall in 1871. He worked very hard, although he was often depressed about the war situation in France. His house in Saint-Cloud had been destroyed. He returned to France in 1874 and was glad to be back with his family.\n\nHe wrote much chamber music, including five string quartets, but these are hardly ever played today.\n\nLast years\nLater in his life, Gounod became very interested in religion again. He wrote a lot of religious music, including his famous musical setting of Ave Maria based on the first prelude from Book I of The Well-Tempered Clavier by J.S. Bach and Hymnus Pontificius the anthem of Vatican. He also wrote two oratorios, including Mors et vita which Queen Victoria liked so much that she asked for it to be played in the Royal Albert Hall in 1886.\n\nHe was just finishing a requiem called Le Grand Requiem when he died. He was given a state funeral on October 27, 1893. He asked for all the music at his funeral to be chant only.\n\nReferences\n\n Sadie, S. (ed.) (1980) The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians\n Cond\u00e9, G. (ed.) (2009) Charles Gounod\n\n19th-century French composers\nRomantic composers\n1818 births\n1893 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":70580,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles%20Gounod","title":"Charles Gounod","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Pacific Ocean is the body of water between Asia and Australia in the west, the Americas in the east, the Southern Ocean to the south, and the Arctic Ocean to the north. It is the largest named ocean and it covers one-third of the surface of the entire world. It joins the Atlantic Ocean at a line drawn  south from Cape Horn, Chile\/Argentina to Antarctica, and joins the Indian Ocean at a line drawn  south from Tasmania, Australia to Antarctica.\n\nAs the Atlantic slowly gets wider, the Pacific is slowly shrinking. It does this by folding the sea floor in towards the centre of the Earth - this is called subduction.  This bumping and grinding is hard so there are many earthquakes and volcanoes when the pressure builds up and is quickly released as large explosions of hot rocks and dust. When an earthquake happens under the sea, the quick jerk causes a tsunami. This is why tsunamis are more common around the edge of the Pacific than anywhere else. Many of the Earth's volcanoes are either islands in the Pacific, or are on continents within a few hundred kilometers of the ocean's edge. Plate tectonics are another reason which makes Pacific Ocean smaller.\n\nOther websites \n\n EPIC Pacific Ocean Data Collection Viewable on-line collection of observational data\n NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer  plot and download ocean observations\n NOAA PMEL Argo profiling floats Realtime Pacific Ocean data\n NOAA TAO El Ni\u00f1o data Realtime Pacific Ocean El Ni\u00f1o buoy data\n NOAA Ocean Surface Current Analyses \u2013 Realtime (OSCAR) Near-realtime Pacific Ocean Surface Currents derived from satellite altimeter and scatterometer data","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":226,"dup_dump_count":95,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-10":4,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":4,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":6,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":6,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":4,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":3,"2018-39":4,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":4,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":5,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":1975,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pacific%20Ocean","title":"Pacific Ocean","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Crack cocaine (or just crack) is an illegal drug which is made from cocaine. Cocaine is mostly an illegal drug that comes from the leaves of a plant called coca. When people smoke crack, they have a feeling called \"being high.\" The name \"crack\" comes from the cracking sound the drug makes as it is smoked. The cracking sound is caused by evaporating water escaping. In most parts of the world, production (making crack), possession (having crack), and distribution (selling or giving away crack) are illegal.\n\nDangers \nCrack is a very addictive drug. People can get both physically and psychologically addicted to crack (meaning that the body and the mind can both become addicted to, or \"hooked on,\" the drug.) Using crack is dangerous for many reasons. The drug can cause physical problems (like heart and lung problems or rotted teeth) and psychological (or mental) problems, like depression and psychosis (not understanding what is real and what is not real). An overdose of crack - taking too much of the drug - can cause death. Also, because crack is illegal, people have to break the law in order to get it, and they can get sent to jail if they are caught. People may also do other illegal things in order to get crack or to get money to buy crack, because the urge to get the drug is so strong in people who are addicted.\n\nCrack is called a \"gateway drug\" because people who use crack are more likely to use other drugs, like methamphetamine and heroin. Using crack along with other illegal drugs, or alcohol, is even more dangerous than using crack by itself.\n\nCrack is such a strong and addictive drug that a person can become addicted the first time they use crack. When a person tries to quit using crack, they go through a process called withdrawal that is very hard to go through. Withdrawal happens when as person's body or mind is used to having a drug in its system all the time, and suddenly the drug is not there any more. Because crack can cause both physical addiction (when the body is hooked on the drug) and psychological addiction (when the mind is hooked on the drug), quitting crack can cause both physical withdrawal (which causes physical symptoms in the body) and psychological withdrawal (which causes symptoms in the mind). Symptoms of (or problems caused by) physical withdrawal can include nausea (feeling like throwing up), vomiting (throwing up), and pain in the muscles. Psychological withdrawal can make a person feel very depressed, anxious (worried and not able to relax), agitated (restless and \"keyed up\"), or tired. When a person is withdrawing from crack, the urge to use crack will be very, very strong, and it is very hard for the person to fight off these urges and keep away from using the drug again.\n\nSmoking \nCrack cocaine is inhaled from a small glass pipe. This is often called a stem. It has a funnel-shaped 'bowlpiece' where the drug is put to be smoked. There is a 2 to 3 inch long stem attached that the smoke travels through on the way to the consumer. These stems may be used in waterpipes, such as 'bongs' or 'bubblers', in which case about a 1\/2 inch of the stem is submerged in the water and the smoke is sucked out through the water to the consumer. These stems are also used to inhale methamphetamine. When used for crack cocaine or methamphetamine, the stem is generally used as a standalone unit, without any water or attachment of any sort. After prolonged use, the glass from the stem may deteriorate from exposure to heat as well as acidity, and may become brittle and break or crack easily.\n\nOther websites \n\n Why is crack cocaine so hard to stop using? \n The rising peril of crack cocaine\n\nIllegal drugs","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2023-40":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":6}},"id":48021,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crack%20cocaine","title":"Crack cocaine","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sir Edward William Elgar, 1st Baronet OM GCVO  (2 June 1857 \u2013 23 February 1934) was the most famous English composer of his time. He composed in the late romantic era.\n\nBirth\nElgar was born in Broadheath, Worcestershire. His father owned a music shop. Apart from having violin lessons Elgar taught himself about music, he studied the printed music in his father's shop and often travelled with him when he went on his rounds to tune pianos. He heard a lot of cathedral music and often practised the organ. He took over his father's job as church organist and soon became conductor of local orchestras and bands.\n\nWorcester was a small town but the music there was good. The Three Choirs Festival took place there every third year. In 1884 he was playing the violin in the orchestra when the great Czech composer Dvo\u0159\u00e1k was conducting.\n\nMarriage\nIn 1889 Elgar married. His wife Caroline Alice Roberts came from a family who had more money than the Elgars, and she was 8 years older than he was. Many people did not approve of the marriage, but she was a good wife to him and encouraged him in his efforts to be a successful composer.\n\nWorks\nIn 1899 Elgar wrote an orchestral piece called the Enigma Variations. There is a main tune, and then a series of variations on the tune. Each variation describes one of his friends, but he did not say which friends they were: he only put their initials or nickname at the top of each variation. This is why the piece is an enigma (a \"puzzle\" or \"secret\"). People have managed to work out who each friend was, but the meaning of the main tune is still a puzzle. This music made Elgar very famous. \n\nThe next work that he wrote is probably his greatest work: The Dream of Gerontius (1900). It is an oratorio. Gerontius is an old man who is dying and thinking about whether God will punish him for his sins or save him and take him to heaven. Elgar wrote two other oratorios: The Apostles and The Kingdom. He wrote two symphonies, a violin concerto, a cello concerto, Introduction and Allegro for Strings, Sea Pictures (five songs for mezzo soprano and orchestra) and chamber music including a violin sonata, a string quartet and a piano quintet.\n\nThroughout his life his wife helped him by ruling neat manuscript lines on plain paper so that he could write his music. After she died in 1920 Elgar was so sad that he stopped composing. He died of colorectal cancer in Worcester.\n\nElgar's most popular piece is the first of his Pomp and Circumstance Marches. It has the tune which is sung to the words \"Land of Hope and Glory\" and the audience always join in singing it at the Last Night of the Proms.\n\n1857 births\n1934 deaths\n20th-century English composers\nBaronets\nCancer deaths in England\nDeaths from colorectal cancer\nKnights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order\nOrder of Merit\nMusicians from Worcestershire\nRomantic composers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":140,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":32434,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward%20Elgar","title":"Edward Elgar","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In the human body, the tarsus (: tarsi) is a cluster of seven articulating bones in each foot situated between the lower end of the tibia and the fibula of the lower leg and the metatarsus. It is made up of the midfoot (cuboid, medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform, and navicular) and hindfoot (talus and calcaneus).\n\nThe tarsus articulates with the bones of the metatarsus, which in turn articulate with the proximal phalanges of the toes. The joint between the tibia and fibula above and the tarsus below is referred to as the ankle joint proper.\n\nIn humans the largest bone in the tarsus is the calcaneus, which is the weight-bearing bone within the heel of the foot.\n\nHuman anatomy\n\nBones \nThe talus bone or ankle bone is connected superiorly to the two bones of the lower leg, the tibia and fibula, to form the ankle joint or talocrural joint; inferiorly, at the subtalar joint, to the calcaneus or heel bone.  Together, the talus and calcaneus form the hindfoot.\n\nThe five irregular bones of the midfoot\u2014the cuboid, navicular, and three cuneiform bones\u2014form the arches of the foot which serves as a shock absorber. The midfoot is connected to the hind- and forefoot by muscles and the plantar fascia.\n\nMovements \nThe complex motion of the subtalar joint occurs in three planes and produces subtalar inversion and eversion.  Along with the transverse tarsal joint (i.e. talonavicular and calcaneocuboid joint), the subtalar joint transforms tibial rotation into forefoot supination and pronation.  \nThe axis of rotation in the joint is directed upward 42 degrees from the horizontal plane and 16 degrees medially from the midline of the foot.  \nHowever, together, the subtalar facets form a screw or Archimedean spiral, right-handed in the right foot, about which subtalar motion occurs. So, during subtalar inversion, the calcaneus also rotates clockwise and translates forward along the axis of the screw.  \nAverage subtalar motion is 20-30 degrees inversion and 5-10 degrees eversion. Functional motion during the gait cycle is 10-15 degrees (the heel strikes the ground in slight inversion followed by quick eversion).\n\nThe talonavicular and calcaneocuboid joints (i.e. between the talus and navicular bones, and the calcaneus and cuboid bones) form the so-called transverse tarsal joint or Chopart's joint.  It has two axes of motion.  \nInversion and eversion occur about a longitudinal axis oriented 15 degrees upward from the horizontal plane and 9 degrees medially from the longitudinal axis of the foot.  \nFlexion and extension occur primarily about an oblique axis oriented 52 degrees upward from the horizontal plane and 57 degrees anteromedially (forward-inward).  \nIn vitro talonavicular motion is 7 degrees flexion-extension and 17 degrees pronation-supination; while calcaneocuboid motion is 2 degrees flexion-extension and 7 degrees pronation-supination.\n\nThe motions of the subtalar and transverse talar joints interact to make the foot either flexible or rigid.  With the subtalar joint in eversion, the two joints of the transverse joint are parallel, which make movements in this joint possible.  With the subtalar joint in inversion, the axes of the transverse joint are convergent, movements in this joint are thus locked and the midfoot rigid.\n\nOther animals\nIn primitive tetrapods, such as Trematops, the tarsus consists of three rows of bones. There are three proximal tarsals, the tibiale, intermedium, and fibulare, named for their points of articulation with the bones of the lower limb. These are followed by a second row of four bones, referred to as the centralia (singular: centrale), and then a row of five distal tarsals, each articulating with a single metatarsal. In the great majority of tetrapods, including all of those alive today, this simple pattern is modified by the loss and fusion of some of the bones.\n\nIn reptiles and mammals, there are normally just two proximal tarsals, the calcaneus (equivalent to the amphibian fibulare) and the talus (probably derived from a fusion of multiple bones). In mammals, including humans, the talus forms a hinge joint with the tibia, a feature especially well developed in the artiodactyls. The calcaneus is also modified, forming a heel for the attachment of the Achilles tendon. Neither of these adaptations is found in reptiles, which have a relatively simple structure to both bones.\n\nThe fifth distal tarsal disappears relatively early in evolution, with the remainder becoming the cuneiform and cuboid bones. Reptiles usually retain two centralia, while mammals typically have only one (the navicular).\n\nIn birds, the tarsus has disappeared, with the proximal tarsals having fused with the tibia, the centralia having disappeared, and the distal bones having fused with the metatarsals to form a single tarsometatarsus bone, effectively giving the leg a third segment.\n\nAdditional images\n\nSee also \n Arches of the foot\n Carpus\n Cuboid syndrome\n Tarsal tunnel\n Tarsal tunnel syndrome\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Diagram, identifying bones \n  ()\n\nShort bones\nFoot\nBones of the foot\nTarsal bones","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":52,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2020-50":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":8,"2014-15":1}},"id":1605738,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tarsus%20%28skeleton%29","title":"Tarsus (skeleton)","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Counterpoint is the art of composing music by combining different parts (voices) in a way that sounds nice.  Music composed like this is called contrapuntal.\n\nIf the tune of Twinkle, twinkle little star is played on the piano and then some chords are added, this is harmony, not counterpoint. Instead, if the tune of Twinkle, twinkle little star was played while another melody was played, this would be considered counterpoint.\n\nA different way of playing it would be to start the tune with the right hand.  Then, in the second bar (measure), as the fifth note is played, the left hand starts to play the tune an octave lower.  This works well for a time, but in the fifth bar (on the word \"Up\" in the right hand part) it starts to get dissonant (sounding unpleasant), so changes need to made to the left hand to make it sound nicer.  This way of writing with a particular number of parts (in this case: two) is called \"contrapuntal music\".\n\nIn that example the left hand imitated the right hand at first.  This is called imitation.\n\nIf the second part had continued to imitate all the way through the piece it would have been a canon.  But \"Twinkle, twinkle\" does not work well as a canon.  One famous canon is by Thomas Tallis.  A canon that can be repeated is called a  round.  This is all contrapuntal music.\n\nCounterpoint does not have to have imitation, although it often does.  The important thing is that each part (i.e. each voice) is equally important.  It is not one part singing the tune and the rest just accompanying.\n\nCounterpoint does not have to be one note against one note.  There can be two or more notes in one part against one in the other e.g. crotchets (quarter notes) in one part and quavers (eighth notes) in another.  There is a whole system for this called \"species\".\n\nCounterpoint can be varied by inverting it, i.e. putting the top part at the bottom.  When music is written so that the parts can be swapped round it is called \"invertible counterpoint\".\n\nThe word \"counterpoint\" comes from the Latin \"punctus contra punctum\" meaning \"point against point\".  The word \"point\" meant \"note\".  Several hundred years ago composers found how to write contrapuntal music.  They often took a main tune (called a \"Cantus Firmus\") and then added one or two or more parts to it.  The more parts there were the harder it was to compose because it all had to fit so that it sounded good.  Music for several voices written in this way is called polyphonic music.  Polyphony was used in all church music in the Renaissance.  The greatest composer of polyphony was Giovanni da Palestrina (1525-1594).  Students learning the art of composition today still learn counterpoint by taking Palestrina's music as their model.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \nFugue\ncanon (music)\n\nMusic genres\nMusic theory","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":168,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":3,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":5,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":6,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":5,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":29243,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Counterpoint","title":"Counterpoint","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Metamorphosis in biology means the process of transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages. Good examples are insects and amphibians. Life for most insects begins as a larva or nymph then progresses to the pupa stage and ends as an adult.\n\nAnimals that metamorphose include tadpoles into frogs, caterpillars into butterflys, and generally insect larva into adult insects.\n\nInsects \n\nThere are two main types of metamorphosis in insects:\nsimple metamorphosis or hemimetabolism, and complete metamorphosis or holometabolism.\n\nSimple metamorphosis or hemimetabolism \nInsects who go through simple (or incomplete) metamorphosis have three life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are usually very small. When the egg hatches, a larva or nymph comes out. Nymphs are just baby insects. Most of the time, the nymph looks similar to the adult, but it is smaller, may have different colouration, and does not have wings. The nymph grows through stages called instars, shedding its 'skin' (epicuticle) at each stage (ecdysis). Finally, it changes into a mature adult with wings.\n\nSome insect nymphs are aquatic, which means they live in water. These nymphs usually have gills and look very different from the adults they will turn into. Nymphs that live in water are called naiads.\n\nSome insects that have a life cycle of egg-nymph-adult are:\n cockroaches\n dragonflies\n grasshoppers\n true bugs\n\nComplete metamorphosis or holometabolism \nInsects that have complete metamorphosis have four life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are very small. The egg hatches and a larva comes out. The larva looks like a worm and eats and eats so that it can grow much bigger. When the larva has grown it changes into a pupa. The pupa usually can not move or eat. The pupa is a special time when the insect is changing into an adult that will look very different from the larva or the pupa. Moth pupae (plural of pupa) are inside cocoons. When the pupa opens, the adult insect comes out.\n\nMany insects have a life cycle of egg-larva-pupa-adult. Some of these insects are:\n Coleoptera: beetles\n Hymenoptera: bees, wasps, ants, sawflies\n Lepidoptera: butterflies, moths\n Diptera: the flies\n\nThe monarch butterfly \nThe monarch butterfly goes through four stages of development. Life for a monarch butterfly begins as an egg hatched from an adult. This egg then develops into a worm-like larva caterpillar. In the pupa or chrysalis stage, the caterpillar spins a silk pad on a twig or leaves and hangs from this pad by its last pair of prolegs. It hangs upside down in the shape of a \"J\" and then molts leaving it encased in a green exoskeleton. The mature butterfly emerges after about two weeks and feeds on a variety of flowers including milkweed flowers, red clover and goldenrod.\n\nAmphibian metamorphosis \n\nIn typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads, and newts all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Afterwards, newt larvae start a predatory lifestyle, while tadpoles mostly scrape food off surfaces with their horny tooth ridges.\n\nMarine organisms \nMany marine species have evolved a system where they release their eggs and sperm into the water at the same time, and fertilisation takes place in the sea over one or two days. This increases their chance of reproductive success.\n\nThen, larvae join the other plankton, eating and growing before metamorphosing into adults. Most marine invertebrates and many fish have a life cycle with pelagic larvae or even pelagic eggs. These have the capacity to be transported long distances, and so spread the species around to other places.\n\nNeed for metamorphosis \nThe need for metamorphosis is clear when the relative size of eggs and adults is understood. A mature Atlantic cod can reach two metres long, and weigh over 200 pounds (96\u00a0kg). The female will produce over 100,000 eggs in a single spawning, and the resulting larvae are quite tiny. There is no way they could live like the adults, which are more or less top predators. The larvae cannot even swim against the current. Therefore, they must live a different kind of life before they can live as the adults do.\n\nTheir development is packaged into stages, and each stage has adaptations to life at its stage. The sharp distinction between stages (best seen in insects) is presumably because a longer transition would leave the juvenile less fit, either at its younger or older ways of life.\n\nReferences\n\n Davies, R.G. Outlines of Entomology. Chapman and Hall: chapter 3\n\nOther websites \n Description of metamorphosis and its different forms\n Info on butterflies and butterfly metamorphosis\n Info on insect hormones \n\nDevelopmental biology\nAnimal anatomy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":260,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":6,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":5,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":6,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":4,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":6,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":6,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":5,"2016-26":3,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":6,"2015-48":6,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":6,"2015-32":6,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":6,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":7}},"id":51390,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metamorphosis","title":"Metamorphosis","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A claw is a sharp object. It is found at the end of a toe or finger in many mammals, birds, and some reptiles. The word \"claw\" is also used in reference to an invertebrate. For example, the chelae of crabs and lobsters are often called claws or pincers. \n\nA claw is made of hard protein called keratin. They are used by some meat eating mammals such as cats to catch and hold prey, but they may also be used for other things such as digging, climbing trees, and so on, in those and other species.\n\nSimilar appendages that are flat and do not come to a sharp point are called nails instead.\n\nArthropods \nThe correct name for an arthropod's 'claw' is chela (plural chelae). Legs that have a chela are called chelipeds. Chelae are also called pincers.\n\nTetrapods\nIn tetrapods, claws are made of keratin and have two layers.  The unguis is the outside hard layer, which has keratin fibers arranged perpendicular to the direction of growth and in layers at an angle. The subunguis is the soft, flaky layer, and the grain is parallel to the direction of growth. The claw grows outward from the nail matrix at the base of the unguis and the subunguis grows thicker while traveling across the nail bed. The unguis grows outward faster than the subunguis to make a curve and the thinner sides of the claw wear away faster than their thicker middle, making a more or less sharp point. Tetrapods use their claws in many ways, such as grasping or killing prey, digging, climbing, and hanging.\n\nBirds \nA talon is the claw of a bird of prey, which it uses to hunt. The talons are very important. If they did not have them, those birds might not be able to catch their food. In any event, birds often need to carry their prey back to the nest. Nests are safe places where prey can be shared with chicks or with their partner. In its nest a bird can tear prey apart and feed pieces to its ever-hungry chicks.\n\nMammals \nA nail is similar to a claw but it is flatter and has a curved edge instead of a point. A nail that is big enough to hold weight is called a 'hoof'. \n\nEvery so often, the growth of claws stops and restarts, just like the growth of hair. In hair, this causes the hair to fall out and it is replaced by a new one. In claws, this results in an old layer, and it breaks off. This takes several months for human thumbnails. Cats are often seen working old layers off on wood or on boards made for the purpose. Ungulates' hooves trim themselves when they walk on the ground. Domesticated equids (horses, donkeys and mules) usually need regular trimming by a farrier. In the wild, horses regularly travel much further than do domestic horses. \n\nMany predatory mammals have claws that can hide inside the animal's paw, especially animals such as the cat.\n\nPrimates\nA primate's nail only has the unguis; the subunguis has disappeared. Similar to the tail, the claw in apes is not needed. However, in some primates, the subunguis has redeveloped to make a claw-like structure. These certain animals do not have actual claws; instead the unguis appears normal along with a thick growth of subunguis.  Some lemurs have a toilet-claw which they use for scratching and grooming.\n\nOther websites \n\nThe Horse's Hoof Anatomy \nRat's Claws, also explains much about mammalian claws in general.\n\nAnimal anatomy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":55105,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Claw","title":"Claw","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Robert Earl Wise (September 10, 1914 \u2013 September 14, 2005) was an American film director, producer, and editor. He won the Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture for his musical films West Side Story (1961) and The Sound of Music (1965). He was also nominated for Best Film Editing for Citizen Kane (1941) and directed and produced The Sand Pebbles (1966), which was nominated for Best Picture.\n\nAmong his other films are The Body Snatcher (1945), Born to Kill (1947), The Set-Up (1949), The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951), Destination Gobi (1953), This Could Be The Night (1957), Run Silent, Run Deep (1958), I Want to Live! (1958), The Haunting (1963), The Andromeda Strain (1971), The Hindenburg (1975) and Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979).\n\nHe was the president of the Directors Guild of America from 1971 to 1975 and the president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences from 1985 through 1988.\n\nWise achieved critical success as a director in a striking variety of film genres: horror-noir, western, war, science fiction, musical and drama, with many repeat successes within each genre. Wise's meticulous preparation may have been largely motivated by studio budget constraints, but advanced the moviemaking art. He received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1998.\n\nEarly years\nWise was born in Winchester, Indiana, the youngest son of Olive R. (n\u00e9e Longenecker) and Earl W. Wise, a meat packer. He had an elder brother, David. The family moved to Connersville, Fayette County, Indiana, where Wise attended public schools. As a youth Wise's favorite pastime was going to the movies. As a student at Connersville High School, Wise wrote humor and sports columns for the school's newspaper and was a member of the yearbook staff and poetry club. Wise initially sought a career in journalism and following graduation from high school attended Franklin College, a small liberal arts college south of Indianapolis, Indiana, on a scholarship. In 1933, due to the family's poor financial situation during the Great Depression, Wise was unable to return to college for his second year and moved to Hollywood to begin a lifelong career in the film industry. Wise's older brother, David, who had gone to Hollywood several years earlier and worked at RKO Pictures, found his younger brother a job in the shipping department at RKO. Wise worked odd jobs at the studio before moving into editing.\n\nEarly career\nWise began his film career at RKO as a sound and music editor. In the 1930s, RKO was a budget-minded studio with \"a strong work ethic\" and \"willingness to take artistic risks\", which was fortunate for a newcomer to Hollywood such as Wise. At RKO, Wise became an assistant to T.K. Wood, the studio's head sound-effects editor. Wise's first screen credit was a ten-minute short subject called A Trip through Fijiland (1935), which was made from RKO footage salvaged from an abandoned feature film.\n\nAs Wise gained experience, he became more interested in editing film content, rather than sound, and went to work for RKO film editor William \"Billy\" Hamilton. Wise's first film as Hamilton's assistant was Alfred Santell's Winterset (1936). Wise continued to work with Hamilton on other films, including Stage Door (1937), Having Wonderful Time (1938) and The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle (1939). In The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939) and 5th Ave Girl (1939), Hamilton and Wise, as assistant film editor, shared screen credit; it was Wise's first credit on a feature film. Wise's first solo film editing work was on Bachelor Mother (1939) and My Favorite Wife (1939).\n\nAt RKO, Wise worked with Orson Welles on Citizen Kane (1941) and was nominated for the Academy Award for Film Editing. Wise was the film's last living crew member.\n\nThough Wise worked as an editor on Citizen Kane, it is likely that while working on the film he became familiar with the optical printer techniques employed by Linwood Dunn, inventor of the practical optical printer, to produce effects for Citizen Kane such as the image projected in the broken snowglobe which falls from Kane's hand as he dies.\n\nIn Citizen Kane, Welles used a deep-focus technique, in which heavy lighting is employed to achieve sharp focus for both foreground and background in the frame. Wise later used the technique in films that he directed. Welles' Citizen Kane also influenced Wise's innovations in the use of sound in films such as The Set-Up (1949), where Wise limited music to in-film sources, and in Executive Suite (1954), which used no music. In addition, biographical films or biographical profiles of fictionalized characters such as Charles Foster Kane were often the subjects of Wise's later work, including Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956), I Want to Live! (1958), The Sound of Music (1965), So Big (1953), Run Silent, Run Deep (1958) and The Sand Pebbles (1966), among others. Wise also worked as editor on Welles' next film for RKO, The Magnificent Ambersons (1942). While working as a film editor, Wise was called on to shoot additional scenes for the film. After Welles was dismissed from the studio, Wise continued editing films such as Seven Days Leave (1942), Bombardier (1943) and The Fallen Sparrow (1943), before he received his first directing assignment.\n\nDirector and producer\nFor Wise, connecting to the viewer was the \"most important part of making a film.\" Wise also had a reputation for a strong work ethic and budget-minded frugality. In addition, he was known for his attention to detail and well-researched preparation for a film. For example, before directing Until They Sail (1957), set in New Zealand during World War II, Wise traveled to New Zealand to interview women whose lives were similar to those portrayed in the film. Wise's attention to detail also extended to foreign locales. While in New Zealand doing research for the film, Wise also scouted background shots for the film's second-unit crew, even though the main film was shot on MGM's back lot in California. He also shot films on location, such as Mystery in Mexico (1948), a minor B-movie thriller filmed in Mexico City.\n\nWise's films often included lessons on racial tolerance. For example, Native Americans, Muslims,  Hispanics and African Americans were featured in such films as Two Flags West (1950), This Could Be the Night (1957), The Set-Up (1949) and Odds Against Tomorrow (1959), and West Side Story  (1961). The Sand Pebbles (1966) featured the story of a biracial couple, and Jewish characters were included in Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956), The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951), and The House on Telegraph Hill (1951).\n\nAt RKO, Wise got his first credited directing job in 1944 while working for Hollywood horror film producer Val Lewton. Wise replaced the original director on the horror film The Curse of the Cat People (1944), when it fell behind schedule. The film, a well received \"dark fantasy about a solitary child and her imaginary friend\", was a departure from the horror films of the day. In many of Wise's films, but especially in Curse of the Cat People, the melodrama used a vulnerable child or childlike character to challenge a dark, adult world. Lewton promoted Wise to his superiors at RKO, beginning a collaboration that produced the notable horror film The Body Snatcher (1945), starring Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi. Wise identified the film as a personal favorite and its rave reviews also helped establish his career as a director.\n\nBetween Curse and Snatcher, Wise directed Mademoiselle Fifi (1944), an adaptation of two Guy de Maupassant short stories that explored man's darker side with a political subtext. Fifis feminist perspective and a memorable chase sequence helped make it a \"template picture for Wise\". Wise also directed film noir, among them the Lawrence Tierney noir classic Born to Kill (1947), and Blood on the Moon (1948), a noir Western starring Robert Mitchum as a cowboy drifter that included memorable night sequences.\n\nHis last film for RKO The Set-Up (1949) was a realistic boxing movie in which Wise portrayed the sport as cruel and exploitative. The film also included choreographed fight scenes and \"set the bar\" for other fight films. The film earned the Critic's Prize at the Cannes Film Festival. Wise's use and mention of time in this film would echo in later noir films such as Stanley Kubrick's The Killing (1956) and Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction (1994).\n\nIn the 1950s, he proved adept in several genres, including science fiction in The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951); melodrama in So Big (1953); Western in Tribute to a Bad Man (1956), starring James Cagney; fictionalized biography in the boardroom drama Executive Suite (1954); and the epic Helen of Troy (1955) based on Homer's Iliad. Three Secrets (1950), a soap opera\/family melodrama, gave Wise a chance to work with actress Patricia Neal \"in a landmark performance about gender double standards\". Neal starred in two more Wise films: The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and Something for the Birds (1952). The Day the Earth Stood Still, a science fiction thriller that warned about the dangers of atomic warfare, included a realistic setting and an emphasis on the story instead of special effects. The film received \"overwhelmingly positive\" reviews and has become \"one of the most enduring and influential science fiction films ever made, and among the first produced by a major studio.\"\n\nThe biography of convicted killer Barbara Graham in I Want to Live! (1958), featured Susan Hayward's Oscar-winning performance as Graham and earned Wise his first nomination for Best Director. The film became one of the top-grossing pictures of 1959 and was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Screenplay from another medium and Best (black and white) Cinematography. In addition, Executive Suite earned Wise a Best Director nomination from the Motion Picture Academy, the Venice Film Festival, and the Directors Guild of America. The film was awarded Special Jury Prize at the Venice Film Festival and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts nominated it for Best Film. Other Wise-directed films from the 1950s include Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956), a portrait of boxer Rocky Graziano, starring Paul Newman; Wise's first overt comedy, Something for the Birds (1952); the action comedy Destination Gobi (1953); and The Desert Rats (1953), a more traditional war film.\n\nIn the 1960s, Wise directed three films adapted from the Broadway stage: West Side Story (1961), Two for the Seesaw (1962) and The Sound of Music (1965). In 1961, teamed with Jerome Robbins, Wise won the Academy Award for Best Director for West Side Story, which Wise also produced. Wise and Robbins were the first duo to share an Academy Award for directing. Wise won a second Oscar, for Best Picture, as the film's producer, West Side Story won ten out of its 11 Academy Award nominations: Best Picture, Director, Supporting Actor (George Chakiris), Supporting Actress (Rita Moreno), Cinematography (color), Art\/Set Decoration (color), Sound, Scoring of a Musical Picture, Editing, and Costume Design (color). It lost for Best Screenplay based on material from another medium to Judgment at Nuremberg (1961). West Side Story was a box-office hit, and critics have declared it \"a cinema masterpiece\".\n\nPrior to directing The Sound of Music (1965), Wise directed the psychological horror film The Haunting (1963), starring Julie Harris, in an adaptation of Shirley Jackson's novel The Haunting of Hill House. Wise's big-budget adaptation of Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein's family-oriented musical The Sound of Music, with Julie Andrews as Maria and Christopher Plummer as Captain von Trapp, became one of film history's highest-grossing movies. Wise won Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture for The Sound of Music for 1965. Wise struggled to keep The Sound of Music from being an overly sweet, sentimental story by cutting lesser-known songs and adding new dialogue to improve transitions. In addition to garnering Wise two Oscars, the film won three more for editing, sound and scoring of music for an adaptation.\n\nThe Sound of Music was an interim film for Wise, produced to mollify the studio while he developed the difficult film The Sand Pebbles (1966), starring Steve McQueen, Richard Attenborough, and Candice Bergen. The Sand Pebbles, Wise's critically acclaimed film epic, was a parable of the Vietnam War, with an antiwar director and message. McQueen received his only Oscar nomination for his performance in the film. Set in the late 1920s in China, this was an early entry in a series of Vietnam war era films followed by Catch-22 and M*A*S*H. Excellent reviews for The Sand Pebbles marked Wise's last \"creative peak\" in his long career. Star! (1968), with Julie Andrews in the lead as Gertrude Lawrence, failed at the box office, although it was consistent with Wise's other successful films that portrayed a strong woman \"whose life choices invite melodramatic relationships.\" Andrews was cast against type, but Wise, as the film's director, took responsibility for the film's shortcomings.\n\nIn the 1970s, Wise directed such films as The Andromeda Strain (1971), The Hindenburg (1975), the horror film Audrey Rose (1977) and Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979), the first Star Trek feature film.\n\nWise's adaptation of Michael Crichton's science-fiction thriller, The Andromeda Strain (1971), an anti-biological warfare film, was a \"modest critical hit.\" His next film, Two People (1973), starring Peter Fonda and Lindsay Wagner, got \"poor reviews\" and is \"one of Wise's least-seen movies.\" The Hindenburg (1975), which profiles the 1937 crash of the eponymous airship, was panned by critics, although it won Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects and Best Sound Effects. Wise's Audrey Rose (1977), a reincarnation thriller, received mixed reviews and was \"sometimes criticized for being an Exorcist (1973) knockoff.\"\n\nStar Trek: The Motion Picture (1979), the first of the feature films based on the popular television series, was a difficult shoot for Wise. Popular film critic Leonard Maltin called it \"Slow, talky, and derivative, somewhat redeemed by terrific special effects\". The film was a box office hit but a critical failure.\n\nWise was Ilya and Alexander Salkind's first choice to direct the Superman spin-off Supergirl after Richard Lester departed the franchise, but he declined. Wise also was considered to direct the 1985 holiday film Santa Claus: The Movie and the 1988 horror film Child's Play introducing the slasher villain Chucky. In 1989, Wise directed Rooftops, his last theatrical feature film. The low-budget musical \"opened and closed with no fanfare.\" At age 86, Wise directed A Storm in Summer (2000) for Showtime (cable television). Starring Peter Falk, it was his only made-for-television movie, airing in 2001, and won a Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Children's Special.\n\nLater years\nWise, a lifelong liberal, contributed to charitable organizations, including the American Civil Liberties Union, and established the Robert E. Wise Foundation to provide financial assistance to causes in the Los Angeles area. Wise's private papers are housed at the University of Southern California.\n\nAs Wise's directing career slowed, he took a more active role in supporting the film industry. He became a governor of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 1966 and served for 19 years until becoming president from 1985 through 1988. He had previously been president of the Directors Guild of America from 1971 to 1975. He also sat on the Board of Trustees of the American Film Institute and chaired its Center for Advanced Film Studies. Wise was named chairman of the Directors Guild of America's special projects committee in 1980, organizing its fiftieth anniversary celebration in New York in 1986. In addition, Wise was a leading member of the National Council of the Arts and Sciences, the Department of Film at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, and the Motion Picture Country House and Hospital.\n\nDuring the 1980s and 1990s Wise served on the advisory board of the National Student Film Institute.\n\nWise also encouraged young filmmakers and responded to inquiries from fans and film students. Wise supervised Emilio Estevez's debut as a director in Wisdom (1986) and was its executive producer. Wise also made a cameo performance in John Landis' The Stupids (1996).\n\nIn his later years, Wise continued to be active in productions of DVD versions of his films, including making public appearances promoting those films. His last contributions were to the DVD commentaries of The Sound of Music, The Haunting and The Set-Up. He also oversaw the DVD commentaries of The Sand Pebbles and Executive Suite. He also oversaw and provided DVD commentary for his Director's Edition of Star Trek: The Motion Picture, which included re-edited scenes, new optical effects and a new sound mix. This was the director's final project before his death.\n\nPersonal life\nOn May 25, 1942, Wise married actress Patricia Doyle. Throughout their long life together, Wise and his wife enjoyed entertaining and traveling, before she died of cancer on September 22, 1975. The couple had one son, Robert, who became an assistant cameraman. On January 29, 1977, Wise married Millicent Franklin. Millicent died on August 31, 2010, at Cedars-Sinai Hospital, Los Angeles.\n\nWise had an expansive bungalow on the Universal Studios lot and owned a modern California beach house. He continued to screen films for personal enjoyment and had \"final cut\" decisions on his films.\n\nWise suffered a heart attack and was rushed to UCLA Medical Center, where he died of heart failure on September 14, 2005, four days after his 91st birthday.\n\nFilmography\n\nEditor\n\nExecutive producer\n Star! (1968) (Uncredited)\n The Baby Maker (1970)\n Wisdom (1986)\n\nOther roles\n\nAccolades\nWise was a four-time Oscar-winner (Best Director and Best Picture, 1961 and 1965) and also received the Academy's Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (1966); the D.W. Griffith Award (1988) from the Directors Guild of America for outstanding lifetime achievement; the National Medal of Arts (1992); AFI's Lifetime Achievement Award (1998); and the Society of Motion Picture and Television Art Directors career award for \"outstanding contribution to cinematic imagery\" (1998). Wise also has a star (#6340) on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\n\nIn 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild published a list of the 75 best-edited films of all time based on a survey of its membership. Citizen Kane, which Wise had edited early in his career, was listed second.\n\nIn Indiana, Governor Roger D. Branigin proclaimed March 1, 1967, Robert Wise Day in honor of the 1967 premiere of The Sand Pebbles in Indianapolis. Wise was also named a Sagamore of the Wabash. In 1968, Wise was awarded an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts from Franklin College and in 1981 co-chaired a $10 million fundraising campaign for the college. Connersville, Indiana, proclaimed June 4, 1968, as Robert Wise Day, while his birthplace, Winchester, Indiana, made a similar proclamation the following day.\n\nOn November 3, 1990, Wise attended the dedication of the Robert E. Wise Center for Performing Arts at the new Connersville High School. In 1992, Wise was named the first recipient of the Indianapolis-based Heartland Film Festival's Crystal Heart Career Achievement Award. In 2002, the Indiana Historical Society named Wise a Living Legend. Wise is also depicted in a mural of famous Randolph County, Indiana, natives in the county's courthouse. This mural was painted by local artist Roy L. Barnes.\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n \n\n1914 births\n2005 deaths\nAmerican Cinema Editors\nAmerican film editors\nBest Directing Academy Award winners\nGolden Globe Award-winning producers\nProducers who won the Best Picture Academy Award\nPresidents of the Directors Guild of America\nPresidents of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences\nFilm directors from Indiana\nFranklin College (Indiana) alumni\nUnited States National Medal of Arts recipients\nPeople from Winchester, Indiana\n20th Century Studios people\nScience fiction film directors\nAmerican sound editors\nDirectors Guild of America Award winners\nPeople from Connersville, Indiana\nEnglish-language film directors\nAFI Life Achievement Award recipients\nFilm producers from Indiana","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3}},"id":67757,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert%20Wise","title":"Robert Wise","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In Abrahamic religions, Mary (Judeo-Aramaic \u05de\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd Mary\u0101m;  (Maryam); Septuagint Greek \u039c\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc, Mariam, \u039c\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03b1, Maria; ) was the mother of Jesus. Her story is told in the New Testament of the Bible.\n\nMary in the Bible \n\nChristian beliefs about Mary are based on the Bible. The Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke say that Mary was a young woman who was engaged to be married to a man called Joseph. The Gospel of Luke says that the angel Gabriel came to Mary to tell her that she would give birth to a son. The angel told Mary that she should call her son Jesus. The angel also said that Jesus would save people from their sins.\n\nMary asked the angel how she could be pregnant, since she was a virgin. The angel told her that God had made her pregnant through a miracle.\n\nIn the sixth month, the angel Gabriel was sent from God to a town of Galilee called Nazareth, to a virgin betrothed to a man named Joseph, of the house of David, and the virgin's name was Mary. And coming to her, he said, \"Hail, favored one! The Lord is with you.\" But she was greatly troubled at what was said and pondered what sort of greeting this might be. Then the angel said to her, \"Do not be afraid, Mary, for you have found favor with God. Behold, you will conceive in your womb and bear a son, and you shall name him Jesus. He will be great and will be called Son of the Most High,\u00a0and the Lord God will give him the throne of David his father, and he will rule over the house of Jacob forever, and of his kingdom there will be no end.\" But Mary said to the angel, \"How can this be, since I have no relations with a man?\" And the angel said to her in reply, \"The holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you. Therefore the child to be born will be called holy, the Son of God. And behold, Elizabeth, your relative, has also conceived\u00a0a son in her old age, and this is the sixth month for her who was called barren; for nothing will be impossible for God.\" Mary said, \"Behold, I am the handmaid of the Lord. May it be done to me according to your word.\" Then the angel departed from her.According to the law that Israelites follow, Joseph had the right to divorce Mary publicly, but he did not. In a dream Joseph was told that Mary was conceived by the Holy Spirit. \n\nAt this time, the Roman Emperor, Caesar Augustus, made a law that everyone in the Roman Empire had to pay a tax. Everyone had to go back to the town that their family came from, to have their name put on the tax lists. Joseph came from Bethlehem, which was called The City of David. So Joseph took Mary to Bethlehem. There, she gave birth to the baby, Jesus. She gave birth in an animal shed, because Mary and Joseph could not find a room to stay in.\n\nThirty-three years later, Jesus was killed by crucifixion. Many of Jesus' apostles were scared of the Roman soldiers and ran away. However, Mary stood by the cross and was with Jesus when he died. As he was dying, he told the young disciple John to care for Mary as if she was his own mother, and the words were \"Woman, this is your son. This is your mother\". On the third day after Jesus' death, Mary went to Jesus' tomb with other women.  They saw that the stone was rolled away from the tomb, and his body was gone.  An angel told the women that Jesus had risen and was alive.\n\nMary continued to meet with the early church after the Ascension of Jesus. (Acts 1:14)\n\nMary in Islam \n\nThe Qur'an says that she was a virgin when she gave birth to Jesus and so Muslims honor Jesus as a great prophet.\n\nGiving honor to Mary \n\nMary is given honor in the Christian faith. She is especially honored as \"the Mother of God\" in the Roman Catholic Church. She is also honored as \"Theotokos\" (roughly translated as \"the one who gave birth to God\") in the Eastern Orthodox Church. In Christianity, Jesus is thought to be both fully God and fully man. \n\nChristians do not worship Mary, because they believe that only God should be worshipped. However, some Christians, mainly Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians, venerate her. That means that they pray to her and respect her acceptance of God's will by willingly giving birth to Jesus.\n\nMary is often called \"the Blessed Virgin Mary\" by Roman Catholics. There are many feast days that honor the Virgin Mary. For example, the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin, on 8 September, honors her birth.  Catholics also celebrate the Immaculate Conception, and Mary as Queen of Heaven on August 22. There is some confusion about the Immaculate Conception.  Many think this is the same as the virgin birth of Jesus, but the Catholic teaching of Immaculate Conception is that Mary herself was born without sin. \n\nChristian art often shows the Virgin Mary. Many paintings show Mary with the baby Jesus. These paintings are known as Madonna and Child pictures. \n\nMany people who pray through Mary use a prayer called the Hail Mary. The first part of the prayer honors Mary: \"Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee. Blessed art thou amongst women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus.\" The second part of the prayer asks for Mary's help: \"Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and in the hour of our deaths. Amen.\"\n\nProtestants believe that Roman Catholics and Orthodox give Mary too much honor. Since the title \"Mother of God\", the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption of Mary are all teachings that are not found in the Bible, Protestants don't accept them. The Assumption of Mary is the teaching that Mary was taken up to heaven without dying.  Protestants believe that we can pray directly to God through Jesus, and do not need Mary or other saints to intercede for us.\n\nRelated pages\n Madonna and Child \n Icon \n Roman Catholic Church \n Liche\u0144 Stary\n Our Lady of Guadalupe\n Our Lady of Lourdes\n\nReferences \n\n1st-century BC births\n1st-century deaths\n \n \nEarly Christian saints\nPeople from Nazareth","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":136,"dup_dump_count":54,"dup_details":{"2024-26":4,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":5,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":6,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":9,"2020-50":5,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":6,"2020-24":5,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2017-13":1}},"id":23441,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mary%2C%20mother%20of%20Jesus","title":"Mary, mother of Jesus","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Universal history, world history or global history examines history from a global perspective.\n\nIt looks for common patterns that one can find across all cultures. Universal historians use a thematic approach. That means they look at history from two viewpoints: On the one hand they look at processes of world history that have drawn people of the world together, on the other hand they want to find out how patterns of world history reveal the diversity of the human experience.\n\nThe study of universal or global history is in some ways a product of the current period of accelerated globalization. This period has two tendencies: it integrates various cultures and it shows their differences when people of different cultures and civilizations have to live with each other.\n\nTo discuss \"the history of the world\" in a unified framework is not that new. For example, it was a genre popular in the 19th century, and with Christian historians going back to at least the 4th century.\n\nRelated pages\nNatural history\n\nNotes\n\nOther websites\n World History Network\nBridging World History \nChina and Europe \nJournal of World History\nThe Changing Shape of World History, William H. McNeill, Paper originally presented at the History and Theory World History Conference, March 25-26, 1994\nWorld History Connected \nWorld History For Us All  - World History Model Curriculum \t \nWorld History Matters  \t \nWWW-VL World History Index  \t \nWorld History Blog - World History blog. \t \nWorld History Today  - World History blog.\nFive Epochs of Civilization Ends regional bias by focusing on communication technologies shared throughout the earth\n\n+","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":52,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2021-49":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":4,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3}},"id":101427,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal%20history","title":"Universal history","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Charlotte Bront\u00eb (21 April 1816 \u2013 31 March 1855) was an English novelist and poet. \n\nShe first published her works, including Jane Eyre, under the pseudonym (false name) of Currer Bell. In 1846, Charlotte encouraged her sisters to print Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. They did not sell well. Her first novel, The Professor, was rejected by many publishers. It was not printed until 1857. She is famous for her novel Jane Eyre (1847), which was very popular when it was printed. \n\nJane Eyre was a strong story of a plain, brave, clever woman struggling with her passions, reasons, and social condition. She later wrote the books Shirley (1849) and Villette (1853). She lived longer than her sisters, but she was only 38 when she died in pregnancy.\n\nLife \n\nCharlotte Bront\u00eb was the third child of Patrick Bront\u00eb (formerly \"Patrick Brunty\"), an Irish Anglican clergyman, and his wife, Maria n\u00e9e Branwell. In April 1821, the family moved a few miles to Haworth. Patrick had been appointed Perpetual Curate there. Maria Branwell Bront\u00eb died of cancer on 15 September 1821. She left her five daughters and a son to be looked after by her sister Elizabeth Branwell. \n\nIn August 1824, Charlotte was sent with three of her sisters to the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire. She described it as Lowood School in her novel Jane Eyre. The sisters were Emily, Maria and Elizabeth. The poor conditions of the school permanently affected Charlotte's health according to her. She thought it led to the early deaths of her two elder sisters, Maria (born 1814) and Elizabeth (born 1815). They died of tuberculosis in June 1825 soon after their father took them from the school on 1 June.\n\nAt home in Haworth Parsonage, Charlotte and the other living children (Branwell, Emily and Anne) began writing about the lives and struggles of the dwellers of their imaginary kingdoms. Charlotte and Branwell wrote Byronic stories about their country \u2014 Angria \u2014 Emily and Anne wrote articles and poems about theirs Gondal.\n\nCharlotte went to school at Roe Head, Mirfield, from 1831 to 1832. There she met her lifelong friends, Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor. In 1833 she wrote her novella The Green Dwarf under the name of Wellesley. Charlotte returned as a teacher from 1835 to 1838. In 1839 she became a governess to various families in Yorkshire, a career she had until 1841. \n\nIn 1842 she and Emily travelled to Brussels to enroll in a pensionnat (boarding school) run by Constantin Heger (1809 \u2013 1896) and his wife Claire Zo\u00e9 Parent Heger (1814 \u2013 1891). In return for this, Charlotte taught English and Emily taught music. Their time at the pensionnat was cut short when Elizabeth Branwell, their aunt, died in October 1842. Charlotte returned alone to Brussels in January 1843 to be a teacher at the pensionnat. This stay was not happy. She became lonely, homesick and deeply attached to Constantin Heger. She finally returned to Haworth in January 1844 and later used her time at the pensionnat as the inspiration for some of The Professor and Villette.\n\nBooks \n Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell (1846)\n Jane Eyre, published in 1847\n Shirley, published in 1849\n Villette, published in 1853\n The Professor,published posthumously in 1857\n Emma, unfinished; Charlotte Bront\u00eb wrote only 20 pages of the manuscript. The book was then finished by author Clare Boylan and released in 2003. It was named Emma Brown.\n\nOther websites \n\n Bront\u00eb Parsonage Museum in Haworth \n The Bront\u00eb Society's Blog, contains the latest news of events, lectures, publications etc. concerning the Bront\u00eb family of writers.\n Online editions of Charlotte Bront\u00eb's works\n \n Charlotte Bront\u00eb - Drawing by George Richmond (National Portrait Gallery) \n\n1816 births\n1885 deaths\nDisease-related deaths in Yorkshire\nEnglish novelists\nEnglish poets\nWriters from Yorkshire","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":5134,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charlotte%20Bront%C3%AB","title":"Charlotte Bront\u00eb","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A jubilee is a special year of remission of sins, debts and universal pardon. In Leviticus, a jubilee year ( y\u016b\u1e07\u0101l) is mentioned to occur every 50th year; during which slaves and prisoners would be freed, debts would be forgiven and the mercies of God would be particularly manifest.\n\nIn Western Christianity, the tradition dates to 1300, when Pope Boniface VIII convoked a holy year, following which ordinary jubilees have generally been celebrated every 25 or 50 years, with extraordinary jubilees in addition depending on need. Catholic jubilees, particularly in the Latin Church, generally involve pilgrimage to a sacred site, normally the city of Rome. The Catholic Church declared the Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy for 2015\u20132016.\n\nBackground\n\nIn Jewish tradition, the jubilee year was a time of joy, the year of remission or universal pardon. Leviticus 25:10 reads, \"Thou shalt sanctify the fiftieth year, and shalt proclaim remission to all the inhabitants of thy land: for it is the year of jubilee.\"\n\nThe same concept forms the fundamental idea of the Christian jubilee. The number 50 was specially associated in the early 13th century with the idea of remission. The translation of the body of Thomas Becket took place in the year 1220, 50 years after his martyrdom. The sermon on that occasion was preached by Cardinal Stephen Langton who told his hearers that this coincidence was meant by Providence to recall \"the mystical virtue of the number fifty, which, as every reader of the sacred page is aware, is the number of remission.\"\n\nIn the Chronicle of Alberic of Three Fountains, under the year 1208 (not, be it noted, 1200), is this brief entry: \"It is said that this year was celebrated as the fiftieth year, or the year of jubilee and remission, in the Roman Court.\"\n\nDefinition\nIn Roman Catholic tradition, a jubilee or Holy Year is a year of forgiveness of sins and also the punishment due to sin. It is a year of reconciliation between adversaries, of conversion and receiving the Sacrament of Reconciliation, \"...and consequently of solidarity, hope, justice, commitment to serve God with joy and in peace with our brothers and sisters.\" A jubilee can be ordinary if it falls after the set period of years or extraordinary if it is proclaimed for some outstanding event.\n\nHistory\n\nFirst Christian jubilee\nIn the face of great suffering, caused by wars and diseases such as the plague thousands of pilgrims came to Rome at Christmas in 1299. Cardinal Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi, the contemporary and counsellor of Pope Boniface VIII, and author of a treatise on the first Christian jubilee, noted that the proclamation of the jubilee owed its origin to the statements of certain aged pilgrims who persuaded Boniface that great indulgences had been granted to all pilgrims in Rome about a hundred years before.\n\nOn February 22, 1300, Boniface published the bull \"Antiquorum habet fida relatio\", in which, appealing vaguely to the precedent of past ages, he declared \"...the most full, pardon of all their sins\", to those who fulfill certain conditions. These are, first, that being truly penitent they confess their sins, and secondly, that they visit the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul in Rome, at least once a day for a specified time\u2014in the case of the inhabitants of the city for 30 days, in the case of strangers for 15 days.\n\nThe word \"jubilee\" does not occur in the bull. The pope speaks rather of a celebration which is to occur every 100 years, but writers both Roman and foreign described this year as annus jubileus, and the name \"jubilee\" (though others, such as the \"holy year\" or \"the golden year\", have been used, as well) has been applied to such celebrations ever since. Among those who are recorded as among the pilgrims of that first jubilee are Cimabue, Giotto, Charles, Count of Valois, the chronicler Giovanni Villani, and Dante Alighieri, who mentions it in the Divine Comedy in Canto XXXI of \"Paradiso\".\n\nJubilee of 1350\nBoniface VIII had intended that the jubilee should be celebrated only once in 100 years. Before the middle of the 14th century, Bridget of Sweden and the poet Petrarch (among others) urged Pope Clement VI, then residing at Avignon, to change this. In 1343, Clement VI assented and issued the bull \"Unigenitus\", and set the time frame for every 50 years. In 1350, a jubilee was held, and although the pope did not return to Rome, Cardinal Gaetani Ceccano was dispatched to represent him. On this occasion, daily visits to the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran were enjoined, besides those to the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul outside the Walls.\n\nJubilees of 1390 and 1423\nIn virtue of an ordinance of Pope Urban VI, it was proposed to hold a jubilee every 33 years as representing the period of the sojourn of Christ upon earth and also the average span of human life. The next jubilee was held in 1390, and the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore was added to the list. The visits to these four churches has remained as one of the conditions for gaining the Roman jubilee indulgence.\n\nIn 1400 so many people came to Rome that Pope Boniface IX granted the indulgence again, though he had not decreed a jubilee year previously. One of the most severe occurrences of plague during the Second plague pandemic was exacerbated by the many pilgrims making their way to and from Rome; in the city itself 600\u2013800 of the faithful died daily.\n\nAnother jubilee was proclaimed by Pope Martin V in 1423 (33 years after the last proclaimed jubilee in 1390), but Pope Nicholas V, in 1450, reverted to the quinquagesimal period, while in 1470 Pope Paul II decreed that the jubilee should be celebrated every 25 years, and this has been the normal rule ever since. Paul also permitted foreigners to visit some specified church in their own country, and contribute towards the expense of the Holy Wars, as a substitute for the pilgrimage to Rome.\n\nSubsequent jubilees\n\nThe jubilees of 1450 and 1475 were attended by vast crowds of pilgrims, and that of 1450 was unfortunately made famous by a terrible accident in which nearly 200 people were trampled to death in a panic which occurred on the bridge of Sant' Angelo. Following this disaster, great pains were taken to widen the thoroughfares and to provide for the entertainment and comfort of the pilgrims by numerous charitable organizations, of which the Archconfraternity of the Holy Trinity, founded by Sankt Philip Neri, was the most famous. In 1450, Rome was a largely rural area surrounded by the Aurelian Walls and inhabited by no more than 30,000 people engaged mainly in stock-rearing, in contrast with the economic centres of Florence, Venice, and Milan. Wolves frequented the Vatican Gardens, the population was centred on the Tiber near the Campus Martius, while round the churches of San Giovanni in Laterano and Santa Maria Maggiore were separate villages. Pope Nicholas V used the wealth brought in by pilgrims in the jubilee year of 1450 to convert the medieval city into a Renaissance capital, to found the Vatican Library, and to permanently move the papal seat to the west bank of the Tiber away from the Roman masses who had evicted his predecessor: the Vatican Palace and St Peter's Basilica thus replaced St John Lateran as the main papal headquarters. The nearby Castel Sant'Angelo was rebuilt, along with new fortifications encircling what is now the Vatican City, which Pope Nicholas made his home. According to Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, 40,000 pilgrims arrived in Rome every day for the jubilee in 1450. With them came plague, and some members of the Curia died of the infection while the Pope himself fled Rome for Fabriano in the Apennine Mountains.\n\nIn 1500, Pope Alexander VI announced that the doors in the four major basilicas would be opened simultaneously, and that he himself would open the Holy Door of Saint Peter's. The celebrations around this were \"founded on ancient rites and full of symbolic meaning\" and the total number attending the initial jubilee events was, according to Johann Burchard, an estimated 200,000 people. This act definitively ushered in several customs.\n\nThe ninth jubilee was solemnly opened on December 24, 1524, by Pope Clement VII, at a time when symptoms of the great crises which would soon tear the Church apart were already present, with the Protestant Reformation. The 1550 Jubilee was proclaimed by Pope Paul III, but Pope Julius III actually opened it.\n\nIn 1575, in the time of Pope Gregory XIII, as many as 300,000 people came to Rome from all over Europe. The following Holy Year was proclaimed by Pope Clement VIII in 1600.\n\nIn 1625, Pope Urban VIII opened the ceremonial doors for the jubilee year. However, the number of pilgrims was lower than expected due to the wars in northern Italy, so the Pope suspended the declaration of indulgences outside Rome in an attempt to lure the faithful to the city. He then went on to declare a universal or extraordinary jubilee in 1628 to pray for peace. This was repeated the next year in 1629, and brought undoubted material benefits to the city. Finally, Innocent X oversaw the last of his jubilees in 1650.\n\nPope Clement X presided over that of 1675. Pope Clement XI, who opened the Jubilee of 1700, is remembered especially for establishing one of Rome's most renowned charitable institutions, the hospice of San Michele a Ripa. Gradually, other similar institutions were opened to offer shelter and assistance to pilgrims, as in 1725, the Holy Year called by Pope Benedict XIII. A famous preacher during the Jubilee of 1750, proclaimed by Pope Benedict XIV, was Leonard of Port Maurice, who set up 14 Stations of the Cross inside the ruins of the Colosseum.\n\nPope Clement XIV announced the Jubilee of 1775, but died three months before Christmas and the Holy Door was opened by the new pope, Pius VI. The difficult situation in which the Church found herself during the hegemonic rule of Napoleon prevented Pope Pius VII from proclaiming the Jubilee of 1800.\n\nMore than a half a million pilgrims made the journey to Rome for the Jubilee of 1825. Twenty-five years later, the Holy Year could not be held because of the unsettled situation in the Roman Republic and temporary exile of Pope Pius IX. However, he was able to announce a jubilee for 1875, but it was celebrated without any external solemnity, with only the clergy present for the inauguration. The holy doors were not opened, and the pilgrims who came were generally in Rome to do homage to the pope, who had not accepted the Italian annexation of Rome by the troops of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, rather than to obtain an indulgence.\n\nThe Jubilee of 1900, though shorn of much of its splendor by the self-confinement of the pope within the limits of the Vatican, was, nevertheless, carried out by Pope Leo XIII with all the solemnity that was possible.\n\n20th-century jubilees\nIn the 20th century, jubilees were held in 1925, 1933 (in commemoration of the 1900th anniversary of the traditional year of Jesus's death and resurrection), 1950, 1966 (post-Council jubilee), 1975, 1983 (for the Holy Year of the Redemption: the 1950th anniversary of Jesus's death and resurrection), and 2000.\n\nPope Pius XII used the occasion of the 1950 Jubilee to declare a new pontifical anthem for the Vatican City. With the encyclical Fulgens corona, he declared the first Marian year or \"Little Holy Year\" for 1954. Pope John Paul II proclaimed a Marian year in 1987, again four years after the 1983 Jubilee.\n\n\"Great Jubilee\" of 2000\n\nPope John Paul II announced a Great Jubilee for the year 2000 with his apostolic letter Tertio Millennio Adveniente (As the Third Millennium Approaches) of November 10, 1994. In this writing, he called for a three-year preparation period leading up to the opening of the Great Jubilee in December 1999. The first year, 1997, was to be dedicated to meditation on Jesus, the second to the Holy Spirit, and the third to God the Father. This Jubilee was especially marked by a simplification of the rites and the requirements for achieving the indulgence, as well as a huge effort to involve other Christians in the celebration.\n\nProtestants and the Eastern Orthodox Church were invited to celebrate the jubilee together with Catholics as a sign of ecumenism. Furthermore, special jubilees were invoked for various groups within the Church, such as children, athletes, politicians, and actors. World Youth Day, celebrated in Rome in August, brought over two million young people together.\n\nThe jubilee was closed by the pope on January 6, 2001, by the closing of the holy door of St. Peter's Basilica and the promulgation of the apostolic letter Novo Millennio Ineunte (Upon Entering the New Millennium), which outlined the pope's vision for the future of the church.\n\nExtraordinary Jubilee of Mercy, 2016\n\nOn March 13, 2015, Pope Francis announced a special jubilee on the theme of mercy to be held from  December 8, 2015, until November 20, 2016, and formally convoked the holy year through the papal bull of indiction, Misericordiae Vultus  (The Face of Mercy), on April 11, 2015.\n\nCeremonial of the jubilee \nThe most distinctive feature in the ceremonial of the jubilee is the unwalling and the final walling up of the \"holy door\" in each of the four great basilicas which the pilgrims are required to visit. The doors are opened by the pope at the beginning of the jubilee and then sealed up again afterwards. Previously, the rite included the use of a silver hammer (for removing the concrete at the opening) and a silver trowel (for sealing it again after the jubilee). The pope would pound on the wall, which would then be set to collapse.  This ritual caused injury of bystanders, so for the Great Jubilee of 2000, Pope John Paul II simplified the rite considerably, opening and closing the doors with his hands.\n\nTraditionally, the pope himself opens and closes the doors of St. Peter's Basilica personally, and designates a cardinal to open those of St. John Lateran, St. Mary Major, and St. Paul Outside the Walls. In the Great Jubilee, the pope chose to open all the doors personally, while designating cardinals to close all the doors except that of St. Peter's.\n\nCatholic parishes all over the world share a similar rite dedicating a door for the purposes of the jubilee year to accommodate its parishioners who do not intend to visit Rome for the occasion. Local parishes' doors include the same indulgence given to the basilica doors.\n\nMiscellaneous jubilee events \nIn August 2020, Pope Francis approved the extension of the Jubilee Year of Loreto to 2021. The jubilee year marks the 100th anniversary of the official proclamation of Our Lady of Loreto as the patroness of pilots and air passengers. It began December 8, 2019 and was due to end December 10, 2020, the feast of Our Lady of Loreto, but was extended to December 10, 2021 because of disruptions due to the coronavirus.\n\nPope John Paul II named some of his voyages jubilee pilgrimages: to Mount Sinai and the Holy Land in 2000 and a Jubilee Pilgrimage in the Footsteps of Saint Paul in 2001 to Malta, Syria, and Greece.\n\nJubilee indulgence\n\nThis is a plenary indulgence which, as stated by Pope Boniface VIII in consistory, it is the intention of the Holy See to grant in the most ample manner possible. When first conceded, such an indulgence, and also the privilege annexed of choosing a confessor who had power to absolve from reserved cases, was a much rarer spiritual boon than it has since become. So preeminent was the favor then regarded that the custom arose of suspending all other indulgences during the jubilee year, a practice which, with certain modifications, still exists to the present day. The precise conditions for gaining each jubilee indulgence are determined by the Roman pontiff, and they are usually announced in a special Bull, distinct from that which it is customary to issue on the preceding feast of the Ascension giving notice of the forthcoming celebration. The main conditions, however, which do not usually vary, are five: confession, Communion, prayer for the Pope, complete renunciation of all attachment to sin, and visits to the four basilicas during a certain specified period. (The first four are common to all plenary indulgences.) The statement made by some, that the jubilee indulgence, being a culpa et a paena, did not of old presuppose either confession or repentance, is absolutely without foundation, and is contradicted by every extant official document of the Roman Catholic Church. Besides the ordinary jubilee indulgence, to be gained only by pilgrims who pay a visit to Rome, or through special concession by certain cloistered religious confined within their monasteries, it has long been customary to extend this indulgence the following year to the faithful throughout the world, though in 2000, the indulgence was extended to the whole world during the jubilee year itself. For this, fresh conditions are appointed, usually including a certain number of visits to local churches and sometimes fasting or other works of charity. Further, the popes have constantly exercised their prerogative of conceding to all the faithful indulgences ad instar jubilaei (after the model of a jubilee) which are commonly known as \"extraordinary jubilees\". On these occasions, as at the jubilee itself, special facilities are usually accorded for absolution from reserved cases, though on the other hand, the great indulgence is only to be gained by the performance of conditions much more onerous than those required for an ordinary plenary indulgence. Such extraordinary jubilees are commonly granted by a newly elected pontiff at his accession or on occasions of some unexpected celebration, as was done, for example, at the convening of the First Vatican Council, or again at times of great calamity.\n\nPope John Paul II convoked jubilees in 1983 (Holy Year of the Redemption) and in 2000 (the Great Jubilee). In 2000, he greatly liberalized the conditions for gaining the jubilee indulgence. A visit to only one of the four patriarchal basilicas in Rome was necessary (entering through the holy door). To the four basilicas were added the Sanctuary of Divine Love in Rome, and each diocese was permitted to name a location within the diocese where the indulgence could be gained. For instance, the Diocese of Rome added the chapel in the airport at Fiumicino as a possible pilgrimage site. Most dioceses simply named the local cathedral as the pilgrimage site. Multiple visits were not required. On the last full day of the jubilee, pilgrims were permitted to enter the holy door at St. Peter's until late into the night, so no one would be denied the opportunity to gain the indulgence. The requirements of confession, communion, prayer for the pope, and freedom from all attachment to sin remained in place, as for all plenary indulgences.\n\nList of Roman Catholic jubilee years\n\n 1300: Pope Boniface VIII\n 1350: Pope Clement VI\n 1390: decreed by Pope Urban VI, presided by Pope Boniface IX\n 1400: Pope Boniface IX\n 1423: Pope Martin V\n 1450: Pope Nicholas V\n 1475: decreed by Pope Paul II, presided by Pope Sixtus IV\n 1500: Pope Alexander VI\n 1525: Pope Clement VII\n 1550: decreed by Pope Paul III, presided by Julius III\n 1575: Pope Gregory XIII\n 1600: Pope Clement VIII\n 1625: Pope Urban VIII\n 1650: Pope Innocent X\n 1675: Pope Clement X\n 1700: decreed by Pope Innocent XII, presided by Pope Clement XI\n 1725: Pope Benedict XIII\n 1750: Pope Benedict XIV\n 1775: decreed by Pope Clement XIV, presided by Pope Pius VI\n 1825: Pope Leo XII\n 1875: Pope Pius IX (without great solemnity)\n 1900: Pope Leo XIII\n 1925: Pope Pius XI\n 1933: Pope Pius XI\n 1950: Pope Pius XII\n 1966: Pope Paul VI\n 1975: Pope Paul VI\n 1983: Pope John Paul II\n 2000: Pope John Paul II\n 2016: Pope Francis\n 2025: Pope Francis\n\nSee also\nMarian year\nJubilee (disambiguation page)\nChristian views on the Old Covenant\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nVatican.Va: What is a holy year?\nVatican.Va: Jubilee in the Bible\nVatican.Va: Jubilee year in the Gospel of Luke\n\n \nChristian terminology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":113,"dup_dump_count":51,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-29":1,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":4,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":4,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":5,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":6,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1}},"id":228853,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jubilee%20in%20the%20Catholic%20Church","title":"Jubilee in the Catholic Church","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u0930\u0938\u093e\u092f\u0928\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935 \u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094d \u0905\u0923\u0941 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0938\u093e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0932\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0927\u0902\u0917\u0941 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0916\u0964\n\n\u091b\u0917\u0942 \u0905\u0923\u0942\u092f\u094d \u092a\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092d \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0928 \u0935 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u091c \u092e\u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0924\u093e\u0915\u0941\u0917\u0941 \u0906\u0923\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u092f\u0938 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u093e\u0924\u0948, \u0925\u094d\u0935 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u092f\u0938\u092f\u093e \u092a\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u092f\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0927\u0902\u0917\u0941 \u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u094d\u0938\u093f\u0924\u0940 \u092e\u094d\u0939\u094b \u091c\u0941\u0917\u0941 \u0907\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093e\u0909\u0926 \u0926\u0948 \u0917\u0941\u0915\u093f\u0932\u093f \u0928\u0947\u0917\u0947\u0924\u093f\u092d \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941 \u0907\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928 \u0926\u0948\u0964 \u091b\u0917\u0942 \u0905\u0923\u0941\u0907 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0928 \u0935 \u0907\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0932\u093f \u0939\u0947 \u0926\u0903\u0938\u093e \u0905\u0923\u0941 \u0907\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0940 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0932 \u091c\u0941\u0907\u0964 \u091b\u0917\u0942 \u0905\u0923\u0941\u0907 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0928\u092f\u093e \u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u0901 \u0928\u0902 \u0935 \u0905\u0923\u0941\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u0940\u0915\u0947\u092b\u0948 \u0927\u093e\u0903\u0938\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092f\u093e \u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u0901 \u0928\u0902 \u0906\u0907\u0938\u094b\u0924\u094b\u092a \u0938\u0940\u0915\u0947\u092b\u0948\u0964\n\n\u0907\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0938 \n\nThe concept that matter is composed of discrete units and can not be divided into any arbitrarily tiny or small quantities has been around for thousands of years.\nThe earliest references to the concept of atoms date back to ancient India in the 6th century BCE.  The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools developed elaborate theories of how atoms combined into more complex objects (first in pairs, then trios of pairs). \nThe references to atoms in West, emerge a century later by Leucippus whose student, Democritus, systemized his views. In around 450 BCE,  Democritus coined the term atomos, which meant \"uncuttable\". Though both the Indian and Greek concepts of the atom were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained the name coined by Democritus.\n\nIn 1803, John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always reacted in simple proportions, and why certain gases dissolved better in water than others.  He proposed that each element consists of atoms of a single, unique type, and that these atoms could join to each other, to form compound chemical.\n\nIn 1827 a British botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water. He called their erratic motion \"Brownian motion\". Albert Einstein would later demonstrate that this motion was due to the water molecules bombarding the grains.\n\nIn 1897, JJ Thomson, through his work on cathode rays, discovered the electron and its subatomic nature, which destroyed the concept of atoms as being indivisible units.  Later, Thomson also discovered the existence of isotopes through his work on ionized gases.  \n\nThomson believed that the electrons were distributed evenly throughout the atom, balanced by the presence of a uniform sea of positive charge.  However, in 1909, the gold foil experiment was interpreted by Ernest Rutherford as suggesting that the positive charge of an atom and most of its mass was concentrated in a nucleus at the center of the atom (Rutherford model), with the electrons orbiting it like planets around a sun. In 1913, Niels Bohr added quantum mechanics into this model, which now stated that the electrons were locked or confined into clearly defined orbits, and could jump between these, but could not freely spiral inward or outward in intermediate states.\n\nIn 1926, Erwin Schrodinger, using Louis DeBroglie's 1924 proposal that all particles behave to an extent like waves, developed a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms, rather than point particles. A consequence of using waveforms to describe electrons, pointed out by Werner Heisenberg a year later, is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at any point in time; this became known as the uncertainty principle. In this concept, for any given value of position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa.  Although this model was difficult to visually conceptualize, it was able to explain many observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not, such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms bigger than hydrogen. Thus, the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to exist.\n\n\u0909\u092a-\u0906\u0923\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \n\n\u0928\u094d\u0939\u093e\u092a\u093e \u0928\u094d\u0939\u093e\u092a\u093e \u0905\u0923\u0941 \u0927\u093e\u0917\u0941 \u0916\u0901\u0917\u094d\u0935\u0903 \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0928\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0915\u094d\u0932\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0927\u0902\u0917\u0941 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u092f\u093e\u0924 \u091c\u0928\u093e\u0909 \u092f\u093e\u092f\u0947\u0924 \u091b\u094d\u092f\u094d\u200c\u0932\u093e \u0924\u0938\u093e\u0902 \u0906\u0903\u0935\u092f\u093e \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0902 \u0905\u0923\u0941\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0928\u0947 \u0928\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u0906\u0923\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0932 \u0932\u0941\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0939\u0917\u0941 \u0926\u0941\u0964 \u0909\u092a-\u0906\u0923\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924 \u0925\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0925\u0902 \u0926\u0941: \n\n \u0907\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928, which have a negative charge, a size which is so small as to be currently unmeasurable, and which are the least heavy (i.e., massive) of the three types of basic particles, with an mass of 9.11x10-31kg.\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0928, which have a positive charge, with a free mass about 1836 times more than electrons (mass of 1.67x10-27kg though binding energy changes can reduce this).\n \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928, which have no charge, have a free mass about 1839 times the mass of electrons, and about the same physical size as protons (which is on the order of 2.5x10-15 m in diameter, although the \"surface\" of a proton or neutron is not very sharply defined).\n\nProtons and neutrons make up a dense, massive atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The electrons form the much larger electron cloud surrounding the nucleus. Both protons and neutrons are themselves now thought to be composed of even more elementary particles, quarks.\n\nAtoms of the same element have the same number of protons (called the atomic number). Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining the isotope of that element. The number of electrons associated with an atom is most easily changed, due to the lower energy of binding of electrons. The number of protons (and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus may also change, via nuclear fusion, nuclear fission, bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons, or certain (but not all) types of radioactive decay. In such processes which change the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom becomes an atom of a different chemical element.\n\nAtoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms which have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Electrons that are furthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.\n\n\u0905\u0923\u0941 \u0935 \u092e\u094b\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0932 \n\nFor gases and certain molecular liquids and solids (such as water and sugar), molecules are the smallest division of matter which retains chemical properties; however, there are also many solids and liquids which are made of atoms, but do not contain discrete molecules (such as salts, rocks, and liquid and solid metals). Thus, while molecules are common on Earth (making up all of the atmosphere and most of the oceans), most of the mass of the Earth (much of the crust, and all of the mantle and core) is not made of identifiable molecules, but rather represents atomic matter in other networked arrangements, all of which lack the particular type of small-scale interrupted order (i.e., small, strongly-bound collections of atoms held to other collections of atoms by much weaker forces) that is associated with molecular matter.\n\nMost molecules are made up of multiple atoms; for example, a molecule of water is a combination of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The term \"molecule\" in gases has been used as a synonym for the fundamental particles of the gas, whatever their structure. This definition results in a few types of gases (for example inert elements that do not form compounds, such as neon), which has \"molecules\" consisting of only a single atom.\n\n\u0905\u0923\u0941\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \n\nThe first nuclei, including most of the helium and all of the deuterium in the universe, were theoretically created during big bang nucleosynthesis, about 3 minutes after the big bang.  The first atoms were theoretically created 380,000 years after the big bang, an epoch called recombination, when the universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei.  Since then, atoms have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to generate atoms up to Iron.  Some atoms such as 6Li are generated in space through Cosmic ray spallation.  Elements heavier than Iron were generated in supernovae through the r-process and in AGB stars through the s-process.  Some elements, such as lead, formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.  \n\nMost of the atoms that currently make up the earth and all its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that formed the solar system.  The rest are the result of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the earth through radiometric dating.  Most of the helium on earth is a product of alpha-decay.  \n\nThere are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning, nor are results of radioactive decay.  Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere.  Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-products of nuclear reactors or explosions, including all the plutonium and technetium on the earth.\n\nSize comparisons \nVarious analogies have been used to demonstrate the minuteness of the atom:\n A human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms wide.\n A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion atoms of oxygen (2 followed by 21 zeros, 2\u00d71021) and twice as many hydrogen atoms.\n A HIV virion is the width of 800 carbon atoms and contains about 100 million atoms total. An E. coli bacterium contains perhaps 100 billion atoms, and a typical human cell roughly 100 trillion atoms.\n A speck of dust might contain 3x10 (3 trillion) atoms.\n If an apple is magnified to the size of the earth, then the atoms in the apple are approximately the size of the original apple.\n\n\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0938\u0901 \n\n \u0905\u0923\u0941\u0935\u093e\u0926\n \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0938\n \u0930\u0938\u093e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092a\u0942\n \u090f\u0915\u094d\u091c\u094b\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0923\u0941\n \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0924\u093e\n \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0928\u093e\u0907\u091c\u0947\u0938\u0928\n \u092a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u0947\u0917\u0941 \u0927\u0932\u0903\n\n \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u092f\u0930 \u092e\u094b\u0926\u0947\u0932\n \u092a\u093f\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0921\u093f\u0915 \u091f\u0947\u092c\u0932\n \u0930\u0947\u0926\u093f\u092f\u094b\u090f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092d \u0906\u0907\u0938\u094b\u0924\u094b\u092a\n \u0938\u0941\u092a\u0930\u0905\u0923\u0941\n \u0938\u0941\u092a\u0930-\u0939\u0947\u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0923\u0941\n \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0928\u094d\u0938\u092f\u0941\u0930\u094d\u200d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\n\n\u0932\u093f\u0927\u0901\u0938\u093e \n\n Kenneth S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics (1987)\n Atomic and cosmic model of ferman (1975.\n\n\u092a\u093f\u0928\u0947\u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092a\u0942 \n\n \u0906\u0923\u0935\u093f\u0915 sizes\n How Atoms Work\n Wikibooks FHSST Physics Atom:The Atom\n \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093f\u0938\u092b\u0942 \u0906\u0923\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\n Science aid - atomic structure A guide to the atom for teens.\n\n \n\u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\n\u0930\u0938\u093e\u092f\u0923 \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":17954,"url":"https:\/\/new.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81","title":"\u0905\u0923\u0941","language":"new"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, (NUTS) for the French nomenclature d'unit\u00e9s territoriales statistiques, is a geocode standard that shows the administrative divisions of countries for statistical purposes. It was made by the European Union, so it only covers the member states of that union in detail. \n\nA NUTS code begins with a two-letter code referencing the country, and is identical to the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code (the only difference is UK instead of GB for the United Kingdom). The subdivision of the country is then displayed by one number. A second or third subdivision level is referred to with another number each. Each numbering starts with 1, as 0 is used for the upper level. In case the subdivision has more than 9 entities, capital letters are used to continue the numbering.\n\nIn addition to the full three levels for the European Union countries, all countries have a NUTS code with a two-letter code for a continent and two numbers for the country, and for the USA, Canada and Australia the states, provinces, and territories are numbered separately.\n\nSome are not easily classified: for example, Gibraltar is listed as being outside the EU with the code EO21; while French Guiana is listed twice, once in France as FR930 and once in South America as AS13.\n\nNUTS, in some ways are similar to the ISO 3166-2 standard, as well as the FIPS standard of the United States.\n\nLevels \n\nThere are three levels of NUTS. Some with two levels of local administrative units (LAUs) below. These were called NUTS levels 4 and 5 until July 2003, but were changed due to official regulations  although they are sometimes still described as such. Note that not all countries have every level of division, depending on their size. One of the most extreme cases is Luxembourg, which has only LAUs; the three NUTS divisions each correspond to the entire country itself.\n\nGeocodes\nEuropean Union","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":121588,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nomenclature%20of%20Territorial%20Units%20for%20Statistics","title":"Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Telecommunication (from two words, tele meaning 'from far distances' and communication meaning to share information) is the assisted transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of communication. In earlier times, this may have involved the use of smoke signals, drums, semaphore, flags, or a mirror to flash sunlight. Starting with the telegraph, telecommunication typically involves the use of electronic transmitters such as the telephone, television, radio, optical fiber and computer.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":130,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":127323,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunication","title":"Telecommunication","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The magnetic field is the area around a magnet in which there is magnetic force. Moving electric charges can make magnetic fields. Magnetic fields can be illustrated by magnetic flux lines. At all times the direction of the magnetic field is shown by the direction of the magnetic flux lines. The strength of a magnet has to do with the spaces between the magnetic flux lines. The closer the flux lines are to each other, the stronger the magnet is. The farther away they are, the weaker. The flux lines can be seen by placing iron filings over a magnet. The iron filings move and arrange into the lines. Magnetic fields give power to other particles that are touching the magnetic field.\n\nIn physics, the magnetic field is a field that passes through space and which makes a magnetic force move electric charges and magnetic dipoles. Magnetic fields are around electric currents, magnetic dipoles, and changing electric fields.\n\nWhen placed in a magnetic field, magnetic dipoles are in one line with their axes to be parallel with the field lines, as can be seen when iron filings are in the presence of a magnet. Magnetic fields also have their own energy and momentum, with an energy density proportional to the square of the field intensity. The magnetic field is measured in the units of teslas (SI units) or gauss (cgs units).\n\nThere are some notable kinds of magnetic field. For the physics of magnetic materials, see magnetism and magnet, and more specifically diamagnetism. For magnetic fields made by changing electric fields, see electromagnetism.\n\nThe electric field and the magnetic field are components of the electromagnetic field.\n\nThe law of electromagnetism was founded by Michael Faraday.\n\nH-field \n\nPhysicists can say that the force and torques between two magnets are caused by magnetic poles repelling or attracting each other. This is like the Coulomb force repelling the same electric charges or attracting opposite electric charges. In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by magnetic charges that are 'smeared' around each pole. So, the H-field is like the electric field E which starts at a positive electric charge and ends at a negative electric charge. Near the north pole, all H-field lines point away from the north pole (whether inside the magnet or out) while near the south pole (whether inside the magnet or out) all H-field lines point toward the south pole. A north pole, then, feels a force in the direction of the H-field while the force on the south pole is opposite to the H-field.\n\nIn the magnetic pole model, the elementary magnetic dipole m is formed by two opposite magnetic poles of pole strength qm separated by a very small distance d, such that m = qm d.\n\nUnfortunately, magnetic poles cannot exist apart from each other. All magnets have north\u2013south pairs which cannot be separated without creating two magnets each having a north\u2013south pair. Also, magnetic poles do not account for magnetism that is produced by electric currents nor the force that a magnetic field applies to moving electric charges.\n\nH-field and magnetic materials\nThe -field is defined as:\n\n(definition of  in SI units)\n\nWith this definition, Ampere's law becomes:\n\nwhere  represents the 'free current' enclosed by the loop so that the line integral of  does not depend at all on the bound currents. For the differential equivalent of this equation see Maxwell's equations. Ampere's law leads to the boundary condition:\n\nwhere  is the surface free current density.\n\nSimilarly, a surface integral of  over any closed surface is independent of the free currents and picks out the 'magnetic charges' within that closed surface:\n\nwhich does not depend on the free currents.\n\nThe -field, therefore, can be separated into two independent parts:\n\nwhere  is the applied magnetic field due only to the free currents and  is the demagnetizing field due only to the bound currents.\n\nThe magnetic -field, therefore, re-factors the bound current in terms of 'magnetic charges'. The  field lines loop only around 'free current' and, unlike the magnetic  field, begins and ends at near magnetic poles as well.\n\nRelated pages\n Ferromagnetism\n Magnetic flux\n Magnetic moment\n\nReferences\n\nMagnetism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":134,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"unknown":12,"2024-18":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":29209,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetic%20field","title":"Magnetic field","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fishing can be done in the sea, or in a lake or river, and by boat or from the shore.\n\nFish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping.\n\nThe term fishing may be used for catching other aquatic animals such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. The term is not normally used for catching farmed fish. With aquatic mammals, such as whales, the term whaling is better.\n\nAccording to FAO statistics, the total number of commercial fishermen and fish farmers is estimated to be 38 million. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries. In 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with 7.4 kilograms more got from fish farms. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational sport.\n\n\n\nFishing for money\nFishing for money is a very dangerous job, because people can die or be badly hurt.\u00a0Fishing gives a lot of food to many countries around the world, but those who take it as a job must often go far into the ocean under bad conditions. Commercial fishermen get many kinds of sea animals. This includes fish such as\u00a0tuna,\u00a0cod, and salmon, as well as invertebrates such as\u00a0shrimp,\u00a0lobster,\u00a0clams, and\u00a0squid. Alaskan king crab fishing is a famous example. Ways to fish for money have become very simple, using large nets and machines to catch the animals. Many countries have made rules limiting how much fish people can catch, because some kinds have become scarce.\n\nRaising fish in the forms of\u00a0aquaculture\u00a0and\u00a0mariculture\u00a0add to the free-range catch of fish.\n\nFishing for fun \nSport fishing is normally done with a\u00a0fishing rod\u00a0and line with any number of hooks to get the fish. This method is called\u00a0angling. There may be rules that say how many lines and hooks one fisherman can use and how many fish he can catch. Anglers in\u00a0fresh water\u00a0catch many\u00a0Black Bass\u00a0(Black Bass includes the entire range of Bass fish),\u00a0Pike,\u00a0Muskellunge,\u00a0Perch,\u00a0Carp,\u00a0Trout,\u00a0Salmon, and\u00a0Sunfish. Fish people get in saltwater include\u00a0Swordfish,\u00a0Marlin,\u00a0Tuna, and others. \n\nRules generally do not allow the use of nets and catching fish with hooks not in the mouth. However some kinds of fish can be taken with nets for bait and a few for food. Non-sport fish that are not said to be worth as much can sometimes be taken by many ways like\u00a0snagging,\u00a0bow and arrow, or even\u00a0gun, because they are seen as competing with more valuable fish.\n\nRecreational fishing laws also include other life that lives in water, such as\u00a0frogs\u00a0and\u00a0turtles.\n\nSport fishing\u00a0can be a contest where fishermen try to get more fish than other fishermen. This sport came from local fishing contests into a large contest in the U.S.A. where skilled fishermen can compete and be helped out by companies giving prize money, and other large contests around the world.\n\nCatch and release \nCatch-and-release fishing is increasingly practiced especially by\u00a0fly fishermen, as well as spin and bait casting fishermen, to increase\u00a0conservation\u00a0and to protect rare fish such as marlin. The practice is however disputed as it by some is considered unethical to perform painful actions to the fish for fun and not for the reason of food production. Because of this, catch-and-release practice is illegal in\u00a0Norway.\n\nCollection of live fish \nFish can also be collected in ways that do not injure them (such as in a\u00a0seine net), for observation and study or for keeping in\u00a0Aquarium. There is a substantial industry devoted to the collection, transport, export and farming of wild and domesticated live fish, usually freshwater or marine tropical fish.\n\nFishing with traps\nFish can also be collected in ways that do not injure them (such as in a\u00a0seine net), for observation and study or for keeping in\u00a0Aquarium. There is a substantial industry devoted to the collection, transport, export and farming of wild and domesticated live fish, usually freshwater or marine tropical fish.\n\nToo much fishing \n\nIn the past, fishing has been so good for getting money that people began\u00a0overfishing\u00a0(fishing too much) - a serious problem that does lots of damage (bad).\u00a0Overfishing does not always mean\u00a0extinction, but simply that a fish type has been harvested so that there cannot be as many of that kind of fish as before. As more boats are sent out to catch the fish, many\u00a0population\u00a0levels of a type of fish can drop.\u00a0Then, there are not enough of that kind of fish left to have new kinds of fish.\n\nMany times, fishing boats catch fish they do not mean to catch, called\u00a0bycatch. All kinds of fish can become bycatch, and they are usually thrown back into the sea after they have died. Drift net fishing sometimes catches creatures like\u00a0seals,\u00a0dolphins,\u00a0whales, and\u00a0sea turtles. This kind of fishing made people complain. In the 1980s, it was guessed that 18 miles (30 km) of nets were lost every night, tangling up boats and animals.\n\nThere is now a floating pile of plastic in the Pacific Ocean hundreds of miles wide.  Most of it is lost fishing nets, called ghost nets, and other fishing tools from large boats.\n\nReferences\n\nMore reading\n\nRelated pages \n\nFishing net\nFishing lure\nFishing hook\nFishing rod\nOverfishing\n\n \nSurvival skills","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":175,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":5,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":3}},"id":10000,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fishing","title":"Fishing","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Joy Division were an English Post punk band. It was made up of Ian Curtis as the lead singer, Peter Hook on bass, Stephen Morris as the Drummer and Bernard Albrecht (Sumner) on Guitar and occasional Keyboards They came out of the punk music scene in 1976, and in three years time became a band that inspired musicians from bands such as U2, Nine Inch Nails, Red Hot Chili Peppers, and The Cure. In 1980, they disbanded after the death of Ian Curtis and reformed as New Order.\n\nDuring the Anarchy in the UK tour, the Sex Pistols played in Manchester on June 4. In the audience that night were three young men living around Manchester: school mates Peter Hook and Bernard Albrecht, and Ian Curtis. A few days later, Hook and Albrecht decided to start up a band, with Hook on bass and Albrecht on guitar. They got Terry Mason as a drummer, but still needed a singer. They placed an ad in the Virgin record shop in Manchester. Curtis answered it and became the singer of the band, called at the time the Stiff Kittens. He would also write the lyrics.\n\nThey practiced a lot during a few months, and wrote their first songs. In May of 1977, the band's name was changed to Warsaw and Mason was replaced on drums by Tony Tabac. Just a month later, Tabac left and Steve Brotherdale was hired as new drummer. It was at the same time that Paul Morley of the NME and DJ Rob Gretton found out about the band and saw its potential. Warsaw made a demo tape with five songs in the Pennine Sound Studios in July, but Brotherdale quit the group a few days later.\n\nFinally, Stephen Morris joined the band. In October, they played at the Electric Circus, which was due to close down, along with The Fall and The Buzzcocks.\n\nIn December, they recorded four songs, which were to appear later as \"An Ideal For Living\". In January of 1978 the band changed its name to Joy Division to avoid any confusion with another group. They practised a lot and wrote new songs. On April 14 1978, they played along with 16 bands in a contest. Tony Wilson, who worked for Granada TV, and Rob Gretton liked their performance very much.\n\nIn 1979 Joy Division released their first album Unknown Pleasures which was well received by critics. During 1979 and early 1980 their popularity increased. Also in this period lead singer Ian Curtis suffered worsening bouts of illness caused by epilepsy.\n\nThe band returned to the studio in 1980 to record their second album Closer and a single \"Love Will Tear Us Apart\". Before these recordings were released Curtis had committed suicide at just 23. The unreleased album and single were subsequently released to critical acclaim. The remaining members of Joy Division reformed in 1980 as New Order and enjoyed considerable worldwide success during the 1980s and 1990s.\n\nMany musicians and bands have acknowledged their appreciation of the work of Joy Division including U2 frontman Bono, Moby, Red Hot Chili Peppers and The Killers and the song Love Will Tear Us Apart  has been covered by many artists from different musical backgrounds and genres.\n\nOther websites \n Joy Division - The Eternal - Biography, pictures, lyrics, books, videos, press articles, etc.\n Joy Division Central \u2013 Independent Joy Division site covering every aspect of the band in great detail\n Incubation  \u2013 Joy Division's most detailed discography and press articles\n Joy Division Myspace Page Unofficial Joy Division Myspace Page\n Joy Division Messageboard \u2013 A moderated board with over 1400 members covering a wide range of Joy Division related topics\n\n1976 establishments in the United Kingdom\n1970s British music groups\n1980s British music groups\n1980s disestablishments in the United Kingdom\nEnglish punk bands\nMusical groups disestablished in 1980\nMusical groups established in 1976\nMusical groups from Greater Manchester\n1980 disestablishments in the United Kingdom","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2023-14":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":75157,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joy%20Division","title":"Joy Division","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature. When the gas is air, the machine is called an air compressor.\n\nCompressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to transport liquids.\n\nTypes of compressors \nThere are many different types of gas compressors. The two primary categories are:\n Positive displacement compressors with two sub-categories:\n Reciprocating\n Rotary\n Dynamic compressors also with two sub-categories:\n Centrifugal\n Axial\n\nThe more important types in each of the four sub-categories are discussed below.\n\nCentrifugal compressors \n\nCentrifugal compressors use a vaned rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Their application can be from 100\u00a0hp (75\u00a0kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).\n\nMany large snow-making operations (like a ski resort) use this type of compressor. They are also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbine engines or as the final compression stage of medium-sized gas turbines.\n\nDiagonal or mixed-flow compressors \nDiagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used to turn diagonal flow to the axial direction. The diagonal compressor has a lower diameter diffuser than the equivalent centrifugal compressor.\n\nAxial-flow compressors \n\nAxial-flow compressors use a series of fan-like rotating rotor blades to progressively compress the gasflow. Stationary stator vanes, located downstream of each rotor, redirect the flow onto the next set of rotor blades. The area of the gas passage diminishes through the compressor to maintain a roughly constant axial Mach number. Axial-flow compressors are normally used in high flow applications, such as medium to large gas turbine engines. They are almost always multi-staged. Beyond about 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable geometry is often used to improve operation.\n\nReciprocating compressors \nReciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30\u00a0horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors up to 1000\u00a0hp are still commonly found in large industrial applications, but their numbers are declining as they are replaced by various other types of compressors. Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>5000 psi or 35 MPa). In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors available, and are typically larger, noisier, and more costly than comparable rotary units.\n\nRotary screw compressors \nRotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-displacement helical screws to force the gas into a smaller space. These are usually used for continuous operation in commercial and industrial applications and may be either stationary or portable. Their application can be from 3\u00a0hp (2.24\u00a0kW) to over 500\u00a0hp (375\u00a0kW) and from low pressure to very high pressure (>1200 psi or 8.3 MPa). They are commonly seen with roadside repair crews powering air-tools. This type is also used for many automobile engine superchargers because it is easily matched to the induction capacity of a piston engine. It's a type of positive displacement gas compression.\n\nScroll compressors \n\nA scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases. The vane geometry may be involute, archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. They operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types of compressors.\n\nOften, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without rotating, thereby trapping and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid between the scrolls.\n\nDiaphragm compressors \nA diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor) is a variant of the conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of gas occurs by the movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element. The back and forth movement of the membrane is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and the compressor box come in touch with the gas being compressed.\n\nDiaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG) as well as in a number of other applications.\n\nMiscellany \nAir compressors sold to and used by the general public are often attached on top of a tank for holding the pressurized air. Oil-lubricated and oil-free compressors are available. Oil-free compressors are desirable because without a properly designed separator, oil can make its way into the air stream. For some purposes, for example as a diving air compressor, even a little oil in the air stream may be unacceptable.\n\nTemperature \nCharles's law says \"when a gas is compressed, temperature is raised\". There are three possible relationships between temperature and pressure in a volume of gas undergoing compression:\n Isothermal - gas remains at constant temperature throughout the process. In this cycle, internal energy is removed from the system as heat at the same rate that it is added by the mechanical work of compression. Isothermal compression or expansion is favored by a large heat exchanging surface, a small gas volume, or a long time scale (i.e., a small power level). With practical devices, isothermal compression is usually not attainable. For example, even a bicycle tire-pump gets hot during use.\n Adiabatic - In this process there is no heat transfer to or from the system, and all supplied work is added to the internal energy of the gas, resulting in increases of temperature and pressure. Theoretical temperature rise is T2 = T1\u00b7Rc((k-1)\/k)), with T1 and T2 in degrees Rankine or kelvins, and k = ratio of specific heats (approximately 1.4 for air). The rise in air and temperature ratio means compression does not follow a simple pressure to volume ratio. This is less efficient, but quick. Adiabatic compression or expansion is favored by good insulation, a large gas volume, or a short time scale (i.e., a high power level). In practice there will always be a certain amount of heat flow, as to make a perfect adiabatic system would require perfect heat insulation of all parts of a machine.\n Polytropic - This assumes that heat may enter or leave the system, and that input shaft work can appear as both increased pressure (usually useful work) and increased temperature above adiabatic (usually losses due to cycle efficiency). Cycle efficiency is then the ratio of temperature rise at theoretical 100 percent (adiabatic) vs. actual (polytropic).\n\nStaged compression \nSince compression generates heat, the compressed gas is to be cooled between stages making the compression less adiabatic and more isothermal. The inter-stage coolers cause condensation meaning water separators with drain valves are present. The compressor flywheel may drive a cooling fan.\n\nFor instance in a typical diving compressor, the air is compressed in three stages. If each stage has a compression ratio of 7 to 1, the compressor can output 343 times atmospheric pressure (7 x 7 x 7 = 343 Atmospheres).\n\nApplications \nGas compressors are used in various applications where either higher pressures or lower volumes of gas are needed:\n in pipeline transport of purified natural gas to move the gas from the production site to the consumer.\n in petroleum refineries, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical and chemical plants, and similar large industrial plants for compressing intermediate and end product gases.\n in refrigeration and air conditioner equipment to move heat from one place to another in refrigerant cycles: see Vapor-compression refrigeration.\n in gas turbine systems to compress the intake combustion air\n in storing purified or manufactured gases in a small volume, high pressure cylinders for medical, welding and other uses.\n in many various industrial, manufacturing and building processes to power all types of pneumatic tools.\n as a medium for transferring energy, such as to power pneumatic equipment.\n in pressurised aircraft to provide a breathable atmosphere of higher than ambient pressure.\n in some types of jet engines (such as turbojets and turbofans) to provide the air required for combustion of the engine fuel. The power to drive the combustion air compressor comes from the jet's own turbines.\n in SCUBA diving, hyperbaric oxygen therapy and other life support devices to store breathing gas in a small volume such as in diving cylinders .\n in submarines to store air for later use as buoyancy.\n in turbochargers and superchargers to increase the performance of internal combustion engines by concentrating oxygen.\n in rail and heavy road transport to provide compressed air for operation of brakes and various other systems (doors, windscreen wipers, engine\/gearbox control, etc.).\n in miscellaneous uses such as providing compressed air for filling pneumatic tires.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \n Pneumatics\n Pump\n Air pump\n\nEngineering\nHVAC","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":63122,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gas%20compressor","title":"Gas compressor","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Louis-Hector Berlioz (11 December 1803\u00a0\u2013 8 March 1869) was a French composer and music critic. He was one of the greatest composers of the 19th century. His music is typical of the Romantic period: full of passion and often based on ideas outside music. He was not particularly good at playing any instrument, but he was brilliant at writing for the orchestra. Some of his most famous works include several orchestral overtures, the Symphonie Fantastique, the opera Les Troyens (The Trojans), the requiem Grande messe des morts and the song cycle Les nuits d'\u00e9t\u00e9 (Summer Nights). He was very original as a composer, and his music was not fully appreciated until many years after his death.\n\nLife\n\nChildhood and student days \n\nBerlioz was the eldest of six children. One brother and one sister lived to be adults, and Berlioz was always very fond of them both. His father was a doctor. The family lived in the country, north west of Grenoble.\n\nBerlioz only went to school for a short time, when he was ten years old. The rest of his education he had from his father. He liked French and Latin literature and travel books about faraway countries. He learned to play the flute, the flageolet and the guitar. He read a book by Rameau about harmony. He never had a piano. He just imagined the sounds of chords in his head. He was only 12 when he fell in love with a girl called Estelle who was 18. He was teased about it a lot. He started to compose some music.\n\nWhen he was 17 his father said that he wanted him to be a doctor. Berlioz wanted to study music, but his father made him go to Paris to study medicine. Berlioz was to stay in Paris for the rest of his life. He studied medicine for two years, but he hated it. One day, in an anatomy lesson, he had had enough and jumped out of the window. He started to study music. His father was furious and stopped sending him money. Berlioz was very poor and started writing musical criticism for newspapers. This is how he earned most of his money for the rest of his life. He was also borrowing money from friends.\n\nBerlioz started going to the Op\u00e9ra. He particularly liked the music of Gluck and went to the library to study Gluck's scores. At the end of 1822 he found a good teacher. His name was Le Sueur. He made Berlioz stop publishing his music until he had learned to compose properly. In 1826 he was officially a student at the Conservatoire. He continued to study with Le Sueur and with Reicha. He tried four times to win the important music prize called Prix de Rome. The first time he wrote a piece called La Mort d'Orph\u00e9e (The Death of Orpheus). The judges said it was unplayable, but Berlioz got an orchestra to play it. The second time he wrote a piece called Herminie which had a tune he used later as the main tune for his Symphonie fantastique. The third time he wrote a cantata La mort de Cl\u00e9op\u00e2tre which is a wonderful work but he still did not win the prize. The fourth time he wrote a cantata La mort de Sardanapale, and he won the prize. Nearly all the music for this work is now lost.\n\nBerlioz did not understand any English, but he went to a performance of Shakespeare's Hamlet given by an English theatre company. The actress taking the part of Ophelia was called Harriet Smithson. Berlioz fell passionately in love with her, although he did not know her, and started following her about everywhere. In the end he married her. The marriage was not a success. Berlioz was really in love with Ophelia, the character from Shakespeare's play. He found it hard to love Harriet in real life.\n\nShakespeare's plays, however, were to be a great inspiration for Berlioz. He wrote many works which are inspired by Shakespeare, including Rom\u00e9o et Juliette, B\u00e9atrice et B\u00e9n\u00e9dict, Roi Lear and several others. He was also inspired at this time by Goethe's Faust as well as by many other writers including E.T.A. Hoffmann, Scott and Byron. He also discovered the music of Beethoven which helped him to learn how to give shape to large compositions.\n\nBerlioz started to be very busy putting on concerts of his music in Paris. He was quickly becoming known as a very original young composer. Winning the Prix de Rome gave him a steady income for a time, but he was supposed to go to Rome. Berlioz did not want to go to Rome. He said that he had plenty of work in Paris. The real reason why did not want to go was probably because he was in love with a 19- year-old girl called Camille Moke.\n.\n\nThe 1830s \nBerlioz spent 15 months in Rome. On his way there he visited his parents who seemed to have forgiven him for not studying medicine. They could now be proud because their son was so successful. In Italy Berlioz did not write much music. He did not like Italian music or Italian art, but he was inspired by the countryside, the sun, the sea, the people he met: sailors, peasants, sculptors, travellers. He did not like the city of Rome, although he did like Florence. He hated the Villa Medici, the house where he had to stay. When he travelled about he wrote some music. When he heard the news that Camille now loved another man he became so furious that he left Rome in order to return to Paris to kill them both. However, when he got as far as Nice he calmed down and changed his mind. He returned to Rome.\n\nAt the end of his time in Italy he returned to Paris, visiting his parents on the way. He started organizing concerts of his music. This is when he got to know Harriet Smithson. They had a strange courtship and he married her in 1833. The next year they had a son. The marriage was never easy. Their personalities were different, they were poor, and they did not speak one another's language. In 1842 they separated and Harriet died in great poverty in 1854.\n\nAlthough a few people thought that Berlioz was an original composer, many others thought his music was very strange. He hardly earned any money from composing. Most of the money he earned came from musical journalism, which is something he hated. When his works were performed, he usually conducted them himself. He wrote a work for viola and orchestra called Harold en Italie. Paganini had asked him to write it for him to play, but when Paganini saw the music he did not like it because it was not \"showy\" enough for the viola. Some years later Paganini heard the work and decided he liked it, so he paid Berlioz 20.000 Francs. This was a lot of money, and it made it possible for Berlioz to spend time writing a big new work: Rom\u00e9o et Juliette. When this was first performed some critics thought that Berlioz did not understand Shakespeare probably. However, Richard Wagner, who was in the audience at the first performance, was very impressed. Berlioz tried to be successful as an opera composer, but people did not understand his original music. He wrote a Grand symphonie fun\u00e8bre et triomphale, originally written for a military band. Les nuits d'\u00e9t\u00e9 is a very moving song-cycle.\n\nLater life \n\nDuring the 1840s and 1850s Berlioz spent much of his time travelling abroad. He went to Germany, Austria, Russia and England. He was becoming more famous abroad than at home in France, although he still continued to go back to Paris. The Germans loved his music and were impressed by his conducting. He rarely conducted anything except his own music. In 1846 he composed one of his finest works: La Damnation de Faust which was performed in the Op\u00e9ra-Comique. The opera house was half empty. It was a great disappointment to him. Berlioz continued to tour to other countries where people appreciated him. He had great success in St Petersburg, in Berlin where he performed to the King of Prussia, and in London, where he never got paid for the concerts that Jullien conducted because Jullien had no money left. However, he had other successes in London and the English liked him very much.\n\nIn 1854 Harriet Smithson died and seven months later Berlioz married Marie Recio, a singer he had known for 12 years. Her Spanish mother came to live with them, and she looked after Berlioz very kindly in his last years when he was ill. Berlioz' son Louis had become a captain in the navy and travelled all over the world. This was something Berlioz had always dreamt of doing since his childhood when he used to read travel books. Berlioz was terribly sad in 1867 when he heard that Louis had died in Havana of yellow fever.\n\nBerlioz had always had a passion for the Latin poet Virgil. In 1856 he spent a long time writing a long opera in five acts called Les Troyens (The Trojans). He knew it would be almost impossible to find anyone who would put on a performance. It only became possible in 1863 after he had divided the work into two parts. After that it was 30 years before the opera was performed again. It contains some of his best music. The storm scene is especially famous and often performed separately as an orchestral piece.\n\nAs he got older he became obsessed with death. He had lost two wives, and his two sisters had also died. He started to walk in cemeteries. He wrote his Memoires (autobiography). It has been translated into many languages including English.\n\nIn 1863 he wrote to Estelle, the girl he had loved when he was a child. She was now a widow of 67 and he was 60. He visited her in Lyons and loved her again. He wrote regularly to her for the rest of his life, and stayed with her three times in Grenoble where she lived with her son. She gradually understood him better, and she gave him much happiness during his last years.\n\nA final journey to St Petersburg was too much for Berlioz. He became ill. He went to Nice on the way home, where he twice collapsed while walking by the sea. He went back to Paris where he was cared for by his mother-in-law. He died on 11 March 1869 and was buried in the Cimiti\u00e8re Montmartre.\n\nBerlioz's reputation \nBerlioz is a clear example of a \"prophet who is without honour in his own country\": not many people in France realized he was a great composer, but in other countries he was welcomed as one of the great composers and conductors of his day. Many of his works are difficult to describe. His Symphonie fantastique is not quite a symphony, his Harold en Italie is not quite a concerto. His Requiem is not a normal, religious requiem, Rom\u00e9o et Juliette is a mixture of all sorts of things. He wrote five operas, which are all very different in style. His songs are tender and lovely, influenced by the French romance. His overtures are very popular at orchestral concerts. His music is very original and, although he wrote a book on orchestration, the sounds he composed were so personal that no one could imitate him. He was not good at playing any instrument, but could imagine all the sounds in his head. Many of his melodies stretch themselves over an unusual number of bars. A lot of his orchestral music is programme music: it is often inspired by books or wild stories in his imagination.\n\nReferences \n The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980. \n Berlioz M\u00e9moires; edition Garnier-Flammarion, Paris 1969\n\n1803 births\n1869 deaths\nBurials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris\nFrench autobiographers\n19th-century French composers\nFrench music critics\nPeople with foods named after them\nRomantic composers","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":39787,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hector%20Berlioz","title":"Hector Berlioz","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A gemme is a structurt or semi-structurt acteevity, for ordinar unnertaen for enjoyment an whiles uised as an eddicational tuil. (The term \"gemme\" is uised for tae descrieve simulation o sindry acteevities e.g., for the purposes o trainin, analysis or predeection, etc. Gemmes is for ordinar distinct frae wark that's for ordinar cairiet oot for remuneration, an frae airt that's mair adae wi the expression o thochts. Housomeiver, the disteenction isna clear-cut, an mony gemmes micht be conseedered wark an\/or airt an aw. Key components o gemmes is dales, rules, chailenge, an interacteevity. Gemmes for ordinar involves mental or pheesical stimulation, an aften baith. Mony gemmes helps upbig practical skeels, sers as a form o exercise, or itherwice performs an eddicational, simulational or psychological role.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":6754,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gemme","title":"Gemme","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Abraham Bedersi (Hebrew: \u05d0\u05d1\u05e8\u05d4\u05dd \u05d1\u05d3\u05e8\u05e9\u05d9) was a Proven\u00e7al Jewish poet; he was born at B\u00e9ziers (whence his surname Bedersi, or native of B\u00e9ziers). The dates of his birth and death have not been ascertained.\n\nAn elegy which he composed during his youth, upon the Confiscation of the Books of the Law, is supposed by some scholars to refer to the burning of the Talmud in Paris about the year 1242; by others, to the confiscation of the Talmud in Aragon in 1264, as the direct result of the Barcelona controversy. If the latter view is correct, Bedersi may well have flourished about the year 1240 (Leopold Zunz, Z.G., p.\u00a0413).\n\nAs appears from the letter sent by Bedersi to Don Vidal Solomon (\u1e24otam Toknit, p.\u00a04), he went early (perhaps in 1273) to Perpignan, where he attended the lectures of Joseph Ezubi. He returned often to Perpignan and took an active part in its communal affairs. A number of his letters, contained in MS. cviii (72) of the Vienna Hofbibliothek, are written to prominent Jews in Barcelona, asking them to aid their less fortunate coreligionists.\n\nAt one time he lived at Arles, and in 1285, during the war of France with Roussillon, he took refuge in Narbonne. He seems at one time to have been rich, for in a poem he declares that he is independent and writes for his own pleasure. The compiler of his diwan relates that Bedersi sent money to the wandering poet Gorni (Luzzatto, Intro. to \u1e24otam Toknit, p.\u00a04).\n\nBedersi was a prolific writer. Several collections of his poems are still extant in manuscript in various libraries. The most complete manuscript is that in the British Library, Add MS 27168. This contains an elegy on the death of his relative, David of Cabestan; several poems and letters addressed to Todros Abulafia and his companion, Abu al-\u1e24asan Saul; poems dedicated to the physician of the king of Castile, Abu al-\u1e24asan Me\u00efr ibn al-\u1e24arit; and the elegy mentioned above.\n\nTwo of Bedersi's works were published, with an interesting introduction by Luzzatto, by G. Polak, Amsterdam, 1862:\n\n\u1e24ereb ha-Mithapeket (A Revolving Sword), a poem of 210 strophes, according to the numerical value of the word  = 8 + 200 + 2. The author in this poem gives a brief account of Jewish poetry, the decadence of which he deplores. He praises the makamat (poems) of Al-Hariri of Basra, which he probably knew through the translation of several by Al-\u1e24arizi\n\u1e24otem Toknit (Who Seals the Sum; compare Ezek. xxviii.12), a treatise on Hebrew synonyms.\n\nAnother poetical work, entitled Bakashat ha-Lamedin, published at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1812, was attributed to Abraham Bedersi; but it is probable that this poem was written by his son Jedaiah Bedersi.\n\nBedersi's works show the decadence of Jewish poetry at that time. His style is stiff and unintelligible, though he possessed a thorough knowledge of Hebrew.\n\nReferences\n\nLeopold Zunz, Z.G., p.\u00a0462; \nSalomon Munk, in Archives Isra\u00e9ites, 1847, p.\u00a067; \nKerem \u1e24emed, iv.57; \nHeinrich Gr\u00e4tz, Gesch. der Juden, 3rd ed., vii.97; \nErnest Renan-Adolf Neubauer, Les Rabbins Fran\u00e7ais, pp.\u00a0710 et seq.; \nHenri Gross, Gallia Judaica, p.\u00a0100; \nBergmann, Aus den Briefen Abraham Bedersi's, in Monatsschrift, xlii.507 et seq. \nOne of Bedersi's letters was published in 1765 by Solomon da Piera as an appendix to his collection of Hebrew synonyms, entitled Maskiyyot Kesef\n\nExternal links\nSource\n\nHebrew-language poets\n13th-century French Jews","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":5,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":4,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":11537204,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abraham%20Bedersi","title":"Abraham Bedersi","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Fremantle is a port city in Western Australia.  It is the main city on the ocean and is near Perth.  The city has a population of 26,000 people.  It is at the place where the Swan River runs into the Indian Ocean.\n\nIt was established by English people who arrived there in 1829 and established the Swan River Colony.  The city is named after Charles Fremantle who was the captain of the first ship to arrive there.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":53595,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fremantle","title":"Fremantle","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A filter is a device used to remove unwanted parts from something.  For example, removing solid particles from a liquid.  Filter can also mean the act of filtering: it can be used as a verb.  The different branches of science and technology often mean a particular kind of device when filter is mentioned.\n\nIn chemistry\n\nThe simplest filter is the kind called filter paper.  Liquids can pass through the paper.  Solid particles are stopped.\n\nMore advanced filters are possible.  Two that are often used to make water more pure are activated carbon and zeolites.\n\nFilters are used to remove unwanted items and\/or impurities in the substance you are filtering.\n\nIn electrical science\n\nThe most usual thing meant by filter in electrical science is a wave filter. One common kind lets through some frequencies and stops all others. This is a band pass filter. For instance, in a radio it can select the radio station the listener wants to hear.  The frequency of that station is passed, but all others are rejected.\n\nThere are many other uses, including use in telephones and audio, see: audio crossover.\n\nThere are digital filters which can be used to filter things besides frequencies.  A common use is to improve the quality of pictures.  For instance, there are filters which can make the edges of objects look more clear.\n\nIn optics and photography\nOptical filters act on light. They change it certain ways. This can be used for photographic filters.\n\nIn mechanics\nFilters can be made from mechanical components.  They will do very similar things to electric filters.  Most especially, mechanical filters can be wave filters.  That is, they can block some frequencies and pass others.  Because of this, electric filters are sometimes made by first making a mechanical filter.  The electric wave is turned into a mechanical movement, then passed through the filter, then turned back in to an electric wave.  This kind of filter is often made from quartz crystals.\n\nA device which changes electrical signals into mechanical signals is called a transducer.  A device which changes mechanical signals into electrical signals is also a transducer, but one of a different kind.\n\nIn information technology\n\nAn internet filter removes certain kinds of information.  For example, certain words can be blocked.\n\nComputer science\nAnalytical chemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":65388,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Filter","title":"Filter","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Great Library of Alexandria was a large and significant library of the ancient world. It was founded in Alexandria, Egypt. The Library flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a major center of scholarship. It was built in the third century BC.\n\nIn ancient Latin, the library was known as the \"ALEXANDRINA BYBLIOTHECE\" (see image at right). The Greek term bibliotheke (\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03b8\u03ae\u03ba\u03b7), used by many historians of the era, refers to the collection of books, not to any building. This complicates the history and chronology. \n\nThe library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II.\n\nIts destruction \nPlutarch (AD 46\u2013120) wrote that during his visit to Alexandria in 48 BC, Julius Caesar might have accidentally burned the library when he set fire to his own ships to frustrate Achillas' attempt to limit his ability to communicate by sea. According to Plutarch's account, this fire spread to the docks and then to the library.\n\nHowever, this version of events is not confirmed in contemporary accounts of Caesar's visit. In fact, it has been reasonably established that segments of its collection were partially destroyed on several occasions before and after the first century BC. A modern view attributes the destruction to Coptic Christian Archbishop Theophilus of Alexandria in 391, who called for the destruction of the Serapeum -- the Daughter library and a temple to the god Serapis.\n\nThe Library as a research institution \n \nAccording to the earliest source of information, the library was initially organized by Demetrius of Phaleron, a student of Aristotle, under the reign of Ptolemy I Soter (ca.367 BC\u2014ca.283 BC).\n\nThe library comprised a peripatos (walk), gardens, a room for shared dining, a reading room, lecture halls and meeting rooms.  However, the exact layout is not known. This model's influence may still be seen today in the layout of university campuses. The library itself is known to have had an acquisitions department (possibly built near the stacks, or for utility closer to the harbour), and a cataloguing department. The hall contained shelves for the collections of scrolls (as the books were at this time on papyrus scrolls), known as bibliothekai (\u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03b8\u1fc6\u03ba\u03b1\u03b9). It was rumored that carved into the wall above the shelves, a famous inscription read: The place of the cure of the soul.\n\nIt was the first known library to gather a serious collection of books from beyond its country's borders. The Library was charged with collecting all the world's knowledge. It did so through an aggressive and well-funded royal mandate involving trips to the book fairs of Rhodes and Athens and a policy of pulling the books off every ship that came into port. They kept the original texts and made copies to send back to their owners. Alexandria, because of its man-made bidirectional port between the mainland and the Pharos island, welcomed trade from the East and West, and soon found itself the international hub for trade, as well as the leading producer of papyrus and, soon enough, books.\n\nThe library was also home to a host of international scholars. The library filled its stacks with new works in mathematics, astronomy, physics, natural history and other subjects. It was at the Library of Alexandria that the scientific method was first conceived and put into practice, and its empirical standards applied in serious textual criticism. As the same text often existed in several different versions, comparative textual criticism was crucial for ensuring their accuracy. Once ascertained, copies would then be made for scholars, royalty and wealthy bibliophiles the world over, this commerce bringing income to the library. The editors at the Library of Alexandria are especially well known for their work on Homeric texts. The more famous editors generally also held the title of head librarian. These included, among others,\n Zenodotus (early third century BC)\n Callimachus, (early third century BC), the first bibliographer and developer of the Pinakes - the first library catalog.\n Apollonius of Rhodes (mid-third century BC)\n Eratosthenes (late third century BC)\n Aristophanes of Byzantium (early second century BC)\n Aristarchus of Samothrace (late second century BC).\n Euclid.\n\nAlready famous in the ancient world, the library's collection became even more storied in later years. Papyrus scrolls comprised the collection, and although parchment codices were used predominantly as a more advanced writing material after 300 BC.\n\nA single piece of writing might occupy several scrolls. King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309\u2013246 BC) is said to have set 500,000 scrolls as an objective for the library. Mark Antony supposedly gave Cleopatra over 200,000 scrolls (taken from the great Library of Pergamum) for the library as a wedding gift. Carl Sagan, in his series Cosmos, states that the library contained nearly one million scrolls, though other experts have estimated a smaller number. No index of the library survives, and it is not possible to know with certainty how large and how diverse the collection may have been. \n\nA perhaps exaggerated story concerns how the library's collection grew so large. By decree of Ptolemy III of Egypt, all visitors to the city were required to surrender all books and scrolls. Official scribes then swiftly copied these writings, some copies proving so precise that the originals were put into the library, and the copies delivered to the unsuspecting owners. This process also helped to create a reservoir of books in the relatively new city.\n\nAccording to Galen, Ptolemy III requested permission from the Athenians to borrow the original scripts of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, for which the Athenians demanded the enormous amount of fifteen talents as guarantee. Ptolemy happily paid the fee but kept the original scripts for the library.\n\nThe Bibliotheca Alexandrina was inaugurated in 2002 near the site of the old library.\n\nRelated pages \n Bibliotheca Alexandrina\n\nReferences \n\nLibraries\nPtolemaic Alexandria\nBuildings and structures in Ancient Egypt\n3rd-century BC buildings and structures","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1}},"id":251791,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library%20of%20Alexandria","title":"Library of Alexandria","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The 22nd century BC is a century which was from the year 2200 BC to 2101 BC.\n\nEvents\n\n4.2 kiloyear event \u2013 the land became very dry, an event that probably lasted the entire 22nd century BC and caused the end of several Old World civilizations.\n2217 BC \u2013 2193 BC: Nomadic invasions of Akkad.\n2200 BC: Sixth dynasty of Egypt ended.\nc. 2190 BC: Caused by a severe drought, Old Kingdom finished in Ancient Egypt. Start of First Intermediate Period. 7th\u201310th Dynasties.\nc. 2184 BC: Pharaoh Pepi II Neferkare dies (other date is 2289 BC?).\nc. 2181 BC: Old Kingdom ends in Ancient Egypt (other date is 2190 BC).\nc. 2181 BC: First Intermediate Period starts in Ancient Egypt (other date is 2190 BC).\n2181 BC: Egypt: Pharaoh Nitocris died. End of Sixth Dynasty, start of Seventh Dynasty. Pharaoh Neferkara I started to reign.\n2180 BC: Old Kingdom ends in Ancient Egypt. First Intermediate Period of Egypt starts.\nc. 2180 BC: Akkadian Empire fell under attack by the Guti (Mesopotamia), a mountain people from the northeast.\n2173 BC: Egypt: End of Seventh Dynasty, start of Eighth Dynasty.\n2160 BC: Egypt: Pharaoh Neferirkara died. End of Eighth Dynasty, start of Ninth Dynasty. Pharaoh Neferkare started to reign.\nc. 2160 BC: Beginning of Middle Minoan period in Crete.\nc. 2150\u20132030 BC: Gilgamesh epic was written.\nc. 2150 BC: Lagash.\nc. 2144 BC: Gudea, the ruler (ensi) of the city of Lagash, started to reign.\n2138 BC: Babylon: A solar eclipse on 9 May and a lunar eclipse on 24 May occurred and are believed to be the double eclipse that took place 23 years after the ascension of king Shulgi of Babylon by those holding to the long chronology.\n2130 BC: Egypt: End of Ninth Dynasty, start of Tenth Dynasty. Ninth Dynasty wars in Egypt started.\nc. 2125 BC \u2013 2055 BC: \"Model of a house and garden, from Thebes\". Eleventh dynasty of Egypt. It is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.\n2124 BC: Gudea, the ruler (ensi) of the city of Lagash, died.\nc. 2120 BC: Votive statue of Gudea from Lagash (Iraq) was made. It is now in the Mus\u00e9e du Louvre.\n2119 BC \u2013 2113 BC: (middle chronology), Utu-hengal, first king of the third dynasty of Ur.\n2116 BC \u2013 2110 BC: Uruk\u2013Gutian war.\n2112 BC \u2013 2095 BC: Sumerian campaigns of Ur-Nammu.\n2104 BC \u2013 2103 BC: Date of the Biblical flood according to the Hebrew Calendar.\n\nSignificant persons\n Gudea\n Ur-Nammu","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":15,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":4,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":7,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":14,"2014-15":7}},"id":344920,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/22nd%20century%20BC","title":"22nd century BC","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Grammar is the study of words, how they are used in sentences, and how they change in different situations. The Ancient Greeks used to call it grammatik\u0113 t\u00e9khn\u0113, the craft of letters. It can have any of these meanings:\n The study of a language: how it works, and everything about it. This is background research on language.\n The study of sentence structure.  Rules and examples show how the language should be used.  This is a correct usage grammar, as in a textbook or manual\/guide.\n The system which people learn as they grow up. This is the native-speaker's grammar.\n\nWhen we speak, we use the native person's grammar, or as near as we can. When we write, we try to write with correct grammar. So, speaking and writing a language each have their own style.\n\nDifferent languages \nAll languages have their own grammar. Most European languages are rather similar.\n\nEnglish makes few changes to its word endings ('suffixes'). In the Italic or 'Romance' languages (such as French, Italian, and Spanish), word endings carry a lot of meaning. In English we have just a few: plurals and possessives (John's) are the most common. In our verbs we have dropped most endings except one: I love, you love, but she loves. That final 's' comes from the Anglo-Saxon, which had more suffixes. Verbs do have endings which show changes in tense: walked, walking.\n\nWord order is the other big difference. Romance languages normally put adjectives after the nouns to which they refer. For example, in English, a person may say I like fast cars, but in Spanish, it is Me gustan los coches r\u00e1pidos. The order of the words has changed: if just the words, without the grammar, are translated into English, it would mean 'to me they please the cars fast'. This is because Spanish and English have different rules about word order. In German, verbs often come near the end of sentences (as: Die Katze hat die Nahrung gegessen), whereas in English we usually put them between subject and object, as: the cat has eaten the food.\n\nChanging language \nWritten grammar changes slowly but spoken grammar is more fluid. Sentences which English speakers find normal today, might have seemed strange 100 years ago. And they might not, because many of our favourite sayings come from the Authorized King James Version of the Bible, and from Shakespeare.\n\nDifferent people speak with grammar that differs from that of other people.  For example, people who use the dialects called General American English and BBC English might say, I didn't do anything, while someone who speaks what is called African American Vernacular English or AAVE might say, I didn't do nothing. London working class version: I ain't done nuffink!  These are called double negatives, and are found almost entirely in spoken English, and seldom written.\n\nThese differences are called dialects. The dialect a person uses is usually decided by where they live. Even though the dialects of English use different words or word order, they still have grammar rules. However, when writing in American English, grammar uses the rules of General American English. When people talk about using 'proper English', they usually mean using the grammar of general British English, as described in standard reference works. The models for spoken English in Britain are often called Received Pronunciation or BBC English.\n\nParts of speech \nGrammar studies nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, sentences, phrases, clauses, interjections.\n\nNouns \nNouns are 'thing' words like 'table and 'chair'.  They are objects, things you see in everyday life.  Proper nouns are names of specific places, people, or other things like days of the week.  The name 'James' is a proper noun, as is 'Wednesday' and 'London'. Nouns can also be abstract things, such as 'suffering' or 'happiness'.\n\nVerbs \nVerbs are words that describe actions: \"Ryan threw the ball\". State: \"I am worried\". The basic verb form is called the infinitive.  The infinitive for existence is \"to be\".  A famous example is the speech of Hamlet: To be or not to be, that is the question.\n\nVariations of the infinitive create verb tenses. \n\n Past tense = was\n\nPresent tense = is\n\nFuture tense = will\/shall\n\nAdjectives  \nAdjectives describe nouns. For example, the pretty in \"pretty bicycle\" says that the bicycle is pretty. In other words, the \"pretty\" is describing the bicycle. This can also happen with a place. For example, the tall in \"that's a tall building\" is describing the building.\n\nSyntax \nGrammar studies syntax which is how the \"parts of speech\" fit together according to rules and create sentences.  Sentences fit together and create paragraphs.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":163,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":4,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":299,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grammar","title":"Grammar","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Prehistory (or pre-history) is the time before people began to write. The word comes from the Ancient Greek words \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf (pre = \"before\") and \u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 (historia = \"history\"). Paul Tournal first used the French word Pr\u00e9historique. He found things made by humans more than ten thousand years ago in some caves in France. The word was first used in France around 1830 to talk about the time before writing. Daniel Wilson used it in English in 1851.\n\nThe term is mostly used for the period from 4.5 billion BC  3000 BC, roughly speaking, the Neolithic. Sometimes the term \"prehistoric\" is used for much older periods, but scientists have more accurate terms for those more ancient times.\n\nLess is known about prehistoric people because there are no written records (history) for us to study.  Finding out about pre-history is done by archaeology.  This means studying things like tools, bones, buildings and cave drawings. Pre-history ends at different times in different places when people began to write.\n\nIn the more ancient stone age pre-history, people lived in tribes and lived in caves or tents made from animal skin.  They had simple tools made from wood and bones, and cutting tools from stone such as flint, which they used to hunt and to make simple things.  They made fire and used it for cooking and to stay warm.  They made clothing out of animal skins, and later by weaving. Society started when people began doing specialized jobs. This is called the division of labour. The division of labor made people depend on one another and led to more complex civilizations.\n\nSome important sciences that are used to find out more about pre-history are palaeontology, astronomy, biology, geology, anthropology, and archaeology. Archaeologists study things left over from prehistory to try to understand what was happening. Anthropologists study the traces of human behavior to learn what people were doing and why.\n\nAfter people started to record events, first by drawing symbols (called pictographs) and then by writing, it became much easier to tell what happened, and history started. These records can tell us the names of leaders (such as Kings and Queens), important events like floods and wars, and the things people did in their daily lives. The time when prehistory ended and history started is different in different places, depending on when people began to write and if their records were kept safe or lost so they could be found later on. In places like Mesopotamia, China, and Ancient Egypt, things were recorded from very early times (around 3200 BC in Ancient Egypt) and these records can be looked at and studied. In New Guinea, the end of prehistory came much later, around 1900.\n\nTimeline of Earth \n\n 4.5 billion years ago \u2013 Earth formed out of smaller rocks flying around the sun\n 3,500 million years ago \u2013 first very simple and tiny forms of life in the seas\n 600 million years ago - first animals, also in the seas\n 500 million years ago - first plants and animals on land\n 230 million years ago \u2013 first dinosaurs appear\n 65 million years ago \u2013 dinosaurs disappear; mammals take their place as dominant animals\n 30 million years ago - first apes\n 2.5 million years ago - first humans\n\nTimeline of people \n 2.5 million years ago \u2013 Start of Lower Palaeolithic age, during which a type of early pre-human called Australopithecus lived. These people made tools out of bones and stones and made shelters out of branches.\n 1 million years ago \u2013 A type of early human called Homo erectus lived. People made hand axes and wooden spears.\n 250,000 years ago \u2013 First Homo sapiens (modern people). People make fire. People use bolas. People hunt elephants.\n 100,000 years ago \u2013 Middle Palaeolithic age. Neanderthal people lived. People live in caves and make cave drawings. People begin to bury dead people.\n 40,000 years ago \u2013 Upper Palaeolithic age. Cro-Magnon people lived. People make spears from antlers. People make houses from hides (animal skins). People paint cave drawings and make things out of clay. People make needles out of antlers. People make jewellery.\n 10,000 years ago \u2013 The last Ice age ends. \n 10,000 BC \u2013 4000 BC \u2013 Mesolithic age. In North-west Europe people make bows and arrows. People use dogs to hunt and to carry things.\n 9,000 BC \u2013 Neolithic age. People in the Near East start to change from hunting and gathering food to growing crops and using farm animals.\n 7,000 BC \u2013 People in South-west Europe begin using copper to make tools.\n 6,000 BC \u2013 British Isles move away from Europe.\n 2,580 BC \u2013 The Egyptians build the Great Pyramids in Giza. People in the Middle East use iron and make plows.\n 2,400 BC \u2013 People make Stonehenge in England.\n 3,300 BC \u2013 1,200 BC \u2013 Bronze Age (in Britain). People make tools out of bronze. \n 1,200 BC \u2013 400 AD \u2013 Iron Age (in Britain). People make tools out of iron. Roman Empire rises and falls.\n\nPeriods and ages in history","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":148,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2}},"id":26320,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prehistory","title":"Prehistory","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Kapellmeister, (pronounce: Ka-PEL-my-ster), is a German word which means a musician who is in charge of music-making.  The word comes from the Latin word for \"chapel\".  In German \"Kapelle\" got the meaning: \"choir\" (because they sang in a chapel).  \"Meister\" means \"master\".  \n\nThe French word is ma\u00eetre de la chapelle.  In Italian he is Maestro di Capella.  In English he might be called Chapel Master or, more generally, Director of Music.\n\nThe Kapellmeister's job \n\nThe word Kapellmeister is used to describe musicians in Germany who worked for a king, prince or rich nobleman.  Until about 200 years ago, these people often had their own private orchestras.  The Kapellmeister was like a Director of Music.  He would be responsible for choosing any new musicians, rehearsing and conducting the orchestra, and composing any music that was needed.\n\nMany famous composers had jobs as Kapellmeister.  Johann Sebastian Bach worked from 1717 to 1723 as Kapellmeister for Prince Leopold of Anhalt-C\u00f6then. George Frideric Handel was Kapellmeister for George, Elector of Hanover, who later became George I of Great Britain. Joseph Haydn worked for many years as Kapellmeister for the Eszterh\u00e1zy family, a very important noble family of the Austrian Empire.   \n\nA Kapellmeister could also be the Director of Music for a church.  Sometimes, this would be called \"Kantor\" in Germany.  Johann Sebastian Bach was called \"Kantor\" when he was Director of Music at the church of St Thomas in Leipzig from 1723-1750. \n\nBy the 19th century, society in Europe had changed.  The nobility were not as rich as they had been before, and many composers started to make a living as a freelance composer.  Beethoven, for example, never became a Kapellmeister.\n\nSometimes, the word \"Kapellmeister\" is used in German today to mean the Director or conductor of an orchestra or choir. The title shows that they have to organize the orchestra or choir as well as conduct it.\n\nMusicians\nEntertainment occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":6,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":37576,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kapellmeister","title":"Kapellmeister","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Provence (Proven\u00e7al) wine comes from the French wine-producing region of Provence in southeast France. The Romans called the area provincia nostra (\"our province\"), giving the region its name. Just south of the Alps, it was the first Roman province outside Italy.\n\nWine has been made in this region for at least 2,600 years, ever since the ancient Greeks founded the city of Marseille in 600 BC. Throughout the region's history, viticulture and winemaking have been influenced by the cultures that have been present in Provence, which include the Ancient Greeks, Romans, Gauls, Catalans and Savoyards.  These diverse groups introduced a large variety of grapes to the region, including grape varieties of Greek and Roman origin as well as Spanish, Italian and traditional French wine grapes. \n\nToday the region is known predominantly for its ros\u00e9 wine, though wine critics such as Tom Stevenson believe that region's best wines are the spicy, full-flavoured red wines. Ros\u00e9 wine currently accounts for more than half of the production of Proven\u00e7al wine, with red wine accounting for about a third of the region's production. White wine is also produced in small quantities throughout the region with the Appellation d'origine contr\u00f4l\u00e9e (AOC) region of Cassis specializing in white wine production. The C\u00f4tes de Provence is the largest AOC followed by the Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence. The Bandol region near Toulon is one of the more internationally recognized Proven\u00e7al wine regions.\n\nHistory\n\nArchaeological evidence, in the form of amphora fragments, indicate that the Greeks were producing wine in the region soon after they settled. By the time the Romans reached the area in 125 BC, the wine produced there had a reputation across the Mediterranean for high quality. Over time, the viticulture and winemaking styles of the Provence have been influenced by a wide range of people, rulers, and cultures, including the Carolingians, the Holy Roman Empire, the Counts of Toulouse, the Catalans, Ren\u00e9 I of Naples, the House of Savoy, and the Kingdom of Sardinia.\n\nAt the end of the 19th century, the phylloxera epidemic reached Provence and devastated the region's viticulture. Many vineyards were slow to replant and some turned to the high yielding but lower quality Carignan grape. The arrival of the railroad system in the 19th century opened up new markets such as Paris in the north, and in the 20th century, as tourism developed along the French Riviera, production of ros\u00e9 increased as a complement to the regional cuisine that features dishes such  as bouillabaisse and aioli.\n\nClimate and geography\n\nProvence has a classic Mediterranean climate, with the  sea forming its southern border. Mild winters are followed by very warm summers with little rainfall. Sunshine is found in abundance in this region with the grapevines receiving more than 3,000 hours per year, twice the amount needed to ripen grapes fully. This abundance does have the adverse effect of potentially over ripening grapes if vineyard owners are not cautious. The strong mistral wind from the north provides positive and negative influences on the viticulture. While it can cool the grapes from the heat and dry the grapes after rain, providing some protection against rot and grape diseases, it can also damage vines that are not securely trained and protected by hillside landforms. In areas where the wind is particularly strong, the ideal vineyard locations are on hillsides facing south towards the sea, with the hill providing some shelter from the mistral's strength. In those areas, the type of grape varieties planted will also play a role since south-facing slopes receive the most sunshine and in the warm climate can easily over expose delicate and early ripening varieties which would be better suited on north-facing slopes.\n\nThe soil across Provence is varied, lacking uniformity and generalization. In isolated areas, such as the Cassis AOC and near the Mediterranean coastline, are deposits of limestone and shale. These area tend to be planted with white wine grapes that perform better in those soil types.  \n\nSome coastal areas in the region have soils with more schist and quartz in their composition while inland there is more clay and sandstone.\n\nWine regions\n\nProvence has nine wine appellations with AOC status. The C\u00f4tes de Provence is the largest followed by Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence and Coteaux Varois en Provence. The other 6 AOC are Les Baux-de-Provence, Pierrevert, Bandol, Cassis, Bellet and Palette. The C\u00f4tes de Provence AOC includes 4 geographic designations that can place their names on the label: Fr\u00e9jus and Sainte-Victoire since 2005, La Londe since 2008, and Pierrefeu since 2013. The C\u00f4tes du Luberon AOC in the nearby Vaucluse d\u00e9partement is occasionally cited by some sources with Provence due to some similarities in wine style; the appellation is however officially part of the Rh\u00f4ne wine region and its typicity more closely approaches that of its neighbour on its northern border, C\u00f4tes du Ventoux AOC, also  a Rh\u00f4ne wine. The region has several vin de pays designations, with Bouches-du-Rh\u00f4ne, near Aix-en-Provence, being one of the most common designations seen abroad.\n\nThe Bellet AOC is in southeastern Provence, near Nice has a significant Italian influence with its major white wine being made from the Italian wine grape Vermentino, known in France as Rolle. Other grape varieties include Chardonnay, Clairette, Mayorquin, Muscat Blanc \u00e0 Petits Grains, Pignerol, Braquet and Roussanne. Though the white wines receive more international attention, production in Bellet is about equal in white, red and ros\u00e9 wine with most being consumed by tourists to the French Riviera.\n\nThe Palette AOC is the smallest major wine area in Provence with most of the vineyards being owned by Ch\u00e2teau Simone.  The region is situated on predominantly calcareous limestone soil and produces wines that are similar in style to the southern Rh\u00f4ne region. The main grapes of the region include Cinsaut, Grenache, Mourv\u00e8dre and Ugni blanc.\n\nThe Coteaux de Pierrevert AOC is a minor wine area located around the village of Pierrevert in the northeastern section of Provence. Its red, white and ros\u00e9 wines are mainly made from  Grenache, Syrah, Cinsaut, Clairette and Rolle. The climate here is cooler than in other areas of Provence and the wines are thus lighter in body than those of other areas of the region.\n\nC\u00f4tes de Provence AOC\n\nThe C\u00f4tes de Provence AOC is a large noncontiguous wine region that covers over 85 communes in the eastern region of Provence. The boundaries of the region extend from the alpine hills near Draguignan to the coast of Saint-Tropez. The noncontiguous parts of the region include land southeast of the Palette AOC and on the outskirts of the Bandol and Cassis wine area. The mountainous terrain near Villars-sur-Var in the northeast part of the area includes vineyards that can label their wine as C\u00f4tes de Provence. The region accounts for nearly 75% of all the wine production in Provence with ros\u00e9 accounting for around 80% of the production. While the number is rising, about 15% of wine production is red wine with the remaining 5% white. The main grape varieties are Carignan, Cinsaut, Grenache, Mourv\u00e8dre and Tibouren with an increase in the use of Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah. To improve quality, producers limit the amount of Carignan used in their ros\u00e9 and red wine production, using the maximum of 40% permitted in the wine and mandating that at least 60% of the blend be composed of Grenache, Cinsaut, Mourv\u00e8dre and Tibouren. There is also an AOC requirement that at least 20% of the ros\u00e9 must be blended from wine produced by the saignee method of maceration.\n\nThere has been more experimentation in the methods used by a new generation of winemakers beginning to incorporate non-traditional methods of ros\u00e9 production including the use of oak barrels for aging and fermentation. More winemakers are tending to use temperature controlled tanks that allow a cooler fermentation process that is better suited to white wine production. There are still remnants of traditional winemaking in the C\u00f4tes de Provence and some producers still use the  traditional regional wine bottle which has a distinctive form that is between an amphora vessel and a bowling pin.\n\nCoteaux d'Aix-en-Provence and Les Baux-de-Provence\nThe Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence AOC is the second largest Proven\u00e7al wine appellation, covering over 50 communes in the west and northwestern regions of Provence. The area comprises the city of Aix-en-Provence and surrounding communes. Nearly 60% of the production  is red wine, followed by 35% ros\u00e9 and 5% white wine. The major grape varieties include Grenache, Cinsaut and Mourv\u00e8dre, and Cabernet Sauvignon was introduced to the region in the 1960s. The cuttings came from the Bordeaux estate of Ch\u00e2teau La Lagune. The main white wine grapes of the Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence include Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache blanc, Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc and Semillon. Some producers  produce white nouveau wine (young wine) that is released in December following the harvest and only two weeks after the release of Beaujolais nouveau. Unlike the red Beaujolais wine, these Proven\u00e7al white wines are not required to have the words nouveau or primeur on the label.\n\nWithin the Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence is the smaller Les Baux-de-Provence AOC which was granted AOC status in 1995. The climate of the region is very hot with the surrounding valley known as the Val d'Enfer (Valley of Hell). Vineyards are centered around the hilltop village of the Les Baux-de-Provence and red grape varieties account for around 80%. with some white wine and a dry ros\u00e9. The leading grape varieties are Grenache, Mourv\u00e8dre and Syrah. The AOC rule requires that no two varieties can compose more than 90% of the blend with Carignan, Cinsaut and Counoise permitted but at a maximize usage of 30%. The use of Cabernet Sauvignon is growing in prevalence but is limited to composing no more than 20% of the blend. The ros\u00e9s of Les Baux-de-Provence are composed of a minimum 60% of Cinsaut, Grenache and Syrah with similar requirements to the AOC red wine that no two grapes varieties compose more than 90% of the blend. Baux-de-Provence was the first AOC to require all vineyards to be farmed biodynamically. The rule was adopted as producers had already converted to organic viticulture, eliminating the use of chemicals that could easily dispersed from the vines by the strong Mistral wind.\n\nBandol\n\nBandol AOC, located near the coast east of Marseille and Cassis, is one of the most internationally recognized wines of the Provence regions. Based around the fishing village of Bandol, west of Toulon, the  AOC is produced by 8 communes with silicon & limestone soils. Those soils and the warm, coastal climate are ideally suited for the late ripening Mourv\u00e8dre grape, which is the major variety. For both the red and ros\u00e9 wines, Mourv\u00e8dre must account for at least 50% of the blend, though most producers will use significantly more, with Grenache and Cinsaut usually completing the composition. Syrah and Carignan are restricted in Bandol to a maximum of 15% of the blend or 10% individually. Nearly 70% of the  production is red wine with ros\u00e9 and a small amount of white wine making up the remainder. Red Bandol wine is characterized by its dark color with rich flavors of black fruit, vanilla, cinnamon and leather and usually requires at least 10 years of aging before it fully develops, although some is produced to be drinkable in three years. Prior to release, the wine is required to age at least 18 months in oak. The white wines of Bandol are composed primarily of Clairette blanche, Bourboulenc and Ugni blanc. Previously Sauvignon blanc was used and is not prohibited by the AOC rules. The ros\u00e9s of Bandol are characterized by spicy and earthy flavors that can resemble the Rh\u00f4ne ros\u00e9s from Tavel AOC, with some having strawberry notes.\n\nBandol is the only French wine  that is dominated by the Mourv\u00e8dre grape, which expresses differently depending on the particular terroir of the region. The soils in the northwest region, from the communes of \u00c9venos to Saint-Cyr-sur-Mer, are composed of small pebbles and produce lighter, more delicate wines. On the red clay that is scattered throughout the region, the wine produced is very tannic and must be tempered with increased blending of Cinsaut and Grenache. The Grenache grape itself is typically planted on cooler north facing slopes to prevent the grape from over ripening and making the wine highly alcoholic. The relative infertility of the soil throughout the region helps to keep yields low with the Bandol region having some of the lowest yields in France. The use of mechanical harvesting  is impractical due to the style of terracing used on the hillsides and is prohibited by the rules of the AOC.\n\nCassis\nThe Cassis AOC, located along the coast between Marseilles and Bandol, is unique in the Proven\u00e7al wine region, due to white wine comprising over 75% of its production. The soil of the Cassis AOC is primarily limestone, which is particularly suited to the cultivation of Clairette, Marsanne, Ugni blanc and Sauvignon blanc, the major varieties of the area. The dry white wines  are characterized by their full bodies, low acidity and herbal aromas that pair well with the local seafood cuisine such  as bouillabaisse. Local consumption has outpaced supply and has limited the amount of Cassis wine that can be exported. Local laws are being developed in the region to protect vineyards from being overrun with commercial and residential development from the city of Marseilles.\n\nCoteaux Varois en Provence\n\nThe Coteaux Varois en Provence AOC covers the central region of Provence, in the Var d\u00e9partement from where the region's name is derived, between the C\u00f4tes de Provence AOC and the Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence AOC. The region is sheltered by the surrounding Sainte-Baume mountains which have a tempering effect on the Mediterranean influences that are common throughout Provence. This is most evident in the vineyards around Brignoles where the cooler climate causes harvesting  to  be carried out in November, several weeks after most Proven\u00e7al wine areas have harvested in early September. This unique terroir has encouraged interest from Burgundy wine producers such as Maison Louis Latour to experiment with planting Pinot noir. The region started out as a vin de pays and was upgraded to Vin D\u00e9limit\u00e9 de Qualit\u00e9 Sup\u00e9rieure (VDQS) status in 1985, followed by AOC status in 1993. Over 60% of the region's production is ros\u00e9 with around 33% red wine and small amount of white wine. The main grape varieties of the region are Grenache, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cinsaut, Mourv\u00e8dre, Syrah and Carignan.\n\nClassified estates\nProvence is the only French wine region outside of Bordeaux that has developed a classified ranking for wine estates. (Burgundy, Champagne and Alsace classify their vineyard areas, not wine estates). \n\nOn July 20, 1955, 22 years before Cotes de Provence wines got their Appellation d'Origine Contr\u00f4l\u00e9e, 23 Proven\u00e7al wine estates managed to officially designate themselves Crus Class\u00e9s based on an evaluation of the estates' history, winemaking and cellar reputation and overall vineyard quality; however 5 estates no longer make wine so only 18 estates are classified today: \n\n Clos Cibonne in Le Pradet\nClos Mireille in La Londe-les-Maures\nDomaine du Jas d'Esclans in La Motte\nDomaine de Rimauresq in Pignans\nDomaine de la Croix in La Croix-Valmer\nDomaine du Noyer\nCh\u00e2teau de L'Aum\u00e9rade\nCh\u00e2teau de Br\u00e9gan\u00e7on in Bormes-les-Mimosas\n Ch\u00e2teau du Galoupet in La Londe-les-Maures\n Ch\u00e2teau de Mauvanne in Hy\u00e8res\n Ch\u00e2teau Minuty in Gassin\n Ch\u00e2teau de Roubine in Lorgues\n Ch\u00e2teau Ste. Marguerite in La Londe-les-Maures\nCh\u00e2teau de St. Martin\n Ch\u00e2teau St. Maur in Cogolin\n Ch\u00e2teau Ste. Roseline in Les Arcs\n Ch\u00e2teau de Selle in Taradeau\nCh\u00e2teau de la Clapi\u00e8re\n\nThis classification has never been revisited or modified.  Estates cannot include grapes from new vineyard land in Cru Class\u00e9 wine. A \"Club des Crus Class\u00e9s de Cotes de Provence\"  was created in 2000 and in 2005 they signed a charter of excellence; 14 of the 18 classified estates are currently members.  \n\nSome producers make a (lesser) second or third wine that they also mark cru class\u00e9 de Provence.  In addition, the list cannot be changed, no new wineries can be added and a winery cannot lose the cru class\u00e9 status. The 18 lucky owners just benefit from the classification, no matter how good the wine is.\n\nGrape varieties\n\nThe main grape variety throughout Provence is Mourv\u00e8dre, which is the primary component in many red wines and ros\u00e9s. Provence makes over 1,000 kinds of wines. It is often blended with Grenache and Cinsault, with the latter being used as a significant component in most ros\u00e9. Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah are rising in prominence, though some traditional Proven\u00e7al winemakers view those grapes with suspicion and a sign of globalization and appeal to international tastes. For the last century, Carignan has been a major grape but as more producer aim for improved quality the use of this high yielding grape has decreased. Other significant grape varieties, used primarily in blending, include Braquet, Calitor, Folle and Tibouren. The major white wine grapes of Provence include the Rh\u00f4ne varieties of Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache blanc, Marsanne and Viognier as well as Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Semillon, Rolle and Ugni blanc. \n\nOver its history, many grape varieties have grown in Provence that are now nearly extinct including Pascal blanc.\n\nWine styles and food pairings\nWine expert Karen MacNeil notes that most well made examples of Proven\u00e7al wine have flavors and aromas that reflect the garrigue landscape of the region which includes wild lavender, rosemary and thyme. The ros\u00e9s of the region are normally dry with zestiness derived from their acidity. The red and whites are characterized by their full bodies and intense aromatics. The nature and impression of the wines change significantly depending on whether they are consumed as an ap\u00e9ritif or paired with food, particularly the traditional flavors of Proven\u00e7al cuisine. The ros\u00e9 wine in particular is noted for its ability to pair well with garlic based dishes, such as aioli.\n\nSee also\nCuisine of Provence and the C\u00f4te d'Azur\nList of Vins de Primeur\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nOfficial site Wines of Provence\nWine region map\nBandol wine profile\nBandol and C\u00f4tes de Provence Wine\nProvence wine tours\n\nProvence\nProvence wine\nWine regions of France","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":131,"dup_dump_count":50,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-24":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":6,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":6,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":7,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":8,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":6,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":2}},"id":15650750,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Provence%20wine","title":"Provence wine","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The horn is a brass instrument.  It developed from the horns that some animals have on their heads.  Modern horns are often called French horns.\n\nThe hunting horn\nHorns were often used during hunting.  These early brass instruments were round so that the hunter could put his arm through it and carry it on his shoulder and blow it while riding a horse.  The riders could send messages to one another by blowing particular notes.\n\nThe horn in the orchestra\nIn the 17th century the modern orchestra was developing.  Orchestras played for operas.  Opera stories in those days were usually about gods and goddesses or kings and queens. There was often a hunting scene in the story.  Hunters were asked to come and play their horns in the orchestra for these scenes.  This is how the horn became an orchestral instrument.\n\nA brass instrument gives one basic note.  Changing the pressure with the lips produces a few other notes.  Gradually horn players discovered that if they put their right hand in the bell they could change the basic note.  This made it possible to play lots of different notes.  When Mozart wrote his horn concertos he was writing for a hand horn.  When a note is played using the hand in the bell it makes the note sound different: more muffled (a bit like speaking while covering your mouth with your hand).  A Mozart horn concerto sounds very different when played on a modern horn.\n\nAnother way to change the notes on a horn was to use crooks.  These are like extensions to the horn.  The longer the tube the lower the note, so adding a crook (an extra circle) would give a lower basic note.\n\nThe modern horn\n\nBy the 1830s the modern horn with three valves had been invented.  These valves change the length of the tube, so that the horn had now become chromatic i.e. it could play all the notes including sharps and flats.  Composers like Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss wrote complicated music for the horn which would never have been possible on the natural, valveless instruments.  However, some composers preferred the sound of the natural horn.  Brahms wrote for the natural horn when he wrote his Horn Trio for piano, violin and horn.  Benjamin Britten, in his Serenade for tenor, horn and strings, asks for the horn to played naturally (without valves) for the fanfare at the beginning to make it sound like a hunting horn.\n\nThe horn has a conical bore.  This means that the tubing gradually becomes wider (a trumpet and trombone have a cylindrical bore): the tubing is the same thickness all the way along.  The modern horn has 6.4 metres of tubing.   It makes a beautiful, warm sound, but it is quite hard to play because the mouthpiece is small and the harmonics (the notes that can be played by changing the lip pressure) are very close together.  The horn is a transposing instrument, usually in F (a written C sounds like the F below).\n\nAt the end of the 19th century the so-called \"double horn\" was invented, which was like a combination of a horn in F and a horn in B flat.\n\nIn the 18th century there were generally two horns in an orchestra.  This became three or four in the 19th century, and some large orchestras now may have up to eight horns.\n\nSome famous horn players\n\nHermann Baumann (Soloist)\nStefan Dohr (Berlin Philharmonic)\nDennis Brain (1921-1957) (Royal Philharmonic and Philharmonia Orchestras)\nBarry Tuckwell (b.1931) (London Symphony Orchestra)\nDavid Pyatt (London Symphony Orchestra)\n\nReferences \n\nBrass instruments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":171,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":43948,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Horn%20%28musical%20instrument%29","title":"Horn (musical instrument)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Criticism is a word used in two senses. Originally, it meant \"a scholarly analysis and balanced judgement\". Later (mid-20th century) it came to mean \"a hostile attack\" pointing out the bad features of the topic. \n\nConstructive criticism: criticism to evaluate and improve. This is when somebody points out aspects of something else that could be improved or made better. This is an important activity, especially when dealing with young people. Parents and teachers often use this kind of criticism. In adult life it is widely used in literature, the arts and science.\nNegative or destructive criticism: criticism as an attack on a person or idea. Negative criticism is often interpreted as an attack against a person (ad hominem), and appears often in debates between political opponents.\n\nHistory of the word \nIn ancient Greek kritos meant judge, and kritikos meant the critic. Related Greek terms are krinein (separating out, deciding), krei- (to sieve, discriminate, or distinguish). The word moved from Greek to Latin (Criticus, a judge) to French (critique) to English. The words \"critic\" and \"critical\" existed in the English language from the mid-16th century, and the word \"criticism\" first made its appearance in English in the early 17th century.\n\nRelated pages \nArt critic\nCritic\nCritical thinking\nTextual criticism\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":4,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":53298,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Criticism","title":"Criticism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"William \"Smokey\" Robinson Jr. (born February 19, 1940) is an American R&B and soul singer, songwriter, record producer, and former record executive. He was the founder and frontman of the pioneering Motown vocal group the Miracles, for which he was also chief songwriter and producer. He led the group from its 1955 origins, when they were called The Five Chimes, until 1972, when he retired from the group to focus on his role as Motown Records vice president. Robinson returned to the music industry as a solo artist the following year. He left Motown in 1999.\n\nRobinson was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1987 and awarded the 2016 Library of Congress Gershwin Prize for his lifetime contributions to popular music. He is a double Hollywood Walk of Fame Inductee, as a solo artist (1983) and as a member of The Miracles (2009). In 2022, he was inducted into the Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame.\n\nEarly life and early career\nWilliam Robinson Jr. was born to an African-American father and a mother of African-American and French descent in a poor family in the North End area of Detroit, Michigan. \n\nRobinson's ancestry is also part Nigerian, Scandinavian, Portuguese, and Cherokee. His uncle Claude gave him the nickname \"Smokey Joe\" when he was a child.  In 2012, Robinson explained:\n\nMy Uncle Claude was my favorite uncle. He was also my godfather. He and I were really, really close. He used to take me to see cowboy movies all the time when I was a little boy because I loved cowboy movies. He got a cowboy name for me, which was Smokey Joe. So from the time I was three years old if people asked me what my name was I didn't tell them my name was William, I told them my name was Smokey Joe. That's what everyone called me until I was about 12 and then I dropped the Joe part. I've heard that story about him giving it to me because I'm a light skinned black man but that's not true.\n\nHe attended Northern High School, where he was above average academically and a determined athlete. However, his main interest was music, and he formed a doo-wop group named the Five Chimes. He and Aretha Franklin lived several houses from each other on Belmont; he said he'd known Franklin since she was about five, overhearing her play the piano when he had come to play with her older brother Cecil after her family first moved to Detroit.\n\nRobinson's interest in music started during childhood after he heard the groups Nolan Strong & the Diablos and Billy Ward and his Dominoes on the radio. He has cited Barrett Strong, a Detroit native, as a strong vocal influence. In 1955, he formed the first lineup of The Five Chimes with childhood friend Ronald White and classmate Pete Moore.\n\nTwo years later, they were renamed the Matadors and included Bobby Rogers. Another member, Emerson (Sonny) Rogers, Bobby Rogers' cousin, was replaced by his sister, Claudette Rogers (who would marry Smokey Robinson in 1959). The group's guitarist, Marv Tarplin, joined them sometime in 1958. The Matadors began touring Detroit venues around this time. Eventually they changed their name to The Miracles.\n\nCareer\n\nThe Miracles and Motown\n\nIn August 1957, Robinson and the Miracles met songwriter Berry Gordy after a failed audition for Brunswick Records. At that time during the audition, Robinson had brought along with him a \"Big 10\" notebook with 100 songs he wrote while in high school. Gordy was impressed with Robinson's vocals and even more impressed with Robinson's ambitious songwriting. With his help, the Miracles released their first single, \"Got a Job\", an answer song to the Silhouettes' hit single \"Get a Job\" on End Records. It was the beginning of a long and successful collaboration. During this time, Robinson attended college and started classes in January 1959, studying electrical engineering. He dropped out after only two months, following the Miracles' release of their first record.\n\nGordy formed Tamla Records, which was later reincorporated as Motown. The Miracles became one of the first acts signed to the label, although they had actually been with Gordy since before the formation of Motown Records. In late 1960, the group recorded their first hit single, \"Shop Around\", which became Motown's first million-selling hit record. Between 1960 and 1970, Robinson would produce 26 top forty hits with the Miracles as lead singer, chief songwriter and producer, including several top ten hits such as \"You've Really Got a Hold on Me\", \"Mickey's Monkey\", \"I Second That Emotion\", \"Baby Baby Don't Cry\" and the group's only number-one hit during their Robinson years, \"The Tears of a Clown\".\n\nOther notable hits such as \"Ooo Baby Baby\", \"Going to a Go-Go\", the multi-award-winning  \"The Tracks of My Tears\", \"(Come Round Here) I'm The One You Need\", \"The Love I Saw in You Was Just a Mirage\" and \"More Love\" peaked in the top twenty. In 1965, the Miracles were the first Motown group to change their name when they released their 1965 album Going to a Go-Go as Smokey Robinson & the Miracles.\n\nBetween 1962 and 1966, Robinson was also one of the major songwriters and producers for Motown, penning many hit singles such as \"Two Lovers\", \"The One Who Really Loves You\", \"You Beat Me to the Punch\" and \"My Guy\" for Mary Wells; \"The Way You Do The Things You Do\", \"My Girl\", \"Since I Lost My Baby\" and \"Get Ready\" for the Temptations; \"Still Water (Love)\" for the Four Tops; \"When I'm Gone\" and \"Operator\" for Brenda Holloway; \"Don't Mess With Bill\", \"The Hunter Gets Captured by the Game\" and \"My Baby Must Be a Magician\" for the Marvelettes; and \"I'll Be Doggone\" and \"Ain't That Peculiar\" for Marvin Gaye.\n\nAfter the arrival of Holland\u2013Dozier\u2013Holland and the team of Norman Whitfield and Barrett Strong, Robinson was eclipsed as a top writer and producer for the label, and other Motown artists such as Gaye and Stevie Wonder began to compose more original material. Later in his career, Robinson wrote lyrics and music for the Contours such as \"First I Look at the Purse\", as well as the Four Tops' \"Still Water\" and The Supremes' \"Floy Joy\". The other Miracles\u2014Bobby Rogers, Pete Moore, Ronnie White, and Marv Tarplin\u2014collaborated with him as writers on many of these hits, and Pete Moore also doubled as co-producer with Robinson on several of them.\n\nBy 1969, Robinson wanted to retire from touring to focus on raising his two children with his wife Claudette, and on his duties as Motown's vice president, a job he had taken on by the mid-1960s after Esther Gordy Edwards had left the position. However, the success of the group's \"Tears of a Clown\" made Robinson stay with the group until 1972. His last performance with the group was in July 1972 in Washington, D.C.\n\nSolo career\n\nAfter a year of retirement, Robinson announced his comeback with the release of the eponymous Smokey album, in 1973. The album included the Miracles tribute song, \"Sweet Harmony\", and the hit ballad \"Baby Come Close\". In 1974, Robinson's second album, Pure Smokey, was released but failed to produce hits. Robinson struggled to compete with his former collaborators Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder and former Temptations member Eddie Kendricks, as all three had multiple hit singles during this period.\n\nFormer Beatle George Harrison featured the track \"Pure Smokey\" on his 1976 album Thirty Three & 1\/3 as a tribute to Robinson. (Harrison's fellow Beatles John Lennon and Paul McCartney were also fans of Robinson's songwriting and the group covered \"You Really Gotta Hold on Me\" on their second UK album With the Beatles and US album The Beatles' Second Album, respectively.)\n\nRobinson answered his critics the following year with A Quiet Storm, released in 1975. The album launched three singles \u2013 the number-one R&B hit \"Baby That's Backatcha\", \"The Agony & The Ecstasy\" and \"Quiet Storm\" (the radio format quiet storm, originated by DJ Melvin Lindsey, is named after the album). However, Robinson's solo career suffered from his work as Motown's vice president, and his own music took the backseat. As a result, several albums including Smokey's Family Robinson, Deep in My Soul, Love Breeze and Smokin, saw poor promotion and received bad reviews. At this point Robinson relied on other writers and producers to help him with his albums.\n\nFollowing these albums, Robinson got out of a writer's block after his close collaborator (and fellow Miracle), Marv Tarplin, who joined him on the road in 1973 after Robinson left the Miracles, presented him a tune he had composed on his guitar. Robinson later wrote the lyrics that became his first solo top ten Pop single, \"Cruisin'\". The song hit number one in Cash Box and peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100.  It also became his first solo number one in New Zealand. Robinson would follow a similar approach with his next album, Warm Thoughts, which produced another top 40 hit, \"Let Me Be the Clock\", though it did not repeat the success of \"Cruisin'\".\n\nIn 1981, Robinson topped the charts again with another sensual ballad, \"Being with You\", which was another number one hit in Cash Box and peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100. It also hit number one in the UK Singles Chart, becoming his most successful single to date. The Gold-plus parent album sparked a partnership with George Tobin and with Tobin, Robinson released his next several Motown albums, Yes It's You Lady, which produced the hit \"Tell Me Tomorrow\", Touch the Sky and Essar. In 1983, Robinson teamed up with fellow Motown label mate Rick James recording the R&B ballad, \"Ebony Eyes\".\n\nIn 1987, following a period of personal and professional issues, Robinson made a comeback with the album, One Heartbeat and the singles, \"Just to See Her\" and \"One Heartbeat\", which were Top 10 hits on Billboards Pop, Soul, and Adult Contemporary charts.  They were aided by popular music videos.  \"Just to See Her\" won Robinson his first Grammy Award in 1988. The album became one of his most successful ever, selling over 900,000 copies in the United States alone. In the same year, Robinson released One Heartbeat, the UK group ABC released a tribute song, \"When Smokey Sings\".\n\nHe was inducted as a solo artist to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988, later igniting controversy as the committee had inducted only Robinson and not members of his group, the Miracles, which Robinson saw as an affront. In 2012, however, the committee rectified the mistake announcing that the group would be inducted on their own merit. Though Robinson was not listed as an inductee, he was due to induct his former group at the ceremony in April 2012.\n\nAfter MCA purchased Motown in 1988, Robinson relinquished his position as vice president. Following the release of the album, Love Smokey, in 1990, Robinson left Motown for a deal with SBK Records in 1991. However, the album, Double Good Everything failed to chart. Robinson remained virtually quiet during the nineties (though he would make a notable cameo appearance in The Temptations 1998 miniseries), making a brief comeback in 1999 when he re-signed with Motown and issued the album, Intimate, which included the song \"Easy to Love\".\n\nIn 2003, he once again split ties with Motown, releasing the gospel album, Food for the Spirit on Liquid 8 Records in 2004. In 2004, Robinson sang the main title theme song \"Colorful World\" to the American children's animated series ToddWorld for Discovery Kids, TLC and Mike Young Productions. Two years later, Robinson released the standards album, Timeless Love, in 2006 on Universal Records.\n\nIn 2009, he issued the album, Time Flies When You're Having Fun on his own label, Robso Records.  It reached  number 59 on the Billboard album chart, his highest showing since One Heartbeat. He subsequently released \"Now And Then\" in 2010, which peaked at number 131.\n\nSmokey & Friends was released in mid-August 2014. It was an album of duets, including songs with Elton John, Linda Ronstadt and James Taylor. It reached number 12 on the Billboard album chart.\n\nChristmas Everyday was Robinson's first post-Miracles Christmas album, and was released on November 10, 2017. In 2018, he appeared on an episode of CMT Crossroads alongside country singer Cam.\n\nIn April 2017, Robinson visited Fremont-Lopez Elementary School in Stockton, California, where he served as a designated arts mentor under Turnaround Arts.\n\nOn July 31, 2018, Robinson appeared as a special guest on the Fox network's show Beat Shazam as a special guest.\n\nRobinson appeared on the song \"Make It Better\" from Anderson Paak's 2019 album Ventura.\n\nIn 2023, Robinson announced that he would release his first album in almost a decade in April 2023. The nine-track album will be called Gasms, and will feature entirely new music. The first single from the album, called \"If We Don't Have Each Other\", was already available on streaming service by January 2023.\n\nPersonal life\nRobinson married a fellow Miracles member, Claudette Rogers, in 1959. The couple had two children: a son, Berry Robinson (born 1968), named after Motown's first label founder Berry Gordy and a daughter, Tamla Robinson (born 1971), named after the original \"Tamla\" label set up by Gordy that would eventually become Motown.\n\nAccording to Robinson, he had affairs with multiple women while married to Claudette, among them an approximately year-long affair with Diana Ross. According to Robinson, Ross ended it because she felt uncomfortable as she was friends with Claudette, whom Robinson admitted he still loved. (A representative for Ross had no comment on Robinson's claim.) Robinson says that loving multiple people in that way simultaneously is natural.\n\nRobinson also had a son named Trey (born 1984) with another woman during his marriage to Claudette. After Robinson admitted to having fathered a child with a woman other than his wife, he filed for legal separation and later filed for divorce that was finalized in 1986. The Robinsons had also separated in 1974 and during that separation, Robinson engaged in an extramarital affair that inspired the song \"The Agony & The Ecstasy\" (later featured on A Quiet Storm).\n\nRobinson married Frances Gladney in May 2002. They own a home in Pittsburgh and use it as a winery.\n\nRobinson has not eaten red meat since 1972. He practices Transcendental Meditation. Robinson has golden green eyes, which he believes were passed down from his French great-grandmother.\n\nDiscography\n\nAwards and accolades\n\nOn February 22, 1983, Smokey was awarded an individual star on The Hollywood Walk of Fame.\nFour years later, in 1987, Robinson was inducted to the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame. Robinson's single \"Just to See Her\"\" from the One Heartbeat album was awarded the 1988 Grammy Award for Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance. This was Robinson's first Grammy Award. One year later, in 1989, he was inducted to the Songwriter's Hall of Fame\n\nIn 1993, Robinson was awarded a medal at the National Medal of Arts. Two years before, he won the Heritage Award at the Soul Train Music Awards. In 2005, Robinson was voted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends Hall of Fame. At its 138th Commencement Convocation in May 2006, Howard University conferred on Robinson the degree of Doctor of Music, honoris causa. In December 2006 Robinson was one of five Kennedy Center honorees, along with Dolly Parton, Zubin Mehta, Steven Spielberg and Andrew Lloyd Webber.\n\nOn March 20, 2009, the Miracles were finally honored as a group with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Smokey was present with original Miracles members Bobby Rogers, Pete Moore, (Bobby's cousin) Claudette Rogers, and Gloria White, accepting for her husband, the late Ronnie White, whose daughter Pamela and granddaughter Maya were there representing him as well. Smokey's replacement, 1970s Miracles lead singer Billy Griffin, was also honored.\n\nControversially, original Miracle Marv Tarplin was not honored, against the wishes of his fellow Miracles and the group's fans, who felt that he should have also been there to share the honor.\nLater, Tarplin did receive his star. He was also inducted with the rest of the original Miracles, Bobby Rogers, Pete Moore, Ronnie White, and Claudette Robinson, into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2012, 25 years after Robinson's controversial solo induction in 1987. He was also awarded Society of Singers Lifetime Achievement Award in 2011.\n\nIn 2009, Robinson received an honorary doctorate degree\u2014along with Linda Ronstadt\u2014and gave a commencement speech at Berklee College of Music's commencement ceremony. In 2015, he was given a BET Lifetime Achievement Award.\n\nIn 2016, Robinson received the Library of Congress' Gershwin Prize for Popular Song; and, on August 21, 2016, he was inducted into the Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame in his hometown of Detroit.\n\nIn 2019, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council members Jimmy Page and Peter Gabriel.\n\nIn 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Robinson at No. 23 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n Smokey Robinson interview by Pete Lewis, 'Blues & Soul' December 1992\n Interview on  Fresh Air\n \n Smokey Robinson's page at soulwalking.co.uk\n Smokey Robinson Biography and Update at SoulTracks\n Smokey Robinson at cosmopolis.ch\n \n \n Smokey Robinson Wines\n\n1940 births\nLiving people\n20th-century African-American male singers\n21st-century African-American male singers\nAfrican-American male singer-songwriters\nAfrican-American record producers\nAmerican child singers\nAmerican gospel singers\nAmerican male pop singers\nAmerican music industry executives\nAmerican people of French descent\nAmerican rhythm and blues singer-songwriters\nAmerican soul singers\nAmerican tenors\nChild pop musicians\nGrammy Legend Award winners\nGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners\nKennedy Center honorees\nMotown artists\nNorthern High School (Detroit, Michigan) alumni\nRecord producers from Michigan\nSBK Records artists\nSingers from Detroit\nSinger-songwriters from Michigan\nThe Miracles members\nUnited States National Medal of Arts recipients\nUniversal Music Group artists","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_details":{"unknown":107}},"id":148170,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smokey%20Robinson","title":"Smokey Robinson","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u101b\u103e\u102d\u1014\u103a\u1038\u1000\u103b\u102d\u1014\u1037\u103a\u1019\u103c\u102d\u102f\u1037 ( ) \u101e\u100a\u103a \u1010\u101b\u102f\u1010\u103a\u1014\u102d\u102f\u1004\u103a\u1004\u1036\u1010\u1031\u102c\u1004\u103a\u1015\u102d\u102f\u1004\u103a\u1038\u104a \u1000\u103d\u1019\u103a\u1010\u102f\u1036\u1015\u103c\u100a\u103a\u1014\u101a\u103a\u101b\u103e\u102d \u1021\u1013\u102d\u1000\u1019\u103c\u102d\u102f\u1037\u1000\u103c\u102e\u1038\u1010\u1005\u103a\u1019\u103c\u102d\u102f\u1037\u1016\u103c\u1005\u103a\u1015\u103c\u102e\u1038 \u101f\u1031\u102c\u1004\u103a\u1000\u1031\u102c\u1004\u103a\u104f\u1019\u103c\u1031\u102c\u1000\u103a\u1018\u1000\u103a\u1010\u103d\u1004\u103a\u1000\u1015\u103a\u101c\u103b\u1000\u103a\u1010\u100a\u103a\u101b\u103e\u102d\u101e\u100a\u103a\u104b \u101a\u1004\u103a\u1038\u1012\u1031\u101e\u101e\u100a\u103a \u1010\u101b\u102f\u1010\u103a\u1014\u102d\u102f\u1004\u103a\u1004\u1036\u104f\u1015\u1011\u1019\u1006\u102f\u1036\u1038\u101e\u1031\u102c \u1021\u1011\u1030\u1038\u1005\u102e\u1038\u1015\u103d\u102c\u1038\u101b\u1031\u1038\u1007\u102f\u1014\u103a\u1016\u103c\u1005\u103a\u101e\u100a\u103a\u104b \u101c\u1000\u103a\u101b\u103e\u102d\u1010\u103d\u1004\u103a\u101c\u100a\u103a\u1038 \u1015\u103c\u100a\u103a\u1014\u101a\u103a\u1021\u1006\u1004\u1037\u103a\u1011\u1000\u103a\u1021\u1014\u100a\u103a\u1038\u1004\u101a\u103a\u101e\u102c\u1014\u102d\u1019\u1037\u103a\u101e\u1031\u102c \u1015\u103c\u100a\u103a\u1014\u101a\u103a\u1001\u103d\u1032\u1021\u1014\u1031\u1021\u1011\u102c\u1038\u1021\u102f\u1015\u103a\u1001\u103b\u102f\u1015\u103a\u101b\u1031\u1038\u1010\u100a\u103a\u101b\u103e\u102d\u101c\u103b\u1000\u103a\u101b\u103e\u102d\u101e\u100a\u103a\u104b \n\nShenzhen's modern cityscape is the result of the vibrant economy made possible by rapid foreign investment since the institution of the policy of \"reform and opening\" establishment of the SEZ in the late 1979, before which it was only a small village. Both Chinese and foreign nationals have invested enormous amounts of money in the Shenzhen SEZ. More than US$30\u00a0billion in foreign investment has gone into both foreign-owned and joint ventures, at first mainly in manufacturing but more recently in the service industries as well. Shenzhen is now considered one of the fastest-growing cities in the world.\n\n\u1010\u101b\u102f\u1010\u103a\u1015\u103c\u100a\u103a\u1019\u1000\u103c\u102e\u1038\u1010\u1031\u102c\u1004\u103a\u1015\u102d\u102f\u1004\u103a\u1038\u101b\u103e\u102d\u1018\u100f\u1039\u100d\u102c\u101b\u1031\u1038\u1017\u101f\u102d\u102f\u100c\u102c\u1014\u1016\u103c\u1005\u103a\u101e\u100a\u1037\u103a\u1021\u102c\u1038\u101c\u103b\u1031\u102c\u103a\u1005\u103d\u102c \u101b\u103e\u102d\u1014\u103a\u1038\u1000\u103b\u102d\u1014\u1037\u103a\u1019\u103c\u102d\u102f\u1037\u101e\u100a\u103a \u101b\u103e\u102d\u1014\u103a\u1038\u1000\u103b\u102d\u1014\u1037\u103a\u1005\u1010\u1031\u102c\u1037\u1021\u102d\u1010\u103a\u1001\u103b\u102d\u1014\u103a\u1038\u1014\u103e\u1004\u1037\u103a\u1021\u1001\u103c\u102c\u1038\u1021\u1006\u1004\u1037\u103a\u1019\u103c\u1004\u1037\u103a\u1014\u100a\u103a\u1038\u1015\u100a\u102c\u1000\u102f\u1019\u1039\u1015\u100f\u102e\u1019\u103b\u102c\u1038\u104f\u101b\u102f\u1036\u1038\u1005\u102d\u102f\u1000\u103a\u101b\u102c\u1019\u103c\u102d\u102f\u1037\u1016\u103c\u1005\u103a\u101e\u100a\u103a\u104b \u101b\u103e\u102d\u1014\u103a\u1038\u1000\u103b\u102d\u1014\u1037\u103a\u1019\u103c\u102d\u102f\u1037\u101e\u100a\u103a \u1010\u101b\u102f\u1010\u103a\u1014\u102d\u102f\u1004\u103a\u1004\u1036\u104f \u1000\u102f\u1014\u103a\u101e\u1031\u1010\u1039\u1010\u102c\u1010\u1004\u103a\u1015\u102d\u102f\u1037\u101e\u100a\u1037\u103a \u1021\u1005\u100a\u103a\u1000\u102c\u1038\u1006\u102f\u1036\u1038\u1006\u102d\u1015\u103a\u1000\u1019\u103a\u1038\u1019\u103b\u102c\u1038\u1010\u103d\u1004\u103a\u1010\u1005\u103a\u1001\u102f\u1021\u1015\u102b\u1021\u101d\u1004\u103a\u1016\u103c\u1005\u103a\u101e\u100a\u103a\u104b\n\n\u101b\u102c\u1007\u101d\u1004\u103a\nHuman habitation in Shenzhen dates back to ancient times. The earliest archaeological remains so far unearthed are shards from a site at Xiantouling on Mirs Bay, dating back to 5000 BC. From the Han Dynasty (third century BC) onwards, the area around Shenzhen was a centre of the salt monopoly, thus meriting special Imperial protection. Salt pans are still visible around the Pearl River area to the west of the city and are commemorated in the name of the Yantian container terminal (\u76d0\u7530, meaning \"salt fields\"). \n\nThe settlement at Nantou was the political centre of the area from early antiquity. In the year 331 AD, six counties covering most of modern south-eastern Guangdong were merged into one province or \"jun\" named Dongguan Jun with its centre at Nantou.  As well as being a centre of the politically and fiscally critical salt trade, the area had strategic importance as a stopping off point for international trade. The main shipping route to India, Arabia and the Byzantine Empire started at Canton. As early as the eighth century, chronicles record the Nantou area as being a major commercial centre, and reported that all foreign ships in the Canton trade would stop there. It was also as a naval defence centre guarding the southern approaches to the Pearl River.\n\nShenzhen was also involved in the events surrounding the end of the Southern Song Dynasty (1276\u201379). The Imperial court, fleeing Kublai Khan's forces, established itself in the Shenzhen area and the last Emperor died strapped to the back of his chief Minister who preferred suicide to the possibility of the Emperor being captured and bringing shame to the dynasty. In the late 19th century the Chiu or Zhao (Zhao was the Song Imperial surname)clan in Hong Kong identified the Chiwan area as the final resting place of the Emperor and built a tomb to him. The tomb, since restored, is still in Chiwan.\n\nEarliest known ancient records that carried the name of Shenzhen date from 1410 during the Ming Dynasty. Local people called the drains in paddy fields \"zhen\" (\u5733). Shenzhen (\u6df1\u5733) literally means \"deep drains\" as the area was once crisscrossed with rivers and streams, with deep drains within the paddy fields. The character \u5733 is limited in distribution to an area of South China with its most northerly examples in Zhejiang Province which suggests an association with southwards migration during the Southern Song Dynasty (12th and 13th centuries). The County town at Xin'an in modern Nanshan dates from the Ming Dynasty where it was a major naval centre at the mouth of the Pearl River. In this capacity it was heavily involved in 1521 in the successful Chinese action against the Portuguese Fleet under Fern\u00e3o Pires de Andrade. This battle, called the Battle of Tunmen, was fought in the straits between Shekou and Lintin Island.\n\nShenzhen was singled out to be the first of the five Special Economic Zones (SEZ). It was formally established in 1979 due to its proximity to Hong Kong. The SEZ was created to be an experimental ground for the practice of market capitalism within a community guided by the ideals of \"socialism with Chinese characteristics\".\n\nShenzhen eventually became one of the largest cities in the Pearl River Delta region, which has become one of the economic powerhouses of China as well as the largest manufacturing base in the world. \n\nIn November 1979, Shenzhen, then known as Bao'an County (\u5b9d\u5b89\u53bf), was promoted to prefecture level, directly governed by Guangdong province. In May 1980, Shenzhen was formally nominated as a \"special economic zone\", the first one of its kind in China. It was given the right of provincial-level economic administration in November 1988. \n\nFor five months in 1996, Shenzhen was home to the Provisional Legislative Council and Provisional Executive Council of Hong Kong.\n\nGeography\n\nShenzhen is located in the Pearl River Delta, bordering Hong Kong to the south, Huizhou to the north and northeast and Dongguan to the north and northwest. The municipality covers an area of  including urban and rural areas, with a total population of 14 million in 2008.\n\nThe city was originally a hilly area, with fertile agrarian land. However, after becoming a special economic zone in 1979, Shenzhen underwent tremendous change in landscape. The once hilly fishing village is now replaced by mostly flat ground in city center area, with only Lianhua Shan (Lotus Hill), Bijia Shan (Bijia Mountain) and Wutong Shan the only three places that have some kind of elevation as viewed from satellites.  With the influx of migrants from inland China, Shenzhen is experiencing a second stage boom, and it is now expanding peripherally and the hills in surrounding areas such as Mission Hills are now being levelled to make land for more development. \n\nShenzhen is located on the border with the Hong Kong SAR across the Sham Chun River and Sha Tau Kok River,  southeast of the provincial capital of Guangzhou,  south of the industrial city of Dongguan and  north-northeast of the resort city of Zhuhai.\n\nClimate\nShenzhen is situated in the subtropical part of China, located at about the Tropic of Cancer, yet due to the Siberian anticyclone, has a warm, monsoon-influenced, humid subtropical climate (K\u00f6ppen Cwa). Winters are mild and relatively dry, due in part to the influence of the South China Sea, and frost is very rare. Spring begins somewhat dry, but rainfall begins to dramatically increase in April, and the rainy season lasts until early to mid October. The monsoon reaches its peak intensity in the summer months, when the city also experiences very humid, and hot, but moderated, conditions. The region is prone to torrential rain as well, with 10 days that have  or more of rain.\nThe latter portion of autumn is dry. The annual precipitation averages at over , some of which is delivered in typhoons that strike from the east during summer and early autumn.\n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nShenzhen is a sub-provincial city. It has direct jurisdiction over eight districts (\u533a qu):\n\nThe Special Economic Zone (SEZ) comprised only Luohu, Futian, Nanshan, and Yantian districts until 1 July 2010, when the SEZ was expanded to include all districts, a fivefold increase over its pre-expansion size.\n\nAdjacent to Hong Kong, Luohu is the financial and trading centre of Shenzhen.  Futian, at the heart of the SEZ, is the seat of the Municipal Government.  West of Futian, Nanshan is the centre for high-tech industries.  Formerly outside the SEZ, Bao'an and Longgang are located to the north-west and north-east, respectively, of central Shenzhen. Yantian is the location of Yantian Port, the second busiest container terminal in mainland China and the fourth busiest in the world.\n\nDemographics\n\nShenzhen has seen its population and activity develop rapidly since the establishment of the SEZ. Shenzhen's population is roughly ten million. About six million of these people are migrant workers who return home on the weekends and live in factory dormitories during the week. Shenzhen is the largest migrant city in China.\n\nThere had been migration into southern Guangdong and what is now Shenzhen since the Southern Song Dynasty (1127\u20131279) but the numbers increased dramatically since Shenzhen was established in the 1980s. In Guangdong, it is the only city where Mandarin is mostly spoken, with migrants from all over China. At present, the average age in Shenzhen is less than 30. Among the total, 8.49 percent are between the age of 0 and 14, 88.41 percent between the age of 15 and 59, one-fifth between 20 and 24 and 1.22 percent are aged 65 or above.\n\nThe population structure polarizes into two opposing extremes: intellectuals with a high level of education, and migrant workers with poor education. It was reported in June 2007 that over 20 percent of China's PhD's worked in Shenzhen.\n\nAccording to the Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce, in 2002, 7,200 Hong Kong residents commuted daily to Shenzhen for work, and 2,200 students from Shenzhen commuted to school in Hong Kong. Though neighbouring each other, daily commuters still need to pass through customs and immigration checkpoints, as travel between the SEZ and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) is restricted.\n\nIn late July 2003, China relaxed travel restrictions to allow individuals from the southern cities of Guangzhou and Shenzhen, as well as Beijing and Shanghai, to visit Hong Kong. Previously, mainland travelers could only visit the city as part of tour groups. (See Individual Visit Scheme.)\n\nImmigration into Shenzhen from the Chinese interior was previously restricted by the hukou system.  One consequence is that just outside of Shenzhen, there exist large towns consisting of now settled migrants who had previously attempted to enter the city.\n\nLanguages\nPrior to the establishment of Special Economic Zone, the indigenous local communities could be divided into Cantonese and Hakka, which were two cultural and linguistic sub-ethnic groups vernacular to Guangdong province. In particular, the Cantonese variety spoken locally was called Weitou dialect, whereas now the younger generations of the Cantonese communities are being assimilated into the more prestigious variety, known as standard Cantonese, probably because of the influence of Hong Kong's broadcasting. Today, the original inhabitants of indigenous Cantonese and Hakka communities are dispersing into more recently built urban settlements (e.g. apartments and villas), but a large proportion of them are still clustering in their traditional urban and suburban villages.\n\nSince 1980s, the unprecedented influx of immigrants drastically altered the linguistic landscape, in which Shenzhen as a whole has undergone a language shift towards Mandarin, which was both promoted by China's Central Government as a national lingua franca and natively spoken by most of the out-of-province immigrants and their descendants. Since then, the Cantonese and Hakka indigenous populations were diluted into trivial proportions. Despite the ubiquity of Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese, Hakka, and Teochew are still spoken among people of in-province ancestries in private occasions to a lesser extent than Mandarin. Hokkien and Hunanese are also sometimes observed.\n\nGenerally speaking, in most circumstances, people who are monolingual in either Cantonese, Hakka, or Teochew are senior citizens of in-province ancestries; people who are bilingual in both Cantonese and Mandarin are the middle-aged and youngsters of Cantonese ancestry; people who are trilingual in Cantonese, Mandarin, and either Hakka or Teochew are of either Hakka ancestry or Teochew ancestry; and people who are monolingual only in Mandarin are those of out-of-province ancestry.\n\nMandarin native speakers, whose majority is out-of-province immigrants and their descendants are found unwilling to learn any of Cantonese, Hakka or Teochew, probably due to Mandarin's dominance, advantages, administrative legitimacy, educational priority, societal bias, and official statuses at national, provincial, and municipal levels, as well as those languages' inherent complexities and difficulties.\n\nEconomy\n\nIn 2001, the working population reached 3.3\u00a0million. Though the secondary sector of industry had the largest share (1.85\u00a0million in 2001, increased by 5.5%), the tertiary sector of industry is growing fast (1.44\u00a0million in 2001, increased by 11.6%). Shenzhen's GDP totaled CNY 820.1\u00a0billion in 2009, up by 10.7 percent over the previous year, with a GDP per capita of US$13,581 as of 2009. Its economy grew by 16.3 percent yearly from 2001 to 2005 on average. The proportion of the three industries to the aggregate of GDP was 0.1:46.7:53.2 in 2009. The proportion of the primary industry to GDP was down by 13.4%, and the tertiary industry was up by 12.5%. Shenzhen is in the top ranks among mainland Chinese cities in terms of comprehensive economic power. It ranked fourth in GDP among mainland Chinese cities in 2001, while it ranked the top in GDP per capita during the same period. Its import and export volumes have been first for the last nine consecutive years. It is the second in terms of industrial output. For five consecutive years, its internal revenue within local budget ranks third. It also ranks third in the use of foreign capital.\n\nShenzhen is a major manufacturing center in China. In the 1990s, Shenzhen was described as constructing \"one highrise a day and one boulevard every three days\". The Shenzhen's rapidly growing skyline is regarded as one of the best in the world. It currently has 26 buildings at over 200 meters tall, including the Shun Hing Square (the 19th tallest building in the world).\n\nShenzhen is home to some of China's most successful high-tech companies, such as BYD, Dingoo, G'Five, Hasee, Huawei, JXD, Konka, Netac, Skyworth, Tencent and ZTE. BYD, Hasee and  Huawei are headquartered in the Longgang District. TCL Corporation, best known as China's number one TV brand, has a presence in the city. Taiwan's largest company Hon Hai Group (Foxconn) has a manufacturing plant based in Shenzhen. Many foreign high-tech companies have their operations in the Science and Technology park in Nanshan District or outside the core districts where labor and land are much cheaper.\nCSG Holding is the largest architectural glass manufacturer in China. Vanke is the largest residential real estate developer in China. In the financial sector, Shenzhen Development Bank, China Merchants Bank and Shenzhen City Commercial Bank are some of the largest banks in China, with headquarters in Shenzhen.\n\nShenzhen Convention & Exhibition Center is a super large public construction with multi-functions of hosting business activities, celebrations, conferences, conventions, entertainment events, exhibitions, restaurants and all kinds of shows.\n\nIn 2010, the GDP reached a record high of 951\u00a0billion yuan, an increase of 10.7% over 2009. Shenzhen's economic output is ranked fourth among the 659 Chinese cities (behind Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou), and it is comparable to that of a medium sized province in China. In 2010, Shenzhen's GDP per capita was 95,000 yuan (US$14,615), making it one of the richest of all Chinese cities.\n\nOn 1 July 2010 the Shenzhen special economic zone was expanded from  to  and border controls with the rest of China relaxed.\n\nIndustrial zones\n Shenzhen Hi-Tech Industrial Park (SHIP) was founded in September 1996. It covers an area of . Industries encouraged in the zone include Biotechnology\/Pharmaceuticals, Building\/Construction Materials, Chemicals Production and Processing, Computer Software, Electronics Assembly & Manufacturing, Instruments & Industrial Equipment Production, Medical Equipment and Supplies, Research and Development, Telecommunications Equipment.\n\n Shenzhen Software Park is integrated with Shenzhen Hi-Tech Industry Park, an important vehicle established by Shenzhen Municipal Government to support the development of software industry. The Park was approved to be the base of software production of the National Plan in 2001. The distance between the 010 National Highway and the zone is . The zone is situated  from the Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport.\n\nShenzhen Stock Exchange\n\nThe Shenzhen Stock Exchange (SZSE) is a mutualized national stock exchange under the China Securities Regulatory Commission (the CSRC) that provides a venue for securities trading.  A broad spectrum of market participants, including 540 listed companies, 35 million registered investors and 177 exchange members, create the market. Since its creation in 1990, the SZSE has grown with a market capitalization around 1\u00a0trillion yuan (US$122\u00a0billion).  On a daily basis, around 600,000 deals, valued at US$807\u00a0million, trade on the SZSE.\n\nCityscape\n\nThe tallest building in Shenzhen is now Kingkey 100, which rises to  and contains 100 floors for office space and a hotel. It is currently the tallest building in Shenzhen as well as one of the tallest buildings in southern China. Shenzhen is also the home to the world's 14th tallest building, the Shun Hing Square (Diwang Building). The city has 23 buildings over , mostly concentrated in Luohu and Futian districts. The second tallest building in Shenzhen is SEG Plaza at a height of 356 meters (292 meters to roof-top), located in the popular electronics district of Hua Qiang Bei.\n\nShenzhen has some of the largest public projects in China. The International Trade Center (\u56fd\u8d38), built in 1985, was the tallest building in China when built, and the Shun Hing building was also the tallest in Asia when it was built (still the tallest steel building in the world). Shenzhen is also the site for many tall building projects. Some of the supertalls that have been either proposed or approved are well over . Other proposed buildings would surpass the Kingkey 100's height by 2015.\n\nFor example, the  tall Pingan International Finance Centre will be the tallest in China and second tallest building in the world upon completion in 2014, after the Burj Khalifa. See list of tallest buildings in Shenzhen.\n\nGallery\n\nIntegration with Hong Kong\nHong Kong and Shenzhen have very close business, trade and social links as demonstrated by the statistics presented below.  Except where noted the statistics are taken from sections of the Hong Kong Government (HKG) website.\n\nAs of December 2007, there are six land crossing points on the boundary between Shenzhen and Hong Kong.  From west to east these are Shenzhen Bay Port road crossing (opened 1 July 2007);  Fu Tian Kou An to Lok Ma Chau rail connection linking Shenzhen Metro Line 4 to the MTR's East Rail Line Lok Ma Chau Spur Line (opened 15 August 2007); Huanggang to Lok Ma Chau road connection; Futian to Man Kam To road connection; Luohu to Lo Wu rail connection linking the MTR East Rail Line to Shenzhen Metro Line 1, Shenzhen Rail Station and Luohu in general; and the Shatoujiao to Sha Tau Kok road connection.  Both of the rail connections require the passengers to cross the Shenzhen River on foot as there is no direct rail connection between the two cities, although the  Hong Kong intercity trains to other mainland cities pass through Shenzhen without stopping.\n\nIn 2006, there were around 20,500 daily vehicular crossings of the boundary in each direction.  Of these 65 percent were cargo vehicles, 27 percent cars and the remainder buses and coaches.  The Huanggang crossing was most heavily used at 76 percent of the total, followed by the Futian crossing at 18 percent and Shatoujiao at 6 percent.  Of the cargo vehicles, 12,000 per day were container carrying and, using a rate of 1.44 teus\/vehicle, this results in 17,000 teus\/day across the boundary, while Hong Kong port handled 23,000 teus\/day during 2006, excluding transshipment trade.\n\nTrade with Hong Kong in 2006 consisted of US$333\u00a0billion of imports of which US$298\u00a0billion were re-exported.  Of these figures 94 percent were associated with China.  Considering that 34.5 percent of the value of Hong Kong trade is air freight (only 1.3 percent by weight), a large proportion of this is associated with China as well.\n\nAlso in 2006 the average daily passenger flow through the four connections open at that time was over 200,000 in each direction of which 63 percent used the Luohu rail connection and 33 percent the Huanggang road connection.  Naturally, such high volumes require special handling, and the largest group of people crossing the boundary, Hong Kong residents with Chinese citizenship, use only a biometric ID card (Home Return Permit) and a thumb print reader.  As a point of comparison, Hong Kong's Chek Lap Kok Airport, the 5th busiest international airport in the world, handled 59,000 passengers per day in each direction.\n\nHong Kong conducts regular surveys of cross-boundary passenger movements, with the most recent being in 2003, although the 2007 survey will be reported on soon.  In 2003 the boundary crossings for Hong Kong Residents living in Hong Kong made 78 percent of the trips, up by 33 percent from 1999, whereas Hong Kong and Chinese residents of China made up 20 percent in 2006, an increase of 140 percent above the 1999 figure. Since that time movement has been made much easier for China residents, and so that group have probably increased further yet.  Other nationalities made up 2 percent of boundary crossings.  Of these trips 67 percent were associated with Shenzhen and 42 percent were for business or work purposes.  Of the non-business trips about one third were to visit friends and relatives and the remainder for leisure.\n\nFuture integration plans\nIn Section 114(1) of the policy address on 10 October 2007, Donald Tsang, Hong Kong Chief Executive, stated:\n\nJointly developing a world-class metropolis with Shenzhen: In my Election Platform, I have put forward the vision of developing the Hong Kong-Shenzhen metropolis and undertaken to strengthen our co-operation. My proposals met with positive responses from the Shenzhen authorities. We share a common goal and have had some preliminary exchange of views. Currently, we are discussing airport collaboration and the development of the Lok Ma Chau Loop.\n\nOn 21 November 2007, the Shenzhen Government officially endorsed this policy and included it in the Shenzhen planning blueprint for the period up to 2020.  It was announced that Shenzhen mayor, Xu Zongheng, would visit Hong Kong in December 2007 to sign a metropolis agreement with the SAR government.\n\nThe plans were originally detailed by the Hong Kong non-governmental think tank, Bauhinia Research Foundation in August 2007, and covered such matters as financial services, hi-tech and high-end research and development, transport, environmental matters and ecology.  It was claimed that Shenzhen-Hong Kong could be the third largest metropolis in the world in GDP terms by 2020, only behind New York City and Tokyo.  The plan was also endorsed by the China Development Institute, a Shenzhen-based non-government think tank.\n\nPort\n\nSituated in the Pearl River Delta in China's Guangdong Province, Shenzhen Port is adjacent to Hong Kong. The city's  coastline is divided by the Kowloon Peninsula into two halves, the eastern and the western. Shenzhen's western port area lies to the east of Lingdingyang in the Pearl River Estuary and possesses a deep water harbour with superb natural shelters. It is about  from Hong Kong to the south and  from Guangzhou to the north. By passing Pearl River system, the western port area is connected with the cities and counties in Pearl River Delta networks; by passing On See Dun waterway, it extends all ports both at home and abroad. The eastern port area lies north of Dapeng Bay where the harbour is wide and calm and is regarded as the best natural harbour in South China.\n\nShenzhen handled a record number of containers in 2005, ranking as the world's fourth-busiest port, after rising trade increased cargo shipments through the southern Chinese city. China International Marine Containers, and other operators of the port handled 16.2\u00a0million standard  boxes last year, a 19 per cent increase. Investors in Shenzhen are expanding to take advantage of rising volume.\n\nYantian International Container Terminals, Chiwan Container terminals, Shekou Container Terminals, China Merchants Port and Shenzhen Haixing (Mawan port) are the major port terminals in Shenzhen.\n\nTransport\n\nAir\n\nShenzhen Airlines and Jade Cargo International are located at Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport. The airport is 35 kilometers from central Shenzhen and connects the city with many other parts of China, and serves domestic and international destinations.\n\nRailway\nShenzhen Railway Station is located at the junction of Jianshe Road, Heping Road and Renmin Nan Road and provides links to different parts of China. There are frequent high speed trains to Guangzhou, plus long-distance trains to Beijing, Shanghai, Changsha, Jiujiang, Maoming, Shantou and other destinations. The train from Hong Kong's Hung Hom MTR station to the Lo Wu and Lok Ma Chau border crossings take 43 minutes and 45 minutes respectively.\n\nThere is another railway station located in Nanshan District, Shenzhen West (Shenzhen Xi), which is used for a small number of long distance trains, such as the one to Hefei.\n\nShenzhen North Railway Station (Shenzhen North) opened in 2011 in the Longhua area, handling high-speed trains to Guangzhou South, Guangzhou North, Changsha, Wuhan, Beijing and intermediate stations on the Beijing-Guangzhou-Shenzhen-Hong Kong HSR route.\n\nShenzhen East Railway Station (Shenzhen Dong) was opened in December 2012. It was originally called Buji station after the suburb it is located and was a Grade 3 station along the Guangshen Railway with no passenger services. Now after massive renovations, it currently handles mostly regional services.\n\nLonggan Railway Station is under construction and will be completed by 2013 to serve high-speed trains on the Hangzhou-Fuzhou-Shenzhen HSR route when it opens in 2013.\n\nFutian Railway Station is under construction and will be completed by 2014. It is completely underground, located in the centre of its namesake Futian District. The central location means it will become the focal point for most high-speed train services on the Beijing-Guangzhou-Shenzhen-Hong Kong HSR route upon completion. Connection to West Kowloon Railway Station in Hong Kong will be made in 2015, allowing for 15 minute cross border train journeys.\n\nMetro\nThe Shenzhen Metro system opened on 28 December 2004. In phase I, there are only two lines: the Luobao and Longhua lines. Luobao line is from Luohu (Lo Wu and Shenzhen railway stations) to the Window of the World (Overseas Chinese Town). The Longhua line is from Futian Kouan (Futian checkpoint; it was named Huang Gang at first) to Shaonian Gong (Children's Palace). \n\nIn June 2011, the Shenzhen Metro extended the Luobao and Longhua lines. The Luobao line runs from Luohu to Shenzhen Bao'an Airport and the Longhua line (now operated by MTR) runs from Futian Kouan (Futian Checkpoint) to Qinghu. Also in June 2011, three lines of the second phase opened before the 26th summer Universiade. They are Shekou line (from Chiwan to Xinxiu), Longgang line (from Yitian to Shuanglong), and Huanzhong line (from Qianhaiwan to Huangbeiling).\n\nSea\nShenzhen is also connected by fast ferries linking Shekou, on the west edge of the SEZ with Zhuhai, Macau, Hong Kong International Airport, Kowloon, and Hong Kong Island.\n\nShenzhen has shorelines in its southwest and southeast. Beaches like Dameisha and Xiaomeisha are often crowded with locals and tourists. The Xichong beach, is just one hour drive from Shenzhen's city center, and it still retains its age old natural beauties.\n\nRoad\nSince February 2003, the road border crossing at Huanggang and Lok Ma Chau in Hong Kong has been open 24 hours a day. The journey can be made by private vehicle or by bus. On 15 August 2007, the Lok Ma Chau-Huanggang pedestrian border crossing opened, linking Lok Ma Chau Station with Huanggang. With the opening of the crossing, shuttle buses between Lok Ma Chau transport interchange and Huanggang were terminated.\n\nTaxis are metered and come in three colors. Red taxis may travel anywhere; green ones are restricted to outside the SEZ, and yellow ones are restricted to inside the SEZ.\n\nThere are also frequent bus and van services from Hong Kong International Airport to Huanggang and most major hotels in Shenzhen. A bus service operated by Chinalink Bus Company operates from Kowloon Station on the Airport Express MTR line (below Elements Mall) direct to the Shenzhen International airport.\n\nTourist attractions\n\nShenzhen's major tourist attractions include the Chinese Folk Culture Village, the Window of the World, Happy Valley, Splendid China, the Safari Park in Nanshan district, the Dameisha Promenade, Xiaomeisha Beach Resort in Yantian district, Zhongying Jie\/Chung Ying Street, Xianhu Lake Botanical Garden, and Minsk World. The city also offers free admission to a number of public parks including the Lianhuashan Park, Lizhi Park, Zhongshan Park and Wutongshan Park.\n\nThere are over twenty public city parks in Shenzhen.\n\nSome tourists, however, choose to stay in a largely expatriate and exotic residential community called Shekou, home to a large French cruise liner cemented into the ground called Sea World. Shekou was expanded and renovated in recent years, including claiming additional land from the sea.\n\nShenzhen's central music hall and library are located in the Shenzhen Cultural Center.\n\nIn recent years, the East Coast (shoreline) of Shenzhen has attracted more and more tourists, including backpackers.  One of the most famous beaches is Xichong in the south of Dapeng Peninsula.\n\nCulture\nShenzhen Cultural Center\nLonggang Cultural Center\n\nMedia\nShenzhen is served by a variety of daily newspapers, including the Shenzhen Daily\n\nSports\nShenzhen Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium that hosts many events. The 26th Summer Universiade, the latest one to take place, was held in Shenzhen on 12 August 2011. Shenzhen has constructed the sports venues for this first major sporting event in the city.\n\nEducation\n\nColleges and universities\n Shenzhen University\n Shenzhen Polytechnic\n Shenzhen Radio and TV University\n Shenzhen Institute of Information Technology\n Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University\n Shenzhen Graduate School of Tsinghua University\n Shenzhen Graduate School of Harbin Institute of Technology\n South University of Science and Technology\n\nHigh schools\n\nInternational relations\n\nTwin towns and sister cities\nShenzhen is twinned with:\n Houston, United States, March 1986\n Brescia, Italy, November 1991\n Brisbane, Australia, June 1992\n Pozna\u0144, Poland, July 1993\n Vienne, France, October 1994\n Kingston, Jamaica, March 1995\n Lom\u00e9, Togo, June 1996\n Nuremberg, Germany, May 1997\n Walloon Brabant, Belgium, October 2003\n Tsukuba, Japan, June 2004\n Gwangyang, South Korea, October 2004\n Johor Bahru, Malaysia, July 2006\n Perm, Russia, 2006\n Turin, Italy, January 2007\n Timi\u015foara, Romania, February 2007\n Rotherham, England, United Kingdom, November 2007\n Reno, Nevada, United States, 30 April 2008\n Montevideo, Uruguay February 2009\n Kalocsa, Hungary, 2011\n Haifa, Israel, 2012\n Barcelona, Spain July 2012\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nShenzhen Government Online\n\nWikiSatellite view of Shenzhen at Wikimapia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":7,"2015-11":6,"2015-06":5,"2014-10":7,"2013-48":5,"2013-20":4,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":47716,"url":"https:\/\/my.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B7","title":"\u101b\u103e\u102d\u1014\u103a\u1038\u1000\u103b\u102d\u1014\u1037\u103a\u1019\u103c\u102d\u102f\u1037","language":"my"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Duccio di Buoninsegna ( , ;  \u2013 ) was one of the most important painters in Italy in the Late Middle Ages. He worked mainly in the city of Siena in Tuscany but one of his largest works was done for a church in Florence. He is most famous for his altarpieces of the Madonna and Child. Duccio painted in the Byzantine style, similar to Greek icons.\n\nDuccio's life\n\nThe first written record of Duccio is dated 1278, when he was painting in Siena. His paintings, of which only a few remain, are all Holy pictures. Two of them are very large and were painted as altarpieces. Some of them are very small and were for private owners, not for churches.\n\nAt that time, many artists painted pictures that were specially for people to look at while they were praying. The pictures are most often of the Madonna and Child. They often have gold backgrounds which glow when they are lit by candlelight. The figures in the paintings do not look very solid or realistic. They look very still, calm and holy. These paintings had been done in the same style for many hundreds of years, in Greece, Constantinople and many other countries where the Greek Orthodox Church was the main church. The style, which was called the Byzantine style, had also spread to Italy where several Orthodox icons (Holy picture), had become famous and were copied by many artists.\n\nDuccio was one of the greatest painters in the Byzantine style in Italy at the time. He had a famous rival who worked in Florence. His name was Cimabue. One of Cimabue's pupils, Giotto, was to become even more famous, and is remembered as having begun the Renaissance style of painting in Florence. Even though Duccio probably saw Giotto's paintings, in which the figures look solid and three-dimensional, like actors on a stage, Duccio was not very influenced by him.\n\nDuccio had several students who also became famous painters of the 1300s. They include Simone Martini and the Lorenzetti brothers, who were also influenced by Giotto.\n\nThe \"Rucellai Madonna\"\nIn 1285 Duccio was asked to go to Florence to paint an altarpiece of the Madonna and Child for the church of Santa Maria Novella which had been  rebuilt for the Dominican friars. It was a very large church and for it, Duccio painted the biggest ancient altarpiece of this type that is known.  It is called the \"Rucellai Madonna\" because the Rucellai, who were a very rich family, paid for the decoration of the main chapel of the church, where this altarpiece was hung in the 1600s.\n\nDuccio painted the Madonna sitting on a throne with the Christ Child in her lap, raising his hand in blessing. Around them are six kneeling angels in robes of delicate colours. The robe of the Madonna is very dark blue and looks almost black; it is painted with ground-up semi precious stone called lapis lazuli. The robe of the baby looks quite transparent. Duccio was one of the first painters to try to paint transparent material. One of the important parts of Duccio's design is the gold border of the Madonnna's robe, which seems to wander around the painting in a waving line, and frames the Madonna's face in a way that holds the attention of the viewer.\n\nThe \"Rucellai Madonna\" is no longer in the Church of Santa Maria Novella. In  1948 it was moved to the Ufizzi Gallery where it is shown in the same room as Cimabue's \"Trinita Madonna\" and Giotto's \"Ognisanti Madonna\".\n\nThe \"Maest\u00e0\"\nIn Duccio's own city there was a large cathedral. In 1308 he was given the job of making an enormous altarpiece of the Madonna on a throne for the cathedral. It was not to be as tall as the \"Rucellai Madonna\" but was much wider, because it showed two rows of saints and a row of angels on either side of the throne. The four saints the kneel at the front of the picture are those who were particularly remembered in the city of Siena. The altarpiece was to have a very fancy Gothic gold frame with more figures at the top, and small pictures at the bottom, but unfortunately the frame has been destroyed.\n\nBecause the painting stood above an altar that was right in the middle of the cathedral, and not against a wall, it was easy for people to walk around to see the back of the altarpiece. So Duccio painted the back as well. The back of the altarpiece had lots of small scenes which tell the life of Jesus. These small scenes, which have gold backgrounds and bright colours in the usual way, are very lively illustrations to the Bible stories.\n\nAfter three years, the altarpiece was finished. It was carried in a great procession from Duccio's workshop, up the hill to the cathedral which stood on the highest point of the city. It was called the \"Maest\u00e0\" (or \"Majesty\"). Four other artists were asked to do smaller altarpieces to go in the four chapels that were nearby.\n\nUnfortunately, in the 1700s, people at the cathedral thought that Duccio's altarpiece was old-fashioned. It was taken to pieces, and some of the smaller parts were sold. They can be seen in the National Gallery, London and other places. Luckily most of the pieces were kept together and can now be seen in the Cathedral Museum which is near Siena Cathedral.\n\nSome of the smaller panels from the \"Maest\u00e0\"\n\nSome of Duccio's other works\n\nRelated pages\n List of Italian painters\n\nReferences\n\n John White, Duccio, Thames and Hudson, (1979),  \n Cecilia Jannella, Duccio, Scala\/Riverside, Siena (1991),  \n John T. Paoletti and Gary M. Radke, Art in Renaissance Italy, Laurence King Publishing, (2005), \n\n1255 births\n1319 deaths\n14th-century Italian painters\n13th-century Italian painters","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":57018,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Duccio","title":"Duccio","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\"Isle of Beauty, Isle of Splendour\" adalah lagu kebangsaan dari negara Dominika.\n\nLirik \nIsle of beauty, isle of splendour,\nIsle to all so sweet and fair,\nAll must surely gaze in wonder\nAt thy gifts so rich and rare.\nRivers, valleys, hills and mountains,\nAll these gifts we do extol.\nHealthy land, so like all fountains,\nGiving cheer that warms the soul.\n\nDominica, God hath blest thee\nWith a clime benign and bright,\nPastures green and flowers of beauty\nFilling all with pure delight,\nAnd a people strong and healthy,\nFull of godly reverent fear.\nMay we ever seek to praise Thee\nFor these gifts so rich and rare.\n\nCome ye forward, sons and daughters\nOf this gem beyond compare.\nStrive for honour, sons and daughters,\nDo the right, be firm, be fair.\nToil with hearts and hands and voices.\nWe must prosper! Sound the call,\nIn which ev'ryone rejoices,\n\"All for Each and Each for All.\"\n\nPranala luar \n \"Dominica: Isle of Beauty, Isle of Splendour\", YouTube.\n\nDominika\nLagu kebangsaan","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":162,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-26":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":4,"2024-10":9,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2013-48":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":5,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":4,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":5,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":1561571,"url":"https:\/\/id.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Isle%20of%20Beauty%2C%20Isle%20of%20Splendour","title":"Isle of Beauty, Isle of Splendour","language":"id"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A muzzleloader is any firearm in which the user loads the  projectile and the propellant charge into the muzzle end of the gun (i.e., from the forward, open end of the gun's barrel). This is distinct from the modern (higher tech and harder to make) designs of breech-loading firearms, in which user loads the ammunition into the breech end of the barrel. The term \"muzzleloader\" applies to both rifled and smoothbore type muzzleloaders, and may also refer to the marksman who specializes in the shooting of such firearms. The firing methods, paraphernalia and mechanism further divide both categories as do caliber (from cannons to small-caliber palm guns).\n\nModern muzzleloading firearms range from reproductions of sidelock, flintlock and percussion long guns, to in-line rifles that use modern inventions such as a closed breech, sealed primer and fast rifling to allow for considerable accuracy at long ranges.\n\nModern mortars use a shell with the propelling charge and primer attached at the base.  Unlike older muzzleloading mortars, which were loaded the same way as muzzleloading cannon, the modern mortar is fired by dropping the shell down the barrel where a pin fires the primer, igniting the main propelling charge.  Both the modern mortar and the older mortar were used for high angle fire.  However, the fact that the mortar is not loaded in separate steps may make its definition as a muzzleloader a matter of opinion.\n\nMuzzleloading can apply to anything from cannons to pistols but in modern parlance the term most commonly applies to black powder small arms. It usually, but not always, involves the use of a loose propellant (i.e., gunpowder) and projectile, as well as a separate method of ignition or priming.\n\nLoading\n\nIn general, the sequence of loading is to put in first gunpowder, by pouring in a measured amount of loose powder, historically mostly by using a powder flask (or powder horn), or by inserting a pre-measured bag or paper packet of gunpowder (called a cartridge) or by inserting solid propellant pellets. The gunpowder used is typically black powder or black powder substitutes like Pyrodex. Sometimes two types of gunpowder (and two flasks) were used consisting of finer priming powder for the flash pan and coarser powder for the main charge behind the ball. This was particularly the case with earlier muzzleloaders like matchlocks but appear to have been less common with flintlocks and was irrelevant with percussion locks since they used percussion caps rather than priming powder.\n\nWadding is made from felt, paper, cloth or card and has several different uses. In shotguns, a card wad or other secure wadding is used between the powder and the shot charge to prevent pellets from dropping into the powder charge and on top of the shot charge to hold it in place in the barrel. In smooth bore muskets and most rifles used prior to cartridges being introduced in the mid-to late nineteenth century, wadding was used primarily to hold the powder in place.\n  \nOn most naval cannons, one piece of wadding was used to hold the powder in place and served the purpose of creating a better seal around the shot. Another was used to act as a plug to stop the shot rolling out because of the swaying of the ship.\n\nThe use of cartridges with both gunpowder charge and ball, made up in batches by the shooter or a servant, was known from very early on, but until roughly around 1800 loading using a powder flask and a bag of balls was more common outside of the military. The measuring stage for the barrel charge of gunpowder could be avoided by carrying a number of pre-measured charges in small containers of wood, metal or cloth, often carried on a bandolier.  These were known by various names, including \"chargers\" or \"apostles\" as 12 were often carried.  For most of the time muzzleloaders were in use, a round ball and pre-measured powder charge could be carried in a paper or cloth wrapping.  The shooter would bite off the end of the paper cartridge with his teeth and pour the powder into the barrel followed by the ball encased in the paper wrapping.\n\nThe projectiles and wads were then pushed down into the breech with a ramrod until they were firmly seated on the propellant charge.  Priming powder could be carried in a separate priming flask and poured into the priming pan or a little powder from the cartridge was used, and the frizzen was pushed down to hold the priming powder in place. After the gunpowder and projectile or shot charge were placed in the barrel a ramrod was used to firmly pack everything down at the base of the barrel.  Then either a priming charge was placed in the priming pan or a percussion cap was placed on the nipple, the firing mechanism initiated; the cock or hammer was then cocked to make the firearm ready to fire.\n\nProjectile types and history\n\nMuzzleloading firearms generally use round balls, cylindrical conical projectiles, and shot charges.\n\nIn some types of rifles firing round ball, a lubricated patch (see Kentucky rifle) of fabric is wrapped around a ball which is slightly smaller than the barrel diameter.  In other types of round ball firing rifles, a ramrod and hammer is used to force the round ball down through the rifling.  When fired, either the lead ball or the wrapping grips the rifling and imparts spin to the ball which usually gives improved accuracy. In rifles firing Mini\u00e9 balls, the patch, often the paper wrapping from the cartridge, is used as an initial seal and to hold powder in place during loading.\n\nThe Mini\u00e9 ball replaced the round ball in most firearms, especially for military use, in the 1840s and 1850s.  It has a hollow base which expands to grip the rifling.  The combination of the spinning Mini\u00e9 ball and the consistent velocity provided by the improved seal gave far better accuracy than the smoothbore muzzleloaders that it replaced.\n\nModern usage\nWhen aiming for great accuracy, muzzle-loaders are usually cleaned (\"swabbed\") before reloading, so that there is no residue left in the barrel to reduce accuracy, though in competitions run by the international governing body, the MLAIC, this is prohibited for military rifle and musket events. However, in small arms muzzleloading rifles, swabbing is only done after every 5-10 shots.  Large caliber muzzle-loaders such as cannons are always swabbed between shots to prevent accidents caused by live sparks igniting the fresh charge of powder as it is being loaded.\n\nMuzzleloading\n\nMuzzleloading is the sport or pastime of firing muzzleloading guns. Muzzleloading guns, both antique and reproduction, are used for target shooting, hunting, historical re-enactment and historical research. The sport originated in the United States in the 1930s, just as the last original users and makers of muzzleloading arms were dying out. The sport received a tremendous boost in the 1960s and 1970s. The Muzzle Loaders Associations International Committee (www.MLAIC.org) was formed in 1970 and held its first World Championship in 1971. Since then a flourishing industry manufacturing working reproductions of historic firearms now exists in the United States and Europe, particularly in northern Italy, for example at Gardone Val Trompia, in the Province of Brescia. In the United States muzzleloading guns are, subject to a number of qualifications, generally not considered firearms. Subject to state law they may be possessed by persons who might otherwise not be legally allowed to own a firearm.\n\nThe American National Muzzle Loading Rifle Association holds two national tournaments a year in Friendship, Indiana as well as the Western National Shoot Event held in Phoenix, Arizona.\n\nThe Muzzle Loaders Associations International Committee (MLAIC) governs international competition with muzzle-loading arms.  The MLAIC holds a Short Range World Championship in even-numbered years and a Long Range World Championship () on odd numbered years (South Africa has won the last 5 Long Range World Championships).\n\nModern use\nDriven by demand for muzzleloaders for special extended primitive hunting seasons, firearms manufacturers have developed in-line muzzleloading rifles with designs similar to modern breech-loading centerfire designs. Knight Rifles pioneered the in-line muzzleloader in the mid-1980s, manufacturing and selling them to this day. Savage Arms has created the 10ML-II, which can be used with smokeless powder, reducing the cleaning required. However, Savage has discontinued the production of smokeless muzzleloaders. Remington Firearms also have a muzzleloader in production, the model \"700 Ultimate\" or \"700 SL Ultimate\". There are several custom gun makers that are currently building smokeless muzzleloaders on new or donor bolt actions.\n\nSee also\n\nRelated to muzzle-loading small arms\n\nRelated to muzzle-loading artillery \n\nRifled muzzle loader\nList of muzzle-loading artillery\nBombard\nFalconet\nSaker\nCannon\nDemi-cannon\nCulverin\nDemi-culverin\nMinion\nCanon-obusier (gun-howitzer)\nML 8 inch shell gun\n68-pounder gun\nParrott rifle\n70 pounder Whitworth\nRML 68-pounder 64 cwt gun\nRML 7 inch gun\n68-pounder Lancaster gun\nRML 12 inch 25 ton gun\nRML 12 inch 35 ton gun\nRML 17.72 inch gun, (\"100-ton gun\")\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n National Muzzle Loading Rifle Association\nMuzzle Loaders association of Great Britain\nMuzzle-Loading Associations International Committee\nMuzzleloader Articles A number of articles on loading and firing various military muzzleloaders.\n\n \nFirearm actions\nEarly firearms\nAmmunition\n19th-century weapons\n18th-century weapons\nBlack-powder pistols","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":146,"dup_dump_count":59,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":5,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":8,"2014-35":8,"2014-23":10,"2014-15":5}},"id":94124,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Muzzleloader","title":"Muzzleloader","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is a movement to save human life and health. Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland.\n\nAlthough it is a big international organisation, it is privately run. No government controls the Red Cross.\n\nThe Red Cross has a special job, given by international law. It is the only private group to have its jobs set out by international law.\n\nThree things make up the movement:\n\n The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) was created in 1863 in Geneva. Its job, under international law, is to protect the life and dignity of the victims of war.\n The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) was founded in 1919. It tries to make sure the national Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies can work together and organise relief assistance missions in case of large-scale emergencies. The International Federation Secretariat is also based in Geneva, Switzerland.\n There is a Red Cross and Red Crescent society in nearly every country in the world. 186 National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies are recognized by the ICRC and admitted as full members of the Federation. Each one works in its home country, following the ideas of international humanitarian law and the statutes of the international Movement. If possible National Societies can take on additional humanitarian tasks that are not directly defined by international humanitarian law or the mandates of the international Movement. The British Red Cross Society, for example, organises volunteer ambulances at public events. The German Red Cross operates a blood bank and a professional full-time ambulance service for hospitals.\n75px\nThe Red Cross, the Red Crescent and the Red Crystal,the three international symbols of the Red Cross\n\nGoals\nAccording to the Geneva conventions, there are five goals for International red cross and red crescent movements;\nTo monitor compliance of warring parties with the Geneva Conventions\nTo organize nursing and care for those who are wounded on the battlefield\nTo supervise the treatment of prisoners of war and treat them\nTo help with the search for missing persons in a war (tracing service)\nTo organize protection and care for normal people\nTo make peace between groups in war\n\nOther websites\n\nInternational Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement Official Website  \n\nRed Cross\nOrganizations based in Geneva","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":142,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":6,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3}},"id":31675,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International%20Red%20Cross%20and%20Red%20Crescent%20Movement","title":"International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The World Bank Group is a group of five international organizations. The World Bank Group gives advice and finance to member countries for economic development and reducing poverty. It is a non-profit-making international organization owned by member governments. The Group has its headquarters in Washington, D.C.. It also has offices in 124 other member countries.\n\nThe group \nThe World Bank Group is made of the following five organizations:\n the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), established in 1945,\n the International Finance Corporation (IFC), established in 1956,\n the International Development Association (IDA), established in 1960,\n the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), established in 1988 and\n the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), established in 1966.\n\nThe beginning \nThe World Bank Group originated at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. Many countries met and decided to start a Bretton Woods system including an international organization to provide finance to member countries. The Bank came into existence on 27th December 1945. Its name was the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The Bank's first loan was to France. The loan was of 250 million US Dollars. The purpose was to help France to again build industry and other important things like roads destroyed during the Second World War.\n\nThe activities \nThe activities of the World Bank Group cover many activities. Some of these activities are as follows:\n Development of health and education\n Development of agriculture and rural development\n Reduction of pollution\n Development of infrastructure, for example, development of facilities likes roads and electricity\n Development of system for good government\n\nThe World Bank Group gives loans at low rate of interest to member countries. The member countries use the money received for any one of above or some other similar activity.\n\nIn short, the World Bank Group's main mission is 1) to fight poverty and 2) to improve the living standards of people in the developing world. Beside giving direct money and finance, the World Bank Group provides advice and assistance to developing countries on almost every aspect of economic development.\n\nThe management \nIn general, the World Bank Group is part of the United Nations system. But, member countries govern it through a board. The IBRD has 184 countries as its members. Other four organizations of the Group have between 140 and 176 member countries. A Board of 24 Executive Directors controls the activities of the World Bank Group. A President heads the Board.\n\nIts criticism \nMany economists and people have criticized the World Bank Group for its style of functioning. Before giving loans, the Bank sometimes requires many changes in the policies of a country. This has attracted criticism as it reduces the country's independence to run its economy in its own way. The criticism is also on account of other factors. One of them is that two or three countries have more power to decide matters. As of November 1, 2004 the United States held 16.4% of total votes, Japan 7.9%, Germany 4.5%, and the United Kingdom and France each held 4.3%. As major decisions require an 85% super-majority, the US can block any change.\n\nIn spite of several criticisms, the World Bank Group's role in economic development and reduction of poverty has continued in many countries.\n\nOther websites \n World Bank Group (website)\n\nNon-profit organizations of Washington, D.C.\nWorld Bank","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":31835,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World%20Bank%20Group","title":"World Bank Group","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Banqueting House, on Whitehall in the City of Westminster, central London, is the grandest and best-known survivor of the architectural genre of banqueting houses, constructed for elaborate entertaining. It is the only large surviving component of the Palace of Whitehall, the residence of English monarchs from 1530 to 1698. The building is important in the history of English architecture as the first structure to be completed in the classical style of Palladian architecture which was to transform English architecture.\n\nBegun in 1619 and designed by Inigo Jones in a style influenced by Andrea Palladio, the Banqueting House was completed in 1622 at a cost of \u00a315,618, 27 years before King Charles I of England was beheaded on a scaffold in front of it in January 1649. The building was controversially re-faced in Portland stone in the 19th century, though the details of the original fa\u00e7ade were faithfully preserved. Today, the Banqueting House is a national monument, open to the public and preserved as a Grade I listed building. It is cared for by an independent charity, Historic Royal Palaces, which receives no funding from the British Government or the Crown.\n\nHistory\n\nThe Palace of Whitehall was the creation of King Henry VIII, expanding an earlier mansion that had belonged to Cardinal Wolsey, known as York Place. The king was determined that his new palace should be the \"biggest palace in Christendom\", a place befitting his newly created status as the Supreme Head of the Church of England. All evidence of the disgraced Wolsey was eliminated and the building rechristened the Palace of Whitehall.\n\nDuring Henry's reign, the palace had no designated banqueting house, the king preferring to banquet in a temporary structure purpose-built in the gardens. The Keeper of the Banqueting House was a position enhanced by Queen Mary I by designating it in relation to a building of the same name at Nonsuch Palace, near the south edge of Greater London, which has since been demolished and instead marks the site of a footpath junction of the London Loop. This house was used to entertain the French agent in London and ambassador Antoine de Noailles and his wife in 1556.\n\nThe Elizabethan banqueting house\nA more permanent Banqueting house was built at Whitehall in 1581, costing \u00a31,744-19 shillings. Raphael Holinshed described the building, with its timbered structure covered with canvas painted in imitation of stone, and a painted ceiling including the queen's devices and heraldry. The new building was intended as the venue for entertaining Francis, Duke of Anjou and Alen\u00e7on. In subsequent years, the decorative scheme was enhanced by the painters George Gower and Lewis Lizard.\n\nThe ceiling of this Elizabethan banqueting house, inherited by King James I at the Union of the Crowns, was painted with clouds by Leonard Fryer in 1604.\n\nThe first Jacobean banqueting house at Whitehall\nKing James began building a new banqueting house in 1607, which was destined to only have a short life. The building was probably designed by Robert Stickells. King James visited the construction site in September 1607 and was displeased with the placing of pillars which obscured the windows. This banqueting house was the venue for The Masque of Beauty in January 1608, and Prince Henry's Barriers in January 1610.\n\nAn adjacent chamber was built for the wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V of the Palatinate in 1613. This banqueting house was destroyed by fire in January 1619, when workmen, clearing up after New Year's festivities, decided to incinerate the rubbish inside the building.\n\nArchitecture \n\nThe replacement Banqueting House was commissioned from the fashionable architect Inigo Jones. Jones had spent time in Italy studying the architecture evolving from the Renaissance and that of Andrea Palladio, and returned to England with what were, at the time, revolutionary ideas: to replace the eclectic style of the Jacobean English Renaissance with a more pure, classical design, which made no attempt to harmonise with the Tudor palace of which it was to be part.\n\nThe design of the Banqueting House is classical in concept. It introduced a refined Italianate Renaissance style that was unparalleled in the free and picturesque Jacobean architecture of England, where Renaissance motifs were still filtered through the engravings of Flemish Mannerist designers. The roof is essentially flat and the roofline is defined by a balustrade. On the street fa\u00e7ade, the engaged columns, of the Corinthian and Ionic orders, the former above the latter, stand atop a high, rusticated basement and divide the seven bays of windows.\n\nThe building is on three floors: The ground floor, a warren of cellars and store rooms, is low; its small windows indicating by their size the lowly status and usage of the floor, above which is the double-height banqueting hall, which falsely appears from the outside as a first-floor piano nobile with a secondary floor above. The lower windows of the hall are surmounted by alternating triangular and segmental pediments, while the upper windows are unadorned casements. Immediately beneath the entablature, which projects to emphasize the central three bays, the capitals of the pilasters are linked by swags in relief, above which the entablature is supported by dental corbel table. Under the upper frieze, festoons and masks suggest the feasting and revelry associated with the concept of a royal banqueting hall.\n\nMuch of the work on the Banqueting House was overseen by Nicholas Stone, a Devonshire mason who had trained in Holland. It has been said that, until this time, English sculpture resembled that described by the Duchess of Malfi: \"the figure cut in alabaster kneels at my husband's tomb.\" Like Inigo Jones, Stone was well aware of Florentine art and introduced to England a more delicate classical form of sculpture inspired by Michelangelo's Medici tombs. This is evident in his swags on the street fa\u00e7ade of the Banqueting House, similar to that which adorns the plinth of his Francis Holles memorial.\n\nIn 1638, Jones drew the designs for a new and massive palace at Whitehall in which his banqueting house was to be incorporated as one wing enclosing a series of seven courtyards, visible on the monumental main fa\u00e7ade as only a small flanking wing. These revealed the ideas behind Jones' concept of Palladianism. However, King Charles I, who commissioned the plans, never amassed the resources to execute them; his lack of funds and the tensions that eventually led to the Civil War intervened and the plans were permanently shelved. The Second English Civil War resulted in Charles I's own execution outside Banqueting House following the defeat of Royalist forces. \n\nIn January 1698, the Tudor Palace was razed by fire that raged for 17 hours. All that remained was the Banqueting House, Whitehall Gate, and Holbein Gate. Christopher Wren and Nicholas Hawksmoor were asked to design a new palace, but nothing came of the scheme. It has been said that the widowed King William III never cared for the area, but, had his wife, Mary II, been alive, with her appreciation of the historical significance of Whitehall, he would have insisted on the rebuilding.\n\nInterior\nThe term Banqueting House was something of a misnomer. The hall within the house was, in fact, used not only for banqueting, but also royal receptions, ceremonies, and the performance of masques. The entertainments given there would have been among the finest in Europe, for, during this period, England was considered the area's leading musical country. On 5 January 1617, Pocahontas and Tomocomo were brought before the king at the Banqueting House, at a performance of Ben Jonson's masque The Vision of Delight. According to John Smith, James I was so unprepossessing, neither Pocahontas nor Tomocomo realized whom they had met until it was explained to them afterward. Such masques were later augmented with French musicians, whom Queen Henrietta Maria, the wife of Charles I, brought to the court. The masques began a slow decline, however, after the death in 1625 of Orlando Gibbons, who ironically died on a trip to meet the newly married Henrietta Maria and her musicians.\n\nInside the building is a single two-storey, double-cube room. The double-cube, in which the length of the room is twice its equal width and height, is another Palladianism, where all proportions are mathematically related. At the upper level, the room is surrounded by what is sometimes mistakenly referred to as a minstrels' gallery. While musicians may have played from this vantage point, its true purpose was to admit an audience; at the time of the Banqueting House's construction, kings still lived in \"splendour and state\", or publicly. The less exalted and the general public would be permitted to crowd the gallery in order to watch the king dine. The lower status of those in the gallery was emphasised by the lack of an internal staircase, the gallery only being accessible by an external staircase. The building was, however, later extended to accommodate an internal staircase.\n\nJames I, for whom the Banqueting House was created, died in 1625 and was succeeded by his son, Charles I. The accession of Charles I heralded a new era in the cultural history of England. The new king was a great patron of the arts. He added to the Royal Collection and encouraged the great painters of Europe to come to England. In 1623 he visited Spain where he was impressed by Titian, Rubens, and Vel\u00e1zquez. It became his ambition to find a comparable painter for his own court. Rubens while in England as a diplomat was asked to design and paint the Banqueting House ceiling which was sketched in London but completed at his studio in Antwerp due to the scale of the job. It was probably commissioned in 1629\u201330, and finally installed in 1636, the ceiling having been completely remodelled to frame the various sections. The subject, commissioned by the king, was the glorification of his father, titled The Apotheosis of James I, and was an allegory of his own birth. To the king's chagrin, Rubens took his knighthood and decamped back to Antwerp, leaving Anthony van Dyck, lured not only with a knighthood but also a pension and a house, to remain in England as the court painter. The panels for the ceiling were all painted in Rubens' atelier in Antwerp and sent to London by ship. Inigo Jones later designed another double-cube room at Wilton House, to display Van Dyck's portraits of the aristocratic Pembroke family.\n\nGiven the attention and effort which were lavished by Charles I on the Banqueting House, his end was not without irony. On the afternoon of 30 January 1649, he stepped out of a first-floor window of Banqueting House onto the scaffold that had been erected outside for the purpose of his own execution. The actual window no longer exists, as it was not in the main hall but just outside it in an adjacent part of the building which has now gone. Seen from the outside, it would have been the next window along at the north end, roughly above the current visitors' entrance.\n\nLegacy \nUnlike the architecture of the more southern European countries, English architecture went through no period of evolution to classicism. Through Jones it arrived suddenly and fully formed. Before this, English architecture had still been based on the styles of the Middle Ages, if for the previous century influenced by Netherlandish and French renaissance classicism, which had resulted in an English renaissance style during the late Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. However, as can be seen at prodigy houses like Hatfield House, one of England's first purpose-built \"Renaissance\" houses, even during this era, English domestic architecture never quite lost its \"castle air\".\n\nAlthough English architecture had been influenced, mostly indirectly, by Italian classicism for a century or so, resulting in the use of classical forms and motifs in late Tudor, Elizabethan and Jacobean buildings, on his return from Italy Jones brought with him far more thorough and up to date understanding of the underlying principles of late Renaissance classicism. With his work at the Queen's House in Greenwich, and the Banqueting House, Jones transformed English architecture.\n\nThe overthrow of the monarch and establishment of the puritanical Commonwealth caused the style to be seen as Royalist, which delayed its spread; but within a few years of the Restoration almost every English county was to have some buildings in the classical style. The Banqueting House and its features became much copied. A much-favoured motif was the placing of pediments above not only the focal point of a fa\u00e7ade but also its windows. The use of alternating segmental and triangular pediments, an arrangement employed by Vasari as early as 1550 at the Medicis' Palazzo Uffizi in Florence, was a particular favourite. Provincial architects began to recreate the motifs of the Banqueting House throughout England, with varying degrees of competence. Examples of the style's popularity can be found throughout England; the then-remote county of Somerset alone contains three 17th-century versions of the Banqueting House: Brympton d'Evercy, Hinton House, and Ashton Court. Following the fall of the monarchy, Jones' career was effectively ended, his style seen as royalist. He died in 1652, never having seen the popularity of the architectural concepts he introduced.\n\nJames II was the last monarch to live at Whitehall; William III and Mary II preferred to live elsewhere and eventually reconstructed Hampton Court Palace. Following the fire which destroyed Whitehall Palace, the Banqueting Hall became redundant for the purpose for which it was designed, and it was converted to a chapel to replace the Chapel Royal of Whitehall, which had been destroyed in the fire and was used to host concerts. It remained a chapel before being given to the Royal United Services Institute by Queen Victoria in 1893. Highly controversial plans to partition the large mansion house space in the service of offices for the Institution were quickly dropped in favour of the creation of a museum which displayed personal items of famous commanders and included the skeleton of Napoleon's horse. The museum closed in 1962, and the great south window, closed up by the RUSI, was restored.\n\nToday, the banqueting hall is open for tours and use as a venue space.\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography \n Copplestone, Trewin (1963). World Architecture. London: Hamlyn.\n Dunning, Robert (1991). Somerset Country Houses. Wimborne, Dorset: The Dovecote Press.\n \n \n Fletcher, B (1921). A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. London: B.T. Batsford, Ltd.\n Halliday, F. E. (1967). Cultural History of England. London: Thames & Hudson.\n Hart, V. (2002). '\"Immaginacy set free\": Aristotelian Ethics and Inigo Jones's Banqueting House at Whitehall', RES: Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics, vol.39, pp.\u00a0151\u201367.\n Hart, V. (2011). Inigo Jones: The Architect of Kings. Yale University Press. \n Williams, Neville (1971). Royal Homes. Lutterworth Press.\n\nExternal links \n\n \n\nHistoric house museums in London\nMuseums in the City of Westminster\nRoyal buildings in London\nGrade I listed buildings in the City of Westminster\nGrade I listed palaces\nHistoric Royal Palaces\nHouses completed in 1622\nInigo Jones buildings\nNeoclassical architecture in London\nPalladian architecture in England\n1622 establishments in England\nWhitehall\nCharles I of England\nPocahontas","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":53,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":6,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":6}},"id":8613053,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Banqueting%20House","title":"Banqueting House","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dina aljabar dasar, interval (atawa heuleut) hartina hiji kumpulan nu ngandung sakab\u00e9h wilangan nyata antara dua wilangan nu disebutkeun, katut, bisa jadi, dua wilangan \u00e9ta. Notasi interval nya\u00e9ta \u00e9kspr\u00e9si variabel nu kawengku dina hiji interval; misalna \"5 < x < 9\". Dumasar kasapukan konv\u00e9nsi, interval \"(10,20)\" nunjukkeun sakab\u00e9h angka nyata antara 10 jeung 20, teu kaasup 10 atawa 20. Di sisi s\u00e9j\u00e9n, interval \"[10,20]\" ngawengku sakab\u00e9h awilangan nyata antara 10 jeung 20 katut angka 10 jeung 20. Kamungkinan lianna dib\u00e9r\u00e9nd\u00e9lkeun di handap.\n\nDina matematika tingkat luhur, harti formal interval t\u00e9h nya\u00e9ta hiji subs\u00e9t S tina hiji totally ordered set T nu ngandung sarat x jeung y kaasup S, x < z < y, lajeng z anggota S.\n\nSakumaha disebutkeun di luhur, jadi penting nalika T = R, s\u00e9t wilangan nyata.\n\nInterval R kabagi kana sababaraha tipe (a jeung b wilangan nyata, a < b):\n (a,b) = { x | a < x < b }\n [a,b] = { x | a \u2264 x \u2264 b }\n [a,b) = { x | a \u2264 x < b }\n (a,b] = { x | a < x \u2264 b }\n (a,\u221e) = { x | x > a }\n [a,\u221e) = { x | x \u2265 a }\n (-\u221e,b) = { x | x < b }\n (-\u221e,b] = { x | x \u2264 b }\n (-\u221e,\u221e) = R t\u00e9a, s\u00e9t sakab\u00e9h wilangan nyata\n {a}\n s\u00e9t kosong\n\nIn \u00e9ach case where they app\u00e9ar above, a and b are known as endpoints of the interval.\nNote that a square bracket [ or ] indicates that the endpoint is included in the interval, while a round bracket ( or ) indicates that it is not.\nFor more information about the notation used above, see Naive set theory.\n\nIntervals of type (1), (5), (7), (9) and (11) are called open intervals (because they are open sets) and intervals (2), (6), (8), (9), (10) and (11) closed intervals (because they are closed sets).\nIntervals (3) and (4) are sometimes called half-closed (or, not surprisingly, half-open) intervals.\nNotice that intervals (9) and (11) are both open and closed, which is not the same thing as being half-open and half-closed.\n\nIntervals (1), (2), (3), (4), (10) and (11) are called bounded intervals and intervals (5), (6), (7), (8) and (9) unbounded intervals.\nInterval (10) is also known as a singleton.\n\nThe length of the bounded intervals (1), (2), (3), (4) is b-a in \u00e9ach case. The total length of a sequence of intervals is the sum of the lengths of the intervals. No allowance is made for the intersection of the intervals. For instance, the total length of the sequence {(1,2),(1.5,2.5)} is 1+1=2, despite the fact that the union of the sequence is an interval of length 1.5.\n\nIntervals play an important role in the th\u00e9ory of integration, because they are the simplest sets whose \"size\" or \"measure\" or \"length\" is \u00e9asy to define (see above).\nThe concept of m\u00e9asure can then be extended to more complicated sets, l\u00e9ading to the Borel measure and eventually to the Lebesgue measure.\n\nIntervals are precisely the connected subsets of R. They are also precisely the convex subsets of R.\nSince a continuous image of a connected set is connected,\nit follows that if f: R\u2192R is a continuous function and I is an interval, then its image f(I) is also an interval.\nThis is one formulation of the intermediate value theorem.\n\nIntervals in partial orders \n\nIn order theory, one usually considers partially ordered sets. However, the above notations and definitions can immediately be applied to this general case as well. Of special interest in this general setting are intervals of the form  [a,b].\n\nFor a partially ordered set (P, \u2264) and two elements a and b of P, one defines the set\n [a, b] = { x | a \u2264 x \u2264 b }\nOne may choose to restrict this definition to pairs of elements with the property that a \u2264 b. Alternatively, the intervals without this condition will just coincide with the empty set, which in the former case would not be considered as an interval.\n\nInterval arithmetic \n\nInterval arithmetic,  also called interval mathematics, interval analysis, and interval computations, has been introduced in 1956 by M. Warmus. It defines a set of operations which can be applied on intervals :\n\nT \u00b7 S = { x | there is some y in T, and some z in S, such that x = y \u00b7 z }\n\n [a,b] + [c,d] = [a+c, b+d]\n [a,b] - [c,d] = [a-d, b-c]\n [a,b] * [c,d] = [min (ac, ad, bc, bd), max (ac, ad, bc, bd)]\n [a,b] \/ [c,d] = [min (a\/c, a\/d, b\/c, b\/d), max (a\/c, a\/d, b\/c, b\/d)]\n\nDivision by an interval containing zero is not possible.\n\nThe addition and multiplication operations are commutative, associative and sub-distributive: the set X ( Y + Z ) is a subset of XY + XZ.\n\nNotasi alternatip\nCara s\u00e9j\u00e9n keur nuliskeun interval, ilaharna katempo di France sarta sababarha nagara Eropa s\u00e9j\u00e9nna, nya\u00e9ta:\n\n ]a,b[ = { x | a < x < b }\n [a,b] = { x | a \u2264 x \u2264 b }\n [a,b[ = { x | a \u2264 x < b }\n ]a,b] = { x | a < x \u2264 b }\n\nTumbu kaluar\n\nInterval computations research centers \n\nTopology\nOrder theory\nMatematika","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":1378,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interval%20%28matematika%29","title":"Interval (matematika)","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Gaetano Donizetti (born Bergamo 29 November 1797; died Bergamo 8 April 1848) was an Italian composer. He was the most famous composer of operas in Italy in the years between the death of Bellini (1835) and the time when Verdi was becoming well-known. Bellini and Donizetti wrote operas in the bel canto style: music with beautiful, smooth melodies.\n\nDonizetti's family were very poor. His talent was discovered by Simon Mayr who was maestro di cappella (music director) at S Maria Maggiore in Bergamo. He opened a school which trained boys to sing in the church choir and gave them a good musical education. Donizetti learned a lot from Mayr and was always very grateful to him.\n\nDonizetti's first operas were performed in Venice. A rich lady who realized he was very talented paid so that he did not have to do military service. His opera Zoraida di Granata was very successful in Rome and he was given a contract for an opera for Naples. For several years he composed between two and five operas every year. They were not particularly successful. One of the reasons was that the libretti he was given (the words he had to set) were not very good. \n\nIn 1828 he married. None of their three children lived very long and his wife died in 1837 which made him very sad during his last years. This can be felt in his music.\n\nHis opera Anna Bolena made him internationally famous. It was performed in London and Paris. His opera Maria Stuarda was based on a play by Schiller. It was not popular at first. The audience did not like the tragic ending. Today it is recognized as containing some great music, especially in the final scene. After a visit to Paris he returned to Naples to produce Lucia di Lammermoor which was based on Scott's novel The Bride of Lammermoor. There is a French version as well as an Italian version of this opera. \n\nIn 1838 he moved to Paris where he had his operas performed in four theatres. Berlioz wrote very critical articles about him in a music journal. Donizetti had gone to Paris hoping that he would earn lots of money so that he could then retire, just like Rossini had done. However, his health was not good and he found it harder to concentrate. He managed to composed Don Pasquale which is one of the best comic operas every written, but it does have a lot of music that he had written earlier. He was obviously finding it difficult to think of new ideas. Soon he became really ill. He was suffering from syphilis. He was put in a sanatorium near Paris for 17 months. In 1847 some friends arranged for him to stay with them, but he was very ill by then. He was paralysed and almost unable to speak. His friends looked after him until he died.\n\nHe was buried in Bergamo. His remains are now in a church there. The house where he was born is a museum.\n\n1797 births\n1848 deaths\nRomantic composers\n19th-century Italian composers\nPeople from Bergamo","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":50580,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gaetano%20Donizetti","title":"Gaetano Donizetti","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Electronic music is music which is made with electronic equipment such as synthesizers or computers. Sometimes electronic music artists create special sounds using tape recorders too.\n\nAfter World War II, when tape recorders had been invented and were becoming popular, composers started to use them to make music.  The tape recorder was needed for the performance.  Composers used them to combine lots of different sounds.  Sometimes it was music played on ordinary (acoustic) instruments which was then changed in some way by the tape recorder.  Sometimes they took sounds from everyday life such as the sound of water, traffic noise or bird song.  All these noises were put together in the way the composer wanted by using the tape recorder.  Tapes of sounds were often cut into pieces, then the pieces were 'spliced' \u2013 put back together in a different order. The results were often very interesting, but there were problems.  Some people asked: \"Is it music?\"  Others thought it was boring to just look at a tape recorder during a concert instead of being able to watch live musicians play.\n\nComposers in Paris were experimenting with electronic music in the 1940s.  They called it \"Musique concr\u00e8te\" because they used natural, concrete sounds. (\"Concrete\" in this sense meant the opposite of \"abstract\" music which was written down for performance).  The sounds were played back at different speeds, combined in lots of ways, played backwards or played continuously (repeated in a 'loop'), or played into a mixer and re-recorded onto another tape recorder.  The sounds could be filtered. Effects such as vibrato or echo could be added.  Sometimes composers used synthesizers which were machines that could make electronic music in real time.  They sounded more like normal instruments than the sound effects on a tape recorder.\n\nComputers have often been used for composing electronic music.\n\nClassical music\nComposers who have used these ways of making music include John Cage (1912-1992), Bruno Maderna (1920-1973), Pierre Boulez (1925-2016), Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928-2007), Martin Garrix (2009-2019) with songs like \"Pizza\", \"Forever\" and \"Scared to be lonely\". Very often composers combined electronic music with ordinary instruments being played.\n\nRock music\nBands like Twenty One Pilots, Taylor Swift, and Vance Joy among many others employ electronic sounds amongst their music.\n\nRap music\nKendrick Lamar, Eminem, Lil Wayne and many other have added electronic music into their rap music.\n\nPop music\nIn popular music, the use of electronics to create new sounds began in the 1960s. Producer Joe Meek and inventor Bob Moog both expanded the range of sounds that could be used in pop music, and by the end of that decade electronics had become accepted in the industry. In the next few years the work of people like Giorgio Moroder, Jean-Michel Jarre, Brian Eno and Kraftwerk made electronic music famous.\n\nIn the early 1980s electronic music became fashionable, and bands like New Order, The Human League, Pet Shop Boys and Depeche Mode became famous. Sometimes these bands would mix electronic music with rock music.\n\nIn the 21st Century electronics are so much a part of popular music that using it is no longer strange - in fact, many artists use nothing else.\n\nEDM music\n\nA subgenre of electronic music is electronic dance music, or EDM. Electronic dance music is a form of electronica which is generally made with the intention of being danced to, thus making it generally club-friendly and often (but not always) up-tempo in nature. Whilst a lot of electronic genres are also classified as EDM, not all forms of electronic music fall within the specific category. Examples of EDM genres include post-disco, deep house, techno, Eurodance, trance, trip hop, drum and bass and dubstep, as well as several others.\n\nIn 2018, Billboard released a market statistic that proved the value and worth of the electronic dance music market. In this statistical statement, the company shows a 12-percent growth within one year where many changes took place with this musical revolution. One of the biggest helpers in this EDM market growth was YouTube.\n\nOther genres of music\nall sorts of genres of music even whale songs, ambient music, sounds of nature and sound effects have been distorted by some electronic sound, also to record sounds from space astronauts use electronic equipment to compress noise into a singularity.\n\nReferences\n\n New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians 1980; ISBN 1-56159-174-2","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":184,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":3,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":5,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":6,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":4,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":30003,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic%20music","title":"Electronic music","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The nave is where the congregation sits in a church. It usually has long benches, called 'pews', or separate chairs.\n\nNaves are found in humble Saxon churches, and in grand Romanesque and Gothic Christian Abbeys, Cathedrals, and Basilicas. \n\nThe nave is the central approach to the high altar, the main body of the church. 'Nave' (Medieval Latin navis, \"ship\") was probably suggested by the shape of its vaulting resembling an upside-down hull (bottom of a ship).\n\n The nave of a church goes from the entry hall to the chancel. It is flanked by aisles separated from the nave by an arcade. If the aisles are high and of a width comparable to the central nave, the structure is sometimes said to have three naves.\n\nReferences \n\nArchitectural elements\nChurch architecture","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"unknown":11,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":261298,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nave","title":"Nave","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A hand grenade is a small explosive device that is thrown at a target. It can be used as a weapon against an enemy soldier or vehicle. The most common type of grenade is the fragmentation grenade. Fragmentation grenades send out lots of very fast, very small fragments when they explode. Hand granades are usually thrown, and explode soon after that. Some specially designed grenades are fired from rifles or specially made grenade launchers. There are grenades which contain tear gas. These are used to control riots.\n\nHand grenades are used by the infantry. There are three main types: one which gives a big powerful blast to destroy bunkers, another which starts fires and another which contains shrapnel to hurt enemy soldiers. Most grenades are shaped like an egg, with a metal-arm on its top and a ring. When the ring is pulled out, the arm flips up and ignites a fuse. The user then has a few seconds to throw it and take cover, usually about 5 seconds. It explodes on impact and may injure or even kill people.\n\nHistory \nEarly grenades were iron balls, filled with gunpowder and with a long fuse that its user must light up with a match before throwing. Some were too big to throw, so soldiers rolled them. Some armies assigned special soldiers called \"grenadiers\" to throw or roll grenades.  \n\nGrenades in the early 20th century exploded on contact. This was changed during World War I to time fuses. The German army used stick grenades (grenades with handles) during World War I and World War II. The Soviet Army used different grenades for attack and defence.\n\nRelated pages \n Smoke grenade\n Ammunition\n\nReferences \n\nExplosives","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":185,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":5,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":5,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3}},"id":143543,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hand%20grenade","title":"Hand grenade","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Islam (Arabic: \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645 or al-isl\u0101m, \"submission\") is a monotheistic Abrahamic releegion foondit on the life an teachins o Mohammad in the saxth century, in Arabie. The fowk that follaes this releegion is cawed\"Muslims\". Muslims caw God \"Allah\", bat hae 99 different names fur \"God\" an aw. The haly beuk o the Muslims is ca'd the Quran. Islam is the warlds 2nt lairgest releegion wi mair nor 1,000,000,000 follaers.\n\nMuslims trowe Moses, Abraham, an Jesus, wha they caw Musa, Ibrahim, an Isa, an ithers, wis prophets, forby.\n\nMuslims believe that the Quran is the revealed wird o God an the Prophet Mohammad is the feenal Prophet sent bi God tae reveal His message tae mankynd.\n\nIn the 7t Century AD the Byzantine an Sassanide Empires wis the twa mucklest pouers in whit is cried the Middle East the day. Bedouin Arab merchands wad cross the desert tae touns lik Damascus fae Arab trade centres sic as Makka (or Mecca as its cried the nou) an Yathrib (later tae be re-cried Madina, or \"ceety\").\n\nIn places siclike Sirie, Iraq an Egyp, whaur nouadays Arabie leids is spaken, Pre Islamic civilisations haed been aroond lang syne. Throu the Gowden Age o Islam (atween aboot 900 AD an 1300) touns like Damascus an Baghdad becam important centres o scienteefic an philosphical discovery. Mony texts that haed been lang tint tae the Wast o Europe, wis pitten ower fae the Greek intae the Arabie (an in Islamic Spain intae the Laitin an aw)\n\nAne o the mair typical practics uised bi the Muslims whilka are ca'd \"Abrahamic\", are the circumcision o the penis. They awso hae the ritual o the killin o the sheep, ca'd Al 3Aid, whilka exists in the twa Abrahmic beuks, baith Bible an Quran. This custom finds place in auld Abrahamic tradeetions an Biblic history.\n\nFeegurs sic as Plato, Galen an Pythagoras wis reintroduced throu the Arabie leid. Translators an ither scholars teached in Seecily an Spain, at the new Varsities o Palermo an Cordoba, the first European Varsities, syne the closin o the Pagan schuils bi the Kirk in the sae cried Daurk Ages. Ither feegurs, sic as Ibn Sinna (kent as Avicenna in the Wast) an Ibn Rushd (or Averoes) eikit oreeginal thochts an ideas tae the contreebution o Islam's scholarship tae post Roman Europe.\n\nMaist Muslims thinks it's wrang tae draw the prophet Muhammad or Allah. Acause o this, Islamic airt is aft gey geometric an abstract.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":141,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":4013,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Islam","title":"Islam","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The New York Philharmonic is the oldest symphony orchestra in the United States. It performs most of its concerts at the Avery Fisher Hall in New York.\n\nThe orchestra started in 1842.  At that time it was called the Philharmonic Society.  At its first concert the orchestra played a very long programme which included  Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 conducted by Ureli Corelli Hill.  The musicians worked as a cooperative or \"communistic\" society.  This meant that the musicians themselves made up the rules about how the orchestra should be run: who would become a member, which music would be performed, and who would conduct. At the end of each season they divided any money the orchestra had earned amongst themselves.\n\nBeethoven's ninth and a new home, 1846 \nThe orchestra were a great success, but they needed a new concert hall.  They gave a fund-raising concert which included Beethoven's Symphony No. 9.  It was the first time it had ever been played in America.  The concert took place in Castle Garden on the southern tip of Manhattan. There were about 400 performers in the orchestra and choir. The words that the choir sings were translated into English.  It was the first time this work had been sung in English anywhere in the world.  However, the tickets cost a lot of money: US$2.00 each, so not so many people came. It was some time before the orchestra got their concert hall.   Many people thought Beethoven's 9th symphony was a strange piece of music because the choir only sing in the last movement which is called  \"Ode to Joy\".   In 1865 Theodore Eisfeld conducted the Orchestra's memorial concert for the recently assassinated Abraham Lincoln, but the last movement was not performed because it was thought that the \"Ode to Joy\" was not suitable for the sad occasion.\n\nCompetition from another orchestra, 1878 \n\nLeopold Damrosch, who had been  Franz Liszt's concertmaster at Weimar, was the orchestra's conductor for the 1876-1877 season. But the public did not like him, so he started his own orchestra: the Symphony Society of New York.  When he died in 1885, his 23-year-old son Walter Johannes Damrosch took over and continued the competition with the old Philharmonic. It was Walter who would make the rich Scotsman Andrew Carnegie realize that New York needed a really good concert hall and on May 5, 1891 both Walter and the Russian composer Tchaikovsky conducted at the first concert of the city's new Music Hall.  A few years later this new hall was renamed Carnegie Hall after the man who gave the money for it to be built.\n\nTheodore Thomas began conducting the Philharmonic in 1877 and made it a very good orchestra.  In 1891 Thomas left New York to found the Chicago Symphony Orchestra.\n\nAnton Seidl conducted the orchestra until 1898. Seidl had worked as Wagner's assistant and was famous for conducting Wagner's music.  He gave the first performance of Anton\u00edn Dvo\u0159\u00e1k's Ninth Symphony \"From the New World.\"  Many people were sad when Seidl suddenly died in 1898 from food poisoning at the age of 47. Twelve thousand people applied for tickets to his funeral at the Metropolitan Opera House at 39th Street and Broadway and the streets were jammed with people and traffic.\n\nNew management, 1909 \n\nIn 1909 the orchestra was organized differently.  Instead of a cooperative, they were run by a small group of people called .  They persuaded Gustav Mahler to be principal conductor.  Instead of 18 concerts a season they gave 54, which included a tour of New England.  Mahler was used to conducting opera, but now he could conduct symphonies, and he introduced audiences to his own compositions.  During his time the orchestra were given regular salaries for the first time.\n\nBetween 1911 and 1920, the Philharmonic's conductor was Josef Stransky, who led every single one of the orchestra's concerts during this period.\n\nMergers and outreach, 1921 \nWhen the Philharmonic joined together with the National Symphony in 1921, they had the Dutch conductor Willem Mengelberg.  He stayed there for nine years, although other conductors, including Bruno Walter, Wilhelm Furtw\u00e4ngler, Igor Stravinsky, and Arturo Toscanini, led about half the concerts. They started to have an outdoor symphony series, playing low-priced summer concerts at Lewisohn Stadium in upper Manhattan. In 1920 the orchestra hired Henry Hadley as \"associate conductor\" to perform concerts which included works by American composers.\n\nIn 1924, the Young People's Concerts were started, and soon grew to 15 concerts per season by the end of the 1920s.  They started to make recordings.  In 1928 they joined together with another orchestra, the New York Symphony Society.  Toscanini conducted the newly organized orchestra, and continued until 1936.\n\nThe War years, 1940 \nThe English conductor John Barbirolli and the Pole Artur Rodzinski, were joint replacements for Toscanini in 1936. The next year Barbirolli was made the main conductor, a post he held until the spring of 1941. In 1943, Rodzinski became conductor. He had also been conducting on the Sunday afternoon radio broadcast when CBS listeners around the country heard the announcer break in on Arthur Rubinstein's performance of Brahms's Second Piano Concerto to tell them about the attack on Pearl Harbor.\n\nArtur Rodzinski, Bruno Walter, and Sir Thomas Beecham made a series of recordings with the Philharmonic for Columbia Records during the 1940s.\n\nThe Telegenic Age, 1950\n\nLeopold Stokowski and Dimitri Mitropoulos were the orchestra's two conductors in 1949, with Mitropoulos becoming conductor in 1951. Mitropoulos often conducted new music and music that was not well known. In 1957, Mitropoulos and Leonard Bernstein served together as Principal Conductors until, in the course of the season, Bernstein was made conductor, becoming the first American-born-and-trained conductor of the Philharmonic.\n\nLeonard Bernstein was Music Director for 11 seasons.  Many new things happened during this time. Two television series were started on CBS: the Young People's Concerts and \"Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic.\" The first of these started in 1958.  It was a new idea and it won every award for educational television.  Bernstein continued the orchestra's recordings with Columbia Records until he retired as music director in 1969.  He got lots of composers, especially American composers such as Aaron Copland, to write new works for the orchestra.\n \nIn 1971 Pierre Boulez became the first Frenchman to have the job of conductor of the Philharmonic.  Boulez had new ideas about music to be performed.  He was a composer himself and often performed modern music.\n\nAmbassadors abroad\nZubin Mehta became conductor in 1978.  He, too, conducted a lot of new music. \n \nKurt Masur, who had often been conducting the Philharmonic since 1981, became conductor in 1991.  During his time he included a series of free Memorial Day Concerts at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine and annual concert tours abroad that included the orchestra's first trip to mainland China. His stayed until 2002, and was then given the honorary title \"Music Director Emeritus of the Philharmonic\".\n\nOn 26 February 2008 the Philharmonic gave a concert in Pyongyang in North Korea.  It was the first time since the end of the Korean War in 1953 that there had been an important cultural visit from the United States to North Korea.\n\nA third century, 2000 \n\nIn September 2002, 60 years after conducting the Orchestra at the age of twelve at Lewisohn Stadium, Lorin Maazel became conductor of the Philharmonic. In his first subscription week he conducted the first ever performance of John Adams' On the Transmigration of Souls.  This work had been composed in memory of those who lost their lives on September 11, 2001.  He performed new music as well as music of the well-known composers.  He stayed with the orchestra until the end of the 2008-2009 season.\n\nMusic directors (conductors)\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \nNew York Philharmonic Official website\n\nAmerican orchestras\nMusic in New York (state)\n1842 establishments in the United States\n1840s establishments in New York (state)\nOrganizations based in New York (state)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":93797,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New%20York%20Philharmonic","title":"New York Philharmonic","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Georges Braque (Argenteuil, 13 May 1882 \u2013 Paris, 31 August 1963) was a major 20th century French painter and sculptor who, with Pablo Picasso, developed the art movement known as Cubism.\n\nFrench art critic Louis Vauxcelles first used the term Cubism, or \"bizarre cubiques\", in 1908 after seeing a picture by Braque. He described it as 'full of little cubes', after which the term quickly gained wide use. Art historian Ernst Gombrich described cubism as \"the most radical attempt to stamp out ambiguity, and to enforce one reading of the picture \u2013 that of a man-made construction, a colored canvas\". The Cubist movement spread quickly throughout Paris and Europe.\n\nA major idea of Braque's was the fractured stringed instrument as a cubist model. This he painted a number of times with variations, and made sculptures with fractured violins, guitars, etc., inside transparent acrylic (perspex) blocks. Examples:\n\nViolin and Candlestick, Paris, spring 1910, at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.\nWoman with a Guitar, 1913. Mus\u00e9e National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France.\n\nNotes\n\nOther websites \nFeatures an excellent selection of Braque paintings, with a rather weak text: The course of a painter in the representation of the landscape: Georges Braque  \n\n1882 births\n1963 deaths\nFrench painters\nFrench sculptors\nPeople from Argenteuil","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":263044,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Georges%20Braque","title":"Georges Braque","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sovereignty is the right of a government to have complete control over its area. The idea that this right comes from doing good things for the people under control of the government is as old as Ancient Greece if not older.\n\nThe exact meaning of Sovereignty has changed some in the past. The present meaning of Sovereignty is said to come from the Peace of Westphalia, an agreement between the rulers of Europe in 1648 which said:\n No one should try to help break up one sovereign government into more than one.\n No one should cross over into the land, water, or air where the international law says a government is sovereign, unless they have agreement from that sovereign government.\n A sovereign government is the only maker of laws in the land, water or air where international law says it is sovereign.\n\nThe Past\n\nAncient Rome\nAncient Rome was first the Roman Republic, but then when Octavian made the Roman Empire the Emperor of Rome said that he was \"Sovereign\". The meaning of this was that he could make any law he wanted, and he did not have to do what the law said himself.\n\nMiddle Ages\nIn the time of the Middle Ages many kings and rulers had to do what other leaders said, such as the leader of the Catholic Church, the Pope. Because of this, the idea of \"Sovereignty\" was not much used.\n\nReformation\nIn the time of the Protestant Reformation, in the 16th century, governments were breaking away from religious leaders. Also many wars were fought between different rulers inside areas that are now sovereign countries. The English Civil War is one example of a war fought in this time between leaders inside one country.\n\nThe Peace of Westphalia was made in 1648 and the idea of \"Sovereignty\" came back. Governments were now separate from outside leaders and only one government or ruler inside a country could make laws. The divine right of kings became more widespread.\n\nThe Enlightenment and Social Contract theory\nThe English thinker Thomas Hobbes wrote a book in 1651 that said rulers and governments are \"Sovereign\" because they are good for the safety of the people. The idea that people could change rulers if they were not safe was new with Hobbes.\n\nJean-Jacques Rousseau wrote a book in 1763 that said the choice of the people is the only thing sovereignty comes from.\n\nBoth Rousseau and Hobbes advanced a \"Social Contract\" in which people consent to a government's sovereignty just by living in the country and that people give up at least some of their liberty for security\n\nIn 1789 the French Revolution made an important country's government ruled by the choices of the people for the first time after the Middle Ages (some cities and small countries were democracies in the Middle Ages). There were many problems and France went back to the old way soon after, but would be ready for Democracy in 1870's. In England, many people got to vote after The Reform Act in 1832. The United States broke away from England in 1776-1783, but was not an important country at that time.\n\nPresent\n\nBetween Countries\n\"Sovereignty\" when talking about relations between countries mostly means the rights a Sovereign state has over its territory.\n\nSometimes there is discussion about when a government loses Sovereignty because it is doing bad things for its people. In this case justice may mean other countries need to intrude on the sovereignty of the government.\n\nInside a Country\n\"Sovereignty\" when talking about relations between groups inside one country usually means which group has the Legitimacy to rule. This may not be certain. Sometimes the group who is most able to rule (because of a strong military) is not Legitimate.\n\nPolitics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":154,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-26":4,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":20561,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sovereignty","title":"Sovereignty","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Conservatoire de Paris (Paris Conservatoire) is a music conservatory where students can study dance, drama and music.  It has now been split into two \"Conservatoires\".  One is for Acting, Theatre and Drama and is called the Conservatoire National Sup\u00e9rieur d'Art Dramatique (CNSAD).  It is in the old building in the centre of Paris.  The other is called  Conservatoire National Sup\u00e9rieur de Musique et de Danse de Paris.  It is farther from the centre of the city.  This is where Music and Dance are taught.\n\nThe Paris Conservatoire has been famous for music since it was formed in 1795.  Nearly all famous French composers and performing musicians studied there, and many young musicians came from abroad to study.  It was, and still is, one of the best places to study music in the world.\n\nRelated pages\n Paris\n Conservatoire\n Prix de Rome\n\nMusic schools\nBuildings and structures in Paris\n1795 establishments\n1790s establishments in France","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":69546,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conservatoire%20de%20Paris","title":"Conservatoire de Paris","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A town square is a large open area in the center of a town. Town squares were traditionally places where people came together to meet, or to sell and buy things, or to be entertained. They often had markets, lynchings, or they were used for concerts. They are often surrounded by shops or caf\u00e9s.\n\nOther names for town square are civic center, city square, urban square, market square, public square, Platz (from German), plaza (from Spanish), piazza (from Italian), and place (from French). \n\nMany town squares in the 20th century became used as car parks. In recent years cars have been banned from some town squares so that people can enjoy the open space once more, free from traffic and pollution.\n\nIn other parts of towns there are often smaller open spaces which are called \"squares\". They are often square in shape, but some are different shapes.\n\nSome famous squares include: Red Square in Moscow, Beijing's Tiananmen Square in Beijing, Times Square in New York City and Trafalgar Square in London.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":175190,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Town%20square","title":"Town square","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A tooth is one of the hard, white things in the mouth. Teeth (plural) are used to help the mastication process by chewing food. Chew means to break up and crush food so it can be swallowed (pushed down into the stomach). \n\nMost vertebrates have teeth. Birds are the biggest group that do not. Many invertebrates have mouthparts which, to some extent, act like teeth. Different animals have different kinds of teeth because they eat different foods. Some animals use teeth as a weapon. Human adults usually have 32 teeth. Human children usually have 20 teeth.\n\nNatal teeth \nSome human babies are born with teeth. Natal teeth are teeth that are present at birth. These are different from neonatal teeth which are teeth that emerge during the first month of life. Natal teeth are not common. They occur in about 1 out of every 2\u20133 thousand births. They are usually found on the lower jaw. Natal teeth are usually not well attached and may easily wobble.\n\nTeeth eruption \nDeciduous teeth or milk teeth or temporary teeth are the first set of teeth for most mammals.  Humans have 20 of them. The first teeth (called \"primary teeth\") start to erupt (come through the gums of the jaw) when a baby is about 6 months old. When these teeth erupt it can really hurt. Babies chew on things to make the pain better. This is called teething (verb: to teethe). Most children have all 20 teeth by two or three years of age. \n\nAt age 6\u20137 the permanent teeth start to erupt. By the age of 11\u201312 most children have 28 adult teeth. The last four teeth, called 'wisdom teeth' or third molars come in by age 17\u201321 in most people. Some people never grow wisdom teeth. Or they may have only two instead of four.\n\nTeeth structure \n\nThe outside white part of teeth is called the enamel. The enamel is made of calcium phosphate and is very hard. Under the enamel is the dentine. The dentine is softer than the hard enamel. So it is hurt more by tooth decay (cavities). Under the dentine is the pulp which has the nerves and blood vessels that go to the tooth. This is the part that causes the pain of a toothache. Cementum is outside the dentine where there is no enamel. Cementum holds the tooth to the bone of the jaw.\n\nTypes of teeth \n Incisor\n Canine tooth\n Premolar\n Molar\n\nHealthy teeth \nIf they are protected and kept clean, teeth should stay for a person's whole life. Many people lose their teeth early because they do not do the right things to keep teeth healthy. \n\nSome things people can do to keep teeth healthy:\n Brush teeth after every meal and at bedtime with a soft-bristled brush.\n Floss after every meal (but at least once a day at bedtime). Flossing should be done before brushing!\n Drink water with fluoride before brushing. Or, use a fluoride mouthrinse (but not for children under age 6).\n See a dentist every 6 months for a tooth exam and tooth cleaning.\n Eat a healthy diet.\n Sugars like sucrose and glucose are bad for teeth.\n Milk and cheese are good for teeth because they have calcium.\n However, milk contains lactose which can cause cavities. Due to this, drinking a lot of milk can still cause cavities.\n Unsweetened (no sugar) chewing gum helps clean teeth, and makes salvia and removes food particles.\n Nothing with flavor in-between meals, give your saliva the two to three hours it needs to clean teeth. The saliva can not do that if there is a continuous food film being put on to the teeth. \n Dehydration leads to less saliva production. Drink plenty of water every day.\n\nDisease of teeth \nPlaque is the soft white substance that forms on teeth when they are not cleaned. It has bacteria in it that hurt enamel. If plaque is not cleaned off, after 2 days it can become tartar. Tartar is a hard substance that forms on teeth (mostly near the gums).  Tartar makes gums unhealthy and makes more bacteria grow on the teeth.\n\nPlaque is cleaned off with a toothbrush. If tartar forms on teeth, a dentist must clean it off. \n\nThe bacteria that are on teeth eat into the enamel. Cleaning and flossing teeth, eating good foods, and having a dentist take off plaque make less bacteria on teeth. If there is too much bacteria, they eat enamel faster than teeth make enamel. This makes holes in enamel called cavities. When a person gets cavities, he has the disease dental caries. Making cavities in enamel happens slowly. But once cavities go through enamel, the soft dentine is hurt much faster. Cavities may be fixed by dentists.\n\nRelated pages \n Dental formula\n Dentition\n Dentures\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n\n The New Student's Reference Work Wikisource\n Tooth Citizendium\n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-22":3,"2024-10":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":4,"2022-21":5,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1}},"id":13638,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tooth","title":"Tooth","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Golf is a game played in an open field where the golfer plays his golf ball into a hole by using different types of clubs (golf instruments). The book Rules of Golf reads \"The Game of Golf consists in playing a ball from the teeing ground into the hole by a stroke or successive strokes in accordance with the Rules.\"\n\nPlay of the game \nIn golf, a golfer plays a number of holes in a given order. 18 holes played in an order controlled by the golf course design, normally make up a game. On a nine-hole course, two nine-hole rounds make up a normal game.\nEach hole starts from the teeing area. Golfers put the ball on a small stand called a tee and swing a club at it to try and hit it as straight and far as possible. Once each golfer in the group has done this, the person whose ball landed farthest from the hole hits his again, followed by everyone else, one person at a time, until everyone is on the green. The green is the area near the hole where the grass is cut very short. \nOnce on the green the players will try to \"putt\" the ball into the hole. Putting is similar to a regular swing except it is not as hard and the player does not want the ball to go in the air. Once each player has put their ball into the hole, the group moves on to the next hole.\n\nEach time a player swings at his ball, it is considered a \"stroke\". Each hole is a certain number of strokes that golfers are expected to need to get their ball into the hole. This is known as the \"par\". If a player gets his ball in the hole in less than the par he gets a \"birdie\". If it takes him one more shot then the par it is known as a bogey. Most holes have a par between 3 and 5.\n\nThe two common forms of playing golf are match play and stroke play. In match play, two golfers (or two teams) play holes one at a time. The golfer with the lower number of strokes (number of times the golfer used to get his ball in the hole) wins that hole. If the two have the same number of strokes, the hole is \"halved\" (drawn). The golfer that has the greatest number of holes wins. In stroke play, the golfer (or team) with the smallest number of strokes all together wins. There are different forms of these rules, some given in the \"Rules of Golf\" making them \"official\".\n\nClubs \n \n\nThe four different types of clubs used in golf are woods, irons, putters and wedges. Woods are used to hit the ball very far, usually off the tee (but also on the fairway). The name of woods is different every number, for example, No.1 wood is called \"driver\", No.2 is \"brassey\", No.3 is \"spoon\" and so on. There are many types of irons, which can be used to hit varying distances. They are numbered 1-9 with a 1 iron hitting the ball farther than a 9. The 1 iron is no longer common in the game. Even the 2 iron is getting uncommon. Putters are used when on the green. The rules do not let the golfer use over 14 clubs in a game.\n\nThe Majors \nGolfers call the four (or five) biggest tournaments in professional golf \"majors\", and they play them at nearly the same time every year. The four majors are:\nMen's\n The Masters\n U.S. Open\n The Open Championship (British Open)\n PGA Championship\n\nWomen's\n Kraft Nabisco Championship\n LPGA Championship\n U.S. Women's Open\n Women's British Open\n The Evian\nIn 2013, women's golf added the fifth major. The Evian Masters, held in France.\n\nVincent Clark won the first ever open championship which was held in St Andrews in 1860.\n\nBibliography\n Adams, Mike; Tomasi, T. J. \"Play better golf\". London: Carlton, 1996.\n Minton, Roland. \"Golf by the numbers: How stats, math, and physics affect your game\". Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012.\n\nOther websites \n The R&A, St Andrews\n USGA: United States Golf Association\n Golf Australia, national governing body of Australia\n International Golf Federation (IGF)\n\nReferences \nGDO","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":145,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":3950,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Golf","title":"Golf","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Bank of America Corporation (often abbreviated BofA or BoA) is an American multinational investment bank and financial services holding company headquartered at the Bank of America Corporate Center in Charlotte, North Carolina, with investment banking and auxiliary headquarters in Manhattan. The bank was founded in San Francisco, California. It is the second-largest banking institution in the United States, after JPMorgan Chase, and the second-largest bank in the world by market capitalization. Bank of America is one of the Big Four banking institutions of the United States. It serves approximately 10.73% of all American bank deposits, in direct competition with JPMorgan Chase, Citigroup, and Wells Fargo. Its primary financial services revolve around commercial banking, wealth management, and investment banking.\n\nOne branch of its history stretches back to the U.S.-based Bank of Italy, founded by Amadeo Pietro Giannini in 1904, which provided various banking options to Italian immigrants who faced service discrimination. Originally headquartered in San Francisco, California, Giannini acquired Banca d'America e d'Italia (Bank of America and Italy) in 1922. The passage of landmark federal banking legislation facilitated a rapid growth in the 1950s, quickly establishing a prominent market share. After suffering a significant loss after the 1998 Russian bond default, BankAmerica, as it was then known, was acquired by the Charlotte-based NationsBank for US$62 billion. Following what was then the largest bank acquisition in history, the Bank of America Corporation was founded. Through a series of mergers and acquisitions, it built upon its commercial banking business by establishing Merrill Lynch for wealth management and Bank of America Merrill Lynch for investment banking in 2008 and 2009, respectively (since renamed BofA Securities).\n\nBoth Bank of America and Merrill Lynch Wealth Management retain large market shares in their respective offerings. The investment bank is considered within the \"Bulge Bracket\" as the third largest investment bank in the world, . Its wealth management side manages US$1.081 trillion in assets under management (AUM) as the second largest wealth manager in the world, after UBS. In commercial banking, Bank of America operates\u2014but does not necessarily maintain\u2014retail branches in all 50 states of the United States, the District of Columbia and more than 40 other countries. Its commercial banking footprint encapsulates 46 million consumer and small business relationships at 4,600 banking centers and 15,900 automated teller machines (ATMs).\n\nThe bank's large market share, business activities, and economic impact has led to numerous lawsuits and investigations regarding both mortgages and financial disclosures dating back to the 2008 financial crisis. Its corporate practices of servicing the middle class and wider banking community have yielded a substantial market share since the early 20th century. , Bank of America has a $313.5 billion market capitalization, making it the 13th largest company in the world. As the sixth largest American public company, it garnered $102.98 billion in sales . Bank of America was ranked #25 on the 2020 Fortune 500 rankings of the largest US corporations by total revenue. Likewise, Bank of America was also ranked #6 on the 2023 Global 2000 rankings done by Forbes. Bank of America was named the \"World's Best Bank\" by the Euromoney Institutional Investor in its 2018 Awards for Excellence.\n\nHistory\nBank of America, Los Angeles was founded in California in 1923. In 1928, this entity was acquired by Bank of Italy of San Francisco, which took the Bank of America name two years later.\n\nThe eastern portion of the Bank of America franchise can be traced to 1784, when Massachusetts Bank was chartered, the first federally chartered joint-stock owned bank in the United States and only the second bank to receive a charter in the United States. This bank became FleetBoston, with which Bank of America merged in 2004. In 1874, Commercial National Bank was founded in Charlotte. That bank merged with American Trust Company in 1958 to form American Commercial Bank. Two years later it became North Carolina National Bank when it merged with Security National Bank of Greensboro. In 1991, it merged with C&S\/Sovran Corporation of Atlanta and Norfolk to form NationsBank.\n\nThe central portion of the franchise dates to 1910, when Commercial National Bank and Continental National Bank of Chicago merged in 1910 to form Continental & Commercial National Bank, which evolved into Continental Illinois National Bank & Trust.\n\nBank of Italy\n\nThe history of Bank of America dates back to October 17, 1904, when Amadeo Pietro Giannini (1870\u20131949) founded the Bank of Italy, in San Francisco. In 1922, Bank of America, Los Angeles was established with Giannini as a minority investor. The two banks merged in 1928 and consolidated with other bank holdings to create what would become the largest banking institution in the country.\n\nIn 1918, another corporation, Bancitaly Corporation, was organized by A. P. Giannini, the largest stockholder of which was Stockholders Auxiliary Corporation. This company acquired the stocks of various banks located in New York City and certain foreign countries.\n\nIn 1928, Giannini merged his bank with Bank of America, Los Angeles, headed by Orra E. Monnette. Bank of Italy was renamed on November 3, 1930, to Bank of America National Trust and Savings Association, which was the only such designated bank in the United States at that time. Giannini and Monnette headed the resulting company, serving as co-chairs.\n\nExpansion in California\n\nGiannini introduced branch banking shortly after 1909 legislation in California allowed for branch banking in the state, establishing the bank's first branch outside San Francisco in 1909 in San Jose. By 1929 the bank had 453 banking offices in California with aggregate resources of over US$1.4 billion. There is a replica of the 1909 Bank of Italy branch bank in History Park in San Jose, and the 1925 Bank of Italy Building is an important downtown landmark. Giannini sought to build a national bank, expanding into most of the western states as well as into the insurance industry, under the aegis of his holding company, Transamerica Corporation.\n\nIn 1953 regulators succeeded in forcing the separation of Transamerica Corporation and Bank of America under the Clayton Antitrust Act. The passage of the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956 prohibited banks from owning non-banking subsidiaries such as insurance companies. Bank of America and Transamerica were separated, with the latter company continuing in the insurance sector. However, federal banking regulators prohibited Bank of America's interstate banking activity, and Bank of America's domestic banks outside California were forced into a separate company that eventually became First Interstate Bancorp, later acquired by Wells Fargo and Company in 1996. Only in the 1980s, with a change in federal banking legislation and regulation, could Bank of America again expand its domestic consumer banking activity outside California.\n\nNew technologies also allowed the direct linking of credit cards with individual bank accounts. In 1958, the bank introduced the BankAmericard, which changed its name to Visa in 1977. A coalition of regional bankcard associations introduced Interbank in 1966 to compete with BankAmericard. Interbank became Master Charge in 1966 and then MasterCard in 1979.\n\nFrom February 1970 through September 1971, there were 66 attacks on Bank of America branches in California, including 53 bombings or fire-bombings, and 13 arson fires. There were \"few injuries\" and the property damage cost about $500,000, fourth-fifths of which was from the burning of the Isla Vista branch during a February 1970 riot.\n\nExpansion outside California\n\nFollowing the passage of the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956 by the US Congress, BankAmerica Corporation was established for the purpose of owning and operating Bank of America and its subsidiaries.\n\nBank of America expanded outside California in 1983, with its acquisition, orchestrated in part by Stephen McLin, of Seafirst Corporation of Seattle, Washington, and its wholly owned banking subsidiary, Seattle-First National Bank. Seafirst was at risk of seizure by the federal government after becoming insolvent due to a series of bad loans to the oil industry. BankAmerica continued to operate its new subsidiary as Seafirst rather than Bank of America until the 1998 merger with NationsBank.\n\nBankAmerica experienced huge losses in 1986 and 1987 due to the placement of a series of bad loans in the Third World. The company fired its CEO, Sam Armacost, in 1986. Though Armacost blamed the problems on his predecessor, A. W. (Tom) Clausen, Clausen was appointed to replace Armacost. The losses resulted in a huge decline of BankAmerica stock, making it vulnerable to a hostile takeover. First Interstate Bancorp of Los Angeles (which had originated from banks once owned by BankAmerica), launched such a bid in the fall of 1986, although BankAmerica rebuffed it, mostly by selling operations. It sold its FinanceAmerica subsidiary to Chrysler and the brokerage firm Charles Schwab and Co. back to Mr. Schwab. It also sold Bank of America and Italy to Deutsche Bank. By the time of the 1987 stock-market crash, BankAmerica's share price had fallen to $8, but by 1992 it had rebounded mightily to become one of the biggest gainers of that half-decade.\n\nBankAmerica's next big acquisition came in 1992. The company acquired Security Pacific Corporation and its subsidiary Security Pacific National Bank in California and other banks in Arizona, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, which Security Pacific had acquired in a series of acquisitions in the late 1980s. This represented, at the time, the largest bank acquisition in history. Federal regulators, however, forced the sale of roughly half of Security Pacific's Washington subsidiary, the former Rainier Bank, as the combination of Seafirst and Security Pacific Washington would have given BankAmerica too large a share of the market in that state. The Washington branches were divided and sold to West One Bancorp (now U.S. Bancorp) and KeyBank. Later that year, BankAmerica expanded into Nevada by acquiring Valley Bank of Nevada.\n\nIn 1994, BankAmerica acquired the Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust Co. of Chicago. At the time, no bank possessed the resources to bail out Continental, so the federal government operated the bank for nearly a decade. Illinois then regulated branch banking extremely heavily, so Bank of America Illinois was a single-unit bank until the 21st century. BankAmerica moved its national lending department to Chicago in an effort to establish a financial beachhead in the region.\n\nThese mergers helped BankAmerica Corporation to once again become the largest U.S. bank holding company in terms of deposits, but the company fell to second place in 1997 behind North Carolina's fast-growing NationsBank Corporation, and to third in 1998 behind First Union Corp.\n\nOn the capital markets side, the acquisition of Continental Illinois helped BankAmerica to build a leveraged finance origination- and distribution business, which allowed the firm's existing broker-dealer, BancAmerica Securities (originally named BA Securities), to become a full-service franchise. In addition, in 1997, BankAmerica acquired Robertson Stephens, a San Francisco\u2013based investment bank specializing in high technology for $540\u00a0million. Robertson Stephens was integrated into BancAmerica Securities, and the combined subsidiary was renamed \"BancAmerica Robertson Stephens\".\n\nMerger of NationsBank and BankAmerica\n\nIn 1997, BankAmerica lent investment management firm D. E. Shaw & Co. $1.4\u00a0billion in order to run various businesses for the bank. However, D.E. Shaw suffered significant loss after the 1998 Russia bond default. NationsBank of Charlotte acquired BankAmerica in October 1998 in what was the largest bank acquisition in history at that time.\n\nWhile NationsBank was the nominal survivor, the merged bank took the better-known name of Bank of America. Hence, the holding company was renamed Bank of America Corporation, while NationsBank, N.A. merged with Bank of America NT&SA to form Bank of America, N.A. as the remaining legal bank entity. The combined bank operates under Federal Charter 13044, which was granted to Giannini's Bank of Italy on March 1, 1927. However, the merged company was and still is headquartered in Charlotte, and retains NationsBank's pre-1998 stock price history. All U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filings before 1998 are listed under NationsBank, not Bank of America. NationsBank president, chairman, and CEO Hugh McColl, took on the same roles with the merged company.\n\nIn 1998, Bank of America possessed combined assets of $570\u00a0 billion, as well as 4,800 branches in 22 U.S. states. Despite the size of the two companies, federal regulators insisted only upon the divestiture of 13 branches in New Mexico, in towns that would be left with only a single bank following the combination. The broker-dealer, NationsBanc Montgomery Securities, was named Banc of America Securities in 1998.\n\n2001 to present\n\nIn 2001, McColl stepped down and named Ken Lewis as his successor. In 2004, Bank of America announced it would purchase Boston-based bank FleetBoston Financial for $47\u00a0billion in cash and stock. By merging with Bank of America, all of its banks and branches were given the Bank of America logo. At the time of merger, FleetBoston was the seventh largest bank in United States with $197\u00a0billion in assets, over 20 million customers and revenue of $12\u00a0billion. Hundreds of FleetBoston workers lost their jobs or were demoted, according to The Boston Globe.\n\nOn June 30, 2005, Bank of America announced it would purchase credit card giant MBNA for $35\u00a0 billion in cash and stock. The Federal Reserve Board gave final approval to the merger on December 15, 2005, and the merger closed on January 1, 2006. The acquisition of MBNA provided Bank of America a leading domestic and foreign credit card issuer. The combined Bank of America Card Services organization, including the former MBNA, had more than 40 million U.S. accounts and nearly $140\u00a0billion in outstanding balances. Under Bank of America, the operation was renamed FIA Card Services.\n\nBank of America operated under the name BankBoston in many other Latin American countries, including Brazil. In May 2006, Bank of America and Banco Ita\u00fa (Investimentos Ita\u00fa S.A.) entered into an acquisition agreement, through which Ita\u00fa agreed to acquire BankBoston's operations in Brazil, and was granted an exclusive right to purchase Bank of America's operations in Chile and Uruguay, in exchange for Ita\u00fa shares. The deal was signed in August 2006.\n\nPrior to the transaction, BankBoston's Brazilian operations included asset management, private banking, a credit card portfolio, and small, middle-market, and large corporate segments. It had 66 branches and 203,000 clients in Brazil. BankBoston in Chile had 44 branches and 58,000 clients and in Uruguay, it had 15 branches. In addition, there was a credit card company, OCA, in Uruguay, which had 23 branches. BankBoston N.A. in Uruguay, together with OCA, jointly served 372,000 clients. While the BankBoston name and trademarks were not part of the transaction, as part of the sale agreement, they cannot be used by Bank of America in Brazil, Chile or Uruguay following the transactions. Hence, the BankBoston name has disappeared from Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. The Ita\u00fa stock received by Bank of America in the transactions has allowed Bank of America's stake in Ita\u00fa to reach 11.51%. Banco de Boston de Brazil had been founded in 1947.\n\nOn November 20, 2006, Bank of America announced the purchase of The United States Trust Company for $3.3\u00a0billion, from the Charles Schwab Corporation. US Trust had about $100\u00a0billion of assets under management and over 150 years of experience. The deal closed July 1, 2007.\n\nOn September 14, 2007, Bank of America won approval from the Federal Reserve to acquire LaSalle Bank Corporation from ABN AMRO for $21\u00a0billion. With this purchase, Bank of America possessed $1.7\u00a0trillion in assets. A Dutch court blocked the sale until it was later approved in July. The acquisition was completed on October 1, 2007. Many of LaSalle's branches and offices had already taken over smaller regional banks within the previous decade, such as Lansing and Detroit-based Michigan National Bank. The acquisition also included the Chicago Marathon event, which ABN AMRO acquired in 1996. Bank of America took over the event starting with the 2007 race.\n\nThe deal increased Bank of America's presence in Illinois, Michigan, and Indiana by 411 branches, 17,000 commercial bank clients, 1.4\u00a0million retail customers, and 1,500 ATMs. Bank of America became the largest bank in the Chicago market with 197 offices and 14% of the deposit share, surpassing JPMorgan Chase.\n\nLaSalle Bank and LaSalle Bank Midwest branches adopted the Bank of America name on May 5, 2008.\n\nKen Lewis, who had lost the title of chairman of the board, announced that he would retire as CEO effective December 31, 2009, in part due to controversy and legal investigations concerning the purchase of Merrill Lynch. Brian Moynihan became president and CEO effective January 1, 2010, and afterward credit card charge offs and delinquencies declined in January. Bank of America also repaid the $45\u00a0billion it had received from the Troubled Assets Relief Program.\n\nAcquisition of Countrywide Financial\nOn August 23, 2007, the company announced a $2\u00a0billion repurchase agreement for Countrywide Financial. This purchase of preferred stock was arranged to provide a return on investment of 7.25% per annum and provided the option to purchase common stock at a price of $18 per share.\n\nOn January 11, 2008, Bank of America announced that it would buy Countrywide Financial for $4.1\u00a0billion. In March 2008, it was reported that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was investigating Countrywide for possible fraud relating to home loans and mortgages. This news did not hinder the acquisition, which was completed in July 2008, giving the bank a substantial market share of the mortgage business, and access to Countrywide's resources for servicing mortgages. The acquisition was seen as preventing a potential bankruptcy for Countrywide. Countrywide, however, denied that it was close to bankruptcy. Countrywide provided mortgage servicing for nine million mortgages valued at $1.4\u00a0trillion as of December 31, 2007.\n\nThis purchase made Bank of America Corporation the leading mortgage originator and servicer in the U.S., controlling 20\u201325% of the home loan market. The deal was structured to merge Countrywide with the Red Oak Merger Corporation, which Bank of America created as an independent subsidiary. It has been suggested that the deal was structured this way to prevent a potential bankruptcy stemming from large losses in Countrywide hurting the parent organization by keeping Countrywide bankruptcy remote. Countrywide Financial has changed its name to Bank of America Home Loans.\n\nIn December 2011, the Justice Department announced a $335 million settlement with Bank of America over discriminatory lending practice at Countrywide Financial. Attorney General Eric Holder said a federal probe found discrimination against qualified African-American and Latino borrowers from 2004 to 2008. He said that minority borrowers who qualified for prime loans were steered into higher-interest-rate subprime loans.\n\nAcquisition of Merrill Lynch\n\nOn September 14, 2008, Bank of America announced its intention to purchase Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc. in an all-stock deal worth approximately $50\u00a0billion. Merrill Lynch was at the time within days of collapse, and the acquisition effectively saved Merrill from bankruptcy. Around the same time Bank of America was reportedly also in talks to purchase Lehman Brothers, however a lack of government guarantees caused the bank to abandon talks with Lehman. Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy the same day Bank of America announced its plans to acquire Merrill Lynch. This acquisition made Bank of America the largest financial services company in the world. Temasek Holdings, the largest shareholder of Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc., briefly became one of the largest shareholders of Bank of America, with a 3% stake. However, taking a loss Reuters estimated at $3\u00a0billion, the Singapore sovereign wealth fund sold its whole stake in Bank of America in the first quarter of 2009.\n\nShareholders of both companies approved the acquisition on December 5, 2008, and the deal closed January 1, 2009. Bank of America had planned to retain various members of the then Merrill Lynch's CEO, John Thain's management team after the merger. However, after Thain was removed from his position, most of his allies left. The departure of Nelson Chai, who had been named Asia-Pacific president, left just one of Thain's hires in place: Tom Montag, head of sales and trading.\n\nThe bank, in its January 16, 2009, earnings release, revealed massive losses at Merrill Lynch in the fourth quarter, which necessitated an infusion of money that had previously been negotiated with the government as part of the government-persuaded deal for the bank to acquire Merrill. Merrill recorded an operating loss of $21.5\u00a0billion in the quarter, mainly in its sales and trading operations, led by Tom Montag. The bank also disclosed it tried to abandon the deal in December after the extent of Merrill's trading losses surfaced, but was compelled to complete the merger by the U.S. government. The bank's stock price sank to $7.18, its lowest level in 17 years, after announcing earnings and the Merrill mishap. The market capitalization of Bank of America, including Merrill Lynch, was then $45\u00a0billion, less than the $50\u00a0billion it offered for Merrill just four months earlier, and down $108\u00a0billion from the merger announcement.\n\nBank of America CEO Kenneth Lewis testified before Congress that he had some misgivings about the acquisition of Merrill Lynch and that federal official pressured him to proceed with the deal or face losing his job and endangering the bank's relationship with federal regulators.\n\nLewis's statement is backed up by internal emails subpoenaed by Republican lawmakers on the House Oversight Committee. In one of the emails, Richmond Federal Reserve President Jeffrey Lacker threatened that if the acquisition did not go through, and later Bank of America were forced to request federal assistance, the management of Bank of America would be \"gone\". Other emails, read by Congressman Dennis Kucinich during the course of Lewis' testimony, state that Mr. Lewis had foreseen the outrage from his shareholders that the purchase of Merrill would cause, and asked government regulators to issue a letter stating that the government had ordered him to complete the deal to acquire Merrill. Lewis, for his part, states he didn't recall requesting such a letter.\n\nThe acquisition made Bank of America the number one underwriter of global high-yield debt, the third largest underwriter of global equity and the ninth largest adviser on global mergers and acquisitions. As the credit crisis eased, losses at Merrill Lynch subsided, and the subsidiary generated $3.7\u00a0billion of Bank of America's $4.2\u00a0billion in profit by the end of quarter one in 2009, and over 25% in quarter 3 2009.\n\nOn September 28, 2012, Bank of America settled the class-action lawsuit over the Merrill Lynch acquisition and will pay $2.43 billion. This was one of the first major securities class action lawsuits stemming from the financial crisis of 2007\u20132008 to settle. Many major financial institutions had a stake in this lawsuit, including Chicago Clearing Corporation, hedge funds, and bank trusts, due to the belief that Bank of America stock was a sure investment.\n\nFederal Troubled Asset Relief Program\nOn January 16, 2009, Bank of America received $20\u00a0billion and a guarantee of $118\u00a0billion in potential losses from the U.S. government through the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP). This was in addition to the $25\u00a0billion given to the bank in the fall of 2008 through TARP. The additional payment was part of a deal with the U.S. government to preserve Bank of America's merger with Merrill Lynch. Since then, members of the U.S. Congress have expressed considerable concern about how this money has been spent, especially since some of the recipients have been accused of misusing the bailout money. Then CEO Ken Lewis was quoted as claiming \"We are still lending, and we are lending far more because of the TARP program.\" Members of the U.S. House of Representatives, however, were skeptical and quoted many anecdotes about loan applicants (particularly small business owners) being denied loans and credit card holders facing stiffer terms on the debt in their card accounts.\n\nAccording to an article in The New York Times published on March 15, 2009, Bank of America received an additional $5.2\u00a0billion in government bailout money via the bailout of American International Group.\n\nAs a result of its federal bailout and management problems, The Wall Street Journal reported that the Bank of America was operating under a secret \"memorandum of understanding\" (MOU) from the U.S. government that requires it to \"overhaul its board and address perceived problems with risk and liquidity management\". With the federal action, the institution has taken several steps, including arranging for six of its directors to resign and forming a Regulatory Impact Office. Bank of America faces several deadlines in July and August and if not met, could face harsher penalties by federal regulators. Bank of America did not respond to The Wall Street Journal story.\n\nOn December 2, 2009, Bank of America announced it would repay the entire $45\u00a0billion it received in TARP and exit the program, using $26.2\u00a0billion of excess liquidity along with $18.6\u00a0billion to be gained in \"common equivalent securities\" (Tier 1 capital). The bank announced it had completed the repayment on December 9. Bank of America's Ken Lewis said during the announcement, \"We appreciate the critical role that the U.S. government played last fall in helping to stabilize financial markets, and we are pleased to be able to fully repay the investment, with interest.... As America's largest bank, we have a responsibility to make good on the taxpayers' investment, and our record shows that we have been able to fulfill that commitment while continuing to lend.\"\n\nBonus settlement\nOn August 3, 2009, Bank of America agreed to pay a $33\u00a0million fine, without admission or denial of charges, to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) over the non-disclosure of an agreement to pay up to $5.8\u00a0billion of bonuses at Merrill. The bank approved the bonuses before the merger but did not disclose them to its shareholders when the shareholders were considering approving the Merrill acquisition, in December 2008. The issue was originally investigated by New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo, who commented after the suit and announced a settlement that \"the timing of the bonuses, as well as the disclosures relating to them, constituted a 'surprising fit of corporate irresponsibility and \"our investigation of these and other matters pursuant to New York's Martin Act will continue.\" Congressman Kucinich commented at the same time that \"This may not be the last fine that Bank of America pays for how it handled its merger of Merrill Lynch.\" A federal judge, Jed Rakoff, in an unusual action, refused to approve the settlement on August 5.\nA first hearing before the judge on August 10 was at times heated, and he was \"sharply critic[al]\" of the bonuses. David Rosenfeld represented the SEC, and Lewis J. Liman, son of Arthur L. Liman, represented the bank. The actual amount of bonuses paid was $3.6\u00a0billion, of which $850\u00a0million was \"guaranteed\" and the rest was shared among 39,000 workers who received average payments of $91,000; 696 people received more than $1\u00a0million in bonuses; at least one person received a more than $33\u00a0million bonus.\n\nOn September 14, the judge rejected the settlement and told the parties to prepare for trial to begin no later than February 1, 2010. The judge focused much of his criticism on the fact that the fine in the case would be paid by the bank's shareholders, who were the ones that were supposed to have been injured by the lack of disclosure. He wrote, \"It is quite something else for the very management that is accused of having lied to its shareholders to determine how much of those victims' money should be used to make the case against the management go away,\" ... \"The proposed settlement,\" the judge continued, \"suggests a rather cynical relationship between the parties: the S.E.C. gets to claim that it is exposing wrongdoing on the part of the Bank of America in a high-profile merger; the bank's management gets to claim that they have been coerced into an onerous settlement by overzealous regulators. And all this is done at the expense, not only of the shareholders but also of the truth.\"\n\nWhile ultimately deferring to the SEC, in February 2010, Judge Rakoff approved a revised settlement with a $150\u00a0million fine \"reluctantly\", calling the accord \"half-baked justice at best\" and \"inadequate and misguided\". Addressing one of the concerns he raised in September, the fine will be \"distributed only to Bank of America shareholders harmed by the non-disclosures, or 'legacy shareholders, an improvement on the prior $33\u00a0million while still \"paltry\", according to the judge. Case: SEC v. Bank of America Corp., 09-cv-06829, United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. Investigations also were held on this issue in the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, under chairman Edolphus Towns (D-NY) and in its investigative Domestic Policy Subcommittee under Kucinich.\n\nFraud\nIn 2010, the U.S. government accused the bank of defrauding schools, hospitals, and dozens of state and local government organizations via misconduct and illegal activities involving the investment of proceeds from municipal bond sales. As a result, the bank agreed to pay $137.7\u00a0million, including $25\u00a0million to the Internal Revenue Service and $4.5\u00a0million to the state attorney general, to the affected organizations to settle the allegations. Former bank official Douglas Campbell pleaded guilty to antitrust, conspiracy, and wire fraud charges. , other bankers and brokers are under indictment or investigation.\n\nOn October 24, 2012, the top federal prosecutor in Manhattan filed a lawsuit alleging that Bank of America fraudulently cost American taxpayers more than $1 billion when Countrywide Financial sold toxic mortgages to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The scheme was called 'Hustle', or High Speed Swim Lane. On May 23, 2016, the Second U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the finding of fact by the jury that low quality mortgages were supplied by Countrywide to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in the \"Hustle\" case supported only \"intentional breach of contract,\" not a fraud. The action, for civil fraud, relied on provisions of the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act. The decision turned on lack of intent to defraud at the time the contract to supply mortgages was made.\n\nDownsizing (2011 to 2014)\nDuring 2011, Bank of America began conducting personnel reductions of an estimated 36,000 people, contributing to intended savings of $5 billion per year by 2014. In December 2011, Forbes ranked Bank of America's financial wealth 91st out of the nation's largest 100 banks and thrift institutions.\n\nBank of America cut around 16,000 jobs in a quicker fashion by the end of 2012 as revenue continued to decline because of new regulations and a slow economy. This put a plan one year ahead of time to eliminate 30,000 jobs under a cost-cutting program, called Project New BAC. In the first quarter of 2014, Berkshire bank purchased 20 Bank of America branches in Central and eastern New York for 14.4 million dollars. The branches were from Utica\/Rome region and down the Mohawk Valley east to the capital region. In April and May 2014, Bank of America sold two dozen branches in Michigan to Huntington Bancshares. The locations were converted to Huntington National Bank branches in September.\n\nAs part of its new strategy Bank of America is focused on growing its mobile banking platform. , Bank of America has 31 million active online users and 16 million mobile users. Its retail banking branches have decreased to 4,900 as a result of increased mobile banking use and a decline in customer branch visits. By 2018, the number of mobile users has increased to 25.3 million and the number of locations fell to 4,411 at the end of June.\n\nSale of stake in China Construction Bank\nIn 2005, Bank of America acquired a 9% stake in China Construction Bank, one of the Big Four banks in China, for US$3\u00a0billion. It represented the company's largest foray into China's growing banking sector. Bank of America has offices in Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Guangzhou and was looking to greatly expand its Chinese business as a result of this deal. In 2008, Bank of America was awarded Project Finance Deal of the Year at the 2008 ALB Hong Kong Law Awards. In November 2011, Bank of America announced plans to divest most of its stake in the China Construction Bank.\n\nIn September 2013, Bank of America sold its remaining stake in the China Construction Bank for as much as $1.5 billion, marking the firm's full exit from the country.\n\n$17 billion settlement with Justice Department\nIn August 2014, Bank of America agreed to a near\u2013$17 billion deal to settle claims against it relating to the sale of toxic mortgage-linked securities including subprime home loans, in what was believed to be the largest settlement in U.S. corporate history. The bank agreed with the U.S. Justice Department to pay $9.65 billion in fines, and $7 billion in relief to the victims of the faulty loans which included homeowners, borrowers, pension funds and municipalities. Real estate economist Jed Kolko said the settlement is a \"drop in the bucket\" compared to the $700 billion in damages done to 11 million homeowners. Since the settlement covered such a substantial portion of the market, he said for most consumers \"you're out of luck.\"\n\nMuch of the government's prosecution was based on information provided by three whistleblowers \u2013 Shareef Abdou (a senior vice president at the bank), Robert Madsen (a professional appraiser employed by a bank subsidiary), and Edward O'Donnell (a Fannie Mae official). The three men received $170 million in whistleblower awards.\n\nDOD Community Bank\n\nBank of America has formed a partnership with the United States Department of Defense creating a newly chartered bank DOD Community Bank (\"Community Bank\") providing full banking services to military personnel at 68 branches and ATM locations on U.S. military installations in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base Cuba, Diego Garcia, Germany, Japan, Italy, Kwajalein Atoll, South Korea, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Even though Bank of America operates Community Bank, customer services are not interchangeable between the two financial institutions, meaning that a Community Bank customer cannot go to a Bank of America branch and withdraw from their account and vice versa. Deposits made into checking and savings accounts are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation up to $250,000 despite the fact that none of Community's operating branches are located within the jurisdictional borders of the United States.\n\nDecision not to finance makers of military-style guns\nIn April 2018, Bank of America announced that it would stop providing financing to makers of military-style weapons such as the AR-15 rifle. In announcing the decision, Bank of America referenced recent mass shootings and said that it wanted to \"contribute in any way we can\" to reduce them.\n\nReturn to expansion (2015\u2013present)\n\nIn 2015, Bank of America began expanding organically, opening branches in cities where it previously did not have a retail presence. They started that year in Denver, followed by Minneapolis\u2013Saint Paul and Indianapolis, in all cases having at least one of its Big Four competitors, with Chase Bank being available in Denver and Indianapolis, while Wells Fargo is available in Denver and the Twin Cities. The Twin Cities market is also the home market of U.S. Bancorp, the largest non-Big Four rival.\n\nIn January 2018, Bank of America announced an organic expansion of its retail footprint into Pittsburgh and surrounding areas, to supplement its existing commercial lending and investment businesses in the area. Before the expansion, Pittsburgh had been one of the largest US cities without a retail presence by any of the Big Four, with locally based PNC Financial Services (no. 6 nationally) having a commanding market share in the area; this coincided with Chase making a similar expansion into Pittsburgh. By the end of the fiscal year 2020, Bank of America had become Pittsburgh's 16th largest bank by deposits, which considering the dominance of PNC and BNY Mellon in the market is considered relatively impressive. By 2021, Bank of America had moved up to 12th in the market.\n\nIn February 2018, Bank of America announced it would expand into Ohio across the state's three biggest cities (Cleveland, Columbus, and Cincinnati), which are strongholds of Chase. Columbus serves as the bank's hub in Ohio due to its central location as the state's capital, its overall size and growth, and an existing Bank of America call center for its credit card division in suburban Westerville. Within a year of entering Ohio, Columbus quickly saw the bank become the 5th largest in the market by deposits, behind only banks either based in Ohio (Fifth Third Bank and locally based Huntington Bancshares) or have a major presence as a result of an acquisition of an Ohio-based institution (Chase and PNC), and ahead of US Bancorp (also with a large presence due to acquiring an Ohio-based bank), Ohio-based KeyBank, and several local institutions. As of 2021, Bank of America is the 9th largest bank by deposits in all of Ohio.\n\nIn January 2020, Bank of America hired new advisors whose primary functions are to assist ultra-wealthy clients.\n\nOperations\nBank of America generates 90% of its revenues in its domestic market. The core of Bank of America's strategy is to be the number one bank in its domestic market. It has achieved this through key acquisitions.\n\nConsumer Banking\n\nConsumer Banking, the largest division in the company, provides financial services to consumers and small businesses including, banking, investments, merchant services, and lending products including business loans, mortgages, and credit cards. It provides stockbroker services via Merrill Edge, a specific division for investment and related services (such as research and call center counsel) after Merrill Lynch became a subsidiary of Bank of America. The consumer banking division represented 38% of the company's total revenue in 2016. The company earns revenue from interest income, service charges, and fees. In addition, the company is a mortgage servicer. It competes primarily with the retail banking arms of America's three other megabanks: Citigroup, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo. The Consumer Banking organization includes over 4,600 retail financial centers and approximately 15,900 automated teller machines.\n\nBank of America is a member of the Global ATM Alliance, a joint venture of several major international banks that provides for reduced fees for consumers using their ATM card or check card at another bank within the Global ATM Alliance when travelling internationally. This feature is restricted to withdrawals using a debit card and users are still subject to foreign currency conversion fees, credit card withdrawals are still subject to cash advance fees and foreign currency conversion fees.\n\nGlobal Banking\n\nThe Global Banking division provides banking services, including investment banking and lending products to businesses. It includes the businesses of Global Corporate Banking, Global Commercial Banking, Business Banking, and Global Investment Banking. The division represented 22% of the company's revenue in 2016.\n\nBefore Bank of America's acquisition of Merrill Lynch, the Global Corporate and Investment Banking (GCIB) business operated as Banc of America Securities LLC. The bank's investment banking activities operate under the Merrill Lynch subsidiary and provided mergers and acquisitions advisory, underwriting, capital markets, as well as sales & trading in fixed income and equities markets. Its strongest groups include Leveraged Finance, Syndicated Loans, and mortgage-backed securities. It also has one of the largest research teams on Wall Street. Bank of America Merrill Lynch is headquartered in New York City.\n\nGlobal Wealth and Investment Management\nThe Global Wealth and Investment Management (GWIM) division manages the investment assets of institutions and individuals. It includes the businesses of Merrill Lynch Global Wealth Management and U.S. Trust and represented 21% of the company's total revenue in 2016. It is among the 10 largest U.S. wealth managers. It has over $2.5 trillion in client balances. GWIM has five primary lines of business: Premier Banking & Investments (including Bank of America Investment Services, Inc.), The Private Bank, Family Wealth Advisors, and Bank of America Specialist.\n\nGlobal Markets\n\nThe Global Markets division offers services to institutional clients, including trading in financial securities. The division provides research and other services such as securities service, market maker, and risk management using derivatives. The division represented 19% of the company's total revenues in 2016.\n\nLabor\nOn April 9, 2019, the company announced minimum wage will be increased beginning May 1, 2019, to $17.00 an hour until it reaches a goal of $20.00 an hour in 2021.\n\nOffices\nThe Bank of America principal executive offices are located in the Bank of America Corporate Center, Charlotte, North Carolina. The skyscraper is located at 100 North Tryon Street, and stands at 871\u00a0ft (265 m), having been completed in 1992.\n\nIn 2012, Bank of America cut ties to the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC).\n\nInternational offices\nBank of America's Global Corporate and Investment Banking has its U.S. headquarters in Charlotte, European headquarters in Dublin, and Asian headquarters in Hong Kong and Singapore.\n\nCorporate governance\n\nChief executive officer\n\nList of CEOs\n Hugh McColl (1998\u20132001)\n Ken Lewis (2001\u20132009)\n Brian Moynihan (2010\u2013 )\n\nCEO pay ratio\nPursuant to Section 953(b) of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, publicly traded companies are required to disclose (1) the median total annual compensation of all employees other than the CEO and (2) the ratio of the CEO's annual total compensation to that of the median employee (CEO Pay Ratio). Total 2018 compensation for Brian Moynihan, CEO, amounted to $22,765,354, and total compensation of the median employee was determined to be $92,040. The resulting pay ratio is estimated to be 247:1.\n\nCharitable efforts\n\nIn 1998, the bank made a ten-year commitment of $350 billion to provide affordable mortgages, build affordable housing, support small businesses and create jobs in disadvantaged neighbourhoods. In 2004, the bank pledged $750 million over a ten-year period for community development lending and affordable housing programs.\n\nIn 2007, the bank offered employees a $3,000 rebate for the purchase of hybrid vehicles. The company also provided a $1,000 rebate or a lower interest rate for customers whose homes qualified as energy efficient. In 2007, Bank of America partnered with Brighter Planet to offer an eco-friendly credit card, and later a debit card, which help build renewable energy projects with each purchase. Bank of America has also donated money to help health centers in Massachusetts and made a $1 million donation in 2007 to help homeless shelters in Miami.\n\nLawsuits, controversies, and incidents\n\nLawsuits\n\nParmalat lawsuit\nParmalat SpA is a multinational Italian dairy and food corporation. Following Parmalat's 2003 bankruptcy, the company sued Bank of America for $10\u00a0billion, alleging the bank profited from its knowledge of Parmalat's financial difficulties. The parties announced a settlement in July 2009, resulting in Bank of America paying Parmalat $98.5\u00a0million in October 2009. In a related case, on April 18, 2011, an Italian court acquitted Bank of America and three other large banks, along with their employees, of charges they assisted Parmalat in concealing its fraud, and of lacking sufficient internal controls to prevent such frauds. Prosecutors did not immediately say whether they would appeal the rulings. In Parma, the banks were still charged with covering up the fraud.\n\nMortgage abuses\nIn August 2011, Bank of America was sued for $10 billion by American International Group over an alleged \"massive fraud\" on mortgage debt. Another lawsuit filed against Bank of America, pertained to $57.5 billion in mortgage-backed securities Bank of America sold to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. That December, Bank of America agreed to pay $335 million to settle a federal government claim that Countrywide Financial had discriminated against Hispanic and African-American homebuyers from 2004 to 2008, prior to being acquired by BofA. In September 2012, BofA settled out of court for $2.4 billion in a class action lawsuit filed by BofA shareholders who felt they were misled about the purchase of Merrill Lynch.\n\nOn February 9, 2012, it was announced that the five largest mortgage servicers (Ally\/GMAC, Bank of America, Citi, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo) agreed to a historic settlement with the federal government and 49 states. The settlement, known as the National Mortgage Settlement (NMS), required the servicers to provide about $26 billion in relief to distressed homeowners and indirect payments to the states and the federal government. This settlement amount makes the NMS the second largest civil settlement in U.S. history, only trailing the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. The five banks were also required to comply with 305 new mortgage servicing standards. Oklahoma held out and agreed to settle with the banks separately.\n\nOn October 24, 2012, American federal prosecutors filed a $1 billion civil lawsuit against Bank of America for mortgage fraud under the False Claims Act, which provides for possible penalties of triple the damages suffered. The government asserted that Countrywide, which was acquired by Bank of America, rubber-stamped mortgage loans to risky borrowers and forced taxpayers to guarantee billions of bad loans through Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The suit was filed by Preet Bharara, the United States attorney in Manhattan, the inspector general of FHFA and the special inspector for the Troubled Asset Relief Program. In March 2014, Bank of America settled the suit by agreeing to pay $6.3 billion to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac and to buy back around $3.2 billion worth of mortgage bonds.\n\nA $7.5 million settlement was reached in April 2014 with former chief financial officer for Bank of America, Joe L. Price, over allegations that the bank's management withheld material information related to its 2008 merger with Merrill Lynch. In August 2014, the United States Department of Justice and the bank agreed to a $16.65 billion agreement over the sale of risky, mortgage-backed securities before the Great Recession; the loans behind the securities were transferred to the company when it acquired banks such as Merrill Lynch and Countrywide in 2008. As a whole, the three firms provided $965 billion of mortgage-backed securities from 2004 to 2008. The settlement was structured to give $7 billion in consumer relief and $9.65 billion in penalty payments to the federal government and state governments; California, for instance, received $300 million to recompense public pension funds. The settlement was the largest in United States history between a single company and the federal government.\n\nSettlement with homeowners\nOn March 14, 2011, members of hacker group Anonymous began releasing emails said to be from a former Bank of America employee. According to the group, the emails documented alleged \"corruption and fraud\". The source, identified publicly as Brian Penny, was a former LPI Specialist from Balboa Insurance, a firm which used to be owned by the bank, but was sold to Australian Reinsurance Company QBE. On April 7, 2014, Bank of America and QBE settled a class-action lawsuit stemming from the leak for $228 million.\n\nUnfair billing practices\nIn April 2014, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) ordered Bank of America to provide an estimated $727 million in relief to consumers harmed by practices related to credit card add-on products. According to the Bureau, roughly 1.4 million customers were affected by deceptive marketing of add-on products, and 1.9 million customers were illegally charged for credit monitoring and reporting services they were not receiving. The deceptive marketing misconduct involved telemarketing scripts containing misstatements and off-script sales pitches made by telemarketers that were misleading and omitted pertinent information. The unfair billing practices involved billing customers for privacy-related products without having the authorization necessary to perform the credit monitoring and credit report retrieval services. As a result, the company billed customers for services they did not receive, unfairly charged consumers for interest and fees, illegally charged approximately 1.9 million accounts, and failed to provide the product benefit. In May 2022, CFPB ordered Bank of America to pay $10 million in penalties for illegal garnishments.\n\nDiscrimination\nIn 2018, former senior executive Omeed Malik filed a $100 million arbitration case through FINRA against Bank of America after the company investigated him for alleged sexual misconduct. His defamation claim was on the basis of retaliation, breach of contract, and discrimination against his Muslim background. Malik received an eight-figure settlement in July of the same year.\n\nFake accounts, junk fees and withheld rewards \nIn 2023, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau said that a total of $250 million in fines and compensation has been levied against Bank of America for \"deceptive practices that harmed hundreds of thousands of consumers,\" including double charging insufficient funds fees, withholding credit card rewards, and opening accounts without the knowledge or permission of customers.\n\nControversies\n\nConsumer credit controversies\nIn January 2008, Bank of America began notifying some customers without payment problems that their interest rates were more than doubled, up to 28%. The bank was criticized for raising rates on customers in good standing, and for declining to explain why it had done so. In September 2009, a Bank of America credit card customer, Ann Minch, posted a video on YouTube criticizing the bank for raising her interest rate. After the video went viral, she was contacted by a Bank of America representative who lowered her rate. The story attracted national attention from television and internet commentators. In 2010, the bank was criticized for allegedly seizing three properties that were not under their ownership, apparently due to incorrect addresses on their legal documents.\n\nState of Arizona investigation\nIn 2010 the state of Arizona launched an investigation into Bank of America for misleading homeowners who sought to modify their mortgage loans. According to the attorney general of Arizona, the bank \"repeatedly has deceived\" such mortgagors. In response to the investigation, the bank has given some modifications on the condition that the homeowners remove some information criticizing the bank online.\n\nInvestment in coal mining\nOn May 6, 2015, Bank of America announced it would reduce its financial exposure to coal companies. The announcement came following pressure from universities and environmental groups. The new policy was announced as part of the bank's decision to continue to reduce credit exposure over time to the coal mining sector.\n\nIncidents\n\nWikileaks incident\nIn October 2009, Julian Assange of WikiLeaks claimed that his organization possessed a 5 gigabyte hard drive formerly used by a Bank of America executive and that Wikileaks intended to publish its contents. In November 2010, Forbes published an interview with Assange in which he stated his intent to publish information which would turn a major U.S. bank \"inside out\". In response to this announcement, Bank of America stock dropped 3.2%.\n\nIn December 2010, Bank of America announced that it would no longer service requests to transfer funds to WikiLeaks, stating that \"Bank of America joins in the actions previously announced by MasterCard, PayPal, Visa Europe, and others and will not process transactions of any type that we have reason to believe are intended for WikiLeaks... This decision is based upon our reasonable belief that WikiLeaks may be engaged in activities that are, among other things, inconsistent with our internal policies for processing payments.\"\n\nLater in December, it was announced that Bank of America purchased more than 300 Internet domain names in an attempt to preempt bad publicity that might be forthcoming in the anticipated WikiLeaks release. The domain names included as BrianMoynihanBlows.com, BrianMoynihanSucks.com and similar names for other top executives of the bank.\n\nSometime before August 2011, WikiLeaks claimed that 5\u00a0GB of Bank of America leaks was part of the deletion of over 3500 communications by Daniel Domscheit-Berg, a now ex-WikiLeaks volunteer.\n\nRyan Coogler incident\nIn March 2022, the bank was involved in a incident related to the notable filmmaker Ryan Coogler who was wrongly targeted as a bank robber and detained by the police in Atlanta, Georgia, after Coogler tried to withdraw cash in the local branch of the Bank of America. After his identity was verified with both his California state ID card and his Bank of America card, Coogler was released and the bank released an apology statement. According to a number of sources, the bank's teller hadn't checked Coogler's ID to verify if he was the owner of the bank account before she asked the bank's supervisor to call police.\n\nCompetition\nBank of America's major competitors are Wells Fargo, Santander, PNC Financial Services, Ally Financial, Capital One, JPMorgan Chase Bank, US Bank, Citizens Financial Group, Citigroup,  M&T Bank, and Truist.\n\nNotable buildings\n\nNotable buildings which Bank of America currently occupies include:\n\n Bank of America Tower in Phoenix, Arizona\n 9454 Wilshire Boulevard in Beverly Hills, California\n Bank of America Center in Los Angeles, California\n Transamerica Pyramid, in San Francisco  \n 555 California Street, formerly the Bank of America Center and world headquarters, in San Francisco, California\n City Place I, also known as United Healthcare Center, in Hartford, Connecticut (the tallest building in Connecticut)\n Bank of America Plaza in Fort Lauderdale, Florida\n Bank of America Tower in Jacksonville, Florida\n Bank of America Financial Center (Brickell) and Bank of America Museum Tower (Downtown Miami) in Miami, Florida\n Bank of America Center in Orlando, Florida\n Bank of America Tower in St. Petersburg, Florida\n Bank of America Plaza in Tampa, Florida\n Bank of America Plaza in Atlanta, Georgia\n Bank of America Building, formerly the LaSalle Bank Building in Chicago, Illinois\n One City Center, often called the Bank of America building due to signage rights, in Portland, Maine\n Bank of America Building in Baltimore, Maryland\n Bank of America Plaza in St Louis, Missouri\n Bank of America Tower in Albuquerque, New Mexico\n Bank of America Tower in New York City\n Bank of America Corporate Center in Charlotte, North Carolina (the corporate headquarters)\n Bank of America Plaza in Charlotte, North Carolina\n Bank of America Tower in Charlotte, North Carolina\n Hearst Tower in Charlotte, North Carolina\n Bank of America Plaza in Dallas, Texas\n Bank of America Tower in Midland, Texas\n Bank of America Plaza in San Antonio, Texas\n Bank of America Fifth Avenue Plaza in Seattle, Washington\n Columbia Center in Seattle, Washington\n Bank of America Tower in Hong Kong\n\nIn 2010, the bank completed construction of the 1 Bank of America Center in Charlotte center city. The tower, and accompanying hotel, is a LEED-certified building.\n\nFormer buildings\n\nThe Robert B. Atwood Building in Anchorage, Alaska, was at one time named the Bank of America Center, renamed in conjunction with the bank's acquisition of building tenant Security Pacific Bank. This particular branch was later acquired by Alaska-based Northrim Bank and moved across the street to the Linny Pacillo Parking Garage.\n\nThe Bank of America Building (Providence) opened in 1928 as the Industrial Trust Building and remains the tallest building in Rhode Island. Through a number of mergers, it was later known as the Industrial National Bank building and the Fleet Bank building. The building was leased by Bank of America from 2004 to 2012 and has been vacant since March 2013. The building is commonly known as the Superman Building based on a popular belief that it was the model for the Daily Planet building in the Superman comic books.\n\nThe Miami Tower iconic in its appearance in Miami Vice was known as the Bank of America Tower for many years. It is located in Downtown Miami. On April 18, 2012, the AIA's Florida Chapter placed it on its list of Florida Architecture: 100 Years. 100 Places as the Bank of America Tower.\n\nTC Energy Center in Houston, Texas, was previously known as Bank of America Center until Bank of America ended its tenancy in the building in June 2019. Designed in the postmodern architecture style by renowned architect Philip Johnson, the building has been one of the most recognizable landmarks of the downtown Houston skyline since it was completed in 1983.\n\nSee also\n\n List of members ATM Industry Association (ATMIA)\n BAML Capital Partners\n Bank of America (Asia)\n Big Four banks\n Calibuso, et al. v. Bank of America Corp., et al.\n List of bank mergers in the United States\n List of largest banks in the United States\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n \n [DOD] Community Bank operated by Bank of America (official website)\n\n \nAmerican companies established in 1904\nBank of America legacy banks\nBanks based in North Carolina\nBanks established in 1904\nCompanies based in Charlotte, North Carolina\nCompanies listed on the New York Stock Exchange\nFormer components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average\nMultinational companies headquartered in the United States\nOnline brokerages\nSystemically important financial institutions\n1904 establishments in California","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":3,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"unknown":120}},"id":347756,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank%20of%20America","title":"Bank of America","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Fundamentalism was used at first to describe some people in the Protestant community in the United States in the early 20th century. These people had a set of well-defined (\"fundamental\") values. These values were in opposition to more modern ideas. The group also said it was important to stick to what faith (and a more literal translation of the Bible) told them. When people look at religion this way they see the ideas in the religion as absolute. This means that it is not possible for them to change. When religion is seen as absolute it becomes fundamentalism.\n\nToday, the term is used more generally. It is now often used to describe groups of people who are committed to behave or act according to their (mostly moral, and religious) values and beliefs even though these values may be criticised by many people or unpopular. Modern-day fundamentalists want to go back to the roots of certain ideological or religious positions.\n\nReligious fundamentalism has been prevalent in society since its beginnings in the late 19th- and early 20th-century. People today who study fundamentalism see it as a response to modern society. Today society is not as simple as it was: many people live in societies that can be difficult to understand. Changes in familiar things can make people feel unsafe. So some people look in their religion to see something that does not change. They also want rules about how to act that do not change. So they see their religion as this thing that does not change.\n\nSee Reformation for an older historical precedent.\n\nFundamentalism is also a trademarked brand of belts \"to Beat Children.\" Fundamentalism Leather Belts have been in countless art exhibits to satirize Fundamentalist Christians who think their God wants them to hit children. The artist and the only publicly recognized owner of Fundamentalism, Daniel Vander Ley, is a child-rights advocate who uses his brand \"Fundamentalism America's Premier Child Abuse Brand\" as a way to confront governments around the world about corporal punishment practices in schools and homes. Corporal Punishment still occurs in public schools in 19 American states.\n\nTerminology \nSome people who are called religious fundamentalists do not like that name, as the term has other meanings. They do not like it because 'religious fundamentalist' has some negative ideas about it. Many people who are politically progressive or liberal sometimes do not like religious fundamentalists. They believe bad things about them like that they are not clever, they are not educated, or that they do not respect people's human rights.\n\nSome people who are Christian fundamentalists do like that term and use it to name themselves. But they do not like being called religious fundamentalists because Islamic fundamentalists are in this same group.\n\nHistory \nFundamentalism began as a movement in the U.S., starting among conservative Presbyterian academics and theologians at Princeton Theological Seminary in the first decade of the Twentieth Century. It soon spread to conservatives among the Baptists and other denominations during and immediately following the First World War. The movement's purpose was to reaffirm orthodox Protestant Christianity and zealously defend it against the challenges of liberal theology, German higher criticism, Darwinism, and other movements which it regarded as harmful to Christianity.\n\nThe term \"fundamentalism\" has its roots in the Niagara Bible Conference (1878\u20131897) which defined those things that were fundamental to Christian belief. The term was also used to describe \"The Fundamentals\", a collection of twelve books on five subjects published in 1910 and funded by Milton and Lyman Stewart\n\nIssues of fundamentalism \nNot all religious fundamentalists believe the same things. But there are many issues that they have strong beliefs about. Some of these issues are similar even in different religions. Some of these issues are:\n Abortion\n Homosexuality\n Feminism (or women's rights)\n Sex before marriage\n Contraception\n Religion as the basis for laws\n Teaching religion in schools\n Science\n\nCriticism \nMany criticisms of fundamentalist positions have been offered. One of the most common is that some claims made by a fundamentalist group cannot be proven, and are irrational, demonstrably false, or contrary to scientific evidence. . For example, some of these criticisms were famously asserted by Clarence Darrow in the Scopes Monkey Trial.\n\nAnother is that religious beliefs do not translate well into laws or social policy in diverse tolerant societies. This criticism favors secularism as a better foundation for social harmony and stability.\n\nOne of the critics, Elliot N. Dorff wrote:\nIn order to carry out the fundamentalist program in practice, one would need a perfect understanding of the ancient language of the original text, if indeed the true text can be (found...) among variants. Furthermore, human beings are the ones who transmit this understanding between generations. Even if one wanted to follow the literal word of God, the need for people first to understand that word (requires) human interpretation. Through that process human fallibility is inextricably mixed into the very meaning of the divine word. As a result, it is impossible to follow the indisputable word of God; one can only achieve a human understanding of God's will.\n\nReferences \n\nTheology\nPhilosophical movements and positions\nPolitical ideologies","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":150,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":6}},"id":91778,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fundamentalism","title":"Fundamentalism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Die Walk\u00fcre (The Valkyrie) is an opera by Richard Wagner.  It is the second of the four operas that together tell a story called Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung).  The story continues from the first opera which was called Das Rheingold. It is a very beautiful piece.  \n\nDie Walk\u00fcre was first performed on 26 June 1870 in Munich.  The first performance that was part of the whole Ring cycle took place on 14 August 1876.\n\nThe story of the opera\n\nAct One\nThe opera starts with a storm.  The young man Siegmund is out in the storm and comes to a house.  The house belongs to Hunding who lives there with his wife Sieglinde.  An ash tree is growing in the middle of the house.  Siegmund and Sieglinde are twins who were separated as children, so neither of them knows who the other one is.  Their father is Wotan, the chief god, but they don't know this either.  Their mother was a mortal (an ordinary person, not a goddess) or perhaps a she-wolf, which is how the goddess Fricka refers to her.\n\nSieglinde lets Siegmund into the house and gives him a drink of mead.  They start to fall in love.  Hunding arrives and asks Siegmund who he is.  Siegmund says that his name ought to be Woeful because he has had an unhappy life.  When he was small he came home once and found his house burned down, his mother murdered and his twin sister had been abducted (taken away).  He then remembers that some years later he went to help a young lady who had been forced to marry a cruel man.  He had killed some of the man's friends.  Hunding realizes that he himself was this man, so that he is Siegmund's enemy.  He says to Siegmund that he can sleep in his house tonight because this is a law of hospitality, but in the morning he will have to fight him.\n\nSieglinde goes to prepare a drink for her husband.  She puts a drug in it which will make Hunding sleep deeply.  Siegmund meanwhile is thinking about something his father had promised him.  He had told him that he would thrust a magic sword called \"Nothung\" into a tree.  No one would get that sword until, one day, when Siegmund found himself in great difficulty, he would be able to pull it from the tree and use it.\n\nSieglinde enters and tells Siegmund a story about how, on the day she was forced to marry Hunding, an old man had come into the house and thrust a sword into the ash tree in the middle of the room.  They start to realize that they are brother and sister,  but it does not stop them from falling in love and they sing passionately about their love for one another.  Siegmund pulls the sword from the tree and the two lovers embrace.\n\nAct Two\nWotan is the chief god, whom we heard in Das Rheingold. He is trying to get rid of the curse of the Rheingold, and has built a grand plan around Siegmund. Wotan tells his daughter Br\u00fcnnhilde that she must make sure that Siegmund wins the fight with Hunding.  Br\u00fcnnhilde (the out-of-wedlock daughter of Wotan and Erda, the Earth-Mother goddess) has the power to do this.  She is one of eight daughters of Wotan who are Valkyries (German: Walk\u00fcren).  Their job is to collect the dead bodies of brave heroes who have died in battle and take them back to Valhalla, the house of the gods. \n\nWotan's wife Fricka arrives in a chariot pulled by a ram.  Br\u00fcnnhilde disappears, and there follows a big argument between husband and wife.  Fricka says to Wotan that Siegmund and Sieglinde must be punished for breaking Hunding's marriage, and for loving one another because brothers and sisters are not allowed to be lovers (this is called \"incest\").  She says that she herself is the goddess of marriage and must make sure that marriage laws are obeyed. Fricka says that the gods will all be disgraced. Wotan says that he went to the world to have children with mortal women because the gods needed a race of heroes who would protect them.  But Fricka says to Wotan that he is wrong: Siegmund cannot be a free hero if he is being protected by Wotan. Giving in, Wotan now tells Br\u00fcnnhilde that she must leave Siegmund to his fate.\n\nSieglinde tells Siegmund that she feels guilty and that he ought to leave her, but they are desperately in love.  When she hears Hunding's horn she imagines that Siegmund will be torn apart by the dogs and she faints.  Br\u00fcnnhilde pities Siegmund. She tells Siegmund that he must follow her to Valhalla.  When Siegmund asks whether he can take Sieglinde with her Br\u00fcnnhilde says that he cannot do this.  Siegmund refuses to go.  Br\u00fcnnhilde tells him that he cannot escape his fate.  Siegmund continues to plead with Br\u00fcnnhilde, and in the end she is so moved that she changes her mind. She breaks Wotan's order, and says that she will protect Siegmund in battle.  Hunding appears and the two men fight.  Br\u00fcnnhilde protects Siegmund with her shield.  Siegmund is nearly winning when suddenly Wotan appears and smashes Siegmund's sword into pieces. Hunding kills Siegmund.\n\nAct Three\n\nThe other Valkyries are wondering where Br\u00fcnnhilde is.  They see her coming on her horse, but instead of a hero she is carrying a woman (it is Sieglinde).  The Valkyries are angry with Br\u00fcnnhilde because she disobeyed Wotan.  Sieglinde wants to die, but when she is told that she has a baby in her womb she asks Br\u00fcnnhilde to save her.  She escapes into the forest with bits of Siegmund's sword.  One day the baby she is now bearing will grow up, become a hero, and use the bits to make another sword.\n\nWotan goes to the Valkyries.  He is furious with Br\u00fcnnhilde because she disobeyed him.  He punishes her.  He tells her that she is no longer a Valkyrie.  She will fall asleep on a rock and any man who finds her can have her.  Br\u00fcnnhilde pleads with Wotan.  She asks him whether he could, at least, put a fire round her so that the only man who could get her would be a hero.  In the end Wotan agrees.  Loge, the god of fire, arrives and lights the fire.  At the end of the opera Br\u00fcnnhilde is asleep on the rock, surrounded by the fire.  There she will stay until, one day, a hero comes to rescue her.\n\nThe music of the opera\n\nThe music contains many wonderful moments.  The most famous bit is the beginning of Act Three where the Valkyries are riding on their horses.  This music is known as The Ride of the Valkyries.  It is very dramatic music.  The very beginning of Act One is also very dramatic.  The music describes a storm.  The orchestra is a very large one, including special tubas which are known as \"Wagner tubas\".  There are no separate arias in these operas: all the sections flows into one another.  Sometimes a character has a section when they are telling a story.  There are beautiful sections like the one in Act One where  Siegmund is remembering about his father and the sword, or the love music between Siegmund and Sieglinde.  By using leitmotifs (music which goes with certain ideas or characters) he gets many subtle effects.  When Siegmund looks at the ash tree we hear the sword motive because the sword is in the tree, although at that moment he does not know about it.  We also hear Wotan's theme when Siegmund talks about his father.  We (the listener) know who his father is, but Siegmund does not.  The music tells us lots of things that the characters in the story may not understand.  This makes the music very powerful and exciting.\n\nThe other operas \nThe first opera in the cycle is Das Rheingold.\nThe third opera in the cycle is Siegfried.\nThe fourth opera in the cycle is G\u00f6tterd\u00e4mmerung.\nThe whole cycle is called Der Ring des Nibelungen.\n\nReferences\n\nOperas by Richard Wagner\n1870s operas","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-31":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":51529,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Die%20Walk%C3%BCre","title":"Die Walk\u00fcre","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A bicycle (or bike) is a small, human powered land vehicle with a seat, two wheels, two pedals, and a metal chain connected to cogs on the pedals and rear wheel. A frame gives the bike strength, and the other parts are attached to the frame. The name comes from these two words - the prefix \"bi-\" meaning two, and the suffix \"-cycle\" meaning wheel. It is powered by a person riding on top, who pushes the pedals around with his or her feet.\n\nRiding bicycles, which is also called cycling, is an important way to travel in several parts of the world. The most popular type of cycling is Utility cycling.  It is also a common recreation, a good form of low-impact exercise, and a popular sport. Road bicycle racing is the second most popular spectator sport in the world.\nBicycling uses less energy per mile than any other human transport.\n\nInvention \n\nIn 1817 a German professor, Baron Karl von Drais, created the first two-wheeled bicycle. It was made of wood and had two wheels. The front wheel could be turned using the handlebars in order to steer the bike. However, it did not have pedals, so the rider would have to push their feet on the ground to make it move.\n\nIn the 1860s, French inventors added pedals to the front wheel. However, it took a lot of effort to turn the pedals.  Later inventors made bikes out of metal only, and made the front wheel very big, giving higher speed. This design was called the penny-farthing bicycle. However, it was difficult to ride, since it could fall easily and the rider would fall far.\n\nSeveral improvements were made in the 1880s and '90s. In 1885, the safety bicycle was invented. This had two wheels the same size so that the rider could sit at a lower height. It was called the safety bicycle because it much easier to ride than the penny-farthing. When stopping, the rider can simply put down a foot instead of completely dismounting.  Instead of pedaling and steering with the front wheel, the safety bicycle steers with the front wheel while the pedals turn the back wheel using a chain. Brakes operated by hand levers on some bikes also increased safety.\n\nIn 1888, Scottish inventor John Boyd Dunlop re-invented a type of tire which was filled with air. This made safety bicycles more comfortable. Soon, the freewheel was invented. This was a device inside the hub of the back wheel that allowed the wheel to spin even if the rider wasn't pedaling.  However, this meant the rider could no longer stop the bike by backpedaling.  As a result, better hand brakes were invented, and a different type of brake which could stop the bike if the pedals were turned backwards.  Later inventions included better brakes, and gears which made cycling over hills much easier. During this time the bicycle became very popular.\n\nBasic Design \nBasic components common to most bikes include a seat, pedals, gearing, handlebar, wheels, and brakes, all mounted on a frame. The majority also have a gear shifter. The cyclist's feet push the pedals to make them go around in circles, which moves the chain, which turns the back wheel of the bike to make the bike move forwards. The front wheel is connected to the handlebar, so turning the handlebar from side to side swivels the front wheel which steers the bike.\n\nTypes of Bicycles \n \n\n The city bicycle is made for errands and commuting in cities.  It has a comfortable seat but is heavy.  It has front and back lights and a bell, and carriers for small cargoes.   It has mudguards to keep water and mud from spraying the rider.  The rider sits upright for comfort and easy steering in traffic.  \"Bike share\" systems usually provide \" city-style bikes\".\n The mountain bicycle is used for riding on rough roads.  They have many speeds (usually more than 20), wide tires, and strong wheels.  The tire is specially designed to ride smoothly on hills, grass, and mountains.\n\n The difference between a woman's bicycle and other bicycles is the location of the top tube. When women began to ride bikes, they wore long skirts. The manufacturers of bicycles changed the location of the top tube to make it easier for women to sit down on them while wearing a skirt. Some utility bicycles are similar, for riders who make frequent stops.\n The tandem bicycle is made for two people. It has two pairs of pedals. The cyclists sit one behind another. The first cyclist steers the bicycle. There are bicycles for three and more people. There was a bicycle for 40 people.\n Folding bicycles can easily be stored in a small place or carried a long distance on an airplane or other public transport.\n Electric Bicycles have electric motors, usually inside the hub of either the front or rear wheel. You can choose to ride using the motor only, or with pedals only or with both together. In the U.S. the federal government has set a limit of 750 Watts and a top electric-powered speed of 20MPH to have only the rules that apply to bicycles and no extra restrictions such as operator license, vehicle license, registration or insurance requirements.\n A road bicycle usually has narrow wheels, less than 1\" (25\u00a0mm) wide, with a frame that is much lighter than a mountain bicycle.  Road bikes are efficient for longer distances.  Many have clips to attach your shoes, rather than just pedals.  There are variations, as some road bicycles have regular tires.  Road bicycle racing is a popular sport.\n Recumbent bicycles come in several styles, but all of them have pedals in front of the seat, and the rider leans back while riding.  This is more comfortable for most people, but cost more.  Some types are lower to the ground, so it might be harder to see in traffic.  The fastest bikes in the world are recumbents.\n\nSafety \nMany thousands of people are hurt every year in bicycle accidents, and hundreds die. Careful riding helps prevent accidents. When riding on streets, it is safest to ride on the same side of the street that cars drive (which would mean riding on the right side of the road in countries where people drive on the right side of the road, and riding on the left in countries where people drive on the left).  To avoid hitting people, riders must obey signs that say \"no bicycling\", even if it does not seem to make sense at the time.  Low light makes bicycle lighting important. It may not be safe to ride when it is dark. Riders wear reflective clothing to be safer in low light.  Wearing a helmet makes bicycle riding safer. Wearing a helmet does not mean that somebody cannot be hurt if they crash their bicycle, but it makes being hurt less likely. Some bicycles have bells or horns that the rider can use to warn other people that they are riding by them.\n\nMany places have a bicycle path linking houses with shops, schools and stations.  These make bicycling safer, letting cyclists stay away from busy motor traffic on dangerous roads.\n\nRelated pages \n World Bicycle Day \n Tour de France\n Unicycle\n Tricycle\n Tandem trike\n\nReferences \n\nHuman-powered vehicles\nCycling","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":4,"2023-50":3,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":6,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":5,"2020-05":7,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":4,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1}},"id":3674,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bicycle","title":"Bicycle","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sexual attraction is an attraction to other members of the same species for sexual or erotic activity. In many species this does not always mean a sexual act; indeed, some sexual behavior among primates is mostly a social activity.\n\nIn humans \nWhat is sexually attractive to humans may change by culture or place. The sexual attraction of one person to another depends on both people. \n\nMuch of human sexual attractiveness is physical (see beauty). This involves the impact one's appearance has on the senses, especially in the beginning of a relationship:\n\n Visual perception (how the other looks); \n Olfaction (how the other smells, naturally or artificially; the wrong smell may be repellent);\n Audition (how the other's voice and\/or movements sound).\n Vibes, sensory perception (generally biased) of another person based on one's own view or from influence from others. (negative or positive).\n\nTypes\n\nHeterosexuality\nHomosexuality\nGay\nLesbian\nBisexuality\nPansexuality\n\nRelated pages\nCasual sex\nHuman bonding\nHuman sexuality\nInterpersonal relationship\nIntimacy\nLove\nLust\nSexual arousal\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Sexual Attraction Among Humans \n FaceResearch  \u2013 Scientific research and online studies on the role of faces in sexual attraction\n Reunions Set Off Sex Urges, Article on sexual attraction among birth relatives.\n www.lookism.info deconstruction of attraction and beauty standards\n\nHuman sexuality","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":114,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":67411,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sexual%20attraction","title":"Sexual attraction","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"This article is about the visible spectrum. For all other uses see: Spectrum (disambiguation)\n\nA spectrum, plural: spectra, is a band of several colours: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. A spectrum can be seen if the Sun's light is passed through a prism and allowed to gather on a white screen. This visible spectrum is part of the larger electromagnetic spectrum. Spectroscopy is the study of spectra.\n\nA natural example of a spectrum is a rainbow. The word spectrum was first used by scientists studying optics. They used the word to describe the rainbow of colors in visible light when separated using a prism.  The spectrum seen when light passes through a prism is an example of the dispersion of light.  The material from which the prism is made has a different  refractive index n than air.  Usually, nprism is greater than nair, and nair is taken to be approximately one. This implies that light travels a little slower in the material of the prism than in the space surrounding it.  The angle of refraction can be determined from the angle of incidence and the refractive indexes using Snell's law.  \n\nThe reason why the white light separates into in its component colors instead of remaining white is because the shorter wavelengths are refracted, or bent, more than the longer wavelengths.  Thus, red, having the longest visible wavelength, will appear closest to the line perpendicular to the surface of the material (the normal), that is, it will be bent the least.  Violet light, with the smallest wavelength  in the visible spectrum, will be bent the most.  The rainbow produced will always be in the same order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages\nPrimary colour\n\nLight","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":52402,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectrum","title":"Spectrum","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Nuclear physics is the part of physics that studies the nucleus of the atom. Everything on the earth is made up of atoms; they are the smallest part of a chemical element that still has the properties of that specific element. When two or more atoms combine they create what we know as the molecule, which is the smallest part of a chemical compound which still has the properties of that specific compound. Understanding the structure of atoms is key in studies such as physics, chemistry, biology, etc.\n\nAtoms\n\nStructure \nAtoms are made up of electrons, neutrons, and protons. The protons and neutrons are in the center of the atom, which is called the nucleus. The protons and neutrons are the heaviest part of the atom and make up most of its mass. The electrons move around the nucleus very quickly, making what is called an electron cloud. The electron cloud has a very small mass, but it makes up most of the space of the atom. The electrons have a negative charge, and the protons have a positive charge. Due to the charges in the atom, that is how the atom stays together, by attraction of the electric charges present in the atom.\n\nProperties \nAtoms have different features that single out one atom from another, and show how each atom can change in different conditions. These properties include atomic number, mass number, atomic mass and weight, and isotopes.\n\nForces acting \nIn an atom there are three fundamental forces that keep atoms together. electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force. The electromagnetic force keeps the electrons attached to the atom. The strong nuclear  force keeps the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus. The weak nuclear force controls how the atom decays.\n\nQuantum \nIn the early 20th century, scientists had trouble explaining the behavior of atoms using their current knowledge of matter. So to deal with this they made a brand new way to view matter and energy, and they called it quantum theory. Quantum theory explains how matter acts both as a particle and a wave.\n\nRadiation \n\nAtoms emit radiation when their electrons lose energy and drop down to lower orbitals. The difference in energy between the orbitals determines the wavelength of the given radiation. This radiation can be shown by visible light or shorter wavelengths.\n\n \nNuclear energy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":29348,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear%20physics","title":"Nuclear physics","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Lyrics are the words to a song. A person who writes lyrics is called a lyricist.\n\nThe lyrics of a song will usually have a meaning. Some times the meaning is easy to find but other times it can be very difficult to know what the lyrics mean. Some lyrics are so strange that it is nearly impossible to understand them. In such cases, people tend to look more at the form, articulation, meter, and symmetries of the lyrics instead of looking at their meaning.\n\nThere are many websites that have the lyrics to songs. This may be a bad thing since many web sites include copyrighted lyrics without permission from the copyright holder. The United States Music Publishers' Association (MPA), which represents sheet music companies, created a campaign against such sites in December 2005. MPA president Lauren Keiser said that the sites are \"completely illegal\" and that he wanted to see some site operators put in prison.\n\nEtymology and usage\n\"Lyric\" is from the Greek; a lyric was originally a song sung with a lyre.\n\nA lyric poem is one that expresses a subjective, personal point of view.\n I would be the Lyric\n Ever on the lip,\n Rather than the Epic\n Memory lets die.\n \u2013Thomas Bailey Aldrich\n\nThe word lyric was used for the \"words of a popular song\" about 1876  for the first time. The plural lyrics was used only in referring to the words of several songs. That it is used for the words of a single song as its lyrics became increasingly common (probably because of the association between lyrics and the plural form words), and is common in modern usage of today's society. Use of the singular form lyric is still grammatically acceptable.\n\nReferences \n\nPoetry\n\nhu:L\u00edra (m\u0171nem)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":167,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":8,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":59136,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lyrics","title":"Lyrics","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Liste over fylker i Illinois. Den amerikanske delstaten Illinois best\u00e5r av 102 fylker (counties).\n\n Adams County\n Alexander County\n Bond County\n Boone County\n Brown County\n Bureau County\n Calhoun County\n Carroll County\n Cass County\n Champaign County\n Christian County\n Clark County\n Clay County\n Clinton County\n Coles County\n Cook County\n Crawford County\n Cumberland County\n DeKalb County\n DeWitt County\n Douglas County\n DuPage County\n Edgar County\n Edwards County\n Effingham County\n Fayette County\n Ford County\n Franklin County\n Fulton County\n Gallatin County\n Greene County\n Grundy County\n Hamilton County\n Hancock County\n Hardin County\n Henderson County\n Henry County\n Iroquois County\n Jackson County\n Jasper County\n Jefferson County\n Jersey County\n Jo Daviess County\n Johnson County\n Kane County\n Kankakee County\n Kendall County\n Knox County\n LaSalle County\n Lake County\n Lawrence County\n Lee County\n Livingston County\n Logan County\n Macon County\n Macoupin County\n Madison County\n Marion County\n Marshall County\n Mason County\n Massac County\n McDonough County\n McHenry County\n McLean County\n Menard County\n Mercer County\n Monroe County\n Montgomery County\n Morgan County\n Moultrie County\n Ogle County\n Peoria County\n Perry County\n Piatt County\n Pike County\n Pope County\n Pulaski County\n Putnam County\n Randolph County\n Richland County\n Rock Island County\n Saline County\n Sangamon County\n Schuyler County\n Scott County\n Shelby County\n St. Clair County\n Stark County\n Stephenson County\n Tazewell County\n Union County\n Vermilion County\n Wabash County\n Warren County\n Washington County\n Wayne County\n White County\n Whiteside County\n Will County\n Williamson County\n Winnebago County\n Woodford County\n\nReferanser\n\nEksterne lenker \n \n \n\nIllinois","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":27,"dup_details":{"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-10":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":98,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2}},"id":211307,"url":"https:\/\/no.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liste%20over%20fylker%20i%20Illinois","title":"Liste over fylker i Illinois","language":"no"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A basilica is a large, important church. The word can also be used for an Ancient Roman building that was used for law and meetings. The word \"basilica\" is Latin which was taken from the Greek \"Basilik\u00e9 Sto\u00e0\".\n\nNowadays the word is used in three ways:\n A Roman Catholic church that has been given the right to use that name, by the Pope. Only some large important churches have this right.\n An Ancient Roman basilica\n People who write about architecture often use the word \"basilica\" to mean a building that is shaped like an Ancient Roman basilica.\n\nHistory\n\nAncient Rome\n\nA Roman basilica was a large hall built for meetings, business and law. A Roman basilica usually had the doors at the long sides of the building. At each end was a semi-circular part where the judges sat. The building usually had two rows of columns, which made a high central part and a lower aisle on either side. The light came in from windows above the columns. As the Roman Empire spread, every city had a basilica.\n\nEarly Christian basilicas\nEarly in the 4th century (312 AD), the Roman Emperor Constantine made Christianity the legal religion of the Roman Empire. The Christians who had been worshipping secretly in private houses now wanted to build churches. They did not want the churches to look the same as Roman Temples. They built them to look more like Roman Basilicas. A basilica was a good plan for a Christian church because lots of people could fit inside, and the aisles were useful for people to move around. The semi-circular part at one end, the apse, was just right to put the altar. Christian basilicas usually have the door at one end, rather than at the side. In front of the door there was often a courtyard called an atrium. Most of these atriums have gone, but churches often have a town square or a market place in front of them.\n\nSome of the oldest Early Christian basilicas were four that were begun in Rome by the Emperor Constantine. Three of them are still standing, but they have had many changes in the last 1,700 years. These are the basilicas of Santa Maria Maggiore, St. John Lateran and St. Paul's outside the Walls. The fourth basilica was 'Old St. Peter's which was replaced in the 16th and 17th centuries by the present St. Peter's Basilica. Other Early Christian Basilicas were built in Greece and the Holy Land.\n\nPresent-day basilicas\nSome basilicas are called \"Ancient Basilicas\". These have been called basilicas since Early Christian or Medieval times. It is their traditional name. Ancient Basilicas include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna and the Basilica of San Lorenzo in Rome. The four other ancient basilicas of Rome are called the \"Major Basilicas\". Each Major Basilica has a throne for the pope and an altar that is specially for the pope to celebrate mass. No-one else can use that altar without the pope's permission. All the other basilicas are called \"Minor Basilicas\".\n\nNowadays, for a church to be called a Minor Basilica, it has to be given some special privileges or rights by the pope in a document called a \"Papal Brief\". When a church has been made a basilica, the clergy then carry some special symbols when they are in procession. In 2008 there were more than 1,600 basilicas in the world.\n\nWhy do churches become basilicas?\n\nAncient basilicas\nMany churches are given the name \"basilica\" to show that they are special in some way. There are very few ancient basilicas that were built on ground associated with Jesus. They are thought of as some of the holiest Christian sites in the world. These include the Basilica of the Annunciation in Nazareth, the Basilica of All Nations where Jesus prayed on the Mount of Olives and the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre is very unusual because the church is shared by the Catholic and Orthodox Churches.\n\nMartyrs\nOther ancient basilicas are places where a saint was martyred (put to death). One of these is the Basilica of Saint Stephen, the first Christian Martyr, which is also in Jerusalem. There are many ancient basilicas which were built on the place where a saint was buried. In Rome there are many basilicas like this, because Rome was a very big city, with many Christian people. The Emperors thought Christianity was dangerous to them, because Christians put the rules of Jesus before the law of the Emperor. Many Christians were martyred. When Christianity became legal, churches were built over the graves of martyrs. These churches often became known as basilicas, because they were in the shape of a Roman basilica. Basilicas built over tombs of martyrs include Sant'Agnese outside the Walls, San Lorenzo outside the Walls, and St. Paul's outside the Walls. The words \"outside the walls\" mean that the burial place of the saint was outside the walls of the city.\n\nRelics\nSome basilicas are famous because they have \"relics\" (or bones or perhaps a body part) of a saint. It could also be the case that the relics were reinterred from the original place.  If a church housed the body of an important saint, then many people would come on pilgrimage and would dedicate themselves to prayer and the use of the sacraments. Basilicas that have bodies include St. Mark's, Venice, St. Nicholas of Bari, also in Italy, and the Basilica of St. Mary Magdalene in Vezelay, France. Not all relics are bodies. Basilicas may also hold a famous object like a piece of the True Cross, or the belt worn by the Virgin Mary. People often ask whether all these precious relics are authentic. The Roman Catholic Church does not get into arguments about trying to prove whether the pieces of the Cross, the body parts and other things are real. Sometimes the relic is known to be real. Sometimes there is no way to prove it, either way.\n\nSaints\nOther basilicas are churches that were built by a famous saint, were used by a famous saint, or were built to honour the saint, who did not die as a martyr but lived a very holy life. Two of the most famous basilicas of this sort are the Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi and the Basilica of St. Anthony of Padua. Many thousands of pilgrims go to these churches every day to remember two saints who were gentle, humble and taught people to live better lives.\n\nSigns and Miracles \nSome basilicas are built because a miracle or special sign took place. The sign might be a vision and might give a plan to build.  The Basilica of Lourdes in France is built at the place where Bernadette Soubirous had a vision of the Virgin Mary. It is an important pilgrimage place.  Sometimes the sign is not so strange as a vision. In the Philippines, the Basilica del Santo Ni\u00f1o was built at the place where a partly burnt box was found in 1565. It contained a little statue of the Christ Child and had been left behind by some Spanish or Portuguese explorers many years earlier. \"Santo Ni\u00f1o\" means \"Holy Child\" in Spanish.\n\nWell-known basilicas\n\nMajor basilicas \nThe four great Basilicas of Rome, as well as having a seat and an altar for the pope, have a Holy Door which is only opened for special occasions such as a Jubilee Year.\n The Basilica of St. John Lateran, is also called the Lateran Basilica. It is the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome, the Pope.\n St. Peter's Basilica, also called the Vatican Basilica, is a major pilgrimage site, being built over the burial place of Saint Peter. It is used for most of the main religious ceremonies in which the Pope takes part.\n The Basilica of St. Paul outside the Walls, is also known as the Ostian Basilica, because it is on the road that led to Ostia. It is built over the burial place of Saint Paul.\n The Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, (St. Mary Major) is also called the Liberian basilica, because the building was thought to have been built by Pope Liberius. It is the largest church in Rome dedicated to the Virgin Mary.\n\nOther well-known basilicas\n \n\n The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, Israel\n The Basilica of St. Nicholas of Bari in Bari, Italy\n The Basilica of St. Anthony of Padua in Padua, Italy\n The Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi in Italy\n The Basilica of St. Mark in Venice, Italy\n The Basilica of St. Denis, near Paris, France\n The Basilica of St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri USA\n The Basilica of Our Lady of F\u00e1tima, Portugal\n The Cathedral Basilica of San Thome, Chennai, India\n St. Stephen's Basilica, Budapest, Hungary\n The Cathedral Basilica of St. Chad, Birmingham England(1941)\n The Cathedral Basilica Shrine of Our Lady of the Rosary, Argentina\n The Cathedral Basilica of St. Mary, Help of Christians Sydney, Australia\n The Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro, in C\u00f4te d'Ivoire West Africa\n The Cathedral Basilica of Notre-Dame de Qu\u00e9bec in Quebec City was the first basilica in North America. (1874).\n The Cathedral Basilica of Our Lord Jesus Christ King of the Universe, Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland\n The Basilica of St. Adalbert in Buffalo, New York United States of America, (1907)\n The Cathedral Basilica of Las Lajas, in Colombia\n Berchem Basilica, Antwerp, Belgium (1878)\n San Francisco de la Habana Basilica in Havana, Cuba\n The Basilica of St. Gereon, Cologne, Germany (1920)\n The Basilica of Our Lady of Lanka, Tewatte, Sri Lanka\n The Basilica of San Isidoro , Le\u00f3n, Spain\n The Basilica of the Black Nazarene, Philippines\n The Basilica of Emmaus Nicopolis, Israel\n The Basilica of la Sagrada Familia, Spain, has been under construction since 1882, and although it is still unfinished, it was consecrated and proclaimed a minor basilica by Pope Benedict XVI in November 2010\n\nGallery\n\nRelated pages\n Church\n Cathedral\n Chapel\n Christianity\n Roman Catholicism\n\nReferences\n\n Architecture of the basilica, well illustrated.\n Basilica Porcia\n W. Thayer, \"Basilicas of Ancient Rome\": from Samuel Ball Platner (as completed and revised by Thomas Ashby), 1929. A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (London: Oxford University Press)\n Paul Veyne, ed. A History of Private Life I: From Pagan Rome to Byzantium, 1987\n List of All Major, Patriarchal and Minor Basilicas by Giga-Catholic Information\n Catholic Encyclopedia: Basilica & minor parts in other articles\n Richard Krautheimer, Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture\n Domus ecclesiae: Privileges and obligations pertaining to minor basilicas \nChurch architecture\nRoman buildings and structures","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":135,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":97072,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basilica","title":"Basilica","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Yahudi (Hebrew: \u05d9\u05b7\u05d4\u05b2\u05d3\u05d5\u05bc\u05ea\u200e\u200e Yah\u0103\u1e0f\u016b\u1e6f) ek rakam ke dharm hae, 14\u201315 million million Yahudi dunia mein hae.\n\nDuusra websites \n A large website for Jewish people\n The Jewish History Resource Center Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem\n Judaism article from the 1901-1906 Jewish Encyclopedia\n The Jewish Virtual Library\n Orthodox Judaism - The Orthodox Union: Official website\n The United Synagogues of Conservative Judaism: Official website \n Askmoses.com: Orthodox Judaism site that explains a lot of the basics of Judaism.\n Jewish Reconstructionist Federation: Official website\n The Judaica Press Complete Tanach with Rashi in English\n Global Directory of Jewish Museums\n Torah.org. (also known as Project Genesis) Contains Torah commentaries and studies of Tanakh, along with Jewish ethics, philosophy, holidays and other classes.\n The complete formatted Talmud online. Interpretative videos for each page from an Orthodox viewpoint are provided in French, English, Yiddish and Hebrew.\n\nDharam","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":142,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":4,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":7}},"id":9194,"url":"https:\/\/hif.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yahudi","title":"Yahudi","language":"hif"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In physics, interference is the effect of wave functions. A single wave can interfere with itself, but this is still an addition of two waves (see Young's slits experiment). Two waves always interfere, even if the result of the addition is complicated or not remarkable.\n\nSomething that happens when two or more waves are in the same space. Sometimes the peak of one wave joins with the peak of another wave, so the resulting peak is twice as high. Sometimes the peak of one wave falls into the trough of another wave, and the surface is then flat. When waves add their effects, it is called positive interference, or constructive interference. When one wave subtracts from the effects of the other, it is called negative interference, or destructive interference.\n\nIf two people pushed on a car in the same direction, they would move the car better than either one alone. That would be positive interference.  If two people of equal strength pushed the car from opposite directions, then it would not be moved by either of them. That would be negative interference.\n\nConstructive interference\n\nConstructive interference happens when two or more waves are in the same space and in phase. When this happens, the waves' amplitudes add together and the total is greater than the amplitude of any of the waves by themselves. This causes the waves to appear more intense.\n\nAt time = 0, one wave top is moving from the left and another wave is moving from the right. \nAt time = 1, the two wave tops meet in the middle.\nAt time = 2, the two waves have each continued moving forward and reappear again at their original heights.\n\nDestructive interference \nDestructive interference happens when two or more waves are in the same place and out of phase. When this happens, the waves' amplitudes add together and the total is less than the amplitude of any of the waves by themselves. This causes the waves to appear less intense.\n\nAt time = 0, a wave top is moving in from the left and a wave trough is moving in from the right.\nAt time = 1, the two waves have met in the middle. The crest (top) fills in the trough.\nAt time = 2, the two waves have moved along in their original direct and each reappears.\n\nExamples of interference\nAfter a rain, one can often see patterns when a little oil floats on top of puddles. The colors will be in the order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Each of these colors of light has its own wavelength, and different parts of the oil have different thicknesses. Part of the light from the sun bounces off the top surface,  in other words it bounces off the oil. Part of the sunlight bounces off the top of the water. The light waves from the oil surface and the light from the water surface meet back in the air, and they interfere. For any thickness of the oil layer, some of the light waves will add and some will subtract, so the result is that one color of light will be strongest there.\n\nWhen two highly polished sheets of glass are pressed together, sometimes the distance between the two pieces will change from place to place. When that happens, the pattern that shows up is called \"Newton's rings.\" When slide photographs are put between two thin sheets of glass for showing in a slide projector, this kind of pattern is a big problem. The same problem can show up when two microscope slides are put together.\n\nNoise-canceling headphones use destructive interference to cut out noise from the outside.\n\nPhysics questions\n\nHere is a diagram of the kind of thing that produces some kinds of light interference. The distance between the top piece of glass and the bottom piece gets larger near the outside edges.\n\nA simpler setup would be to have two flat pieces of glass in contact along one edge and a narrow angle between their two faces. If the separation between the top surface of the first piece of glass and the top surface of the second piece of glass is, at some point, such that light beams reflected from each are synchronized or in phase, then the reflected light will be bright, but if the two beams are half a cycle out of phase, then at that point the two beams will cancel each other and what reflected light there is will not be bright.\n\nWave physics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":128895,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interference","title":"Interference","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Births \n April 6 \u2013 Wilbur Wright\n April 9 \u2013 Chris Watson, 3rd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1941)\n November 7 \u2013 Marie Curie, Polish-French chemist and physicist (d. 1934)\n\nDeaths \n January 14 \u2013 Jean Auguste Ingres, French painter (b. 1780)\n January 30 \u2013 Emperor Komei of Japan (b. 1831)\n May 12 \u2013 Friedrich William Eduard Gerhard, German archaeologist (b. 1795)\n June 19 \u2013 Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico (executed) (b. 1832)\n August 25 \u2013 Michael Faraday, English chemist and physicist (b. 1791)\n August 31 \u2013 Charles Baudelaire, French writer (b. 1821)\n September 10 \u2013 Simon Sechter, Austrian music teacher (b. 1788)\n Alexander Bryan Johnson, American philosopher (b. 1786)\n\nEvents \n January 1 \u2013 The John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge opens between Cincinnati, Ohio and Covington, Kentucky, becoming the longest suspension bridge in the world\n January 8 \u2013 African-American men are granted the right to vote in the District of Columbia.\n January 11 \u2013 Benito Ju\u00e1rez becomes Mexican president again\n January 30 \u2013 Emperor Komei of Japan dies. Crown Prince Mutsuhito is expected to become the next Emperor of Japan.\n January 31 \u2013 Maronite nationalist leader Karam leaves Lebanon on board of a French ship for Algeria\n February 3 \u2013 Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu abdicates, and the late Emperor Komei's son, Prince Mutshuhito becomes Emperor Meiji of Japan. End of the Late Tokugawa shogunate.\n February 17 \u2013 The first ship passes through the Suez Canal\n March 1 \u2013 Nebraska is admitted as the 37th U.S. state.\n March 16 \u2013 First publication of an article by Joseph Lister outlining the discovery of antiseptic surgery, in The Lancet.\n March 29 \u2013 The British North America Act receives royal assent, forming the Dominion of Canada in an event known as Confederation. This unites the Province of Canada, Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia as of July 1. Ottawa becomes the capital, and John A. Macdonald becomes the Dominion's first prime minister.\n March 30 \u2013 Alaska is purchased for $7.2 million from Alexander II of Russia, about 2 cent\/acre ($4.19\/km2), by United States Secretary of State William H. Seward. The news media call this \"Seward's Folly.\"\n April 1 \u2013 Strait Settlement of Singapore, formerly ruled from Calcutta, becomes a Crown Colony under the jurisdiction of the Colonial Office in London.\n April 24 - A very bad earthquake hits Manhattan, Kansas.\n May 29 \u2013 Austro-Hungarian agreement called Ausgleich (\"the Compromise\") is born through Act 12, which established the Austro-Hungarian Empire; on June 8 Emperor Franz Joseph I was crowned King of Hungary\n June 19 \u2013 Firing squad executes Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico\n July 1 \u2013 Canada Day, recognizing the creation of Canada by the British North America Act.\n July 17 \u2013 In Boston, Massachusetts, the Harvard School of Dental Medicine is established as the first dental school in the United States.\n July 21 \u2013 Missionary Thomas Baker killed and eaten in Viti Levu, Fiji\n September 2 \u2013 Mutsuhito, the Meiji Emperor of Japan marries Ichijo Masako. The Empress consort is thereafter known as Lady Haruko.\n September 30 \u2013 The United States takes control of Midway Island.\n October 21 \u2013 'Manifest Destiny': Medicine Lodge Treaty \u2013 Near Medicine Lodge Creek, Kansas a landmark treaty is signed by southern Great Plains Indian leaders. The treaty requires Native American Plains tribes to relocate a reservation in western Oklahoma.\n October 27 \u2013 Giuseppe Garibaldi's troops march into Rome\n December 2 \u2013 In a New York City theater, British writer Charles Dickens gives his first public reading in the United States.\n December 4 \u2013 Former Minnesota farmer Oliver Hudson Kelley founds the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (better known today as the Grange movement).","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":12522,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1867","title":"1867","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Alps (, , , , , , ) is the greatest mountain range of Europe. It reaches from Austria and Slovenia in the east; through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany; to France in the west. The original meaning of the word was 'white'.\n\nThe highest mountain in the Alps is Mont Blanc, at , on the Italian\u2013French border.\n\nGeography \n\nThe Alps stretch from Austria and Slovenia in the east, through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany to France in the west.\n\nDivision \nThe mountains are divided into the Western Alps and the Eastern Alps. The division is along the line between Lake Constance and Lake Como, following the Rhine (on the north side, in Switzerland) and the river Mera in the South (in Italy). The Western Alps are higher, but their central chain is shorter and curved; they are located in Italy, France and Switzerland. \n\nThe Eastern Alps (main ridge system elongated and broad) belong to Austria, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovenia and Switzerland.\n\nThe highest peaks of the Western Alps are Mont Blanc, 4,808 metres (15,774\u00a0ft), Mont Blanc de Courmayeur 4,748 metres (15,577\u00a0ft), the Dufourspitze 4,634 metres (15,203\u00a0ft) and the other summits of the Monte Rosa group, and the Dom, 4,545 metres (14,911\u00a0ft). The highest peak in the Eastern Alps is Piz Bernina, 4,049 metres (13,284\u00a0ft). Perhaps the most famous location for tourist to the Alps are the Swiss Alps.\n\nMain chain \n\nThe main chain of the Alps follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald, Austria, defining partially the northern border of Italy. It then passes over many of the highest and most famous peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to Col de Tende it runs to the west before turning to the northwest and then, to the north, near the Colle della Maddalena. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain goes about northeast, a heading it follows until its end near Vienna.\n\nFour-thousanders \nThe Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) has defined a list of 82 \"official\" Alpine 4,000-meter (13,123\u00a0ft) peaks. The list has many sub-peaks with little prominence, but good for mountaineering. Here are the twelve four-thousanders with at least 1\u00a0km prominence.\n\nAlpinisme \nKarl Blodig was the first person to climb all the main four-thousand meter peaks, round 1900.\n\nThe Alpine Club is the oldest organization of mountaineers of the world. It's an organization from Great Britain, formed in 1857.\n\nThe Swiss Alpine Club was founded in 1863.\n\nGeology and orogeny \nThe reason mountains form is usually the moving together of continental plates of the Earth's crust. The Alps rose as a result of the slow but gigantic pressure of the African plate as it moved north against the stable Eurasian landmass. In particular, Italy (which had been a separate island) got pushed into Europe.\n\nThis all took place in the Tertiary period, mostly in the Miocene and Pliocene. That's about 35 to 5 million years ago.\n\nThe Alps are just a part of a larger orogenic belt of mountain chains, called the Alpide belt. It reaches through southern Europe and Asia from the Atlantic Ocean most of the way to the Himalayas.  \n\nA gap in these mountain chains in central Europe separates the Alps from the Carpathians off to the east. Subsidence is the cause of the gaps in between.\n\nA great and ancient ocean was once between Africa and Europe, the Tethys Ocean. Now sediments of the Tethys Ocean basin and its Mesozoic and early Cenozoic strata sit high above sea level. Even metamorphic basement rocks are found high on Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and other high peaks in the Pennine Alps and Hohe Tauern.\n\nThe formation of the Mediterranean Sea is a more recent development.\n\nTransport \nThe Alps do not make an impassable block; the common passes have been traveled by since the ancient history for war and commerce, and later by pilgrims, students and tourists.\nMountain passes give paths between mountains, for road, train or foot traffic.  Some are famous, being used for thousands of years.\n\nImportant passes in the Alps are, e.g.:\n\n Mont Cenis\n Little St Bernard Pass\n Great St Bernard Pass\n Simplon Pass\n Furka Pass\n Gotthard Pass\n Julier Pass\n Arlberg\n Bernina Pass\n Brenner Pass\n\nLong highway and railway tunnels:\n\n Fr\u00e9jus Rail Tunnel\n Mont Blanc Tunnel\n Simplon Tunnel\n Gotthard Base Tunnel (the longest railway tunnel of the world)\n Gotthard Road Tunnel\n Arlberg Railway Tunnel\n\nBridges:\n Teufelsbr\u00fccke (devil's bridge)\n\nTravel and visitors \n\nThe Alps are popular both in summer and in winter. The Alps as a place for sightseeing and sports. Winter sports (Alpine and Nordic skiing, snowboarding, tobogganing, snowshoeing, ski tours) can be learned in most regions from December to April. In summer, the Alps are popular with hikers, mountain bikers, paragliders, and mountaineers. There are also alpine lakes which attract swimmers, sailors and surfers. The lower places and bigger towns of the Alps are well served by motorways and main roads, but higher passes and by-roads can be bad even in the summer. Many passes are closed in winter. Many airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all bordering countries, afford large numbers of travelers easy access from abroad. The Alps normally has more than 100 million visitors a year.\n\nClimate \nThe Alps is split into five climate zones, each with a different kind of environment. The climate, plant life and animal life vary on different sections or zones of the mountain. \n\n The section of the Alps that is above 3,000 metres is called the n\u00e9v\u00e9 zone.  This area, which has the coldest climate, is permanently coated with compressed snow.  Plants are therefore scarce in the n\u00e9v\u00e9 zone.\n The alpine zone lies between the height of 2,000 and 3,000 metres.  This zone is less cold than in the n\u00e9v\u00e9 zone.  Wildflowers and grasses grow here.\n Just below the alpine zone is the subalpine zone, 1,500 to 2,000 metres high.  Forests of fir trees and spruce trees grow in the subalpine zone as the temperature slowly goes up.\n At about 1,000 to 1,500 metres high is the arable zone.  Millions of oak trees sprout in this area.  This is also where farming takes place.\n Below 1,000 metres are the lowlands.  Here, a larger variety of plants are produced. Aside from plants, villages are also in the lowlands because the temperature is easier for humans and farm animals.\n\nThe Alps is a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher land. A rise from sea level into the upper regions causes the temperature to decrease. The effect of mountain chains on winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands and loses heat, and drops snow or rain.\n\nPlants \nThe typical trees\u2014oak, beech, ash and sycamore maple have a natural height limit: the 'tree line'. Their upper limit matches the change in climate which comes with increasing height. The change from a temperate to a colder climate is also shown true by a change in the wild flowering plant life. This limit normally lies about  above the sea on the north side of the Alps. On the southern slopes, it often reaches to , sometimes even to .\n\nThe Alps do not always have the typical trees. People have felled them in many places. Except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of the typical deciduous trees are hardly found. Where such woods were, Scots pine and Norway spruce now grow. These trees are less sensitive to the attacks of goats who eat the saplings of deciduous trees.\n\nAbove the tree line, there is often a band of dwarf pine trees (Pinus mugo), which is taking place of dwarf shrubs. These shrubs are Rhododendron ferrugineum (on acid soils) or Rhododendron hirsutum (on non-acid soils). \n\nAbove this is the alpine meadow. Above the alpine meadow is where plant life becomes less and less common. At these great heights, the plants are likely to make separate groups. In the Alps, many species of flowering plants have been recorded above . These are like Ranunculus glacialis, Androsace alpina and Saxifraga biflora.\n\nAnimals \nSpecies common to the Alps:\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":169,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":3,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":4}},"id":15938,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alps","title":"Alps","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Theodosius Grygorovych Dobzhansky (; ; January 25, 1900 \u2013 December 18, 1975) was a noted geneticist and an evolutionary biologist.  \n\nDobzhansky was born in Ukraine (then part of Imperial Russia) and emigrated to the United States in 1927. He was a central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work on the fruit-fly Drosophila. He did research on these flies in California, mostly on populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura. \n\nDobzhansky was important in the modern evolutionary synthesis, which was the synthesis of evolutionary biology with genetics.\n\nUkraine and Russia \nAt school Dobzhansky collected butterflies and beetles, and studied biology at Kiev University. After graduation he moved to St Petersburg (then called Leningrad), and studied under Yuri Filipchenko, who had a Drosophila lab. Dobzhansky collected Coccinellidae (ladybird beetles) in the wild, and explored their genetics.\n\nAmerica \nDobzhansky emigrated to the United States in 1927. He worked with Thomas Hunt Morgan at Columbia University, who had pioneered the use of fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) in genetics experiments. He followed Morgan to the California Institute of Technology from 1930 to 1940. Dobzhansky took fruit fly research out of the laboratory and into the field. He discovered that regional varieties of flies were more similar to each other genetically than to flies from other regions.\n\nIn 1937 Dobzhansky published one of the major works of the modern evolutionary synthesis, entitled Genetics and the Origin of Species. He defined evolution as \"a change in the allele frequency within a gene pool\". It is through changes in the proportion of alleles in a population that evolution takes place. Also in 1937, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. During this time he had a falling out with one of his Drosophila collaborators, Alfred Sturtevant, based perhaps on professional competition. \n\nDobzhansky returned to Columbia University from 1940 to 1962. He was one of the signatories of the 1950 UNESCO statement The Race Question. He then moved to the Rockefeller University) until his retirement in 1971.\n\nOther key publications \n Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution  The American Biology Teacher 35: (March): 125-129.\n Genetics of the evolutionary process. Columbia University Press, New York 1970.\n Dobzhansky's Genetics of Natural Populations I-XLIII. R.C. Lewontin, J.A. Moore, W.B. Provine & B. Wallace, eds. Columbia University Press, New York 1981. (reprints the 43 papers in this series, all but two of which were authored or co-authored by Dobzhansky)\n\nReferences \n\n1900 births\n1975 deaths\nAmerican evolutionary biologists\nAmerican zoologists\nUkrainian scientists\nAmerican geneticists\nNaturalized citizens of the United States\nRockefeller University faculty\u200e\nColumbia University faculty\nCalifornia Institute of Technology faculty","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":199822,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theodosius%20Dobzhansky","title":"Theodosius Dobzhansky","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sapote (from Nahuatl tzapotl) is a word for a soft, edible fruit. The word is part of the names of several plants from Mexico, Central America and northern parts of South America that have fruits. \n\nSome but not all sapotes come from the family Sapotaceae:\n\n Sapotaceae sapotes:\n Sapodilla (Manilkara zapota) is native to Mexico, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Belize, and possibly El Salvador. \n Yellow sapote (Pouteria campechiana) is from Mexico and Central America.\n Mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota) is from southern Mexico to northern South America.\n Green sapote (Pouteria viridis) is native to lowland southern Mexico.\n\n Ebenaceae sapotes:\n Black sapote (Diospyros digyna) is from eastern Mexico south to Colombia. This is probably the original Aztec tzapotl.\n Chapote (Diospyros texana) is from the lower Rio Grande valley region in Texas and Mexico\n\n Other sapotes\n White sapote (Casimiroa edulis: Rutaceae) is from northern and central Mexico, Costa Rica, El Salvador and Guatemala.\n South American sapote (Quararibea cordata: Malvaceae) is from the Amazon rainforests of Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.\n\nReferences\n\nTropical fruit","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":131,"dup_dump_count":54,"dup_details":{"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":10,"2014-15":5,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":316242,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sapote","title":"Sapote","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Organometallic chemistry is the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal. It combines aspects of inorganic chemistry (the study of non-carbon bonds) and organic chemistry (the study of carbon bonds).\n\nExamples of organometallic compounds are tetraethyllead; it was used as a fuel (leaded gasoline) additive in the past. Also Methylcobalamin (Vitamin B12) is a common organometallic compound.\n\nOrganometallic compounds \n\nOrganometallic compounds are compounds that have chemical bonds between an one or more metal atoms and one or more carbon atoms of an organyl group (an organic ligand). They have the prefix \"organo-\" (for example, organopalladium compounds). Organometallic compounds include subgroups like the metalloproteins such as haemoglobin. \n\nThe term \"metalorganics\" usually refers to metal-containing compounds lacking direct metal-carbon bonds but which contain organic ligands which bind them to an organic compound. Metal beta-diketonates, alkoxides, and dialkylamides are members of this class.\n\nIn addition to the traditional metals, elements such as boron, silicon, arsenic, and selenium form organometallic compounds.\n\nCoordination compounds with organic ligands\n\nMany complexes have coordination bonds between a metal and organic ligands. The organic ligands often bind the metal through a heteroatom such as oxygen or nitrogen, in which case such compounds are called \"coordination compounds\". \n\nMany organic coordination compounds occur in nature. For example, hemoglobin and myoglobin contain an iron center coordinated to the nitrogen atoms of a porphyrin ring; magnesium is the center of a chlorin ring in chlorophyll. The field of such inorganic compounds is known as bioinorganic chemistry. However, methylcobalamin (a form of Vitamin B12), with a cobalt-methyl bond, is a true organometallic complex, one of the few known in biology.\n\nStructure and properties\nThe metal-carbon bond in organometallic compounds is half way between being ionic and covalent. Organometallic compounds with bonds that have characters in between ionic and covalent are very important in industry. They are both relatively stable in solutions but ionic enough to undergo reactions. Two important classes are organolithium and Grignard reagents.\n\nUses\nOrganometallics find practical uses in stoichiometric and catalytic processes, especially processes involving carbon monoxide and alkene-derived polymers.  All the world's polyethylene and polypropylene are produced with organometallic catalysts.  Acetic acid is produced using metal carbonyl catalysts in the Monsanto process and Cativa process. The bulk of the synthetic alcohols, at least those larger than ethanol, are produced by hydrogenation of hydroformylation-derived aldehydes.  Similarly, the Wacker process is used in the oxidation of ethylene to acetaldehyde.\n\nOrganomettalic are highly basic and highly reducing. They catalyze many polymerization reactions. They are also useful stoichiometrically.\n\nOrganometallic compounds may be found in the environment. Environmentalists worry about organo-lead and organo-mercury compounds. They are toxic hazards.\n\nResearch is currently underway using organometallic catalysis.  The energy crisis has initiated increased interest in more efficient ways of working with the remaining fossil fuels we have left.  While many agree that lowering oil dependence is safer for the environment as well as politically wise.   The new interest in \"green\" technologies has also helped increase research.  Many examples of organometallic research can be found in the petrochemical and pharmaceutical industries.  Some current methods of chemical production are wasteful and produce toxic waste, while many organometallic catalysts show promise to change that.\n\nHistory \nLouis Claude Cadet synthesized methyl arsenic compounds related to cacodyl. William Christopher Zeise made platinum-ethylene complex. Edward Frankland discovered dimethyl zinc. Ludwig Mond discovered Ni(CO)4. Victor Grignard worked with organomagnesium compounds. The abundant and diverse products from coal and petroleum led to Ziegler-Natta, Fischer-Tropsch, hydroformylation catalysis which employ CO, H2, and alkenes as feedstocks and ligands.\n\nYears ago, Tetraethyllead was added to gasoline as an antiknock agent. Because lead is toxic, it is no longer used in gasoline. Instead, other organometallic compounds such as ferrocene and methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) are now added to gasoline to prevent knocking.\n\nThe 1973 Nobel Prizes to Ernst Fischer and Geoffrey Wilkinson for work on metallocenes made organometallic chemistry more popular. In 2005, Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. Schrock shared the Nobel Prize for metal-catalyzed olefin metathesis.\n\nOrganometallic chemistry timeline \n 1760 Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt investigates inks based on Cobalt salts and isolates Cacodyl from cobalt mineral containing arsenic\n 1827 Zeise's salt is the first platinum \/ olefin complex\n 1848 Edward Frankland discovers diethylzinc\n 1863 Charles Friedel and James Crafts prepare organochlorosilanes\n 1890 Ludwig Mond discovers Nickel carbonyl\n 1899 Introduction of Grignard reaction\n 1900 Paul Sabatier works on hydrogenation organic compounds with metal catalysts. Hydrogenation of fats kicks off advances in food industry, see margarine\n 1909 Paul Ehrlich introduces Salvarsan for the treatment of syphilis, an early arsenic based organometallic compound\n 1912 Nobel Prize Victor Grignard and Paul Sabatier\n 1930 Henry Gilman works on lithium cuprates, see Gilman reagent\n 1951 Ferrocene is discovered\n 1963 Nobel prize for Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta on Ziegler-Natta catalyst\n 1965 Discovery of cyclobutadieneiron tricarbonyl\n 1968 Heck reaction\n 1973 Nobel prize Geoffrey Wilkinson and Ernst Otto Fischer on sandwich compounds\n 1981 Nobel prize Roald Hoffmann and Kenichi Fukui on Isolobal Principle\n 2005 Nobel prize Yves Chauvin, Robert Grubbs, and Richard R. Schrock on metal-catalyzed alkene metathesis\n 2010 Nobel prize Richard F. Heck, Ei-ichi Negishi, Akira Suzuki for their work in palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions in organic synthesis.\n\nRelated pages \nChelation\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n MIT OpenCourseWare: Organometallic Chemistry \n Rob Toreki's Organometallic HyperTextbook\n  Web listing of US chemists who specialize in organometallic chemistry","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":305534,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organometallic%20chemistry","title":"Organometallic chemistry","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A subatomic particle is a particle smaller than an atom. This means it is very, very small.  Like atoms and molecules, a subatomic particle is far too small to be seen with the eye.  They are also very interesting to physicists who study atoms.  The subatomic particles that make atoms: protons, neutrons, and electrons are the most commonly studied ones.  The study of subatomic particles is called particle physics. \n\nThese particles are often held together within an atom by one of the four fundamental forces (gravity, electromagnetic force, strong force, or weak force).  Outside of the atom the particles often move very, very quickly- near the speed of light which is very, very fast (around 300,000 kilometres per second).\n\nSubatomic particles are divided into two groups, Baryons and Leptons.\n\nBaryons are made of quarks while Leptons are thought to be among the smallest particles, called elementary particles. Baryons have a given Baryon number. In reactions, the Baryon number must be conserved, meaning that both the starting and ending sides of a reaction must have the same number of Baryons. Baryonic particles are made up of a combination of 3 of the six quarks, which are among the smallest particles. The six quark types are up, down (making up protons and neutrons), strange, charm, top, and bottom.\n\nLeptons are generally much smaller than Baryons. This category includes electrons, Muons, Taus and neutrinos. Leptons are not made up of quarks and are not divisible. \n\nFor every one of these types, there is also an antiparticle. Antiparticles have the same mass as their normal counterparts, except they have the opposite electric charge. Anti-matter and matter cannot exist near each other. Whenever matter and antimatter collide, they destroy each other with a huge release of energy equivalent to E=mc2, where m is the combined mass of the particles, c is the speed of light, and E is the energy produced. These collisions often take place in large particle accelerators, where the energy can be converted the other way, into matter by the same equation. This can produce many odd, often heavy (large mass) particles that exist only for a short time.\n\nMost of the particles discovered are created by accelerating particles and colliding them against others, creating huge showers of new subatomic particles which decay extremely quickly. However, because the particles are moving close to the speed of light, the laws of special relativity become important and time dilation occurs. This means that time passes slower for the particle, and they can travel (and be measured) over a longer distance than non-relativity science would predict.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":119,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":4,"2021-17":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2}},"id":14472,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subatomic%20particle","title":"Subatomic particle","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The didgeridoo (sometimes didjeridu) is an Australian Aboriginal wind musical instrument. They were used by the Yolgnu people of Arnhem Land. They can be quite long, anywhere from  long. Most are around   long. The longer the instrument, the lower the pitch or key of the instrument. They are a  hollow wooden tube, which can be either cylindrical or conical in shape. It is best described as being a wooden trumpet or drone. Musicologists say it is a brass aerophone.\n\nIt is difficult to know when didgeridoos were first used. Studies of rock art in Arnhem Land show that it has been in use for more than 1,500 years. A  rock painting in Ginga Wardelirrhmeng, on the northern edge of the Arnhem Land plateau, dates from the freshwater period. It shows a didgeridoo player and two singers playing in a ceremony.\n\nThe word\n\"Didgeridoo\" is said to be a word invented in the West, not an Aboriginal word. It may come from the Irish words d\u00fadaire or d\u00faidire. This means 'trumpeter; constant smoker, puffer; long-necked person, eavesdropper; hummer, crooner' and  dubh, meaning \"black\" (or duth, meaning \"native\").  However, this theory is not widely accepted.\n\nThe earliest examples of the word in print was in a 1919 issue of Smith's Weekly where it was called an \"infernal didjerry\" which \"produced but one sound - (which sounded like) didjerry, didjerry, didjerry and so on\". It was also used the 1919 Australian National Dictionary, The Bulletin in 1924 and the writings of Herbert Basedow in 1926.  There are more than 45 names for this instrument among the Aboriginal people of northern Australia including Yirdaki. Yirdaki, also sometimes spelt yidaki, is for the instrument made and used by the Yolngu people of north-east Arnhem Land.\n\nMaking a didgeridoo\n\nAboriginal didgeridoos are made in the traditional communities in Northern Australia or by makers who travel to Central and Northern Australia to get the materials. They are usually made from hardwoods, usually eucalyptus species that are native to the area. Sometimes a native bamboo, such as Bambusa arnhemica, or pandanus is used. The main trunk of the tree is used, though a big branch may be used instead. Aboriginal makers spend a lot of time looking for a tree that has been hollowed out by termites. If the hollow is too big or too small, it will make a poor quality instrument.\n\nWhen a tree is found and cut down, the part of trunk or branch that will be made into a didgeridoo is cut out. The bark is taken off, the ends are trimmed, and there is some shaping of the outside. It may be painted or left natural. A rim of beeswax may be put on to the mouthpiece end. Traditional instruments made by Aboriginals in Arnhem Land are sometimes fitted with a 'sugarbag'  mouthpiece. This is black beeswax from wild bees and has a its own special smell.\n\nDidgeridoos can also be made from PVC pipes, non-native hard woods (which are split, hollowed and rejoined), fiberglass, metal, agave, clay, hemp (a bioplastic named zelfo), and even carbon fiber. These didgeridoos usually have an upper inside diameter of around 1.25\" down to a bell end of anywhere between two to eight inches and have a length made to the needed key. The mouthpiece can be made of beeswax, hardwood or simply sanded and sized by the craftsman. In PVC, rubber stopper with a hole cut into it can be used.\n\nModern didgeridoo designs are different from the traditional Australian Aboriginal didgeridoo. They are recognized as being a separate instrument. Didgeridoo design changes started in the late 20th century using new materials and different shapes.\n\nPlaying the didgeridoo\n\nA didgeridoo is usually played sitting down because they are so long. It is played with continuously vibrating lips to make the drone while using a special way of breathing called circular breathing. This means a player breathes in through the nose at the same time as pushing air out of the mouth. A skilled player can refill the air in their lungs. With practice, the player can keep a note playing for as long as desired. There are recordings of modern didgeridoo players playing without stopping for more than 40\u00a0minutes; Mark Atkins on Didgeridoo Concerto (1994) plays for over 50\u00a0minutes continuously.\n\nThe rhythm of the circular breathing, gives the instrument its readily recognizable sound. Other changes in the didgeridoo's sound can be made by adding vocal sounds to the drone. Most of the sounds are related to the sounds of Australian animals, such as the dingo or the kookaburra. To make these sounds, the players simply have to use their voice to make the sounds of the animals whilst continuing to blow air through the instrument. The results range from very high-pitched sounds to very low sounds. Adding vocal sounds increases the complexity of the playing.\n\nAnthony Baines wrote that the didgeridoo is like \"...an aural kaleidoscope of timbres\". He also said that the virtuoso skills used by the best performers were unlike those needed on any other instrument.\n\nUse of the didgeridoo\nThe didgeridoo was mainly played for ceremonial dancing and singing. It was also common for didgeridoos to be played for entertainment outside of ceremonial life. In northern Australia, the didgeridoo is still a very important as it plays for singers and dancers in surviving cultural ceremonies. Today, most didgeridoo playing is for entertainment in both Indigenous Australian communities and elsewhere around the world.\n\nPair sticks, sometimes called clapsticks or bilma, set the beat for the songs during ceremonies. The rhythm of the didgeridoo and the beat of the clapsticks use patterns that have been handed down for many generations. Traditionally, only men play the didgeridoo and sing during ceremonies, but both men and women may dance. There were female didgeridoo players, but they did not play in ceremonies and it was not encouraged. Linda Barwick, an ethnomusicologist, says that traditionally women have not played the didgeridoo in ceremony, but in informal situations there is no prohibition in the Dreaming Law. On September 3, 2008, the publisher Harper Collins issued a public apology for its book \"The Daring Book for Girls\", scheduled to be published in October, which openly encouraged girls to play the instrument.\n\nDidgeridoo in popular culture\n \nThe didgeridoo is now often used as an instrument in the experimental and avant-garde music scene. Industrial music bands like Test Department- used sounds from this instrument in their performances, linking ecology to industry, influenced by ethnic music and culture.\n\nIt has also been an instrument used for the fusion of tribal rhythms with a black metal sound. A music project called Naakhum  used the paganism of the Australian tribes and many others as an approach.\n\nSouvenir didgeridoos\nMost didgeridoos made today are for souvenir purposes. It is common to find didgeridoos made of non-native timbers, decorated incorrectly by non-indigenous artists with colourful designs or copied dot patterns. These decorations do not use traditional dreamtime stories or designs. These didgeridoos also often vary widely in size and shape, many being thinner and straighter. As a result of the inadequate wood types, shapes and lengths, souvenir didgeridoos can rarely be used as musical instruments.\n\nDecoration of souvenir didgeridoos is often seen by Aboriginal communities as offensive, inappropriate, inadequate, inaccurate and in many cases, misleading.  The copying of traditional artwork is also used to sell these didgeridoos to unsuspecting tourists.\n\nHealth benefits\nA 2005 study in the British Medical Journal found that learning and playing the didgeridoo helped reduce snoring and sleep apnea. It does this by making muscles in the upper airway stronger, and this helps them stay open during sleep. This strengthening happens after the player has learned the circular breathing technique.\n\nReferences\n\nMusical instruments\nIndigenous Australian music\nAustralian music","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":3}},"id":127777,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Didgeridoo","title":"Didgeridoo","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Mollusks are an important phylum of invertebrate animals. Most of them are marine animals, which means they live in the ocean. They have huge numbers in-shore, that is, in shallow water. They are the largest marine phylum, with about 85,000 living species, 23% of all named marine organisms. They also occur in freshwater and on land.\n\nMollusks are extremely varied: they have great diversity. That may be why there is no word in English for the phylum as a whole. \"In an evolutionary sense, mollusks are plastic material\". They have much more variety than their ancient rivals, the brachiopods.\n\nMost molluscs have shells, but some groups do not: octopods, slugs, and the gastropods known as sea slugs.\n\nDiversity \nMany mollusks also live in freshwater and terrestrial habitats. They are highly diverse, not just in size and in anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and in habitat.\n\nThe phylum is usually divided into 9 or 10 taxonomic classes, of which two are entirely extinct. Cephalopod molluscs, such as squid, cuttlefish and octopus, are among the most neurologically advanced of all invertebrates: they have good brains and complex behaviours. Either the giant squid or the colossal squid is the largest known invertebrate species. The gastropods (snails and slugs) are by far the most numerous molluscs in terms of classified species, and account for 80% of the total. The scientific study of mollusks is called malacology.\n\nMain features \nThe three most universal features defining modern mollusks are:\n a mantle with a cavity used for breathing and excretion,\n the presence of a radula, and\n the structure of the nervous system.\n\nOther than these things, mollusks have so much variety that many textbooks use a \"hypothetical ancestral mollusk\" to summarize them (see below). This has a single, \"limpet-like\" shell on top, which is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate. It is secreted by a mantle covering the whole upper surface. The underside of the animal consists of a single muscular \"foot\".\n\nThe mollusk's feeding system starts with a rasping \"tongue\", the radula. The complex digestive system uses mucus and microscopic, muscle-powered \"hairs\" called cilia. The generalized mollusk has two paired nerve cords, or three in bivalves. The brain, in species that have one, circles the oesophagus. Most mollusks have eyes, and all have sensors to detect chemicals, vibrations, and touch. The simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization, but more complex variations occur. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, or miniature adults.\n\nA striking feature of molluscs is the use of the same organ for multiple functions. For example, the heart and nephridia (\"kidneys\") are important parts of the reproductive system, as well as the circulatory and excretory systems. In bivalves, the gills both \"breathe\" and produce a water current in the mantle cavity: this is important for excretion and reproduction. In reproduction, molluscs may change gender to accommodate the other breeding partner.\n\nGood evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period, 541 to 485.4 million years ago (mya). Before that, the evolutionary history of molluscs' emergence from the ancestral Lophotrochozoa is still unclear.\n\nMollusk species can also represent hazards or pests for human activities. The bite of the blue-ringed octopus is often fatal, and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last for over a month. Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill: their venom have become important tools in neurological research. Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia, bilharziosis or snail fever) is transmitted to humans via water snail hosts, and affects about 200\u00a0million people. Snails and slugs can also be serious agricultural pests, and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems.\n\nA \"generalized mollusk\" \n\nBecause mollusks have so many different shapes, many textbooks start the subject of molluscan anatomy by describing what is called an archi-mollusc, hypothetical generalized mollusc, or hypothetical ancestral mollusc (HAM) to illustrate the most common features in the phylum. The picture is rather similar to modern monoplacophorans: some think it may resemble very early mollusks.\n\nThe generalized mollusk is bilaterally symmetrical and has a single, \"limpet-like\" shell on top. The shell is secreted by a mantle covering the upper surface. The underside consists of a single muscular \"foot\". The visceral mass, or visceropallium, is the soft, nonmuscular metabolic region of the mollusc. It contains the body organs.\n\nTaxonomy \nClasses of molluscs:\n Aplacophora: molluscs: the living ones are shell-less\n Bivalvia: Most shellfish; clams, oysters, scallops, mussels\n Cephalopoda: Squid, Octopus\n Gastropoda: whelks, limpets, snails, slugs, Nudibranchs\n Helcionelloida: (see below)\n Monoplacophora: molluscs with a cap-like shell\n Polyplacophora: Chitons\n \u2020Rostroconchia: an extinct group\n Scaphopoda: the tusk shells\n\nHelcionelloida \nIt has become clear that the fossil taxon Helcionelloida does not belong to the class Gastropoda. It is now a separate class in the Mollusca. Parkhaev (2006, 2007) created the class Helcionelloida, whose members were previously treated as \"Paleozoic mollusks of uncertain systematic position\" by Bouchet & Rocroi.\n\nUses \n Many mollusks are eaten as food: clams, oysters, scallops, mussels, squid (calamari) and land snails (escargot)\n Oysters sometimes make pearls, which are valuable and used to make necklaces. Other shells are collected for their beauty and sometimes used to make jewelry.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":157,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":4,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":5,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":5,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":9,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2}},"id":22764,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mollusc","title":"Mollusc","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Socrates (470 BC \u2013 399 BC) was one of the greatest Greek philosophers. He did not propose any specific knowledge or policy. He showed  how argument, debate, and discussion could help men to understand difficult issues. Most of the issues he dealt with were only political on the surface. Underneath\u2b07\ufe0f, they were moral questions about how life should be lived. Such is the influence of Socrates that philosophers before him are called the Presocratic philosophers.\n\nEnemies\nSocrates made enemies, three of whom brought charges against him. Socrates was tried for his life in 399 BC, found guilty, and put to death by drinking hemlock (a herbal poison). The story of his trial and death is the subject of a tract by Plato which is called the Apologia.\n\nSocrates and Plato\nMost of what we know about Socrates comes from the works of Plato, who was his pupil. Socrates lived in the Greek city of Athens. His method of teaching was to have a dialogue with individual students. They would propose some point of view, and Socrates would question them, asking what they meant. He would pretend \"I don't know anything; I'm just trying to understand what it is you are saying\", or words to that effect. This is now called the Socratic method of teaching.\n\nReputation\nSocrates is sometimes called the \"father of Western philosophy\". This is because in the discussions he uncovered some of the most basic questions in philosophy, questions which are still discussed today. Some of the people he taught came to be important and successful, like Plato and Alcibiades.\n\nThe life of Socrates \nSocrates never wrote anything. All of what we know about Socrates is from what other people wrote about him. Our main source of what we know about Socrates is from the writings of his student, Plato. Some of Plato's dialogues, such as the Crito and the Phaedo, are loosely based on fact. They are not written records, but artistic re-creation of Socrates in action.\n\nAnother of Socrates' students, Xenophon also wrote about Socrates. Aristophanes, a person who wrote brilliant satirical comedies, wrote about him in play called The Clouds. Socrates was an easy target for satire. He walked barefoot, and with a swagger. Sometimes he stood in a trance for hours.p8 In The Clouds Socrates is a crazy person who tries to scam people out of their money. Plato wrote that Socrates taught for free.\n\nWe do not know if Plato's description of Socrates is accurate or not. That is called the 'Socratic problem'. While a lot of what Plato wrote about Socrates is accepted by historians, some believe that Plato (who saw Socrates as a hero) portrayed Socrates as a greater man than he actually was. Some think that Plato was using the character of Socrates as a tool to express his own opinions rather than to accurately write about Socrates. This is what makes Socrates such a mysterious historical figure. Plato's dialogues are works of art, finely written. The general view is that they are based on reality, but no doubt adjusted for the purpose of writing.\n\nBiographical details \nSocrates' father was a sculptor, and his mother was a midwife who helped women give birth to children. He may have been a stonemason like his father, and Plato wrote that he served in the Athenian army as a hoplite (heavy infantry). We know he was influenced by an older philosopher, Archelaus, and that he talked with anyone who had interesting ideas in Athens, but beyond that nothing is known.\n\nSocrates was about 50 when he married a much younger woman, Xanthippe. They had three children together. Socrates made complaints about his wife, but no one knew if he was telling the truth.\n\nIt is said that one of Socrates' friends went to ask the  oracle at Delphi if there was anyone wiser than Socrates in Athens. The oracle said that there was no wiser person. The oracle was well known for saying things that were ambiguous or unclear. It did not say that Socrates was the wisest, just that there was no person wiser.\n\nAfter being puzzled by this, Socrates finally decided that his wisdom lay in knowing that he was ignorant. His attempts to show the citizens that some of their ideas were nonsense might help explain his unpopularity. In Plato's works, Socrates says he knows nothing, but can draw out other people's ideas just as his mother helped other women to give birth.\n\nThe death of Socrates\n\nThe accusations \nIn 399 BC, when Socrates was an old man, three citizens\u2014Meletus, Anytus and Lycon\u2014brought charges against Socrates. A trial was held. In ancient Athens the procedure was quite different from the present day. There was a jury of 500 men drawn from the citizens. Both the accusers and the defendant had to make speeches in person to the jury. Guilt or innocence was by majority vote. There was no preset penalty if the verdict was 'guilty'. Both the accuser and the defendant would make speeches proposing what the penalty should be. Again, a vote was taken.p17\n\nThere were two charges against him. The general theme was that Socrates was a menace to society. The first charge was of heresy, disbelief in the Gods. It was probably meant to cause prejudice amongst the jurymen. Actually, Socrates observed all the correct procedures of the religion of his times. The charge had been used successfully against another philosopher, Anaxagoras.p17\n\nThe second charge was that he corrupted the youth with his teachings. What was meant by this? Apparently, this was not about his personal relationship with his pupils. It was about the way he was thought to influence their political views. His circle had included a number of right-wing aristocrats whose ideas were now rejected by most citizens. The brilliant Alcibiades, once a great leader of Athens, was now seen as a traitor.p17\n\nThe trial \nCrito, a friend of Socrates, illegally paid the prison guards to allow Socrates to escape.  Socrates, however, decided not to escape.  When Socrates was put on trial, he gave a long speech to defend himself against the claims made by the Athens government.\n\nWe have Plato's version of how Socrates defended himself, in the Apologia. It starts:\n\"I do not know what effect my accusers have had upon you, gentlemen, but for my own part I was carried away by them; their arguments were so convincing. On the other hand, scarcely a word of what they said was true\".p19\n\nThe sentence \nWhen Socrates was asked to propose his punishment, Socrates said that the government should give him free dinners for the rest of his life for all the good that he did for society. The court held a vote between giving Socrates a fine to pay or putting him to death.  The verdict was that Socrates was to be put to death.\n\nDeath of Socr\n\nPlato on Socrates' trial and death \nThere are several dialogues by Plato which deal directly with the trial of Socrates and the period up to his death. They are, in order of the events:\nApologia, or The Apology. This deals in particular with Socrates' defence at his trial. It is regarded as accurate in substance, and perhaps in detail.\nCrito. This deals with the month between his trial and his death. In particular, Socrates explains to his friend Crito why he is not going to escape, or permit his friends to bribe the jailor.\nPhaedo. This is a later work. It is written as if by an eye-witness of the last day of Socrates' life. In the work, Phaedo of Elias reports to a group of friends on what Socrates said on his last day. This is called a \"reported dialogue\" or one dialogue inside another.  The Phaedo is longer than the other two works.\n\nThe ideas of Socrates \nSocrates helped  people to see what was wrong with their ideas. Sometimes they liked this, sometimes they were not happy or grateful. He said that he, Socrates, was not wise, but that he \"knew that he knew nothing.\" Since other people think they know something, but no one really knows anything, Socrates claimed he knew more than anyone else. He said that people who do bad things do so because they do not know any better.\n\nPeople think that Socrates was a good man because he did no harm, except he asked questions about everything. However, during his life many people thought he was a bad person, because he asked those questions and because he made young people unhappy about their lives.\n\nSomeone once wrote that Socrates said that \"A life that was not examined was not worth living\". This means that someone must think about their own life and its purpose. Some people believe that most humans are happier if they do not think too much about their life.\n\nSocrates also taught that many people can look at something and not truly see it. He asked questions about the meaning of life and goodness. These are still very important questions. Much of philosophy (love of wisdom) is about these things.\n\nLegacy \nSocrates is seen by some people as a martyr, since he willingly died to support the idea that knowledge and wisdom are very important to our lives.\n\nSocrates is known as one of the most important philosophers in history. He is often described as the father of Western philosophy. He did not start Western philosophy, but he had a big influence on it. Before Socrates, philosophy was mainly about mathematics and answering questions about our natural world. Socrates expanded on that and added questions about ethics, politics, and epistemology to philosophy.\n\nReferences \n\n460s BC births\n399 BC deaths\nAncient Greek philosophers\nExecuted people","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":173,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-10":1}},"id":5128,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Socrates","title":"Socrates","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Backward compatibility refers to hardware or software that can successfully use interfaces and data from earlier versions of the system or with other systems. For example, Perl, the scripting language, was designed to be backward compatible with awk, an earlier language that Perl was designed to replace.\n\nBackward compatibility is more easily accomplished if the previous versions have been designed to be forward compatible, or extensible, with built-in features such as hooks, plug-in, or an application program interface (API) that allows the addition of new features.\n\nThe term backward combatible (notice the \"b\") is sometimes used to describe hardware or software that is designed without regard for compatibility with earlier versions, causing the two versions to fight (or combat) each other. In this case, the two versions cannot share data easily and may have features that cause errors or crashes when they are installed on the same computer, often because the computer does not understand which version is being referred to. Even if the earlier version is removed, remaining vestiges of it may cause problems in running the newer version.\n\nComputer terminology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":164,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":6,"2014-42":9,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":6}},"id":221536,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backward%20compatibility","title":"Backward compatibility","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Dina matematik, integral mangrupa kons\u00e9p umum ngeunaan daerah tina gambar nu teratur ka wewengkon nu diwatesan ku fungsi. Integrasi Lebesgue mangrupa rarangkay pagaw\u00e9an keur ngalegaan integral ka fungsi kelas nu kacida ged\u00e9na.\nIntegral Lebesgue kacida pentingna dina widang matematik nu disebut real analysis sarta sababaraha widang s\u00e9j\u00e9nna.\n\nIntegral Lebesgue dumasar kana ngaran Henri Lebesgue (1875-1941). Cara maca ngaranna nu gampang nya\u00e9ta leh BEG.\n\nPanganteur \n\nFungsi integral f bisa dihartikeun salaku wewengkon S sahandapeun grapik f. Ieu gampang dipikaharti keur fungsi kulawarga saperti polinomial, tapi naon hartina keur fungsi nu leuwih asing? Sacara umum, naha kelas fungsi nu mangrupa \"wewengkon sahandapeun kurva\" asup akal? Keur ngajawab ieu patarosan merlukan t\u00e9ori jeung prakt\u00e9k.\n\nAs part of a general movement toward formalism in mathematics in the nineteenth century, attempts were made to put the integral calculus on a firm foundation. The Riemann integral, proposed by Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866), is a broadly successful attempt to provide such a foundation for the integral. Riemann's definition starts with the construction of a sequence of \u00e9asily-calculated integrals which converge to the integral of a given function. This definition is successful in the sense that it gives the expected answer for many alr\u00e9ady-solved problems, \nand gives useful results for many other problems.\n\nHowever, the behavior of the Riemann integral in limit processes is difficult to analyze. This is of prime importance, for instance, in the study of Fourier series, Fourier transforms and other topics. The Lebesgue integral is better able to describe how and when it is possible to take limits under the integral sign. The Lebesgue definition considers a different class of \u00e9asily-calculated integrals than the Riemann definition, which is the main r\u00e9ason the Lebesgue integral is better behaved.\nThe Lebesgue definition also makes it possible to calculate integrals for a broader class of functions.\nFor example, the function which is 0 where its argument is irrational and 1 otherwise has a Lebesgue integral, but it does not have a Riemann integral.\n\nWe now give a highly technical description. It is possible to skip directly to the discussion h\u00e9ading for further technical and historical justification of the Lebesgue integral if the r\u00e9ader is so inclined.\n\nConstruction of the Lebesgue integral \n\nLet \u03bc be a (non-negative) measure on a sigma-algebra X over a set E. (In real analysis, E will typically be Euclidean n-space Rn or some Lebesgue measurable subset of it, X will be the sigma-algebra of all Lebesgue m\u00e9asurable subsets of E, and \u03bc will be the Lebesgue m\u00e9asure. In probability and statistics, \u03bc will be a probability m\u00e9asure on a probability space E.)\nWe build up an integral for r\u00e9al-valued functions defined on E as follows.\n\nFix a set S in X and let f be the function on E whose value is 0 outside of S and 1 inside of S (i.e., f(x) = 1 if x is in S, otherwise f(x) = 0.) This is called the indicator function or characteristic function of S and is denoted 1S.\n\nTo assign a value to \u222b1S consistent with the given m\u00e9asure \u03bc, the only r\u00e9asonable choice is to set:\n\nWe extend by lin\u00e9arity to the linear span of indicating functions:\n\nwhere the sum is finite and the coefficients ak are r\u00e9al numbers. Such a finite linear combination of indicating functions is called a simple function. Note that a simple function can be written in many ways as a lin\u00e9ar combination of characteristic functions, but the integral will always be the same.\n\nNow the difficulties begin as we attempt to take limits so that we can integrate more general functions. It turns out that the following process works and is most fruitful.\n\nLet f be a non-negative function supported on the set E (we allow it to attain the value +\u221e, in other words, f takes values in the extended real number line.) We define \u222bf to be the supremum of \u222bs where s varies over all simple functions which are under f (that is, s(x) \u2264 f(x) for all x.) This is analogous to the lower sums of Riemann. However, we will not build an upper sum, and this fact is important in getting a more general class of integrable functions. One can be more explicit and mention the m\u00e9asure and domain of integration:\n\nThere is the question of whether this definition makes sense (do simple function or indicating function keep the same integral?) There is also the question of whether this corresponds in any way to a Riemann notion of integration. It is not so hard to prove that the answer to both questions is yes.\n\nWe have defined \u222bf for any non-negative function on E; however for some functions \u222bf will be infinite. Furthermore, desirable additive and limit properties of the integral are not satisfied, unless we require that all our functions are measurable, m\u00e9aning that the pre-image of any interval is in X. We will mak\u00e9 this assumption from now on.\n\nTo handle signed functions, we need a few more definitions. If f is a function of the m\u00e9asurable set E to the r\u00e9als (including \u00b1 \u221e), then we can write f = g - h where g(x) = (f(x) if f(x)>0, 0 otherwise) and h(x) = (-f(x) if f(x) < 0, 0 otherwise). Note that both g and h are non-negative functions. Also note that |f| = g + h. If \u222b|f| is finite, then f is called Lebesgue integrable. In this case, both \u222bg and \u222bh are finite, and it makes sense to define \u222bf by \u222bg - \u222bh. It turns out that this definition is the correct one. Complex valued functions can be similarly integrated, by considering the r\u00e9al part and the imaginary part separately.\n\nProperties of the Lebesgue integral \n\nEvery r\u00e9asonable notion of integral needs to be linear and monotone, and the Lebesgue integral is: if f and g are integrable functions and a and b are r\u00e9al numbers, then af + bg is integrable and \u222b(af + bg) = a\u222bf + b\u222bg; if f \u2264 g, then \u222bf \u2264 \u222bg.\n\nTwo functions which only differ on a set of \u03bc-m\u00e9asure zero have the same integral, or more precisely: if \u03bc({x : f(x) \u2260 g(x)}) = 0, then f is integrable if and only if g is, and in this case \u222b f = \u222b g.\n\nOne of the most important advantages that the Lebesgue integral carries over the Riemann integral is the \u00e9ase with which we can perform limit processes.\nThree th\u00e9orems are key here.\n\nThe monotone convergence theorem states that if fk is a sequence of non-negative m\u00e9asurable functions such that fk(x) \u2264 fk+1(x) for all k, and if f = lim fk, then \u222bfk converges to \u222bf as k goes to infinity. (Note: \u222bf may be infinite here.)\n\nFatou's lemma states that if fk is a sequence of non-negative m\u00e9asurable functions and if f = liminf fk, then \u222bf \u2264 liminf \u222bfk. (Again, \u222bf may be infinite.)\n\nThe dominated convergence theorem states that if fk is a sequence of m\u00e9asurable functions with pointwise limit f, and if there is an integrable function g such that |fk| \u2264 g for all k, then f is integrable and \u222bfk converges to \u222bf.\n\nEquivalent formulations \n\nIf f is non-negative, then \u222bf d\u03bc is precisely the ar\u00e9a under the curve as m\u00e9asured by the product m\u00e9asure \u03bc \u00d7 \u03bb where \u03bb is the Lebesgue m\u00e9asure for R.\n\nOne can also circumvent m\u00e9asure th\u00e9ory entirely. \nThe Riemann integral exists for any continuous function f of compact support. \nThen we use functional analysis to obtain the integral for more general functions. \nLet Cc be the space of all r\u00e9al-valued compactly supported continuous functions of R. Define a norm on Cc by\n\n||f|| = \u222b |f(x)|\n\nThen Cc is a normed vector space (and in particular, it is a metric space.) All metric spaces have completions, so let L1 be its completion. This space is isomorphic to the space of Lebesgue integrable functions (modulo sets of m\u00e9asure zero). Furthermore, the Riemann integral \u222b defines a continuous functional on Cc which is dense in L1 hence \u222b has a unique extension to all of L1. This integral is precisely the Lebesgue integral.\n\nIn this formulation, the limit taking th\u00e9orems are hard to prove. However, in more general cases (such as when the functions, or perhaps the m\u00e9asures, take values in a large vector space inst\u00e9ad of Rn) this approach is a fast way of obtaining an integral.\n\nDiscussion \n\nHere we discuss the limitations of the Riemann integral and the gr\u00e9ater scope offered by the Lebesgue integral. We presume a working understanding of the Riemann integral.\n\nWith the advent of Fourier series, there arose the need to exchange summation and integral signs much more often. However, the conditions under which \u2211k\u222bfk and \u222b\u2211kfk are equal proved quite elusive in the Riemann framework. It may come as a surprise to the casual r\u00e9ader that these two quantities may not be equal, so an example helps:\n\nLet fk(x) be 1 on (k, k+1] and -1 on (k+1, k+2] and 0 everywhere else. \nThen, \u2211k=1\u221efk(x) = f(x) where f(x) is zero everywhere except on (1, 2] where it is 1. Hence, \u222b\u2211fk = \u222bf = 1. \nHowever, \u222bfk = 0 for every k, hence \u2211\u222bfk = 0.\n\nHowever, it was cl\u00e9ar from experience that in many very useful situations, the sum and the integral did commute. It was very important to be able to describe which conditions enabled the exchange of the sum and integral signs. Unfortunately, the Riemann integral is poorly equipped to d\u00e9al with this question; its main useful convergence th\u00e9orem being the uniform convergence theorem: if fk are Riemann-integrable functions of [a, b] converging uniformly to f, then \u222bfk converges to \u222bf. Since Fourier series rarely converge uniformly, this th\u00e9orem is cl\u00e9arly insufficient.\n\nThere are some other technical difficulties with the Riemann integral. \nThese are linked with the limit taking difficulty discussed above.\n\n If H(x) is a function of [0,1] which is 0 everywhere, except that it is 1 on the rational numbers (see nowhere continuous), then it is not Riemann integrable. This is because, in the calculation of its upper sum, any rectangle used will have height 1 (because all rectangles contain rational points) and in the lower sum, any rectangle used will have height 0 (because all rectangles contain irrational points.) Hence the lower sum is 0 and the upper sum is 1.\n This m\u00e9ans that the monotone convergence theorem does not hold. The monotone convergence th\u00e9orem would say that if fk(x) is a sequence of non-negative functions incr\u00e9asing monotonically in k to f(x), then the integrals of \u222b fk(x) dx should converge to \u222b f(x) dx. To see why this is so, let {ak} be an enumeration of all the rational numbers in [0,1] (they are countable so this can be done.) Then let gk be the function which is 1 on ak and 0 everywhere else. Lastly let fk = g1 + g2 + ... + gk. Then fk is zero everywhere except on a finite set of points, hence its Riemann integral is zero. The sequence fk is also cl\u00e9arly non-negative and monotonously incr\u00e9asing to H(x), but H(x) isn't Riemann integrable.\n The Riemann integral can only integrate functions on an interval. The simplest extension is to define \u222b\u2212 \u221e\u221ef(x) dx by the limit of \u222b\u2212aaf(x) dx as a goes to +\u221e. However, this br\u00e9aks translation invariance: if f and g are zero outside some interval [a, b] and are Riemann integrable, and if f(x) = g(x + y) for some y, then \u222b f = \u222b g. However, with this definition of the improper integral (this definition is sometimes called the improper Cauchy principal value about zero), the functions f(x) = (1 if x > 0, \u22121 otherwise) and g(x) = (1 if x > 1, \u22121 otherwise) are translations of one another, but their improper integrals are different. (\u222b f = 0 but \u222b g = \u2212 2.)\n\nTowards a better integration theory \n\nThe solution, as it turns out, is to study an even simpler problem first. The observation is that, if we have a notion of length, we can turn it into a notion of area. Inst\u00e9ad of m\u00e9asuring the ar\u00e9a of a surface in the plane, we turn our attention to m\u00e9asuring the length of subsets of the r\u00e9al line. One obvious requirement is that an interval [a, b] should have a length of b-a. What other demands we should put on the notion of length is less cl\u00e9ar, and much effort was put into obtaining a useful definition. In fact, the term length was first used, but its construction was misguided, and a later, more useful construction is in use today; it is called the measure.\n\nM\u00e9asure th\u00e9ory enables us to calculate the lengths of subsets of the r\u00e9al line. It also fully classifies which sets have a length, and which sets do not have a r\u00e9asonable notion of length. By spending the extra effort into calculating lengths carefully, we now have a more solid foundation to work with.\n\nOf course, the Riemann integral uses the notion of length anonymously. Indeed, the element of calculation for the Riemann integral is the rectangle [a, b] \u00d7 [c, d], whose ar\u00e9a is calculated to be (b-a)(c-d). Obviously the numbers b-a and c-d are m\u00e9ant to be the lengths of [a, b] and [c, d]. However, we can now augment the Riemann integral. Indeed, Riemann could only use rectangles because he could only m\u00e9asure intervals. Equipped with a m\u00e9asure \u03bc, we can calculate the length of sets much more interesting than intervals. So, if X and Y are \u03bc-m\u00e9asurable, we can \u00e9asily define the ar\u00e9a of the cartesian product X \u00d7 Y to be \u03bc(X) \u03bc(Y). This definition cl\u00e9arly generalizes Riemann's notion of ar\u00e9a of a rectangle. In the context of Lebesgue integration, sets such as X \u00d7 Y are sometimes called rectangles, even though they are far more complicated than the quadrilaterals of the same name.\n\nWith the ability to m\u00e9asure the ar\u00e9a of more complex rectangles, we can attempt to integrate more complex functions. One crucial, but nonobvious step, was to drop the notion of upper sum. While upper sums work just fine for bounded functions of bounded intervals, there is a cl\u00e9ar problem for unbounded functions, or functions which are supported by all of the r\u00e9al line. For instance, the function f(x) = 1\/x2 for x > 1 would necessarily have an infinite upper sum, however it can be shown that this function has a finite integral.\n\nDropping the upper sum robs us of our main way of checking for integrability of functions. It isn't obvious how to decide on the integrability of functions while maintaining a consistent th\u00e9ory. It is very fortunate that a simple (if technical) definition is available.\n\nThe resulting th\u00e9ory of integration is much more accurate in describing limit taking processes. Many of the original questions posed by Fourier series (about swapping the integral and summation signs) are answerable using one or another of the various Lebesgue integral limit th\u00e9orems (the main ones are monotone convergence, dominated convergence and Fatou's lemma; see above.)\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n S\u00e9t enol\n Integrasi\n Ngukur\n Aljabar sigma\n Pangukuran Lebesgue\n\nKalkulus","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2022-27":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-22":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-10":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":1393,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrasi%20Lebesgue","title":"Integrasi Lebesgue","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Durham ( ) is a city in the U.S. state of North Carolina and the county seat of Durham County. Small portions of the city limits extend into Orange County and Wake County. With a population of 283,506 in the 2020 census, Durham is the 4th-most populous city in North Carolina, and the 74th-most populous city in the United States. The city is located in the east-central part of the Piedmont region along the Eno River. Durham is the core of the four-county Durham-Chapel Hill, NC Metropolitan Statistical Area, which had a population of 649,903 at the 2020 census. The Office of Management and Budget also includes Durham as a part of the Raleigh-Durham-Cary, NC Combined Statistical Area, commonly known as the Research Triangle, which had a population of  2,043,867 at the 2020 census.\n\nA railway depot was established in 1849 on land donated by Bartlett S. Durham, the namesake of the city. Following the American Civil War, the community of Durham Station expanded rapidly, in part due to the tobacco industry. The town was incorporated by act of the North Carolina General Assembly, in April 1869. The establishment of Durham County was ratified by the General Assembly 12 years later, in 1881. It became known as the founding place and headquarters of the American Tobacco Company. Textile and electric power industries also played an important role. While these industries have declined, Durham underwent revitalization and population growth to become an educational, medical, and research center.\n\nDurham is home to several recognized institutions of higher education, most notably Duke University and North Carolina Central University. Durham is also a national leader in health-related activities, which are focused on the Duke University Hospital and many private companies. Duke and its Duke University Health System are the largest employers in the city. North Carolina Central University is a historically black university that is part of the University of North Carolina system. Together, the two universities make Durham one of the vertices of the Research Triangle area; central to this is the Research Triangle Park south of Durham, which encompasses an area of 11 square miles and is devoted to research facilities.\n\nOn the Duke University campus are the neo-Gothic Duke Chapel and the Nasher Museum of Art. Other notable sites in the city include the Museum of Life and Science, Durham Performing Arts Center, Carolina Theatre, and Duke Homestead and Tobacco Factory. Bennett Place commemorates the location where Joseph E. Johnston surrendered to William T. Sherman in the American Civil War. The city is served, along with Raleigh, by Raleigh\u2013Durham International Airport.\n\nHistory\n\nPre-establishment\nThe Eno and the Occoneechi, related to the Sioux and the Shakori, lived in the area and may have established a village named Adshusheer in the area which became Durham. The Occaneechi Path, a corridor of trading roads and trails, went through the area. Native Americans expanded the region by establishing settlements and commercial transportation routes.\n\nIn 1701, English explorer John Lawson, document the area and would later call it \"the flower of the Carolinas.\" In the mid-1700s, Scots, Irish, and English colonists settled on land granted to George Carteret by King Charles I. Early settlers built settlements as well as farms and mills, like West Point Mill.\n\nFrontiersmen in the area, prior to the American Revolutionary War, participated in the Regulator Movement. Loyalist militia used Cornwallis Road to cut through the area in 1771 to quell the rebellion. William Johnston, a local a farmer and shopkeeper, made munitions for the Continental Army, served in the Provincial Congress in 1775, and helped Daniel Boone on his westward explorations.\n\nAntebellum and Civil War\nPrior to the arrival of the railroad, the area now known as Durham was the eastern part of present-day Orange County and was almost entirely agricultural, with a few businesses catering to travelers (particularly livestock drivers) along the Hillsborough Road. This road, eventually followed by US Route 70, was the major east\u2013west route in North Carolina from colonial times until the construction of interstate highways. Steady population growth and an intersection with the road connecting Roxboro and Fayetteville made the area near this site suitable for a US Post Office. Roxboro, Fayetteville and Hillsborough Roads remain major thoroughfares in Durham, although they no longer exactly follow their early 19th century rights-of-way.\n\nLarge plantations, Hardscrabble, Fairntosh, Lipscomb, Walnut Hall, Patterson, and Leigh among them, were established in the antebellum period. By 1860, Stagville Plantation lay at the center of one of the largest plantation holdings in the South. African slaves were brought to labor on these farms and plantations, and slave quarters became the hearth of distinctively Southern cultural traditions involving crafts, social relations, life rituals, music, and dance. There were free African-Americans in the area as well, including several who fought in the Revolutionary War.\n\nDurham's location is a result of the needs of the 19th century railroad industry. The wood-burning steam locomotives of the time had to stop frequently for wood and water and the new North Carolina Railroad needed a depot between the settled towns of Raleigh and Hillsborough. The residents of what is now downtown Durham thought their businesses catering to livestock drivers had a better future than \"a new-fangled nonsense like a railroad\" and refused to sell or lease land for a depot. In 1849, a North Carolina Railroad depot was established on a four-acre tract of land donated by Dr. Bartlett S. Durham; the station was named after him in recognition of his gift. A U.S. post office was established there on April 26, 1853, now recognized as the city's official birthday.\n\nDurham Station, as it was known for its first 20 years, was a depot for the occasional passenger or express package until early April 1865, when the Federal Army commanded by Major General William T. Sherman occupied the nearby state capital of Raleigh during the American Civil War. The last formidable Confederate Army in the South, commanded by General Joseph E. Johnston, was headquartered in Greensboro  to the west. After the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia by Gen. Robert E. Lee at Appomattox, Virginia on April 9, 1865, Gen. Johnston sought surrender terms, which were negotiated on April 17, 18 and 26 at Bennett Place, the small farm of James and Nancy Bennett, located halfway between the army's lines about  west of Durham Station.\n\nAs both armies passed through Durham, Hillsborough, and surrounding Piedmont communities, they enjoyed the mild flavor of the area's Brightleaf tobacco, which was considered more pleasant to smoke or chew than was available back home after the war. Some began sending letters to Durham to get more.\n\nReconstruction and the rise of Durham tobacco\n\nThe community of Durham Station grew slowly before the Civil War, but expanded rapidly following the war. Much of this growth attributed to the establishment of a thriving tobacco industry. Veterans returned home after the war with an interest in acquiring more of the tobacco they had sampled in North Carolina. Numerous orders were mailed to John Ruffin Green's tobacco company requesting more of the Durham tobacco. W.T. Blackwell partnered with Green and renamed the company as the \"Bull Durham Tobacco Factory\". The name \"Bull Durham\" is said to have been taken from the bull on the British Colman's Mustard, which Mr. Blackwell mistakenly believed was manufactured in Durham, England. Mustard known as Durham Mustard was originally produced in Durham, England, by Mrs Clements and later by Ainsley during the eighteenth century. However, production of the original Durham Mustard has now been passed into the hands of Colman's of Norwich, England.\n\nIncorporation\nAs Durham Station's population rapidly increased, the station became a town and was incorporated by act of the North Carolina General Assembly, on April 10, 1869. It was named for the man who provided the land on which the station was built, Dr. Bartlett Durham. At the time of its incorporation by the General Assembly, Durham was located in Orange County. The increase in business activity, land transfers etc., made the day long trip back and forth to the county seat in Hillsborough untenable, so twelve years later, on April 17, 1881, a bill for the establishment of Durham County was ratified by the General Assembly, having been introduced by Caleb B.Green, creating Durham County from the eastern portion of Orange County and the western portion of Wake County. In 1911, parts of Cedar Fork Township of Wake County was transferred to Durham County and became Carr Township.\n\nEarly growth (1900\u20131970)\n\nThe rapid growth and prosperity of the Bull Durham Tobacco Company, and Washington Duke's W. Duke & Sons Tobacco Company, resulted in the rapid growth of the city of Durham. Throughout the Gilded Age and into the early twentieth century, Durham industrialists built large mansions including Somerset Villa, Harwood Hall, the John Sprunt Hill House, and Greystone Manor. Washington Duke was a good businessman, but his sons were brilliant and established what amounted to a monopoly of the smoking and chewing tobacco business in the United States by 1900. In the early 1910s, the Federal Government forced a breakup of the Duke's business under the antitrust laws. The Dukes retained what became known as American Tobacco, a major corporation in its own right, with manufacturing based in Durham. American Tobacco's ubiquitous advertisements on radio shows beginning in the 1930s and television shows up to 1970 was the nation's image of Durham until Duke University supplanted it in the late 20th century.\n\nPrevented from further investment in the tobacco industry, the Dukes turned to the then new industry of electric power generation, which they had been investing in since the early 1890s. Duke Power (now Duke Energy) brought in electricity from hydroelectric dams in the western mountains of North Carolina through the newly invented technology of high voltage power lines. At this time (1910\u20131920), the few towns and cities in North Carolina that had electricity depended on local \"powerhouses\". These were large, noisy, and smoky coal-fired plants located next to the railroad tracks. Duke Power quickly took over the electricity franchises in these towns and then electrified all the other towns of central and western North Carolina, making even more money than they ever made from tobacco. Duke Power also had a significant business in local franchises for public transit (buses and trolleys) before local government took over this responsibility in the mid- to late 20th century. Duke Power ran Durham's public bus system (now the Durham Area Transit Authority) until 1991.\n\nThe success of the tobacco industry in the late 19th and early 20th century encouraged the then-growing textile industry to locate just outside Durham. The early electrification of Durham was also a large incentive. Drawing a labor force from the economic demise of single family farms in the region at the time, these textile mills doubled the population of Durham. These areas were known as East Durham and West Durham until they were eventually annexed by the City of Durham.\n\nMuch of the early city architecture, both commercial and residential, dates from the period of 1890\u20131930. Durham recorded its worst fire in history on March 23, 1914. The multimillion-dollar blaze destroyed a large portion of the downtown business district. The fire department's water source failed during the blaze, prompting voters to establish a city-owned water system in place of the private systems that had served the city since 1887.\n\nDurham quickly developed a black community, the center of which was an area known as Hayti, (pronounced HAY-tie), just south of the center of town, where some of the most prominent and successful black-owned businesses in the country during the early 20th century were established. These businesses \u2014 the best known of which are North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company and Mechanics & Farmers Bank \u2014 were centered on Parrish St., which would come to be known as \"Black Wall Street.\" In 1910, Dr. James E. Shepard founded North Carolina Central University, the nation's first publicly supported liberal arts college for African-Americans.\n\nIn 1924, James Buchanan Duke established a philanthropic foundation in honor of his father Washington Duke to support Trinity College in Durham. The college changed its name to Duke University and built a large campus and hospital a mile west of Trinity College (the original site of Trinity College is now known as the Duke East Campus).\n\nDurham's manufacturing fortunes declined during the mid-20th century. Textile mills began to close during the 1930s. Competition from other tobacco companies (as well as a decrease in smoking after the 1960s) reduced revenues from Durham's tobacco industry.\n\nIn a far-sighted move in the late 1950s, Duke University, along with the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University in Raleigh, persuaded the North Carolina Legislature to purchase a large tract of sparsely settled land in southern Durham County and create the nation's first \"science park\" for industry. Cheap land and a steady supply of trained workers from the local universities made the Research Triangle Park an enormous success which, along with the expansion resulting from the clinical and scientific advances of Duke Medical Center and Duke University, more than made up for the decline of Durham's tobacco and textile industries.\n\nCivil rights movement\nAs a result of its substantial African-American community, including many activists, a prominent civil rights movement developed in Durham. Multiple sit-ins were held, and Martin Luther King Jr., visited the city during the struggle for equal rights. The Durham Committee on Negro Affairs, organized in 1935 by C.C. Spaulding, Louis Austin, Conrad Pearson, and James E. Shepard, has been cited nationally for its role in fighting for black voting rights. The committee also has used its voting strength to pursue social and economic rights for African-Americans and other ethnic groups. In 1957, Douglas E. Moore, minister of Durham's Asbury Temple Methodist Church, along with other religious and community leaders, pioneered sit-ins throughout North Carolina to protest discrimination at lunch counters that served only whites.\n\nWidely credited as the first sit-in of the civil rights movement in North Carolina, on June 23, 1957, Moore and six others assembled at the church to plan the protest. The young African Americans moved over to the segregated Royal Ice Cream Parlor and took up whites-only booths. When they refused to budge, the manager called the police who charged them with trespassing. Unlike the Greensboro Four, three years later, the Royal Seven were arrested and ultimately found guilty of trespassing.\n\nThe six-month-long sit-in at a Woolworth's counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, captured the nation's attention. Within a week, students from North Carolina College at Durham and Duke University staged a sit-in in Durham. About a week later, Martin Luther King Jr. met Moore in Durham, where King coined his famous rallying cry \"Fill up the jails,\" during a speech at White Rock Baptist Church. Advocating non-violent confrontation with segregation laws for the first time, King said, \"Let us not fear going to jail. If the officials threaten to arrest us for standing up for our rights, we must answer by saying that we are willing and prepared to fill up the jails of the South.\"\n\nThis community was not enough to prevent the demolition of portions of the Hayti district for the construction of the Durham Freeway during the late 1960s. The freeway construction resulted in losses to other historic neighborhoods, including Morehead Hill, West End, and West Durham. Combined with large-scale demolition using Urban Renewal funds, Durham suffered significant losses to its historic architectural base.\n\n1970s\u2013present\n\nIn 1970, the Census Bureau reported city's population as 38.8% black and 60.8% white. Durham's growth began to rekindle during the 1970s and 1980s, with the construction of multiple housing developments in the southern part of the city, nearest Research Triangle Park, and the beginnings of downtown revitalization. In 1975, the St. Joseph's Historical Foundation at the Hayti Heritage Center was incorporated to \"preserve the heritage of the old Hayti community, and to promote the understanding of and appreciation for the African American experience and African Americans' contributions to world culture.\"\n\nIn 1987, the American Tobacco Factory in Durham closed, leading to an economic downturn and a decline in the city's reputation. A new downtown baseball stadium was constructed for the Durham Bulls in 1994. The Durham Performing Arts Center now ranks in the top ten in theater ticket sales in the US according to Pollstar magazine. Many famous people have performed there including B.B. King and Willie Nelson. After the departure of the tobacco industry, large-scale renovations of the historic factories into offices, condominiums, and restaurants began to reshape downtown. While these efforts continue, the large majority of Durham's residential and retail growth since 1990 has been along the I-40 corridor in southern Durham County.\n\nMajor employers in Durham are Duke University and Duke Medical Center (39,000 employees, 14,000 students), about  west of the original downtown area, and companies in the Research Triangle Park (49,000 employees), about  southeast. These centers are connected by the Durham Freeway (NC 147).\n\nDowntown revitalization\n\nIn recent years the city of Durham has stepped up revitalization of its downtown and undergone an economic and cultural renaissance of sorts. Partnering with developers from around the world, the city continues to promote the redevelopment of many of its former tobacco districts, projects supplemented by the earlier construction of the Durham Performing Arts Center and new Durham Bulls Athletic Park. The American Tobacco Historic District, adjacent to both the athletic park and performing arts center, is one such project, having successfully lured a number of restaurants, entertainment venues, and office space geared toward hi-tech entrepreneurs, investors, and startups. Many other companies have purchased and renovated historic buildings, such as Measurement Incorporated and Capitol Broadcasting Company.\nThe American Underground section of the American Tobacco Campus, home to successful small software firms including Red Hat, was selected by Google to host its launch of the Google Glass Road show in October 2013. The district is also slated for expansion featuring 158,000 square feet of offices, retail, residential or hotel space The Durham County Justice Center, a major addition to downtown Durham, was completed in early 2013.\n\nMany of the historic tobacco buildings elsewhere in the city have been converted into loft-style apartment complexes. The downtown corridor along West Main St. has seen significant redevelopment including bars, entertainment venues, art studios, and co-working spaces, in addition to shopping and dining in nearby Brightleaf Square, another former tobacco warehouse in the Bright Leaf Historic District. Other current and future projects include expansion of the open-space surrounding the American Tobacco Trail, new hotels and apartment complexes, a $6.35-million facelift of Durham City Hall, and ongoing redevelopment of the Duke University Central Campus.\n\nIn 2013, 21c Museum Hotels announced plans to fully renovate the Hill Building. The renovations added a contemporary art museum and upscale restaurant to the historic building. Additionally, a boutique hotel was built in this major renovation effort in downtown Durham. Skanska is responsible for managing this project.\n\nIn 2014, it was announced that downtown Durham would be the site of a brand new 27 story high building, tentatively named \"City Center Tower,\" but now called \"One City Center\". Along with other new buildings in downtown Durham, it was under construction in 2018. Construction has already started, and the building will be at the corner of Main St. and Corcoran St. It will be directly across from Durham's current tallest building, but once completed, will be the new tallest building in downtown Durham and the 4th largest building in the Triangle. Originally scheduled for a 2016 opening, the building was then expected to open in May 2018. This is an ambitious, $80 million project.\n\nIn October 2014, a major new development, the Durham Innovation District, was announced. The development will span 15 acres and comprise over 1.7 million square feet of office, residential, and retail space.\n\nOn April 10, 2019, a gas explosion rocked Kaffeinate, a coffee shop in Bright Leaf Historic District. The blast destroyed a city block and killed Kong Lee, the owner, as well as injuring 25 others.\n\nGeography\n\nDurham is located in the east-central part of the Piedmont region at  (35.988644, -78.907167). Like much of the region, its topography is generally flat with some rolling hills.\n\nThe city has a total area of , of which  is land and  (0.71%) is water.\n\nThe soil is predominantly clay, making it poor for agriculture. The Eno River, a tributary of the Neuse River, passes through the northern part of Durham, along with several other small creeks. The center of Durham is on a ridge that forms the divide between the Neuse River watershed, flowing east to Pamlico Sound, and the Cape Fear River watershed, flowing south to the Atlantic near Wilmington. A small portion of the city is in Wake County.\n\nDurham is located 10.41 miles northeast of Chapel Hill, 20.78 miles northwest of Raleigh, 50.21 miles east of Greensboro, 121.40 miles northeast of Charlotte and 134.06 miles southwest of Richmond, Virginia.\n\nCityscape\n\nClimate\nDurham is classified as a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) according to the K\u00f6ppen classification, with hot and humid summers, cool winters, and warm to mild spring and autumn. Durham receives abundant precipitation, with thunderstorms common in the summer and temperatures from 80 to 100 degrees F. The region sees an average of  of snow per year, which usually melts within a few days.\n\nDurham consistently ranks in the top 10 least challenging places to live with seasonal allergies.\n\nClimate change is expected to increase the number of days of extreme precipitation in Durham as well as moderately increase temperature within the region. The number of days of inland flooding within the Piedmont is also expected to increase, which puts Durham at higher risk of future flooding. High intensity short duration storms are predicted to grow in frequency to upwards of 9 days a year by 2100. Inland flooding is anticipated to have a greater impact on the elderly and other at-risk groups in Durham.\n\nDemographics\n\nAt the 2010 census, there were 228,330 people, 93,441 households, and 52,409 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 103,221 housing units at an average density of . Durham's population, as of July 1, 2019 and according to the 2019 U.S. census data estimate, had grown to 278,993, making it the 50th fastest growing city in the US, and the 2nd fastest growing city in North Carolina, behind Cary but ahead of Charlotte, Raleigh and Greensboro. As of the 2020 census, there were 283,506 people, 114,726 households, and 64,982 families residing in the city.\n\nIn 2010, the racial composition of the city was: 42.45% White, 40.96% Black or African American, 5.07% Asian American, 0.51% Native American, 0.07% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 8.28% some other race, and 2.66% two or more races; 14.22% were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Non-Hispanic Whites comprised 37.9% of the population.\n\nThere were 93,441 households, out of which 27.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.2% were married couples living together, 15.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.9% were non-families. 33.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34, and the average family size was 3.04.\n\nIn the city, the population was spread out, with 22.7% under the age of 18, 14.1% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.9 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the city was $47,394, and the median income for a family was $60,157. Males had a median income of $35,202 versus $30,359 for females. The per capita income for the city was $27,156. About 13.1% of families and 18.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.3% of those under age 18 and 10.1% of those age 65 or over.\n\nEconomy\n\nDuke University and Duke University Health System are Durham's largest employers. Below is a list of Durham's largest employers.\n\nHealthcare and pharmaceuticals continue to grow in importance with many companies based in Durham including IQVIA, Aerie Pharmaceuticals, Chimerix, BioCryst Pharmaceuticals, Bio Products Laboratory USA, bioM\u00e9rieux USA and North Carolina Biotechnology Center.\n\nOther prominent companies based in Durham include Center for Community Self-Help, Liggett Group, North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company, American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, Bronto Software, Counter Culture Coffee, Burt's Bees, McKinney (advertising agency), Sugar Hill Records, Mechanics and Farmers Bank, Southern Express.\n\nArts and culture\nDurham is the venue for the annual Bull Durham Blues Festival and the OUTsouth Queer Film Festival, the 2nd largest LGBTQ+ film festival in the Southeast. Other events include jazz festivals, plays, symphony concerts, art exhibitions, and a multitude of cultural expositions, including the American Dance Festival, Tobacco Road Dance, and the Full Frame Documentary Film Festival. A center of Durham's culture is its Carolina Theatre, which presents concerts, comedy and arts in historic Fletcher Hall and Independent and repertory film in its cinemas. There is a resurgence of restaurants in and around the downtown area, including several new restaurants in the American Tobacco District. The Nasher Museum of Art opened in October 2005 and has produced nationally recognized traveling exhibitions of global, contemporary art.\n\nDurham also has a history museum, the Museum of Durham History. In 2019, the museum hosted several exhibits, including one on journalist and civil rights activist Louis Austin, and in conjunction with the 150th anniversary of the city of Durham, an exhibit titled, \"150 Faces of Durham\", which highlighted many of the women and men who influenced the history of Durham.\n\nThe Durham Association for Downtown Arts (DADA) is a non-profit arts organization located in the downtown area. Incorporated in 2000, the organization's mission is a commitment to the development, presentation and fiscal sponsorship of original art and performance in Durham. DADA supports local artists working in a diversity of artistic media. DADA also helps local residents gain access to these artists by providing free or low-cost venue admission.\n\nMovies such as Bull Durham (1988) and The Handmaid's Tale (1989) have been shot in Durham.\n\nMusic\nDurham has an active and diverse local music culture. Artists' styles range from jazz, hip-hop, soul, folk, Americana, blues, bluegrass, punk, metal and rock. Popular bands and musicians include Branford Marsalis, Iron & Wine, Carolina Chocolate Drops, The Mountain Goats, John Dee Holeman, 9th Wonder, Red Clay Ramblers, The Old Ceremony, Megafaun, Curtis Eller, Mount Moriah, Hiss Golden Messenger, Sylvan Esso, Mel Melton, Hammer No More the Fingers, Yahzarah, G Yamazawa, and Jim Mills. Members of The Butchies, Superchunk, Chatham County Line, Alice Donut, and the Avett Brothers live in Durham.\n\nMerge Records, a successful independent record label, has its headquarters in downtown Durham. Other independent record labels include Jamla, 307 Knox, Churchkey Records, and Paradise of Bachelors. Roots label Sugar Hill Records was founded in Durham, by Barry Lyle Poss, before it moved to Nashville in 1998. In 1996, the feminist \/ queer record label Mr. Lady Records was founded and operated in Durham until its demise in 2004.\n\nDuke University's radio station WXDU is an active participant in the community. WNCU, which is supported in part by NPR, is a jazz focused FM radio station, with broadcast studios on the campus of NCCU.\n\nThe music album Sandham: Symphony Meets Classical Tamil by composer Rajan Somasundaram made in association with Academy nominated singer Bombay Jayashri and Durham Symphony (led by William Henry Curry) became Amazon's Top#10 bestseller under 'International Music album' category in 2020.\n\nDurham has a rich history of African American rhythm and blues, soul, and funk music. In the 1960s and 1970s, more than 40 R&B, soul, and funk groups\u2014including The Modulations, The Black Experience Band, The Communicators, and Duralcha\u2014recorded over 30 singles and three full-length albums. Durham was also home to ten recording labels that released soul music, though most of them only released one or two records apiece. A few successful local soul groups from Durham also recorded on national labels like United Artists or on regional labels in the mid-Atlantic and Northeast.\n\nSince 1980, the Eno River Festival has been held annually at the West Point on the Eno park in Durham, hosting a wide variety of musical acts.\n\nVisual arts\nDurham is home to the Nasher Museum of Art and smaller visual arts galleries and studios. Downtown Durham sponsors a celebration of culture and arts on display every third Friday of the month, year round. The event has come to be known as 3rd Friday.\n\nA selection of locally renowned galleries remain in business throughout the city. Galleries include but are not limited to local spots such as the Pleiades Gallery, the Carrack Modern Art, and Golden Belt Studios. Supporting a variety of local, nationwide, and worldwide talent, these galleries often host weekly events and art shows. The Durham Art Walk is another annual arts festival hosted in May each year in downtown Durham. The Durham Art Walk features a variety of artists that come together each year for a large showcase of work in the streets of Durham. A secondary magnet school, Durham School of the Arts, is also located in downtown Durham. It focuses on providing education in various forms of art ranging from visual to the performing arts.\n\nSports\n\nCollegiate athletics are a primary focus in Durham. Duke University's men's basketball team draws a large following, selling out every home game at Cameron Indoor Stadium since 1990. The fans are known as the Cameron Crazies and are known nationwide for their chants and rowdiness. The team has won the NCAA Division I championship three times since 2001 and five times overall. Duke competes in a total of 27 sports in the Atlantic Coast Conference.\n\nDurham's professional sports team is the Durham Bulls International League baseball team. A movie involving an earlier Carolina League team of that name, Bull Durham, was produced in 1988. Today's Bulls play in the Durham Bulls Athletic Park, on the southern end of downtown, constructed in 1994. One of the more successful teams in the minor leagues, the Bulls usually generate an annual attendance of around 500,000. Previously Durham Athletic Park (DAP), located on the northern end of downtown, had served as the Bull's ballpark. Historically, many players for the current and former Durham Bulls teams have transferred to the big leagues after several years in the minor leagues. DAP has been preserved for the use of other teams as well as for concerts sponsored by the City of Durham and other events. The Durham Dragons, a women's fast pitch softball team, played in the Durham Athletic Park from 1998 to 2000. The DAP recently went through a $5 million renovation.\n\nGovernment and politics\n\nGovernment\nDurham operates under a council-manager government. The mayor presides over meetings of the city council and makes some committee appointments, while much of the regular management of the city's administration falls to the city manager. In November 2021, Elaine O'Neal was elected mayor of Durham, becoming the first black female mayor in the city.\n\nFederally, Durham is in North Carolina's 4th congressional district, which is represented by Democrat Valerie Foushee.\n\nThe new Durham County Justice Center was completed in early 2013.\n\nPolitics\nThe area is predominantly Democratic, and has voted for the Democratic Party's presidential candidate in every election since the city's founding in 1869. Durham County is the most liberal-leaning county in North Carolina, with over 80% of the county voting for Democratic candidate Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election. The city's politics have long been dominated by the activities of two local political action committees, the People's Alliance (PA) and the Durham Committee on the Affairs of Black People (DCABP). PA is a mostly-white progressive organization, while the DCABP is a black moderate group.\n\nKey political issues have been the redevelopment of Downtown Durham and revival of other historic neighborhoods and commercial districts, ending cash bail, ending mandatory sentencing minimums, decriminalization of marijuana, raising minimum wage for city employees to $15, the fluoridation of public drinking water, a 45% reduction of crime, a 10-year plan to end homelessness, initiatives to reduce truancy, issues related to growth and development. Naturally, a merger of Durham City Schools (several inner city neighborhoods) and Durham County Schools in the early 1990s has not been without controversy. More recently, the Durham City Council's 2018 statement opposing militarized policing that mentioned Israel has drawn its third lawsuit. In 2018, Durham appointed its first Latino council member Javiera Caballero.\n\nEducation\n\nPrimary and secondary schools\nPublic schools in Durham are run by Durham Public Schools, the eighth largest school district in North Carolina. The district runs 46 public schools, consisting of 30 elementary, 10 middle, 2 secondary, and 12 high schools. Several magnet high schools focus on distinct subject areas, such as the Durham School of the Arts and the City of Medicine Academy. Public schools in Durham were partially segregated until 1970.\n\nThe North Carolina School for Science and Mathematics is a boarding high school operated by the University of North Carolina in central Durham. The residential school accepts rising juniors living in North Carolina with a focus on science, mathematics, and technology.\n\nThere are several charter school options as well, including Research Triangle High School (a STEM school in Research Triangle Park), Voyager Academy (K-12), Kestrel Heights School (K-12), Maureen Joy Charter School (K-8), and most recently Excelsior Classical Academy (K-8).\n\nSeveral private schools operate in Durham, such as Durham Academy, Triangle Day School, and The Duke School. There are also religious schools, including Carolina Friends School, Trinity School of Durham and Chapel Hill, Cristo Rey Research Triangle High School, Immaculata Catholic School, and Durham Nativity School.\n\nIn December 2007, Forbes.com ranked Durham as one of the \"Top 20 Places to Educate Your Child;\" Durham was the only MSA from North Carolina to make the list.\n\nColleges and universities\n\nDuke University has approximately 14,000 students, split evenly between graduates and undergraduates. Duke's 8600 acre campus and Medical Center are located in western Durham, about  from downtown. Duke forms one of the three vertices of the Research Triangle along with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University. The university's research, medical, and teaching efforts are all among the highest-ranked in both the United States and the world.\n\nNorth Carolina Central University is a public, historically black university located in southeastern Durham. It was ranked the number 1 Public HBCU in the nation by U.S. News & World Report in 2010 and 2011. It was ranked the 10th best HBCU overall. The university was founded by James E. Shepard in 1910 as the National Religious Training School and Chautauqua to address the needs of the region's black population, and now grants baccalaureate, master's, professional and doctoral degrees. NCCU became a university in 1969 and joined the University of North Carolina system in 1972.\n\nDurham Technical Community College is a two-year public institution that grants associate degrees.\n\nMedia\n\nThe major daily newspaper in Durham is The Herald-Sun, which began publication in 1893. The Durham-based Independent Weekly, noted for its progressive\/liberal perspective, provides political and entertainment news for the greater Research Triangle; it began publication in 1983. Duke's independent student newspaper, The Chronicle, also provides local coverage.\n\nDurham is part of the Raleigh-Durham-Fayetteville designated market area, the 24th largest broadcast television market in the United States. ABC owned and operated WTVD is licensed to and based in Durham, while the studios for statewide public television service UNC-TV are based in Research Triangle Park. All major U.S. television networks have affiliates serving the region.\n\nThe city is part of the Raleigh-Durham Arbitron radio market, ranked No. 37 nationally. National Public Radio affiliate WUNC, based in Chapel Hill, has significant operations in Durham.\n\nInfrastructure\n\nTransportation\n\nMost travel in Durham is by private motor vehicle on its network of public streets and highways. Important arteries for traffic include NC 147, which connects Duke University, downtown, and Research Triangle Park, U.S. 15-501 between Durham and Chapel Hill, I-85, connecting Durham to Virginia and western North Carolina cities, and I-40 running across southern Durham County between the Research Triangle Park and Chapel Hill. The I-40 corridor has been the main site of commercial and residential development in Durham since its opening in the early 1990s. Over 95% of commuters use a car to get to work, with 14% of those people in carpools.\n\nDurham maintains an extensive network of bicycle routes and trails and has been recognized with a Bicycle Friendly Community Award. The American Tobacco Trail begins in downtown and continues south through Research Triangle Park and ends in Wake County. The city is also considering furthering the progress on the Triangle Greenway System.\n\nAir travel is serviced by Raleigh-Durham International Airport, 12 miles southeast of Durham, which enplanes about 4.5 million passengers per year. Frequent service (five flights a day or more) is available to Boston, Charlotte, Philadelphia, New York LaGuardia, New York Kennedy, Newark, Washington Reagan, Washington Dulles, Chicago O'Hare, Dallas, Houston, and Atlanta, GA. Non-stop daily service is provided to approximately 30 destinations in the United States and daily international service is also available to London Heathrow, Toronto-Pearson and Paris Charles de Gaulle.\n\nAmtrak operates a daily train between Charlotte and New York City (the Carolinian) which stops in downtown Durham. The State of North Carolina, in cooperation with Amtrak, operates three additional daily trains between Raleigh and Charlotte which also stop in Durham. A new Amtrak station was built in 2011 in a former tobacco warehouse. Some of the downtown streets cross the tracks at grade level, while other intersections have grade separation. One downtown railroad underpass has attracted national media coverage, because it provides only 11 feet-8 inches of clearance, and has damaged the roofs of many trucks. As of October 26, 2019, the underpass was closed down to both automotive and train traffic in preparation for raising it to 12 feet and 4 inches, so as to provide clearance underneath to reduce large vehicle damage.\n\nNational bus service is provided by Greyhound and Megabus at the Durham Transit Station in downtown Durham, which opened in 2009. GoDurham provides municipal bus service.\n\nGoTriangle offers scheduled, fixed-route regional and commuter bus service between Raleigh and the region's other principal cities of Durham, Cary and Chapel Hill, as well as to and from the Raleigh-Durham International Airport, Research Triangle Park and several of the region's larger suburban communities. GoTriangle also coordinates an extensive vanpool and rideshare program that serves the region's larger employers and commute destinations.\n\nFrom 1995, the cornerstone of GoTriangle's long-term plan was a  rail corridor from northeast Raleigh, through downtown Raleigh, Cary, and Research Triangle Park, to Durham using DMU technology. There were proposals to extend this corridor  to Chapel Hill with light rail technology. However, in 2006 Triangle Transit deferred implementation indefinitely when the Federal Transit Administration declined to fund the program.  Government agencies throughout the Raleigh-Durham metropolitan area have struggled with determining the best means of providing fixed-rail transit service for the region. The project was cancelled 2019 with costs more than $157 million.\n\nThe region's two metropolitan planning organizations appointed a group of local citizens in 2007 to reexamine options for future transit development in light of Triangle Transit's problems. The Special Transit Advisory Commission (STAC) retained many of the provisions of Triangle Transit's original plan, but recommended adding new bus services and raising additional revenues by adding a new local half-cent sales tax to fund the project.\n\nDuke University also maintains its own transit system, Duke Transit operates more than 30 buses with routes throughout the campus and health system. Duke campus buses and vans have alternate schedules or do not operate during breaks and holidays.\n\nIn an effort to create safer roadways for vehicles, bicyclists, and pedestrians, drivers can enroll in Durham's Pace Car Program and agree to drive the speed limit, stop at all stop signs, stop at all red lights, and stop to let pedestrians cross the street.\n\nNotable people\n\n Kate Lee Harris Adams, aviator and member of the Women Airforce Service Pilots during World War II\n Blind Boy Fuller (Fulton Allen), musician\n Louis Austin (1898\u20131971), journalist, civil rights leader\n Ernie Barnes, artist\/painter\n Kara Medoff Barnett, theater producer, arts director\n Samuel Beam, singer\/songwriter from Iron & Wine, current resident\n Ben Brantley, The New York Times theater critic\n Andrew Britton, novelist \n Mic'hael Brooks, NFL player\n Little Brother, hip-hop group\n Kelly Bruno, world-record holding amputee runner and athlete; contestant on reality TV show Survivor: Nicaragua\n Dan Bryk, singer, rock star\n Shirley Caesar, pastor and gospel recording artist\n Carolina Chocolate Drops, folk band who cite their hometown as Durham\n Anthony Roth Costanzo, countertenor known for his performance as the title role of the opera Akhnaten (opera)\n Crystal Cox, track and field athlete; member of national team for the 2004 Athens Summer Olympics; contestant on reality TV show Survivor: Gabon\n Roger Lee Craig, Major League Baseball pitcher and manager \n John Darnielle, musician and novelist best known as the primary (and often solitary) member of the American band the Mountain Goats, for which he is the writer, composer, guitarist, pianist, and vocalist\n Betty Davis, funk and soul singer\n Reverend Gary Davis, musician\n The Duffer Brothers, creators of the Netflix series Stranger Things\n Benjamin Newton Duke, tobacco, textile, and energy industrialist and philanthropist\n James Buchanan Duke, industrialist, founder of The Duke Endowment and Duke University \n Victor Dzau, scientist and academic\n Sylvan Esso, grammy-nominated dance and electronic music duo\n Rapsody (Marlanna Evans), Grammy-nominated female rapper\n Pura F\u00e9, Native American singer\n Rick Ferrell, Major League Baseball catcher; member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame\n John Wesley Fletcher, pastor\n Tate Fogleman, NASCAR driver\n Nnenna Freelon, jazz singer\/composer\n Philip Freelon (1953\u20132019), architect, designer of the National Museum of African American History and Culture\n Penny Fuller, award-winning actress in numerous Broadway, film, and television productions\n Julian Gamble (born 1989), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League\n David Garrard, NFL quarterback from 2002 to 2013\n David Gergen, advisor to presidents Ford, Reagan, and Clinton\n Heather Gordon (born 1967), artist\n John H. Hager, former Virginia lieutenant governor (1998\u20132002) and the father-in-law of former First Daughter Jenna Bush Hager\n Mary Katharine Ham, Conservative journalist; grew up in Durham \n Michael Hardt, philosopher and theorist of globalization, politics and culture \n Jay Huff, college basketball player for Virginia Cavaliers\n Brandon Hargest, singer for Jump5\n Brittany Hargest, singer for Jump5\n Heather Havrilesky, author, essayist, and humorist raised in Durham \n Biff Henderson, Late Show with David Letterman comedian and television personality\n Wilbur Hobby, labor leader and former president of the North Carolina AFL-CIO\n Alexander Isley, designer and educator\n Fredric Jameson, literary critic and Marxist political theorist\n Big Daddy Kane, hip-hop artist and actor\n John P. Kee, pastor and gospel recording artist\n Stuart Krohn (born 1962), professional rugby union player\n Mike Krzyzewski, former head coach of the Duke men's basketball team and former head coach of Team USA\n Patrick Kypson, professional tennis player\n Mur Lafferty, podcaster and writer\n James G. Leyburn, sociologist, professor, author\n Caitlin Linney, singer\/songwriter\n John D. Loudermilk, songwriter (\"Tobacco Road\", \"Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye\")\n John Lucas II, NBA player and coach\n David Lynch, film and TV director; lived in Durham as a child; parents met at Duke University\n John Malachi, jazz pianist\n Crystal Mangum, accuser in the 2006 Duke lacrosse case, who was later found guilty of fatally stabbing her boyfriend\n Leo Mangum, Major League Baseball pitcher\n John H. Manning, lawyer, officer and Adjutant General of North Carolina\n Pigmeat Markham, comic actor and novelty musician\n Doug Marlette, Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoonist; lived in Durham as a child\n Branford Marsalis, resident of Durham for several years. The Branford Marsalis Quartet's 2006 album Braggtown was titled after Braggtown Baptist Church, located in northeastern Durham, just north of Highways 70\/85.\n Frank Matthews, drug trafficker during the late 1960s and early 1970s\n Tracy McGrady, attended Mount Zion Christian Academy his senior year, NBA player\n Clyde McPhatter, singer\/songwriter, founding member of The Drifters\n LeRoi Moore of the Dave Matthews Band, contemporary jazz musician\n Anita Morris, actress (Ruthless People, The Hotel New Hampshire, nominated for a Tony for her work in Nine)\n The Mountain Goats, indie rock band\n Pauli Murray (1910\u20131985), civil rights and women's activist, attorney, author, poet and priest, lived here as a child with grandparents; in 1977 was the first black woman to be ordained as an Episcopal priest; in 2012 was named as an Episcopal saint (one of its \"Holy Women, Holy Men\")\n Link Neal, YouTuber with Rhett McLaughlin for the channels Rhett & Link & Good Mythical Morning\n Mike Nifong, Durham County district attorney disbarred in 2006 for actions in Duke University lacrosse case that year\n David Noel, NBA player for the Milwaukee Bucks\n Wye Oak, musical duo composed of Jenn Wasner and Andy Stack\n Ike Opara, Major League Soccer defender for Sporting Kansas City\n Robert Martin Patterson, United States Army soldier and Medal of Honor recipient\n Sidney Powell, prosecutor and attorney\n Brian Roberts, Major League Baseball player, second baseman for the Baltimore Orioles\n Leah Roberts, former North Carolina State University student who abruptly left Durham in March 2000 and has remained missing ever since\n Rodney Rogers, NBA power forward from 1993 to 2005 \n Ben Ruffin, civil rights activist, educator, and businessman\n Don Schlitz, songwriter (Kenny Rogers's \"The Gambler\")\n James E. Shepard (1875\u20131947), educator, founder and president of North Carolina College for Negroes (now North Carolina Central University)\n Robert K. Steel, former Undersecretary of the Treasury\n Jamie Stewart, art-pop musician best known as the frontman of Xiu Xiu\n Andre Leon Talley, (1948-2022) Vogue editor, fashion luminary, and current judge of America's Next Top Model\n Grady Tate, American musician and singer\n Justin Tornow, dancer and choreographer\n Emilie Townes, dean of Vanderbilt Divinity School, former president of the American Academy of Religion\n Jeff Tremaine, filmmaker known for Jackass\n Teresa Trull, singer, songwriter, and record producer\n LeRoy T. Walker (1918\u20132012), former United States Olympic president; former chancellor of North Carolina Central University (NCCU)\n Dewayne Washington, NFL cornerback from 1994 to 2005\n Seth Wescott, Olympic champion snowboarder\nJosh Whitesell, Major League Baseball first baseman of the Arizona Diamondbacks\n T. J. Warren, NBA player for the Indiana Pacers\nBull City Red (birth name George Washington), blues musician\n Harvey D. Williams (1930\u20132020), African-American U.S. Army major general\n Walter Lee Williams, one of the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives\n Morgan Wootten, head basketball coach at DeMatha Catholic High School and member of the Basketball Hall of Fame\n James B. Wyngaarden, American physician, researcher and academic administrator.\n Freekey Zekey (Ezekiel Giles), rapper; spent almost three years in jail at Durham Correctional Center on drug charges before being released on November 20, 2006\n\nSister cities\nDurham's sister cities are:\n\n Arusha, Tanzania\n Celaya, Mexico\n Durham, County Durham, England, United Kingdom\n Kavala, Greece\n Kostroma, Russia\n Sibiu, Romania\n Tilar\u00e1n, Costa Rica\n Toyama, Japan\n Zhuzhou, China\n\nSee also\n\n List of municipalities in North Carolina\n Norfolk Southern\u2013Gregson Street Overpass\n Triangle J Council of Governments\n List of U.S. cities with large Black populations\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n Durham Convention and Visitors Bureau\n Greater Durham Chamber of Commerce\n\n \nDuke family\nPlanned communities in the United States\nPopulated places established in 1853","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":227,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-23":5,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":6,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":7,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":5,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":6,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":7,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":4,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":5,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":4,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":4}},"id":150834,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Durham%2C%20North%20Carolina","title":"Durham, North Carolina","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In sports broadcasting, a sports commentator (also known as sports announcer or sportscaster) provides a real-time commentary of a game or event, usually during a live broadcast, traditionally delivered in the historical present tense. Radio was the first medium for sports broadcasts, and radio commentators must describe all aspects of the action to listeners who cannot see it for themselves. In the case of televised sports coverage, commentators are usually presented as a voiceover, with images of the contest shown on viewers' screens and sounds of the action and spectators heard in the background. Television commentators are rarely shown on screen during an event, though some networks choose to feature their announcers on camera either before or after the contest or briefly during breaks in the action.\n\nTypes of commentators\n\nMain\/play-by-play commentator\n\nThe main commentator, also called the play-by-play commentator or announcer in North America, blow-by-blow in combat sports coverage, lap-by-lap for motorsports coverage, or ball-by-ball for cricket coverage, is the primary speaker on the broadcast. Broadcasters in this role are adept at being articulate and carry an ability to describe each play or event of an often fast-moving sporting event. The play-by-play announcer is meant to convey the event as it is carried out. Because of their skill level, commentators like Al Michaels, Brian Anderson, Ian Eagle, Kevin Harlan, Jim Nantz, and Joe Buck in the U.S., David Coleman in the UK and Bruce McAvaney in Australia may have careers in which they call several different sports at one time or another. Other main commentators may, however, only call one sport (Mike Emrick, for example, is known almost exclusively as an ice hockey broadcaster and Peter Drury for the association football). The vast majority of play-by-play announcers are male; female play-by-play announcers had not seen sustained employment until the 21st century.\n\nRadio and television play-by-play techniques involve slightly different approaches; radio broadcasts typically require the play-by-play host to say more to verbally convey the on-field activity that cannot be seen by the radio audience. It is unusual to have radio and television broadcasts share the same play-by-play commentator for the same event, except in cases of low production budgets or when a broadcaster is particularly renowned (Rick Jeanneret's hockey telecasts, for example, were simulcast on radio and television from 1997 until his 2022 retirement).\n\nAnalyst\/color commentator\n\nThe analyst or color commentator provides expert analysis and background information, such as statistics, strategy on the teams and athletes, and occasionally anecdotes or light humor. They are usually former athletes or coaches in their respective sports, although there are some exceptions.\n\nThe term \"color\" refers to levity and insight provided by analyst. The most common format for a sports broadcast is to have an analyst\/color commentator work alongside the main\/play-by-play announcer. An example is NBC Sunday Night Football in the United States, which is called by color commentator Cris Collinsworth, a former NFL receiver, and play-by-play commentator Mike Tirico, a professional announcer. In the United Kingdom, however, there is a much less distinct division between play-by-play and color commentary, although two-man commentary teams usually feature an enthusiast with formal journalistic training but little or no competitive experience leading the commentary, and an expert former (or current) competitor following up with analysis or summary. There are however exceptions to this \u2014 most of the United Kingdom's leading cricket and snooker commentators are former professionals in their sports, while the former Formula One racing commentator Murray Walker had no formal journalistic training and only limited racing experience of his own (he had come from an advertising background and his initial hiring was more of a comic double act than a traditional sports commentary pairing). In the United States, Pat Summerall, a former professional kicker, spent most of his broadcasting career as a play-by-play announcer. Comedian Dennis Miller's short-lived run as part of the Monday Night Football booth in 2001 caused what Miller himself described as a \"maelstrom\" of perplexed reviews.\n\nAlthough the combination of a play-by-play announcer and color commentator is now considered the standard, it was much more common for a broadcast to have only one play-by-play announcer working alone. Vin Scully, longtime announcer for the Los Angeles Dodgers, was one of the few examples of this practice lasting into the 21st century until he retired in 2016. The three-person booth is a format used on Monday Night Football, in which there are two color commentators, usually one being a former player or coach and the other being an outsider, such as a journalist (Howard Cosell was one long-running example) or a comedian (such as the aforementioned Dennis Miller).\n\nSideline reporter\nA sideline reporter assists a sports broadcasting crew with sideline coverage of the playing field or court. The sideline reporter typically makes live updates on injuries and breaking news or conducts player interviews while players are on the field or court because the play-by-play broadcaster and color commentator must remain in their broadcast booth. Sideline reporters are often granted inside information about an important update, such as injury, because they have the credentials necessary to do so. In cases of big events, teams consisting of many sideline reporters are placed strategically so that the main commentator has many sources to turn to (for example some sideline reporters could be stationed in the dressing room area while others could be between the respective team benches). In the United States, sideline reporters are heavily restricted by NFL rules; in contrast, both the 2001 and 2020 incarnations of the XFL featured sideline reporters in a much more prominent role.\n\nIn motorsports, it is typical for there to be multiple pit reporters, covering the event from along pit road. Their responsibilities include covering breaking news trackside, probing crew chiefs and other team leaders about strategy, and commentating on pit stops from along the pit wall. On occasion in motorsport, the reporter on the sideline is an understudy to the lead commentator, as Fox NASCAR has used this tactic numerous times based on the career of Cup lead Mike Joy, a former pit reporter. Those who made the switch included Steve Byrnes (Truck Series, 2014), Vince Welch (Truck Series since late 2015), and Adam Alexander (did Cup for Fox-produced TNT broadcasts from 2010\u201314, Xfinity on Fox since 2015) did the same too.\n\nSports presenter\/studio host\nIn British sports broadcasting, the presenter of a sports broadcast is usually distinct from the commentator, and often based in a remote broadcast television studio away from the sports venue. In North America, the on-air personality based in the studio is called the studio host. During their shows, the presenter\/studio host may be joined by additional analysts or pundits, especially when showing highlights of various other matches (e.g. in 1985, Jim Nantz was the studio host for The Prudential College Football Report in Studio 43 in New York for CBS Sports, and during his four-year tenure there [the 1985 through 1988 college football seasons], he had Pat Haden [in 1985] and Ara Parseghian [in 1987 and 1988] as his co-hosts\/pundits).\n\nOther roles\nVarious sports may have different commentator roles to cover situations unique to that sport. In the 2010s, as popularized by Fox, American football broadcasts began to increasingly employ rules analysts to explain penalties and controversial calls, and analyze instant replay reviews to predict whether a call will or will not be overturned. These analysts are typically former referees.\n\nSportscaster\nIn North American English, sportscaster is a general term for any type of commentator in a sports broadcast. It may also refer to a sports talk show host or a newscaster covering sports news.\n\nEsports\nIn video games, and particularly esports, commentators are often called shoutcasters; this term is derived from Shoutcast, an internet audio streaming plugin and protocol associated with the Winamp media player. They are also sometimes referred to as simply casters.\n\nUnited States\n\nWhile sports broadcasts took place from 1912, Florent Gibson of the Pittsburgh Post newspaper broadcast the first sports commentary in April 1921, covering the fight between Johnny Ray and Johnny \"Hutch\" Dundee at the Motor Square Garden, Pittsburgh.\n\nThe highest-paid sportscaster in the United States is Tony Romo, a former NFL quarterback and professional golfer who serves as lead color analyst for the NFL on CBS; Romo earns $17,000,000 per year for his contributions to the network.\n\nWomen\nIn 1975, the National Hockey League (NHL) made headlines when two coaches of the NHL All-Star Game in Montreal allowed Robin Herman (The New York Times) and Marcelle St. Cyr (CKLM radio in Montreal) access into the men's locker room. Both were believed to have been the first women ever allowed to enter a professional men's locker room to conduct a post-game interview. Sport organizations began to follow in the NHL's footsteps and allowed for other female sportswriters to be given the same access as men sportswriters.\n\nIt was not until the year 1977 when Melissa Ludtke, a sportswriter from Sports Illustrated, was given the assignment to cover the New York Yankees playoff series but was denied entry into the men's locker room. Baseball commissioner Bowie Kuhn and other officials chose to discriminate against her based on her sex. Knowing that this would put Sports Illustrated in a disadvantage from other publishers, Time Inc. and Ludtke filed a lawsuit against Kuhn.\n\nThe lawsuit was taken to the United States District Court in 1978 where Judge Constance Baker Motley ruled the act as violating the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution. The court ruled that the Yankees organization devise a plan to protect the players of their privacy while female sportswriters conducted interviews, suggesting the use of towels.\n\nAfter the access of allowing women in was put into effect, the Yankees organization allowed reporters to spend ten minutes interviewing players and was then asked to leave and wait. Male reporters were unhappy with this and blamed the women from keeping them out and not being able to do their job.\n\nIn 1990, the issue made its way back into the headlines when Lisa Olson made a public statement revealing that players from the New England Patriots had exposed themselves while interviews were being conducted. This prompted other female reporters who had been harassed to come forward. Their credibility was undermined by accusations that female interviewers appeared as being \"too friendly\" or conversing too long with players as though they were flirting. Thus, the issue of sexism was still present, despite the equal access to men's locker rooms.\n\nIn professional wrestling\n\nThough not always the case, in professional wrestling, the color commentator is usually a \"heel sympathizer\" (or a supporter of the \"bad guys\") as opposed to the play-by-play announcer, who is more or less the \"voice of the fans\" as well as \"babyface sympathizers\" (or supporters of the \"good guys\"). Though both are supposed to show neutral stance while announcing, the color commentators (especially when they support heels) are usually more blatant about their stance than the play-by-play announcers. Jesse \"The Body\" Ventura and Bobby \"The Brain\" Heenan pioneered the \"heel sympathizer\" for color commentary in wrestling. Jerry \"The King\" Lawler later made a successful transition into the role, though Lawler has since shown more sympathy for faces (partially due to being over with fans after nearly forty years in wrestling).\n\n\"Rowdy\" Roddy Piper and \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage pioneered the \"babyface sympathizer\" for color commentary in wrestling. Michael Cole has served as a babyface sympathizer for most of his announcing career. From 2010-2012, Cole served as a heel announcer, showing arrogance and contempt for faces and more sympathy for the heels (partially due to being bullied by other face wrestlers like Stone Cold Steve Austin, The Rock, and John Cena, and the jealousy of Smackdown! General Manager Teddy Long, and other WWE Hall of Famers like Jerry \"The King\" Lawler and \"Good Old J.R.\" Jim Ross). However, on the September 10, 2012 episode of WWE Raw, Lawler suffered a legitimate on-air heart attack during the broadcast. Cole provided updates on Lawler's condition throughout the episode for television viewers, and Cole received praise for how he handled the emergency in a classy and professional manner. He also began favoring face wrestlers and received cheers from WWE fans. Michael Cole successfully cemented his face turn when he hugged Jerry Lawler in the ring when Lawler returned to his commentator duties on the November 12, 2012 episode of Raw.  \n\nIn some cases, commentators are also active managers for wrestlers, usually following continuity as heels. Former Extreme Championship Wrestling color commentator Cyrus was known for having dual roles as a heel manager and a somewhat neutral commentator. Acting as a commentator has also been used to keep injured wrestlers in the public eye while recuperating. Special guest color commentators serve a two purposes: the primary is usually to place them in position to interfere with the match they are calling, the second is to provide promoters with the opportunity to determine if this performer can speak well extemporaneously.\n\nSee also \n Announcerless game, December 1980, experimental broadcast of an NFL game without TV commentators\n List of sports announcers\n List of Major League Baseball retired numbers#Broadcasters\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n Sportcaster Chronicles \u2013 Internet radio show in which John Lewis interviews leading American sports announcers\n\nBroadcasting occupations\n \nSports terminology\nTelevision terminology\nSports mass media people","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":170,"dup_dump_count":51,"dup_details":{"2024-26":8,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":5,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":6,"2020-50":5,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":6,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":5,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":6,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":6,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":5,"2019-18":8,"2019-09":5,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":5,"2018-26":4,"2018-22":4,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":4,"2018-05":2}},"id":1662121,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sports%20commentator","title":"Sports commentator","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Church of England is the leading Christian church in England. It is the church established by law: its formal head is the English monarch (Charles III). It is the mother church of the Anglican Communion. Its headquarters are at Church House, Westminster, in London.\n\nThe Church of England understands itself to be both Catholic and Reformed:\nCatholic because it views itself as a part of the universal church of Jesus Christ in unbroken continuity with the early apostolic church. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as in the Apostles' Creed, Nicene Creed and Athanasian Creed.\nReformed because it has been shaped by the doctrinal ideas of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, in particular by the Thirty-Nine Articles and the Book of Common Prayer.\n\nThere are other Protestant churches in England which are not part of the Anglican Communion.\n\nHistory \nThe Church of England became independent under King Henry VIII in 1534. Henry VIII was married to Catherine of Aragon, but asked the Pope to annul the marriage (say that it was a mistake and that Henry and Catherine were never really married).  He wanted to annul the marriage because he wanted a male heir to his throne and Catherine could not produce one. When the annulment was refused, Henry VIII used his position as King to break the Church away from the Roman Catholic Church. This established the independence of the Church of England, sometimes called the Anglican (English) Church. Methodism broke away from the church in the 18th century. The Oxford Movement brought some Catholic beliefs and practices back into the church in the 19th century. \n\nUnder his son, King Edward VI, more Protestant forms of worship were adopted. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer started more changes. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles.\n\nRelated pages \nArchbishop of Canterbury\nThomas Cranmer\nReformation\nHouse of Lords\nSupreme Governor of the Church of England\n\nOther websites \nCofE website\n\nAnglicanism\nReligion in England","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":122,"dup_dump_count":64,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":4,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2}},"id":28053,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Church%20of%20England","title":"Church of England","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An icon (from the Greek language: , eikon, \"image\") is an image, picture, or representation which has a religious meaning. It is a sign or a likeness that stands for a real object or person. Although the word icon can be used for images of other religions, it is most often used to describe a painting on a wooden panel that has been done in the Orthodox Christian tradition, and may also be used for carved ivory panels and panels of silver or gold. These icons show a holy being such as Jesus, Mary, a saint or an angel. They also show scenes from the Bible such as the Crucifixion and scenes from lives of the saints. In Orthodox Christianity an icon is thought of as a window through which a person can get a view of God's truth.\n\nHow a Christian Orthodox icon is painted \n\nThe traditional way of making an icon was used in Egypt in Early Christian times to make portraits of dead people to use for their funerals. Like icons, these funeral portraits were done on a wooden panel and the paint was mixed with yolk of egg. From the time that Christianity was made legal by Constantine the Great in the early 300s, artists began to use the same method for painting holy pictures. \n\nIt was always hoped that a painting would last for a long time, so everything had to be very carefully prepared. A board had to be chosen that would not crack or warp (bend), and which did not have any knotty bits that might fall out. The board was sanded smooth and then coated with a gluey paint called \"size\" which would hold the coloured paint well, but stop the expensive colours from being soaked up by the wood. The artist would prepare the paints very carefully. Some of the colours were made from gound-up semi-precious stones. Others were made from chemicals. \n\nBefore the artist could start on the panel, he had to prepare the design. It was not important for the artist to think of something new and different. It was much more important that he could copy another icon very accurately. The same designs were used over and over. \n\nAlthough all icons were thought of as a window to Heaven, some icons were believed to have special properties. It was believed that praying and lighting candles before some icons would bring healing, or the help of the saint who was shown in the picture. These icons became very famous and were often copied. \n\nAfter the artist had drawn the design onto the surface of the size in thin green or brown paint, he would put the paint on in  layers, building up the colours bit by bit. Most of the colours were quite transparent and this made the painting look glowing. When the figures were finished the artist would set the work in a wooden frame and \"gild\" it by covering the background with a little pieces of gold leaf that had been beaten into very thin sheets. When a candle was lit near the icon, it shone on the gold surface and made the figures stand out.\n\nIcons in other religions \nThroughout history, some religions such as Christianity and Hinduism, have often used images such as paintings and statues, while others, such as Judaism and Islam, do not often use images of people.  \n\nIn Hinduism there is much use of sacred objects because there is a belief in murti, the idea that the Spirit of God can be present in an icon (or holy object).\n\nRelated pages \n Tempera\n Oil painting\n Mosaic\n Sculpture\n Byzantine art\n\nOther websites\n\nPictures \nOnline exhibitions of over 1000 ancient icons \nIcons of Mount Athos \nRussian Icons from 12th to 18th century \nGreek Orthodox Archdiocese of America: Icons \nGallery of icons, murals and mosaics (mostly Russian) from 11th to 20th century\nTwo 19th century Russian icons depicting Saint Nicholas\nSacred Icons painted by the famous artist David Ongaro\n\nOrthodox \nThe Iconic and Symbolic in Orthodox Iconography\nChurch of the Nativity - Explanation of Orthodox Christian Icons \nOn the difference of Western Religious Art and Orthodox Iconography \nRomanian glass icons\n\nCatholic \nCatholic Encyclopedia: \"Veneration of Images\"\n\nProtestant \nTheology of Icons: a Protestant Perspective \n\nChristian art","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":115,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":2}},"id":44968,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Icon","title":"Icon","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Jew is a person who is of Jewish heritage or who has converted to the Jewish religion. Jews typically consider themselves as a people and not only as adherents of a religion, therefore a Jew is not only one that practices the religion of Judaism, but it is also one who is of Jewish ethnic heritage. Jews originated as an ethnoreligious group in the Middle East. According to traditional Jewish law, called Halakha, someone is Jewish if their mother was a Jew or if they have converted to Judaism.  Judaism has been described as a religion, a race, an ethnic group, a culture, a nation, and an extended family.\n\nIsrael is the only modern country with a Jewish majority, but there are Jewish minorities in many places in the world. Most of them live in large cities in the United States, Argentina, Europe and Australia.  Both Israel and the U.S. have over five million Jews. In the Soviet Union there were more than two million Jews, but many of them moved to Israel, the U.S. and other Western countries since the collapse of the Soviet Union.\n \nJews have been victims of various persecutions. The most well known happened during the Second World War, when almost six million Jews were killed by the Nazis. It is known as the Holocaust.\n\nJewish ethnic groups \nAll ethnic (non-convert) Jews have genetic heritage from the Levant (the region now known as Israel and\/or Palestine). Within all of the world's Jews, there are Jewish ethnic groups. The two biggest are called Ashkenazi (who have historically lived in Central and Eastern Europe) and Sephardic (who have historically lived in lands around the Mediterranean Sea, particularly Spain and Portugal). Jews from the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia are called Mizrahi Jews. There are also Ethiopian Jews, Indian Jews (Bene Israel) and Chinese Jews (Kaifeng Jews).  Many of these groups have moved from one place to another.  For example, many Ashkenazi Jews live in the United States, and many Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews live in France.\n\nJews speak the languages of the countries where they live. Hebrew is the  language of Judaism because it is the language in which the Bible was written. It is still used for prayers. In Israel, Ivrit, which is the name for the new Hebrew language, is the common language. There are also other Jewish languages such as Yiddish and Ladino which are still spoken and written by some Jews.\n\nHistory \nThe Jewish scriptures say that Judaism began with a man named Abram who lived in the city of Ur, in present-day Iraq. According to the Midrash, Abram strongly believed that the people in Ur were wrong to pray to different gods and statues. He believed that there was really only one god who was not a statue. The Torah tells that God spoke to Abram and told him to leave Ur with his family and move to Canaan, where he started a new religion. God told him that his name would be changed to Abraham. The Midrash also says that angels taught Abraham a new holy language, which Jews believe is the language today known as Hebrew. Hebrew continues to be the language of Judaism. Abraham's grandson Jacob is said to be the one who first had the name of \"Israel\".\n\nWhen the Jews were turned into slaves in Egypt, God told Moses to ask for the 12 tribes of Israel to be freed. Pharaoh said \"No\" time and again and each time he did God sent many terrible punishments to the Egyptians to make him to free the Hebrews. Finally, the Pharaoh let the Hebrews go free, but then decided to send the Egyptian army to capture the Jews back. To help them escape God commanded the Red Sea to open a path for them. The waters then returned and drowned the Egyptian army. The Torah says that after this, Moses met with God on Mount Sinai and received the Ten Commandments and the Torah from God.\n\nThe Hebrews or Israelites, in twelve tribes, began a country called Israel in Canaan. They fought many wars against other peoples in the area. The name Jew comes from the name of one of these tribes, Judah. Later Judah was conquered by Babylonia in the early 6th century BC, and its people were taken captive to Babylon. They were allowed to go back to Judah again when Babylon was conquered by the Persian Empire. Some Jewish people stayed in Babylon (now Iraq) and others also lived in other countries.\n\nBy 50 BC, Judah (then called Judea) was ruled by the Roman Empire. During this time, the main language of Judea was Aramaic. The Jews did not like the Roman government or customs, and often made trouble for the Romans. In 70 AD, after a revolt against the government by the Jewish community, the Romans destroyed Judea's capital city, Jerusalem and sent almost all Jews into exile.\n\nAfter this, the Jewish people did not have their own country. They were a small minority in almost every place they lived. This time is called the Diaspora, when Jews spread around the world. They lived in many other countries. Jews living in Spain and Portugal used the language Ladino (also called Judeo-Spanish). Jews living in Germany, Poland, Russia, and other countries in Central-Eastern Europe spoke the language Yiddish. Jews living in North Africa spoke Judeo-Arabic or Haketia, the local name for Ladino.  Jews have lived in most, but not all, places in the world, including India, China, Yemen, and Ethiopia.  Even today, Jews who do not live in Israel are often said to live \"in the Diaspora\". In some places, like India, Jews lived without any problems. In other places, like most of Europe and Islamic countries, there was bigotry or even hatred against Jews and they lived under discriminatory laws. Sometimes Jews suffered from outright persecution (that is: systematic hatred and violence), sometimes they were forced to dress in special, ugly clothes, pay higher taxes than others, not build higher houses than others, not to ride a horse or donkey, wear certain badges etc. In Europe, where the Roman Catholic church forbade Christians from lending money against interest, some Jews worked as bankers and money-lenders, and became known as skillful bankers. \n\nOne nomad nation, the Khazars, converted to Judaism in the 8th century. The Khazar khanate, which was in the modern Ukraine and Byelorussia, was the only independent Jewish state before modern day Israel. The Khazar state was destroyed by the Eastern Vikings (Rus) in 987.\n\nThe Jewish people have always believed that they have a special mission from God. They do things in their own ways, such as having special rules about food and eating, not working on the Shabbat, keeping their own holidays, and not marrying people from other religions. Because of this, people in many different times and countries have thought that the Jews were strange, and maybe dangerous. Many countries made laws that the Jews could not work in some jobs or live in some places. Sometimes Jewish people were killed because of their religion. The word \"antisemitism\" describes the hatred for Jews.\n\nDuring the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazi, or National Socialist government of Germany conquered most of Europe. They did terrible things to the Jewish people. The Nazi government killed more than six million Jewish people.  Before they were killed, often by means of a gas chamber, many of the Jews were made to be forced workers, and some of them were forced to help in the killing and capturing of the others. \n\nIn 1948, after World War II, the United Nations made the country of Israel for the Jews in Palestine, which is in the same place as the original Israel, in the Middle East. The land had been part of the Ottoman Empire before World War I. Then Britain controlled the area under the oversight of the United Nations.  Many Jews moved back to Israel, then called Palestine, starting in the late 1800s. When the country of Israel was made in 1948, there were about 600,000 Jews in it. Today there are about 5,600,000 Jews in it. \n\nWhen Jews moved back to Palestine, there were some people living there now.  Most of them did not want to live in a Jewish country.  This was the beginning of the Israeli-Arab or Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which continues today.\n\nJews have come to Israel from all over the world, bringing different languages, music, food, and history to create a unique culture.  Israel is the only country in the world where most people are Jews and where Hebrew is the main language.\n\nJewish history continues today in both Israel and the Diaspora. Outside of Israel, there are many Jews in the United States, Great Britain, Canada, France, Russia, Ukraine, Germany, Argentina, Brazil, South Africa, and Australia.  There are smaller numbers of Jews living in other parts of the world.  \n\nSome of the major problems faced by the Jewish people today include resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and dealing with high rates of assimilation (loss of Jewish identity) in some countries, like the United States.\n\nFamous Jews \n\nMany Jewish people have done great things in science, literature, business, and the arts.  Some of the most famous include:\n\n David Ben-Gurion, Israeli politician\n Mel Brooks, movie director\n Noam Chomsky, American linguist and writer\n Aaron Copland, composer\n Bob Dylan, American singer\n Albert Einstein, scientist\n Anne Frank, writer\n Sigmund Freud, father of psychoanalysis\n George Gershwin, composer\n Emma Goldman, anarchist\n Theodor Herzl, founder of modern Zionism\n Jesus, central figure of Christianity\n Franz Kafka, writer\n Henry Kissinger, former American Secretary of State\n Emma Lazarus, author\n Rosa Luxemburg, politician\n Moses Maimonides, Jewish philosopher\n Marx Brothers, comedians\n Golda Meir, Israeli politician\n Benjamin Netanyahu, Israeli politician\n Shimon Peres, Israeli politician\n Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli politician\n Philip Roth, American writer\n Mark Rothko, American painter\n Steven Spielberg, movie director\n Baruch Spinoza, philosopher\n Mark Spitz, swimmer\n Barbra Streisand, singer and actress\n Natalie Portman, actress\n Bernie Sanders, United States senator\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":228,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"unknown":4,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":4,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":5,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":6,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":6,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":5,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4}},"id":39429,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jew","title":"Jew","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek (\"ny\" means \"new\" in Danish; \"Glyptotek\" comes from the Greek root glyphein, to carve, and theke, storing place), commonly known simply as Glyptoteket, is an art museum in Copenhagen, Denmark. The collection represents the private art collection of Carl Jacobsen (1842\u20131914), the son of the founder of the Carlsberg Breweries.\n\nPrimarily a sculpture museum, as indicated by the name, the focal point of the museum is antique sculpture from the ancient cultures around the Mediterranean, including Egypt, Rome and Greece, as well as more modern sculptures such as a collection of Auguste Rodin's works, considered to be the most important outside France. However, the museum is equally noted for its collection of paintings that includes an extensive collection of French impressionists and Post-impressionists as well as Danish Golden Age paintings.\n\nThe French Collection includes works by painters such as Jacques-Louis David, Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, Degas and C\u00e9zanne, as well as those by Post-impressionists such as van Gogh, Toulouse-Lautrec and Bonnard. The museum's collection includes all the bronze sculptures of Degas, including the series of dancers. Numerous works by Norwegian-Danish sculptor Stephan Sinding are featured prominently in various sections of the museum.\n\nHistory\n\nFirst Glyptoteque\nCarl Jacobsen was a dedicated art collector. He was particularly interested in antique art, but over the years he also acquired a considerable collection of French and Danish sculptures. When his private villa in 1882 was extended with a winter garden, sculptures soon outnumbered plants in it. The same year the collection was opened to the public. In the following years the museum was expanded on a number of occasions to meet the need for more space for his steadily growing collections. In 1885 his 'house museum' had grown to a total of 19 galleries, the first 14 of which had been designed by Vilhelm Dahlerup while Hack Kampmann had built the last four as well as conducted a redesign of the winter garden.\n\nNew museum\n\nIn spite of the many extensions, it was finally clear the existing premises were inadequate and that a new building was needed. On 8 March 1888 Carl Jacobsen donated his collection to the Danish State and the City of Copenhagen on condition that they provided a suitable building for its exhibition. Copenhagen's old fortifications had recently been abandoned and a site was chosen on a ravelin outside Holcks Bastion in the city's Western Rampart, just south of the Tivoli Gardens which had been founded in 1843. Jacobsen was displeased with the location which he found to be too far from the city centre and he had also reservations about the proximity of Tivoli which he found common. Instead he wanted a building on the emerging new city hall square, yet in the end he accepted.\n\nIt was Carl Jacobsen who chose the name for the museum, with inspiration from Ludwig I's Glyptothek in Munich, as well as Vilhelm Dahlerup as the architect for the assignment. The moat around the radan was filled and the new museum opened first on 1 May 1897. At first it only included Jacobsen's modern collection with French and Danish works from the 18th century.\n\nIn January 1899 Carl Jacobsen donated his collection of Antique art to the museum which made an expansion necessary. It was designed by Hack Kampmann while Dahlerup designed a winter garden which connected the new wing to the old building. It was inaugurated in 1906.\n\nIn 1996 the museum was once again extended, this time with an infill constructed in one of its courtyards to the design of Henning Larsen. In 2006, the building underwent a major renovation programme under the direction of Danish architects Dissing + Weitling. and Bonde Ljungar Arkitekter MAA.\n\nArchitecture\nThe building is often noted for its elegance in its own right and the synthesis it creates with the works of art.\n\nThe Dahlerup Wing, the oldest part of the museum, is a lavish historicist building. The fa\u00e7ade is in red brick with polished granite columns in a Venetian renaissance style. It houses the French and Danish collections.\n\nThe Kampmann Wing is a more simple, neo-classical building, built as a series of galleries around a central auditorium used for lectures, small concerts, symposiums and poetry readings.\n\nThe two wings are connected by the Winter Garden with mosaic floors, tall palms, a fountain and topped by a dome made in copper and wrought iron.\n\nThe Henning Larsen Wing is a minimalistic infill, built in a former inner courtyard and affording access to the roof.\nOfficial meetings and banquets sometimes take place in the Glyptotek, such as the certification of Polio-free Europe, 21 June 2002.\n\nCollections\nThe Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek's collections comprise more than 10,000 works of art.\n\nAntique collection\nThe Antique collection displays sculptures and other antiquities from the ancient cultures around the Mediterranean.\n\nThe extensive Greek, Roman and Etruscan Collection comprises marble statues, small terra cotta statues, reliefs, pottery and other artifacts. The Etruscan collection is the largest outside Italy. Theidoit Jacobsen's broker in Rome for 25 years, acquiring more than 950 sculptures and Etruscan antiquities for the Ny Carlsberg Museum.\n\nThe Egyptian Collection comprises more than 1,900 pieces, dating from 3000 BCE to the 1st century CE and representing both Ancient Egypt, the Middle Kingdom and the Roman Period. It was founded in 1882 when Carl Jacobsen made his first Egyptian acquisition, a Sarcophagus purchased from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Many of the objects in the collection were augmented when the Ny Carlsberg Foundation sponsored excavations in Egypt in the beginning of the 20th century led by the English Egyptologist W. M. F. Petrie . The holdings include several mummies, displayed in a crypt-like gallery below the normal galleries.\n\nThe Near Eastern Collection spans a period of 7150 years, the oldest artifact being from 6500 BCE and the youngest being from 650 CE, featuring such cultures as the Levant, Mesopotamia, Anatolia and Persia.\n\nFrench Collection\n\nThe main focus of the French Collection is 19th-century French painting and sculpture. The painting collection contains works by such painters as David and Manet, as well as a large collection of Impressionist painters such as Monet, C\u00e9zanne and Bonnard. The single painter represented with most paintings is Paul Gauguin with more than 40 works. The museum also holds a large collection of French 19th-century sculpture by artists such as Carpeaux and Rodin, the Rodin collection being one of the largest in the world, as well as a complete collection of Degas' bronze sculptures.\n\nDanish Collection\nThe Danish Collection contains a large collection of Danish Golden Age paintings by painters such as Eckersberg, K\u00f8bke and Lundbye. It also contains the largest representation of Danish Golden Age Sculpture in the country.\n\nEuropean Collection\nThe European Collection comprises works from the 18th to the 20th century. Represented sculptors include Neoclassicists such as Canova, Sergel, Carstens, Flaxman, Rauch and Baily, as well as Modernists like Meunier, Klinger, Picasso and Giacometti.\n\nThe collection also comprises a small collection of Modern paintings of artists such as\nArp, Ernst, Mir\u00f3, Poliakoff and Gilioli.\n\nAuditorium\n\nConcerts\nThe Auditorium is mainly used for classical concerts, including the Helge Jacobsen concert series. Helge Jacobsen Concerts have included the Austrian Hagen Quartet, the Russian violinist Alina Ibragimova, the French pianist C\u00e9dric Tiberghien, the Russian bariton Sergei Leiferkus, the French Ysa\u00ffe Quartet and German tenor Jonas Kaufmann among others.\n\nThe Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek is in general noted for its good acoustics, both in the auditorium and in the surrounding long halls. The Auditorium has been used as a rehearsal room by the Early music vocal ensemble Musica Ficta, often within opening hours of the museum, occasionally adding music to the museum experience, and it has also regularly performed concerts, both in the Auditorium and the surrounding halls. Pioneer overtone singer David Hykes in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in 1997.\n\nOccasionally the Auditorium is also used for other musical genres, such as the Danish Klezmer group Mames Babegenush.\n\nOther cultural events\nThe Auditorium is also used for other cultural events, such as poetry readings, lectures and debates.\n\nIn popular culture\nThe museum is used as a location in the films Stjerneskud (1947), Fodboldpr\u00e6sten (1951), Dorte (1951), M\u00f8d mig p\u00e5 Cassiopeia (1951), Bruden fra Dragstrup (1955) and Den k\u00e6re familie (1962).\n\nThe building was the inspiration for the set design of the Valkyries' Rock in Kasper Holten's 2006 production of Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen at the Copenhagen Opera House.\n\nGallery\n\nSee also\n Carlsberg Foundation\n The Carlsberg District\n H. C. Andersens Boulevard\n Paul Dubois (sculptor)\n Laurentian Sow (sculpture)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Museum website\n Renderings in the Danish National Art Library\nVirtual tour of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek provided by Google Arts & Culture\n\n \nArt museums and galleries in Copenhagen\nHistoricist architecture in Copenhagen\nNeoclassical architecture in Copenhagen\nCultural infrastructure completed in 1897\nMusic venues in Copenhagen\nVilhelm Dahlerup buildings\nHack Kampmann buildings\nArt museums established in 1882\n1882 establishments in Denmark\nSculpture galleries in Denmark\nEgyptological collections\nFormer private collections\nMuseums of ancient Greece\nMuseums of ancient Rome\nCollections of classical sculpture","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":4,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2023-23":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":4,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":1}},"id":279546,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ny%20Carlsberg%20Glyptotek","title":"Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Acarina, or Acari, are the mites and ticks. They are an order of Arachnids.\n\nTheir fossil history goes back to the Devonian era. Most acarines are tiny: less than a millimetre. It is estimated that over 50,000 species have been described, but a million or more species may be currently living. The study of mites and ticks is called acarology.\n\nAcarines live in practically every habitat, and include aquatic (freshwater and sea water) and terrestrial species. They outnumber other arthropods in the soil and detritus. Many are parasitic, and they affect both vertebrates and invertebrates. Most parasitic forms are external parasites, while the free living forms are generally predators and may even be used to control undesirable arthropods. Others help to break down forest litter and dead organic matter such as skin cells. Others still are herbivorous and may damage crops. Damage to crops is perhaps the most costly economic effect of mites, especially by the spider mites and their relatives, earth mites, thread-footed mites and the gall and rust mites.\n\nSome parasitic forms affect humans and other mammals, causing damage by their feeding, and can even be vectors of diseases such as scrub typhus and rickettsia. A well-known effect of mites on humans is as an allergen which stimulates asthma. Predatory mites may be used in pest control and herbivorous mites used to attack weeds. A positive contribution of the Acari is their normal functioning in ecosystems, especially their roles in the decomposer subsystem.\n\nMites \n\nA hugely successful group with a large number of species. Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate groups, but because of their small size (most are microscopic) go largely unnoticed. They have exploited many habitats. Many live freely in the soil or water, but there are also a large number of species that live as parasites on plants, animals, and some that feed on mould (fungi).\n\nTicks \nTicks are blood-sucking ectoparasites, mostly of mammals and birds. They wait on grass or bushes, and jump onto passing animals. A number of birds specialise in picking them off larger animals: the Cattle Egret and the Oxpecker for example. They are quite serious pests, and can be hard to get rid of. They are vectors, carrying diseases such as Lyme disease.\n\nRelated pages \nChigger\nLyme disease\n\nReferences \n\nArachnids\nParasites","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":153,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":5,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-47":6,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":223352,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acarina","title":"Acarina","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Baptist is a word describing a tradition within Christianity and may also refer to individuals belonging to a Baptist church or a Baptist denomination. The tradition takes its name from the belief that followers of Jesus Christ should be placed in water to show their faith. Baptists do not practice infant baptism.\n\nIn 1639, Roger Williams began a Baptist church in Providence, Rhode Island and John Clarke began a Baptist church in Newport, Rhode Island. It is not clear which church opened first. Records for both churches are missing information.\n\nBaptist beliefs and principles \nBaptist churches do not have a central principal authority. Therefore, beliefs are not the same from one Baptist church to another, mainly beliefs that may be considered minor. However, on major issues, most are held in common among almost all Baptist churches.\n\nBaptists share so-called \"orthodox\" Christian beliefs with most other moderate or conservative Christian denominations. Some of them are beliefs about one God; Jesus' death, burial, and bodily resurrection; the Trinity (the divinity of Jesus and the Holy Spirit, together with God the Father); the need for salvation; grace; and evangelism and missions.\n\nMembership\nThere are over 90 million Baptists in the world in nearly 300,000 churches. There are about 47 million members in the United States. Other large populations of Baptists also exist in Asia, Africa and Latin America. There are 2.4 million Baptists in India, 2.3 million in Nigeria, 1.9 million in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and 1.5 million in Brazil.\n\nIn a poll in the 1990s, about 20% of Americans said they are Baptist.\n\nViews \nMany people outside the community see them as Protestant, but some baptists do not. In their view, Baptists have existed separately since early church days. Those holding this view believe that Baptists have never been a part of the Roman Catholic Church, and that Baptists are not \"protesting\" against Catholicism.\n\nThey also point out that Baptists have no connections with the Reformationists like Luther, Calvin, or Zwingli. Other Baptists accept the Protestant label as a category for churches who have similar religious views of sola scriptura, sola fide, the priesthood of all believers and other positions that Luther or Calvin had in contrast to the Roman Catholic Church in the 1500s.\n\nThe tag: denomination, is rejected by some because of the autonomous system used by Baptist churches for control. Being a denomination is viewed by them as having a hierarchy instead of the Roman Catholic Church. Another reason for the rejection of the tag is the influence of the Restoration period on Baptist churches, which tore down denominational barriers. Other Baptists accept the tag. They feel that it does not lie or have any bad meanings. It is just used as a synonym for a Christian or religious group with common beliefs.\n\nThe tag: Evangelical, is rejected by some fundamentalist Baptists who think that the term  is not 'fundamentalist' enough. It is also rejected by some liberal Baptists who think that the term is too conservative. It is accepted by moderate Baptists believing in the revival in the United States in the 1700s called the First Great Awakening. Some Evangelicals also reject the tag: fundamentalist, because they think that it is too extreme.\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":142,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2022-05":2,"2021-31":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-29":4,"2020-05":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":3,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":4,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-16":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-22":3,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":56746,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Baptist","title":"Baptist","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"English Dissenters or English Separatists were Protestants who separated from the Church of England in the 17th and 18th centuries.\n\nA dissenter (from the Latin dissentire, \"to disagree\") is one who disagrees in opinion, belief and other matters. English Dissenters opposed state interference in religious matters, and founded their own churches, educational establishments and communities. Some emigrated to the New World, especially to the Thirteen Colonies and Canada. Brownists founded the Plymouth colony. English dissenters played a pivotal role in the spiritual development of the United States and greatly diversified the religious landscape. They originally agitated for a wide-reaching Protestant Reformation of the established Church of England, and they flourished briefly during the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell.\n\nKing James VI of Scotland, I of England and Ireland, had said \"no bishop, no king\", emphasising the role of the clergy in justifying royal legitimacy. Cromwell capitalised on that phrase, abolishing both upon founding the Commonwealth of England. After the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the episcopacy was reinstalled and the rights of the Dissenters were limited: the Act of Uniformity 1662 required Anglican ordination for all clergy, and many instead withdrew from the state church. These ministers and their followers came to be known as Nonconformists, though originally this term referred to refusal to use certain vestments and ceremonies of the Church of England, rather than separation from it.\n\nOrganised dissenting groups (17th century)\n\nIn existence during the English Interregnum (1649\u20131660):\n\nAnabaptists and Baptists\n\nAnabaptists \n\nAnabaptist (literally, \"baptised again\") was a term given to those Reformation Christians who rejected the notion of infant baptism in favour of believer's baptism.\n\nIt is generally assumed that during the Interregnum, the Baptists and other dissenting groups absorbed the British Anabaptists. Despite this, evidence suggests that the early relations between Baptists and Anabaptists were quite strained. In 1624, the then five existing Baptist churches of London issued an anathema against the Anabaptists. Even today there is still very little dialogue between Anabaptist organisations (such as the Mennonite World Conference) and the Baptist bodies.\n\nBaptists \n\nBaptist historian Bruce Gourley outlines four main views of Baptist origins:\n\n The modern scholarly consensus that the movement traces its origin to the 17th century via the English Separatists.\n The view that it was an outgrowth of the Anabaptist movement of believer's baptism begun in 1525 on the European continent.\n The perpetuity view, which assumes that the Baptist faith and practice has existed since the time of Christ.\n The successionist view, or \"Baptist successionism\", which argues that Baptist churches actually existed in an unbroken chain since the time of Christ.\n\nBarrowists\n\nHenry Barrowe maintained the right and duty of the Church to carry out necessary reforms without awaiting the permission of the civil power; and advocated congregational independence. He regarded the whole established church order as polluted by the relics of Roman Catholicism, and insisted on separation as essential to pure worship and discipline.\n\nBehmenists\n\nThe Behmenists religious movement began on continental Europe and took its ideas from the writings of Jakob B\u00f6hme (Behmen being one of the adaptations of his name used in England), a German mystic and theosopher who claimed Divine Revelation. In the 1640s, his works appeared in England and English Behmenists developed. Eventually, some of these merged with the Quakers of the time.\n\nB\u00f6hme's writings primarily concerned the nature of sin, evil and redemption. Consistent with Lutheran theology, B\u00f6hme believed that humanity had fallen from a state of divine grace into a state of sin and suffering, that the forces of evil included fallen angels who had rebelled against God, and subsequently that God's goal was to restore the world to a state of grace.\n\nHowever, in some ways, Behmenist belief deviated significantly from traditional Lutheran belief. For example, B\u00f6hme rejected the concepts of sola fide and sola gratia.\n\nBrownists\n\nBy 1580, Robert Browne had become a leader in the movement for a congregational form of organisation for the Church of England and attempted to set up a separate Congregational Church in Norwich, Norfolk, England. He was arrested but released on the advice of William Cecil, his kinsman. Browne and his companions moved to Middelburg in the Netherlands in 1581. He returned to England in 1585 and to the Church of England, being employed as a schoolmaster and parish priest.\n\nDiggers\n\nThe Diggers were an English group of Protestant agrarian communists, begun by Gerrard Winstanley as True Levellers in 1649, who became known as Diggers due to their activities.\n\nTheir original name came from their belief in economic equality based upon a specific passage in the Book of Acts. The Diggers tried (by \"levelling\" real property) to reform the existing social order with an agrarian lifestyle based on their ideas for the creation of small egalitarian rural communities. They were one of a number of nonconformist dissenting groups that emerged around this time.\n\nEnthusiasts\n\nSeveral Protestant sects of the 16th and 17th centuries were called Enthusiastic. During the years that immediately followed the Glorious Revolution, \"enthusiasm\" was a British pejorative term for advocacy of any political or religious cause in public. Such \"enthusiasm\" was seen in the time around 1700 as the cause of the previous century's civil war and its attendant atrocities, and thus it was an absolute social sin to remind others of the war by engaging in enthusiasm. During the 18th century, popular Methodists such as John Wesley or George Whitefield were accused of blind enthusiasm (i.e., fanaticism), a charge against which they defended themselves by distinguishing fanaticism from \"religion of the heart\".\n\nFamilists\n\nThe Familia Caritatis (\"Family of Love\", or the \"Familists\") were a religious sect that began in continental Europe in the 16th century. Members of this religious group were devout followers of a Dutch mystic named Hendrik Niclaes. The Familists believed that Niclaes was the only person who truly knew how to achieve a state of perfection, and his texts attracted followers in Germany, France, and England.\n\nThe Familists were extremely secretive and wary of outsiders. For example, they wished death upon those outside of the Family of Love, and re-marriage after the death of a spouse could only take place between men and women of the same Familist congregation. Additionally, they would not discuss their ideas and opinions with outsiders and sought to remain undetected by ordinary members of society: they tended to be members of an established church so as not to attract suspicion and showed respect for authority.\n\nThe group were considered heretics in 16th-century England. Among their beliefs were that there existed a time before Adam and Eve, Heaven and Hell were both present on Earth, and that all things were ruled by nature and not directed by God.\n\nThe Familists continued to exist until the middle of the 17th century, when they were absorbed into the Quaker movement.\n\nFifth Monarchists\n\nThe Fifth Monarchists or Fifth Monarchy Men were active from 1649 to 1661 during the Interregnum, following the English Civil Wars of the 17th century. They took their name from a prophecy in the Book of Daniel that four ancient monarchies (Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, and Roman) would precede Christ's return. They also referred to the year 1666 and its relationship to the biblical Number of the Beast indicating the end of earthly rule by carnal human beings. They were one of a number of Nonconformist dissenting groups that emerged around this time.\n\nGrindletonians\n\nIn a sermon preached at St Paul's Cross on 11 February 1627, and published under the title of The White Wolfe, 1627, Stephen Denison, minister of St Katherine Cree in London, charges the 'Gringltonian [sic] familists' with holding nine points of an antinomian tendency. These nine points are repeated from Denison by Pagitt (1645), and glanced at by Ross (1655). \nIn 1635 John Webster, curate at Kildwick in North Yorkshire, was before a church court charged with being a Grindletonian, and simultaneously in New England John Winthrop thought that Anne Hutchinson was one. The last known Grindletonian died in the 1680s.\n\nLevellers\n\nThe Levellers were a political movement during the English Civil War that emphasised popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Levellers tended to hold fast to a notion of \"natural rights\" that had been violated by the king's side in the civil wars (1642\u20131651). At the Putney Debates in 1647, Colonel Thomas Rainsborough defended natural rights as coming from the law of God expressed in the Bible.\n\nMuggletonians\n\nThe Muggletonians, named after Lodowicke Muggleton, was a small Protestant Christian movement which began in 1651 when two London tailors announced they were the last prophets foretold in the biblical Book of Revelation. The group grew out of the Ranters and in opposition to the Quakers. Muggletonian beliefs include a hostility to philosophical reason, a scriptural understanding of how the universe works and a belief that God appeared directly on this earth as Christ Jesus. A consequential belief is that God takes no notice of everyday events on earth and will not generally intervene until it is to bring the world to an end.\n\nMuggletonians avoided all forms of worship or preaching and, in the past, met only for discussion and socialising amongst members. The movement was egalitarian, apolitical, and pacifist, and resolutely avoided evangelism. Members attained a degree of public notoriety by cursing those who reviled their faith.\n\nPuritans\n\nThe Puritans were a significant grouping of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some Marian exiles from the clergy shortly after the accession of Queen Elizabeth I in 1558, as an activist movement within the Church of England. The designation \"Puritan\" is often used incorrectly, based on the assumption that hedonism and puritanism are antonyms: historically, the word was used to characterise the Protestant group as extremists similar to the Cathari of France, and according to Thomas Fuller in his Church History dated back to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that time used it and \"precisian\" with the sense of stickler. T. D. Bozeman therefore uses instead the term precisianist in regard to the historical groups of England and New England.\n\nPhiladelphians\n\nThe Philadelphians, or the Philadelphian Society, were a Protestant 17th-century religious group in England. They were organised around John Pordage (1607\u20131681), an Anglican priest from Bradfield, Berkshire, who had been ejected from his parish in 1655 because of differing views, but then reinstated in 1660 during the English Restoration. Pordage was attracted to the ideas of Jakob B\u00f6hme, a Lutheran theosophist and Christian mystic.\n\nQuakers\n\nThe Quakers were a loosely knit group of teachers that grew out of the Seekers. George Fox's journal attributes the name \"Quaker\" to a judge in 1650 calling them Quakers \"because I bid them tremble before the Lord\".\n\nRanters\n\nThe Ranters were a sect in the time of the Commonwealth (1649\u20131660) who were regarded as heretical by the established Church of that period. Their central idea was pantheistic, that God is essentially in every creature; this led them to deny the authority of the Church, of scripture, of the current ministry and of services, instead calling on men to hearken to Jesus within them. Many Ranters seem to have rejected a belief in immortality and in a personal God, and in many ways they resemble the Brethren of the Free Spirit in the 14th century. The Ranters revived the Brethren of the Free Spirit's beliefs of amoralism and followed the Brethren's ideals which \"stressed the desire to surpass the human condition and become godlike\". Further drawing from the Brethren of the Free Spirit, the Ranters embraced antinomianism and believed that Christians are freed by grace from the necessity of obeying Mosaic Law. Because they believed that God was present in all living creatures, the Ranters' adherence to antinomianism allowed them to reject the very notion of obedience, thus making them a great threat to the stability of the government.\n\nSabbatarians\n\nSabbatarians were known in England from the time of Elizabeth I (1558\u20131603). Access to the Bible in English allowed anyone who could read English to study scripture and question Church doctrines. Sabbatarians challenged the Church's day of rest being on Sunday rather than Saturday. Some Dutch Anabaptists embraced Sabbatarianism, and may have helped to introduce these practices into England. Socinians and Reformed Church members were also known to hold Sabbatarian beliefs. Sabbatarian practitioners were also to be found within the Church of England in one form or another. Even the Puritans were known to harbour Sabbatarian views (cf Puritan Sabbatarianism). English Sabbatarianism is generally associated with John Traske (1585\u20131636), Theophilus Brabourne (1590\u20131662) and Dorothy Traske (c. 1585\u20131645), who also played a major role in keeping the early Traskite congregations growing in numbers.\n\nSeekers\n\nThe Seekers were not a distinct religion or sect, but instead formed a religious society. Like other Protestant dissenting groups, they believed the Roman Catholic Church to be corrupt, which subsequently applied to the Church of England as well through its common heritage.\n\nSeekers considered all churches and denominations to be in error, and believed that only a new church established by Christ upon his return could possess his grace. Their anticipation of this event was found in their practices. For example, Seekers held meetings as opposed to religious services, and as such had no clergy or hierarchy. During these gatherings they would wait in silence and speak only when felt that God had inspired them to do so.\n\nFurthermore, to this, the Seekers denied the effectiveness of external forms of religion such as the sacraments, baptism and the Scriptures as a means of salvation.\n\nSocinians\n\nThe followers of Socinianism were Unitarian or Nontrinitarian in theology and influenced by the Polish Brethren. The Socinians of 17th century England influenced the development of the English Presbyterians, the English Unitarians and the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland.\n\n18th century dissenters\nIn the 18th century, one group of Dissenters became known as \"Rational Dissenters\". In many respects they were closer to the Anglicanism of their day than other Dissenting sects; however, they believed that state religions impinged on the freedom of conscience. They were fiercely opposed to the hierarchical structure of the Established Church and the financial ties between it and the government. Like moderate Anglicans, they desired an educated ministry and an orderly church, but they based their opinions on the Bible and on reason rather than on appeals to tradition and authority. They rejected doctrines such as the original sin or Trinity, arguing that they were irrational. Rational Dissenters believed that Christianity and faith could be dissected and evaluated using the newly emerging discipline of science, and that a stronger belief in God would be the result.\n\nAnother significant dissenting tradition that emerged at the end of the 18th century is the Swedenborgian church, which continues today in several branches around the world. It originated in London in 1780. Beginning as groups reading Emanuel Swedenborg (1688\u20131772), whose members were composed largely of Methodists, Baptists, and Anglicans, some of the Swedenborgian enthusiasts became disillusioned with the prospects for thorough Swedenborgian theological reform within their respective traditions. These left those churches to form the General Conference of the New Jerusalem, often called simply the New Church. Other Swedenborgian converts, such as Anglican Rev. John Clowes and Rev. Thomas Hartley, argued for remaining within existing traditions. Swedenborg himself did not call for a new organisation, but for profound theological reform for the existing churches. At the end of his life, he endured a rare Swedish heresy inquiry by the Swedish Lutheran Consistory. He died before it was concluded, and the Consistory shelved the inquiry without reaching a decision. Swedenborg's primary critiques of orthodox theology centred on the tri-personal constructions of the Trinity, the idea of salvation by faith alone, and the vicarious atonement. He revived an allegorical tradition of reading scripture, which he believed was composed in correspondences. He believed in a theory of symbolic values in the literal text, which could produce an inner sense wherein the individual could ascertain the new theology.\n\nDissenting groups continuing today\nBaptists\nCongregationalists\nPresbyterians (majority in Scotland but classified as dissenters in England, see English Presbyterianism)\nother Reformed groups: e.g. United Reformed Church\nQuakers\nUnitarians and Unitarian Universalists\n Swedenborgians\nAnabaptists\nNondenominational Protestants\nand others\n\nSee also\n\n17th century denominations in England\nChristian anarchism\nDissenting academies\nEcclesiastical separatism\nEnglish Independents\nHistory of the Puritans in North America\nFreedom of religion\nGlobal Fellowship of Confessing Anglicans\nNonconformist\nIndependent (religion)\nRecusancy\nReligion in the United Kingdom\nSeparatists\n\nNotes\n\nReferences \n\n Fitzpatrick, Martin. \"Heretical Religion and Radical Political Ideas in Late Eighteenth-Century England.\" The Transformation of Political Culture: England and Germany in the Late Eighteenth Century. Ed. Eckhart Hellmuth. Oxford: Oxford University Press; London: German Historical Institute, 1990. .\n Mullett, Charles F. \"The Legal Position of English Protestant Dissenters, 1689\u20131767.\" Virginia Law Review (1937): 389\u2013418. .\n Philip, Mark. \"Rational Religion and Political Radicalism.\" Enlightenment and Dissent 4 (1985): 35\u201346.\n ExLibris, Early English dissenters\n\nFurther reading\nDriver, Christopher. A Future for the Free Churches? London: S.C.M. Press, 1962.\n Hahn-Bruckart, Thomas, Dissenters and Nonconformists: Phenomena of Religious Deviance Between the British Isles and the European Continent, EGO \u2013 European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2017, retrieved: 8 March 2021 (pdf).\n\n \nPolitics of England\nChristian terminology\nChristian radicalism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":169,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":5,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":5,"2016-26":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":6,"2014-35":6,"2014-23":8,"2014-15":5,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1}},"id":1128563,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/English%20Dissenters","title":"English Dissenters","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A race track is a special place built for racing. The racing may be for people, animals, or vehicles. Examples of animal racing are horse racing. Examples of vehicle racing are automobiles and motorcycles. A race track may have seats for the spectators to watch the race.\n\nOther name for race tracks are race course, speedway, and circuit.\n\nOften race tracks are the place where people will bet on animals and vehicles to win.\n\nDesign \nModern racetracks are designed with safety as the first priority. This is very important for race tracks used in auto racing. Safety for the spectator, track workers, and racers. Fences are often used to protect the spectators from the race track. Barriers, sometimes padded, are used to stop race cars if they run off the track.\n\nMost race tracks are a closed loop. The start and finish line is at the same place. Some tracks are open. They start at one point and end at a different location.\n\nOval \n Some race tracks are in the general form of a circle or oval. Michigan International Speedway is an example of an oval track. The racers always turn in the same direction. In the United States, they normally turn left. NASCAR runs most of its races on oval tracks.\n\nRoad course \n Some race tracks are called road courses. The racers turn both left and right. Donington Park in England is an example of a road course. Formula One runs most of its races on road courses. These types of tracks are often called circuits, especially in Europe.\n\nStreet circuit \nSome races tracks are temporary street courses. Regular public roads are temporally closed, and the race couse is set-up using the closed roads. One of the most famous street course is Circuit de Monaco. Every year, the Formula One Monaco Grand Prix is held on this course. These types of tracks are usually called circuits.\n\nReferences\n\nSports buildings","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":144,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2024-26":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":5}},"id":256786,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Race%20track","title":"Race track","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"This article is about Popes in general. For the current Pope, see Pope Francis.\n\nThe Pope is the head of the Catholic Church.\n\nPopes are elected by Cardinals of the Catholic Church. Once they are elected they hold the position until they die or resign. Usually they do not resign, though; Pope Benedict XVI is the only Pope to resign in the last 500 years.  A newly elected Pope chooses a regnal name.  Everyone is told this new name when the Habemus Papam is read out. The current pope (Francis) was called Jorge Bergoglio before he became a pope.\n\nThe name Pope comes from the Greek word pappas, meaning \"father\". Catholics believe that when making statements ex cathedra, that is official statements teaching about faith and morals, the Pope is infallible - which means God will not allow his followers to be misled by allowing their leader to make a wrong statement. Only two of any Pope's statements have been ex cathedra. \n\nPopes today travel to many countries around the world preaching. The Pope is the only person in the world who both leads the church and government. Like other bishops he wears a big hat called a mitre and holds a staff called a crosier.\n\nRecent popes \nSome recent Popes, and the time they were Pope:\n Pope John XXIII, 1958-1963\n Pope Paul VI, 1963-1978\n Pope John Paul I, 1978\n Pope John Paul II, 1978-2005\n Pope Benedict XVI, 2005-2013\n Pope Francis, current pope\n\nThe Popes in Avignon \nDuring parts of the Middle Ages, the French kings had a lot of influence in Europe. For this reason, seven popes (and two anti-popes) lived in Avignon, rather than Rome. The Avignon Papacy was from 1309 to 1377. During that time, the popes were known for their greed and corruption. These popes were allies of France; the enemies of France were also their enemies.\n\nThe Bishops of Rome who lived in Avignon were:\nPope Clement V: 1305\u20131314\nPope John XXII: 1316\u20131334\nPope Benedict XII: 1334\u20131342\nPope Clement VI: 1342\u20131352\nPope Innocent VI: 1352\u20131362\nPope Urban V: 1362\u20131370\nPope Gregory XI: 1370\u20131378\n\nTwo antipopes were based in Avignon as well:\nClement VII: 1378\u20131394\nBenedict XIII: 1394\u20131423 (expelled from Avignon in 1403)\n\nAntipopes were people that were elected by small groups who did not like the official choice. \nCatherine of Siena convinced pope Gregory XI to move back to Rome. Unfortunately, he died shortly after moving. The cardinals then elected Urban VI to be the next pope. The French cardinals did not recognise this election as legitimate. They declared the papal see as vacant; which led to the Western Schism. The schism lasted until the Council of Constance in 1417. During this time, there was a pope in Rome, an Antipope in Avignon, and for some time, a second antipope. Each of the three was recognised as legitimate pope by different European powers. This led to a big split in the church as a whole. The council elected Pope Martin V as a new pope, recognised by all parties.\n\nRelated pages\n List of popes\n Abdication\n Habemus Papam\n Papal name\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n \nChristian religious occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":145,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":4,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":7,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":4681,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pope","title":"Pope","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Rotation in mathematics is a concept originating in geometry. Any rotation is a motion of a certain space that preserves at least one point. It can describe, for example, the motion of a rigid body around a fixed point. Rotation can have a sign (as in the sign of an angle): a clockwise rotation is a negative magnitude so a counterclockwise turn has a positive magnitude.\nA rotation is different from other types of motions: translations, which have no fixed points, and (hyperplane) reflections, each of them having an entire -dimensional flat of fixed points in a -dimensional space.\n\nMathematically, a rotation is a map. All rotations about a fixed point form a group under composition called the rotation group (of a particular space). But in mechanics and, more generally, in physics, this concept is frequently understood as a coordinate transformation (importantly, a transformation of an orthonormal basis), because for any motion of a body there is an inverse transformation which if applied to the frame of reference results in the body being at the same coordinates. For example, in two dimensions rotating a body clockwise about a point keeping the axes fixed is equivalent to rotating the axes counterclockwise about the same point while the body is kept fixed.  These two types of rotation are called active and passive transformations.\n\nRelated definitions and terminology\nThe rotation group is a Lie group of rotations about a fixed point. This (common) fixed point or center is called the center of rotation and is usually identified with the origin. The rotation group is a point stabilizer in a broader group of (orientation-preserving) motions.\n\nFor a particular rotation:\n The axis of rotation is a line of its fixed points. They exist only in .\n The plane of rotation is a plane that is invariant under the rotation. Unlike the axis, its points are not fixed themselves. The axis (where present) and the plane of a rotation are orthogonal.\n\nA representation of rotations is a particular formalism, either algebraic or geometric, used to parametrize a rotation map. This meaning is somehow inverse to the meaning in the group theory.\n\nRotations of (affine) spaces of points and of respective vector spaces are not always clearly distinguished. The former are sometimes referred to as affine rotations (although the term is misleading), whereas the latter are vector rotations. See the article below for details.\n\nDefinitions and representations\n\nIn Euclidean geometry\n\nA motion of a Euclidean space is the same as its isometry: it leaves the distance between any two points unchanged after the transformation. But a (proper) rotation also has to preserve the orientation structure. The \"improper rotation\" term refers to isometries that reverse (flip) the orientation. In the language of group theory the distinction is expressed as direct vs indirect isometries in the Euclidean group, where the former comprise the identity component. Any direct Euclidean motion can be represented as a composition of a rotation about the fixed point and a translation.\n\nIn one-dimensional space, there are only trivial rotations. In two dimensions, only a single angle is needed to specify a rotation about the origin \u2013 the angle of rotation that specifies an element of the circle group (also known as ). The rotation is acting to rotate an object counterclockwise through an angle  about the origin; see below for details. Composition of rotations sums their angles modulo 1 turn, which implies that all two-dimensional rotations about the same point commute. Rotations about different points, in general, do not commute. Any two-dimensional direct motion is either a translation or a rotation; see Euclidean plane isometry for details.\n\nRotations in three-dimensional space differ from those in two dimensions in a number of important ways. Rotations in three dimensions are generally not commutative, so the order in which rotations are applied is important even about the same point. Also, unlike the two-dimensional case, a three-dimensional direct motion, in general position, is not a rotation but a screw operation. Rotations about the origin have three degrees of freedom (see rotation formalisms in three dimensions for details), the same as the number of dimensions.\nA three-dimensional rotation can be specified in a number of ways. The most usual methods are:\n Euler angles (pictured at the left). Any rotation about the origin can be represented as the composition of three rotations defined as the motion obtained by changing one of the Euler angles while leaving the other two constant. They constitute a mixed axes of rotation system because angles are measured with respect to a mix of different reference frames, rather than a single frame that is purely external or purely intrinsic. Specifically, the first angle moves the line of nodes around the external axis z, the second rotates around the line of nodes and the third is an intrinsic rotation (a spin) around an axis fixed in the body that moves. Euler angles are typically denoted as \u03b1, \u03b2, \u03b3, or \u03c6, \u03b8, \u03c8. This presentation is convenient only for rotations about a fixed point.\n\n Axis\u2013angle representation (pictured at the right) specifies an angle with the axis about which the rotation takes place. It can be easily visualised. There are two variants to represent it:\n as a pair consisting of the angle and a unit vector for the axis, or\n as a Euclidean vector obtained by multiplying the angle with this unit vector, called the rotation vector (although, strictly speaking, it is a pseudovector).\n Matrices, versors (quaternions), and other algebraic things: see the section Linear and Multilinear Algebra Formalism for details.\n\nA general rotation in four dimensions has only one fixed point, the centre of rotation, and no axis of rotation; see rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space for details. Instead the rotation has two mutually orthogonal planes of rotation, each of which is fixed in the sense that points in each plane stay within the planes. The rotation has two angles of rotation, one for each plane of rotation, through which points in the planes rotate. If these are  and  then all points not in the planes rotate through an angle between  and . Rotations in four dimensions about a fixed point have six degrees of freedom. A four-dimensional direct motion in general position is a rotation about certain point (as in all even Euclidean dimensions), but screw operations exist also.\n\nLinear and multilinear algebra formalism\n\nWhen one considers motions of the Euclidean space that preserve the origin, the distinction between points and vectors, important in pure mathematics, can be erased because there is a canonical one-to-one correspondence between points and position vectors. The same is true for geometries other than Euclidean, but whose space is an affine space with a supplementary structure; see an example below. Alternatively, the vector description of rotations can be understood as a parametrization of geometric rotations up to their composition with translations. In other words, one vector rotation presents many equivalent rotations about all points in the space.\n\nA motion that preserves the origin is the same as a linear operator on vectors that preserves the same geometric structure but expressed in terms of vectors. For Euclidean vectors, this expression is their magnitude (Euclidean norm). In components, such operator is expressed with  orthogonal matrix that is multiplied to column vectors.\n\nAs it was already stated, a (proper) rotation is different from an arbitrary fixed-point motion in its preservation of the orientation of the vector space. Thus, the determinant of a rotation orthogonal matrix must be 1. The only other possibility for the determinant of an orthogonal matrix is , and this result means the transformation is a hyperplane reflection, a point reflection (for odd ), or another kind of improper rotation. Matrices of all proper rotations form the special orthogonal group.\n\nTwo dimensions\n\nIn two dimensions, to carry out a rotation using a matrix, the point  to be rotated counterclockwise is written as a column vector, then multiplied by a rotation matrix calculated from the angle :\n\n.\n\nThe coordinates of the point after rotation are , and the formulae for  and  are\n\nThe vectors  and  have the same magnitude and are separated by an angle  as expected.\n\nPoints on the  plane can be also presented as complex numbers: the point  in the plane is represented by the complex number\n\nThis can be rotated through an angle  by multiplying it by  , then expanding the product using Euler's formula as follows:\n\nand equating real and imaginary parts gives the same result as a two-dimensional matrix:\n\nSince complex numbers form a commutative ring, vector rotations in two dimensions are commutative, unlike in higher dimensions. They have only one degree of freedom, as such rotations are entirely determined by the angle of rotation.\n\nThree dimensions\n\nAs in two dimensions, a matrix can be used to rotate a point  to a point . The matrix used is a  matrix,\n\n \n\nThis is multiplied by a vector representing the point to give the result\n\nThe set of all appropriate matrices together with the operation of matrix multiplication is the rotation group SO(3). The matrix  is a member of the three-dimensional special orthogonal group, , that is it is an orthogonal matrix with determinant 1. That it is an orthogonal matrix means that its rows are a set of orthogonal unit vectors (so they are an orthonormal basis) as are its columns, making it simple to spot and check if a matrix is a valid rotation matrix.\n\nAbove-mentioned Euler angles and axis\u2013angle representations can be easily converted to a rotation matrix.\n\nAnother possibility to represent a rotation of three-dimensional Euclidean vectors are quaternions described below.\n\nQuaternions\n\nUnit quaternions, or versors, are in some ways the least intuitive representation of three-dimensional rotations. They are not the three-dimensional instance of a general approach. They are more compact than matrices and easier to work with than all other methods, so are often preferred in real-world applications.\n\nA versor (also called a rotation quaternion) consists of four real numbers, constrained so the norm of the quaternion is 1. This constraint limits the degrees of freedom of the quaternion to three, as required. Unlike matrices and complex numbers two multiplications are needed:\n\nwhere  is the versor,  is its inverse, and  is the vector treated as a quaternion with zero scalar part. The quaternion can be related to the rotation vector form of the axis angle rotation by the exponential map over the quaternions,\n\nwhere  is the rotation vector treated as a quaternion.\n\nA single multiplication by a versor, either left or right, is itself a rotation, but in four dimensions. Any four-dimensional rotation about the origin can be represented with two quaternion multiplications: one left and one right, by two different unit quaternions.\n\nFurther notes\nMore generally, coordinate rotations in any dimension are represented by orthogonal matrices.  The set of all orthogonal matrices in  dimensions which describe proper rotations (determinant = +1), together with the operation of matrix multiplication, forms the special orthogonal group .\n\nMatrices are often used for doing transformations, especially when a large number of points are being transformed, as they are a direct representation of the linear operator. Rotations represented in other ways are often converted to matrices before being used. They can be extended to represent rotations and transformations at the same time using homogeneous coordinates. Projective transformations are represented by  matrices. They are not rotation matrices, but a transformation that represents a Euclidean rotation has a  rotation matrix in the upper left corner.\n\nThe main disadvantage of matrices is that they are more expensive to calculate and do calculations with. Also in calculations where numerical instability is a concern matrices can be more prone to it, so calculations to restore orthonormality, which are expensive to do for matrices, need to be done more often.\n\nMore alternatives to the matrix formalism\nAs was demonstrated above, there exist three multilinear algebra rotation formalisms: one with U(1), or complex numbers, for two dimensions, and two others with versors, or quaternions, for three and four dimensions.\n\nIn general (even for vectors equipped with a non-Euclidean Minkowski quadratic form) the rotation of a vector space can be expressed as a bivector. This formalism is used in geometric algebra and, more generally, in the Clifford algebra representation of Lie groups.\n\nIn the case of a positive-definite Euclidean quadratic form, the double covering group of the isometry group  is known as the Spin group, . It can be conveniently described in terms of a Clifford algebra. Unit quaternions give the group .\n\nIn non-Euclidean geometries\nIn spherical geometry, a direct motion of the -sphere (an example of the elliptic geometry) is the same as a rotation of -dimensional Euclidean space about the origin (). For odd , most of these motions do not have fixed points on the -sphere and, strictly speaking, are not rotations of the sphere; such motions are sometimes referred to as Clifford translations. Rotations about a fixed point in elliptic and hyperbolic geometries are not different from Euclidean ones.\n\nAffine geometry and projective geometry have not a distinct notion of rotation.\n\nIn relativity\n\nA generalization of a rotation applies in special relativity, where it can be considered to operate on a four-dimensional space, spacetime, spanned by three space dimensions and one of time. In special relativity, this space is called Minkowski space, and the four-dimensional rotations, called Lorentz transformations, have a physical interpretation. These transformations preserve a quadratic form called the spacetime interval.\n\nIf a rotation of Minkowski space is in a space-like plane, then this rotation is the same as a spatial rotation in Euclidean space. By contrast, a rotation in a plane spanned by a space-like dimension and a time-like dimension is a hyperbolic rotation, and if this plane contains the time axis of the reference frame, is called a \"Lorentz boost\". These transformations demonstrate the pseudo-Euclidean nature of the Minkowski space. Hyperbolic rotations are sometimes described as squeeze mappings and frequently appear on Minkowski diagrams that visualize (1 + 1)-dimensional pseudo-Euclidean geometry on planar drawings. The study of relativity is deals with the Lorentz group generated by the space rotations and hyperbolic rotations.\n\nWhereas  rotations, in physics and astronomy, correspond to rotations of celestial sphere as a 2-sphere in the Euclidean 3-space, Lorentz transformations from  induce conformal transformations of the celestial sphere. It is a broader class of the sphere transformations known as M\u00f6bius transformations.\n\nDiscrete rotations\n\nImportance\nRotations define important classes of symmetry: rotational symmetry is an invariance with respect to a particular rotation. The circular symmetry is an invariance with respect to all rotation about the fixed axis.\n\nAs was stated above, Euclidean rotations are applied to rigid body dynamics. Moreover, most of mathematical formalism in physics (such as the vector calculus) is rotation-invariant; see rotation for more physical aspects. Euclidean rotations and, more generally, Lorentz symmetry described above are thought to be symmetry laws of nature. In contrast, the reflectional symmetry is not a precise symmetry law of nature.\n\nGeneralizations\n\nThe complex-valued matrices analogous to real orthogonal matrices are the unitary matrices , which represent rotations in complex space.  The set of all unitary matrices in a given dimension  forms a unitary group  of degree ; and its subgroup representing proper rotations (those that preserve the orientation of space) is the special unitary group  of degree . These complex rotations are important in the context of spinors. The elements of  are used to parametrize three-dimensional Euclidean rotations (see above), as well as respective transformations of the spin (see representation theory of SU(2)).\n\nSee also\n Aircraft principal axes\n Charts on SO(3)\n Rotations and reflections in two dimensions\n CORDIC\n Squeeze mapping\n Infinitesimal rotation matrix\n Irrational rotation\n Orientation (geometry)\n Rodrigues' rotation formula\n Rotation of axes\n Vortex\n\nFootnotes\n\nReferences\n\n \n\n \n\n \n\nEuclidean symmetries\nRotational symmetry\nLinear operators\nUnitary operators","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":124,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":3,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":3}},"id":410009,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rotation%20%28mathematics%29","title":"Rotation (mathematics)","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Liquor is any alcoholic drink containing ethanol and produced by distilling. They are also called distilled beverages. The term hard liquor is used around North America and India to tell distilled beverages from those that are weaker. If the beverage carries no added sugar or has at least 20% alcohol by volume, it is referred to as a spirit. Alcoholic beverages are under different regulations around the world.\n\nAlcoholic drinks","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":1}},"id":407633,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liquor","title":"Liquor","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Tax is money that people have to pay to the government.\n\nThe government uses the money it gets from taxes to pay for things. For example, taxes are used to pay for people who work for the government, such as the military and police, provide services such as education and health care, and to maintain or build things like roads, bridges and sewers. The earliest known taxes were those of the Egyptian Old Kingdom.\n\nTypes of taxes \n\nThere are many different kinds of taxes. They may be direct tax or indirect  tax.\n Taxes that are based on how much money a company earns are called corporate taxes \n Taxes that are based on how much money a person earns are called income taxes. \n\n Taxes that are based on how much a person buys are called sales taxes. \n Taxes that are based on how much a person owns are called property taxes. Things like houses have a property tax on them.\n Taxes that are paid when official documents are approved are called stamp duties (because in the past the document would have a stamp put on it). Changing who owns a house will often need a document approving. \n Taxes that are paid when somebody dies are called inheritance\u00a0or\u00a0estate taxes.\n\nTaxes can also be split into 3 groups:\n Flat taxes: Everybody pays the same percentage. Russia has a flat income tax and everybody in Russia has to pay 13% of the income.\n Progressive taxes: The more money a person makes, the higher percentage of their income they have to pay. Most countries have progressive income taxes.\n Regressive taxes: The less money a person makes, the higher percentage of their income they have to pay. Sales taxes are usually called regressive as poor people spend a higher percentage of their money than rich people.\n\nPaying lots of different taxes \nOften because different parts of governments use taxes for different things, people end up paying lots of taxes.\n\nIn the United States, for example, the national government has an income tax; most states have an income tax or a sales tax, or both; and cities and towns may have a sales tax or a property tax. In some states such as Ohio, the sales tax is different in each county.\n\nBefore Taxes \nIn ancient times, people from one city or area would attack another place, and make the people there pay tribute. Tribute meant that the attacked people would pay money (or other things), and the attacker would stop attacking them. A famous tribute was the Danegeld, when people from Denmark conquered part of England and made the English pay thousands of silver coins.\n\nGroups who are against taxes \nAnarchists and Libertarians are against all taxes or against high taxes. As people are paying them unwillingly and under the threat of sanctions, they say that taxation is the same as robbery. (Taxation as theft)\n\nReferences\n\nRelated pages \nIncome tax in the United States\nTithe\n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":201,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":3,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":4,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":5,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":8,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":7,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":4,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":4,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2}},"id":4013,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tax","title":"Tax","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bima Sakti atawa catang bobo (  alihbasa tina basa Latin Via Lactea, diturunkeun tina basa Yunani \u0393\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03af\u03b1\u03c2 (Galaxias), kadang-kadang dirujuk sacara baasjan minangka \"Galaksi\"), mangrupa barred spiral galaxy tina Grup Lokal. Sanajan Bima Sakti sapersamiliar tina galaksi dina jagat, Galaksi miboga kapentingan husus kana kamanusaan sabab mangrupa tempatna Sistim tatasurya. Democritus (450 BC\u2013370 BC) mimiti nyebutkeun y\u00e9n Bima Sakti ngawengku b\u00e9ntang-b\u00e9ntang nu jarauh.\n\nUcapan \"milky\" asalna tina kumpulan cahaya bodas nu ngabaur, ngebat sapanjang bola langit katinggali ti Bumi, nu ngandung bentang - bentang jeung benda - benda laina nu ngalayah dina widang galaksi. The galaxy app\u00e9ars brightest in the direction of Sagittarius, towards the galactic center. Relative to the celestial equator, the Milky Way passes as far north as the constellation of Cassiopeia and as far south as the constellation of Crux, indicating the high inclination of \u00e9arth's equatorial plane and the plane of the ecliptic relative to the galactic plane.The fact that the Milky Way divides the night sky into two roughly equal hemispheres indicates that the solar system lies close to the galactic plane.\n\nThe main disk of the Milky Way Galaxy is about 80,000 to 100,000 light years in diameter, about 250-300 thousand light y\u00e9ars in circumference, and outside the Galactic core, about 1,000 light y\u00e9ars in thickness. It is composed of 200 to 400 billion stars . As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the galaxy were reduced to 130\u00a0km (80\u00a0mi) in diameter, the solar system would be a m\u00e9r\u00e9  2\u00a0mm (0.08\u00a0in) in width. The Galactic Halo extends out to 250,000 to 400,000 light years in diameter. As detailed in the Structure section below, new discoveries indicate that the disk extends much farther than previously thought.\n\nThe Milky Way's absolute magnitude, which cannot be m\u00e9asured directly, is assumed by astronomical convention to be \u221220.5, although other authors give an absolute magnitude of -21.3.\n\nUmur \nThe age of the Galaxy is currently estimated to be about 13.6 billion (109) years, which is n\u00e9arly as old as the Universe itself.\n\nThis estimate is based upon res\u00e9arch performed in 2004 by a t\u00e9am of astronomers: Luca Pasquini, Piercarlo Bonifacio, Sofia Randich, Daniele Galli, and Raffaele G. Gratton. The t\u00e9am used the UV-Visual Echelle Spectrograph of the Very Large Telescope to measure, for the first time, the beryllium content of two stars in globular cluster NGC 6397. This allowed them to deduce the elapsed time between the rise of the first generation of stars in the entire Galaxy and the first generation of stars in the cluster, at 200 million to 300 million years. By including the estimated age of the stars in the globular cluster (13.4 \u00b1 0.8 billion y\u00e9ars), they estimated the age of the Galaxy at 13.6 \u00b1 0.8 billion y\u00e9ars.\n\nStruktur \n\nAs of 2005, the Milky Way is thought to comprise a large barred spiral galaxy of Hubble type SBbc (loosely wound barred spiral).\nAs of 2006, the Milky Way's mass is thought to be about 5.8 M\u2609 comprising 200 to 400 billion stars. Its integrated absolute visual magnitude has been estimated to be -21.3.\n\nIt was only in the 1980s that astronomers began to suspect that the Milky Way is a barred spiral rather than an ordinary spiral, which observations in 2005 with the Spitzer Space Telescope have since confirmed, showing that the galaxy's central bar is larger than previously suspected.\n\nThe galactic disk, which bulges outward at the galactic center, has an estimated diameter of about 100,000 light-years. The distance from the Sun to the galactic center is now estimated at 26,000\u00b11400 light-y\u00e9ars while older estimates could put our parent star as far as 35000 light-y\u00e9ars from the central bulge.\n\nThe galactic center harbors a compact object of very large mass (named Sagittarius A*), strongly suspected to be a supermassive black hole.  Most galaxies are believed to have a supermassive black hole at their center.\n\nAs is typical for many galaxies, the distribution of mass in the Milky Way is such that the orbital speed of most stars in the galaxy does not depend strongly on its distance from the center. Away from the central bulge or outer rim, the typical stellar velocity is between 210 and 240\u00a0km\/s. Hence the orbital period of the typical star is directly proportional only to the length of the path travelled. This is unlike in the solar system where different orbits are also expected to have significantly different velocities associated with them, and is one of the major pieces of evidence for the existence of dark matter.\n\nThe galaxy's bar is thought to be about 27,000 light y\u00e9ars long, running through the center of the galaxy at a 44\u00b110 degree angle to the line between our sun and the center of the galaxy. It is composed primarily of red stars, believed to be ancient.\nThe bar is surrounded by a ring called the \"5-kpc ring\" that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the galaxy and most of the Milky Way's star formation activity. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest f\u00e9ature of the Milky Way \n\n\u00e9ach spiral arm describes a logarithmic spiral (as do the arms of all spiral galaxies) with a pitch of approximately 12 degrees. There are believed to be four major spiral arms which all start at the Galaxy's center. These are named as follows, according to the image at right:\n 2 and 8 - 3kpc and Perseus Arm\n 3 and 7 - Norma and Cygnus Arm (Along with a newly discovered extension - 6)\n 4 and 10 - Crux and Scutum Arm\n 5 and 9 - Carina and Sagittarius Arm\n\nThere are at l\u00e9ast two smaller arms or spurs, including:\n 11 - Orion Arm (which contains the solar system and the Sun - 12)\n\nOutside of the major spiral arms is the Outer Ring or Monoceros Ring, a ring of stars around the Milky Way proposed by astronomers Brian Yanny and Heidi Jo Newberg, which consists of gas and stars torn from other galaxies billions of y\u00e9ars ago.\n\nThe galactic disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo of old stars and globular clusters approximately 250,000 to 400,000 light years in diameter. While the disk contains gas and dust obscuring the view in some wavelengths, the spheroid component does not. Active star formation takes place in the disk (especially in the spiral arms, which represent ar\u00e9as of high density), but not in the halo. Open clusters also occur primarily in the disk.\n\nMost of the mass of the Milky Way is thought to be dark matter, forming a dark matter halo of an estimated 600-3000 billion solar masses (M\u2609) which is concentrated towards the Galactic Center.\n\nRecent discoveries have given added dimension to our knowledge of the structure of the Milky Way. With the discovery that the disc of the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) extends much further than previously thought, the possibility of the disk of the Milky Way extending further is apparent, and this is supported by evidence of the newly discovered Outer Arm extension of the Cygnus Arm. With the discovery of the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy came the discovery of a ribbon of galactic debris as the polar orbit of Sagittarius and its interaction with the Milky Way t\u00e9ars it apart. Similarly, with the discovery of the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, a ring of galactic debris from its interaction with the Milky Way encircles the galactic disk.\n\nOn January 9, 2006 Mario Juric and others of Princeton University announced that the Sloan Digital Sky Survey of the northern sky has found a huge and diffuse structure (spr\u00e9ad out across an ar\u00e9a around 5,000 times the size of a full moon) within the Milky Way that does not seem to fit within our current mod\u00e9ls.  The collection of stars rises close to perpendicular to the plane of the spiral arms of the Milky Way.  The proposed likely interpretation is that a dwarf galaxy is merging with the Milky Way.  This galaxy is tentatively named the Virgo Stellar Stream and is found in the direction of Virgo about 30,000 light y\u00e9ars away.\n\nOn May 9, 2006, Daniel Zucker and Vasily Belokurov announced that the Sloan Digital Sky Survey has discovered two dwarf galaxies towards the constellations Canes Venatici and Bo\u00f6tes.\n\nTempat Panonpo\u00e9 dina Bima Sakti \nThe Sun (and therefore the Earth and Solar System) may be found close to the inner rim of the Orion Arm, in the Local Fluff, at a distance of 7.94\u00b10.42 kpc from the Galactic Center. The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 6,500 light-years. Our Sun, and thus the solar system, is found in what scientists call the galactic habitable zone.\n\nThe Apex of the Sun's Way, or the solar apex, refers to the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The general direction of the sun's galactic motion is towards the star Vega n\u00e9ar the constellation of Hercules, at an angle of roughly 86 degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center. The sun's orbit around the galaxy is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions.\n\nIt takes the solar system about 225-250 million y\u00e9ars to complete one orbit (a galactic year), and so is thought to have completed about 20-25 orbits during its lifetime or 0.0008 orbit since the origin of humans. The orbital speed of the solar system is 217\u00a0km\/s, i.e. 1 light-y\u00e9ar in ca. 1400 y\u00e9ars, and 1 AU in 8 days.\n\nThe Hayden Planetarium uses 8.0 kpc in their interactive 3D Milky Way Atlas, which just includes the Galactic Center.\n\nLingkungan Bima Sakti \n\nThe Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are a binary system of giant spiral galaxies. Together with their companion galaxies they form the Local Group, a group of some 50 closely bound galaxies. The Local Group is part of the Virgo Supercluster.\n\nThe Milky Way is orbited by two smaller galaxies and a number of dwarf galaxies in the Local Group. The largest of these is the Large Magellanic Cloud with a diameter of 20,000 light y\u00e9ars. It has a close companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud. The Magellanic Stream is a peculiar str\u00e9amer of neutral hydrogen gas connecting these two small galaxies. The str\u00e9am is thought to have been dragged from the Magellanic Clouds in tidal interactions with the Milky Way. Some of the dwarf galaxies orbiting the Milky Way are Canis Major Dwarf (the closest), Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, and Leo I Dwarf. The smallest Milky Way dwarf galaxies are only 500 light y\u00e9ars in diameter. These include Carina Dwarf, Draco Dwarf, and Leo II Dwarf. There may still be undetected dwarf galaxies, which are dynamically bound to the Milky Way. Observations through the zone-of-avoidance are frequently detecting new distant and n\u00e9arby galaxies. Some galaxies consisting mostly of gas and dust may also have evaded detection so far.\n\nIn January 2006, res\u00e9archers reported that the heretofore unexplained warp in the disk of the Milky Way has now been mapped and found to be a ripple or vibration set up by the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds as they circle the Milky Way, causing vibrations at certain frequencies when they pass through the edges of our Galaxy.  Previously, these two galaxies, at around 2% of the mass of the Milky Way, were considered too small to influence the Milky Way.  However, by taking into account dark matter, the movement of these two galaxies cr\u00e9ates a wake that influences the larger Milky Way.  Taking dark matter into account results in an approximately twenty-fold incr\u00e9ase in mass for the Milky Way.  This calculation is according to a computer mod\u00e9l made by Martin Weinberg of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. In this mod\u00e9l, the dark matter is spr\u00e9ading out from the Milky Way disk with the known gas layer.  As a result, the mod\u00e9l predicts that the gravitational impact of the Magellanic Clouds is amplified as they pass through the Milky Way.\n\nKagancangan ngaliwatan angkasa \nIn the general sense, the absolute speed of any object through space is not a m\u00e9aningful question according to Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, which declares that there is no \"preferred\" inertial frame of reference in space with which to compare the galaxy's motion. (Motion must always be specified with respect to another object.)\n\nWith this in mind, many astronomers believe the galaxy is moving through space at approximately 600\u00a0km per second relative to the observed locations of other n\u00e9arby galaxies. Most recent estimates range from 130\u00a0km\/s to 1,000\u00a0km\/s. If indeed the Milky Way is moving at 600\u00a0km per second, we are travelling 51.84 million km per day, or more than 18.9 billion km per y\u00e9ar. For comparison, this would m\u00e9an that \u00e9ach y\u00e9ar, we are travelling about 4.5 times the distance that Pluto lies from the \u00e9arth (at its closest). The Milky Way is thought to be moving in the direction of the constellation Hydra, and may someday become a close-knit member of the Virgo cluster of galaxies. Our galaxy may also collide with the Andromeda galaxy in roughly 4 billion y\u00e9ars. See below.\n\nAnother reference frame is provided by the CMB. The Milky Way is moving at around 552\u00a0km\/s with respect to the photons of the cosmic microwave background. This can be observed by satellites such as COBE and WMAP as a dipole contribution to the CMB, as photons in equilibrium at the CMB frame get blue-shifted in the direction of the motion and red-shifted in the opposite direction.\n\nMitologi \n\nThere are many creation myths around the world regarding the Milky Way. In particular, there are two similar ancient Greek stories that explain the etymology of the name Galaxies (\u0393\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03be\u03af\u03b1\u03c2) and its association with milk (\u03b3\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1). Some myths associate the constellation with a herd of cattle whose milk gives the sky its blue glow. In \u00e9astern Asia, p\u00e9ople believed that the hazy band of stars was the \"Silvery River\" of H\u00e9aven.  This is written in hanzi as \u9280\u6cb3. \n\nAkashaganga is the Indian name for the Milky Way Galaxy, which m\u00e9ans Ganges River of the Sky.\n\nAccording to Greek mythology, the Milky Way was formed by Hera, who spilled milk in the sky after discovering that Zeus had tricked her into feeding young Heracles. In another variant, Hermes snuck Heracles into Olympus to drink from the br\u00e9asts of Hera who was asleep. Heracles bit Hera's nipple shooting her milk into the skies forming the Milky Way.\n\nIn Finnish mythology the Milky Way was called Linnunrata (pathway of the birds). The Finns observed the migratory birds used the galaxy as a guideline to travel south, where they believed Lintukoto (bird home) resided. Only later the scientists indeed confirmed the observation correct; the migratory birds use the Milky Way as a guide and dwell the winters in warm, southern lands. The Milky Way is even today called Linnunrata in the Finnish language.\n\nIn Swedish, the Milky Way is known as Vintergatan (winter street), for apparent r\u00e9asons; it is most visible in the winter in Scandinavia.\n\nAncient Armenian mythology called the Milky Way the \"Straw Thief's Way\", relating to one of the gods st\u00e9aling straw and attempting to flee across the h\u00e9avens in a wooden chariot, spilling some of the straw along the way.\n\nIn Hindu mythology the galaxy is called the s'is'umara cakra: the dolphin disc.  Looking in the night sky one recognized the band of stars as the belly of a dolphin.\n\nIn Slovene, the galaxy is called Rimska cesta, literally \"The Roman Road\" (or \"The Road to Rome\", alluding to the ancient pilgrim path). Sometimes, infrequently, it is also called Mle\u010dna cesta, which is a literal translation of its Greek\/Latin name. i.e. \"Milky Way\".\n\nIn Spanish, the galaxy is sometimes called \"Camino de Santiago\", \"The Road to Santiago <de Compostela>\", alluding to the ancient pilgrim road to the town of Santiago de Compostela, in Spain.\n\nBima Sakti keur ka hareupna \nCurrent m\u00e9asurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at 300 kilometers per second, and that the Milky Way might collide with it in several (3-4) billion y\u00e9ars, depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the galaxies' relative motion. If they do collide, it is thought that our sun and the other stars of the Milky Way will probably not collide with the stars of Andromeda, but they will merge to form an elliptical galaxy over the course of about a billion y\u00e9ars.\n\nR\u00e9f\u00e9r\u00e9nsi\n\nTumbu luar \n The Milky Way Galaxy, SEDS Messier pages\n MultiWavelength Milky Way  NASA site with images and VRML mod\u00e9ls\n Composite image of the Milky Way\n Widefield Image of the Summer Milky Way\n The Milky Way Galaxy from An Atlas of the Universe\n Proposed Ring around the Milky Way\n Milky Way spiral gets an extra arm New Scientist.com\n Possible New Milky Way Spiral Arm Sky and Telescope .com\n The Milky Way spiral arms and a possible climate connection\n The 1920 Shapley - Curtis Debate on the size of the Milky Way\n Galactic center mosaic via sun-orbiting Spitzer infrared telescope \n Milky Way Plan Views \n Scientific American Magazine (January 2004 Issue) Our Growing, Breathing Galaxy\n Deriving The Shape Of The Galactic Stellar Disc  (SkyNightly) Mar 17, 2006\n Digital Sky LLC , Digital Sky's Milky Way Panorama and other images\n\n \nSubgrup Bima Sakti\nGrup lokal\nAstronomi galaksi","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":145,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1}},"id":13573,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bima%20Sakti","title":"Bima Sakti","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Apollo program (or Project Apollo) was a project by the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The program was named after the Greek god Apollo. The goal was to send a human to explore the Moon and bring him home to earth safely. It was started by US President John F. Kennedy in 1961. He said:\n\nOne reason the program started was that the Soviet Union was the first country to send a person into outer space. Since this was during the Cold War, many in the US thought that the US needed to stay ahead of the USSR in space exploration.\n\nThe Apollo spacecraft was made up of a Command and Service Module, and a Lunar Module. The Command Module was a space capsule. The Lunar Module was a lander. These spacecraft docked on the way to the Moon. Mercury and Gemini spaceships were very small and cramped, but the Apollo capsule was much bigger. Astronauts could move around and not have to stay in their seats. The Lunar Lander was also big on the inside. The only part of the Apollo spacecraft to come back to Earth was the capsule, the Lunar Module would crash on the moon.\n\nThe Apollo program ended in 1975. After that, NASA began to work on the Space Shuttle program, the International Space Station, and many unmanned space exploration projects.\n\nThere was a movie made about the problems that happened on the Apollo 13 mission.\n\nMissions \n\nIn September\u00a01967, Owen Maynard of the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas proposed a series of Apollo missions that would lead to landing a person on the Moon. There were seven types of mission, each testing a specific set of parts and tasks. Each step would need to be completed successfully before the next mission type could begin. These were:\n\n A - Unmanned Saturn V and Command\/Service Module (CSM) development (Apollo 4, Apollo 6)\n B - Unmanned Lunar Module (LM) development (Apollo 5)\n C - Manned CSM evaluation in low Earth orbit (Apollo 7)\n D - Manned CSM and LM development in low Earth orbit (originally planned for Apollo 8; flown as Apollo 9)\n E - Manned CSM and LM operations, a practice lunar mission in a medium Earth orbit with an apogee of 4600\u00a0mi (7400\u00a0km), but never flew\n F - Manned CSM and LM operations in lunar orbit, a \"dress rehearsal\" for the first landing (Apollo 10)\n G - First manned lunar landing (Apollo 11)\n\nThe first manned Lunar Module, LM-3, was not ready for the December 1968 launch date of Apollo 8. The mission flew as a lunar orbital mission, using just the CSM. The E mission was canceled.\n\nThe first landing would be followed by more advanced lunar missions:\n H - precision landings with up to two-day stays on the Moon, with two lunar Extra-Vehicular Activities or \"moonwalks\" (Apollo 12, Apollo 13 (planned), Apollo 14)\n I - long duration CSM lunar orbital surveys using a Scientific Instrument Module mounted in an empty Service Module bay. These were added into the J missions.\n J - longer three-day stays using an Extended LM, with three LEVAs and a Lunar Roving Vehicle (Apollo 15, Apollo 16, Apollo 17). Apollo 18 to 20 would have been J missions. Apollo 15 was originally an H mission but was changed to J as the program was cut short.\n\nApollo flights\n\nThe Apollo flights were carried into space by the Saturn I and V rockets.\n\nUncrewed \n AS-101 was launched on May 28, 1964. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.\n AS-102 was launched on September 18, 1964. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.\n AS-103 was launched on February 16, 1965. The flight was designed to test the Command Module. It also carried a Pegasus satellite.\n AS-104 was launched on May 25, 1965. The flight was designed to test the Command Module. It also carried a Pegasus satellite.\n AS-105 was launched on July 30, 1965. The flight was designed to test the Command Module. It also carried a Pegasus satellite.\n AS-201 was launched on February 26, 1966. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.\n AS-202 was launched on August 25, 1966. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.\n Apollo 4 was launched on November 9, 1967. The flight was designed to test the Command Module.\n Apollo 5 was launched on January 22, 1968. The flight was designed to test the Lunar Module.\n Apollo 6 was launched on April 4, 1968. The flight was the last flight to check all the systems.\n\nCrewed \n Apollo 1 caught fire during pre-flight training on January 27, 1967, killing three astronauts: Edward White, Gus Grissom, and Roger Chaffee.\n Apollo 7 was launched on October 11, 1968. This was the first flight with a crew, Wally Schirra, Donn Eisele, and Walter Cunningham. The flight, which orbited the Earth for several days, tested the command Module.\n Apollo 8 was launched December 21, 1968. The crew, Frank Borman, Jim Lovell, and William Anders, were the first astronauts to go into orbit around the Moon.\n Apollo 9 was launched March 9, 1969. The crew, James McDivitt, David Scott, and Russell Schweickart, tested the Lunar Module in orbit around the Earth and practised docking with the Command Module.\n Apollo 10 was launched on May 18, 1969. This was the first complete Apollo rocket carrying all the equipment. The crew, Thomas Stafford, John Young, and Eugene Cernan, studied possible landing sites while in orbit around the Moon.\n Apollo 11 was launched on July 16, 1969. This was the first spacecraft to land on the Moon with astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on July 20, 1969. Michael Collins was in control of the Command Module which stayed in orbit around the moon.\n Apollo 12 was launched on November 14, 1969. The crew Pete Conrad and Alan Bean were the second team to land on the Moon on November 19, 1969. They collected moon rocks and examined the Surveyor 3 spacecraft that had landed on the Moon in 1967. Richard Gordon stayed in the Command Module\n Apollo 13 was launched on April 11, 1970. An explosion in one of the oxygen tanks nearly caused the death of the three astronauts, Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise. Emergency repairs were made and the they were able to return safely to Earth.\n Apollo 14 was launched on January 31, 1971. On February 5, 1971 astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell became the third group to land on the Moon. They collected rocks and carried out experiments while Stuart Roosa stayed in orbit in the Command Module.\n Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971. It continued the collecting and experiments of earlier landings. David Scott and James Irwin landed on the Moon on July 30, 1971, while Alfred Worden stayed in orbit.\n Apollo 16 was launched on April 16, 1972. John Young and Charles Duke landed on the Moon on April 21, 1972, while Ken Mattingly stayed in orbit.\n Apollo 17 was launched on December 7, 1972. This was the final Moon visit, landing on December 11, 1972, and was the first to take a scientist, Harrison Schmitt with astronaut Eugene Cernan. Ronald Evans stayed in orbit.\n Skylab 2 was launched on May 25, 1973. Pete Conrad, Paul Weitz and Joseph Kerwin were the first crew of the Skylab space station.\n Skylab 3 was launched on July 28, 1973. Alan Bean, Jack Lousma and Owen Garriott were the crew of the Skylab space station.\n Skylab 4 was launched on November 16, 1973. Gerald Carr, William Pogue and Edward Gibson were the last crew of the Skylab space station.\n Apollo-Soyuz was launched on July 15, 1975. It was the last mission of Apollo.\n\nRelated pages \n Moon landing conspiracy theories\n NASA\n\nReferences\n\n \n1960s in spaceflight\n1970s in spaceflight","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":24510,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apollo%20program","title":"Apollo program","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Matsuo Munefusa, known as Matsuo Bash\u014d (, 1644 - November 28, 1694) was a Japanese poet. He is known as the greatest maker of haiku, a kind of poetry with 17 syllables. The Japanese written language was difficult to master, but haiku was easy for him to write. Matsuo's haikus included characteristics of nature and the four seasons. The reader has to use their imagination to understand his poems.\n\nAccording to Japanese custom, he is usually called Basho without his family name, and his signature as a poet does not include his house name. He signed usually \"\u306f\u305b\u3092\". He is one of the greatest writers of the Edo period, and he raised the haiku form to its highest level.\n\nHe was born in Iga, now a part of Mie prefecture in a samurai (Japanese warrior) family. After many years of samurai life he found that poetry would be his life work, and gave up being a samurai. He started his life as a poet when he served his lord as a samurai. Matsuo became educated in classical Japanese poems. First he named himself Tosei (\u6843\u9752) meaning \"unripe peach in blue\". Basho took this name because he admired a Chinese poet, Li Po whose name means plum in white.\n\nHe quit samurai life 1666, and in 1675 he moved to Edo, today called Tokyo. There, in 1678, he got to be a haiku master (\"Sosho\") and began the life of a working poet. In 1680, he moved to Fukagawa, where he had a house. This was just outside of Edo. One of his followers gifted him a banana plant (basho-an). He planted the plant and called himself Basho because it became his favorite tree in his garden.\n\nIn his life, Basho visited many places. Those travels were important for his writings. He visited his disciples (followers) and taught them by making renga, a series of haiku, with them. He also visited famous places in Japanese history. These visits made his writing much stronger.\n\nHis most famous book is Oku no Hosomichi (\"The Narrow Road Through the Deep North\"). This book was written after a trip. On the trip, Basho and his disciple left Edo on March 24, 1689. They went around Tohoku and Hokuriku, and returned to Edo in 1691. The trip in this book ends in Ogaki, Mino (Gifu prefecture today) with one of his haiku where he hinted that he wanted to visit Ise shrine after staying in Ogaki. Matsuo was considered to have written some of the most beautiful travel diaries ever written in Japanese.\n\nBasho died because of disease in early autumn of 1694 in Osaka, while staying at a house of his disciple on a trip.  Before his death, he made a haiku as his last words:\n\nTabini yande \/ yume ha kareno wo \/ kake meguru\nOn travel I am sick\nMy dream is running around\na field covered with dried grass\n\nNotes\n\n1644 births\n1694 deaths\nJapanese poets","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":70,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":4524,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Matsuo%20Basho","title":"Matsuo Basho","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Peripheral equipment (also called: input and output devices) connects a computer to other things. It gives a computer system more features. Input is anything that goes in and output is anything that goes out. Any device for the computer that the computer can work without is peripheral equipment. This equipment is always separated from the central processing unit (CPU) by a device controller.\n\nPeripheral equipment is necessary for people to interact with a computer system. Some peripheral equipment displays information (such as a computer monitor). Some peripherals, such as touchscreens, work for both input and output.\n\nPeripheral equipment is often labelled I\/O device (Input\/Output device). I\/O devices are connected to a device controller which is connected to the electronics in the computer system. An example of an output device is a set of computer speakers. Computer speakers are plugged into a device controller called an audio device. The device is connected to the rest of the system inside. An example of an input device is a computer mouse. It is connected in the same way as an output device. Most peripherals connect by cable but some connect by Bluetooth radio.\n\nOne peripheral device can be connected to many systems. \n\nSometimes extra memory devices such as a second hard disk can be called peripheral equipment. People who make computer programs call everything except the processor and main memory an I\/O device. To an engineer working on the design of a processor, everything except the processor is called an I\/O device.\n\nInput devices\nAn input device is anything that puts information inside a computer. It is a hardware device that sends information into the CPU. Without any input devices a computer would simply be a display device and not allow users to interact with it, similar to a TV. Below is a listing of different types of computer input devices.\n\nExamples \n Computer mouse: The device for moving the cursor or arrow around the screen.\n Digital camera: A digital camera takes pictures to put into the computer. The pictures become information inside the computer.\n Image scanner: Digitizes a document or other two-dimensional object.\n Keyboard: The device for typing characters into the computer.\n Webcam\n Joystick\n\nOutput devices\nAn output device is anything to which the computer sends signals, for example things that display information from the computer or make sound from the computer.\n\nInput\/Output devices\n Hard disk: A data storage device\n Optical drive: Reads and writes CDs and DVDs\n Other data storage devices\n etc.\n\nComputer hardware\nComputer science","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":153,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":82042,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peripheral%20equipment","title":"Peripheral equipment","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A Postal code is a series of numbers or letters and numbers used by a post office to help identify where a letter or parcel should be sent.\nThe code can be read by machines, this speeds up sorting mail.\n\nIn the United Kingdom the first part of the post code has one or two letters and one or two numbers. This identifies the post town and an area in the post town. The second part is used to identify an even smaller area, down to just one street or a few house in a long street.\n\nThe post town is the main town in an area. Sometimes this is a lot bigger than the real town. Ipswich, for example is the post town for most of east Suffolk.\n\nIn Europe most postal codes are all numbers. Often the one or two letter country code is put in front of the code to make sure that towns and cities are not mixed up, or for international post.\n\nIn France the first two numbers of the postal code relate to the department. Codes for Monaco start with 98 as if it was part of France, but has the letters \"MC\" instead of \"F\" for international mail.\n\nRelated pages\nZIP code\n Postal codes in the United Kingdom\n\nPostal services","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":149,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":77465,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Postal%20code","title":"Postal code","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Theatre (frae the French: \"th\u00e9\u00e2tre\", frae the Greek \"theatron\", \u03b8\u03ad\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd, meanin \"place o seein\") is the brainch o the performin airts defined juist as whit \"occurs whan ane or mair human being, isolatit in time an\/or space, presents themsels tae anither or ithers.\" By this braid defineetion, theatre haes existit syne the daw o man, as an affcome o the human prattick for story tellin. Sin its upmak, theatre haes come tae tak on mony furms, aften uisin elements sic as speech, gestur, muisic, dance, an spectacle, souderin the ither performin airts, aften as weel as the veesual arts, intae an aesome airteestic furm. Modren Wastren theatre is dominate by realism, awtho mony ither furms, includin clessical an experimental furms, as weel as Eastren furms, is aften performed.\n\nTheatre","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":3,"2018-05":3,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":6755,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theatre","title":"Theatre","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sweat, or perspiration, is a liquid made by the skin when the body is hot. Sweat is made in sweat glands under the surface of the skin. It comes out of tiny holes in the skin called pores. Sweat is mostly water, but it also contains some salts. \n\nThe body makes sweat to cool itself down. It is part of the body's thermoregulation. The sweat takes the heat from the body when it evaporates (turns to gas).\n\nSome people think sweat makes a person smell bad. Many people use special sprays to stop this from happening. Deodorants hide the odor of sweat. Anti-perspirants stop the body from sweating.\n\nThe sweat glands in our skin contains two different groups of sweat glands: apocrine sweat glands and merocrine sweat glands.\n\nPerspiration, or sweat, is your body's way of cooling itself, whether that extra heat comes from hardworking muscles or from overstimulated nerves. The average person has over 4 million sweat glands in their skin. Sweat glands are distributed over the entire body, except for the lips, nipples and external genital organs. The sweat gland is in the layer of skin called the dermis along with other \"equipment,\" such as nerve endings, hair follicles and so on.\n\nSweat glands\nThe sweat gland is a long, coiled, hollow tube of cells. The coiled part in the dermis is where sweat is made, and the long part is a duct that connects the gland to the opening or pore on the skins's outer surface. Nerve cells from the sympathetic nervous system are connected to the sweat glands. There are two types of sweat glands:\n\nEccrine - the most numerous type that are found all over the body, particularly on the palms of the hands, soles of the feet and forehead. They are smaller, are active from birth, and they produce a sweat with no proteins.\nApocrine - the ones in the armpits (axilla) and the anal-genital area. They are larger than eccrine glands and they normally end in hairs rather than pores. Also, they do not do anything until puberty.\n\nHow sweat is made\nWe are constantly sweating, even though we may not notice it. Sweating is your body's major way of getting rid of excess body heat, which is produced by metabolism or working muscles. The amount of sweat produced depends upon our states of emotion and physical activity. Sweat can be made in response to nerve stimulation, hot air temperature, and\/or exercise. First, let's concentrate on how sweat is made in an eccrine sweat gland. \n\nWhen the sweat gland is stimulated, the cells secrete a fluid (primary secretion) that is similar to plasma -- that is, it is mostly water and it has high concentrations of sodium and chloride and a low concentration of potassium -- but without the proteins and fatty acids that are normally found in plasma. The source of this fluid is the spaces between the cells (interstitial spaces), which get the fluid from the blood vessels (capillaries) in the dermis. This fluid travels from the coiled portion up through the straight duct. What happens in the straight duct depends upon the rate of sweat production or flow: \n\nLow sweat production (rest, cool temperature) - Cells in the straight duct reabsorb most of the sodium and chlorine from the fluid. This happens because there is enough time for reabsorption. In addition, water is reabsorbed osmotically. So not much sweat reaches the outside. Also, the composition of this sweat is significantly different from the primary secretion. There is not as much sodium and chloride, and there is more potassium. \nHigh sweat production (exercise, hot temperature) - Cells in the straight portion do not have enough time to reabsorb all of sodium and chloride from the primary secretion. So, a lot of sweat makes it to the surface of the skin and the composition is close to, but not exactly like the primary secretion. The sodium and chloride concentrations are about half as much, and potassium is about 20 percent higher. \n\nSweat is produced in apocrine sweat glands in the same way. However, the sweat from apocrine glands also contains proteins and fatty acids, which make it thicker and give it a milkier or yellowish color. This is why underarm stains in clothing appear yellowish. Sweat itself has no odor, but when bacteria on the skin and hair metabolize the proteins and fatty acids, they produce an unpleasant odor. This is why deodorants and anti-perspirants are applied to the underarms instead of the whole body. \n\nThe maximum volume of sweat that a person who is not adapted to a hot climate can produce is about one liter per hour. Amazingly, if you move to a hot climate such as the American desert southwest or the tropics, your ability to produce sweat will increase to about two to three liters per hour within about six weeks! This appears to be the maximum amount that you can produce.\n\nFunction of sweat \nWhen sweat evaporates from the surface of your skin, it removes excess heat and cools you. This is actually due to a neat principle in physics, which goes like this. To convert water from a liquid to a vapor, it takes a certain amount of heat called the heat of vaporization. This heat energy increases the speed of the water molecules so that they can escape into the air. For water, this value is 540 calories\/gram or 2.26 x 106 joules\/kilogram. So, if you can produce one liter of sweat, which is equal to 1000 g or 1 kg (density of water is 1 g\/ml or 1 kg\/l) in one hour, then 540,000 calories of heat can be removed from your body. This is an extreme example using the maximum amount of sweat that a person can make. Typically, all of the sweat does not evaporate, but rather runs off your skin. In addition, not all heat energy produced by the body is lost through sweat. Some is directly radiated from the skin to the air and some is lost through respiratory surfaces of the lungs. \n\nA major factor that influences the rate of evaporation is the relative humidity of the air around you. If the air is humid, then it already has water vapor in it, probably near saturation, and cannot take any more. Therefore, sweat does not evaporate and cool your body as efficiently as when the air is dry. \n\nFinally, when the water in the sweat evaporates, it leaves the salts (sodium, chloride and potassium) behind on your skin, which is why your skin tastes salty. The loss of excessive amounts of salt and water from your body can quickly dehydrate you, which can lead to circulatory problems, kidney failure and heat stroke. So, it is important to drink plenty of fluids when you exercise or are outside in high temperatures. Sports drinks contain some salts to replace those lost in the sweat.\n\nEffect of emotion \nSweating responds to emotional state. So when you are nervous, anxious or afraid, there is an increase in sympathetic nerve activity in your body as well as an increase in epinephrine secretion from your adrenal gland. These substances act on your sweat glands, particularly those on the palms of your hand and your armpits, to make sweat. Thus, you feel a \"cold\" sweat. Also, the increased sympathetic nerve activity in the skin changes its electrical resistance, which is the basis of the galvanic skin response used in lie detector tests.\n\nExcessive sweating\nExcessive sweating usually occurs on the palms of the hand or the armpits. If it is not caused by emotional or physical activity it is called diaphoresis or hyperhidrosis. It is often an embarrassing condition. The cause or causes are unknown. The condition may be due to the following:  \n\nhormonal imbalances (e.g., menopause in women) \noveractive thyroid gland (The thyroid hormone increases body metabolism and heat production) \ncertain foods and medications (e.g., coffee with its high amounts of caffeine) \noveractivity of the sympathetic nervous system \nThe condition can be treated.\n\nOther websites\n \n\nIntegumentary system","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":160,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":5,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":6,"2020-24":4,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":5,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":27878,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sweat","title":"Sweat","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"On Wikimedia projects, the noun Babel (an allusion to the Tower of Babel) refers to the user language templates aiding multilingual communication by making it easier to contact someone who speaks a certain language. The idea originated on the Wikimedia Commons and has also been implemented on Meta-Wiki and some of the other Wikipedias, to varying extents. To participate, you can add the Babel template to your user page by following these instructions:\n\nStart off with {{Babel|\nNext add one of the following codes for each language you speak or understand, separated by |, where xx should be replaced by the Wikipedia code for that language. The general usage of each code level is as follows (note that not all languages have all levels, but you may create the template you are missing); the numbering is approximately analogous to the ILR scale, though this is coincidental:\nxx-0 if you cannot understand the language at all. Do not use it for every language that you don't know, but only when there is some reason why you might be expected to know it. For example, one may be of Italian descent, but does not speak the Italian language, or if one is Canadian but does not speak French. Similarly, one may usefully edit a project without speaking the language, such as adding links or images to Japanese Wikipedia without speaking Japanese.\nNote: Consensus has been determined at Wikipedia:User categories for discussion that 0-level user categories should not exist.\nxx-1 for basic ability - enough to understand written material or simple questions in this language.\nxx-2 for intermediate ability - enough for editing or discussions.\nxx-3 for advanced level - though you can write in this language with no problem, some small errors might occur.\nxx-4 for 'near-native' level - although it's not your first language from birth, your ability is something like that of a native speaker.\nxx-5 for professional proficiency. Note that this template is currently only available for a few languages.\nxx (no hyphen or number) for native speakers who use a language every day and have a thorough grasp of it, including colloquialisms and idioms.\nExpanded definitions of these levels are also available.\nThen finish by adding closing braces: }}\n\nSo, for example, {{Babel|en|de-1}} would indicate a native speaker of English with basic knowledge of German.\n{{Babel|en-5|sv|no-4|he-3|lt-2|es-1|an-0}} would indicate a professional proficiency of the English language, a native speaker of Swedish with an almost-native knowledge of Norwegian, advanced knowledge of Hebrew, an intermediate knowledge of Lithuanian, a basic knowledge of Spanish and no knowledge of Aragonese.\n\nThese templates add you to the category associated with your level of understanding, and to the overall category for that language.\n\nTo find someone who speaks a particular language, see Wikipedians by languages, and follow the links. For the most part, the two and three letter codes are taken from ISO 639, but see this list for a comprehensive guide.\n\nYou can help expand this system by creating templates for your language. Categories have already been created for most languages which have editions of Wikipedia containing over a hundred articles; they just need labelling up! It's recommended to copy the English or French versions when expanding the scheme, as most of the languages listed here are incomplete.\n\nNote that many sign languages currently use the same template with language code \"sgn\", with the exception of users who should use the American Sign Language template. Other sign languages can be specified within the {{User sgn}} template itself. The use of this parameter requires the user to perform an extra step when using the {{Babel-#}} templates, described .\n\nAlternatives\nSee also Templates for making babel style templates.\nThere are other options for achieving results the same as or similar to the standard Babel-X template above.\n\nYou can add stand-alone language templates. Format: {{User xx-1}}{{User yy-1}}{{User zz-1}}.\nYou can use the Babel-N template. Format: {{Babel-N|1={{User xx-1}}{{User yy-1}}{{User zz-1}}}}.\nYou can use top and bottom templates to make the box. Format: {{Userboxtop}}{{User xx-1}}{{User yy-1}}{{User zz-1}}{{Userboxbottom}}.\n\nAmerican Sign Language\nhere\n\u13eb\u13a9\u13c7\u13d7\u13ef\nTo be checked","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":348,"dup_dump_count":97,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-26":5,"2024-22":3,"2024-18":9,"2024-10":6,"2017-13":5,"2015-18":8,"2015-11":8,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":8,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":3,"2023-23":4,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":5,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":6,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":5,"2021-25":6,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":8,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":6,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":6,"2020-29":5,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":6,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":7,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":6,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":7,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":6,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":7,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":3,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":6,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":7}},"id":4074,"url":"https:\/\/chr.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E1%8F%AB%E1%8E%A9%E1%8F%87%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%AF%3ABabel","title":"\u13eb\u13a9\u13c7\u13d7\u13ef:Babel","language":"chr"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) nya\u00e9ta t\u00e9knologi telepon s\u00e9lul\u00e9r generasi-katilu (3G).  Kiwari, bentuk UMTS anu pangilaharna, nu ngagunakeun W-CDMA salaku dadasar air interfacena, distandardisasi ku 3GPP, hiji forum standardisasi \u00c9ropah, pikeun nohonan standar IMT-2000 pikeun sistem radio s\u00e9lul\u00e9r 3G anu dikaluarkeun ku ITU.\n\nPikeun ngab\u00e9dakeun UMTS ti t\u00e9knologi jaringan sainganana, UMTS kadang dipasarkeun sabag\u00e9 3GSM, anu nyirikeun y\u00e9n UMTS mangrupa gabungan tina sifat t\u00e9knologi 3G jeung standar GSM.\n\nBubuka \nArtikel ieu medar t\u00e9knologi, bisnis, kaguna katut asp\u00e9k-asp\u00e9k lianna ngeunaan UMTS, anu ngagunakeun air interface W-CDMA jeung  infrastruktur GSM.\n\nCiri\/Kaistim\u00e9waan \nUMTS, ku cara ngagunakeun W-CDMA, ngarojong laju transfer data sagancang 14,0 Mbit\/s dina t\u00e9ori (lamun mak\u00e9 HSDPA), sanajan ayeuna para pamak\u00e9 ieu teknologi bisa ngaharepkeun laju transfer nepi ka 384 kbit\/s pikeun h\u00e9nds\u00e9t R99, sarta 3.6 Mbit\/s pikeun h\u00e9nds\u00e9t HSDPA dina kon\u00e9ksi downlink. Laju transfer ieu masih jauh leuwih gancang manan hiji GSM error-corrected circuit switched data channel anu ngan 9,6 kbit\/s atawa sababaraha channel anu ngan 9.6 kbit\/s dina HSCSD (14.4 kbit\/s pikeun CDMAOne). Laju transfer data ieu og\u00e9 leuwih gancang manan para pasaing t\u00e9knologi jaringan lianna saperti CDMA2000, PHS atawa WLAN anu nawarkeun aks\u00e9s ka World Wide Web dina alat t\u00e9l\u00e9komunikasi mobil.\n\nPrecursors to 3G are  2G mobile telephony systems, such as GSM, IS-95, PDC, PHS and other 2G technologies deployed in different countries. In the case of GSM, there is an evolution path from 2G, called GPRS, also known as 2.5G. GPRS supports a much better data rate (up to a th\u00e9oretical maximum of 140.8 kbit\/s, though typical rates are closer to 56 kbit\/s) and is packet switched rather than connection oriented (circuit switched). It is deployed in many places where GSM is used. E-GPRS, or EDGE, is a further evolution of GPRS and is based on more mod\u00e9rn coding schemes.  With EDGE the actual packet data rates can r\u00e9ach around 180 kbit\/s (effective). EDGE systems are often referred as \"2.75G Systems\".\n\nSince 2006, UMTS networks in many countries have been or are in the process of being upgraded with High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), sometimes known as 3.5G. Currently, HSDPA enables downlink transfer speeds of up to 7.2 Mbit\/s. Work is also progressing on improving the uplink transfer speed with the High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA). Longer term, the 3GPP Long Term Evolution project plans to move UMTS to 4G speeds of 100 Mbit\/s down and 50 Mbit\/s up, using a next generation air interface technology based upon OFDM.\n\nUMTS supports mobile videoconferencing, although experience in Japan and elsewhere has shown that user demand for vid\u00e9o calls is not very high.\n\nOther possible uses for UMTS include the downloading of music and vid\u00e9o content, as well as live TV.\n\nDeployment \n See also: List of Deployed UMTS networks\n\nTechnology \nThe following information does not apply to non-UMTS systems that use the W-CDMA air interface, such as FOMA\n\nUMTS combines the W-CDMA, TD-CDMA, or TD-SCDMA air interfaces, GSM's Mobile Application Part (MAP) core, and the GSM family of speech codecs. In the most popular cellular mobile telephone variant of UMTS, W-CDMA is currently used. Note that other wireless standards use W-CDMA as their air interface, including FOMA.\n\nUMTS over W-CDMA uses a pair of 5\u00a0MHz channels. In contrast, the competing CDMA2000 system uses one or more arbitrary 1.25\u00a0MHz channels for \u00e9ach direction of communication. UMTS and other W-CDMA systems are widely criticized for their large spectrum usage, which has delayed deployment in countries that acted relatively slowly in allocating new frequencies specifically for 3G services (such as the United States).\n\nThe specific frequency bands originally defined by the UMTS standard are 1885-2025\u00a0MHz for the mobile-to-base (uplink) and 2110-2200\u00a0MHz for the base-to-mobile (downlink). In the US, 1710-1755\u00a0MHz and 2110-2155\u00a0MHz will be used inst\u00e9ad, as the 1900\u00a0MHz band was alr\u00e9ady utilized. Additionally, in some countries UMTS operators use the 850\u00a0MHz and 1900\u00a0MHz bands (independently, m\u00e9aning uplink and downlink are within the same band), notably in the US by AT&T Mobility. Also in Finland opened UMTS900 network, planned for more rural ar\u00e9as and other hard coverage ar\u00e9as over the GSM shared 900\u00a0MHz spectrum, supported currently by Elisa and Nokia (by mod\u00e9l 6121 classic) and also encouraged by the local regulatives.\n\nFor existing GSM operators, it is a simple but costly migration path to UMTS: much of the infrastructure is shared with GSM, but the cost of obtaining new spectrum licenses and overlaying UMTS at existing towers can be prohibitively expensive.\n\nA major difference of UMTS compared to GSM is the air interface forming Generic Radio Access Network (GeRAN). \nIt can be connected to various backbone networks like the Internet, ISDN, GSM or to a UMTS network. GeRAN includes the three lowest layers of OSI model. \nThe network layer (OSI 3) protocols form the Radio Resource Management protocol (RRM). They manage the b\u00e9arer channels between the mobile terminals and the fixed network including the handovers.\n\n3G external modems \nUsing a cellular router, PCMCIA or USB card, customers are able to access 3G broadband services, regardless of their choice of computer (such as a tablet PC or a PDA). Some software installs itself from the modem, so that in some cases absolutely no knowledge of technology is required to get online in moments.\n\nUsing a phone that supports 3G and Bluetooth 2.0, multiple Bluetooth-capable laptops can be connected to the Internet.  The phone acts as a router, but via Bluetooth rather than wireless networking (802.11) or a USB connection.\n\nInteroperability and global roaming \n\nAt the air interface level, UMTS itself is incompatible with GSM. UMTS phones and UMTS data cards sold in Europe, the United States, much of Asia, and South Africa, are UMTS\/GSM dual-mode devices, hence they are backwards compatible with regular GSM networks. If a UMTS customer travels to an ar\u00e9a without UMTS coverage, a UMTS phone will automatically switch to GSM (roaming charges may apply). If the customer travels outside of UMTS coverage during a call, the call will be transparently handed off to available GSM coverage.\n\nRegular GSM phones cannot be used on the UMTS networks.\n\nSoftbank (formerly Vodafone Japan, formerly J-Phone) operates a 3G network based on UMTS compatible W-CDMA technology, that launched in December 2002. Lack of investment in the network through 2003 m\u00e9ant that coverage was slow to expand and subscriber numbers remained low. The network was publicly relaunched in October 2004 and again in 2005, and Vodafone now claims network coverage of 99% of the population, while 15% of their subscribers are 3G users.\n\nNTT DoCoMo's 3G network, FOMA, was the first commercial network using W-CDMA since 2002. The first W-CDMA version used by NTT DoCoMo was incompatible with the UMTS standard at the radio level, however USIM cards used by FOMA phones are compatible with GSM phones, so that USIM card based roaming is possible from Japan to GSM ar\u00e9as without any problem. Today the NTT DoCoMo network \u2014 as well as all the W-CDMA networks in the world \u2014 use the standard version of UMTS, allowing potential global roaming. Whether and under which conditions roaming can actually be used by subscribers depends on the commercial agreements between operators.\n\nAll UMTS\/GSM dual-mode phones should accept existing GSM SIM cards. Sometimes, you are allowed to roam on UMTS networks using GSM SIM cards from the same provider.\n\nIn the United States, UMTS is currently offered by AT&T Mobility on 850\u00a0MHz and 1900\u00a0MHz, due to the limitations of the spectrum available to them at the time they launched UMTS service. T-Mobile will be rolling out UMTS on the 2100\/1700\u00a0MHz AWS frequencies, but has been delayed by a lack of spectrum availability.  Because of the frequencies used, \u00e9arly mod\u00e9ls of UMTS phones designated for the US will likely not be operable overs\u00e9as and vice versa; other standards, notably GSM, have faced similar problems, an issue d\u00e9alt with by the adoption of multi-band phones. Most UMTS licensees seem to consider ubiquitous, transparent global roaming an important issue.\n\nSpectrum allocation \n\nOver 120 licenses have alr\u00e9ady been awarded to operators worldwide (as of December 2004), specifying W-CDMA radio access technology that builds on GSM. In Europe, the license process occurred at the end of the technology bubble, and the auction mechanisms for allocation set up in some countries resulted in some extremely high prices being paid, notable in the UK and Germany. In Germany, bidders paid a total 50.8 billion euros for six licenses, two of which were subsequently abandoned and written off by their purchasers (Mobilcom and the Sonera\/Telefonica consortium). It has been suggested that these huge license fees have the character of a very large tax paid on income expected 10 y\u00e9ars down the road - in any event they put some Europ\u00e9an telecom operators close to bankruptcy (most notably KPN). Over the last few y\u00e9ars some operators have written off some or all of the license costs.\n\nThe UMTS spectrum allocated in Europe is alr\u00e9ady used in North America. The 1900\u00a0MHz range is used for 2G (PCS) services, and 2100\u00a0MHz range is used for satellite communications. Regulators have however, freed up some of the 2100\u00a0MHz range for 3G services, together with the 1700\u00a0MHz for the uplink. UMTS operators in North America who want to implement a Europ\u00e9an style 2100\/1900\u00a0MHz system will have to share spectrum with existing 2G services in the 1900\u00a0MHz band. 2G GSM services elsewhere use 900\u00a0MHz and 1800\u00a0MHz and therefore do not share any spectrum with planned UMTS services.\n\nAT&T Wireless launched UMTS services in the United States by the end of 2004 strictly using the existing 1900\u00a0MHz spectrum allocated for 2G PCS services.  Cingular acquired AT&T Wireless in 2004 and has since then launched UMTS in select US cities. Initial rollout of UMTS in Canada will also be handled exclusively by the 1900\u00a0MHz band. T-Mobile's roll-out of UMTS in the US will focus on the 2100\/1700\u00a0MHz bands just auctioned.\n\nAT&T Mobility is rolling out some cities with a UMTS network at 850\u00a0MHz to enhance its existing UMTS network at 1900\u00a0MHz and now offers subscribers a number of UMTS 850\/1900 phones.  In Australia, Telstra rolled out the NextG network, a 3G UMTS network operating in the 850\u00a0MHz band to replace the existing CDMA network (February 2008) and enhance its existing 2100\u00a0MHz UMTS network. The 850\u00a0MHz band provides gr\u00e9ater coverage compared to equivalent 1700\/1900\/2100Mhz networks, and is best suited to regional ar\u00e9as where gr\u00e9ater distances separate subscriber and base station.\n\nOther competing standards \nThere are other competing 3G standards, such as FOMA, CDMA2000 and TD-SCDMA, though UMTS can use the latter's air interface standard. FOMA and UMTS similarly share the W-CDMA air interface system.\n\nOn the Internet access side, competing systems include WiMAX and Flash-OFDM. Different variants of UMTS compete with different standards. While this article has largely discussed UMTS-FDD, a form oriented for use in conventional cellular-type spectrum, UMTS-TDD, a system based upon a TD-CDMA air interface, is used to provide UMTS service  where the uplink and downlink share the same spectrum, and is very efficient at providing asymmetric access. It provides more direct competition with WiMAX and similar Internet-access oriented systems than conventional UMTS.\n\nBoth the CDMA2000 and W-CDMA air interface systems are accepted by ITU as part of the IMT-2000 family of 3G standards, in addition to UMTS-TDD's TD-CDMA, Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) and China's own 3G standard, TD-SCDMA.\n\nCDMA2000's narrower bandwidth requirements mak\u00e9 it \u00e9asier than UMTS to deploy in existing spectrum along with legacy standards. In some, but not all, cases, existing GSM operators only have enough spectrum to implement either UMTS or GSM, not both. For example, in the US D, E, and F PCS spectrum blocks , the amount of spectrum available is 5\u00a0MHz in \u00e9ach direction. A standard UMTS system would saturate that spectrum.\n\nIn many markets however, the co-existence issue is of little relevance, as legislative hurdles exist to co-deploying two standards in the same licensed slice of spectrum.\n\nMost GSM operators in North America as well as others around the world have accepted EDGE as a temporary 3G solution. AT&T Wireless launched EDGE nationwide in 2003, AT&T launched EDGE in most markets and T-Mobile USA has launched EDGE nationwide as of October 2005.  Rogers Wireless launched nation-wide EDGE service in late 2003 for the Canadian market. Bit\u0117 Lietuva (Lithuania) was one of the first operators in Europe to launch EDGE in December 2003. TIM (Italy) launched EDGE in 2004. The benefit of EDGE is that it leverages existing GSM spectrums and is compatible with existing GSM handsets.  It is also much \u00e9asier, quicker, and considerably ch\u00e9aper for wireless carriers to \"bolt-on\" EDGE functionality by upgrading their existing GSM transmission hardware to support EDGE than having to install almost all brand-new equipment to deliver UMTS. EDGE provides a short-term upgrade path for GSM operators and directly competes with CDMA2000.\n\nProblems and issues \n\nSome countries, such as the United States and Japan, have allocated spectrum differently from the ITU Recommendations, so that the spectrum bands most commonly used for UMTS (UMTS-2100) have not been available.  In those countries, alternative bands are used, preventing the interoperability of existing UMTS-2100 equipment, and requiring the design and manufacture of different equipment for the use in these markets. As is the case with GSM today, this presumably will m\u00e9an that standard UMTS equipment will not work in those markets, and some will work only in them, while some more-expensive equipment may be available that works in all markets. It also diminishes the economy of scale and benefit to users and network providers from the network effect that would have existed if these countries and the ITU had been able to agree on universally-applicable frequencies.\n\nIn the \u00e9arly days of UMTS there were issues with rollout:\n overweight handsets with poor battery life;\n problems with handover from UMTS to GSM, connections being dropped or handovers only possible in one direction (UMTS \u2192 GSM) with the handset only changing back to UMTS after hanging up, even if UMTS coverage returns\u2014in most networks around the world this is no longer an issue;\n for fully fledged UMTS incorporating Video on Demand f\u00e9atures, one base station needs to be set up every 1\u20131.5\u00a0km (0.62\u20130.93\u00a0mi). While this is economically f\u00e9asible in urban ar\u00e9as, it is inf\u00e9asible in less populated suburban and rural ar\u00e9as;\n in Ireland, Severe issues were encountered by users of 3G mobile broadband data modems on the rollout of their mobile broadband. It is not compatible with SMTP email programs and it is not possible to  \"pop\" your hotmail to Microsoft Outlook. It is also not possible to receive automatic Software Updates on Apple computers as the internet connection \"times out\".\n\nSome of these issues may still be ongoing; for instance, Apple, Inc. cited UMTS power consumption as the r\u00e9ason that the iPhone only supports EDGE.\n\nSee also \n 3G\n 3GPP: the body that manages the UMTS standard.\n 3GPP Long Term Evolution, the 3GPP project to evolve UMTS towards 4G capabilities.\n GAN\/UMA: A standard for running GSM and UMTS over wireless LANs.\n Opportunity Driven Multiple Access, ODMA: a UMTS TDD mode communications relaying protocol\n HSDPA, HSUPA: updates to the W-CDMA air interface.\n PDCP\n Subscriber Identity Module\n UMTS-TDD: a variant of UMTS largely used to provide wireless Internet service.\n UMTS frequency bands\n W-CDMA: the primary air interface standard used by UMTS.\n W-CDMA 2100\n\nOther, non-UMTS, 3G and 4G standards:\n CDMA2000: evolved from the cmdaOne (also known as IS-95, or \"CDMA\") standard, managed by the 3GPP2\n FOMA\n TD-SCDMA\n WiMAX: a newly emerging wide ar\u00e9a wireless technology.\n\nUMTS is an evolution of the GSM mobile phone standard.\n GSM\n GPRS\n EDGE\n ETSI\n\nOther useful information\n Mobile modem\n Spectral efficiency comparison table\n Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)\n Common pilot channel or CPICH, a simple synchronisation channel in WCDMA.\n Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) is the major issue of multiple antenna research.\n Wi-Fi: a local ar\u00e9a wireless technology that is complementary to UMTS.\n Mobile Internet access worldwide lists mobile (mainly UMTS\/HSDPA) Internet access solutions worldwide.\n List of device bandwidths\n\nLiterature \n Martin Sauter: Communication Systems for the Mobile Information Society, John Wiley, September 2006, ISBN 0-470-02676-6\n\nReferences\n\nTumbu luar \n GSM\/UMTS market statistics from the 'Global mobile suppliers association' \n 3GPP Specifications Numbering Scheme\n 3GPP document listing all UMTS Technical Standards for Rel\u00e9ase 6 and \u00e9arlier \n Vocabulary for 3GPP Specifications, up to Release 8\n UMTS FAQ on UMTS World d\n Worldwide W-CDMA frequency allocations on UMTS World\n UMTS TDD Alliance The Global UMTS TDD Alliance\n 3GToday.com \n 3GSM World Congress\n\nTelekomunikasi","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":161,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":6,"2014-42":10,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":25873,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal%20Mobile%20Telecommunications%20System","title":"Universal Mobile Telecommunications System","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Exeter is a city in South West England on the River Exe, from which it takes its name. It is the county town of Devon. Just over 100,000 live there. In the city are a ruined castle, much of the old Roman city wall, and Exeter Cathedral.\n\nHistory\nExeter was built by the Romans, who called it Isca Dumnoniorum (Isca of the Dumnonii, the local British tribe). After the Romans left and the Anglo-Saxons moved into the area in the seventh century, the name changed to Exeter. In the 1060s, Exeter was a centre of resistance to the Norman conquest.\n\nIn 1050, the Bishop of Crediton moved to Exeter; from then until 1876 the bishops were the heads of the church in the whole of Devon and Cornwall. Now, only Devon is within the Exeter diocese.\n\nToday\nToday it is home to the Meteorological Office, which forecasts the country's weather.","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":17772,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exeter","title":"Exeter","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Curling is a sport played on ice. Players slide curling stones on the ice towards a target, called the house. There are two teams with four players on each team. Each team slides eight stones, this is called an end. After an end the team with the stone closest to the centre of the house (target) scores points. The game is over after eight or ten ends. The team with the most points is the winner.\n\nThe player sliding the stone can make it turn or curl slowly. Two other players on the team sweep the ice in front of the stone with brooms. This is to make the stone stop in the right place.\n\nCurling is played at the Winter Olympics.\n\nHistory\n\nCurling was invented in Scotland in medieval times. It was played outside in the winter because there was lots of ice. Today curling is played all over Europe and in many other countries such as Canada, the United States, Japan and South Korea.\n\nCurling was played at the Winter Olympics for the first time in 1998.\n\nEquipment\n\nThe ice is called a curling sheet. It is a rectangular sheet of flat ice, between 146 and 150\u00a0feet (45-46\u00a0metres) long and 14.5 to 15.5\u00a0feet (4.4-5.0\u00a0metres) wide. The house, or target, is marked at the end of the sheet by coloured rings. The rings help players to aim for the centre of the house. They are also useful to decide which stone is closest to the centre when scoring. There is also a hack at the end of the sheet which players push against when sliding a stone.\n\nCurling stones are made of granite. They are heavy, weighing 38-40\u00a0pounds (17-20kg). There is a handle on the top of each stone to help slide and turn the stone. The handles are different colours for each team. The stones are usually red for one team and yellow for the other team.\n\nCurling brooms or brushes are used to sweep the ice in front of the stone when it is sliding.\n\nPlayers wear special shoes for curling. One shoe has a smooth surface for sliding on the ice and the other rough.\n\nGameplay\n\nThe purpose of the game is to score points by getting stones close to the centre of the house. Players from each team take turns to slide a stone towards the house. This is called delivering or throwing a stone. An end is completed when all stones have been delivered. There are eight stones for each team. The winner is the team with the most points after all ends have been played. There are usually eight or ten ends.\n\nDelivery and sweeping\nThe captain of the team is called the skip. The skip chooses how hard the stone should be delivered, the direction of delivery, and the amount of turn (curl) that the stone should be given. The skip can choose to aim the stone for the house, hit one of the other team's stones out of play, or make a stone stop before the house as a guard if their team has a stone in a good position.\n\nThe player delivering the stone starts at the hack. The skip stands at the other end of the curling sheet behind the house. The skip shows where to aim the stone. The other two players sweep the ice in front of the stone as it slides. The players take turns to deliver stones. When the skip is delivering a stone another player stands behind the house instead.\n\nTo deliver a stone the player puts one foot on the hack. The player lines up towards the skip. The stone is on the ice in front of the foot in the hack. The player then slides the stone back before sliding forwards on their other foot. The player lets go of the stone, gently turning the handle just before letting go to give the stone curl.\n\nThen the other players can sweep the stone. Sweeping helps the stone to travel faster, and makes it curl less. The aim of sweeping is to help the stone stop in the right place.\n\nScoring\n\nPoints are scored at when an end has finished. The team with the stone closest to the centre of the house wins the end. The team scores one point for every stone that is closer to the centre than the other team's closest stone.\n\nOnly stones that are in the house count for scoring. If it is difficult to see which stone is closest to the centre of the house there are special measuring devices to help.\n\nSometimes neither team scores any points, this is called a blank end.\n\nRelated pages\n Winter Olympics\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n World Curling Federation website\n\n \nWinter Olympic sports\nIce sports\nIndoor sports","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":153,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"unknown":47,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":327146,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curling","title":"Curling","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bed\u0159ich Smetana (b. Litomy\u0161l, Bohemia, March 2, 1824; d. Prague May 12, 1884) was a Czech composer. He was a Romantic composer. Smetana, Dvo\u0159\u00e1k and Leo\u0161 Jan\u00e1\u010dek are the three most famous composers who wrote Czech nationalist music. His music is typical of the Czech people. His eight operas are about Nationalist stories. He wrote six tone poems for orchestra called Ma Vlast which means \"My Home Country\".\n\nYouth and early career \n\nBed\u0159ich was the 11th child in a German-speaking family, although he was only the first of the children not to die before they grew up. His father was a brewer and a keen amateur violinist. He learned the violin from his father and the piano from local teachers, but he soon played better than his teachers. Between the age of 12 and 20 he had no musical education. Then he went to Prague and heard Liszt playing. He wanted to leave school and study music but his father would not let him. He was sent to Plze\u0148 where he finished his schooling. During this time he earned some money by playing the piano at the homes of rich people. He played for dancing, and he liked to dance himself. He often danced with a girl called Kate\u0159ina Kol\u00e1\u0159ov\u00e1 and he also played piano duets with her. Later she married him.\n\nHe returned to Prague and arranged to have lessons in harmony, counterpoint and composition. He gave a piano recital, but nobody came to listen, so he decided to start a school of music, although he hardly had any money.\n\nIn 1848, revolutions were taking place in central Europe, including in Prague. A strong feeling of nationalism was growing. The Czechs (people who lived in Bohemia and Moravia) wanted to be able to express themselves in their own language instead of in German, which was still the official language in Bohemia. Smetana, who only spoke German, agreed with the nationalists' ideas, but he still did not realize how important it would be for him in the future to be able to speak Czech.\n\nSmetana married Kate\u0159ina and they had four daughters, but three of them died. He still had very little money, so he went to Sweden where he was very successful as a piano teacher and conductor. He composed the first of his symphonic poems: Richard III. After three years in Sweden he decided to return to his homeland because of his Kate\u0159ina's health, but she died on the way. Smetana spent two more years in Sweden. He married again. After the Austrian defeat by Napoleon III in 1859, it became clear that there were going to be big changes in his native country. The Czechs were going to be allowed to have a national opera and put on plays in the Czech language instead of having to perform everything in German. Smetana realized that this was an exciting chance for him. After a big farewell concert in Stockholm to which the Swedish royal family came, Smetana returned to Prague.\n\nThe composer of National Czech music \n\nSmetana now started to learn Czech, a language he did not speak. It was not easy for him in Prague because he was only known there as a pianist and teacher. He put on a concert of music by German composers but nobody came. He wanted to be director of the Provisional Theatre but the job was given to a man called Mayr who was not very good.\n\nGradually Smetana's reputation grew and he started to write operas in Czech which became very popular. The first one was called The Brandenburgers in Bohemia. Mayr made things very difficult for Smetana but the audience loved the opera and it was performed ten more times. His next opera is the one which has become his best-known opera internationally: The Bartered Bride. Smetana got the job of director of the Provisional Theatre instead of Mayr. Smetana made lots of improvements, introducing well-known German, French and Italian operas to the audiences as well as new operas by young Czech composers. The operas Dalibor was first performed on the day that the first stone was laid for the building of the National Theatre. It was a great occasion, although the music critics were unkind and said that his music sounded too much like Wagner. His opera Libu\u0161e was written for the coronation of Franz Joseph in Prague, but that coronation never happened, so the opera was not performed for another ten years when the National Theatre was opened (1881). He spent several years composing a cycle of six symphonic poems called Ma Vlast (My Country). These are very popular today, especially the second one, Vltava, which describes the river Vltava flowing from its source all the way to the sea.\n\nDeafness \n\nIn his last years Smetana became totally deaf. He was suffering from syphilis. He heard horrible high squeaks in his ears a lot of the time. He showed this when composing his String Quartet no 2: the first violin plays a very long high note for a long time in the last movement, showing the audience what he had to suffer. He became very depressed and his wife did not help by quarrelling a lot with him. It became painfully difficult for him to compose. In the end he was writing four bars a day. His mental state got worse. He was guarded all day in case he harmed himself. He did not recognize his own family. He was put in an asylum where he died shortly afterwards.\n\nHis music \n\nAs soon as the Czech people were allowed to produce plays and operas in their own language Smetana thought it was his duty to write a series of nationalist operas. His operas were based on the nation's history and legends. His symphonic cycle Ma Vlast was programme music, full of heroism, often describing nature and the countryside. Smetana also wrote a lot for piano. He was the most important Czech composer there had been at that time. Smetana and Dvo\u0159\u00e1k were the founders of modern Czech music.\n\nCzech composers\nRomantic composers\n1824 births\n1884 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":3,"2018-39":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":29662,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bed%C5%99ich%20Smetana","title":"Bed\u0159ich Smetana","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Burning is the process of combustion, a reaction between a substance (the fuel) and a gas (the oxidizer).\n\nBurn, burning or burned can mean:\n Burn, injury to the skin caused by heat, electricity, chemicals, or radiation\n Burn (stream), in Scotland and north-eastern England, a type of stream which is smaller than a river\n Burn (computer game), a first-person shooter computer game released in 2007\n Burn, a village in North Yorkshire, England\n Burn and Burn Sugar Free, energy drinks by Coca-Cola\n Burn in, to exercise components (such as electronics) before putting them into service\n Burning, a self-sustaining thermonuclear (nuclear fusion) reaction\n Burning, the recording process for various technologies based on compact discs or DVDs\n Burning-in, a manipulation during photographic enlargement to darken selected areas of the final print\n Burned (image), an image with highlights or shadows considerably outside the medium's gamut\n Execution by burning, an execution by fire, usually by being burnt to death on a pyre\n Indian burn, common school prank also called a Chinese burn\n Burn notice, an official statement issued between intelligence agencies stating that an individual or a group is or has become unreliable.\n\nIn music\nBands:\n Burn (UK band), a heavy rock band from Loughborough, England\n Burn (U.S. band), a New York hardcore band\n\nAlbums:\n Burn (album), a 1974 album by Deep Purple\n Burn, a 1995 album by Sister Machine Gun\n Burn, a 2000 album by Jo Dee Messina\n Burnin, a 1970 album by The Wailers\n Burning, a 1999 EP by house DJ\/producer P\u00e9p\u00e9 Bradock\n Burned, a 1995 album by ElectrafixionSongs:'''\n \"Burn\" (Usher song), a song from Usher's 2004 album Confessions \"Burn\" (Nine Inch Nails song), a song by Nine Inch Nails found on the Natural Born Killers Soundtrack\n \"Burn\", a song by Rancid on the album Let's Go \"Burn\", a song The Cure featured on The Crow Soundtrack \"Burn\", a song by Shannon Noll on his 2004 album That's What I'm Talking About \"Burn\", a song by Mushroomhead on their 2006 album Savior Sorrow \"Burn\", a song by Alkaline Trio on their 2005 album Crimson \"Burn\", a song by Collective Soul found on their album Home\n \"Burn\", a song by Three Days Grace on their album Three Days Grace \"Burn\", a song by Year Of The Rabbit on their EP Hunted \"Burn\", a song by Against Me! which first appeared on their 2001 EP Crime As Forgiven By \"Burn\", a song by King Diamond on the 1990 album The Eye \"Burn\", a song by Michael Angelo Batio on his 2005 album Hands Without Shadows \"Burn\", a song by Deep Purple on their 1974 album Burn \"Burnnn!\", a song by Pantera on their 1988 album Power Metal \"The Burn\", a song by Matchbox Twenty on their 2000 album Mad SeasonIn media\n Burn!, a 1969 film\n Burn, a 1998 film directed by Scott Storm\n Burn, a 2005 novel by James Patrick Kelly\n Burned'', a 2005 novel by Ellen Hopkins\n Burn Notice (TV series), a 2007 television drama\n\nBasic English 850 words","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":4,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":26678,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Burn%20%28disambiguation%29","title":"Burn (disambiguation)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A harmonica is small musical instrument that is played with the mouth by blowing into holes in its side. Harmonicas are cheap and easy to play. Harmonicas produce their musical sounds from the vibrations of reeds in the harmonica's metal case. Harmonicas are used in blues music, folk music, rock and roll music, and pop music. A special type of harmonica, the chromatic harmonica, is used in jazz and classical music. Harmonicas are made in several different keys: G, A\u266d, A, B\u266d, B, C, D\u266d, D, E\u266d, E, F, and F\u266f. Each key can play a different range of notes.\n\nHow they are played\nHarmonicas are played by blowing or sucking air into one side. On this side, there are many holes. Each hole has a different note. Different notes are played when you blow or suck air.\n\nHarmonica players\nBob Dylan is a famous harmonica player from the 1960s folk rock scene.\nWilli Burger is a famous classical harmonica player.eez\nNeil Young is a folk\/grunge musician who plays the harmonica.\nSteven Tyler, from Aerosmith, plays the harmonica.\nLittle Walter, one of the most well known blues harmonica players ever.\nYvonnick Prene is a groundbreaking jazz harmonica player.\n\nOther Harmonica players\n*Bluesharp players\n\nJazz\n Larry Adler\n Matthias Broede\n Jens Bunge\n Hermine Deurloo\n Maur\u00edcio Einhorn\n Adam Glasser\n Howard Levy\n Hendrik Meurkens\n Richard Oesterreicher\n Toots Thielemans\n\nTypes of harmonicas\nAnother type of harmonica is the chromatic harmonica.  More songs can be played on it than a regular harmonica, because chromatic harmonicas can play more different notes. Chromatic harmonicas have a button which moves a sliding bar. By pressing the button, the player can play a larger range of notes.\n\nDifferent names\nThe harmonica is called many different names, such as: mouth organ, mouth harp, Hobo Harp, French harp, Reckless Tram, harpoon, tin sandwich, blues harp, Mississippi saxophone, or simply harp.\n\nOther websites\n todoarmonica.org \n Virtual harmonica lessons HarmoPoint \n Harmonica's blog \n Harmonica Riff \n\nWoodwind instruments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":111,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":19058,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harmonica","title":"Harmonica","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cultur (frae the Laitin cultura ruitit frae colere, meanin \"tae cultivate\") for ordinar refers tae paiterns o human acteevity an the seembolic structurs that gies sic acteevity signeeficant importance. Different defineetions o \"cultur\" reflects different theoretical bases for unnerstaundin, or criteria for evaluatin, human acteevity.\n\nCultur is manifestit in muisic, leeteratur, pentin an sculptur, theatre an film. Awtho some fowk identifees cultur in terms o consumption an consumer guids (as in hie cultur, law cultur, fowk cultur, or popular cultur), anthropologists unnerstaund \"cultur\" tae refer no juist tae consumption guids, but tae the general processes that produces sicna guids an gies thaim meanin, an tae the social relationships an practices that sicna objects an processes becomes embeddit in. For thaim, cultur sic includes technology, airt, science, as weel as moral seestems.\n\n \nAnthropology\nCoontercultur\nCoontercultur o the 1960s\nHistory o ideas\nSociology o cultur\nSocial agreement","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":129,"dup_dump_count":81,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":6752,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultur","title":"Cultur","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Capitalism is an economic system where means of production is privately owned and operated for profit.\n\nProperty owned by individuals, not by the government is often called private property. In theory, under competition, in capitalist free market economies, prices move up or down according to the availability of products and how many people want them. In most countries there is some regulation (trade laws) and some planning done by the government. They are sometimes called \"mixed economies\" to indicate this. Some people disagree on whether capitalism is a good idea, or how much of capitalism is a good idea.\n\nThe word comes from \"capital\", meaning something of value that is used to make things. This can be money (\"financial capital\") or any other goods that can be traded. The word \"capital\" originally comes from the Latin word \"caput\", meaning \"head.\" It was used to mean how many \"head\" of cattle a rich person owned, in days long ago when cattle were used as money. In fact, the words \"capital\" and \"cattle\" both come from \"caput\".\n\nThe philosopher Adam Smith's book, The Wealth of Nations, was an important book that developed the ideas of capitalism and the free market. The word \"capitalism\" was not used until the 19th century. The greatest invention of capitalism is often said to be the joint stock company. A joint-stock company is a business where different stocks can be bought and owned by shareholders. Each shareholder owns company stock in proportion to the number of their shares.\n\nBuying, selling, working, and hiring \nIn capitalism, people may sell or lend their property, and other people may buy or borrow it. If one person wants to buy, and another person wants to sell to them, they do not need to get permission from higher power. People can have a market (buying and selling with each other) without anyone else telling them to.  People who own capital are sometimes called capitalists (people who support capitalism are called capitalists, too). They can hire anyone who wants to work in their factories, shops or lands for them for the pay they offer.\n\nThe word capital can be used to mean things that produce more things or money. For example, lands, factories, shops, tools and machines are capital. If someone has money that can be invested, that money is capital too.\n\nIn capitalist systems, many people are workers (or proletarians). They are employed to earn money for living. People can choose to work for anyone who will hire them in a free market.\n\nThis is different from many older economic systems. In feudalism, most people were serfs and had to work for the people who owned the land they lived on. In mercantilism, the government makes it hard to buy things from other countries. In many countries with mixed economies (part capitalism and part socialism) there are laws about what you can buy or sell, or what prices you can charge, or whom you can hire or fire.\n\nInvesting \n\nAn investment is when people invest (put) their money in things. People can put their money together to buy or build things, even if they are too big for one person to make alone. The people who invest get to be the owners of what they buy or build together. The stock market lets people buy and sell investments.\n\nInvesting is important to capitalism. The word \"capitalist\" can mean two things: it can mean someone who likes capitalism; but it can also mean someone who invests. For example, a venture capitalist invests in new businesses.\n\nPeople who start businesses, or invest in businesses, can make a lot of money. A business sells things that people want. The investors make extra money, which is called profit. Investors can take their profit and invest it in more businesses, or in making the business bigger. The investors can get more and more profit if the businesses are successful.\n\nPeople who disagree \n\nSocialists and communists are people who do not support capitalism. They say it hurts workers, because businesses make more money by selling things than they pay the workers who make the things. Business owners become rich while workers remain poor and exploited (taken advantage of). They also argue society would be more efficient if people thought less about competing against one another for their own interests and thought more of working together for the overall good of society. Another argument is that each person has a right to basic needs (such as food and shelter). Within capitalism, sometimes people might not get everything they need to live. Capitalism is also said to be the main culprit of economic inequality.\n\nKarl Marx was a famous communist philosopher from Germany. He wrote a famous book called The Capital (or Das Kapital in German). He said that capitalism would go away after workers decided to take over the government in a revolution because of the exploitation. There were violent communist revolutions in many countries. Many people were killed because of this. But capitalism did not go away, and most of these communist systems have collapsed and do not exist today, or else they have become more capitalist. Some people think that communism in those countries did not work because Marx's ideas, though nice in thought, did not really work. Others think that communist countries collapsed because of the attacks (military, political and economic) from capitalist countries.\n\nAnarchists (that are not anarcho-capitalists) do not support capitalism either. They do not think there should be any bosses because it is a hierarchy. They think that Marxist\u2013Leninist governments were unsuccessful because they were dictatorships that said that they would rule in the name of workers, but ruled in the name of their leaders. They think that these governments were state capitalist and not socialist.\n\nPeople who agree \n\nThere are different words for people who support capitalism. In many parts of the world, these people are called either conservatives or liberals. In the United States, the word liberal means someone who supports capitalism but wants some rules on what the market can do and cannot do. Libertarian is a word that in America and some other countries means someone who wants the government to have little or no power to tell people what to buy or sell.\n\nThe reasons for capitalism are not just economic. They are political. People who like capitalism believe that capitalism provides liberty by the citizen by allowing them to be independent. Friedrich Hayek agreed with this and connected the open society with respect for the individual, and tolerance for the differences between people.\n\nAnother argument for the endorsement of capitalism is that  it is arguably better than other economic models, like communism, for example. While most communist nations (such as the Soviet Union and Democratic Kampuchea) collapsed deep in poverty, hunger,  dictatorships and\/or genocides, capitalist countries (such as the United States and the UK) prospered economically.\n\nPeople who support capitalism also have disagreements. Most people agree that capitalism works better if the government keeps people from stealing other people's things. If people could steal anything, then nobody would want to buy anything. However, if people shared everything, then no one would need to buy anything.\n\nIn most countries, the government does more than that. It tries to make sure that people buy and sell fairly and that employment is fair. But most of the time, the government making sure that employment is fair is also on the benefitting side of capitalism. The government takes money in taxes and spends it according to what the governing body wants, often not what the citizens who elected the governing body want their taxes to be spent on. People in power spend money on guns and ships for the military. When the government is in charge of part of the economy, this is called a \"social democracy.\" However, when the government spends money it causes arguments about what the money should be spent on, because often times we don't vote on policies, we vote on people we depend on making the policies.\n\nA few people think that people can protect themselves without any government. Instead of having laws against stealing, people could protect their own things, or agree to pay other people such as arbitrators, insurers, and private defenders to protect them. This belief is called \"anarcho-capitalism.\" These people think that the government is trying to take away their earnings, because it takes taxes away from people against their will and keeps them from making agreements between themselves.\n\nRelated pages\n Anti-capitalism\n Socialism\n Communism\n Monopoly\n Plutocracy\n\nReferences \n\nEconomic systems\nCapitalism","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":153,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2023-50":3,"2023-23":3,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":4,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":5,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":4,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":4,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2}},"id":12446,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capitalism","title":"Capitalism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A capillary is a blood vessel. It does not have the muscular\/elastic tissue of other blood vessels. It has a single celled wall to help substances be transported through organisms.\nCapillaries are small, and smaller than any other blood vessels. They are about 5-10 \u03bcms big, connect arteries and venules, and enable the moving of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, as well as many other nutrients and waste chemicals  between blood and surrounding tissues.\n\nAnatomy \nBlood moves from the heart to arteries, which branch and narrow into smaller arteries, and then branch more into capillaries. After oxygen has been moved to the tissue, capillaries join and widen to become small veins and then widen more to become veins, which return blood to the heart.\n\nThe \"capillary bed\" is the network of capillaries supplying an organ. The more metabolically active the cells, the more capillaries it will require to supply nutrients and carry away waste products. \n\nSpecial arteries connect between arterioles and venules and are important in bypassing the flow of blood through the capillaries. True capillaries come from mainly from metarterioles and provide movement between cells and the circulation. The width of 8 \u03bcm forces the red blood cells to partly fold into bullet-like shapes in order to bypass them in single file.\n\nPrecapillary muscles are rings of smooth muscles at the start of true capillaries that handle blood flow into true capillaries and control blood flow through a body part or area.\n\nPhysiology \n\nThe capillary wall is a one-layer tissue so thin that gas and other items such as oxygen, water, proteins and fats can pass through them driven by pressure differences. Waste items such as carbon dioxide and urea can move back into the blood to be carried away for removal from the body. \n\nThe capillary bed usually moves no more than 25% of the amount of blood it could contain, although this amount can be increased through auto regulation by making the smooth muscle relax in the arterioles that lead to the capillary bed as well as metarterioles making themselves smaller.\n\nThe capillaries do not have this smooth muscle in their own wall, and so any change in their width is passive.  Any signaling molecules they release (such as endothelin for constriction and nitric oxide for dilation) act on the smooth muscle cells in the walls of nearby, larger vessels, e.g. arterioles.\n\nCapillary's ability to move items can be increased by the release of certain cytokines, such as in an the body defending itself from germs.\n\nRelated pages\nAlveolar-capillary barrier\nBlood brain barrier\nCapillary action\nHagen-Poiseuille equation\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n \n\nBlood vessels","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":182,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"unknown":12,"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":3,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":3}},"id":22754,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capillary","title":"Capillary","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A playwright is a person who writes plays for the stage. Because the name of such a text is drama, another word for this person is dramatist. Sometimes, dramas are written to be read and not played. In that case, they are called closet dramas.\n\nThe word wright does not come from write. It is an ancient English term for a builder. For example, a wheelwright makes wheels. In a similar way, a playwright makes plays. When the term was first used, it was meant as an insult. Today it has lost this meaning.\n\nHistory\nThe first playwrights in Western literature whose plays still exist were the Ancient Greeks. They were written around the 5th century BC. These playwrights are important as they wrote in a way that is still used by modern playwrights. Important among them are Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes.\n\nThe most famous playwright may be William Shakespeare. A lot of later work is based on his tragedies and comedies. For example, Kiss Me, Kate is based on Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew, and his Romeo and Juliet has been made again many times. Tom Stoppard created the play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead in 1966 which is a modern adaptation of Hamlet.\n\nModern playwrights \nModern playwrights are usually less famous than past playwrights. Since television and movies were invented, theater has become less popular. Because it is less popular, not as many tickets are sold now, and producers often do not have enough money to make plays, and many playwrights are not known.\n\nReferences \n\n \nWriting occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":175,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":4,"2020-29":5,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":4,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":5}},"id":26952,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Playwright","title":"Playwright","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An antibiotic (or antibacterial) is a chemical compound that kills bacteria or slows their growth. They are used as medicine to treat and cure diseases caused by bacteria. The first antibiotic discovered was Penicillin, a natural antibiotic produced by a fungus. Production of antibiotics first began in 1939, and in the modern day, they are made by chemical synthesis. Antibiotics can not be used to treat viruses.\n\nMaclyn McCarty explained what it was like before antibiotics:\n\n \"There are a number of infections from which no-one had [ever] recovered before the discovery of effective anti-bacterial agents\".\n\nResistance \n\nToday, people worry that bacteria will not be affected by antibiotics. Bacteria do evolve, and already many strains of bacteria resist regular antibiotics. When exposed to antibiotics, most bacteria die quickly, but some may have mutations which make them slightly less susceptible. These bacteria then multiply and make a large colony which is less affected by the antibiotic.\n\nPart of this problem is caused by the over-use and misuse of antibiotics. If someone is sick with a virus, antibiotics will not affect the virus. Some doctors will still prescribe an antibiotic so the patient feels as though they are being treated for their illness.\n\nThe other problem is that many people do not use antibiotics correctly. People often stop taking the medicine when they start feeling better. But antibiotics don't kill all of the bad bacteria at once. Bacteria which are more resistant do not die right away. When someone stops taking the antibiotic too quickly, these resistant bacteria can reproduce and survive. Then the antibiotic does not work so well because the bacteria are less affected by it.\n\nHistory\nAntibiotics can be the most effective way of treating bacterial infections. A clue to this might been found in Pasteur's work. He had a culture of anthrax germs that were left exposed to air. They developed colonies of many fungi, but the anthrax bacilli disappeared. Medical science was not, at the time, ready to see the implication of this.\n\nIt was 1928 that the study of antibiotics started,a small chance beginning. Alexander Fleming, a London bacteriologist, was culturing staphylococcus. In one Petri dish a mould appeared and spread On the nutrient gelatin of the dish each patch of mould was surrounded by clear ring, free of bacteria. Moreover, the extracted substance was able to clear up infected wounds.\n\nThe term antibiotic was first used in 1942 by Selman Waksman and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution. This definition cut out substances which kill bacteria, but are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric juices and hydrogen peroxide). It also excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides.\n\nWith advances in medicinal chemistry, most of today's antibacterials chemically are modifications of various natural compounds.\n\nUse \nCertain bacteria are only affected by specific types of antibiotics. Antibiotics fight infection caused by bacteria. Patients might need different types or different amounts of antibiotics depending on what bacteria is causing their health problems. Because of this, antibiotics should always be used under the supervision of a medical doctor (or other certified medical practitioner). The doctor can also watch for side effects and change the patient's treatment when necessary. Antibiotics are very useful when your body is infected by a bacteria.\nAntibiotics don't kill virus, so it is useless against a viral infection. A doctor must determine if a patient's infection is of viral or bacterial origin before taking antibiotics, this is another reason why a medical doctor should prescribe antibiotics instead of relying on self-medication.\n\nTeixobactin \nTeixobactin is the first new antibiotic discovered in forty years. It is active against gram-positive bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus. It appears to be one of a new class of antibiotics.\n\nRelated pages \n Antibiotic resistance\n Antiviral drug\n\nReferences \n\nAntibiotics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":47,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":3,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-39":1}},"id":15596,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antibiotics","title":"Antibiotics","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A fermion is a category of elementary particles. They are very small and very light. Fermions can be thought of as the building blocks of matter because atoms are made up of fermions. Paul Dirac named them fermions in honor of the famous scientist Enrico Fermi.\n\nAn electron (a charged particle) is a fermion, but a photon (the particle of electromagnetic radiation) is not.  The spin numbers of fermions are 1\/2, 3\/2, 5\/2, etc. Because their spin is not a whole number, they follow the Pauli exclusion principle: no two fermions can share a quantum state (which includes position in space), if they have the same quantum numbers, such as spin. In other words, fermions can collide with each other. This behavior is not in the other class of elementary particles called bosons: you can have many bosons, for example photons, in the same place at the same time. The motion of fermions follows the Fermi-Dirac statistics.\n\nMost well known fermions have spin of 1\/2. An example of a type of fermion with a spin of 1\/2 is the electron. The electron belongs to a group of fermions called leptons.\n\nFundamental fermions (fermions that are not made up of anything else) are either quarks or leptons. There are 6 different types of quarks (called \"flavours\") and 6 different types of leptons. These are their names:\n Quarks \u2014 up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom\n Leptons \u2014 electron, muon, tau, electron neutrino, muon neutrino, tau neutrino\n\nEach of these fermions also has an anti-particle associated with it, so there are a total of 24 different fundamental fermions. The anti-particle is similar to the original particle, but with opposite electrical charge. The \"up\", \"charm\", and \"top\" quarks have electrical charge of +2\/3. Their anti-particles have charge -2\/3 (anti-up, anti-charm, anti-top). The other three quarks (down, strange and bottom) have charge -1\/3, and their anti-particles have charge +1\/3. The electron, muon, and tau leptons all have charge of -1, and their anti-particles (anti-electron or \"positron\", anti-muon, anti-tau) have charge +1. All the neutrinos and anti-neutrinos have charge 0. The main difference between quarks or leptons with the same charge is their mass.\n\nThe supersymmetric counterpart of any fermion is called a \"sfermion.\"\n\nElementary particles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-22":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":40079,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fermion","title":"Fermion","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The word berry is used for many different kinds of small fruits that have many seeds and can be used as food. Some examples are raspberry, strawberry, sutberry, lingonberry and blueberry.\n\nWhen botanists talk about berries, they mean a simple fruit produced from a single ovary. They sometimes call this true berry, to distinguish it from false berries. By that statement of how words are used, grapes or tomatoes are true berries.\n\nThe berry is the most common type of soft fruit in which the entire ovary wall gets to the right stage of development of the pericarp which can be taken as food. The flowers of these plants have an upper ovary with one or more carpels. The seeds are inside the soft body of the ovary.\n\nBerries are small, sweet, bright colored fruits. Due to this, they are able to bring more animals towards them and spread their seeds.\n\nSome fruits that are called berries in English are not true berries by the use of words above. These include raspberries, strawberry, sutberry, blackberries, cranberries, and boysenberries. Some true berries do not have berry in their name. These include tomatoes, bananas, eggplants, guavas, pomegranates and chillies. Pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, oranges and lemons are also berries that have slightly different structure and may be called by different names (pepo for pumpkins, cucumbers, and melons, or hesperidium for oranges and lemons).\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":134,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":4,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1}},"id":91,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Berry","title":"Berry","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"National Film Development Corporation of India  is the central agency established to encourage the good cinema movement in the country. The primary goal of the NFDC is to plan, promote and organize an integrated and efficient development of the Indian film industry and foster excellence in cinema. Over the years NFDC has provided a wide range of services essential to the growth of Indian cinema. The NFDC (and its predecessor the Film Finance Corporation) has so far funded \/ produced over 300 films. These films, in various Indian languages, have been widely acclaimed and have won many national and international awards.\n\nOther website \n Official website of National Film Development Corporation of India\n\nCinema of India","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":171,"dup_dump_count":97,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":2,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":3,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":620449,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National%20Film%20Development%20Corporation%20of%20India","title":"National Film Development Corporation of India","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Norwegian resistance (Norwegian: Motstandsbevegelsen) to the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany began after Operation Weser\u00fcbung in 1940 and ended in 1945. It took several forms:\n\nAsserting the legitimacy of the exiled government, and by implication the lack of legitimacy of Vidkun Quisling's pro-Nazi regime and Josef Terboven's military administration\nThe initial defence in Southern Norway, which was largely disorganised, but succeeded in allowing the government to escape capture\nThe more organised military defence and counter-attacks in parts of Western and Northern Norway, aimed at securing strategic positions and the evacuation of the government\nArmed resistance, in the form of sabotage, commando raids, assassinations and other special operations during the occupation\nCivil disobedience and unarmed resistance\n\nAsserting legitimacy of exiled Norwegian government\nThe Norwegian government of Prime Minister Johan Nygaardsvold, with the exception of foreign minister Halvdan Koht and minister of defence Birger Ljungberg, was largely caught by surprise when it became apparent in the early hours of 9 April 1940 that Nazi Germany had launched an invasion of Norway. Although some of the country's gold reserve had already been removed from Oslo, there were few contingency plans for such an invasion.\n\nThe Norwegian government was unprepared and unwilling to capitulate to the ultimatum timed to coincide with the arrival of German troops and delivered by Curt Br\u00e4uer, the German representative in Oslo. The German demand that Norway accept the \"protection of the Reich\" was rebuffed by Koht and the Norwegian government before dawn had broken on the morning of invasion. \"Vi gir oss ikke frivillig, kampen er allerede i gang\", replied Koht. \"We will not submit voluntarily; the struggle is already underway.\"\n\nAnticipating German efforts to capture the government, the entire Norwegian parliament (the Storting), the royal family, and cabinet hastily evacuated Oslo by train and car to Hamar and then on to Elverum, where an extraordinary session of parliament was called.  In large part because of the presence of mind of the parliament's president C. J. Hambro, the Storting managed to pass an emergency measure (known as the Elverum Authorization) that gave full authority to the king and his cabinet until the Storting could convene again.\n\nThis gave King Haakon VII and the cabinet constitutional authority to reject the German emissary's ultimatum to accept the German invasion. Although there were several German attempts to capture or kill the King and the Norwegian government, they managed to evade these attempts and traveled through Norway's remote interior until leaving the country for London on the British heavy cruiser  on 7 June.\n\nReserving the constitutional legitimacy of the Norwegian government also undermined Vidkun Quisling's attempts at claiming the Norwegian government for himself. After Quisling had proclaimed his assumption of the government, several individuals on the Supreme Court took the initiative to establish an Administrative Council (Administrasjonsr\u00e5det) in an effort to stop him. This became a controversial initiative, in that the legitimate Norwegian government refused to give the council any legal backing, and the German authorities ended up disbanding it.\n\nInitial defence\nAlthough some politicians across the political spectrum had advocated strengthening the country's defence capabilities, a longstanding policy of disarmament following World War I had left the Norwegian military underfunded and undertrained by the late 1930s. As a result, forces in Southern Norway were largely unprepared for the German invasion, and the invading German army met little initial resistance.\n\nThere was also spirited defence seen at other locations, including Midtskogen, Hegra and Narvik but these were largely the result of improvised missions by isolated military units and irregular volunteers. The battles slowed the German advance by several days, allowing the Norwegian government to evade capture and conduct critical constitutional business.\n\nThe British and French began landing on Norwegian soil within a week of the German invasion.\n\nCounter-attacks\nSeveral Norwegian military units that had mobilised as a precautionary measure in Northern Norway during the Winter War, in cooperation with Polish, French and British forces, launched several counterattacks with moderate success. Allied forces had several successes in Northern Norway, but were redirected for the futile defense of France. While Northern Norway ultimately fell, efforts there allowed the Norwegian government, including the Norwegian royal family, to escape and maintain the legitimate government in exile, as part of the Allies.\n\nWhile on station in London, the government contributed to Norwegian forces with the Allied effort and ordered the Norwegian Merchant Fleet to assist in troop transportation. To expedite this ships operated under the Nortraship organisation, which at that time was the world's largest shipping company.  It created apprehension among the Nazi leadership that Allied forces might try to recapture Norway with the intention of denying German naval units access to the North Atlantic, tying up several hundred thousand troops that otherwise might have been deployed to other fronts.\n\nArmed resistance\n\nAlthough Norway did not have any major battles beyond those of the Norwegian Campaign, a number of military operations served to subvert the Nazi authorities and contribute to the larger war effort. Milorg started out as a small sabotage unit and ended up building a full military force in time for the liberation. Company Linge was a special operations unit that specialised in coastal insertions and combat. There were repeated raids in Lofoten, M\u00e5l\u00f8y, and other coastal areas.\n\nNorwegian spotters aided in the destruction of numerous German warships, such as the battleships  and . The Norwegian resistance also smuggled people in and out of Norway during the war, through Sweden or by fishing boats to Shetland, nicknamed the \"Shetland bus\". A number of saboteurs, most notably Max Manus and Gunnar S\u00f8nsteby, destroyed ships and supplies. Perhaps its most famous achievements were a series of operations to destroy Norsk Hydro's heavy water plant and stockpile of heavy water at Vemork, crippling the German nuclear programme. The Germans attempted to stifle Resistance activities and executed several innocent Norwegian men, women, and children in retaliation after any Resistance act.  Probably the worst act of reprisal was the assault on the fishing village of Telav\u00e5g in the spring of 1942.\n\nTo assist with the sabotage campaign, the United States sent OSS forces, including future CIA director William Colby, into Norway to support resistance. In the mid-1980s, it was revealed that Sweden aided the Norwegian resistance movement with training and equipment in a series of camps along the Norwegian border. To avoid suspicion, they were camouflaged as police training camps. By 1944, some 7,000\u20138,000 men had been secretly trained in Sweden.\n\nDuring the Liberation of Finnmark from 1944 to 1945, 1,442 police troops from Sweden would be flown in to assist the Soviets and Free Norwegian Forces. In addition to forces brought in from abroad, local troops were also recruited.\n\nIntelligence gathering within occupied Norway was very much needed for the Allied forces, and several organizations were established for this, the largest and most efficient of which was called XU. Established by Arvid Storsveen, its members were students from the University of Oslo. One interesting fact was that two of its four leaders were young women, among them Anne-Sofie \u00d8stvedt.\n\nOne of the leading sabotage organisations in Norway during most of World War II was the communist Osvald Group led by Asbj\u00f8rn Sunde.\n\nDuring the war years, the resistance movement in occupied Norway had 1433 members killed, of whom 255 were women.\n\nCivil disobedience\n\nThe first mass outbreak of civil disobedience occurred in the autumn of 1940, when students of Oslo University began to wear paper clips on their lapels to demonstrate their resistance to the German occupiers and their Norwegian collaborators. A seemingly innocuous item, the paper clip was a symbol of solidarity and unity (\"we are bound together\"), implying resistance. The wearing of paper clips, the popular H7 monogram and similar symbols (red garments, Bobble hats) was outlawed and could lead to arrest and punishment.\n\nOf lesser military importance was the distribution of illegal newspapers (often with news items culled from Allied news broadcasts; possession of radios was illegal). The purpose of this was twofold: it counteracted Nazi propaganda, and it maintained nationalistic, anti-German feelings in the population at large. It has been suggested that combating the illegal press expended German resources out of proportion to the illegal media's actual effects.\n\nFinally, there was the attempt at maintaining an \"ice front\" against the German soldiers. This involved, among other things, never speaking to a German if it could be avoided (many pretended to speak no German, though it was then almost as prevalent as English is now) and refusing to sit beside a German on public transport. The latter was so annoying to the occupying German authorities that it became illegal to stand on a bus if seats were available.\n\nNazi authorities (both German and Norwegian) attempted to pressure school teachers into supporting the regime and its propaganda. Wages were withheld, and on 20 March 1942, 1100 male teachers were arrested, of which 642 were sent to Arctic Norway doing forced labour.\n\nTowards the end of the war, the resistance became more open, with rudimentary military organizations set up in the forests around the larger cities. A number of Nazi collaborators and officials were killed, and those collaborating with the German or Quisling authorities were ostracized, both during and after the war.\n\nThe Norwegian Resistance Museum, at Akershus Fortress, Oslo, gives a good account of the activities of the Norwegian resistance movement.\n\nSee also\n\nAllied campaign in Norway\nFlight of the Norwegian National Treasury\nFree Norwegian Forces\nH7 (monogram)\nMilorg\nNo. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando\nNorway's Resistance Museum\nNorwegian heavy water sabotage\nNorwegian Independent Company 1\nOperation Archery\nOslo Gang\nTarnschriften\nThey Raid by Night\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading\n Baard Herman Borge & Lars-Erik Vaale (2020) \"Stretching the Rule of Law: How the Norwegian resistance movement influenced the provisional treason decrees of the exile government, 1944\u20131945.\" Scandinavian Journal of History.\n Lovell, Stanley P. (1963), Of Spies and Stratagems, New York:  Prentice Hall.\n\nExternal links\n\nNorway's Resistance Museum\nArchival papers of Dr. Christian Bay and his involvement in the Norwegian resistance movement in WWII held at the University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2023-50":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":4,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-30":3,"2017-22":4,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1}},"id":83934,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norwegian%20resistance%20movement","title":"Norwegian resistance movement","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Jan Ci\u0105gli\u0144ski (; ; 20 February 1858 \u2013 6 January 1913) was a Polish painter who lived in Russia. His works are considered to be the first examples of Russian Impressionism.\n\nBiography \nHe was born into a noble family and studied at the University of Warsaw from 1876 to 1878, at the Faculty of Medicine and Natural Sciences. At the same time, he was taking drawing lessons with Wojciech Gerson. From 1879 to 1885, he attended the Imperial Academy of Arts. He went back to Poland, but was there only a short time before receiving a highly remunerative offer of work in Saint Petersburg. He returned there to execute the commission and decided to remain. In 1894, he studied briefly in Paris.\n\nHe became a lecturer at the \"Society for the Encouragement of the Arts\" and was one of the founding members of Mir iskusstva (World of Art). From 1902, he taught at the Imperial Academy. In 1906, he was named an Academician and, in 1911, became a full Professor. During this time, he also operated his own private art school. In 1912, he was honored with the title of Court Counselor. Many well-known painters were among his students, including Yury Annenkov, Ivan Bilibin, Eugene Lanceray, Pavel Filonov, Elena Guro and Piotr Buchkin.\n\nHe came to be known as \"\u043d\u0435\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044b\u043c \u042f\u043d\u043e\u043c\" (fierce or frenetic Jan) because of his fast, passionate method of working. In addition to portraits, landscapes and decorative works, he also produced paintings on Orientalist subjects, based on sketches he made during extensive trips throughout North Africa and the Middle East. As an amateur pianist, many of his portraits were of musicians, including Pyotr Tchaikovsky, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Anton Rubinstein and Josef Hofmann.\n\nAlthough he was better known in Russia, his last will and testament bequeathed his works to Poland. By 1922, most of them had been transferred there. Due to border changes, some are now in Ukraine.\n\nHis brother, , was a prominent neurologist who wrote several pioneering works in medical statistics. His uncle was Roman \u017buli\u0144ski, a mathematician and leader in the January Uprising.\n\nSelected paintings\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Barbara Kokoska, Impresjonizm polski, Wydawnictwo Ryszard Kluszczy\u0144ski. Krak\u00f3w 2001.\n\nExternal links \n\n Maria Gurenovich, \"\u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0436\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0436\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446 \u0441 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0434\u0446\u0435\u043c \u0428\u043e\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0430\" (Petersburg Artist with Chopin's Heart) : \u041d\u0430\u0448\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0435 (Our Heritage). 2008.  Biography and appreciation, focusing on his music related activities.\n\n1858 births\n1913 deaths\nPolish Impressionist painters\nPolish emigrants to Russia\nPainters from Warsaw\n19th-century Polish painters","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":163,"dup_dump_count":14,"dup_details":{"2024-30":40,"2024-26":23,"2024-22":15,"2024-18":12,"2024-10":5,"2023-50":19,"2023-40":23,"2023-23":11,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":5,"2022-33":3,"2022-27":2,"2021-39":2}},"id":45054936,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jan%20Ci%C4%85gli%C5%84ski","title":"Jan Ci\u0105gli\u0144ski","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Network topology is the layout of the connections (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network.\n\nThere are two main\n\nThe names used - such as ring or star -  are only rough descriptions. The computers on a home network can be arranged in a circle but it does not necessarily mean that it represents a ring network.\n\nBasic topology types \nThere are seven basic topologies:\n Point-to-point topology\n Bus (point) topology\n Star topology\n Ring topology\n Tree topology\n Full\/partial Mesh topology\n Hybrid topology\n\nWhich of these is chosen depends on what devices need to be connected, how reliable it has to be, and the cost associated with cabling.\n\nPhysical topology\nThe shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical topology of the network. This refers to how the cables are laid out to connect many computers to one network. The physical topology you choose for your network depends on:\n Office Layout\n Troubleshooting Techniques\n Cost of Installation\n Type of cable used\n\nTypes of Physical topologies\nThe mapping of the nodes of the network and the physical connections between them\u00a0\u2013 the layout of wiring, cables, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling or wiring system.\n\nPoint-to-point\nThe simplest topology is a permanent link between two endpoints (the line in the illustration above). Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony.  The value of a permanent point-to-point network is the value of guaranteed, or nearly so, communications between the two endpoints. The value of \nan on-demand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers, and has been expressed as Metcalfe's Law.\n\nPermanent (dedicated)\nEasiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a point-to-point communications channel that appears, to the user, to be permanently associated with the two endpoints. A children's \"tin-can telephone\" is one example, with a microphone to a single public address speaker is another. These are examples of physical dedicated channels.\n\nWithin many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit. One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. \"Nailing down\" a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio.\n\nSwitched:\nUsing circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a point-to-point circuit can be set up dynamically, and dropped when no longer needed. This is the basic mode of conventional telephony.\n\nBus\n\nIn local area networks where bus topology is used, each machine is connected to a single cable. Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable through some kind of connector.  A terminator is required at each end of the bus cable to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth on the bus cable. A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the MAC address or IP address on the network that is the intended recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data does match the machine address, the data is accepted. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is cheap to implement compared to other topologies. However, there is a higher cost of managing the network. Additionally, since only one cable is used, if the network cable breaks, the whole network will be shutdown.\n\nStar\n\nIn local area networks with a star topology, each network host (for example a PC) is connected to a central hub with a point-to-point connection. All traffic on the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal booster or repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is that it may need a lot more cables, and if the hub breaks everything will stop working. And if the information is to be passed only to a single computer then it can't be done in this topology i.e. all the computers interact with each other and the information will be shared to all the computers. information cannot be shared to a single computer in this topology.\n\nRing\n\nA network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in which data travels around the ring in one direction and each device on the right acts as a repeater to keep the signal strong as it travels. Each device incorporates a receiver for the incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to the next device in the ring. The network is dependent on the ability of the signal to travel around the ring.\n\nMesh \n\nFully connected mesh topology\nThe number of connections in a full mesh network of n nodes is = n(n - 1) \/ 2. The fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for practical networks. It has been used on networks with only a small number of nodes.\n\nPartially connected mesh topology\nThe type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link \u2013 this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense required for a connection between every node in the network.\n\nIn most practical networks that are based upon the partially connected mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the shortest path between nodes. The network used a longer alternative path in the case of a failure or break in one of the links. This requires that the nodes of the network possess some type of logical 'routing' algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular time.\n\nTree\n\nAlso known as a hierarchy network.\n\nThe type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node.  Each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical.) \n\nEach node in the network having a specific fixed number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.  This tree has individual peripheral nodes.\n\nLogical topology \nLogical topology describes the way in which a network transmits information from network\/computer to another and not the way the network looks or how it is laid out. The logical layout also describes the different speeds of the cables being used from one network to another.\n\nThe logical topology, in contrast to the \"physical\", is the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology. For example, twisted pair Ethernet is a logical bus topology in a physical star topology layout. While IBM's Token Ring is a logical ring topology, it is physically set up in a star topology.\n\nThe logical classification of network topologies generally follows the same classifications as those in the physical classifications of network topologies but describes the path that the data takes between nodes being used as opposed to the actual physical connections between nodes.\n\nNotes:\n Logical topologies are often closely associated with Media Access Control methods and protocols.\n The logical topologies are generally determined by network protocols as opposed to being determined by the physical layout of cables, wires, and network devices or by the flow of the electrical signals, although in many cases the paths that the electrical signals take between nodes may closely match the logical flow of data, hence the convention of using the terms logical topology and signal topology interchangeably.\n Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured by special types of equipment such as routers and switches.\n\nDaisy chains\nExcept for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more computers into a network is by daisy-chaining, or connecting each computer in series to the next.  If a message is intended for a computer partway down the line, each system bounces it along in sequence until it reaches the destination.  A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear and ring.\n\nCentralization\nThe star topology reduces the probability of a network failure by connecting all of the peripheral nodes (computers, etc.) to a central node.  When the physical star topology is applied to a logical bus network such as Ethernet, this central node (traditionally a hub) rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only.  The failure of a transmission line linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the isolation of that peripheral node from all others, but the remaining peripheral nodes will be unaffected. However, the disadvantage is that the failure of the central node will cause the failure of all of the peripheral nodes also,\n\nIf the central node is passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own transmission, delayed by the two-way round trip transmission time  (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An active star network has an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems.\n\nA tree topology (a.k.a. hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy.  This tree has individual peripheral nodes (e.g. leaves) which are required to transmit to and receive from one other node only and are not required to act as repeaters or regenerators.  Unlike the star network, the functionality of the central node may be distributed.\n\nAs in the conventional star network, individual nodes may thus still be isolated from the network by a single-point failure of a transmission path to the node.\nIf a link connecting a leaf fails, that leaf is isolated; if a connection to a non-leaf node fails, an entire section of the network becomes isolated from the rest.\n\nIn order to alleviate the amount of network traffic that comes from broadcasting all signals to all nodes, more advanced central nodes were developed that are able to keep track of the identities of the nodes that are connected to the network.  These network switches will \"learn\" the layout of the network by \"listening\" on each port during normal data transmission, examining the data packets and recording the address\/identifier of each connected node and which port it's connected to in a lookup table held in memory. This lookup table then allows future transmissions to be forwarded to the intended destination only.\n\nDecentralization\nIn a mesh topology (i.e., a partially connected mesh topology), there are at least two nodes with two or more paths between them to provide redundant paths to be used in case the link providing one of the paths fails.  This decentralization is often used to advantage to compensate for the single-point-failure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a central node (e.g., in star and tree networks). A special kind of mesh, limiting the number of hops between two nodes, is a hypercube. The number of arbitrary forks in mesh networks makes them more difficult to design and implement, but their decentralized nature makes them very useful.  This is similar in some ways to a grid network, where a linear or ring topology is used to connect systems in multiple directions.  A multi-dimensional ring has a toroidal topology, for instance.\n\nA fully connected network, complete topology or full mesh topology is a network topology in which there is a direct link between all pairs of nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes, there are n(n-1)\/2 direct links. Networks designed with this topology are usually very expensive to set up, but provide a high degree of reliability due to the multiple paths for data that are provided by the large number of redundant links between nodes. This topology is mostly seen in military applications.  However, it can also be seen in the file sharing protocol BitTorrent in which users connect to other users in the \"swarm\" by allowing each user sharing the file to connect to other users also involved.  Often in actual usage of BitTorrent any given individual node is rarely connected to every single other node as in a true fully connected network but the protocol does allow for the possibility for any one node to connect to any other node when sharing files.\n\nHybrids\nHybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.).  For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network, but two star networks connected together exhibit a hybrid network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network\n A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a multistation access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.\n A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).\n\nReferences\n\nTendaishe Sigauke, (2007: 46) Explaining networking terms\n\nOther websites\n\n A Guide to Network Topology \n Research network topology \n Types of topology \n Logical Topology Example\n 8 Common Network Topologies & How to Use\n\nTendaishe Sigauke, (2007: 46) Explaining networking terms\n\nComputer networking","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":287549,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network%20topology","title":"Network topology","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In computing, Chord is a protocol and algorithm for a peer-to-peer distributed hash table. A distributed hash table stores key-value pairs by assigning keys to different computers (known as \"nodes\"); a node will store the values for all the keys for which it is responsible. Chord specifies how keys are assigned to nodes, and how a node can discover the value for a given key by first locating the node responsible for that key.\n\nChord is one of the four original distributed hash table protocols, along with CAN, Tapestry, and Pastry. It was introduced in 2001 by Ion Stoica, Robert Morris, David Karger, Frans Kaashoek, and Hari Balakrishnan, and was developed at MIT. The 2001 Chord paper won an ACM SIGCOMM Test of Time award in 2011.\n\nSubsequent research by Pamela Zave has shown that the original Chord algorithm (as specified in the 2001 SIGCOMM paper, the 2001 Technical report,\nthe 2002 PODC paper, and\nthe 2003 TON paper\n) can mis-order the ring, produce several rings, and break the ring.\n\nOverview\n\nNodes and keys are assigned an -bit identifier using consistent hashing. The SHA-1 algorithm is the base hashing function for consistent hashing. Consistent hashing is integral to the robustness and performance of Chord because both keys and nodes (in fact, their IP addresses) are uniformly distributed in the same identifier space with a negligible possibility of collision. Thus, it also allows nodes to join and leave the network without disruption. In the protocol, the term node is used to refer to both a node itself and its identifier (ID) without ambiguity. So is the term key.\n\nUsing the Chord lookup protocol, nodes and keys are arranged in an identifier circle that has at most  nodes, ranging from  to . ( should be large enough to avoid collision.)  Some of these nodes will map to machines or keys while others (most) will be empty.\n\nEach node has a successor and a predecessor. The successor to a node is the next node in the identifier circle in a clockwise direction. The predecessor is counter-clockwise. If there is a node for each possible ID, the successor of node 0 is node 1, and the predecessor of node 0 is node ; however, normally there are \"holes\" in the sequence. For example, the successor of node 153 may be node 167 (and nodes from 154 to 166 do not exist); in this case, the predecessor of node 167 will be node 153.\n\nThe concept of successor can be used for keys as well. The successor node of a key  is the first node whose ID equals to  or follows  in the identifier circle, denoted by . Every key is assigned to (stored at) its successor node, so looking up a key  is to query .\n\nSince the successor (or predecessor) of a node may disappear from the network (because of failure or departure), each node records an arc of  nodes in the middle of which it stands, i.e., the list of  nodes preceding it and  nodes following it. This list results in a high probability that a node is able to correctly locate its successor or predecessor, even if the network in question suffers from a high failure rate.\n\nProtocol details\n\nBasic query\nThe core usage of the Chord protocol is to query a key from a client (generally a node as well), i.e. to find . The basic approach is to pass the query to a node's successor, if it cannot find the key locally. This will lead to a  query time where  is the number of machines in the ring.\n\nFinger table\nTo avoid the linear search above, Chord implements a faster search method by requiring each node to keep a finger table containing up to  entries, recall that  is the number of bits in the hash key.  The  entry of node  will contain . The first entry of finger table is actually the node's immediate successor (and therefore an extra successor field is not needed). Every time a node wants to look up a key , it will pass the query to the closest successor or predecessor (depending on the finger table) of  in its finger table (the \"largest\" one on the circle whose ID is smaller than ), until a node finds out the key is stored in its immediate successor.\n\nWith such a finger table, the number of nodes that must be contacted to find a successor in an N-node network is . (See proof below.)\n\nNode join\nWhenever a new node joins, three invariants should be maintained (the first two ensure correctness and the last one keeps querying fast):\n Each node's successor points to its immediate successor correctly.\n Each key is stored in .\n Each node's finger table should be correct.\n\nTo satisfy these invariants, a predecessor field is maintained for each node. As the successor is the first entry of the finger table, we do not need to maintain this field separately any more. The following tasks should be done for a newly joined node :\n Initialize node  (the predecessor and the finger table).\n Notify other nodes to update their predecessors and finger tables.\n The new node takes over its responsible keys from its successor.\n\nThe predecessor of  can be easily obtained from the predecessor of  (in the previous circle). As for its finger table, there are various initialization methods. The simplest one is to execute find successor queries for all  entries, resulting in  initialization time. A better method is to check whether  entry in the finger table is still correct for the  entry. This will lead to . The best method is to initialize the finger table from its immediate neighbours and make some updates, which is .\n\nStabilization\nTo ensure correct lookups, all successor pointers must be up to date. Therefore, a stabilization protocol is running periodically in the background which updates finger tables and successor pointers.\n\nThe stabilization protocol works as follows:\n Stabilize(): n asks its successor for its predecessor p and decides whether p should be n'''s successor instead (this is the case if p recently joined the system).\n Notify(): notifies ns successor of its existence, so it can change its predecessor to n\n Fix_fingers(): updates finger tables\n\nPotential uses\nCooperative Mirroring: A load balancing mechanism by a local network hosting information available to computers outside of the local network.  This scheme could allow developers to balance the load between many computers instead of a central server to ensure availability of their product.\nTime-shared storage: In a network, once a computer joins the network its available data is distributed throughout the network for retrieval when that computer disconnects from the network.  As well as other computers' data is sent to the computer in question for offline retrieval when they are no longer connected to the network.  Mainly for nodes without the ability to connect full-time to the network.\nDistributed Indices: Retrieval of files over the network within a searchable database.  e.g. P2P file transfer clients.\nLarge scale combinatorial searches: Keys being candidate solutions to a problem and each key mapping to the node, or computer, that is responsible for evaluating them as a solution or not. e.g. Code Breaking\nAlso used in wireless sensor networks for reliability\n\nProof sketchesWith high probability, Chord contacts  nodes to find a successor in an -node network.Suppose node  wishes to find the successor of key . Let  be the predecessor of . We wish to find an upper bound for the number of steps it takes for a message to be routed from  to . Node  will examine its finger table and route the request to the closest predecessor of  that it has. Call this node . If  is the  entry in 's finger table, then both  and  are at distances between  and  from  along the identifier circle. Hence, the distance between  and  along this circle is at most . Thus the distance from  to  is less than the distance from  to : the new distance to  is at most half the initial distance.\n\nThis process of halving the remaining distance repeats itself, so after  steps, the distance remaining to  is at most ; in particular, after  steps, the remaining distance is at most . Because nodes are distributed uniformly at random along the identifier circle, the expected number of nodes falling within an interval of this length is 1, and with high probability, there are fewer than  such nodes. Because the message always advances by at least one node, it takes at most  steps for a message to traverse this remaining distance. The total expected routing time is thus .\n\nIf Chord keeps track of  predecessors\/successors, then with high probability, if each node has probability of 1\/4 of failing, find_successor (see below) and find_predecessor (see below) will return the correct nodes\n\nSimply, the probability that all  nodes fail is , which is a low probability; so with high probability at least one of them is alive and the node will have the correct pointer.\n\nPseudocode\nDefinitions for pseudocode\nfinger[k] first node that succeeds \nsuccessor the next node from the node in question on the identifier ring\npredecessor the previous node from the node in question on the identifier ring\n\nThe pseudocode to find the successor node of an id is given below:\n\n \/\/ ask node n to find the successor of id\n n.find_successor(id)\n     \/\/ Yes, that should be a closing square bracket to match the opening parenthesis.\n     \/\/ It is a half closed interval.\n     if id \u2208 (n, successor] then         return successor\n     else         \/\/ forward the query around the circle\n         n0 := closest_preceding_node(id)\n         return n0.find_successor(id)\n \n \/\/ search the local table for the highest predecessor of id\n n.closest_preceding_node(id)\n     for i = m downto 1 do         if (finger[i] \u2208 (n, id)) then             return finger[i]\n     return n\n\nThe pseudocode to stabilize the chord ring\/circle after node joins and departures is as follows:\n\n \/\/ create a new Chord ring.\n n.create()\n     predecessor := nil\n     successor := n\n \n \/\/ join a Chord ring containing node n'.\n n.join(n')\n     predecessor := nil\n     successor := n'.find_successor(n)\n \n \/\/ called periodically. n asks the successor\n \/\/ about its predecessor, verifies if n's immediate\n \/\/ successor is consistent, and tells the successor about n\n n.stabilize()\n     x = successor.predecessor\n     if x \u2208 (n, successor) then         successor := x\n     successor.notify(n)\n \n \/\/ n' thinks it might be our predecessor.\n n.notify(n')\n     if predecessor is nil or n'\u2208(predecessor, n) then         predecessor := n'\n \n \/\/ called periodically. refreshes finger table entries.\n \/\/ next stores the index of the finger to fix\n n.fix_fingers()\n     next := next + 1\n     if next > m then         next := 1\n     finger[next] := find_successor(n+2);\n \n \/\/ called periodically. checks whether predecessor has failed.\n n.check_predecessor()\n     if predecessor has failed then'''\n         predecessor := nil\n\nSee also\n Kademlia\n Koorde\n OverSim \u2013 the overlay simulation framework\n SimGrid \u2013 a toolkit for the simulation of distributed applications -\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nThe Chord Project (redirect from: http:\/\/pdos.lcs.mit.edu\/chord\/)\nOpen Chord \u2013 An Open Source Java Implementation\nChordless \u2013 Another Open Source Java Implementation\njDHTUQ- An open source java implementation. API to generalize the implementation of peer-to-peer DHT systems. Contains GUI in mode data structure\n\nArticles with example pseudocode\nDistributed data storage\nSoftware using the MIT license","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":56,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2015-18":6,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":3,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4}},"id":322132,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chord%20%28peer-to-peer%29","title":"Chord (peer-to-peer)","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A pattern is an idea, a concept or a model. The model is usually abstract, and can then be applied to the domain where it is used. Pattern matching is checking if a certain pattern is present. Many patterns can directly be recognised by the senses. \n\nSome patterns are based on the fact that there are repetitions, that a certain thing occurs over and over again. An example of a simple pattern might be the tiling of a floor. For example, lots of bathrooms have a paisley or floral tiling pattern on the floor. In computer science, design patterns are model solutions for problems that occur often. Sometimes people see patterns when there are none. This is called pareidolia.\n\nMathematical patterns \nIn Mathematics, there are many different patterns. For example, the Fibonacci sequence is a complex type of pattern. There are some simple ones like:\n\n1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ...\n\nIn this pattern, the next number is the product of the previous number multiplied by 2. Basically a mathematical pattern is a sequence of numbers which follows one rule.\n\nComputer science\nDesign\nConceptual art","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":71,"dup_details":{"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":60470,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern","title":"Pattern","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\"Abide with Me\" is a religious song or hymn. It was written by Henry Lyte in 1847, and is typically associated with funerals and solemn events of remembrance. The song is sung at the start of the FA Cup finals.\n\nLyrics \nAbide with me; fast falls the eventide;\nThe darkness deepens; Lord with me abide.\nWhen other helpers fail and comforts flee,\nHelp of the helpless, O abide with me.\n\nSwift to its close ebbs out life's little day;\nEarth's joys grow dim; its glories pass away;\nChange and decay in all around I see;\nO Thou who changest not, abide with me.\n\nNot a brief glance I beg, a passing word;\nBut as Thou dwell'st with Thy disciples, Lord,\nFamiliar, condescending, patient, free.\nCome not to sojourn, but abide with me.\n\nCome not in terrors, as the King of kings,\nBut kind and good, with healing in Thy wings,\nTears for all woes, a heart for every plea\u2014\nCome, Friend of sinners, and thus bide with me.\n\nThou on my head in early youth didst smile;\nAnd, though rebellious and perverse meanwhile,\nThou hast not left me, oft as I left Thee,\nOn to the close, O Lord, abide with me.\n\nI need Thy presence every passing hour.\nWhat but Thy grace can foil the tempter's power?\nWho, like Thyself, my guide and stay can be?\nThrough cloud and sunshine, Lord, abide with me.\n\nI fear no foe, with Thee at hand to bless;\nIlls have no weight, and tears no bitterness.\nWhere is death's sting? Where, grave, thy victory?\nI triumph still, if Thou abide with me.\n\nHold Thou Thy cross before my closing eyes;\nShine through the gloom and point me to the skies.\nHeaven's morning breaks, and earth's vain shadows flee;\nIn life, in death, O Lord, abide with me.\n\nOther websites \nThe Cyber Hymnal\u2122  (lyrics, MIDI, sheet music, pictures & history)\n\nChristian hymns\n1840s songs","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":453,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2023-50":4,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":6,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":6,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":7,"2022-27":9,"2022-21":5,"2022-05":7,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":6,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":7,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":7,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":6,"2020-34":4,"2020-29":7,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":6,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":6,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":6,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":6,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":5,"2018-43":5,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":4,"2018-30":9,"2018-26":7,"2018-22":3,"2018-17":6,"2018-13":9,"2018-09":7,"2018-05":8,"2017-51":8,"2017-47":6,"2017-43":9,"2017-39":9,"2017-34":12,"2017-30":6,"2017-26":13,"2017-22":9,"2017-17":8,"2017-09":8,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":4,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":3,"2016-22":3,"2016-18":3,"2016-07":5,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":7,"2014-42":17,"2014-41":8,"2014-35":7,"2014-23":10,"2014-15":9}},"id":43899,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abide%20with%20Me","title":"Abide with Me","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state. England, Scotland, Wales (together: Great Britain) and Northern Ireland are parts of this state.\n\nThe Acts of Union in 1707 united the crowns and Parliaments of England and Scotland to create (the United Kingdom of) Great Britain. At this time, Wales was legally part of the Kingdom of England, with representation (since 1536) in the English Parliament, so it was included in the union of England and Scotland. Ireland was a separate kingdom with its own parliament until further Acts of Union in 1800 joined Great Britain and Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.\n\nIn 1922, the territory of what is now the Republic of Ireland gained independence, and only Northern Ireland continued to be part of the United Kingdom. As a result, in 1927 Britain changed its formal title to \"The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\", usually shortened to \"the United Kingdom\", \"The UK\", \"Great Britain\" or just \"Britain\".\n\nThe birth of the United Kingdom\n\nActs of Union 1707\n\nThe first step towards political unification were taken on 1 May 1707, when the parliaments of Scotland and England approved Acts of Union which combined the two parliaments and the two royal titles.\n\nPerhaps the greatest single benefit to Scotland of the Union was that Scotland could enjoy free trade with England and her colonies overseas. For England's part, a possible ally for European states that were hostile to England had been neutralized.\n\nCertain aspect of the former independent kingdoms remained separate. Examples of Scottish and English institutions which were not merged into the British system include: Scottish and English law which remain separate, as do Scottish and English banking systems, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland and Anglican Church of England also remained separate as did the systems of education and higher learning.\n\nAs the Scots were generally well educated, they made a disproportionate contribution to both the government of the United Kingdom and the administration of the British Empire.\n\n19th century\n\nIreland joins with the Act of Union (1800)\n\nThe second stage in the development of the United Kingdom took effect on 1 January 1801, when Great Britain merged with the Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.\n\nThe legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was completed under the Act of Union 1800. The country's name was changed to \"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland\". The Act was passed in the British and therefore unrepresentative Irish Parliament with substantial majorities achieved in part (according to contemporary documents) through bribery, namely the awarding of peerages and honors to critics to get their votes. The separate Parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland were abolished, and replaced by a united Parliament of the United Kingdom. Ireland thus became part of an extended United Kingdom. Ireland sent around 100 MPs to the House of Commons at Westminster and 28 peers to the House of Lords.\n\nNapoleonic wars\nHostilities between Great Britain and France recommenced on 18 May 1803. The Coalition war-aims changed over the course of the conflict: a general desire to restore the French monarchy became closely linked to the struggle to stop Napoleon.\nThe Napoleonic conflict had reached the point at which subsequent historians could talk of a \"world war\". Only the Seven Years' War offered a precedent for widespread conflict on such a scale.\n\nVictorian era \nThe Victorian era marked the height of the British Industrial Revolution and the apex of the British Empire. Although commonly used to refer to the period of Queen Victoria's rule between 1837 and 1901, scholars debate whether the Victorian period\u2013as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians\u2013actually begins with the passage of Reform Act 1832. The era was preceded by the Regency era and succeeded by the Edwardian period. The latter half of the Victorian era roughly coincided with the first portion of the Belle \u00c9poque era of continental Europe and other non-English speaking countries.\n\nPrime Ministers: William Pitt the Younger | Lord Grenville | Duke of Portland | Spencer Perceval | Lord Liverpool | George Canning | Lord Goderich | Duke of Wellington | Lord Grey | Lord Melbourne | Sir Robert Peel | Lord John Russell | Lord Derby | Lord Aberdeen | Lord Palmerston | Benjamin Disraeli | William Ewart Gladstone | Lord Salisbury | Lord Rosebery\n\nIreland and the move to Home Rule\n\n20th century\n\nPrime Ministers of the United Kingdom 1900\u20131945\nMarquess of Salisbury | Arthur Balfour | Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman | Herbert Henry Asquith | David Lloyd George | Andrew Bonar Law | Stanley Baldwin | Ramsay MacDonald | Stanley Baldwin | Ramsay MacDonald | Stanley Baldwin | Neville Chamberlain | Winston Churchill\n\nWorld War I\n\nPartition of Ireland\n\nWorld War II\n\nEmpire to Commonwealth \nBritain's control over its Empire loosened during the interwar period. Nationalism became stronger in other parts of the empire, particularly in India and in Egypt.\n\nBetween 1867 and 1910, the UK granted Australia, Canada, and New Zealand \"Dominion\" status (near complete autonomy within the Empire).\n\n1945-1997\nThe end of the Second World War saw a landslide General Election victory for Clement Attlee and the Labour Party.\n\nAs the country headed into the 1950s, rebuilding continued and a number of immigrants from the remaining British Empire were invited to help the rebuilding effort. During the 1950s the UK lost its place as a superpower and could no longer maintain its large Empire. This led to decolonization, and a withdrawal from almost all of its colonies by 1970.\n\nThough the 1970s and 1980s saw the UK's integration to the European Economic Community which became the European Union in 1992 and a strict modernization of its economy.\n\nAfter the difficult 70s and 80s the 1990s saw the beginning of a period of continuous economic growth that has to date lasted over 15 years. The Good Friday Agreement saw what many believe to be the beginning of the end of conflict in Northern Ireland; since this event, there has been very little armed violence over the issue.\n\n21st century \nIn the 2001 General Election, the Labour Party won a second successive victory.\n\nDespite huge anti-war marches being held in London and Glasgow, Tony Blair gave strong support to the United State's invasion of Iraq in 2003. Forty-six thousand British troops, one-third of the total strength of the British Army (land forces), were active to assist with the invasion of Iraq and after that British armed forces were responsible for security in southern Iraq in the time before the Iraqi elections of January 2005.\n\n2007 saw the conclusion of the premiership of Tony Blair, followed by that of Gordon Brown. The next prime minister, David Cameron, was elected in 2010. During his first term, the Scottish National Party (SNP) won the 2011 election to the Scottish Parliament. On 18 September 2014, the SNP held a referendum that asked the people of Scotland whether they want to be independent from the UK. 55% of voters wanted to remain in the UK.\n\nDavid Cameron was re-elected in 2015 on promises to hold a referendum on whether the United Kingdom should leave the European Union. It took place on 23 June 2016 and was won by the \"Leave\" campaign with 52% of the vote. Cameron would then resign and be replaced by Theresa May as prime minister who will lead the country into the process of \"Brexit\".\n\nOn January 2020, Brexit had occurred.\n\nTerrorist attacks \nThe U.K. also saw two incidents of terrorism occur in London in the 21st century.\n\nOn 7 July 2005, three bombs exploded on the London Underground at 8:50 during the morning rush hour, and a fourth exploded one hour later on a bus in Tavistock Square. The attack, done by Muslim extremists, killed 52 people and injured over 700 others.\n\nOn 22 March 2017, exactly one year after the bombings in Brussels, five people were killed in the 2017 Westminster attack near the Houses of Parliament. One of them was the attacker, Khalid Masood, who also stabbed an officer of the Metropolitan Police, who later died of his injuries.\n\nOn 22 May 2017, \"two bombings\" occurred at the Manchester Arena with 19 people dead and 50 injured. It is a suspected suicide bombing.\n\nRelated pages\n United Kingdom\n British Empire\n History of Europe\n History of England\n\nFootnotes \n\u00b9 The term \"United Kingdom\" was first used in the Union with Scotland Act 1706. However it is generally seen as a descriptive term, indicating that the kingdoms were freely united rather than through conquest. It is not seen as being actual name of the new United Kingdom, which was (by article one) \"Great Britain\". The \"United Kingdom\" as a name is taken to refer to the kingdom that emerged when the Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland merged on 1 January 1801.\n\n\u00b2 The name \"Great Britain\" (then spelt \"Great Brittaine\") was first used by James VI\/I in October 1604, who indicated that henceforth he and his successors would be viewed as Kings of Great Britain, not Kings of England and Scotland. However the name was not applied to the state as a unit; both England and Scotland continued to be governed independently. Its validity as a name of the Crown is also questioned, given that monarchs continued using separate ordinals (e.g., James VI\/I, James VII\/II) in England and Scotland. To avoid confusion, historians generally avoid using the term \"King of Great Britain\" until 1707 and instead to match the ordinal usage call the monarchs kings or queens of England and Scotland. Separate ordinals were abandoned when the two states merged with the Act of Union 1707, with subsequent monarchs using ordinals apparently based on English not Scottish history (it might be argued that the monarchs have simply taken the higher ordinal, which to date has always been English). One example is Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, who is referred to as being \"the Second\" even though there never was an Elizabeth I of Scotland or Great Britain. Thus the term \"Great Britain\" is generally used from 1707.\n\n\u00b3 The number changed several times between 1801 and 1922.\n\n4 The Anglo-Irish Treaty was ratified by (i) The British Parliament (Commons, Lords & Royal Assent), (ii) D\u00e1il \u00c9ireann, and the (iii) the House of Commons of Southern Ireland, a parliament created under the British Government of Ireland Act 1920 which was supposedly the valid parliament of Southern Ireland in British eyes and which had an almost identical membership of the D\u00e1il, but which nevertheless had to assemble separately under the Treaty's provisions to approve the Treaty, the Treaty thus being ratified under both British and Irish constitutional theory.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n Info Britain.co.uk \n History of the United Kingdom: Primary Documents\n http:\/\/www.british-history.ac.uk\n Text of 1800 Act of Union \n Act of Union virtual library","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":100992,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom","title":"History of the United Kingdom","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Buddhist Crisis was a period of political and religious tension in South Vietnam. The crisis was characterized by a series of discriminating acts by the South Vietnamese government and a campaign of civil resistance mainly led by Buddhist monks.\n\nThe crisis was started when the President Ng\u00f4 \u0110\u00ecnh Di\u1ec7m banned the flying of the Buddhist flag. That led to the shooting of nine unarmed civilians who were protesting a ban of the Buddhist flag on May 8 and suicide by burning of Th\u00edch Qu\u1ea3ng \u0110\u1ee9c on June 11. The crisis ended when Ng\u00f4 \u0110\u00ecnh Di\u1ec7m was assassinated on November 2, 1963.\n\nBackground \nA survey said that about 70-90 percent of South Vietnamese people were Buddhist. The President called it biased. A member of the Catholic minority, his government was biased towards Catholics in public service and military promotions, as well as in the allocation of land, business favors and tax concessions etc. Diem once told a high-ranking officer, forgetting that he was a Buddhist, \"Put your Catholic officers in sensitive places. They can be trusted.\" Many officers in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) converted to Catholicism believing that their career prospects depended on it. Many were also refused promotion if they did not convert. Also, the distribution of firearms to village self-defense militias intended to repel Viet Cong guerrillas was done so that weapons were only given to Catholics. Some Catholic priests ran private armies, and in some areas forced conversion and looting, shelling and demolition of pagodas. Some Buddhist villages converted to receive aid or avoid being forcibly resettled by Diem's regime. The Catholic Church enjoyed special exemptions. In 1959, Ng\u00f4 \u0110\u00ecnh Di\u1ec7m dedicated the country to the Virgin Mary. The Vatican flag was usually flown in public services and events while the Buddhist flag was not allowed to be flown in public services and\/or events.\n\nVietnam War\n1960s conflicts\n1960s in Asia","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3}},"id":331091,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Buddhist%20crisis","title":"Buddhist crisis","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Spamming nya\u00e9ta kalakuan ngirimkeun surelek electronik nu teu dipiharep. Hiji kaca article mangrupa masalah spam dina 1998 dumasar kana salaku pesen \"text taya harti nu ngalir taya eureunna.\"\n\nTina panempo nu populer, spam ilaharnad dikirim ngaliwatan surelek saperti dina bentuk iklan. However, over the short history of electronic media, p\u00e9ople have done things comparable to spamming for many purposes other than the commercial, and in many media other than e-mail. In this article and those related, the term spamming is used broadly to refer to all of these behaviors, regardless of medium and commercial intent.\n\nThis article provides a general overview of the spamming phenomenon. Separate articles discuss the techniques of spammers on particular media: Internet e-mail, instant messaging, Usenet newsgroups, Web search engines, weblogs, and mobile phone messaging. Another article describes ways of stopping e-mail abuse.\n\nOverview \n\nOne of the strengths of electronic communications media is that it costs virtually nothing to send a message. These media are not free of charge: setting up a cellular telephone network or an Internet e-mail service has substantial overh\u00e9ad costs in equipment and connectivity. However, once these costs are paid for, the cost to transmit a message to a single recipient is minuscule when compared with older media such as postal mail. Electronic messaging is ch\u00e9ap and fast. It is also \u00e9asy to automate: computer programs can send out millions of messages via e-mail, instant message (IM), or Usenet netnews in minutes or hours at n\u00e9arly no labor cost.\n\nFrom these economic r\u00e9alities, a sort of tragedy of the commons emerges. Any communications mechanism which is ch\u00e9ap and \u00e9asy to automate is \u00e9asy to flood with bulk messages. To send instant messages to millions of users on most IM services, all one needs is a piece of scriptable software and those users' IM usernames. The ability to send e-mail from a computer program is built in to popular operating systems such as Microsoft Windows and Unix \u2014 the only added ingredient needed is the list of addresses to target.\n\nSending bulk messages in this fashion, to recipients who have not solicited them, has come to be known as spamming, and the messages themselves as spam. The etymology of the term is discussed below. Traditional advertising methods, such as billboards, TV or newspaper ads are similar to spam in that they are usually unsolicited and sent in bulk. Pollution of public space by advertising is also quite similar to the problem of spam. However, traditional \"legitimate\" advertising is usually spared the \"spam\" label on the grounds that distribution costs are borne by the advertiser.\n\nSpamming has been considered by various commercial, government, and independent entities to be one of the foremost social problems facing electronic media today. All manner of attempts have been made to curb this problem: technical m\u00e9asures such as e-mail filtering and the automated cancellation of netnews spam; contractual m\u00e9asures such as Internet Service Providers' acceptable-use policies; laws such as the Can Spam Act of 2003; and market pressures such as boycotts of those who use or support spam.\n\nThe growing importance of Search Engines has led to a new form of spam, Spamdexing, which aims at boosting a commercial site's Pagerank.\n\nSpamming in different media\n\nE-mail spam \n\nE-mail spam is by far the most common form of spamming on the internet.  It involves sending identical or n\u00e9arly identical messages to a large number of recipients. Unlike legitimate commercial e-mail, spam is generally sent without the explicit permission of the recipients, and frequently contains various tricks to bypass e-mail filters.\n\nSpammers obtain e-mail addresses by a number of m\u00e9ans: harvesting addresses from Usenet postings, DNS listings, or Web pages; guessing common names at known domains (known as a dictionary attack); and \"e-pending\" or s\u00e9arching for e-mail addresses corresponding to specific persons, such as residents in an ar\u00e9a.\n\nMany e-mail spammers go to gr\u00e9at lengths to conc\u00e9al the origin of their messages. They might do this by spoofing e-mail addresses (similar to Internet protocol spoofing). In this technique, the spammer modifies the e-mail message so it looks like it is coming from another e-mail address. However, many spammers also mak\u00e9 it \u00e9asy for recipients to identify their messages as spam by placing an ad phrase in the FROM field (i.e. chances are, very few p\u00e9ople you know have names like \"GetMyCigs\" or \"Giving away playstation2s\").\n\nAmong the tricks used by spammers to try to circumvent the filters is to intentionally misspell common spam filter trigger words, ie. \"viagra\" might become \"vaigra\", or by inserting other symbols within the word, i.e. \"v\/i\/a\/g.\/r\/a\". Sometimes this intentional corruption backfires and l\u00e9ads to the advertiser's message becoming so obfuscated that it is illegible.\n\nThe weird thing is that the human mind can handle the misspellings (see Wrod Illusinos ) and while one  would think the misspellings mak\u00e9 it harder for email ISPs to trap the spam, it actually makes it \u00e9asier for them to recognize and stop the spam.\n\nThe most dedicated spammers are often one step ah\u00e9ad of the ISPs. The dedicated ones are those making a lot of money or engaged in illegal activities, such as the porn industry, casinos and Nigerian scammers. Report them \u00e9arly and often.\n\nSpambots are a big problem now. The worst spammers have cr\u00e9ated various email viruses that will turn your PC into a zombie computer with a spambot; the zombie will inform a master spammer of its existence, and, and the spammer will command it to send a low volume of spam. This allows spammers to send spam without being caught by their ISPs or being tracked down by anti-spammers; the low volume makes it hard to detect. Dialup and DSL ISPs could stop spambots by blocking the SMTP port  (port 25) - link \u00e9arthlink does.\n\nMessaging spam \n\nMessaging spam, sometimes termed spim, is a type of spamming where the target of the spamming is instant messaging (IM).  Many IM systems offer a directory of users, including demographic information such as age and sex. Advertisers can gather this information, sign on to the system, and send unsolicited messages.\n\nA similar sort of spam can be sent with the Windows Messenger Service in Microsoft Windows. The Messenger Service is an SMB facility intended to allow servers to send pop-up alerts to a Windows workstation. When Windows systems are connected to the Internet with this service running and without an adequate firewall, it can be used to send spam. The Messenger Service can, however, be \u00e9asily disabled.\n\nNewsgroup spam \n\nNewsgroup spam is a type of spamming where the target of the spamming are Usenet newsgroups. Spamming of Usenet newsgroups actually pre-dates e-mail spam. Old Usenet convention defines spamming as excessive multiple posting, that is, the rep\u00e9ated posting of a message (or substantially similar messages).  Since posting to newsgroups is n\u00e9arly as \u00e9asy as sending e-mails, newsgroups are a popular target of spammers. The Breidbart Index was developed to provide an objective m\u00e9asure of the \"spamminess\" of a multi-posted or cross-posted message on Usenet.\n\nMobile phone spam \n\nMobile phone spam is a form of spamming directed at the text messaging service of a mobile phone.  This can be especially irritating to consumers not only for the inconvenience but also because they sometimes have to pay to receive the text message.\n\nInternet telephony spam \n\nIt has been predicted that voice over IP (VoIP) communications will be vulnerable to being spammed by pre-recorded messages. Although there have been few reported incidents, some companies have alr\u00e9ady tried to sell defenses against it.\n\nSpam targeting search engines\n\nSpamdexing \n\nSpamdexing (a combination of spamming and indexing) refers to the practice on the World Wide Web of deliberately modifying HTML pages to incr\u00e9ase the chance of them being placed high on search engine relevancy lists. P\u00e9ople who do this are called search engine spammers.\n\nBlog spam \n\nIn blog spam the targets are weblogs.  In 2003, this type of spam took advantage of the open nature of comments in the blogging software Movable Type by rep\u00e9atedly placing comments to various blog posts that provided nothing more than a link to the spammer's commercial web site.  These link would in th\u00e9ory enhance the ranking of the target page in s\u00e9arch engine indexes.\n\nWiki spam \n\nWikis are also a target of s\u00e9arch engine spam, quite similar to blog spam.\n\nGuestbook spam \n\nThough more \"old-school\" than blogs or wikis, guestbooks are still present on some sites, and are subject to the same sorts of spam.\n\nCommercial uses \n\nThe most common purpose for spamming is advertising. Goods commonly advertised in spam include pornography, computer software, medical products such as Viagra, credit card accounts, and fad products. In part because of the bad reputation (and dubious legal status) which spamming carries, it is chiefly used to carry offers of an ill-reputed or questionably legal nature. Many of the products advertised in spam are fraudulent in nature, such as quack medications and get-rich-quick schemes. Spam is frequently used to advertise scams, such as diploma mills, advance fee fraud, pyramid schemes, stock pump-and-dump schemes and password phishing. It is also often used to advertise pornography indiscriminately, even in jurisdictions where it is illegal to transmit pornographic solicitations to minor children, or even for anyone to view it at all.\n\nThe use of spamming in other countries is often different. For example, in Russia spamming is commonly used by many mainstr\u00e9am legitimate businesses, such as travel agencies, printing shops, training centres, r\u00e9al estate agencies, seminar and conference organisers and even self-employed electricians and garbage collection companies. In fact, the most prominent Russian spammer was American English Center, a language school in Moscow.  That spamming sparked a powerful anti-spam movement, including enraging the deputy minister of communications Andrey Korotkov and provoked a wave of counter attacks on the spammer through non-internet channels, including a massive telephone DDOS attack.\n\nComparison to postal \"junk\" mail \n\nThere are a number of differences between spam and junk mail:\n\n Unlike junk postal mail, the costs of spam paid for by the recipient's mail site commonly approach or even exceed those of the sender, in terms of bandwidth, CPU processing time, and storage space.  Spammers frequently use free dial-up accounts, so their costs may be quite minimal indeed. Because of this offloading of costs onto the recipient, many consider spamming to be theft or criminal conversion.\n Junk mail can be said to subsidize the delivery of mail customers want to receive.  For example, the United States Postal Service allows bulk mail senders to pay a lower rate than for first-class mail, because they are required to sort their mailings and apply bar codes, which makes their mail much ch\u00e9aper to process. While some ISPs receive large fees from spammers, most do not \u2014 and most pay the costs of carrying or filtering unwanted spam.\n Another distinction is that the costs of sending junk mail provide incentives to be somewhat selective about recipients, wher\u00e9as the spammer has much lower costs, and therefore much less incentive.\n Finally, bulk mail is by and large used by businesses who are trac\u00e9able and can be held responsible for what they send.  Spammers frequently operate on a fly-by-night basis, using the so-called \"anarchy\" of the Internet as a cover.\n\nNon-commercial spam \n\nE-mail and other forms of spamming have been used for purposes other than advertisements. Many \u00e9arly Usenet spams were religious or political in nature. Serdar Argic, for instance, spammed Usenet with historical revisionist screeds. A number of evangelists have spammed Usenet and e-mail media with pr\u00e9aching messages.\n\nSpamming has also been used as a denial of service tactic, particularly on Usenet. By overwhelming the r\u00e9aders of a newsgroup with an inordinate number of nonsense messages, legitimate messages can be lost and computing resources are consumed. Since these messages are usually forged (that is, sent falsely under regular posters' names) this tactic has come to be known as sporgery (from spam + forgery). This tactic has for instance been used by partisans of the Church of Scientology against the alt.religion.scientology newsgroup (see Scientology vs. the Internet) and by spammers against news.admin.net-abuse.e-mail, a forum for mail administrators to discuss spam problems. Applied to e-mail, this is termed mailbombing.\n\nIn a handful of cases, forged e-mail spam has been used as a tool of harassment. The spammer collects a list of addresses as usual, then sends a spam to them signed with the name of the person he wishes to harass. Some recipients, angry that they received spam and seeing an obvious \"source\", will respond angrily or pursue various sorts of revenge against the apparent spammer, the forgery victim. A widely known victim of this sort of harassment was Joe's CyberPost, which has lent its name to the offense: it is known as a joe job. Such joe jobs have been most often used against anti-spammers: in more recent examples, Steve Linford of Spamhaus Project and Timothy Walton, a California attorney, have been targeted.\n\nSpammers have also abused resources set up for purposes of anonymous speech online, such as anonymous remailers. As a result, many of these resources have been shut down, denying their utility to legitimate users.\n\nE-mail worms or viruses may be spammed to set up an initial pool of infected machines, which then re-send the virus to other machines in a spam-like manner. The infected machines can often be used as remote-controlled zombie computers, for more conventional spamming or DDoS attacks. Sometimes trojans are spammed to phish for bank account details, or to set up a pool of zombies without using a virus.\n\nEtymology \n\nThe term spam is derived from the Monty Python SPAM sketch, set in a cafe where everything on the menu includes SPAM lunch\u00e9on m\u00e9at. While a customer plaintively asks for some kind of food without SPAM in it, the server reiterates the SPAM-filled menu. Soon, a chorus of Vikings join in with a song, rep\u00e9ating \"SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM\" and singing \"lovely SPAM, wonderful SPAM\" over and over again, drowning out all conversation.\n\nAlthough the first known instance of unsolicited commercial e-mail occurred in 1978 (unsolicited electronic messaging had alr\u00e9ady taken place over other media, with the first recorded instance being on September 13th 1904 via telegram), the term \"spam\" for this practice had not yet been applied. In the 1980s the term was adopted to describe certain abusive users who frequented BBSs and MUDs, who would rep\u00e9at \"SPAM\" a huge number of times to scroll other users' text off the screen. This act, previously termed flooding or trashing, came to be called spamming as well.  By analogy, the term was soon applied to any large amount of text broadcast by one user, or sometimes by many users.\n\nIt later came to be used on Usenet to m\u00e9an excessive multiple posting \u2014 the rep\u00e9ated posting of the same message. The first evident usage of this sense was by Joel Furr in the aftermath of the ARMM incident of March 31 1993, in which a piece of experimental software rel\u00e9ased dozens of recursive messages onto the news.admin.policy newsgroup. Soon, this use had also become established \u2014 to spam Usenet was to flood newsgroups with junk messages.\n\nCommercial spamming started in force on March 5, 1994 when a pair of lawyers, Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, began using bulk Usenet posting to advertise immigration law services.  The incident was commonly termed the \"Green Card spam\", after the subject line of the postings. The two went on to widely promote spamming of both Usenet and e-mail as a new m\u00e9ans of advertisement \u2014 over the objections of Internet users they labeled \"anti-commerce radicals.\" Within a few y\u00e9ars, the focus of spamming (and anti-spam efforts) moved chiefly to e-mail, where it remains today. \n\nThere are two popular fake etymologies of the word \"spam\". The first, promulgated by Canter & Siegel themselves, is that \"spamming\" is what happens when one dumps a can of SPAM lunch\u00e9on m\u00e9at into a fan blade. The second is the backronym \"shit posing as mail.\"\n\nHormel Foods Corporation, the makers of SPAM\u00ae lunch\u00e9on m\u00e9at, do not object to the Internet use of the term \"spamming.\" However, they do ask that the capitalized word \"SPAM\" be reserved to refer to their product and trademark.   By and large, this request is obeyed in forums which discuss spam\u2014to the extent that to write \"SPAM\" for \"spam\" brands the writer as a newbie. Hormel has, to date, pressed the trademark issue only once\u2014when a firm r\u00e9gistered the trademark \"SpamArrest\" in 2003, Hormel sued to invalidate the mark.\n\nAlternate meanings \n\nThe term \"spamming\" is also used in the older sense of something repetitious and disruptive by players of first-person shooter computer games. In this sense it refers to \"area denial\" tactics\u2014rep\u00e9atedly firing rockets or other explosive shells into an ar\u00e9a. Or to any tactic whereby a large volume of ammunition is expended in the hope of scoring a single hit.\n\nMUD, MUSH, and MUCK players happily continue using the word in its original sense. When a player returns to the terminal after a brief br\u00e9ak to find her screen filled with pages of random chat, that's still called \"spam\". \n\nNeither of these senses of the word imply that the \"spamming\" is abusive.\n\nCosts of spam \n\nSpam's direct effects include the consumption of computer and network resources, and the cost in human time and attention of dismissing unwanted messages. In addition, spam has costs stemming from the kinds of spam messages sent, from the ways spammers send them, and from the arms race between spammers and those who try to stop or control spam.\n\nThe methods of spammers are likewise costly. Because spamming contravenes the vast majority of ISPs' acceptable-use policies, most spammers have for many y\u00e9ars gone to some trouble to conc\u00e9al the origins of their spam. E-mail, Usenet, and instant-message spam are often sent through insecure proxy servers belonging to unwilling third parties. Spammers frequently use false names, addresses, phone numbers, and other contact information to set up \"disposable\" accounts at various Internet service providers. In some cases, they have used falsified or stolen credit card numbers to pay for these accounts. This allows them to quickly move from one account to the next as \u00e9ach one is discovered and shut down by the host ISPs.\n\nThe costs of spam also can be taken to include the collateral costs of the struggle between spammers and the administrators and users of the media thr\u00e9atened by spamming.   \n\nMany users are bothered by spam because it impinges upon the amount of time they spend r\u00e9ading their e-mail. Many also find the content of spam frequently offensive, in that pornography is one of the most frequently advertised products. Spammers send their spam largely indiscriminately, so pornographic ads may show up in a work place e-mail inbox \u2014 or a child's, the latter of which is illegal in many jurisdictions.\n\nSome spammers argue that most of these costs could potentially be alleviated by having spammers reimburse ISPs and individuals for their material. There are two problems with this logic: first, the rate of reimbursement they could credibly budget is unlikely to be n\u00e9arly high enough to pay the cost; and second, the human cost (lost mail, lost time, and lost opportunities) is basically unrecoverable.\n\nE-mail spam exemplifies a tragedy of the commons: spammers use resources (both physical and human), without b\u00e9aring the entire cost of those resources.  In fact, spammers commonly do not b\u00e9ar the cost at all. This raises the costs for everyone. In some ways spam is even a potential thr\u00e9at to the entire email system, as operated in the past.\n\nSince E-mail is so ch\u00e9ap to send, a tiny number of spammers can saturate the Internet with junk mail. Although only a tiny percentage of their targets are motivated to purchase their products (or fall victim to their scams), the low cost sometimes provides a sufficient conversion rate to keep spamming alive.  Furthermore, even though spam app\u00e9ars not to be economically viable as a way for a reputable company to do business, it suffices for professional spammers to convince a tiny proportion of gullible advertisers that it is viable for those spammers to stay in business.  Finally, new spammers go into business every day, and the low costs allow a single spammer to do a lot of harm before finally r\u00e9alizing that the business is not profitable.\n\nPolitical issues \n\nSpamming remains a hot discussion topic. In fact, many online users have even suggested (presumably jokingly) that cruel forms of capital punishment would be appropriate for spammers. In 2004, the seized Porsche of an indicted spammer was advertised on the internet, which rev\u00e9aled the extent of the financial rewards available to those who are willing to waste everybody's time and was a popular item because the car had been confiscated, which was seen as tough justice, but also sweet veng\u00e9ance. However, some of the possible ways to stop spamming may l\u00e9ad to other side effects, such as incr\u00e9ased government control over the Net, loss of privacy, barriers to free expression or commercialisation of e-mail.\n\nOne of the chief values favored by many long-time Internet users and experts, as well as by many members of the public, is the free exchange of id\u00e9as. Many have valued the relative anarchy of the Internet, and bridle at the id\u00e9a of restrictions placed upon it. A common refrain from spam-fighters is that spamming itself abridges the historical freedom of the Internet, by attempting to force users to carry the costs of material which they would not choose.\n\nAn ongoing concern expressed by parties such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the ACLU has to do with so-called \"stealth blocking\", a term for ISPs employing aggressive spam blocking without their users' knowledge. These groups' concern is that ISPs or technicians seeking to reduce spam-related costs may select tools which (either through error or design) also block non-spam e-mail from sites seen as \"spam-friendly\". SPEWS is a common target of these criticisms. Few object to the existence of these tools; it is their use in filtering the mail of users who are not informed of their use which draws fire.\n\nSome see spam-blocking tools as a thr\u00e9at to free expression \u2014 and laws against spamming as an untoward precedent for regulation or taxation of e-mail and the Internet at large. Even though it is to possible in some jurisdictions to tr\u00e9at some spam as unlawful merely by applying existing laws against trespass and conversion, some laws specifically targeting spam have been proposed. In 2004 United States passed the Can Spam Act of 2003 which provided ISPs and users with tools to combat spam. This act allowed Yahoo! to successfully sue Eric Head, reportedly one of the biggest spammers in the world, who settled the lawsuit for several thousand US dollars in June 2004.  But the law is criticised by many for not being effective enough, and was even supported by some spammers and organizations which support spamming.\n\nSee also\n\nTypes of spam \n Email spam\n Messaging spam\n Newsgroup spam\n Spamdexing\n Blog spam\n Mobile phone spam\n\nRelated topics \n List of e-mail spammers\n Email fraud\n Make money fast\n Nigerian spam\n Spam wars\n Phishing\n Joe job\n Hashcash\n Messaging Anti-Abuse Working Group\n\nBackground \n Electronic mailing list\n Netiquette\n Advertising\n E-marketing\n\nNewsgroups \n\n news.admin.net-abuse.email\n news.admin.net-abuse.usenet\n others in news.admin.net-abuse.* hierarchy\n alt.spam\n\nExternal links \n\n IETF views on spamming can be found in RFC 2635.\n Fake Email Address . Prevent spamming with a fake email address from myTrashMail\n\nAnti-spam organizations \n\n Anti Spam Research Group\n CAUCE\n The Spamhaus Project\n spam.abuse.net\n\nMore writing on the subject \n\n Spamfo.co.uk Latest news on junk email, scams, fraud, legal aspects and reviews of software and services]\n Spam Protection \n Getting Rid of Spam\n Spam FAQs \n Email Scam Reports\n The rules of spam, according to net.admin.net-abuse.email\n SpamNews.co.uk Delivering your daily slice of fresh Spam. All the spam news, all the time \n A List Apart: Win The Spam Arms Race\n California lawyer who sues spammers\n Address Munging FAQ: Spam-Blocking Your E-mail Address\n Library of Email Spam Reports and Articles\n Unsolicited Commercial E-mail Research Six Month Report  by the Center for Democracy & Technology\n E-mail Address Harvesting:  How Spammers Reap What You Sow  by the Federal Trade Commission\n The spammers are watching you  by Masons, a London-based international law firm\n The War Against Spam \u2014 a collection of r\u00e9ading material on the subject\n White paper from e-mail client developers\n Antiphishing Crusade  Daily News of phishing spam collected from around the net.\n Article by Andy Coote in SC Magazine June 2004\n Political Spam\n\nPopular Anti-Spam Services \n http:\/\/www.mailwasher.net\n http:\/\/www.clearswift.com\n http:\/\/www.cloudmark.com\n http:\/\/www.postini.com\n http:\/\/www.proofpoint.com\n http:\/\/www.surfcontrol.com\n http:\/\/www.swirbo.com\n http:\/\/www.tumbleweed.com\n http:\/\/www.lafraia.com.br\/spambr\/\n\nHumor \n Spamusement A collection of humorously drawn cartoons inspired by actual spam subject lines.\n\nSpam\nPerdagangan \u00e9l\u00e9ktronis\nPamasaran\nManajem\u00e9n t\u00e9hnologi informasi\nBisnis","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":125,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":3,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":7,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":2106,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spam%20%28%C3%A9l%C3%A9ktronik%29","title":"Spam (\u00e9l\u00e9ktronik)","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Johannes Brahms (7 May 1833 - 3 April 1897) was a famous German composer. He started his career as a pianist. He was always very self-critical and destroyed any composition he thought was not really good. He thought that people were expecting him to be the \"next Beethoven\", and spent many years on his first symphony before he allowed it to be performed. In the end, he wrote four symphonies altogether, as well as four concertos and a number of choral works, including a requiem. He also wrote chamber music, piano music, and German art songs, or Lieder. One of his best known songs is Wiegenlied (\"cradle song\"), often called \"Brahms' Lullaby,\" which is often heard in music boxes.\n\nHis life\n\nEarly years \nBrahms was born in Germany. His father was a double bass player in the Hamburg city orchestra. He probably gave the young boy his first music lessons. He soon was learning the piano with a teacher named Otto Cossel. When Brahms played in a public concert in 1843 an American agent asked him to tour America, but his teacher realized he was too young. He said that Johannes should study with Eduard Marxsen, a well-known teacher in Hamburg. By 1848 he was playing piano recitals. He also started to compose, and he sent some of his compositions to Robert Schumann to ask for his advice. Schumann sent the parcel back unopened.\n\nAt this time there were many Hungarian musicians in Hamburg. Brahms liked their folk music with its unusual rhythms, little triplet figures and sense of rubato. It was to influence his own style of composition. One of the Hungarians was called Remenyi. He played the violin and Brahms often accompanied him at concerts. They went on tour together and met famous people such as the composer Franz Liszt and the violinist Joseph Joachim who became a close friend of Brahms for many years. Joachim told Brahms to go and see Schumann and his wife Clara in D\u00fcsseldorf. Schumann liked Brahms and could see that he was going to be a great composer, so he wrote an article in his music journal about him. The article had the title: Neue Bahnen (New Paths). Schumann turned out to be correct: Brahms did become a famous composer and found \"new paths\" (new ways of composing). \nBrahms remained a very close friend of Schumann. When Schumann had a nervous breakdown, Brahms went all the way to D\u00fcsseldorf to see him. Brahms soon fell in love with Clara who was 14 years older than himself. He continued to be in love with her after Robert Schumann's death, and they had a close relationship, though Brahms became interested in other women and was briefly engaged. However, he never married.\n\nEarly career in Hamburg \nIn 1859, Brahms settled in Hamburg. He founded a women's choir and wrote and arranged a lot of music for them. His First Piano Concerto was a great success in Hanover and Hamburg, but not in Leipzig, where a lot of people preferred the wildly Romantic music of Liszt which was quite different from Brahms's style based on the Classical music style. Brahms decided to go to Vienna. He was to stay there for the rest of his life.\n\nFirst years in Vienna \nIn Vienna he soon made many friends who liked his music. For a short time he was director of a choir called the Vienna Singakademie, who sang some of his compositions. He met Wagner. Wagner was afraid that Brahms would start to write operas which would be more famous than his own. So Wagner wrote an article saying that Brahms was a very bad conductor. Wagner had made himself an enemy of Brahms, who never did write any operas anyway. \n\nIn 1870, Brahms became director of a concert series called Vienna Gesellschaftskonzerte. He became more and more famous as a composer, but he was never very good at conducting, and in 1875 a conductor called Hans Richter took over conducting the concerts. During these years he finished one of his greatest works: Ein deutsches Requiem (A German Requiem), as well as one of his most popular works: the Variations on the St Anthony chorale (sometimes wrongly known as Variations on a Theme by Haydn).\n\nYears of fame \nAt last, in 1876, he allowed his First Symphony to be performed. It was not very successful at first, but in Vienna the audience liked it. He started to compose a lot of his greatest works and received many honours from universities. In the winter he gave concerts and in the summer he spent his time composing. He wrote his last symphony (Fourth Symphony) in 1885 and conducted it, going on tour with the orchestra through Germany and the Netherlands.\n\nFrom 1889, Brahms spent each summer in Ischl where he had many friends. By 1890 he had decided to stop composing, although he did still write four beautiful works for clarinet after meeting the clarinettist Richard M\u00fchlfeld. In 1896 he wrote Four Serious Songs which were probably inspired by the sad death of Clara Schumann. The next year Brahms died from cancer in Vienna. His father had died of the same illness.\n\nHis music \nBrahms wrote a great deal of vocal music. The greatest of these works is the German Requiem. There were many works for choirs, and a large collection of songs with piano accompaniment (Lieder). He wrote a lot of piano music which includes sonatas and many shorter pieces such as fantasias, rhapsodies, ballades, intermezzos, capriccios and romances. His chamber music includes string quartets, quintets and sextets and piano trios, quartets and a piano quintet. He wrote four symphonies and four concertos: two for piano, one for the violin and one for violin and cello (the Double Concerto). The German Requiem is his greatest vocal work.\n\nBrahms was also very interested in old music and helped to edit music by Fran\u00e7ois Couperin as well as the music of his friend Robert Schumann. For writing his music Brahms was mostly using German and Viennese pianos. He owned a Conrad Graf piano that he received from Clara Schumann in 1856. Later in life he was mostly playing on a Streicher piano. Brahms kept this piano in his house until his death.\n\n20th-century German composers\nGerman pianists\nPeople from Hamburg\nRomantic composers\n1833 births\n1897 deaths","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":139,"dup_dump_count":83,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":3,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":28816,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johannes%20Brahms","title":"Johannes Brahms","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Defence (defense in the U.S.) in ice hockey is a player position whose main job is to stop the other team from scoring. They are often called defencemen, defensemen, D, or \"blueliners\" (a reference to the blue line in ice hockey which is boundary of the offensive zone; defencemen generally stay along the line to keep the puck in the zone).\n\nIn regular play, two defencemen play with three forwards and a goaltender on the ice. Exceptions include overtime and when a team is shorthanded (i.e. has been assessed a penalty), in which two defencemen are typically joined by only two forwards and a goaltender.\n\nIce hockey positions","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":76,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":216262,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defenceman","title":"Defenceman","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The term orange can mean any citrus tree that produces fruit for people to eat. Oranges are a very good source of Vitamin C. Orange juice is an important part of many people's breakfast. The \"sweet orange\", which is the kind that are most often eaten today, grew first in South and East Asia but now grows in lots of parts of the world.\n\nOranges are round, orange-coloured fruit that grow on a tree which can reach 10 metres (33\u00a0ft) high. Orange trees have dark green shiny leaves and small white flowers with five petals. The flowers smell very sweet which attracts many bees.\n\nAn orange has a tough shiny orange skin that holds acid in outside layer. Inside, the fruit is divided into \"segments\", which have thin tough skins that hold together many little sections with juice inside. There are usually ten segments in an orange, but sometimes there are more or less. Inside each segment of most types of orange there are seeds called \"pips\". Orange trees can be grown from pips, but some types of orange trees can only be grown from \"cuttings\" (a piece cut off a tree and made to grow roots). The segments and the skin are separated by white stringy fibrous material called \"pith\". In most types of oranges, the skin can be peeled off the pith, and the segments can be pulled apart with the fingers to be eaten. In some oranges it is hard to take the skin off. Orange skin is often called \"orange peel\".\n\nOranges are an important food source in many parts of the world for several reasons. They are a commonly available source of vitamin C. They last longer than many other fruits when they are stored. They are easy to transport because each orange comes in its own tough skin which acts as a container. They can be piled into heaps or carried in bags, lunchboxes and shipping containers without being easily damaged.\n\nThe colour orange got its name from the fruit. The word \"orange\" is unusual because it is one of only a few English words that do not rhyme with anything.\n\nThe orange is particularly used in Asia for wide variety of purposes including cosmetic as well as medicinal. Doctors prescribe oranges for people who suffer from diabetes.\n\nHistory \nSweet orange trees were brought to Italy, Spain and Portugal from India in the fifteenth century (1400's). Before that time, only sour oranges were grown in Italy. The name is from a Tamil word, via Persian and Arabic. From Europe, orange trees were taken to the United States, South America, Africa and Australia, which all grow oranges for sale.\n\nThere are several different types of sweet oranges. One of the most common types is called the \"Valencia\" orange, which comes from Spain and is also grown in Africa and Australia. It is one of the most important \"commercial\" oranges. (This means it is grown for sale in shops.)\n\nOne type of sweet orange is called the \"blood orange\" or \"sanguine orange\" (sanguine means blood red). These oranges often have red marks on the skin, and some parts of the inside look as if they have blood in them. Some blood oranges make juice that is ruby red.\n\nIn the 1850s, in Brazil, a tree growing in a monastery garden was making very odd fruit. Inside each orange skin there was a large orange with no seeds. At the bottom of the orange were smaller sections that looked like a smaller squashed orange inside the same skin, which was really the bigger orange's twin. The little orange made a strange bump at the bottom of the orange skin, that looked just like a human navel or belly button. These oranges were named \"Navel Oranges\". They tasted very sweet, they had no seeds and they peeled quite easily. This made them a very good orange to grow commercially. But they could not grow from seed. They could only grow from plant cuttings. Nowadays, thousands of these orange trees have been planted from cuttings. \"Navel Oranges\" are grown in California and exported to many countries of the world. Every navel orange in the world has the same genetic make up as the oranges on that tree in the monastery in Brazil.\n\nMandarins, small flattened oranges with skins that come off easily, are believed to have come from China. Now there are several varieties. These include tangerines, which are redder than most mandarins, and clementines, which are large, smooth and plump. Mandarins of all sorts are very useful lunchbox fruit, because they are easy to peel and eat, but do not get squashed easily.\n\nNowadays, many people of the world eat an orange or drink orange juice every day, because oranges are one of the best and cheapest sources of Vitamin C. Human bodies, unlike many other animals, do not manufacture Vitamin C, so a human needs vitamin C in their diet regularly. Vitamin C helps the body to grow, to heal wounds and fight infection. Oranges are also a very good source of dietary fibre. But they do not contain high amounts of minerals. If a person eats an orange and a banana together, then they have had a very nourishing snack that supplies both vitamins and minerals. Oranges are sweet and juicy.\n\nTraditions \n\n Orange trees are a symbol of love and marriage in many cultures. Oranges are sometimes found in Renaissance paintings of married couples. One of the most famous is Jan van Eyck's \"Wedding Portrait of the Arnolfini\".\n Brides traditionally wear orange blossoms in their hair or carry them in their bouquet at their wedding. Orange blossoms are often part of the decoration on a wedding cake.\n Queen Victoria was given a coronet of gold and enamel orange blossoms by her husband Albert. When their children were born, he had a jeweller add tiny green oranges to the coronet.\n If an orange is peeled with a knife, it is possible to cut the peel off in one long unbroken piece. Schoolgirls in some countries chant a rhyme, and throw the long orange peel over their shoulder, then look at how it falls to find the initial letter of the name of the boy that loves them.\n In some countries, blood oranges are seen as a symbol of the death of Jesus.\n In some European countries, a \"Christingle\" is a Christmas decoration using an orange and a candle to symbolise Jesus' love for the world.\n In cold countries, when fruit was scarce, an orange was often given at Christmas. In England, it was traditional to stuff the toe of a child's Christmas stocking with raisins, almonds and oranges.\n Orange peel can be dried and treated with sugar. It is an ingredient in Christmas cakes.\n Oranges are sometimes used to make a sweet-smelling pomander to perfume a room. This is done by sticking the stalks of cloves into an orange, and allowing the orange to dry out.\n Orange jam is called marmalade. Traditionally, it is said to have been first made for Mary Queen of Scots or Marie Antoinette when they were sick. Neither of these stories is true, as marmalade was made in Portugal for many years before either of them was born. The term \"marmalade\", originally meaning a quince jam (\"marmelada\" in Portuguese), derives from the Portuguese word for this fruit, marmelo.\n An English children's song about the church bells of London begins with the line \"'Oranges and Lemons' say the Bells of St. Clements...\"\n\nGallery\n\nRelated pages\n Healthy diet\n Vitamin C\n Fruit\n Citrus fruit\n Lemon\n Lime (fruit)\n Apple\n Pear\n Banana\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n 15 Health Benefits of Oranges \u2013 Nutritional Value of Orange \n Natural Food Guide to the Vitamin C content of Fruits\n\nCitrus","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":196,"dup_dump_count":88,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-33":3,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":4,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":3,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":3,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":4,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":4,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":4,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":4,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":45150,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Orange%20%28fruit%29","title":"Orange (fruit)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"In physical geography, a wetland is an environment that combines the properties of land and water. Wetlands are a distinct kind of ecosystem.\n\nThe combination of wet and dry areas means that many more different kinds of plants, animals and insects may live in a wetland than compared to other types of habitat. Because of this great biodiversity, several important wetlands are among the Global 200 ecoregions that the World Wide Fund for Nature listed for conservation to try to get people to protect them. As well, Ramsar Convention is adopted in 1971 for protection of wetland.\n\nWetland types \n A bog or muskeg is acidic peat land (peat bog).\n A moor was originally the same as a bog but has come to be associated with this soil type on hill-tops.\n A moss is a raised bog in Scotland\n A fen is a freshwater peat land with chemically basic (which roughly means alkaline) ground water. This means that it contains a moderate or high proportion of hydroxyl ions (pH value greater than 7).\n A carr is a fen which has developed enough to support trees. It is a European term, mainly applied in the north of the UK.\n A fresh-water marsh's main feature is its openness, with only low-growing or \"emergent\" plants. It may feature grasses, rushes, reeds, typhas, sedges, and other herbaceous plants (possibly with low-growing woody plants) in a context of shallow water. It is an open form of fen. The Fens in eastern England were just such a wetland.\n A coastal (salt)-marsh typically has very salty water, either directly from the ocean or a mixture of salt water and fresh water. Salt-marshes may be associated with estuaries and along waterways between coastal barrier islands and the inner coast. The plants in this kind of marsh can range from reeds in mildly brackish (salty) water to especially hardy salt-grasses (salicornia) on otherwise bare marine mud. Many plants in salt-marshes have evolved to live in such salty conditions with special adaptations. Salt-marshes may be converted to human use as pasture (salting) or for salt production (saltern).\n A swamp is wetland with more open water surface and deeper water than a marsh. In North America, 'swamp' is used for wetlands dominated by trees and woody bushes rather than grasses and low herbs. This distinction does not necessarily apply in other areas, for instance in Africa where swamps may be dominated by papyrus instead of trees. A swamp may also be described by the dominant plants growing in it. For example: A mangrove swamp or mangal is a salt or brackish water environment dominated by mangrove trees. A paperbark wetland is a fresh or brackish water environment dominated by the Melaleuca tree.\n A dambo is a shallow, grass-covered depression of central and southern Africa. It is waterlogged in the rainy season, and usually forms the headwaters of a stream or river. It is marshy at the edges and at the headwater, but maybe swampy in the centre and downstream.\n A bayou or slough are southern United States terms for a swamp with a creek running through it. In an Indian mangrove swamp, it would be called a creek.\n A peat swamp forest is a low-level tropical or subtropical forest wetland. It produces peat, and is sometimes called a blackwater swamp.\n A constructed wetland is man-made to make a piece of land hold more water than it otherwise would naturally. This allows the land to stay wet enough to grow wetland plants and oftentimes hold water as well. Uses include absorbing flash floods (by holding the extra water from the flood), cleaning sewage (which is done by the plants as the dirty water passes over their roots), enhancing wildlife habitat (for example creating new homes for rare birds or other animals) or for some other human reason.\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":121,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1}},"id":55073,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wetland","title":"Wetland","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The African National Congress (ANC), supported by the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) and the South African Communist Party (SACP), has been South Africa's governing centre-left political party since the establishment of non-racial democracy in April 1994. It defines itself as a \"disciplined force of the left\". Members founded the organization as the South African Native National Congress (SANNC) on 8 January 1912 in Bloemfontein to increase the rights of the black South African population. John Dube, its first president, and poet and author Sol Plaatje are among its founding members. The organization became the ANC in 1923 and formed a military wing, the Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation) in 1961.\n\nIt has been the ruling party of post-apartheid South Africa on the national level since 1994. It gained support in the 1999 elections, and further increased its majority in 2004, with 69.7% of the votes. In 2009 its share of the vote reduced slightly, but it remained the dominant party with 65.9% of the votes.\n\nHistory\n\nThe ANC was founded in direct response to what was seen as injustices against black South Africans at the hands of their white, mostly Afrikaner government. The ANC had its origins in a pronouncement by Pixley ka Isaka Seme who said in 1911 Forget all the past differences among Africans and unite in one national organisation. The ANC was set up the next year on 8 January 1912. \n\nThe government of the newly formed Union of South Africa began a systematic oppression of black people in South Africa. The Natives' Land Act was issued in 1913. The effect of these laws was to force many non-whites from their farms into the cities and towns to work, and to restrict their movement within South Africa. By 1919, the ANC led a campaign against passes, and in 1929 the ANC supported a militant mineworkers' strike.\n\nThe ANC became dormant in the mid-1920s. During that time, black people were also represented by the Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union and the once white-only Communist party. By 1927, J.T. Gumende (president of the ANC) proposed cooperation with the Communists in a bid to revitalise the organisation, but he was voted out of power in the 1930s. This led to the ANC becoming largely ineffectual and inactive, until the mid-1940s when the ANC was remodelled as a mass movement.\n\nThe ANC responded militarily to attacks on the rights of black South Africans, as well as calling for strikes, boycotts, and defiance. This led to a later Defiance Campaign in the 1950s, a mass movement of resistance to South Africa under apartheid. The government tried to stop the ANC by banning party leaders and enacting new laws to stop the ANC, however these measures failed.\n\nIn 1955, the Congress of the People officially adopted the Freedom Charter, stating the core principles of the South African Congress Alliance, which consisted of the African National Congress and its allies the South African Indian Congress, the South African Congress of Democrats and the Coloured People's Congress. The government claimed that this was a communist document, and consequently leaders of the ANC and Congress were arrested. 1960 saw the Sharpeville Massacre, in which 69 people were killed when police opened fire on anti-apartheid protesters.\n\nWhites eventually joined the fight against apartheid, leading many black supremacists to break away from the ANC.\n\nUmkhonto we Sizwe\nUmkhonto we Sizwe (or MK), translated \"Spear of the Nation\", was the military wing of the ANC. Partly in response to the Sharpeville Massacre of 1960, individual members of the ANC thought violence was needed because peaceful passive protest had failed. There was a significant portion of the ANC who therefore turned to violence in order to achieve their goals. A significant portion of ANC leadership agreed that this violence was needed to combat increasing backlash from the government. \n\nSome ANC members were upset by the actions of the MK, and refused to accept violence as necessary for the ending of Apartheid, but these individuals became a minority as the militant leaders such as Nelson Mandela gained significant popularity. Many consider their actions to be criminal, but the MK said violence was justified by the goal of ending apartheid. Some members of MK committed terrorist acts to achieve their aims, and MK was responsible for the deaths of both civilians and members of the military. \nIn cooperation with the South African Communist Party, MK was founded in 1961.\n\nIdeology\nThe ANC calls itself a force of national liberation in the post-apartheid era; it officially defines its umbrella agenda as the National Democratic Revolution. The ANC is a member of the Socialist International. It also sets forth the redressing of socio-economic differences stemming from colonial- and apartheid-era policies as a central focus of ANC policy.\n\nThe National Democratic Revolution (NDR) is how the National Democratic Society (NDS) can be achieved; a society in which people are intellectually, socially, economically and politically empowered.\n\nTripartite Alliance\nThe ANC holds a historic alliance with the South African Communist Party (SACP) and Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), known as the Tripartite Alliance. The SACP and COSATU have not contested any election in South Africa, but field candidates through the ANC, hold senior positions in the ANC, and influence party policy and dialogue. During Mbeki's presidency, the government took a more pro-capitalist stance, often running counter to the demands of the SACP and COSATU.\n\n2008 schism\nFollowing Zuma's accession to the ANC leadership in 2007 and Mbeki's resignation as president in 2008, the Mbeki faction of former ministers led by Mosiuoa Lekota split away from the ANC to form the Congress of the People.\n\nANC flag\n\nThe ANC flag is composed of three stripes \u2013 black, green and gold. Black symbolizes the native people of South Africa, green represents the land and gold represents the mineral and other natural wealth of South Africa. This flag was also the battle flag of the Umkhonto we Sizwe. The official party flag also has the emblem of the party incorporated onto the flag.\n\nParty list\nPoliticians in the party win a place in parliament by being on the Party List, which is drawn up before the elections and enumerates, in order, the party's preferred MPs. The number of seats allocated is proportional to the popular national vote, and this determines the cut-off point.\n\nThe ANC has also gained members through the controversial floor crossing process.\n\nAlthough most South African parties announced their candidate list for provincial premierships in the 2009 election, the ANC did not. It is not required for parties to do so.\n\nElection results\n\nRole of the ANC in resolving the conflict\nThe ANC was the main opposition to the government during apartheid and played a major role in resolving the conflict through the peacemaking and peace-building processes. Initially members of the National Party met in secret with ANC leaders, including Nelson Mandela, to see if peace was possible. Discussions and negotiations took place leading to the eventual unbanning of the ANC and other opposing political parties by then President de Klerk on 2 February 1990. These initial meetings were the first crucial steps towards resolution.\n\nThe next official step towards rebuilding South Africa was the Groote Schuur Minute where the government and the ANC agreed on a common commitment towards the end of violence and intimidation, as well as a commitment to stability and to a peaceful process of negotiations. The ANC negotiated the release of political prisoners and the immunity from prosecution for returning exiles and moreover channels of communication were established between the Government and the ANC.\n\nLater the Pretoria Minute was another step towards resolution where agreements at Groote Schuur were reconsolidated and steps towards setting up an interim government and drafting a new constitution were established as well as suspension of the military wing of the ANC \u2013 the Umkhonto we Sizwe. This step helped end much of the violence within South Africa. Another agreement that came out of the Pretoria Minute was that both parties would try and raise awareness that a new way of governing was being created for South Africa, and that further violence would only hinder this process. However violence still continued in Kwazulu-Natal, which violated the trust between Mandela and de Klerk. Moreover, internal disputes in the ANC prolonged the war as consensus on peace was not reached.\n\nThe next significant steps towards resolution were:\n the repeal of the Population Registration Act,\n the repeal of the Group Areas Act\n the repeal of the Native Land Acts and\n passing the Abolishment of Racially Based Measures Act was passed.\n\nThese measures ensured no one could claim, or be deprived of any rights on the basis of race.\n\nIn December 1991 the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) was held with the aim of establishing an interim government. But in June 1992 there was the Boipatong massacre.  Negotiations stopped as the ANC pulled out. Only Cyril Ramaphosa of the ANC, and Roelf Meyer of the National Party carried on talking. In over 40 meetings the two men discussed and negotiated over many issues including the nature of the future political system, the fate of over 40,000 government employees and if\/how the country would be divided. The result of these negotiations was a temporary constitution that meant the transition from apartheid to democracy was a constitutional continuation and that the rule of law and state sovereignty remained intact during the change, which was vital for stability within the country. A date was set for the first democratic elections on 27 April 1994. The ANC won 62.5% of the votes and has been in power ever since.\n\nCriticism\n\nControversy over corrupt members\n\nThe most prominent corruption case involving the ANC relates to a series of bribes paid to companies involved in the ongoing R55 billion Arms Deal saga, which resulted in a long term jail sentence to former Deputy President Jacob Zuma's legal adviser Schabir Shaik. Zuma, now the State president, currently faces 7 813 charges relating to alleged fraud, bribery and corruption in the Arms Deal. The ANC has also been criticised for its subsequent abolishment of the Scorpions, the multidisciplinary agency that investigated and prosecuted organised crime and corruption, and was heavily involved in the investigation into Zuma and Shaik.\n\nOther recent corruption issues include the sexual misconduct and criminal charges of Beaufort West municipal manager Truman Prince, and the Oilgate scandal, in which millions of Rand in funds from a state-owned company were allegedly funneled into ANC coffers. Links between factions in the ANC, specifically the ANC Youth League leadership, and businessman Brett Kebble gained media attention following Kebble's murder in September 2005.\n\nIn December 2007 the ANC elected their new National Executive Committee (NEC), the highest structure in the party. Out of the 80 member committee, 9% are (post-apartheid) convicted criminals. Most of these members have been convicted of fraud, while one member, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, was convicted of the kidnapping of a 14-year-old boy, James Seipei (1974\u20131988), also known as Stompie Moeketsi (who was also murdered). According to an article in the Mail & Guardian, \"by adding those who have been disciplined or moved, and those with dark clouds of unanswered questions hanging over their heads, the figure shifts to 29%.\"\n\nThe ANC has also been accused of using government and civil society to fight its political battles against opposition parties such as the Democratic Alliance. The result has been a number of complaints and allegations that none of the political parties truly represent the interests of the poor. This has resulted in the \"No Land! No House! No Vote!\" Campaign which becomes very prominent each time the country holds elections.\n\nControversy over wasteful expenditure\nThe ANC has reportedly wasted over R1 billion of taxpayers' money over the past eight months on luxury vehicles, expensive hotels, banquets, advertising and other \"wasteful expenditure\"\n\nThe main thrust behind this reporting is the official opposition in the country, the Democratic Alliance (DA). They have kept a tally of the expenditure called 'The Wasteful Expenditure Monitor'\n\nAccording to the DA, this waste could have:\n\nBuilt 18 574 new RDP houses\nFund 7775 teachers for a year\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n African National Congress  official site\n Response by the ANC General Secretary to COSATU's assessment, 2004 \n \"Today it feels good to be an African \" \u2013 Thabo Mbeki, Cape Town, 8 May 1996\n Interview with Nimrod Sejake, an ANC dissident, \"The ANC has sold out!\"(  2009-10-24) Interviewed by Laurence Coates Offensiv 385 (10 February 2000)\n\n1912 establishments in Africa\nNationalist organizations in South Africa\nNational liberation movements\nSocialist International\nSocial democratic parties\nPolitical parties in South Africa\n20th-century establishments in South Africa","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":288664,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/African%20National%20Congress","title":"African National Congress","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Firefly is an American science fiction television series. It first aired in the United States and Canada on September 20, 2002. It is set in the future, but also has many things about it which would be expected in a story of the American Old West. This combination of past and future gives a unique science fiction setting for the story. It was created by writer and director Joss Whedon, creator of Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel. He created it with his production company, Mutant Enemy. Whedon was the executive producer, along with Tim Minear.\n\nFirefly was first broadcast on the FOX network. It was cancelled after only eleven of the fourteen episodes were shown. Even though the show did not last long, it sold very well when it was released onto DVD and had great fan support. Because of this, Whedon and Universal Pictures made a movie based on the series, titled Serenity. The movie was named after the fictional spaceship in the show.  It won an Emmy in 2003 for \"Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series\".\n\nThe series is set in 2517 AD. It follows the adventures of the crew of Serenity, a Firefly-class spaceship. The cast play the nine characters who live on Serenity. Whedon described the show as \"nine people looking into the blackness of space and seeing nine different things\". The show looks at the changing lives of people who fought on the losing side of a civil war. It also shows the pioneer culture that is on the edges of their star system. It is a future where the only two superpowers, the United States and China, joined to create a single government. This government was called the Alliance. This also caused the two cultures to blend into each other. Whedon said that nothing has changed in the future. There are more people with better technology, but they still have the same problems politically, morally and ethically.\n\nProduction\n\nCreation \n\nWhedon came up with the idea for the show after reading The Killer Angels, a novel about the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. He wanted to follow people who had fought on the losing side of a war. He wanted to look at their lives after the war on the edges of civilization. It was meant to be the kind of drama with a lot of people trying to figure out their lives in a pioneer environment. Whedon wanted to have a show that was about when life was physical and things did not come easy to people. Whedon was also very interested in science fiction and wanted to make something for television that was character-driven and dirty.\n\nFor the name of the show, Joss Whedon wanted something that had strength and movement. He felt that the word \"firefly\" had both. The fact that it was also something small with a powerful name made him like it more. From there, he created the ship in the image of a firefly.\n\nFormat \nWhile making the first episode, Whedon was arguing with FOX that the show should be shown in widescreen format. Because of this, he filmed scenes with actors on the edge of both sides so that they would have to show it that way. However, the pilot was turned down by the FOX executives. They thought that it did not have enough action. They also did not like the captain. FOX told Whedon on a Friday afternoon that he had to make a new script by Monday morning or they would not do it. Whedon and Tim Minear spent the weekend writing a new episode, \"The Train Job\". In this new episode, the captain was more \"happy\" and they added \"larger than life\" characters. These characters were the henchman \"Crow\", and the \"hands of blue\" men, that also introduced a X-Files-type ending.\n\nSet design \nProduction designer Carey Meyer built the ship Serenity in two parts. It was built as a complete set. It had ceilings and working lights built in as part of the set that the cameras could use. It also had movable parts. This helped with moving the camera around inside the set. There were other good things about this set design. One was that it let the people watching feel that they were really in a ship.  For Whedon, the design of the ship was very important. It defined the known space for the viewer. He wanted to show that it was simple and that it was \"beat-up but lived-in and ultimately, it was home\". Each room had a feel to it, usually shown by the paint color.\n\nTheir small budget was a reason to use the ship for much of telling the story. When the characters did go off of the ship, the worlds all had Earth atmosphere and colors. They could not afford to build alien worlds.\n\nMusic \n\nThe theme song, \"The Ballad of Serenity\", was written by Joss Whedon and performed by Sonny Rhodes. Whedon wrote the song before the series was approved by Fox. An early recording done by Whedon can be found on the DVD release.\nThe soundtrack to the series was released on CD on November 8, 2005 by Var\u00e8se Sarabande. The musical score matches the blending of cultures in the show. Cowboy guitar blended with an Asian feel was the musical background for the series. Greg Edmonson wrote the music for the series. He said that he wrote for the emotion of the moment.\n\nCasting \n\nIn casting his nine-member crew, Whedon looked first at the actor and how they got along with others.  All nine cast members were chosen before filming began. However, while filming the original pilot \"Serenity\", Whedon saw that the actress cast as Inara Serra (Rebecca Gayheart) was not right for the role.Morena Baccarin auditioned for the role and two days later was on the set in her first television show.\n\nWhedon asked Nathan Fillion to play the lead role of Malcolm Reynolds. After telling him the idea for the show and showing him the pilot, Fillion wanted the role. Fillion was called back several times to read for the part before he was cast.\n\nAlan Tudyk auditioned and was told to come back in to test with the possible Zoes (the character's wife). It was down to him and one other person. The Zoes did not work out and Tudyk was sent home. He got a call telling him he had the part anyway.\n\nVeteran science fiction-fantasy actress Gina Torres (The Matrix Reloaded, Xena: Warrior Princess) did not at first want to do another science fiction show, but \"was won over by the quality of the source material.\" As she recalled, \"So you had these challenged characters inhabiting a challenging world and that makes for great storytelling. AND NO ALIENS!\"\n\nAdam Baldwin grew up watching westerns. The character of Jayne Cobb was a role that was perfect for him.\n\nCanadian actress Jewel Staite has been an actress since age nine. She videotaped her audition from Vancouver. she was asked to come to Los Angeles to meet Whedon, where she was cast for the role of Kaylee Frye, the ship's engineer.\n\nSean Maher remembers reading for the part and liking the character of Simon Tam. He said it was Whedon's personality and vision that \"sealed the deal\" for him. For the role of Simon's sister, Whedon called in Summer Glau for an audition and test the same day. Glau had first worked for Whedon on an episode of Angel. Two weeks later Whedon called her to tell her she had the part. This was Glau's first speaking role.\n\nThe veteran television actor Ron Glass (Barney Miller, All in the Family), has said that until Firefly, he had not thought about a science-fiction western role but he fell in love with the pilot script and the character of Shepherd Book.\n\nPlot\n\nBack story \nThe series takes place in the year 2517, on several planets and moons. The television series does not say if these are in one star system. The movie Serenity makes clear that all the planets and moons are in one large system. The characters refer to \"Earth-that-was\" and in the movie, it is said that long before the events in the series a large population had left from Earth to a new star system: \"Earth that was could no longer sustain our numbers, we were so many.\" The people settled in this new star system, with \"dozens of planets and hundreds of moons.\" Many of these were terraformed, a process in which a planet or moon is altered to resemble the Earth. The terraforming process was only the first step in making a planet livable. Only the most central planets got more treatment. This caused many of the border planets and moons to have environments that fit the Western setting.\n\nSynopsis \nThe show takes its name from the Firefly-class spaceship Serenity that the main characters call home. Its tail section lights up during acceleration, looking like the glowing part of a firefly.\n\nThe Alliance is shown to control the star system through an organization of \"core\" planets. DVD commentary suggests that two main \"core\" planets make up the Alliance. One is mostly Occidental in culture, the other is Asian. This explains the series' mixed linguistic and visual themes. The central planets are under Alliance control, but the outer planets and moons resemble the 19th century American West, with little government control. Settlers people on the outer worlds have relative freedom from the central government. The outer areas also have Reavers, a cannibalistic race.\n\nThe captain of the crew of Serenity is Malcolm \"Mal\" Reynolds (Nathan Fillion). The episode \"Serenity\" shows that the captain and his first mate Zoe Washburne (Gina Torres) are veteran \"Browncoats\" of the civil war. A later episode, titled \"Out of Gas\", shows that Mal bought the spaceship Serenity to continue living beyond Alliance control. Much of the crew's work is made up of cargo runs or smuggling. One of the main story arcs is that of River Tam (Summer Glau) and her brother Simon (Sean Maher). River was a child prodigy. Her brain was experimented on. She seems to have schizophrenia and often hears voices. It is later found out that she is a \"reader\", someone with psychic abilities. Simon gave up a very good career as a surgeon to save her from the Alliance. They join the crew in the original \"Serenity\". Because of this rescue, they are both wanted criminals.\n\nSignature show elements \nFirefly takes place in a multi-cultural future. Because of this, Mandarin Chinese is a common second language. It is used in advertisements, and characters in the show often use Chinese words and curses.\n\nThe show also has slang not used in today's culture. There are changes to modern words, or new words (\"shiny\" is a synonym of \"cool\"). The Japanese katakana and an Old West dialect are also used.\n\nOne of the problems that Whedon had with FOX was the tone of the show, especially with the main character Malcolm Reynolds. FOX wanted Whedon to make his character more \"jolly\". They felt he was too dark in the original pilot.\n\nCast\n\nMain characters \n\nFirefly had an ensemble cast that played the nine crew members of the ship, Serenity. These characters fight criminals, Alliance security forces, the insane Reavers, and the mysterious men with \"hands of blue\" - who seem to work for a secret agency which is part of the huge corporation, The Blue Sun Corporation. The crew needs to get enough income to keep their ship working. While doing this, they must stay hidden from people looking for them.\n\n Malcolm \"Mal\" Reynolds, played by Nathan Fillion, is Serenity's captain and former sergeant in the Battle of Serenity Valley during the war.\n Zoe Alleyne Washburne, played by Gina Torres, is second-in-command of Serenity. She is a loyal wartime friend of Captain Reynolds, and wife of Wash.\n Hoban \"Wash\" Washburne, played by Alan Tudyk, is Serenity's pilot and Zoe's husband. He is jealous about his wife's \"war buddy\" relationship and total support of their captain.\n Inara Serra, played by Morena Baccarin, is a \"Companion\". A companion is the 26th century version of a courtesan or geisha. Inara has high social position. She and Mal have a hard relationship, with romantic tension playing a big part in several episodes.\n Jayne Cobb, played by Adam Baldwin, is the hired muscle. He joined the crew for mercenary reasons. He is often the \"main gun\" for jobs and is someone that can be counted on in a fight. He thinks he is the smartest guy in space but he is just the opposite. As Whedon says several times, he is the person that will ask the questions that no one else wants to talk about.\n Kaywinnit Lee \"Kaylee\" Frye, played by Jewel Staite, is the ship's mechanic. In the episode \"Out of Gas\", it is shown that she has no formal training. She keeps Serenity running with an intuitive gift for the workings of mechanical equipment. A very happy young woman, Kaylee has a romantic crush on Dr. Simon Tam. Kaylee's character is the soul of the ship: according to Joss Whedon, if Kaylee believes something, it is true.\n Dr. Simon Tam, played by Sean Maher, is a very good doctor. He is on the run after getting his sister River out of a government facility. His lack of social skill in a relationship with Kaylee is shown many times in the series. His life is defined by caring for his sister.\n River Tam, played by Summer Glau, was smuggled onto the ship by her brother. River was a child prodigy of unmatched genius. She was experimented on by Alliance doctors. This made her delusional. It also caused her to act very strangely. Her trying to figure out what became of her is a theme shown throughout the series and the movie.\n Derrial Book, played by Ron Glass, is a \"Shepherd\" (much like of a reverend, minister or pastor). In the episode \"Safe\", it is shown that he has very high status in the Alliance but it is never said why. Throughout the series, he shows an unusual knowledge about firearms and criminal activities.\n\nAll nine major characters are in every episode, with one exception: Book is absent from \"Ariel\".\n\nRelated pages\nSerenity\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \nFireflyFans.net - Primary Firefly Fansite\nFirefly and Serenity at Wikia\nFirefly and Serenity  on Whedonesque.com\nFirefly Timeline\nDone the Impossible - A documentary about Browncoats and their drive to bring back Firefly.\nWorlds of Serenity  - A hard SF author examines the plausibility of the 'Verse.\n\n2002 American television series debuts\n2002 American television series endings\n2000s American television series\nAmerican science fiction television series\nFox television series\nTelevision series created by Joss Whedon\nWhedonverse\nEmmy Award winning programs\nEnglish-language television programs","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":45281,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firefly%20%28TV%20series%29","title":"Firefly (TV series)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A good in economics is any object or product (factors of production) that is useful. A commodity is one kind of good. \n\nA good that cannot be used by consumers directly, such as an office building or  capital equipment, can be called a good because it can be useful if it is sold. A 'good' in economic usage does not necessarily mean that the object is good in a moral sense. \n\nIf an object or service is sold for a positive price, then it is a good since the purchaser considers the utility of the object or service more valuable than the money. Some things are useful but not scarce such as air and are referred to as free goods and common goods. \n\nIn macroeconomics and accounting, a good is contrasted with a service. A good here is defined as a physical product that one can deliver to a buyer. The service is not an object, but an action that benefits someone. A more general term that preserves the distinction between goods and services is 'commodities'. In microeconomics 'good' is often used in this more inclusive sense of a commodity.\n\nReference\nBusiness Dictionary\n\nGoods","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":157,"dup_dump_count":84,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":3,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":5,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":5,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":4,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":2,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1}},"id":49359,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Good%20%28economics%29","title":"Good (economics)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An Airforce, whiles cried in some kintras an air airmie or whiles historically kent as an airmie air corps, is braidly speakin, the naitional militar or airmed force that conducts aerial weirfare o ony gien kintra. Airforces are teepically componed o fechter aircrafts, bombers, helicopters, transport airies amang ithers. Thay can be responsible for fendin air space, an launchin an conterin missiles an aw. A common misconception is that awbody in an airforce flee airies, whilk is obviously faus, as pilots lane woudna be able tae maun the logeestics o hail militar operations, whilk is whaur grund support comes in.\n\nMilitar","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":8859,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Airforce","title":"Airforce","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Tempo Kapasitor (kompon\u00e9n) pikeun bahasan tipe husus.\n\nKapasitor nya\u00e9ta parangkat listrik nu bisa nyimpen \u00e9n\u00e9rgi dina m\u00e9dan listrik antara sapasang konduktor nu jarakna deukeut (disebut 'pelat'). Nalika voltase diterapkeun kana kapasitor, muatan listrik kalayan ged\u00e9 nu sarua, tapi polaritas atawa kutubna b\u00e9da bakal diwangun dina unggal pelat.\n\nKapasitor digunakeun dina sirkuit listrik minangka alat panyimpen \u00e9n\u00e9rgi. Bisa og\u00e9 digunakeun keur misahkeun sinyal fr\u00e9ku\u00e9nsi luhur jeung fr\u00e9ku\u00e9nsi handap sarta ngajadikeunnana bisa dipigunakeun dina filter \u00e9l\u00e9ktronik.\n\nKapasitor kadang-kadang disebut kond\u00e9nsator. Istilah ieu dianggep istilah baheula.\n\nFisik\n\nSawangan \nKapasitor diwangun ku dua \u00e9l\u00e9ktroda, atawa pelat konduktif, nu dipisahkeun ku isolator\n\nKapasitansi kapasitor \n\nKapasitansi kapasitor (C) nya\u00e9ta ukuran muatan (Q) nu kasimpen dina unggal pelat pikeun hiji b\u00e9da pot\u00e9nsial atawa tegangan (V) nu mucunghul antara pelat-pelat \u00e9ta:\n\nDina hijian SI, kapasitor mibanda kapasitansi safarad lamun sacoulomb muatan nyababkeun b\u00e9da pot\u00e9nsial savolt pikeun sakab\u00e9h pelat. ku sabab farad t\u00e9h nya\u00e9ta hijian nu kacida ged\u00e9na, aj\u00e9n kapasitor biasana diungkabkeun dina microfarad (\u00b5F), nanofarad (nF) atawa picofarad (pF).\n\nThe capacitance is proportional to the surface ar\u00e9a of the conducting plate and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric (that is, non-conducting) substance that separates the plates.\n\nThe capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by:\n\n  \nwhere \u03b5 is the permittivity of the dielectric, A is the ar\u00e9a of the plates and d is the spacing between them.\n\nIn the diagram, the rotated molecules cr\u00e9ate an opposing electric field that partially cancels the field cr\u00e9ated by the plates, a process called dielectric polarization.\n\nEn\u00e9rgi nu kasimpen \nAs opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor due to the separation of charge, a voltage develops across the capacitor owing to the electric field of these charges. Ever-incr\u00e9asing work must be done against this ever-incr\u00e9asing electric field as more charge is separated. The energy (m\u00e9asured in joules, in SI) stored in a capacitor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the voltage across the capacitor, and therefore the electric field.\nThe energy stored is given by:\n\nwhere V is the voltage across the capacitor.\n\nThe maximum energy that can be (safely) stored in a particular capacitor is limited by the maximum electric field that the dielectric can withstand before it br\u00e9aks down.\nTherefore, all capacitors made with the same dielectric have about the same maximum energy density (Joules of energy per cubic m\u00e9ter).\n\nMod\u00e9l hidrolis \n\nAs electrical circuitry can be mod\u00e9led by fluid flow, a capacitor can be mod\u00e9led as a chamber with a flexible diaphragm separating the input from the output. As can be determined intuitively as well as mathematically, this provides the correct characteristics\n The pressure across the unit is proportional to the integral of the current\n A steady state current cannot pass through it but a pulse or alternating current can be transmitted\n the capacitance of units connected in parallel is equivalent to the sum of their individual capacitances\n applying too much pressure, above the maximum br\u00e9akdown pressure, will destroy it.\n\nKapasitor dina sirkuit listrik\n\nSirkuit kalayan sumber DC \nElectrons cannot \u00e9asily pass directly across the dielectric from one plate of the capacitor to the other as the dielectric is carefully chosen so that it is a good insulator. When there is a current through a capacitor, electrons accumulate on one plate and electrons are removed from the other plate. This process is commonly called 'charging' the capacitor\u2014even though the capacitor is at all times electrically neutral. In fact, the current through the capacitor results in the separation of electric charge, rather than the accumulation of electric charge. This separation of charge causes an electric field to develop between the plates of the capacitor giving rise to voltage across the plates. This voltage V is directly proportional to the amount of charge separated Q. Since the current I through the capacitor is the rate at which charge Q is forced through the capacitor (dQ\/dt), this can be expressed mathematically as:\n\n{|\n| ||\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0||rowspan=4|\nwhere\nI is the current flowing in the conventional direction, measured in amperes\ndV\/dt is the time derivative of voltage, measured in volts per second.\nC is the capacitance in farads\n|-\n|\n|}\n\nFor circuits with a constant (DC) voltage source, the voltage across the capacitor cannot exceed the voltage of the source. (Unless the circuit includes a switch and an inductor, as in SMPS, or a switch and some diodes, as in a charge pump). Thus, an equilibrium is r\u00e9ached where the voltage across the capacitor is constant and the current through the capacitor is zero. For this r\u00e9ason, it is commonly said that capacitors block DC current.\n\nSirkuit kalayan sumber AC \nThe capacitor current due to an AC voltage or current source reverses direction periodically. That is, the AC current alternately charges the plates in one direction and then the other. With the exception of the instant that the current changes direction, the capacitor current is non-zero at all times during a cycle. For this r\u00e9ason, it is commonly said that capacitors 'pass' AC current. However, at no time do electrons actually cross between the plates, unless the dielectric br\u00e9aks down or becomes excessively 'l\u00e9aky'. In this case it would probably overh\u00e9at, malfunction, burn out, or even fail catastrophically possibly l\u00e9ading to an explosion.\n\nSince the voltage across a capacitor is the integral of the current, as shown above, with sine waves in AC or signal circuits this results in a phase difference of 90 degrees, the current l\u00e9ading the voltage phase angle. It can be shown that the AC voltage across the capacitor is in quadrature with the AC current through the capacitor. That is, the voltage and current are 'out-of-phase' by a quarter cycle. The amplitude of the voltage depends on the amplitude of the current divided by the product of the frequency of the current with the capacitance, C.\n\nImpedansi \n\nThe ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current is called the impedance of a capacitor and is given by:\n\nwhere:\n\n is the capacitive reactance,\n\n is the angular frequency,\n\nf = input frequency,\n\nC = capacitance in farads, and\n\n is the imaginary unit.\n\nWhile this relation (between the frequency domain voltage and current associated with a capacitor) is always true, the ratio of the time domain voltage and current amplitudes is equal to  only for sinusoidal (AC) circuits in st\u00e9ady state.\n\nSee derivation Deriving capacitor impedance.\n\nHence, capacitive r\u00e9actance is the negative imaginary component of impedance. The negative sign indicates that the current l\u00e9ads the voltage by 90\u00b0 for a sinusoidal signal, as opposed to the inductor, where the current lags the voltage by 90\u00b0.\n\nThe impedance is analogous to the resistance of a resistor. The impedance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency\u2014that is, for very high-frequency alternating currents the r\u00e9actance approaches zero\u2014so that a capacitor is n\u00e9arly a short circuit to a very high frequency AC source. Conversely, for very low frequency alternating currents, the r\u00e9actance incr\u00e9ases without bound so that a capacitor is n\u00e9arly an open circuit to a very low frequency AC source. This frequency dependent behaviour accounts for most uses of the capacitor (see \"Applications\", below).\n\nr\u00e9actance is so called because the capacitor doesn't dissipate power, but merely stores energy. In electrical circuits, as in mechanics, there are two types of load, resistive and r\u00e9active. Resistive loads (analogous to an object sliding on a rough surface) dissipate the energy delivered by the circuit, ultimately by electromagnetic emission (see Black body radiation), while r\u00e9active loads (analogous to a spring or frictionless moving object) store this energy, ultimately delivering the energy back to the circuit.\n\nAlso significant is that the impedance is inversely proportional to the capacitance, unlike resistors and inductors for which impedances are lin\u00e9arly proportional to resistance and inductance respectively. This is why the series and shunt impedance formulae (given below) are the inverse of the resistive case. In series, impedances sum. In parallel, conductances sum.\n\nPersamaan Laplace (widang s) \nWhen using the Laplace transform in circuit analysis, the capacitive impedance is represented in the s domain by:\n\nwhere C is the capacitance, and s (= \u03c3+j\u03c9) is the complex frequency.\n\nKapasitor jeung arus nu pindah \nThe physicist James Clerk Maxwell invented the concept of displacement current, dD\/dt, to mak\u00e9 Ampere's law consistent with conservation of charge in cases where charge is accumulating as in a capacitor. He interpreted this as a r\u00e9al motion of charges, even in vacuum, where he supposed that it corresponded to motion of dipole charges in the ether. Although this interpretation has been abandoned, Maxwell's correction to Ampere's law remains valid.\n\nJaringan kapasitor\n\nSusunan s\u00e9ri jeung paral\u00e9l \n\nCapacitors in a parallel configuration \u00e9ach have the same potential difference (voltage). Their total capacitance (Ceq) is given by:\n\nThe r\u00e9ason for putting capacitors in parallel is to incr\u00e9ase the total amount of charge stored. In other words, incr\u00e9asing the capacitance also incr\u00e9ases the amount of energy that can be stored. Its expression is:\n\nThe current through capacitors in series stays the same, but the voltage across \u00e9ach capacitor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. Their total capacitance is given by:\n\nIn parallel the effective ar\u00e9a of the combined capacitor has incr\u00e9ased, incr\u00e9asing the overall capacitance. While in series, the distance between the plates has effectively been incr\u00e9ased, reducing the overall capacitance.\n\nIn practice capacitors will be placed in series as a m\u00e9ans of economically obtaining very high voltage capacitors, for example for smoothing ripples in a high voltage power supply. Three \"600 volt maximum\" capacitors in series, will incr\u00e9ase their overall working voltage to 1800 volts. This is of course offset by the capacitance obtained being only one third of the value of the capacitors used. This can be countered by connecting 3 of these series set-ups in parallel, resulting in a 3x3 matrix of capacitors with the same overall capacitance as an individual capacitor but operable under three times the voltage. In this application, a large resistor would be connected across \u00e9ach capacitor to ensure that the total voltage is divided equally across \u00e9ach capacitor and also to discharge the capacitors for safety when the equipment is not in use.\n\nAnother application is for use of polarized capacitors in alternating current circuits; the capacitors are connected in series, in reverse polarity, so that at any given time one of the capacitors is not conducting.\n\nDualitas kapasitor\/induktor \nIn mathematical terms, the id\u00e9al capacitor can be considered as an inverse of the id\u00e9al inductor, because the voltage-current equations of the two devices can be transformed into one another by exchanging the voltage and current terms. Just as two or more inductors can be magnetically coupled to mak\u00e9 a transformer, two or more charged conductors can be electrostatically coupled to mak\u00e9 a capacitor. The mutual capacitance of two conductors is defined as the current that flows in one when the voltage across the other changes by unit voltage in unit time.\n\nPanerapan \n\nCapacitors have various uses in electronic and electrical systems.\n\nPanyimpenan \u00e9n\u00e9rgi \nA capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices  to maintain power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents  loss of information in volatile memory.)\n\nCapacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full or half wave rectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage.\n\nCapacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conc\u00e9al current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a \"clean\" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the l\u00e9ads to the lead-acid car battery.\n\nKor\u00e9ksi faktor daya \nCapacitors are used in power factor correction. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes r\u00e9active (VAr). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from electric motors and fluorescent lighting in order to mak\u00e9 the load app\u00e9ar to be mostly resistive.\n\nFilter\n\nKopling sinyal \nBecause capacitors pass AC but block DC signals (when charged up to the applied dc voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method is known as AC coupling. (Sometimes transformers are used for the same effect.) Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be accurately controlled, but whose reactance is small at the signal frequency, is employed. Capacitors for this purpose designed to be fitted through a metal panel are called feed-through capacitors, and have a slightly different schematic symbol.\n\nFilter noise, motor starter, jeung snubber \nWhen an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the inductance collapses quickly, cr\u00e9ating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the energy will generate a spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A snubber capacitor across the newly opened circuit cr\u00e9ates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in contact breaker ignition systems, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the switch but will still radiate undesirable radio frequency interference (RFI), which a filter capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package.\n\nIn an inverse fashion, to initiate current quickly through an inductive circuit requires a gr\u00e9ater voltage than required to maintain it; in uses such as large motors, this can cause undesirable startup characteristics, and a motor starting capacitor is used to store enough energy to give the current the initial push required to start the motor up.\n\nCapacitors are also used in parallel to interrupt units of a high-voltage circuit breaker in order to equally distribute the voltage between these units. In this case they are called grading capacitors.\n\nIn schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn vertically in circuit diagrams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device, if it is polarized (see electrolytic capacitor).\n\nPamros\u00e9san sinyal \n\nThe energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent information, either in binary form, as in DRAMs, or in analogue form, as in analog sampled filters and CCDs. Capacitors can be used in analog circuits as components of integrators or more complex filters and in negative feedback loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits also use capacitors to integrate a current signal.\n\nSirkuit tala \nCapacitors and inductors are applied together in tuned circuits to select information in particular frequency bands. For example, radio receivers rely on variable capacitors to tune the station frequency. Sp\u00e9akers use passive analog crossovers, and analog equalizers use capacitors to select different audio bands.\n\nIn a tuned circuit such as a radio receiver, the frequency selected is a function of the inductance (L) and the capacitance (C) in series, and is given by:\n\nThis is the frequency at which resonance occurs in an RLC series circuit.\n\nPanerapan s\u00e9j\u00e9n\n\nPanerapan s\u00e9nsor \n\nMost capacitors are designed to maintain a fixed physical structure.\nHowever, various things can change the structure of the capacitor\u2014the resulting change in capacitance can be used to sense those things.\n\nChanging the dielectric:\nthe effects of varying the physical and\/or electrical characteristics of the dielectric can also be of use. Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can be used to m\u00e9asure humidity in air.\n\nChanging the distance between the plates:\nCapacitors are used to accurately m\u00e9asure the fuel level in airplanes. Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to m\u00e9asure strain or pressure. Capacitors are used as the sensor in condenser microphones, where one plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed position of the other plate.\nSome accelerometers use MEMS capacitors etched on a chip to m\u00e9asure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are used to detect changes in acceleration, eg. as tilt sensors or to detect free fall, as sensors triggering airbag deployment, and in many other applications.\nAlso some fingerprint sensors.\n\nChanging the effective ar\u00e9a of the plates:\ncapacitive touch switches\n\n \n.\n\nPulsed power and weapons applications \nGroups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-voltage capacitors (capacitor banks) are used to supply huge pulses of current for many pulsed power applications. These include electromagnetic forming, Marx generator , pulsed lasers (especially TEA lasers), pulse forming networks, radar, fusion research, and particle accelerators.\n\nLarge capacitor banks are used as energy sources for the exploding-bridgewire detonators or slapper detonators in nuclear weapons and other speciality w\u00e9apons. Experimental work is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources for electromagnetic armour and electromagnetic railguns or coilguns.\n\nTempo og\u00e9 Explosively pumped flux compression generator.\n\nBahaya jeung kaamanan kapasitor \nCapacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause shocks (sometimes fatal) or damage to connected equipment. For example, even a seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable camera flash unit powered by a 1.5 volt AA battery contains a capacitor which may be charged to over 300 volts. This is \u00e9asily capable of delivering an extremely painful, and possibly lethal shock.\n\nMany capacitors have low equivalent series resistance (ESR), so can deliver large currents into short circuits, and this can be dangerous. Care must be taken to ensure that any large or high-voltage capacitor is properly discharged before servicing the containing equipment. For safety purposes, all large capacitors should be discharged before handling. For board-level capacitors, this is done by placing a bleeder resistor across the terminals, whose resistance is large enough that the l\u00e9akage current will not affect the circuit, but small enough to discharge the capacitor shortly after power is removed. High-voltage capacitors should be stored with the terminals shorted, since temporarily discharged capacitors can develop potentially dangerous voltages when the terminals are left open-circuited.\n\nLarge oil-filled old capacitors must be disposed of properly as some contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). It is known that waste PCBs can l\u00e9ak into groundwater under landfills. If consumed by drinking contaminated water, PCBs are carcinogenic, even in very tiny amounts. If the capacitor is physically large it is more likely to be dangerous and may require precautions in addition to those described above. New electrical components are no longer produced with PCBs. (\"PCB\" in electronics usually m\u00e9ans printed circuit board, but the above usage is an exception.) Capacitors containing PCB were labelled as containing \"Askarel\" and several other trade names.\n\nBahya alatan kapasitor tegangan luhur \nAbove and beyond usual hazards associated with working with high voltage, high energy circuits, there are a number of  dangers that are specific to high voltage capacitors. High voltage capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they r\u00e9ach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may cr\u00e9ate arcing within oil-filled units that vaporizes dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion that disperses flammable oil, starts fires, and damages n\u00e9arby equipment. Rigid cased cylindrical glass or plastic cases are more prone to explosive rupture than rectangular cases due to an inability to \u00e9asily expand under pressure. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high current applications can overh\u00e9at, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. The trapped h\u00e9at may cause rapid interior h\u00e9ating and destruction, even though the outer case remains relatively cool. Capacitors used within high energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a fault in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. And, high voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventative maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.\n\nSajarah \n\nIn October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania invented the first recorded capacitor: a glass jar coated inside and out with metal. The inner coating was connected to a rod that passed through the lid and ended in a metal sphere. By having this thin layer of glass insulation (a dielectric) between two large, closely spaced plates, von Kleist found the energy density could be incr\u00e9ased dramatically compared with the situation with no insulator.\n\nIn January 1746, before Kleist's discovery became widely known, a Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek independently invented a very similar capacitor. It was named the Leyden jar, after the University of Leyden where van Musschenbroek worked. Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in parallel into a \"battery\" to incr\u00e9ase the total possible stored charge.\n\nThe \u00e9arliest unit of capacitance was the 'jar', equivalent to about 1 nF.\n\n\u00e9arly capacitors were also known as condensers, a term that is still occasionally used today. It was coined by Volta in 1782 (derived from the Italian condensatore), with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density of electric charge than a normal isolated conductor. Most non-English languages still use a word derived from \"condensatore\", like the French \"condensateur\", the German or Polish \"Kondensator\", or the Spanish \"condensador\".\n\nTempo og\u00e9 \n\n Kapasitansi\n Kapasitor plague: gagalna kapasitor dina motherboard komputer\n Rancangan sirkuit\n Kalistrikan\n Kapasitor \u00e9l\u00e9ktrolit\n \u00c9l\u00e9ktromagn\u00e9tisme\n \u00c9l\u00e9ktronika\n Leyden jar\n Stiffening capacitor\n Superkapasitor\n Electric displacement field\n\nR\u00e9f\u00e9r\u00e9nsi \n\n Glenn Zorpette \"Super Charged: A Tiny South Korean Company is Out to Make Capacitors Powerful enough to Propel the Next Generation of Hybrid-Electric Cars\", IEEE Spectrum, January, 2005 Vol 42, No. 1, North American Edition.\n \"The ARRL Handbook for Radio Amateurs, 68th ed\", The Amateur Radio Relay L\u00e9ague, Newington CT USA, 1991\n \"Basic Circuit Theory with Digital Computations\", Lawrence P. Huelsman, Prentice-Hall, 1972\n Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society LXXII, Appendix 8, 1782 (Volta coins the word condenser)\n A. K. Maini \"Electronic Projects for Beginners\", \"Pustak Mahal\", 2nd Edition: March, 1998 (INDIA)\n Spark Museum (von Kleist and Musschenbroek)\n Biography of von Kleist\n\nTumbu luar \n Wonko Labs - High Voltage Capacitor Bank\n Practical Capacitors and other Electronics for Robotics\n Capacitance and Inductance  - a chapter from an online textbook\n Caltech: Practical capacitor properties \n FaradNet: The Capacitor Resource \n BadCaps.net: how shoddily-made capacitors cause computer faults\n MAXFARAD Capacitors \n NessCap, maker of 5000 farad capacitors\n General Atomics Electronic Systems, inc. High Voltage Pulsed Power Capacitors and Systems. \n Skeleton NanoLab, Research & Development of advanced capacitors \n Howstuffworks.com: How Capacitors Work\n CapSite 2006: Introduction to Capacitors \n AC circuits\n Capacitor Tutorial  - Includes how to r\u00e9ad capacitor temperature codes\n Trade names for PCB in electrical equipment\n\nKapasitor\nPanyimpen \u00e9n\u00e9rgi","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":226,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2024-30":2,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":4,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":5,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":4,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":2,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":3,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":5,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":5,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":5,"2015-14":5,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":6,"2014-42":11,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":8,"2014-15":9}},"id":8774,"url":"https:\/\/su.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kapasitor","title":"Kapasitor","language":"su"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Kinship is the most basic principle of putting individuals into social groups, roles, and categories.  The basic sort of kinship is to belong to the same family by birth.\n\nKinship \nKinship tells us how we are related to our family or each other, through our biology and history.  Kinship can be a complex system of social groups. It is a universal system as everyone has a family. Some small and large scale societies use kinship not only for human reproduction but for \"economic transactions, the political system and [their] religious beliefs\" (J.Hendry, 1999).\n\nHistory \nThe anthropologist Lewis H. Morgan invented kinship studies. In the 1850s and 1860s he watched the Iroquois, a Native American group in the Northeastern United States. He was mostly interested in what was keeping societies together. He was the first to state the different types of kinship systems that exist, in his book, called 'Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family'.\n\nTypes \nThere are two main types of kinship.\n\nConsanguinity means to be related by blood. Laws in some countries use the amount of consanguinity between two people.  For instance, deciding who is allowed to be married.  It can also be used to decide who can receive property after death if there is no will.  Many religions also use the amount of consanguinity to define acceptable practices.\n\nAffinity means to be related by social processes, like marriage or adoption. There are also legal and religious definitions for acceptable amounts of affinity.\n\nDescent \nThere are two types of descent involved in kinship.  Patrilineal are the relations that come from the father's blood line.  Matrilineal are the relations that come from the mother's blood line.\n\nExamples of kinship\n parent (father or mother)\n child (son or daughter)\n sibling (brother or sister)\n grandparent (grandfather or grandmother)\n grandchild (grandson or granddaughter)\n uncle or aunt\n nibling (nephew or niece)\n cousin\n ancestor\n descendant\n Friend (someone who you feel you are like or was related to you in another life (in the past or the future).\n\nReferences \n C. Delaney. (2004). 'Relatives and Relations': Investigating Culture. Oxford: Blackwell. p.192.\n J. Hendry. (1999). 'Family, Kinship and Marriage': An Introduction to Social Anthropology. London Palgrave.\n L. Rival. (1998). 'Androgenous Parents and Guest Children': The Huaorani Couvade. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol.4: p.619-642.\nFamily","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":75,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":4,"2019-09":3,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":46527,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kinship","title":"Kinship","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0a95\u0ac1 (\u0a85\u0a82\u0a97\u0acd\u0ab0\u0ac7\u0a9c\u0ac0:Tobacco, Cultivated Tobacco; \u0ab5\u0ac8\u0a9c\u0acd\u0a9e\u0abe\u0aa8\u0abf\u0a95 \u0aa8\u0abe\u0aae: Nicotiana tabacum) \u0a8f\u0a95 \u0aac\u0ab9\u0ac1\u0ab5\u0ab0\u0acd\u0ab7\u0abe\u0aaf\u0ac1 \u0ab5\u0aa8\u0ab8\u0acd\u0aaa\u0aa4\u0abf \u0a9b\u0ac7, \u0a9c\u0ac7 \u0a9b\u0acb\u0aa1 \u0ab8\u0acd\u0ab5\u0ab0\u0ac2\u0aaa\u0ac7 \u0a9c\u0acb\u0ab5\u0abe \u0aae\u0ab3\u0ac7 \u0a9b\u0ac7.  \u0aa8\u0abf\u0a95\u0acb\u0ab6\u0abf\u0aaf\u0abe\u0aa8\u0abe \u0a9f\u0ac7\u0aac\u0ac7\u0a95\u0aae \u0aa4\u0ab0\u0abf\u0a95\u0ac7 \u0ab5\u0ab0\u0acd\u0a97\u0abf\u0a95\u0ac3\u0aa4 \u0a95\u0ab0\u0ab5\u0abe\u0aae\u0abe\u0a82 \u0a86\u0ab5\u0ac7\u0ab2\u0ac0 \u0a86 \u0ab5\u0aa8\u0ab8\u0acd\u0aaa\u0aa4\u0abf\u0aa8\u0abe \u0a9b\u0acb\u0aa1 \u0aab\u0a95\u0acd\u0aa4 \u0a96\u0ac7\u0aa4\u0ac0\u0aae\u0abe\u0a82 \u0a9c \u0a9c\u0acb\u0ab5\u0abe \u0aae\u0ab3\u0ac7 \u0a9b\u0ac7, \u0a85\u0aa8\u0ac7 \u0aa8\u0abf\u0a95\u0acb\u0ab6\u0abf\u0aaf\u0abe\u0aa8\u0abe \u0aaa\u0acd\u0ab0\u0a9c\u0abe\u0aa4\u0abf\u0aa8\u0ac0 \u0aac\u0aa7\u0ac0\u0a9c \u0a9c\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0\u0a93\u0aae\u0abe\u0a82 \u0ab8\u0acc\u0aa5\u0ac0 \u0ab5\u0aa7\u0ac1 \u0ab5\u0ab5\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0 \u0a86 \u0a9c\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0 \u0a9b\u0ac7. \u0a98\u0aa3\u0abe \u0aac\u0aa7\u0abe \u0aa6\u0ac7\u0ab6\u0acb\u0aae\u0abe\u0a82 \u0aa4\u0ac7\u0aa8\u0ac7 \u0aa4\u0ac7\u0aa8\u0abe \u0aaa\u0abe\u0aa8 \u0a95\u0ac7 \u0a9c\u0ac7 \u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0a95\u0ac1 \u0aa4\u0ab0\u0abf\u0a95\u0ac7 \u0ab5\u0aaa\u0ab0\u0abe\u0aaf \u0a9b\u0ac7 \u0aa4\u0ac7\u0aa8\u0abe \u0aae\u0abe\u0a9f\u0ac7 \u0a89\u0a97\u0abe\u0aa1\u0ab5\u0abe\u0aae\u0abe\u0a82 \u0a86\u0ab5\u0ac7 \u0a9b\u0ac7. \u0aa4\u0ac7\u0aa8\u0acb \u0a9b\u0acb\u0aa1 \u0ae7\u0aa5\u0ac0 \u0ae8 \u0aae\u0ac0\u0a9f\u0ab0 \u0a9c\u0ac7\u0a9f\u0ab2\u0acb \u0a89\u0a82\u0a9a\u0acb \u0aa5\u0abe\u0aaf \u0a9b\u0ac7.\n\n\u0a87\u0aa4\u0abf\u0ab9\u0abe\u0ab8\nIn their first voyage to the New World, Christopher Columbus and his expedition were introduced to a plant whose smoke was called tobacco by the natives of Hispaniola.\n\nIn 1560, Jean Nicot de Villemain brought tobacco seeds and leaves as a \"wonder drug\" to the French court. In 1586 the botanist Jaques Dalechamps gave the plant the name of Herba nicotiana, which was also adopted by Linn\u00e9. It was considered a decorative plant at first, then a panacea, before it became a common snuff and tobacco plant. Tobacco arrived in Africa at the beginning  of the 17th century. The leaf extract was a popular pest control method up to the beginning of the 20th century. In 1851, the Belgian chemist Jean Stas was the first to prove the use of tobacco extract as a murder poison in the civilised world. The Belgian count Hippolyte Visart de Bocarm\u00e9 had poisoned his brother-in-law with tobacco leaf extract in order to acquire some urgently needed money. This was the first exact proof of alkaloids in forensic medicine.\n\n\u0aad\u0acc\u0a97\u0acb\u0ab2\u0abf\u0a95 \u0ab5\u0abf\u0a96\u0abf\u0ab0\u0aa3\nN. tabacum is a native of tropical and subtropical America but it is now commercially cultivated worldwide. Other varieties are cultivated as ornamental plants or grow as a weed.\n\n\u0aa8\u0abf\u0ab5\u0abe\u0ab8\nN. tabacum is sensitive to temperature, air, ground humidity and the type of land.  Temperatures of 20 to 30\u00b0C are best for adequate growth; an atmospheric humidity of 80 to 85% and soil without a high level of nitrogen are also optimal.\n\n\u0ab5\u0abe\u0aa8\u0ab8\u0acd\u0aaa\u0aa4\u0abf\u0a95 \u0ab5\u0ab0\u0acd\u0aa3\u0aa8\nNicotiana tabacum Linn\u00e9 is a robust annual little branched herb up to 2.5m high with large green leaves and long trumpet shaped white-pinkish flowers. All parts are sticky, covered with short viscid-glandular hairs, which exude a yellow secretion containing nicotine.\n\n\u0aaa\u0ac1\u0ab7\u0acd\u0aaa\nIn terminal, many flowered inflorescences, the tube 5\u20136\u00a0cm long, 5mm in diameter, expanded in the lower third (calyx) and upper third (throat), lobes broadly triangular, white-pinkish with pale violet or carmine coloured tips tube yellowish white; calyx with 5narrowly triangular lobes, 1-5-2\u00a0cm long.\n\nA capsular ovoid or ellipsoid, surrounded by the persistent calyx and with a short apical beak, about 2\u00a0cm long. Seeds are very numerous, very small, ovoid or kidney shaped, brown.\n\n\u0a89\u0aaa\u0aaf\u0acb\u0a97\u0ac0 \u0a85\u0a82\u0a97\u0acb\nEvery part of the plant except the seed contains nicotine, but the concentration is related to different factors such as species, type of land, culture and weather conditions. The concentration of nicotine increases with the age of the plant.  Tobacco leaves contain 2 to 8% nicotine combined as malate or citrate.  The distribution of the nicotine in the mature plant is widely variable: 64% of the total nicotine exists in the leaves, 18% in the stem, 13% in the root, and 5% in the flowers.\n\n\u0ab0\u0ab8\u0abe\u0aaf\u0aa3\u0acb\n\nTobacco contains the following phytochemicals:\n\nNicotine, Anabasine (an alkaloid similar to the nicotine but less active), Glucosides (tabacinine, tabacine), 2,3,6-Trimethyl-1,4-naphthoquinone, 2-Methylquinone, 2-Napthylamine, Propionic acid, Anatalline, Anthalin, Anethole, Acrolein, Anatabine, Cembrene, Choline, Nicotelline,  Nicotianine,  Pyrene.\n\n\u0aab\u0abe\u0ab0\u0acd\u0aae\u0abe\u0a95\u0acb\u0ab2\u0acb\u0a9c\u0ac0\u0a95\u0ab2 \u0a85\u0ab8\u0ab0\u0acb\nThe most prominent phytochemical found in N. tabacum is nicotine. Nicotine binds stereospecifically to acetylcholine receptors at the autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla, neuromuscular junctions and the brain. As a consequence of the stimulation of nicotinic receptors, possibly located on presynaptic sites, short-term exposure to nicotine results in the activation of several central nervous system neurohumoral pathways, leading to the release of acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, vasopressin, growth hormone, and ACTH.\n\nMost of the effects of nicotine on the central nervous system are due to the direct action on brain receptors, although activation of the brain through afferent nerves of chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies or the lung may also contribute. Nicotine excites nicotinic receptors in the spinal cord, autonomic ganglia, and adrenal medulla, the last of which causes the release of epinephrine.  Nicotine evokes the release of catecholamines and facilitates the release of electrical stimulation-evoked neurotransmitters from sympathetic nerves in blood vessels. In experimental preparations, nicotine in low doses causes ganglionic stimulation but in high doses it causes ganglionic blockade after brief stimulation.  This biphasic response pattern is observed in the intact organism as well, although the mechanism is far more complex.\n\nAt very low doses, similar to those seen during cigarette smoking, the cardiovascular effects appear to be mediated by the central nervous system, either through the activation of chemoreceptor afferent pathways or by direct effects on the brain stem.  The net result is sympathetic neural discharge, with an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. At higher doses, nicotine may act directly on the peripheral nervous system, producing ganglionic stimulation and the release of adrenal catecholamines. At extremely high doses, nicotine produces hypotension and slowing of the heart rate, mediated by either peripheral ganglionic blockade, vagal afferent nerve stimulation, or direct depressor effects mediated by action on the brain.\n\u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0a95\u0ac1 \u0ab8\u0ac7\u0ab5\u0aa8\u0aa8\u0ac0 \u0a85\u0ab8\u0ab0\u0acb\n\n    \u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0a95\u0ac1 \u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0ab0\u0abe \u0ab6\u0ab0\u0ac0\u0ab0\u0aa8\u0abe \u0ab5\u0abf\u0ab5\u0abf\u0aa7 \u0aad\u0abe\u0a97\u0acb, \u0a9c\u0ac7\u0ab5\u0abe \u0a95\u0ac7 \u0aae\u0ac1\u0a96, \u0a97\u0ab3\u0ac1\u0a82, \u0aab\u0ac7\u0aab\u0ab8\u0abe, \u0a9c\u0aa0\u0ab0, \u0aae\u0ac2\u0aa4\u0acd\u0ab0\u0aaa\u0abf\u0a82\u0aa1, \u0aae\u0ac2\u0aa4\u0acd\u0ab0\u0abe\u0ab6\u0aaf, \u0ab5\u0a97\u0ac7\u0ab0\u0ac7\u0aa8\u0abe \u0a95\u0ac7\u0aa8\u0acd\u0ab8\u0ab0 \u0aae\u0abe\u0a9f\u0ac7 \u0a9c\u0ab5\u0abe\u0aac\u0aa6\u0abe\u0ab0 \u0a9b\u0ac7.\n\n\u0ab8\u0aae\u0ab0\u0acd\u0aa5\u0aa8\u0ab0\u0ac2\u0aaa \u0aa4\u0aa5\u0acd\u0aaf\u0acb\n\n    \u0ab5\u0abf\u0ab6\u0acd\u0ab5\u0aae\u0abe\u0a82 \u0aae\u0ac1\u0a96 \u0a95\u0ac7\u0aa8\u0acd\u0ab8\u0ab0\u0aa8\u0abe \u0ab8\u0acc\u0aa5\u0ac0 \u0ab5\u0aa7\u0abe\u0ab0\u0ac7 \u0a95\u0abf\u0ab8\u0acd\u0ab8\u0abe\u0a93 \u0aad\u0abe\u0ab0\u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0a82 \u0a9b\u0ac7 \u0a85\u0aa8\u0ac7 \u0aa4\u0ac7\u0aa8\u0ac1 \u0a95\u0abe\u0ab0\u0aa3 \u0a9b\u0ac7 \u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0a95\u0ac1.\n    \u0aad\u0abe\u0ab0\u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0a82 \u0aaa\u0ac1\u0ab0\u0ac1\u0ab7\u0acb\u0aa8\u0abe \u0a95\u0ac7\u0aa8\u0acd\u0ab8\u0ab0\u0aae\u0abe\u0a82 \u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0a95\u0ac1\u0aa8\u0acb \u0aab\u0abe\u0ab3\u0acb 56.4 \u0a9f\u0a95\u0abe \u0a85\u0aa8\u0ac7 \u0ab8\u0acd\u0aa4\u0acd\u0ab0\u0ac0\u0a93\u0aa8\u0abe \u0a95\u0ac7\u0aa8\u0acd\u0ab8\u0ab0\u0aae\u0abe\u0a82 44.9 \u0a9f\u0a95\u0abe \u0a9b\u0ac7.\n    90 \u0a9f\u0a95\u0abe \u0a95\u0ab0\u0aa4\u0abe \u0ab5\u0aa7\u0abe\u0ab0\u0ac7 \u0aab\u0ac7\u0aab\u0ab8\u0abe\u0aa8\u0abe \u0a95\u0ac7\u0aa8\u0acd\u0ab8\u0ab0 \u0a85\u0aa8\u0ac7 \u0aab\u0ac7\u0aab\u0ab8\u0abe\u0aa8\u0abe \u0a85\u0aa8\u0acd\u0aaf \u0ab0\u0acb\u0a97\u0acb \u0aa7\u0ac2\u0aae\u0acd\u0ab0\u0aaa\u0abe\u0aa8\u0aa8\u0ac7 \u0a95\u0abe\u0ab0\u0aa3\u0ac7 \u0aa5\u0abe\u0aaf \u0a9b\u0ac7.\n\n    \u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0a95\u0ac1 \u0ab9\u0acd\u0ab0\u0aa6\u0aaf \u0a85\u0aa8\u0ac7 \u0ab0\u0a95\u0acd\u0aa4\u0ab5\u0abe\u0ab9\u0abf\u0aa8\u0ac0\u0a93\u0aa8\u0abe \u0ab0\u0acb\u0a97, \u0ab9\u0abe\u0ab0\u0acd\u0a9f \u0a8f\u0a9f\u0ac7\u0a95, \u0a9b\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0\u0aae\u0abe\u0a82 \u0aa6\u0ac1\u0a96\u0abe\u0ab5\u0acb, \u0ab9\u0acd\u0ab0\u0aa6\u0aaf\u0ab0\u0acb\u0a97\u0aa5\u0ac0 \u0a85\u0a9a\u0abe\u0aa8\u0a95 \u0aae\u0ac3\u0aa4\u0acd\u0aaf\u0ac1, \u0ab8\u0acd\u0a9f\u0acd\u0ab0\u0acb\u0a95 (\u0aac\u0acd\u0ab0\u0ac7\u0a87\u0aa8 \u0a8f\u0a9f\u0ac7\u0a95), \u0aaa\u0ac7\u0ab0\u0abf\u0aab\u0ac7\u0ab0\u0ab2 \u0ab5\u0abe\u0ab8\u0acd\u0a95\u0acd\u0aaf\u0ac1\u0ab2\u0ab0 \u0ab0\u0acb\u0a97 (\u0aaa\u0a97\u0aa8\u0ac1\u0a82 \u0a97\u0ac7\u0a82\u0a97\u0acd\u0ab0\u0ac0\u0aa8)\n\n\u0ab2\u0acb\u0a95\u0ab5\u0ac8\u0aa6\u0ac1\n\nTobacco has been used as an antispasmodic, a diuretic, an emetic, an expectorant, a sedative, and a sialagogue, and in homeopathy.\n\nTobacco has a long history of use by medical herbalists as a relaxant, though since it is a highly addictive drug it is seldom employed internally or externally at present. The leaves act as antispasmodics, discutients, diuretics, emetics, expectorants, irritants, sedatives and sialagogues. They are used externally in the treatment of rheumatic swelling, skin diseases and scorpion stings. The plant should be used with great caution, when taken internally it is addictive. The active ingredients can also be absorbed through the skin. Wet tobacco leaves can be applied to stings in order to relieve the pain. They are also a certain cure for painful piles. A homeopathic remedy is made from the dried leaves. It is used in the treatment of nausea and travel sickness. Some other activities reported for Nicotiana tabacum are: Analgesic activity, anesthetic activity, angiogenesis inhibition, antibacterial activity, anti convulsant activities, anti estrogenic effect, antifungal activity, antiglaucomic activity, antioxidant activity, antistress effect, antiviral activity, aromatase inhibition, arrhythmogenic effect,  carcinogenic activity, bronchoconstrictor activity, bupivacaine kinetics,\n\nThe regions that have histories of use of the plant include:\n\nBrazil: Leaves are heated and the juice is squeezed out, mixed with ash from bark of Theobroma subircanum or other Theobroma species to make an intoxicating snuff.  The leaf juice is taken orally to induce vomiting and narcosis.\n\nColombia: Fresh leaf is used as poultice over boils and infected wounds; the leaves are crushed with oil from palms and used as hair treatment to prevent baldness.\n\nCuba: Extract of the leaf is taken orally to treat dysmenorrheal.\n\nEast Africa: Dried leaves of Nicotiana tabacum and Securinega virosa are mixed into a paste and used externally to destroy worms in sores.\n\nEcuador: Leaf juice is used for indisposition, chills and snake bites and to treat pulmonary ailments.\n\nFiji: Fresh root is taken orally for asthma and indigestion; fresh root is applied ophthalmically as drops for bloodshot eyes and other problems; seed is taken orally for rheumatism and to treat hoarsness.\n\nGuatemala: Leaves are applied externally by adults for myasis, headache and wounds; hot water extract of the dried leaf is applied externally for ring worms, fungal diseases of the skin, wounds, ulcers, bruises, sores, mouth lesions, stomartitis and mucosa; leaf is orally taken for kidney diseases.\n\nHaiti: Decoction of dried leaf is taken orally for bronchitis and pneumonia.\n\nIndia: Juice of Securinega leucopyrus is mixed with the dried leaves of Nicotiana tabacum and applied externally for parasites; Fresh leaves are mixed with corn-cob or Amorphophallus paeonifolium to treat asthma.\n\nIran: Infusion of the dried leaf is applied externally as an insect repellent; ointments made from crushed leaves are used for baldness, dermatitis and infectious ulceration and as a pediculicide.\n\nUnited States: Extract of N. tabacum is taken orally to treat tiredness, ward off diseases, and quiet fear.\n\nTanzania: Leaves of Nicotiana tabacum are placed in the vagina to stimulate labor.\n\n\u0aaa\u0acb\u0ab7\u0aa3 \u0aae\u0ac2\u0ab2\u0acd\u0aaf\n\nEdible Parts: Leaves. Edible Uses: Egg.\nA protein can be extracted from the leaves. It is an odourless, tasteless white powder and can be added to cereal grains, vegetables, soft drinks and other foods. It can be whipped like egg whites, liquefied or gelled and can take on the flavour and texture of a variety of foods. It is 99.5% protein, contains no salt, fat or cholesterol. It is currently being tested as a low calorie substitute for mayonnaise and whipped cream\n\n\u0a85\u0aa8\u0acd\u0aaf \u0a89\u0aaa\u0aaf\u0acb\u0a97\u0acb\n\nAll parts of the plant contain nicotine, which has been extracted and used as an insecticide. The dried leaves can also be used, they remain effective for 6 months after drying. The juice of the leaves can be rubbed on the body as an insect repellent. The leaves have been dried and chewed as an intoxicant. The dried leaves are also used as snuff or smoked. This is the main species that is used to make cigarettes and cigars. A drying oil is obtained from the seed.\n\n\u0ab2\u0aa3\u0aa3\u0ac0 \u0aaa\u0a9b\u0ac0\u0aa8\u0ac0 \u0aaa\u0acd\u0ab0\u0a95\u0acd\u0ab0\u0abf\u0aaf\u0abe\n\nAfter tobacco is harvested, it is cured (dried), and then aged to improve its flavor. There are four common methods of curing tobacco: air curing, fire curing, flue curing, and sun curing. The curing method used depends on the type of tobacco and its intended use.\nAir-cured tobacco is sheltered from wind and sun in a well-ventilated barn, where it air dries for six to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the tobacco smoke a light, sweet flavor, and high in nicotine. Cigar and burley tobaccos are air cured.\n\nIn fire curing, smoke from a low-burning fire on the barn floor permeates the leaves. This gives the leaves a distinctive smoky aroma and flavor. Fire curing takes three to ten weeks and produces a tobacco low in sugar and high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are fire cured.\nFlue-cured tobacco is kept in an enclosed barn heated by flues (pipes) of hot air, but the tobacco is not directly exposed to smoke. This method produces cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high levels of nicotine. It is the fastest method of curing, requiring about a week. Virginia tobacco that has been flue cured is also called bright tobacco, because flue curing turns its leaves gold, orange, or yellow.\nSun-cured tobacco dries uncovered in the sun. This method is used in Greece, Turkey, and other Mediterranean countries to produce oriental tobacco. Sun-cured tobacco is low in sugar and nicotine and is used in cigarettes.\nOnce the tobacco is cured, workers tie it into small bundles of about 20 leaves, called hands, or use a machine to make large blocks, called bales. The hands or bales are carefully aged for one to three years to improve flavor and reduce bitterness.\n\n\u0a9d\u0abe\u0a82\u0a96\u0ac0\n\n\u0ab8\u0a82\u0aa6\u0ab0\u0acd\u0aad\nMedicinal Plants of the world, By Ivan A. Ross\nPoisonous plants, Dr Julia Higa de Landoni Seccion Toxicologia\nHospital de Clinicas \"Jos\u00e9 de San Martin\" Cordoba 2351, 1120 Capital, Argentina\nAfrican Ethnobotany: Poisons and Drugs: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology by Hans Dieter Neuwinger\n\n\u0aac\u0abe\u0ab9\u0acd\u0aaf \u0a95\u0aa1\u0ac0\u0a93 \n \u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0a95\u0ac1 \u0a95\u0ac7\u0ab5\u0ac0 \u0ab0\u0ac0\u0aa4\u0ac7 \u0a89\u0a97\u0abe\u0aa1\u0ab5\u0ac1\u0a82 \n\n\u0ab5\u0aa8\u0ab8\u0acd\u0aaa\u0aa4\u0abf","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":104,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":5,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":4,"2014-10":6,"2013-48":4,"2013-20":3,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":2}},"id":26231,"url":"https:\/\/gu.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%81","title":"\u0aa4\u0aae\u0abe\u0a95\u0ac1","language":"gu"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Waste minimisation is a set of processes and practices intended to reduce the amount of waste produced.  By reducing or eliminating the generation of harmful and persistent wastes, waste minimisation supports efforts to promote a more sustainable society. Waste minimisation involves redesigning products and processes and\/or changing societal patterns of consumption and production.\n\nThe most environmentally resourceful, economically efficient, and cost effective way to manage waste often is to not have to address the problem in the first place. Managers see waste minimisation as a primary focus for most waste management strategies. Proper waste treatment and disposal can require a significant amount of time and resources; therefore, the benefits of waste minimisation can be considerable if carried out in an effective, safe and sustainable manner.\n\nTraditional waste management focuses on processing waste after it is created, concentrating on re-use, recycling,  and waste-to-energy conversion. Waste minimisation involves efforts to avoid creating the waste during manufacturing.  To effectively implement waste minimisation the manager requires knowledge of the production process, cradle-to-grave analysis (the tracking of materials from their extraction to their return to earth) and details of the composition of the waste.\n\nThe main sources of waste vary from country to country. In the UK, most waste comes from the construction and demolition of buildings, followed by mining and quarrying, industry and commerce. Household waste constitutes a relatively small proportion of all waste.  Industrial waste is often tied to requirements in the supply chain.  For example, a company handling a product may insist that it should be shipped using particular packing because it fits downstream needs.\n\nBenefits\nWaste minimisation can protect the environment and often turns out to have positive economic benefits.  Waste minimisation can improve:\nEfficient production practices \u2013 waste minimisation can achieve more output of product per unit of input of raw materials.\nEconomic returns \u2013 more efficient use of products means reduced costs of purchasing new materials, improving the financial performance of a company. \nPublic image \u2013 the environmental profile of a company is an important part of its overall reputation and waste minimisation reflects a proactive movement towards environmental protection.\nQuality of products produced \u2013 new innovation and technological practices can reduce waste generation and improve the quality of the inputs in the production phase.\nEnvironmental responsibility \u2013 minimising or eliminating waste generation makes it easier to meet targets of environmental regulations, policies, and standards; the environmental impact of waste will be reduced.\n\nIndustries\n\nIn industry, using more efficient manufacturing processes and better materials generally reduces the production of waste. The application of waste minimisation techniques has led to the development of innovative and commercially successful replacement products.\n\nWaste minimisation efforts often require investment, which is usually compensated by the savings. However, waste reduction in one part of the production process may create waste production in another part.\n\nOverpackaging is excess packaging.  Eliminating it can result in source reduction, reducing waste before it is generated  by proper package design and practice.  Use of minimized packaging is key to working toward  sustainable packaging.\n\nProcesses\n\n Reuse of scrap material\n Scraps can be immediately re-incorporated at the beginning of the manufacturing line so that they do not become a waste product. Many industries routinely do this; for example, paper mills return any damaged rolls to the beginning of the production line, and in the manufacture of plastic items, off-cuts and scrap are re-incorporated into new products.\n Improved quality control and process monitoring\n Steps can be taken to ensure that the number of reject batches is kept to a minimum.  This is achieved by increasing the frequency of inspection and the number of points of inspection. For example, installing automated continuous monitoring equipment can help to identify production problems at an early stage.\n Waste exchanges\n This is where the waste product of one process becomes the raw material for a second process. Waste exchanges represent another way of reducing waste disposal volumes for waste that cannot be eliminated.\n Ship to point of use\n This involves making deliveries of incoming raw materials or components direct to the point where they are assembled or used in the manufacturing process to minimise handling and the use of protective wrappings or enclosures (example: Fish-booking).\nZero waste\n This is a whole systems approach that aims to eliminate waste at the source and at all points down the supply chain, with the intention of producing no waste. It is a design philosophy which emphasizes waste prevention as opposed to end of pipe waste management. Since, globally speaking, waste as such, however minimal, can never be prevented (there will always be an end-of-life even for recycled products and materials), a related goal is prevention of pollution.\n Minimalism\nMinimalism often refers to the concepts of art and music, even though a minimal lifestyle could make a huge impact for waste management and producing zero waste, can reduce which courses landfill and environment pollution. When the endless consumption is reduced to minimum of only necessary consumption, the careless production towards the demand will be reduced. A minimal lifestyle can impact the climate justice in a way by reducing the waste. Joshua Fields Millburn and Ryan Nicodemus directed and produced a movie called Minimalism: A Documentary that showcased the idea of minimal living in the modern world.\n\nProduct design\n\nWaste minimisation and resource maximisation for manufactured products can most easily be done at the design stage. Reducing the number of components used in a product or making the product easier to take apart can make it easier to be repaired or recycled at the end of its useful life.\n\nIn some cases, it may be best not to minimise the volume of raw materials used to make a product, but instead reduce the volume or toxicity of the waste created at the end of a product's life, or the environmental impact of the product's use.  (See section Durability).\n\nFitting the intended use\nIn this strategy, products and packages are optimally designed to meet their intended use.  This applies especially to packaging materials, which should only be as durable as necessary to serve their intended purpose. On the other hand, it could be more wasteful if food, which has consumed resources and energy in its production, is damaged and spoiled because of extreme measures to reduce the use of paper, metals, glass and plastics in its packaging.\n\nDurability\nImproving product durability, such as extending a vacuum cleaner's useful life to 15 years instead of 12, can reduce waste and usually much improves resource optimisation.\n\nBut in some cases it has a negative environmental impact.  If a product is too durable, its replacement with more efficient technology is likely to be delayed. Therefore, extending an older machine's useful life may place a heavier burden on the environment than scrapping it, recycling its metal and buying a new model.  Similarly, older vehicles consume more fuel and produce more emissions than their modern counterparts.\n\nMost proponents of waste minimisation consider that the way forward may be to view any manufactured product at the end of its useful life as a resource for recycling and reuse rather than waste.\n\nMaking refillable glass bottles strong enough to withstand several journeys between the consumer and the bottling plant requires making them thicker and so heavier, which increases the resources required to transport them. Since transport has a large environmental impact, careful evaluation is required of the number of return journeys bottles make.  If a refillable bottle is thrown away after being refilled only several times, the resources wasted may be greater than if the bottle had been designed for a single journey..\n\nMany choices involve trade-offs of environmental impact, and often there is insufficient information to make informed decisions.\n\nUniversal connectors\nUtilizing a charger port that can be used by any phone. The implementation of USB-C to reduce excess wires that end up in the waste that give off toxic chemicals that harm the planet.\n\nRetail\nVarious aspects of business practices affect waste, such as the use of disposable tableware in restaurants.\n\nReusable shopping bags\nReusable bags are a visible form of re-use, and some stores offer a \"bag credit\" for re-usable shopping bags, although at least one chain reversed its policy, claiming \"it was just a temporary bonus\".  In contrast, one study suggests that a bag tax is a more effective incentive than a similar discount. (Of note, the before\/after study compared a circumstance in which some stores offered a discount vs. a circumstance in which all stores applying the tax.) While there is a minor inconvenience involved, this may remedy itself, as reusable bags are generally more convenient for carrying groceries.\n\nHouseholds\nThis section details some waste minimisation techniques for householders.\n\nAppropriate amounts and sizes can be chosen when purchasing goods; buying large containers of paint for a small decorating job or buying larger amounts of food than can be consumed create unnecessary waste. Also, if a pack or can is to be thrown away, any remaining contents must be removed before the container can be recycled.\n\nHome composting, the practice of turning kitchen and garden waste into compost can be considered waste minimisation.\n\nThe resources that households use can be reduced considerably by using electricity thoughtfully (e.g. turning off lights and equipment when it is not needed) and by reducing the number of car journeys made. Individuals can reduce the amount of waste they create by buying fewer products and by buying products which last longer. Mending broken or worn items of clothing or equipment also contributes to minimising household waste. Individuals can minimise their water usage, and walk or cycle to their destination rather than using their car to save fuel and cut down emissions.\n\nIn a domestic situation, the potential for minimisation is often dictated by lifestyle.  Some people may view it as wasteful to purchase new products solely to follow fashion trends when the older products are still usable.  Adults working full-time have little free time, and so may have to purchase more convenient foods that require little preparation, or prefer disposable nappies if there is a baby in the family.\n\nThe amount of waste an individual produces is a small portion of all waste produced by society, and personal waste reduction can only make a small impact on overall waste volumes.  Yet, influence on policy can be exerted in other areas. Increased consumer awareness of the impact and power of certain purchasing decisions allows industry and individuals to change the total resource consumption.  Consumers can influence manufacturers and distributors by avoiding buying products that do not have eco-labelling, which is currently not mandatory, or choosing products that minimise the use of packaging. In the UK, PullApart combines both environmental and consumer packaging surveys, in a curbside packaging recycling classification system to minimise waste. Where reuse schemes are available, consumers can be proactive and use them.\n\nHealthcare facilities\n\nHealthcare establishments are massive producers of waste. The major sources of healthcare waste are:  hospitals, laboratories and research centres, mortuary and autopsy centres, animal research and testing laboratories, blood banks and collection services, and nursing homes for the elderly.\n\nWaste minimisation can offer many opportunities to these establishments to use fewer resources, be less wasteful and generate less hazardous waste.  Good management and control practices among health-care facilities can have a significant effect on the reduction of waste generated each day.\n\nPractices\n\nThere are many examples of more efficient practices that can encourage waste minimization in healthcare establishments and research facilities.\n\nSource reduction\nPurchasing reductions which ensures the selection of supplies that are less wasteful or less hazardous.\nThe use of physical rather than chemical cleaning methods such as steam disinfection instead of chemical disinfection.\nPreventing the unnecessary wastage of products in nursing and cleaning activities.\n\nManagement and control measures at hospital level\nCentralized purchasing of hazardous chemicals.\nMonitoring the flow of chemicals within the health care facility from receipt as a raw material to disposal as a hazardous waste.\nThe careful separation of waste matter to help minimize the quantities of hazardous waste and disposal.\n\nStock management of chemical and pharmaceutical products\nFrequent ordering of relatively small quantities rather than large quantities at one time.\nUsing the oldest batch of a product first to avoid expiration dates and unnecessary waste.\nUsing all the contents of a container containing hazardous waste.\nChecking the expiry date of all products at the time of delivery.\n\nSee also\n\nCleaner production\nEco-action\nEcological economics\nEcological sanitation\nElectronics right to repair\nEuropean Week for Waste Reduction\nExtended producer responsibility\nFood waste\nGreen consumption\nGreen economy\nHousehold hazardous waste\nLife-cycle assessment\nList of waste management acronyms\nLitter\nMiniwaste\nPlanned obsolescence\nRecycling\nReusable launch vehicle\nReusable packaging\nReuse of bottles\nReuse of human excreta\nReuse\nSource reduction\nSustainable sanitation\nWaste hierarchy\nWaste management\nZero waste\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n The EU Pre-waste project website, homepage.\n\n \nWaste management concepts\nIndustrial ecology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":107,"dup_dump_count":60,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":4,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":3,"2016-30":3,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":1}},"id":5149747,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waste%20minimisation","title":"Waste minimisation","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Richard D. Braatz (born July 19, 1966) is the Edwin R. Gilliland Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology known for his research in control theory and its applications to chemical, pharmaceutical, and materials systems.\n\nHe has received many honors, including the Hertz Foundation Thesis Prize, the Donald P. Eckman Award from the American Automatic Control Council, the Curtis W. McGraw Research Award from the Engineering Research Council, and the Antonio Ruberti Young Researcher Prize from the Antonio Ruberti Foundation and IEEE Control Systems Society. Braatz became a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2019. He is a Fellow of the International Federation of Automatic Control, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.\n\nBraatz graduated from Oregon State University with a B.S. in 1988 with an undergraduate thesis on heat exchanger design supervised by Octave Levenspiel. He worked at Chevron Research and Avery Dennison before receiving his M.S. and Ph.D. in robust control from the California Institute of Technology under the direction of Professor Manfred Morari. His thesis included a proof that robust control problems are NP-hard. After a postdoctoral year at DuPont, he moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he rose to the position of millennium chair and professor, with positions in chemical and biomolecular engineering, electrical and computer engineering, mechanical science and engineering, bioengineering, applied mathematics, and computational science and engineering. Braatz made contributions in the areas of robust optimal control, fault detection and diagnosis, sheet and film processes, and crystallization.\n\nAfter serving as a visiting scholar for a year at Harvard University, in 2010 he moved to MIT's department of chemical engineering, where he continues research in systems and control theory and its applications.\n\nReferences\n\nSources \nRichard Braatz Faculty Page\nDonald P. Eckman Award\nAntonio Ruberti Young Researcher Prize\nIEEE Control Systems Society Transition to Practice Award\nCurtis W. McGraw Research Award\nHertz Foundation Thesis Prize\nAACC Executive Officers\nNational Academy of Engineering\n\nAmerican chemical engineers\nLiving people\nControl theorists\nMIT School of Engineering faculty\n1966 births\nMembers of the United States National Academy of Engineering\nFellows of the International Federation of Automatic Control\nFellow Members of the IEEE\nFellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":102,"dup_dump_count":27,"dup_details":{"2015-06":5,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":5,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":6,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":6,"2017-51":1,"2016-30":7,"2016-26":6,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":6,"2015-32":7,"2015-27":7,"2015-22":2,"2014-52":4,"2014-49":2,"2014-41":7,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":3}},"id":22845121,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard%20D.%20Braatz","title":"Richard D. Braatz","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Classical music period is the time from about 1750 to 1820 when Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert were the most famous living composers.\n\nWe often talk about \"classical music\" meaning European music which is not pop music or jazz or folk music. It is music which has been written by composers who have studied the art of composition. The article Classical music talks about classical music in this sense.\n\nThis article is about \"Classical music\" in the late 18th century and the early 19th century. The word \"classical\" is often used to refer to the arts of Ancient Greece and Rome. It has also come to mean any art form which has become very famous and is remembered for centuries afterwards. In music the Classical period comes between the Baroque and the period of Romanticism.\n\nIn some ways Classical music is often simpler than the music of the Baroque composers. There is often a tune with a simple accompaniment using broken chords called an \"Alberti bass\". For classical composers the form of the piece was very important. Composers started their work with a tune (theme) and this tune would be developed in different ways: put in different key, changed from a fast to a slow tune, changed from major to minor or from minor to major.\n\nSome of the most famous composers of the Classical period in music are:\n\n Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714\u20131789)\n Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714\u20131787)\n Joseph Haydn (1732\u20131809)\n Luigi Boccherini (1743\u20131805)\n Muzio Clementi (1752\u20131832)\n Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756\u20131791)\n Jan Ladislav Dussek (1760\u20131812)\n Ludwig van Beethoven (1770\u20131827)\n Franz Schubert (1797\u20131828)\n\nPeriods in music history\n\nMusical movements","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":153,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":3,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":515161,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classical%20period%20%28music%29","title":"Classical period (music)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"International mostly means something (a company, language, or organization) involving more than a single country. The term international as a word means involvement of, interaction between or encompassing more than one nation, or generally beyond national boundaries. For example, international law, which is applied by more than one country and usually everywhere on Earth, and international language which is a language spoken by residents of more than one country.\n\nOrigin of the word\nThe term international was coined by the utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham in his Introduction to Principles of Morals and Legislation, which was printed for publication in 1780 and published in 1789.  Bentham wrote: \"The word international, it must be acknowledged, is a new one; though, it is hoped, sufficiently analogous and intelligible.  It is calculated to express, in a more significant way, the branch of law which goes commonly under the name of the law of nations.  The word was adopted in French in 1801.  Thomas Erskine Holland noted in his article on Bentham in the 11th edition of the Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica that \"Many of Bentham's phrases, such as 'international,' 'utilitarian,' 'codification,' are valuable additions to our language; but the majority of them, especially those of Greek derivation, have taken no root in it.\"\n\nMeaning in particular fields \nIn team sports, \"international\" is a match between two national teams, or two players capped by a national team.\nIn politics, \"The International\" may refer to a political international.\nIn law, \"international\" may refer to several disciplines of International law like public international law, international criminal law etc.\nIn linguistics, an international language is one spoken by the people of more than one nation, usually by many. Also called world language. English, Spanish, French and Arabic are considered to be world languages.\nIn interlinguistics, international often has to do with languages rather than nations themselves. An \"international word\" is one that occurs in more than one language. These words are collected from widely spoken source or control languages, and often used to establish language systems that people can use to communicate internationally, and sometimes for other purposes such as to learn other languages more quickly. The vocabulary of Interlingua has a particularly wide range, because the control languages of Interlingua were selected to give its words and affixes their maximum geographic scope. In part, the language Ido is also a product of interlinguistic research.\nIn arts, an international art movement is an art movement with artists from more than one country, usually by many. Some international art movements are Letterist International, Situationist International, Stuckism International.\n\n\"International\" is also sometimes used as a synonym for \"global\".\n\nRelated pages\n Globalization\n International relations\n Multinational corporation\n United Nations\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\nMeaning of international on The Free Dictionary\nMeaning of international  on Cambridge dictionary\nMeaning of international  on Oxford dictionary.\n\nSources \n\nPolitical geography","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":123,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-22":2,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":3,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":5,"2014-35":3,"2014-23":6,"2014-15":4}},"id":654586,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International","title":"International","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Cymbals (pronounced like the word \"symbol\") are percussion instruments. They are discs made of copper, bronze or a special alloy. They look rather like saucepan lids, but in the middle they jut out a little and they have straps there that pass through a hole. Also called \"clangers\"\n\nThere are two ways of playing cymbals. One way is to use a pair of cymbals that are the same. The player holds one cymbal in each hand, holding them by the strap. He then bangs the cymbals together. There are many ways of doing this depending on the sort of sound that is wanted. For example, a very quiet sound can be made by rubbing the edges of the cymbals together. A very loud sound can be made by hitting them together as the arms form a circle, and letting the cymbals vibrate for a long time by holding them in the air.\n\nAnother way of playing the cymbal is to use just one cymbal, and to hang it on a stand. It can then be played with a beater, stick or wire brush. It can be hit at the edge, in the middle, or half way between, depending on the sound that is wanted.\n\nCymbals are made in different sizes. Some may be just 25\u00a0cm across, large ones may be up to 60\u00a0cm across. Cymbals do not normally give any particular pitch. There are, however, small ones based on an old form of cymbal which are called \"crotales\". There are also Chinese cymbals which have a turned-up edge.\n\nCymbals are used in many different musical groups. They are heard in an orchestra, in jazz groups, percussion groups and bands, including marching bands. A drum kit always has at least one cymbal. This may be a \"crash cymbal\" (on the top of a stand) or a pair of hi-hats (a pair of small cymbals operated by pressing a pedal with the foot.\n\nOrigins \nThe word cymbals comes from the Latin cymbalum, which itself comes from the Greek word kumbalom, meaning a small bowl. It was used in many ancient cultures including Egyptian civilisations.\n\nOrchestral cymbals \nCymbals are often used in orchestras. The first composer to use them was probably Joseph Haydn in his \"Military Symphony\" (1794). They are often used when there is a big climax (for example in the \"Academic Festival Overture\" by Johannes Brahms, but they can also sometimes be played very quietly. Sometimes players should let the cymbal vibrate for a long time after a big crash, but at other times he may have to hold the cymbals against his body quickly to stop the noise. This is called \"damping\" the sound.\n\nCymbals have traditionally often been played together with the bass drum. This makes a \"crash-bang-wallop\" noise.\n\nOther websites \nCymbalPlanet.com Welcome to the World of Cymbals\n\nReferences \n\"The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments\" by K\u00f6nemann; \n\nPercussion instruments","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":116,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2024-26":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":3,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":180669,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cymbal","title":"Cymbal","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A laser is a machine that makes an amplified, single-color source of light.  It uses special gases or crystals to make the light with only a single color.  The gases are energized to make them emit light.  Then mirrors are used to amplify (make stronger) the light.  In many lasers all the light travels in one direction, so it stays as a narrow beam of Collimated light that does not get wider or weaker as most sources of light do.\n\nWhen pointed, this narrow beam makes a single point of light. The energy of the light stays in that one narrow beam instead of spreading out like a flashlight (electric torch).\n\nThe word \"laser\" is an acronym for \"light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation\". Both the device and its name were developed from the earlier Maser.\n\nMechanism \nA laser creates light by special actions involving a material called an \"optical gain medium\". Energy is put into this material using an 'energy pump'.  This can be electricity, another light source, or some other source of energy.  The energy makes the material go into what is called an excited state.  This means the electrons in the material have extra energy, and after a bit of time they will lose that energy.  When they lose the energy they will release a photon (a particle of light).  The type of optical gain medium used will change what color (wavelength) will be produced.  Releasing photons is the \"stimulated emission of radiation\" part of laser.\n\nMany things can radiate light, like a light bulb, but the light will not be organized in one direction and phase.  By using an electric field to control how the light is created, this light will now be one kind, going in one direction.  This is \"coherent radiation\".\n\nAt this point, the light is still weak.  The mirrors on either side bounce the light back and forth, and this hits other parts of the optical gain medium, causing those parts to also release photons, generating more light (\"light amplification\").  When all of the optical gain medium is producing light, this is called saturation and creates a very strong beam of light at a very narrow wavelength, which we would call a laser beam.\n\nDesign \nThe light moves through the medium between the two mirrors that reflect the light back and forth between them. One of the mirrors, however, only partially reflects the light, allowing some to escape. The escaping light makes up the laser beam.\n\nThis is a simple design; the type of optical gain medium used usually defines the type of laser.  It can be a crystal, examples are ruby and a garnet crystal made of yttrium and aluminum with the rare earth metal mixed in.  Gases can be used for laser by using helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, neon or others.  Large, powerful lasers are usually gas lasers.  A free-electron laser uses a beam of electrons and can be tuned to emit different colors.  Finally, the smallest lasers use semiconductor diodes to produce the light.  These are the most numerous kind, used in electronics.\n\nHistory \nAlbert Einstein was the first to have the idea of stimulated emission that could produce a laser. From that point many years were spent to see if the idea worked. At first, people succeeded in making masers and later figured how to make shorter visible wavelengths. It was not until 1959 that the name laser was coined by Gordon Gould in a research paper. The first working laser was put together and operated by Theodore Maiman at the Hughes Research Laboratories in 1960.  Many people started working on lasers at this time, and the question of who would get the patent for the laser wasn't decided until 1987 (Gould won the rights).\n\nApplications \nLasers have found many uses in everyday life as well as in industry. Lasers are found in CD and DVD players, where they read the code from the disk that stores a song or movie. A laser is often used to read the bar codes or SQR codes on things sold in a store, to identify a product and give its price. Lasers are used in medicine, particularly in LASIK eye surgery, where the laser is used to repair the shape of the cornea. It is used in chemistry with spectroscopy to identify materials, to find out what kind of gases, solids or liquids something is made of. Stronger lasers can be used to cut metal.\n\nLasers are used to measure the distance of the Moon from Earth by reflecting off reflectors left by the Apollo missions. By measuring the time it takes for the light to travel to the Moon and back again we can find out exactly how far away the moon is.\n\nLaser pointers are used by people to point at a place on a map or diagram.  For example, lecturers use them.  Also, many people like to play with laser pointers.  Some people have pointed them at aircraft.  This is dangerous, and it is also illegal in many countries.  People have been arrested and prosecuted for this crime.\n\nComputers commonly use an optical computer mouse as an input device.  Modern laser pointers are too big and powerful for this use, so most mice use small VCSEL's, or \"Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers\" for this purpose.  These lasers are also used in DVD, CD-ROM drives, laser printer and holography.\n\nReferences \n\nLight\nMachines\nAcronyms","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":21768,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laser","title":"Laser","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A bird nest is a place where a bird lays its eggs. There are all kinds of nests, including cup nests, holes in the ground, and piles of twigs and leaves. The word can be used as a noun or a verb, as in \u2013 a bird nests in a nest. They are in all kinds of sizes: some can be as big and heavy as a car, like an old eagle's nest, while some can be tiny as a thimble, like the nest of a bee hummingbird.\n\nMaking a home\n\nUsually, the female builds the nest, and the male helps her. In some species, though, the male does nothing, and in others, the male builds the nest and the female does nothing.\n\nMany birds \"glue\" their nests together with materials like spider webs, silk, mud, and even their own saliva (spit). Most nest builders like to put soft things inside their nest. Some birds even put herbs and spices in their nest. Scientists think these herbs help fight off bacteria in a way they can't completely understand yet.\n\nTypes of nests\n\nCup nest\n\nThe cup nest is probably the most common bird nest. Its name tells you that a cup nest is shaped like a cup or bowl. Many songbirds built cup nests. These nests can be built in the branches of a tree, like in the crack where one branch joins another: however, some can simply stick the nest right onto the branch of a tree. They use lots of materials that act like sticky glue \u2013 mud, rotten wood, dung, spider webs, and caterpillar silk. They sometimes even use their own saliva mixed with food to keep the nest firmly stuck on the branch.\n\nCup nesters use all kinds of materials to build a nest: twigs (tiny branches), grass, leaves, moss; and they use all sorts of materials to keep it from falling apart. Most cup nesters use rough, scratchy material for the outside (this gives protection and camouflages the rest), and put soft, cozy material like moss, fur, feathers, and cotton on the inside.\n\nMany cup nesters enjoy nesting very close to the ground in low bushes \u2013 sometimes they will even nest in potted plants on a porch. Some of them actually just build their nests on the ground. Sparrows, cardinals, and many other song birds (called passerines), like to nest near the ground, far away from owls, hawks, and Blue Jays that may eat their babies.\n\nThere are several types of cup nests. A suspended cup nest is attached to the branch at the top and sides but then drops like a bag down below. It really looks more like a vase than a cup. The bird is almost hidden when she warms her eggs. The mother bird can sit down on the branch above the nest and bend down to feed her baby birds. Orioles are very famous for building amazingly long bags that hang far below the branch.\n\nThe smallest cup nests are made by hummingbirds. They can be as tiny as a thimble, like the bee hummingbird's nest. That tiny nest holds eggs that are as tiny as peas. The largest cup nest is probably the stork's. His nest can be nine feet deep and six feet wide. The stork's nest is so big that smaller birds actually make nests in its cracks, holes, and branches.\n\nAdherent nests\n\nAdherent nests stick to buildings, trees, cliffs, or other vertical structures. Swallows can build an almost perfectly round nest out of mud. Some species make cup-shaped nests, while others make jug-like nests with little holes in the sides. They put little balls of mud in their mouth and mix it with their saliva, making a special clay. As it dries, it becomes hard.\n\nBird saliva is very good for making glue: in fact, some species of swiftlets make their whole nest out of saliva. The male regurgitates (throws up) a long, thin strand of saliva from glands under its tongue. This saliva is used to be made into a half-cup nest which sticks to a cave wall and dries quickly. Swiftlets like to build their nests in caves and grottos. This saliva nest is thought to be a delicacy (something really yummy to eat) in China, and it is very expensive. They put it into a soup called Bird's Nest Soup.\n\nPlatform nests\n\nPlatform nests are built mostly by raptors (birds that eat prey, like eagles and hawks). They are usually huge and very high up: on the sides of cliffs, maybe, or high up in a big tree. It takes months making these nests, adding branch by branch. They often return to the same nest year after year and continue to build it. It is because of this that platform nests get so big: a bald eagle's nest, for example, can weigh as much as a ton (about the same weight as a small car). It is so heavy it can sometimes hurt the tree it is built in.\n\nA few water birds (like grebes and loons) build platform nests right on the water, where they can float. The nests don't move, though, because they are anchored to plants that are attached to the bottom of the body of water. These birds build nests on water because they don't walk well on land, so they find a shallow (not deep) part of the water to build their nests. Then, they do not walk to their nests - they swim to it. When the babies are ready, they simply jump into the water and begin their aquatic (water) life.\n\nEarth-hole nests\n\nEarth-hole nests are nests that are inside the earth. They are burrows (tunnels) on the ground or in the sides of cliffs. They like using abandoned rabbit holes, too. The burrowing owl only uses already dug holes for its nest.\n\nPuffins, for instance, dig a tunnel that is usually two to three feet long. At the end they make a nest of feathers and grass and lay their eggs. They are able to do this because of their sharp bill and claws. A puffin can work for hours to make its tunnel. Kingfishers, too, dig or burrow their holes. They can burrow up to six feet into the side of a cliff and lay their eggs in that place.\n\nGround and mound nests\n\nMany birds nest right on the ground. After carving out a little hole, ground and mound nesters line the nest with grass or other materials. Geese even pick feathers from their breasts and make a nice downy bed for their eggs. Most ducks, geese, and quail like the ground for nesting. Penguins nest on the ground, too, pushing rocks around the nest to keep it from washing away with flood waters. Usually, males make ground nests.<ref name=Elliott, Andrew (1994), \"Family Megapodiidae (Megapodes)\", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi (eds.), Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 2: New World Vultures to Guineafowl, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, ISBN 978-84-87334-15-3 p228.<\/ref>\n\nThe trumpeter swan makes a big mound nest, and flamingos make mounds, too. Flamingos make their mounds completely out of mud. They can be up to 18\u00a0inches high and 12 to 20\u00a0inches in width.\n\nScrape nests\nThese nests are barely a nest at all \u2013 just a small depression in the ground or a pile of dead leaves to lay eggs on. These scrape-nesting birds usually have eggs that match the color of dead leaves or rocks. This is needed because these eggs are in danger of being eaten by animals like rats, raccoons, snakes, and others that eat eggs.\n\nMany scrape nesters actually try to distract creatures that might be dangerous by pretending they have a broken wing. This makes a predator chase the mother bird, and leave the eggs.\n\nOther\nNest\nEgg (biology)\nBird\nFeather\nFlight\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n(Pictures of Bird Nests)\n\nBirds","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":65,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":3,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1}},"id":219934,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bird%20nest","title":"Bird nest","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Science fiction (often shortened to sci-fi or SF) is the type genre of speculative fiction which deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, interstellar travel, parallel universes, and extraterrestrial life. It has been called the \"literature of ideas\", and it often explores the potential consequences of scientific, social, and technological innovations. Science fiction stories can be novels, movies, TV shows, video games, comic books and other literature.\n\nSF is often about the future. It can be about imaginary new science and inventions such as spaceships, aliens, and robots. Science fiction stories are often in a world that is very different from the real world. They can have science and tools that do not exist in reality. Science fiction stories often take place on other worlds. There are often alien creatures.\n\nScience fiction is drastically different from fantasy. Fantasy stories often have magic and other things that do not exist and are not science. Isaac Asimov was a famous science fiction writer. He once said that science fiction is possible, but fantasy is not.\n\nWriters often use SF to explain everyday questions or problems by putting them in the future. Usually they invent a very different world to help people notice important ideas.\n\nEarly examples of science fiction \nScience fiction changes over time. Some authors wrote SF books before this type of writing had a name. These writers and books were not called science fiction when they were published. But, they are often called science fiction today.\n Mary Shelley \u2013 Frankenstein (1818)\n Jules Verne \u2013 Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1870)\n H. G. Wells \u2013 The Time Machine (1895).\n\n 20th century science fiction \n Isaac Asimov, Robert A. Heinlein and Arthur C. Clarke are seen as the big three science fiction authors of the 20th century.\n Philip K. Dick, Poul Anderson and William Gibson are other well-known science fiction authors from the 20th century.\n Star Trek \u2013 a 1960s American TV show that led to a media franchise.\n Doctor Who \u2013 a long-running British TV show.\n Star Wars -a trilogy of movies preceded by a novel that turned into a media franchise\n\n Different types of science fiction \nTwo broad genres of science fiction are Hard SF and Soft SF. Although not everyone agrees on the exact definitions of these two types, the way they use science or the type of science used in the stories is different.\n\nHard SF\n \nHard science fiction, or \"hard SF\", is special because it uses true facts and theories from sciences. These sciences are very important in Hard SF: physics, astrophysics, and chemistry. Also, Hard SF can show worlds that more advanced technology may make possible. Many correct predictions of the future come from the hard science fiction subgenre. However, there have been many incorrect ideas about the future, too. Some hard SF writers have also worked as professional scientists. A few of these scientist\/writers are Gregory Benford and Geoffrey A. Landis, while mathematician authors include Rudy Rucker and Vernor Vinge. Other noteworthy hard SF authors include Arthur C. Clarke, Hal Clement, Isaac Asimov, Greg Bear, Stanislav Lem, Larry Niven, Robert J. Sawyer, Stephen Baxter, Alastair Reynolds, Charles Sheffield, and Greg Egan.\n\nSoft SF\nSoft science fiction stories take ideas from social sciences such as psychology, economics, political science, sociology, and anthropology. Some important writers in this category include Ursula K. Le Guin and Philip K. Dick. Soft SF can be mostly about character and emotion. Ray Bradbury won a prize called the SFWA Grand Master and writes in this style. The Soviet Union produced social science fiction too. Some examples are Strugatsky brothers, Kir Bulychov and Ivan Yefremov.\n\nSome Social SF and Soft SF can be types of speculative fiction, for example utopian or dystopian stories. George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, Aldous Huxley's Brave New World and Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale, are examples. Some people think that satirical novels in fantastic settings (places) such as Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift are speculative fiction.\n\nDifferent styles of science fiction\nWithin Hard or Soft SF, there are different types, or subgenres, of science fiction. Each subgenre is a group of stories that uses similar ideas or styles of story-telling. Publishing companies and critics put works of SF into different subgenres to help describe the work to help readers choose which books to read or movies to watch. Assigning genres is not simple. Some stories can be in two or more genres at the same time. Other stories may not fit any genre.\n\nAlternate history\nIn Alternate (or alternative) history stories, writers imagine how the past might have been different. These stories may use time travel to change the past. Some set a story in a universe with a different history from our own. These are some important alternate history books:\n Bring the Jubilee by Ward Moore  - the South won the American Civil War\n The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick - Germany and Japan won World War II.\n\nThe Sidewise Award is for the best works in this subgenre. The name Sidewise is taken from Murray Leinster's 1934 story \"Sidewise in Time.\" Harry Turtledove is one of the most famous writers in the subgenre. He is often called the \"master of alternate history\".\n\nApocalyptic\nApocalyptic fiction is about the end of civilization. There are several types: through war (On The Beach), pandemic (The Last Man), astronomic impact (When Worlds Collide), ecological disaster (The Wind From Nowhere), or mankind's self-destruction (Oryx and Crake), or some other general disaster. Apocalyptic SF may also be about world or civilization after a disaster.\n\nCyberpunk\n\nCyberpunk began in the early 1980s. Bruce Bethke used this word as the title for a short story in 1980 by putting together two words: \"cybernetics\" and \"punk\". Soon, people used this word to describe William Gibson's book, Neuromancer. Cyberpunk authors can put their stories in different settings. Stories usually take place in the near-future and the settings are often dystopian (characterized by misery). These are often societies with very advanced technology. A few huge corporations usually control the society. Another early cyberpunk novel that has become a classic is Snow Crash by Neal Stephenson.\n\nMilitary science fiction\n\nMilitary science fiction stories happen during wars. These wars can be between different countries, different planets, or between different species. The stories are told by characters who are soldiers. They include detail about military technology, rules, and history. Some Military SF may be similar to real historical conflicts. Heinlein's Starship Troopers is an early example. Another is the Dorsai novels of Gordon Dickson. Joe Haldeman's The Forever War is a response to the World War II\u2013style stories of earlier military SF authors. Haldeman was a soldier in the Vietnam War. Important military SF authors include John Ringo, David Drake, David Weber,  and S. M. Stirling. Baen Books is known for cultivating military science fiction authors.\n\nMaritime science fiction\n\nMaritime science fiction is science fiction that features a maritime or marine environment and technology and\/or marine lifeforms mixed with science fiction. The probably earliest form of maritime science fiction literature is 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea.\n\nSuperhuman\nSuperhuman stories are about humans who get special abilities that are not normal. Maybe the new powers come from nature. Two examples of this type are Olaf Stapledon's novel Odd John and Theodore Sturgeon's More Than Human. Sometimes scientists give people special powers on purpose. one example is A.E. van Vogt's novel Slan. Frederik Pohl's  novel Man Plus is another good example from this category. In that book, government scientists make a man into a powerful cyborg (part human, part machine).\n\nThese stories usually have two main points. One is the feeling of loneliness and separation that these superhuman people feel. The other is society's reaction to them.\n\nSpace opera\n\nSpace opera is adventure science fiction in outer space or on distant planets. Action is more important than the science or characters. There is usually a strong hero and a very big conflict. The action often moves to many different places. Edward E. (Doc) Smith was an early Space opera writer. Flash Gordon and Star Wars are also popular examples.\n\nSpace western\n\nSpace western takes ideas from books and movies about exploring the American Old West and moves them  to space in the future. These stories are often on \"frontier\" colony worlds (colonies that have only recently been terraformed and\/or settled) serving as stand-ins for the backdrop of lawlessness and economic expansion that were predominant in the American west. Some examples are Firefly and the movie Serenity by Joss Whedon.  Anime programs like Cowboy Bebop and Outlaw Star are also Space Westerns. Han Solo from \"Star Wars\" is an important Space Western character.\n\nTime travel\nThe first important time travel novel was Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. The most famous is H. G. Wells's 1895 novel The Time Machine. Well's book uses a machine that allows an operator to travel to an exact time. Twain's time traveler is struck in the head and wakes up in the past. The term \"time machine\" was invented by Wells. Now it is the name for any vehicle that can take a rider to another time. Ray Bradbury's 1952 short story called A Sound of Thunder is a more recent and very famous example of this genre. Time travel stories can be complicated. They have logical problems such as the grandfather paradox. Time travel is a popular subject in modern science fiction, in print, movies, and television.\n\nOther sub-genres\n Comic science fiction is a sub-genre of science fiction that is more humorous or funny.\n Feminist science fiction asks questions about society. How does society make gender roles? How does having children define gender? Does having children change the political and personal power of men and women? Some well-known feminist science fiction stories  use utopias to answer those questions. The stories explore a society in which gender differences or gender power imbalances do not exist. Also dystopias can explore worlds in which gender inequalities are stronger. Those dystopias explain that feminist work should continue. See Ursula K. Le Guin, Margaret Atwood\n Libertarian science fiction is written from a political point of view. This subgenre uses fiction to explore ideas from libertarian political philosophy about government and social organization. A classic example of libertarian science fiction is The Moon is a Harsh Mistress by Robert Heinlein.\n New Wave is science fiction writing with a lot of experimentation. Writers try new ways of writing and new story ideas. It may feel more intellectual. New Wave seems more like important \"literature\" or art.\n Steampunk is the idea of future technology in the past. These stories are usually in the 19th century and often in Victorian era England. Steampunk stories have strong images from either science fiction or fantasy. Steampunk can have imaginary inventions like those found in books by H. G. Wells and Jules Verne. Imagining a world where computers were invented a long time ago is also popular. Examples include The Difference Engine by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, and the Girl Genius series by Phil and Kaja Foglio. The start of this style may be seen in some writing by Michael Moorcock, Philip Jose Farmer and Steve Stiles. Games like Space 1889 and Marcus Rowland's Forgotten Futures can also be Steampunk. The name comes from the fact that machines are most often powered by steam in this genre.\n Biopunk is like cyberpunk, but instead of focusing on cybernetic technology, it focuses on biotechnology.\n Mundane science fiction is science fiction set on a fiction Earth and not involving any space travel or extraterrestrial elements. Jurassic Park is considered and example of mundane science fiction.\n\nNotable science fiction writers\n\nFrank Herbert author of the Dune series.\nIsaac Asimov author of the Foundation series.\nMarion Zimmer Bradley author of the Darkover series.\nArthur C. Clarke author of a number of classic science fiction novels\n\nFandom and community\n\nScience fiction fandom is the \"community of the literature of ideas... the culture in which new ideas emerge and grow before being released into society at large\". Members of this community, \"fans\", are in contact with each other at conventions or clubs, through print or online fanzines, or on the Internet using web sites, mailing lists, and other resources.\n\nSF fandom emerged from the letters column in Amazing Stories magazine. Soon fans began writing letters to each other, and then grouping their comments together in informal publications that became known as fanzines. Once they were in regular contact, fans wanted to meet each other, and they organized local clubs. In the 1930s, the first science fiction conventions gathered fans from a wider area. Conventions, clubs, and fanzines were the main fan activities, or \"fanac\", for decades, until the Internet improved communication among a much larger population of interested people.\n\nAwards\n\nThere are two very important science fiction awards: the Hugo Award and the Nebula Award. The Hugo is presented by the World Science Fiction Society at Worldcon each year. The Nebula is presented by SFWA and voted on by the community of authors. One important award for science fiction movies is the Saturn Award. The Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror movies gives this award each year..\n\nThere are national awards, like Canada's Aurora Award and the UK Arthur C. Clarke Award, regional awards, like the Endeavour Award presented at Orycon for works from the Pacific Northwest, special interest or subgenre awards like the Chesley Award for art or the World Fantasy Award for fantasy. Magazines may organize reader polls, notably the Locus Award.\n\nConventions, clubs, and organizations\n\nConventions (in fandom, shortened as \"cons\"), are held in cities around the world, catering to a local, regional, national, or international membership. General-interest conventions cover all aspects of science fiction, while others focus on a particular interest like media fandom, filking, etc. Most are organized by volunteers in non-profit groups, though most media-oriented events are organized by commercial promoters. The convention's activities are called the \"program\", which may include panel discussions, readings, autograph sessions, costume masquerades, and other events. Activities that occur throughout the convention are not part of the program; these commonly include a dealer's room, art show, and hospitality lounge (or \"con suites\").\n\nConventions may host award ceremonies. Worldcons present the Hugo Awards each year. SF societies are a year-round base of activities for science fiction fans. They may be associated with an ongoing science fiction convention, or have regular club meetings, or both. Most groups meet in libraries, schools and universities, community centers, pubs or restaurants, or the homes of individual members. Long-established groups like the New England Science Fiction Association and the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society have clubhouses for meetings and storage of convention supplies and research materials.\n\nThe Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA) was founded by Damon Knight in 1965 as a non-profit organization to serve the community of professional science fiction authors, 24 years after his essay \"Unite or Fie!\" had led to the organization of the National Fantasy Fan Federation. Fandom has helped support related groups as they started to form, including media fandom, the Society for Creative Anachronism, gaming, filking, and furry fandom.\n\nFanzines and online fandom\nThe first science fiction fanzine, The Comet, was published in 1930. Fanzine printing methods have changed over the decades, from the mimeograph and the ditto machine, to modern photocopying. The number of copies was usually not enough to use commercial printing. Modern fanzines are printed on computer printers or at local copy shops, or they may only be sent as email. The best known fanzine (or \"'zine\") today is Ansible''. David Langford is the editor and it has won several Hugo awards. Artists working for fanzines have risen to prominence in the field, including Brad W. Foster, Teddy Harvia, and Joe Mayhew; the Hugos include a category for Best Fan Artists. The earliest organized fandom online was the SF Lovers  community, originally a mailing list in the late 1970s with a text archive file that was updated regularly. In the 1980s, Usenet groups greatly expanded the circle of fans online. In the 1990s, the development of the World-Wide Web made the online fan community much, much larger. Fans created thousands and then millions of web sites devoted to science fiction and related genres for all media. Most of these websites are small, ephemeral, or about very specific topics. Though sites like SF Site and Read and Find Out give readers a broad range of references and reviews about science fiction.\n\nFan fiction\nFan fiction is non-commercial fiction created by people who love an SF story or world. Fans write stories that take place in the setting of an established book, movie, or television series. Some people call it \"fanfic\". In some cases, the copyright owners of the books, movies, or television series have instructed their lawyers to issue \"cease and desist\" letters to fans.\n\nRelated pages\n Science fiction movie\nFantasy\nScience fantasy\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\nThe Encyclopedia of Science Fiction\nEDGE Science Fiction and Fantasy Publishing","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":193,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2024-18":3,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":5,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":4,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":5,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":3,"2017-43":4,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":3,"2016-50":3,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":4,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":3,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":8,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":5,"2014-23":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1}},"id":17651,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science%20fiction","title":"Science fiction","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Diocletian (Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus, about 245 to about 312) was Roman Emperor from 20 November 284 to 11 May 305. He was born in Dalmatia of poor parents. Diocletian ended the period known as the Crisis of the Third Century (235\u2013284). He worked to return Rome to its former glory by making changes in key areas.\n\nReligion: He persecuted Christians, crucifying more than any other emperor. He imposed the traditional polytheistic religion of the Romans.\n\nEconomy: Recognizing a gold drain from the western Mediterranean to the east, he tried to stop the inflation of the region by legislation. This did not work. He decreed that coins could only be made of gold or silver, stopping the trend of using lead in their creation. He made the tax system work better.\n\nMilitary: Diocletian changed the army from the traditional garrison defense. He put small outposts of soldiers on the border. He got local soldiers from the border regions along the Rhine and Danube rivers. These soldiers farmed and lived with their families in a village atmosphere. They lit signal fires on signal towers to warn other outposts of possible invasion by Germans from across the border. These outpost soldiers got regular pay from Rome for their services. He allowed soldiers to move up through the ranks by \"military credits\" earned by years of loyal service and by actions on the field of battle.\n\nPolitical structure \nDiocletian established a form of government known as the tetrarchy. In this, the Empire was organised into four parts, each ruled by a co-emperor. Diocletian took charge of the eastern empire. The senior co-emperor was Maximian Augustus, a fellow officer. He took charge of the western empire. Later, two junior co-emperors were added: Galerius and Constantius Chlorus.\n\nFinally, in 305, the two senior emperors abdicated and retired, and the two juniors rose to the rank of Augustus. They in turn were supported by two juniors: Severus II in the west under Constantius, and Maximinus in the east under Galerius. In this way, the Tetrarchy showed how it could reproduce itself.\n\nIllyria \nThese men were from the Roman province of Illyria, several in the city of Sirmium, which would become one of the four capitals under this system. From the time of Domitian (81\u201396), when over half the Roman army was deployed in the Danubian regions, the Illyrian provinces had been the most important recruiting ground of the auxilia and later the legions.\n\nIn the 3rd century, Romanised Illyrians came to dominate the army's senior officer echelons. Ultimately, the Illyrian officer class seized control of the state itself.\n\nRegions and capitals\nThe four Tetrarchs based themselves not at Rome but in other cities closer to the frontiers, mainly intended as headquarters for the defence of the empire. They faced Persia and the Germanic tribes. Also, there were many tribes from the eastern steppe which presented at the Rhine and Danube.\n\nThe four centres are known as the 'Tetrarchic capitals'. Although Rome ceased to be the operational capital, it was still the nominal capital of the entire empire. It had its own Prefect of the City, an idea later copied in Constantinople. The four Tetrarchic capitals were:\n\nNicomedia in northwestern Asia Minor (modern Izmit in Turkey), a base for defence against invasion from the Balkans and Persia's Sassanids was the capital of Diocletian, the eastern (and most senior) Augustus. In the final reorganisation by Constantine the Great, in 318, the domain, facing Sassanid Persia, became the pretorian prefecture Oriens 'the East', the core of later Byzantium.\nSirmium (modern Sremska Mitrovica) in the Vojvodina region of modern Serbia, and near Belgrade, on the Danube border, was the capital of Galerius, the eastern Caesar; this was to become the Balkans-Danube prefecture Illyricum.\nMediolanum (modern Milan, near the Alps) was the capital of Maximian, the western Augustus; his domain became \"Italia et Africa\", with only a short exterior border.\nAugusta Treverorum (modern Trier, in Germany) was the capital of Constantius Chlorus, the western Caesar, near the strategic Rhine border, it had been the capital of Gallic emperor Tetricus I; this quarter became the prefecture Galliae.\n\nAquileia, a port on the Adriatic coast, and Eboracum (modern York, in northern England near the Scottish tribes), were also significant centres for Maximian and Constantius respectively.\n\nIn terms of regional jurisdiction there was no precise division between the four Tetrarchs, and this period did not see the Roman state actually split up into four distinct sub-empires. Each emperor had his zone of influence within the Roman Empire, but little more, mainly high command in a 'war theatre'. Each Tetrarch was himself often in the field, while delegating most of the administration to the hierarchic bureaucracy headed by his respective Praetorian Prefect, each supervising several Vicarii, the governors-general in charge of another new administrative level, the civil diocese. \nFor a listing of the provinces, now known as eparchy, within each quarter (known as a praetorian prefecture), see Roman province.\n\nIn the West, the Augustus Maximian controlled the provinces west of the Adriatic Sea and the Syrtis, and within that region his Caesar, Constantius, controlled Gaul and Britain. In the East, the arrangements between the Augustus Diocletian and his Caesar, Galerius, were much more flexible.\n\nRetirement and death \nDiocletian's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of Roman imperial government, and stabilized the empire economically and militarily. This helped the empire to remain intact for another hundred years, despite having seemed near the brink of collapse in Diocletian's youth.\n\nWeakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on 1 May 305, and became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate the position. He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast, tending to his vegetable gardens. His palace eventually became the core of the modern-day city of Split.\n\nMaximian attempted to return to power.  Diocletian ordered him to step down permanently.  Finally, Maximian was forced to commit suicide and the tetrarchy began to unravel . Diocletian despaired and died in 311, possibly of suicide.\n\nOther websites \n Diocletian by Ralph W. Mathisen, University of South Carolina.\n Diocletian from the Catholic Encyclopedia.\n 12 Byzantine Rulers , by Lars Brownworth. 15 minute audio lecture on Diocletian.\n Diocletian Palace in Split\n Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia By Robert Adam, 1764. Wonderful plates made available worldwide by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center. (N.B. \"Spalatro\" was a less used alternative form of \"Spalato\", the Italian name for Croatian \"Split\").\n\nReferences \n\n240s births\n310s deaths\n3rd-century Roman emperors\n4th-century Roman emperors","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":189,"dup_dump_count":86,"dup_details":{"2023-40":3,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":3,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":3,"2021-21":4,"2021-10":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":4,"2020-24":4,"2020-10":4,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":4,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":4,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":4,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":2,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":3,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2019-09":1}},"id":68686,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diocletian","title":"Diocletian","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A talent (Latin: talentum, from Ancient Greek:  \"scale, balance\") is an ancient unit of mass; it corresponded generally to the mass of water in the volume of an amphora, i.e. a one-foot cube.\n\nThe Babylonians and Sumerians had a system in which there were 60 shekels in a mina and 60 minas in a talent (in Ancient Greece one talent was 26\u00a0kg of silver). The Roman talent consisted of 100 libra (pounds) which were smaller in magnitude than the mina.\n\nWhen used as a measure of money, it refers to a talent-weight of gold or of silver. The gold talent is reported as weighing roughly the same as a person, and so perhaps 50\u00a0kg (>110\u00a0lb avoirdupois). Some authorities say that the talent typically weighed about 33\u00a0kg (>72\u00a0lb) varying from 20 to 40\u00a0kg. In June, 2018, the international price of gold was about US $41,155.69 per kilogram. One gram costs about $38. At this price, a talent (33\u00a0kg) would be worth about $1,400,116.57. Similarly, in February 2016, the price of silver was about $15 per troy ounce or about 50 cents per gram, so a 33\u00a0kg silver talent would be worth about $16,500. Thus when we read that King Auletes of Egypt paid Gaius Julius Caesar the sum of 6,000 talents of gold to grant him the status of a \"Friend and Ally of the Roman People,\" this amount would be worth about US$8,400,000,000 today! These estimates are only rough values, because they are based on modern estimates.The value of silver in comparison to gold drastically changed. This is because of the output of the Spanish silver mines in the New World. In ancient times the same amount of silver was often worth more than gold. The estimates do not account for the less technical mining ability of the time, nor that there were still native deposits available. Later in Roman history, during the medieval Byzantine period, the emperor Basil II was said to have stockpiled the legendary amount of 200,000 talents of gold which, in modern terms, would be worth approximately US$280,023,314,760. At any rate, he did save enough money that the Byzantine government was able to remit all taxes paid during the final two years of his reign.\n\nAnother way to calculate the modern equivalent to a talent is from its use in estimating military pay. During the Peloponnesian war in Ancient Greece, a talent was the amount of silver needed to pay the crew of a trireme for one month. Hellenistic mercenaries were commonly paid one drachma for every day of service, which was a good salary in the post-Alexander (III) days. 6,000 drachma made a talent.\n\nThe talent as a unit of coinage is mentioned in the New Testament in Jesus' parable of the talents. One talent was an incredible amount of money.\n\nOld units of measurement\nUnits of mass","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":128,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":50151,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Talent%20%28measurement%29","title":"Talent (measurement)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Michael Joseph Jackson (August 29, 1958 \u2013 June 25, 2009) was an American singer, songwriter, dancer, and actor. He is considered as one of the greatest and most influential music artists in history. His contributions to music, dance, and fashion for over four decades, along with his publicized personal life, made him a global figure in popular culture. Jackson influenced artists across many music genres. Through stage and video performances, he popularized complicated dance moves such as the moonwalk and the robot. He is the most awarded individual music artist in history. Because of his influence and fame, he is known as the \"King of Pop\".\n\nJackson started his professional career performing with his older brothers Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, and Marlon in The Jackson 5 in 1964. In 1971, he started a solo career while also being a member of The Jackson 5 and during that period, he released four solo studio albums Got to Be There (1972), Ben (1972), Music & Me (1973), and Forever, Michael (1975). He released the best-selling album of all time, Thriller in 1982, with estimated sales of 110 million copies worldwide. The video for \"Thriller\" showed him dancing like a zombie and other dancers around him were zombies as well. \"Thriller\" includes famous songs like \"Beat It\" and \"Billie Jean\". The popularity of these videos helped bring the television channel MTV to fame. Jackson wrote other well-known songs such as ''Bad'', \"Black or White\", \"Heal the World\", and \"Earth Song\". Through music videos and live performances, he is known for popularizing dance moves such as the robot and the moonwalk. He won many awards and broke records. Guinness World Records says he is the most successful entertainer of all time. Jackson is also remembered for giving money to charities and pioneering efforts in charitable fundraising in the entertainment industry. Jackson traveled the world attending events honoring his humanitarianism, and, in 2000, the Guinness World Records recognized him for supporting 39 charities, more than any other entertainer. He is one of the best-selling music artists in history, with worldwide sales between 400 million to one billion records.\n\nHis other studio albums, including Off the Wall (1979), Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991), HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I (1995), and Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix (1997) also rank among the world's best selling albums. He released his last studio album Invincible (2001).\n\nAspects of Jackson's personal life, including his changing appearance, personal relationships, and behavior, generated controversy. He was accused of child sexual abuse in 1993, but the case was settled out of court. In 2003, Jackson was charged with child sexual abuse by Garvin Arvizo. In 2005, Jackson was found not guilty of all charges. While preparing for his comeback concert series, This Is It, Jackson died of an overdose of propofol on June 25, 2009, after having a cardiac arrest. Jackson's doctor, Conrad Murray, was convicted of involuntary manslaughter. On July 7, there was a memorial service for Jackson. It was on television and 2.5-3 billion people watched it. This made it the most-watched funeral ever.\n\nLife and career\n\n1958-1975\nMichael Joseph Jackson was born on August 29, 1958, at St Mary's Mercy Hospital in Gary, Indiana to a family of Jehovah's Witnesses. He was the eighth of Katherine and Joe Jackson's ten children. Jackson's father Joseph was a steel mill worker.\n\nOn January 1, 1964, Jackson and his brother Marlon joined their older brothers Jackie, Tito, and Jermaine's band, The Jackson Brothers, in the band's first public performance. Jackson was five years old.\n\nWhen Jackson was 8, he started being the band's main singer with Jermaine. The group's name then changed to The Jackson 5. The group won an important talent show in 1966. In 1968 they were signed to a famous record label called Motown Records. Their first Motown single \"I Want You Back\" was No.1 in the US.\n\nIn 1971, Jackson released his first song singing on his own, \"Got to Be There\" from his album \"Got to Be There\". It reached No.4 in the Billboard 100. Three more singles were released from the album.\n\nOn August 4, 1972, his second album Ben was released. The single \"Ben\" was his first solo No.1.\n\nIn 1974, Jackson hosted the first American Music Awards with Donny Osmond, Rodney Allen Rippy, and Ricky Segall.\n\nIn 1975, The Jackson 5 left Motown. They were signed to CBS Records in June 1975. On CBS Records they changed their name to The Jacksons.\n\n1976-1981\nIn 1976, The Jacksons got their own TV show on CBS. The show was cancelled in March 1977.\n\nOn October 24, 1978, a movie called The Wiz was released. The movie was a remake of The Wizard of Oz with all black actors. Jackson acted as Scarecrow.\n\nOn December 17, 1978, The Jacksons' twelfth album was released. It was the first album they had produced. Jackson wrote the album's second single \"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)\" with Randy Jackson. It reached No.7 in the US Hot 100.\n\nIn December 1978, Jackson started making his first solo album on Epic Records, Off the Wall with Quincy Jones. It was released on August 10, 1979. The album got good reviews and a Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance.\n\nThe Jacksons' thirteenth album Triumph was released in 1980.\n\n1982-1983\n In 1982 Jackson made \"Somewhere in the Dark\" for the E.T. soundtrack. It won a Grammy for Best Recording for Children in 1984. That year Jackson won seven other Grammys for his album Thriller.\n\nOn October 18, 1982, the first single from Thriller, \"The Girl Is Mine\", was released. It was sung with Paul McCartney. Some people thought that the album wasn't going to be very good because of the song.\n\nJackson's sixth solo album Thriller was released on November 30, 1982. Jackson didn't do a tour for the album. This album went on to become the best-selling album of all time.\n\nIn 1983 Jackson made three songs with Freddie Mercury.\n\n1984-1985\n\n\"Somebody's Watching Me\", a single by Rockwell with Jackson singing on the chorus, was released January 14, 1984. It reached number one in Spain and France.\n\nOn January 27, 1984, Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi Cola commercial. Michael's hair caught on fire and he was rushed to hospital. Pepsi gave Jackson $1.5 million. He gave it to the Brotman Medical Center in Culver City, California. In May 1984 \"Farewell My Summer Love\", a song that Jackson made it 1973, was released as a single. It reached number seven in the UK Singles Chart.\n\nThe Jacksons' album Victory was released on July 2, 1984. Between July and December 1984 Jackson toured with his brothers. He won eight awards at the 1984 American Music Awards, the most anyone has ever won at once. He also won Best International Solo Artist and Best International Album at the BRIT Awards.\n\nJermaine Jackson released his tenth album, Jermaine Jackson. Michael sang on a song from the album, \"Tell Me I'm Not Dreaming' (Too Good to Be True)\". It was nominated for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals at the 1985 Grammy Awards.\n\nIn August 1985, Jackson bought music publisher ATV Music for $47.5 million. They owned the rights to The Beatles.\n\nJackson wrote \"We Are the World\" with Lionel Richie in 1985. The song was recorded by USA for Africa. It was released as a single around the world to make money to give to starving people in Africa. It sold over 20 million copies. It also won four Grammy Awards.\n\n1986-1990\nIn August 1987, Bad was released. Jackson wanted it to sell 100 million copies. It has sold over 45 million copies. Five of the album's seven singles were No.1 in the US. They were \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\", \"Bad\", \"The Way You Make Me Feel\", \"Man in the Mirror\" and \"Dirty Diana\". Until Katy Perry's success with her 2010 album Teenage Dream, Jackson was the only musician to ever have had that many singles from one album be No.1. From September 1987 to January 1989, Jackson did the Bad World Tour. This was the first tour that he did on his own. In 1988 Moonwalk, a book that Jackson wrote about his life, was published. It took Jackson four years to write. The book sold 200,000 copies. Jackson then released Moonwalker, a movie he made. In 1989 some video games about the movie were released by U.S. Gold.\n\nIn 1986, Disneyland and EPCOT started showing a short film called Captain EO that had Jackson in it.\nJackson sang \"You Were There\" at Sammy Davis Jr.'s 60th birthday. He was nominated for an Emmy Award for it.\n\nThe Jacksons released their last album 2300 Jackson Street in 1989. Michael sang on the album's second single 2300 Jackson Street with his brothers and two of their sisters, Janet and Rebbie. Michael was also in the music video for the song.\n\nJackson won the Grammy Award for Best Music Video, Short Form in 1989 for \"Leave Me Alone\".\n\n1991-1993\nJackson's eighth studio album Dangerous was released on November 26, 1991. It was produced with Teddy Riley. It is a new jack swing album. It was Jackson's first album to have a rapper on it. Nine singles were released from the album. On June 27, 1992, Jackson started the Dangerous World Tour. All of the money Jackson made from the tour was given to charities such as the Heal the World Foundation, having grossed $100 million, Jackson performed to 3.5 million people in 70 concerts. The tour was supposed to last until Christmas 1992. However, Jackson ended the tour on November 11, 1993, because he was ill and needed to go to the hospital. Jackson performed at the halftime show at Super Bowl XXVII in January 1993.\n\n1994-1996\nHIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I, Jackson's ninth studio album, was released July 16 1995. The album has two discs. The first disc is a collection of some of his greatest hits. The second disc is fifteen songs recorded in late 1994 and early 1995. Thirteen of the songs are new. Two of them are cover versions. In August 1995 the album's single \"You Are Not Alone\" became the first single ever to go straight to No.1 in the US. HIStory won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year. The video for the single \"Scream\" went in the Guinness Book of World Records for being the most expensive short film ever made. In 1996, he started his HIStory World Tour and ended in 1997. Jackson performed 82 concerts in five continents, 35 countries, and 58 cities to over 4.5 million fans, and grossed a total of $165 million, becoming Jackson's most successful tour in terms of audience figures. Jackson released a short film called Ghosts in 1997. He wrote it with Stephen King.\n\n1997-1999\nIn 1997, Blood on the Dance Floor was released. It is the best-selling remix album ever made. There were five new songs on the album. The album's first single was a new song called \"Blood on the Dancefloor\". The album and its first single were No.1 in the UK.\n\n2000-2003\nJackson won Artist of the 1980s at the American Music Awards in 2000.\n\nOn October 30, 2001 Invincible, Jackson's last studio album, was released. The album got good and bad reviews. It was No.1 in 12 countries and sold 13 million copies around the world. But compared to Jackson's earlier albums, it was unsuccessful. The album's first single \"You Rock My World\" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance.\n\nJackson won his 22nd American Music Award for Artist of the Century in 2002.\n\nOn November 17, 2003, an album called Number Ones was released. It is a collection of Jackson's hits. There is also a new song on the album called \"One More Chance\". It was released as a single. It reached number one in three countries. The album was released as a DVD too.\n\n2004-2009\nIn 2006, Sony released twenty of Jackson's popular singles on video.\n\nIn March 2009, Jackson told the press that he was going to do a tour called This Is It. He said that he might stop making music after this. Jackson practiced his singing and dancing for the tour in Los Angeles with Kenny Ortega. Jackson died of an overdose of Propofol on June 25, 2009, after having a cardiac arrest, and his personal physician, Conrad Murray, was convicted of involuntary manslaughter.\n\nDuring an Interview on YouTube during the BBC UK Show featuring \"Michael Jackson's This Is It\" Michael talked about the future of his career and that he \"may\" be retiring after his \"This Is It\" Tour, but he wasn't sure if he would or not. However, due to his death in 2009, the show was cancelled. Some show-goers who paid for tickets wanted refunds but the Jackson Estate did not provide any.\n\nVoice\nJackson's voice changed from boy soprano to spinto tenor between 1971 and 1975. He sang 'come on' wrongly on purpose so that it sounded like 'shamone'. Jackson had a three-octave vocal range. He is the most well-known musician to use the 'vocal hiccup'. He first used it in 1973 on \"It's Too Late to Change the Time\" on The Jackson 5's G.I.T.: Get It Together album.\n\nPersonal life\nJackson lived a well-publicized personal life even though he tried to stay private. He was often in celebrity and tabloid magazines. Later in his life, he was in magazines because of his personal life more than for his music.\n\nMarriages and children\nHe was married to Lisa Marie Presley, the daughter of Elvis Presley in 1994, before divorcing her in 1995 and marrying nurse Debbie Rowe in 1996. Three months after Rowe and Jackson's marriage she gave birth to a son, Michael Joseph Jackson Jr. The next year she gave birth to a daughter, Paris-Michael Katherine Jackson.\nThe couple divorced in April 2000. Prince Michael II was born on February 21, 2002. Jackson never said who the mother was. He is better known as Blanket. When Blanket was 8 months old Jackson held him over a balcony. Blanket has a towel over his head. At the time, people did not know that he was called Blanket. Jackson made a public apology after people were upset. After Jackson died, his mother Katherine was made the guardian of his children. In August 2012, Jackson's cousin TJ was made the children's co-guardian.\n\nBubbles\nBubbles (born 1983) is a common chimpanzee, known for being the one-time pet of American recording artist Michael Jackson. Jackson bought the animal from a Texas research facility in the 1980s. The animal was a frequent travel companion to the singer, whose attachment to the animal led to media mockery and, among other factors, to a public perception of Jackson as an eccentric. The chimp, for example, was permitted to use Jackson's personal toilet.\nTheir human-animal bond, as well as the entertainer's other alleged eccentricities, contributed to the media epithet \"Wacko Jacko\", a nickname Jackson would eventually come to despise. The media often focused on Bubbles, rather than on Jackson's music, and published many false stories regarding the animal. One such story was an allegation that Bubbles was not a single ape, but one of several.\n\nClaims of sexual abuse \nIn 1993, he was accused of child molestation, but there was no trial; the case was settled out of court.\n\nIn 2003, he was accused a second time of child molestation. This happened after a documentary called Living With Michael Jackson was shown on TV. In the documentary, Jackson held hands with a 12-year-old boy called Gavin Arvizo and said that he shared his bed with children. His accuser was Gavin Arvizo. He was 13 years old when he made the allegations. This time Jackson went to court and was found not guilty of fourteen charges in 2005.\n\nIn May 2013, a dancer called Wade Robson appeared on the Today show. He alleged that Jackson sexually abused him for 7 years. Prior to this, Robson had vehemently defended Jackson, including twice under oath.\n\nAppearance and health\nOver the years, his changing facial appearance and lightening skin color attracted much attention. From childhood, Jackson had afro hair. His hair caught fire during the filming of a Pepsi commercial in 1984. Jackson got second-degree burns to his scalp. Jackson started taking painkillers for the very bad pain caused by the burns. Jackson always wore a hairpiece or wig in his later years that blended with his natural hair. His autopsy found that his scalp was tattooed black so that it blended in with his wigs.\n\nHe claimed to have had only a little plastic surgery to his face. He said that puberty, weight loss and his vegetarian diet had changed his face. People said that Jackson bleached his skin to make it lighter. In a television interview with Oprah Winfrey in 1993 he said he had a rare skin condition called vitiligo. When Jackson died, the autopsy found that he did have vitiligo. This disease made many white spots on Jackson's skin. Jackson used makeup and medication to even out his skin color to treat his vitiligo. This made Jackson appear to have a lightening skin tone. Jackson also had an immune condition called discoid lupus. Dr. Richard Strick said that this \"had destroyed part of the skin of his nose\". Jackson's nose was the body part that people talked about most. Many plastic surgeons have tried to make a hypothesis on what surgery Jackson might have allegedly had but the singer repeatedly denied having extensive surgeries and admitted only to a limited number of procedures though the change in his appearance was drastic that a lot of people refused to believe it.\n\nJackson was allegedly addicted to prescription drugs. In 2009 he died from an overdose of an anesthetic called Propofol. He was given Propofol for his insomnia. The insomnia was a side effect of Jackson's addiction to Demerol. Jackson's doctor Conrad Murray said that Jackson took the overdose himself. Though Murray was charged with involuntary manslaughter and served a prison sentence after Michael Jackson's death was ruled a homicide by the coroner. Propofol is used as anesthesia for major surgeries and requires heavy monitoring including nurses and medical equipment, none of which were present at the time Conrad Murray administered the drug. The recommendation for a higher level of care to safely administer this drug was also noted in his autopsy, with great detail noting how dangerous the circumstance was. Michael Jackson was known to have an injury to his lung, which was cited in the autopsy report to further exacerbate his likelihood for complications with a drug like Propofol. Meaning he was at a higher risk for respiratory failure. \n\nIn his autopsy, it was found that he had an enlarged prostate and osteoarthritis. His lips were tattooed pink. He used a skin-bleaching cream called Benoquin to treat his Vitiligo.\n\nJackson was physically abused by his father when he was a child. He would also call Jackson \"big-nose\". As a teenager, Jackson had acne. In Living With Michael Jackson, Jackson told Martin Bashir how he went home and cried after a woman called him ugly because of his acne. Some medical professionals have said that they think Jackson had body dysmorphic disorder. The disorder is often triggered by appearance-related bullying. Some people think that Jackson had anorexia nervosa. In 1984, Jackson weighed 105\u00a0pounds. He was 5\"9 tall. This would have made his BMI 15.5, which is very underweight. He weighed 136\u00a0lbs. when he died. This is in the healthy range. A biographer called Ian Halperin wrote that Jackson had a rare genetic disease called Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency. He also wrote that Jackson's genetic disease had caused him to lose 95% of the vision in his left eye.\n\nJackson's doctor Conrad Murray said that he thought Jackson was \"legally blind\" and had phlebitis.\n\nDeath \nJackson was announced dead at age 50 on June 25, 2009 at 2:25 pm at the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center. It is thought that he went into cardiac arrest, which means his heart stopped. At 4:36\u00a0pm local time, the Los Angeles coroner confirmed Jackson's death. However, he was unresponsive by 12:15, even though he was not proclaimed dead at the time of hospital arrival, he already passed on by 1pm. Jackson died just two months before his 51st birthday. Rumors and news of Jackson's death broke web records causing a cyberspace traffic jam. The circumstances of his death and the outpouring of grief which was experienced around the world were on record scales never seen before. His death gave Google, Twitter, Facebook, and Yahoo the most page views they had ever encountered. Jackson arrived at the hospital not showing any signs of life.\n\nMemorial service \nA memorial service was held at the Staples Center in downtown Los Angeles on July 7, 2009. It began with a reading of a letter by Smokey Robinson of comments by Nelson Mandela, Diana Ross and other close friends of Michael Jackson who could not be at the memorial. Mariah Carey sang I'll Be There at the memorial service, followed by a speech given by Queen Latifah. Lionel Richie performed \"Jesus is Love\". Berry Gordy, Motown founder, spoke next, offering condolences. Kobe Bryant and Magic Johnson also spoke, with Magic describing the event as a \"celebration of Jackson's life and works\" rather than a funeral. Jennifer Hudson sung Will You Be There accompanied by a music video. Reverend Al Sharpton then gave a speech about how Jackson kept rising and \"never stopped\". John Mayer played the guitar as he did in Michael Jackson's song Human Nature. This was followed by Brooke Shields speaking. Jermaine Jackson, Jackson's older brother, then performed Smile, Michael's favorite song written by comic drama legend Charlie Chaplin. This was proceeded by speeches by Martin Luther King III and Bernice King. Congresswoman Sheila Jackson Lee was the next person who spoke at the memorial service, claiming \"people are innocent until proven guilty,\" (reminding those who accused Jackson of unproven child molestations) saying that Jackson's humanitarian efforts need to be praised. Usher then sang \"Gone Too Soon,\" followed by a montage of old videos of Jackson himself. Shamim sang next, with Kenny Ortega introducing him afterward. Kenny Ortega explained that Michael Jackson saw the Staples Center as his home, a reason for the funeral service to be held there. This was followed by Kenny Ortega doing a tribute to him, including We Are the World and Heal the World. The service ended with speeches by members of his family, including Jermaine, Marlon and daughter Paris who broke into tears and said that \"Daddy was the best father anyone could have\" and also that \"I will miss him\" then she left the microphone and turned into Janet Jackson's arms. The memorial lasted over 2\u00a0hours.\n\nBurial\nAt first, Michael Jackson's custom-made quarter-million dollar golden casket, nicknamed \"The Promethean\" was not expected to appear at the memorial service, however, due to a change in the family's plans the casket was taken to the memorial service.\n\nViewing parties were held all over the world for the broadcast, including at several movie theaters, in Times Square, the Apollo Theater, Raleigh, and Berlin. The broadcast was replayed a few times the next day. An estimated 1 billion people tuned into the farewell concert.\n\nOver 3,000 police officers were assigned to the event, the largest amount assigned to a single event since the 1984 Summer Olympics. It cost the City of Los Angeles 1.4 million dollars.\nHis funeral took place in Glendale California on September 3, 2009, 9 weeks after he died. He was laid to rest at 9:45 pm in the mausoleum, above the ground. Mother Katherine decided on burial details but some family members and friends wanted him buried below ground in the mausoleum. Jermaine Jackson wanted him buried on Neverland ranch.\n\nLegacy\nAlthough he died in 2009, Jackson is still often in the news. His music is also still popular.\n\n2009-2010\nJackson won Entertainer of the Year at the 2009 Soul Train Awards. That year he also won five American Music Awards.\n\nOn October 26, 2009, a two-disc album called Michael Jackson's This Is It was released. The album's only single \"This Is It\" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance in 2011.\nOn October 28, 2009 Michael Jackson's This Is It was released. It was a documentary movie. The movie showed recordings of Jackson's rehearsals for his This Is It tour. Jackson died before he could do the tour. It made $72,091,016 in the United States. It has made $261,183,588 around the world. It got good reviews from movie critics. On 26 January 2010 the movie was released on DVD. It sold over a 1.5million copies in the US in the first week it was released. This was more than any other music DVD had sold in its first week.\n\nJackson won the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2010. His children, Prince and Paris collected the award for Jackson.\n\nA video game called Michael Jackson: The Experience was released in November 2010 for the Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable and Wii.\n\n2011-2012\nIn April 2011 Mohamed Al-Fayed, who was friends with Jackson when he was alive, showed the public a 7ft 6in statue of Jackson outside Craven Cottage football stadium. A lot of people did not like the statue. In July 2013 Fayed sold his football club to Shahid Khan. In September 2013 Khan chose to have the statue was removed. It was given back to Fayed. Man in the Music: The Creative Life and Work of Michael Jackson, a book written by Joseph Vogel about Jackson's life, was published in 2011.\n\nJackson was voted as the Greatest Singer of All Time by people who did a poll on NME.com.\n\nIn 2011 there was a criminal trial for Jackson's doctor Conrad Murray. Murray was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter of Jackson. He was sentenced to four years in prison. On October 28, 2013, Murray was released from prison. He was interviewed by 60 Minutes. He said that he did not think that Jackson's death was his fault in any way. The journalist Liz Hayes asked Murray if he thought that Jackson was a pedophile. Murray stared at her for 13\u00a0seconds and would not give an opinion. He said that he would not answer because he did not want to make anything up.\n\nAn extinct species of hermit crab was called Mesoparapylocheles michaeljacksoni after Jackson in January 2012.\n\nBad 25, a documentary movie about Jackson's album Bad, was released in August 2012.\n\nIn 2012 he sold almost 8 albums in the United States. He is thought to have sold 2 albums around the world in 2012. His estate makes $1 a year.\n\n2013-2014\nJackson made more money than any other dead celebrity in 2013.\n\nIn May 2013 Wade Robson said that Jackson sexually abused him from the age of 7 to 14. In 2005 he had been a defense witness for Jackson's child molestation trial. In June 2014 there will be a hearing where it is decided whether Robson can sue Jackson's estate over the abuse.\n\nIn November 2013 Billboard magazine's issue, 44 did a cover with Michael on it. It said 'Life After Death'. Inside the magazine there was an article about the success of Michael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour.\n\nIn January 2014 a judge ruled that Jackson's family could not have another trial against AEG Live. Xscape was released on May 9, 2014.\n\nMusic\n\nRecent releases \nJackson recorded several songs before his death. He had recently released a compilation album called Michael, featuring remixed songs and new songs such as \"Hold My Hand\" a duet between him and popular singer Akon, and \"Monster\", a strong song with lots of attitudes and a hint of dislike for the paparazzi. Also \"(I Like) The Way You Love Me\", \"Keep Your Head Up\", and \"Much Too Soon\".\n\nAlbums \n Got to Be There (1972)\n Ben (1972)\n Music & Me (1973)\n Forever, Michael (1975)\n Off the Wall (1979)\n Thriller (1982)\n Bad (1987)\n Dangerous (1991)\n HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I (1995)\n Invincible (2001)\n\nFilmography \n The Wiz (1978)\n Captain EO (1986)\n Moonwalker (1988)\n Michael Jackson's Ghosts (1997)\n Men in Black II (2002)\n Miss Cast Away and the Islands Girls (2004)\n\nDocumentaries after death \n Michael Jackson's This Is It (2009)\n Bad 25 (2012)\n Michael Jackson: The Last Photo Shoot (2014)\n Michael Jackson's Journey from Motown to Off the Wall (2016)\n Square One: Michael Jackson (2019)\n\nConcert tours \n Bad World Tour (1987-1989)\n Dangerous World Tour (1992-1993)\n HIStory World Tour (1996-1997)\n MJ & Friends (1999)\n This Is It (2009-2010; cancelled)\n\nSingles\n\nRelated pages \n Janet Jackson\n The Jackson 5\n Moonwalk\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n Official website\n\n1958 births\n2009 deaths\nAfrican American actors\nAfrican American musicians\nAmerican autobiographers\nAmerican manslaughter victims\nPhilanthropists from Indiana\nAmerican drummers\nAmerican guitarists\nAmerican pianists\nAmerican R&B singers\nAmerican pop singers\nAmerican soul singers\nAmerican rock singers\nAmerican disco singers\nAmerican new jack swing singers\nJackson family\nAmerican singer-songwriters\nBrit Award winners\nGrammy Award winners\nDeaths from cardiac arrest\nDrug-related accidental deaths in the United States\nNew wave musicians\nMichael Jackson\nPeople acquitted of sex crimes\nMusicians from Gary, Indiana\nSingers from Indiana\nPeople accused of child sexual abuse","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":67,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":9589,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael%20Jackson","title":"Michael Jackson","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Jan Brueghel (also Bruegel or Breughel) the Elder (, ; ; 1568 \u2013 13 January 1625) was a Flemish painter and draughtsman. He was the son of the eminent Flemish Renaissance painter Pieter Bruegel the Elder. A close friend and frequent collaborator with Peter Paul Rubens, the two artists were the leading Flemish painters in the first three decades of the 17th century.\n\nBrueghel worked in many genres including history paintings, flower still lifes, allegorical and mythological scenes, landscapes and seascapes, hunting pieces, village scenes, battle scenes and scenes of hellfire and the underworld. He was an important innovator who invented new types of paintings such as flower garland paintings, paradise landscapes, and gallery paintings in the first quarter of the 17th century. He further created genre paintings that were imitations, pastiches and reworkings of his father's works, in particular his father's genre scenes and landscapes with peasants. Brueghel represented the type of the pictor doctus, the erudite painter whose works are informed by the religious motifs and aspirations of the Catholic Counter-Reformation as well as the scientific revolution with its interest in accurate description and classification. He was court painter of the Archduke and Duchess Albrecht and Isabella, the governors of the Habsburg Netherlands.\n\nThe artist was nicknamed \"Velvet\" Brueghel, \"Flower\" Brueghel, and \"Paradise\" Brueghel. The first is believed to have been given him because of his mastery in the rendering of fabrics. The second nickname is a reference to his fame as a painter of (although not a specialist in) flower pieces and the last one to his invention of the genre of the paradise landscape. His brother Pieter Brueghel the Younger was traditionally nicknamed \"de helse Brueghel\" or \"Hell Brueghel\" because it was believed he was the author of a number of paintings with fantastic depictions of fire and grotesque imagery. These paintings have now been reattributed to Jan Brueghel the Elder.\n\nLife\n\nJan Brueghel the Elder was born in Brussels as the son of Pieter Bruegel the Elder and Maria (called 'Mayken') Coecke van Aelst. His mother was the daughter of the prominent Flemish Renaissance artists Pieter Coecke van Aelst and Mayken Verhulst. His father died about a year after Jan's birth in 1569. It is believed that after the death of his mother in 1578, Jan, together with his brother Pieter Brueghel the Younger and sister Marie, went to live with their grandmother Mayken Verhulst, who was by then widowed. Mayken Verhulst was an artist in her own right. The early Flemish biographer Karel van Mander wrote in his Schilder-boeck published in 1604 that Mayken was the first art teacher of her two grandsons. She taught them drawing and watercolor painting of miniatures. Jan and his brother may also have trained with local artists in Brussels who were active as tapestry designers.\n\nJan and his brother Pieter were then sent to Antwerp to study oil painting. According to Karel van Mander he studied under Peter Goetkint, an important dealer with a large collection of paintings in his shop. Goetkint died on 15 July 1583 not very long after Jan had started his training. It is possible that Jan continued his studies in this shop, which was taken over by Goetkint's widow, as no other master is recorded.\n\nIt was common for Flemish painters of that time to travel to Italy to complete their studies. Jan Brueghel left for Italy, first traveling to Cologne where his sister Marie and her family lived. He later visited Frankenthal, an important cultural centre where a number of Flemish landscape artists were active. He then went to Naples after probably spending time in Venice. In Naples he produced after June 1590 a number of drawings, which show his interest in landscapes and monumental architecture. He worked for Don Francesco Caracciolo, a prominent nobleman and priest and founder of the Clerics Regular Minor. Jan produced small-scale decorative works for Don Francesco. \n\nBrueghel left Naples for Rome where he resided from 1592 to 1594. He befriended Paul Bril. Paul Bril was a landscape specialist from Antwerp who had moved to Rome in the late 16th century. Together with his brother Mathijs Bril, he created atmospheric landscapes for many Roman residences. Brueghel took inspiration from Bril's lively drawings and small-scale landscapes of the mid-1590s. During his time in Rome Jan Brueghel became acquainted with Hans Rottenhammer, a German painter of small highly finished cabinet paintings on copper. Rottenhammer painted religious and mythological compositions, combining German and Italian elements of style, which were highly esteemed. Brueghel collaborated with both Paul Bril and Rottenhammer. Brueghel also spent time making watercolors of Rome's antique monuments and seemed particularly fascinated by the vaulted interiors of the Colosseum.\n\nHe enjoyed the protection of Cardinal Ascanio Colonna. In Rome he also met Cardinal Federico Borromeo, who played an important role in the Counter-Reformation and was also an avid art collector. The Cardinal became Brueghel's lifelong friend and patron. Brueghel took up residence in Borromeo's Palazzo Vercelli. When Borromeo became archbishop of Milan in June 1595, Brueghel followed him and became part of the Cardinal's household. He produced many landscape and flower paintings for the Cardinal.\n\nBrueghel stayed about a year in Milan and in 1596 he had returned to Antwerp where he remained active, save for a few interruptions, for the rest of his life. A year after his return Jan Brueghel was admitted as a Free Master in Antwerp's Guild of Saint Luke as the son of a master. The artist married on 23 January 1599 in the Cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp. The bride was Isabella de Jode, the daughter of the cartographer, engraver and publisher Gerard de Jode. Their son Jan was born on 13 September 1601. This first-born had Rubens as his godfather and later took over his father's workshop and was known as Jan Brueghel the Younger.\n\nBrueghel was registered as a burgher of Antwerp on 4 October 1601 as 'Jan Bruegel, Peetersone, schilder, van Bruessele' ('Jan Bruegel, son of Peeter, painter, of Brussels'). Just a month before, Brueghel had been elected dean of the Guild of Saint Luke, but he had not been able to take up the position as he was not a burgher of Antwerp. Upon becoming formally registered as a burgher the same year Brueghel could finally be the dean. The next year he was re-elected as dean.\n\nIn 1603 his daughter Paschasia Brueghel was born. Rubens was also her godfather. His wife Isabella de Jode died the same year leaving him with two young children. It has been speculated that death of his wife was linked to the birth of his latest child.\n\nIn the summer of 1604 Brueghel visited Prague. Prague was the location of the court of Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor who promoted artistic innovation. The Emperor's court had attracted many Northern artists such as Bartholomeus Spranger and Hans von Aachen who created a new affected style, full of conceits, which became known as Mannerism.\n\nUpon returning to Antwerp in September 1604 Brueghel bought a large house called \"De Meerminne\" (The Mermaid) in the Lange Nieuwstraat in Antwerp on 20 September 1604. The artist remarried in April 1605. With his second wife Catharina van Mari\u00ebnburg he had 8 children of whom Ambrosius became a painter.\n\nAfter his appointment as court painter of the Archduke and Duchess Albrecht and Isabella in 1606, the artist was present in Brussels for periods in the years 1606, 1609, 1610 and 1613. On 28 August 1613 the court in Brussels paid Brueghel 3625 guilders for completing various works.\n\nFrom October 1610 onwards Rubens started taking on the role of intermediary for his friend Jan Brueghel. By the year 1625 Rubens had written about 25 letters to Cardinal Borromeo on behalf of Brueghel. In a letter to Borromeo Brueghel referred to his friend's role as that of \"mio secretario Rubens\" (my secretary Rubens). In the year 1612 or 1613 Peter Paul Rubens painted a portrait of Jan Brueghel and his family (Courtauld Institute, London). In 1613 he accompanied Rubens and Hendrick van Balen the Elder on a diplomatic mission to the Dutch Republic. Here they met Hendrick Goltzius and other Haarlem artists.\n\nWhen Duke Johan Ernest van Saksen passed through Antwerp in 1614 he took time to pay a visit to Rubens and Brueghel in their workshops. Brueghel received many official commissions from the Antwerp city magistrate. Four of his paintings were offered by the Antwerp city magistrate to the Archduke and Duchess Albrecht and Isabella on 27 August 1615. He was in 1618 one of 12 important painters from Antwerp who were commissioned by the Antwerp city magistrate to produce a series of paintings for the Archduke and Duchess Albrecht and Isabella. For this commission, Brueghel coordinated the work on a painting cycle depicting an Allegory of the Five Senses. The artists participating in the project included Rubens, Frans Snyders, Frans Francken the Younger, Joos de Momper, Hendrick van Balen the Elder and Sebastiaen Vrancx. The works were destroyed in a fire in 1713.\n\nOn 9 March 1619 Brueghel bought a third house called Den Bock (the Billy Goat) located in the Antwerp Arenbergstraat. When on 6 August 1623 his daughter Clara Eugenia was baptized, Archduchess Isabella and Cardinal Borromeo were her godparents. Jan Brueghel died on 13 January 1625 in Antwerp from complications arising from cholera.\n\nThe artist's estate was distributed on 3 June and 23 June 1627 among his surviving wife and his children from both marriages. Rubens, Hendrick van Balen the Elder, Cornelis Schut and Paulus van Halmaele were the executors of his last will. Rubens was the guardian of the surviving Brueghel children.\n\nHis students included his son Jan as well as Daniel Seghers. Brueghel's daughter Paschasia married the painter Hieronymus van Kessel the Younger, and their son Jan van Kessel the Elder studied with Jan Brueghel the Younger. Brueghel's daughter Anna married David Teniers the Younger in 1637.\n\nWork\n\nGeneral\n\nJan Brueghel the Elder was a versatile artist who practised in many genres and introduced various new subjects into Flemish art. He was an innovator who contributed to the development of the various genres to which he put his hand such as flower still lifes, landscapes and seascapes, hunting pieces, battle scenes and scenes of hellfire and the underworld. His best-known innovations are the new types of paintings, which he introduced into the repertoire of Flemish art in the first quarter of the 17th century such as flower garland paintings, paradise landscapes and gallery paintings. Unlike contemporary Flemish Baroque artists, such as Rubens, he did not produce large altarpieces for the local churches.\n\nJan Brueghel the Elder achieved a superb technical mastery, which enabled him to render materials, animals and landscapes with remarkable accuracy and a high degree of finish. He had an accomplished miniaturist technique allowing him to achieve an accurate description of nature.\n\nLittle is known about the workshop practices of Brueghel. He operated a large workshop that allowed him to produce a large quantity of works, which were in turn reproduced in his workshop. After Brueghel's death in 1625, Jan Brueghel the Younger took charge of his father's workshop which he operated in the same way as his father. This is clear in the style of the surviving paintings which are in the vein of his father's and the continued collaboration with former collaborators of his father such as Rubens and Hendrick van Balen. This workshop production contributed to the wide distribution of Jan Brueghel the Elder's creations.\n\nWhile his brother Pieter was engaged in the large-scale production of numerous works for the Antwerp art market, Jan Brueghel worked for a select clientele of aristocratic patrons and collectors of pictures to create more expensive and exclusive images. His works, such as his paradise landscapes, appealed to the aesthetic preferences of aristocrats who loved collecting such precious objects. His works, often painted on copper, were luxury objects intended for the simple pleasure of viewing as well as contemplation.\n\nCollaborations\n\nCollaboration between artists specialized in distinctive genres was a defining feature of artistic practice in 17th century Antwerp. Jan Brueghel was likewise a frequent collaborator with fellow artists. As he was an artist with a wide range of skills he worked with a number of collaborators in various genres. His collaborators included landscape artists Paul Bril and Joos de Momper, architectural painter Paul Vredeman de Vries and figure painters Frans Francken the Younger, Hendrick de Clerck, Pieter van Avont and Hendrick van Balen.\n\nHis collaborations with figure painter Hans Rottenhammer began in Rome around 1595 and ended in 1610. Rottenhammer was a gifted figure painter and known for his skill in painting nudes. Initially when the artists both lived in Venice, their collaborative works were executed on canvas, but in their later collaborations after Brueghel had returned to Antwerp they typically used copper. After Brueghel's return to Antwerp, their collaboration practice was for Brueghel to send the coppers with the landscape to Rottenhammer in Venice, who painted in the figures and then returned the coppers. In a few instances, the process was the other way around. Brueghel and Rottenhammer did not only collaborate on landscape paintings with figures. The artists jointly created one of the earliest devotional garland paintings, made for Cardinal Federico Borromeo, depicting a Virgin and Child surrounded by a flower garland (Pinacoteca Ambrosiana).\n\nWhile in his collaborations with Hans Rottenhammer, the landscapes were made by Brueghel, the roles were reversed when he worked with Joos de Momper as it was Brueghel who provided the figures to the landscapes painted by de Momper. An example of their collaboration is Mountain Landscape with Pilgrims in a Grotto Chapel (, Liechtenstein Museum). There are about 59 known collaborations between Brueghel and de Momper making de Momper his most frequent collaborator. Hendrick van Balen the Elder was another regular collaborator with Jan Brueghel. Their collaboration was simplified by the fact that from 1604 onwards both painters had moved to the Lange Nieuwstraat, which made it easier to carry the panels and copper plates on which they collaborated back and forth.\n\nAnother frequent collaborator of Jan Brueghel was Rubens. The two artists executed about 25 joint works in the period from 1598 to 1625. Their first collaboration was on The Battle of the Amazons (-1600, Sanssouci Picture Gallery). The artists worked together in the development of the genre of the devotional garland painting with works such as the Madonna in a Floral Wreath (-1618, Alte Pinakothek). They further jointly made mythological scenes and an allegorical series representing the Five Senses. The collaboration between the two friends was remarkable because they worked in very different styles and specializations and were artists of equal status. They were able to preserve the individuality of their respective styles in these joint works.\n\nBrueghel appears to have been the principal initiator of their joint works, which were made principally during the second half of the 1610s when their method of collaboration had become more systemised and included Rubens' workshop. Usually it would be Brueghel who started a painting and he would leave space for Rubens to add the figures. In their early collaborations they seem to have made major corrections to the work of the other. For instance, in the early collaborative effort The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus Rubens overpainted most of the lower-right corner with gray paint so he could enlarge his figures. In later collaborations the artists seem to have streamlined their collaboration and agreed on the composition early on so that these later works show little underdrawing. As court painters to the archdukes their collaborations reflected the court's desire to emphasise the continuity of its reign with the previous Burgundian and Habsburg rulers as well as the rulers' piousness. While they were mindful of the prevailing tastes in courtly circles, which favoured themes such as the hunt, the two artists were creative in their response to the court's preferences by devising new iconography and genres, such as the devotional garland paintings, which were equally capable of conveying the devoutness and splendor of the archducal court. The joint artistic output of Brueghel and Rubens was highly prized by collectors all over Europe.\n\nIdeological context\n\nJan Brueghel's work reflects the various ideological currents at work in the Catholic Spanish Netherlands during his lifetime. The Catholic Counter-Reformation's worldview played an important role in the artist's practice. Central in this worldview was the belief that the earth and its inhabitants were revelations of God. Artistic representation of, and scientific investigation into, that divine revelation was encouraged and valued. Breughel's friend and patron, the Counter-Reformation Cardinal Federico Borromeo, particularly emphasized the beauty and diversity of the animal world. In his I tre libri delle laudi divine (published only posthumously in 1632) Borromeo wrote: 'Looking then with attentive study at animals' construction and formation, and at their parts, members, and characters, can it not be said how excellently divine wisdom has demonstrated the value of its great works?' Jan Brueghel's realistic depictions of nature in all its various forms, in flowers, landscapes, animals, etc., was clearly in line with the view that study of the god's creation was an important source for knowing this god.\n\nBrueghel's era also saw a growing interest in the study of nature through empirical evidence as opposed to relying on inherited tradition. The increased access to new animals and exotic plants from the newly discovered territories played an important role in this intellectual exploration. This resulted in the appearance of the first scholarly catalogues and encyclopedias, including the illustrated natural history catalogues of 16th-century naturalists Conrad Gesner and Ulisse Aldrovandi. Their major contribution to natural history was the creation of an extensive system of description of each animal. Gesner placed all the species within four general categories: quadrupeds, birds, fish and serpents. He described animals in alphabetical order and in terms of nomenclature, geographic origins, mode of living and behavior. Aldrovandi took another approach and did not order animals alphabetically. He relied on visual resemblance as the classifying factor. For example, he grouped the horse together with analogous animals, such as the donkey and mule, and separated species into categories, such as birds with webbed feet and nocturnal birds.\n\nBrueghel's works reflect this contemporary encyclopedic interest in the classification and ordering of all of the natural world. This is evidenced in his flower pieces, landscapes, allegorical works and gallery paintings. In his paradise landscapes, for instance, Brueghel grouped most of the species according to their basic categories of biological classification, in other words, according to the main groups of related species that resemble one another, such as birds or quadrupeds. He further classified most of them into subdivisions consisting of similar morphological and behavioral characteristics. His paradise landscapes thus constituted a visual catalogue of animals and birds which fulfilled the role of micro-encyclopedia.\n\nBrueghel's endeavor to represent the world through ordering and classifying its many elements based on empirical observation did not stop with the natural world. In Prague he had acquired knowledge of the large collections of Emperor Rudolf II, which were divided in natural, artificial and scientific objects. Brueghel's allegorical paintings of the four elements and of the five senses reveal the same classifying obsession, using each element or sense to organize natural, man-made instruments and scientific objects. In this skillful union of the areas of art, science, and nature Brueghel demonstrates his mastery of these various disciplines. His paintings serve the same purpose to that of encyclopedic collections by linking between the mundus sensibilis and the mundus intelligibilis. His approach to describing and cataloguing nature in art resembles the distinction natural historians were starting to make between perceptual experience and theoretical knowledge.\n\nBrueghel's obsession with classifying the world was completely in line with the encyclopedic tastes of the court in Brussels as is demonstrated by their large art collection of predominantly Flemish paintings, menagerie of exotic species and extensive library.\n\nFlower paintings\nJan Brueghel the Elder was one of the first artists in the Habsburg Netherlands who started to paint pure flower still lifes. A pure flower still life depicts flowers, typically arranged in a vase or other vessel, as the principal subject of the picture, rather than as a subordinate part of another work such as a history painting. Jan Brueghel is regarded as an important contributor to the emerging genre of the flower piece in Northern art, a contribution that was already appreciated in his time when he received the nickname 'Flower Brueghel'. While the traditional interpretation of these flower pieces was that they were vanitas symbols or allegories of transience with hidden meanings, it is now more common to interpret them as mere depictions of the natural world. Brueghel's approach to these works was informed by his desire to display his skill in giving a realistic, almost scientific rendering of nature. These works reflected the ideological concerns demonstrated in his work, which combined the worldview that nature was a revelation of a god with the interest in gaining a scientific understanding of nature.\n\nBrueghel's flower pieces are dominated by the floral arrangements, which are placed against a neutral dark background. Minor details such as insects, butterflies, snails and separate sprays of flowers or rosemary may occasionally be added but are subordinate to the principal subject. While Brueghel sought out very rare flowers, he used certain common blooms such as tulips, irises and roses to anchor his bouquets. This may have been a response to his patrons' wishes as well as compositional considerations. His bouquets were typically composed of flowers blooming in different seasons of the year so they could never have been painted together directly from nature. Brueghel was in the habit of traveling to make drawings of flowers that were not available in Antwerp, so that he could paint them into his bouquets. Brueghel rendered the flowers with an almost scientific precision. He arranged each flower with hardly any overlap so that they are shown off to their best advantage, and many are shown at different angles. The flowers are arranged by size with smaller ones at the bottom of the bouquet, larger flowers such as tulips, cornflowers, peonies and guelder roses in the centre and large flowers, such as white lilies and blue irises, at the top of the bouquet.\n\t\nThis arrangement is clear in the Flowers in a Ceramic Vase (c. 1620, Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp). The vase in which the flowers are arranged is decorated with motifs in relief. The two cartouches - separated by a fantastic figure - show Amphitrite, a sea goddess from Greek mythology, on the left, and Ceres, the Roman corn goddess, on the right. These two goddesses were typically used in allegorical representations of the four elements to symbolise water and earth respectively. The other two cartouches on that part of the vase that is invisible likely show Vulcan, who was associated with fire, and Apollo, who was associated with air. The occurrence of the four elements and the flowers in a single work can be interpreted as the emanation of the macrocosm in the microcosm.\n\nBrueghel often repeated motifs in his flower pieces. Even so, he was able to give each work a remarkable freshness and vitality of its own.\n\nGarland paintings\nJan Brueghel the Elder played a key role in the invention and development of the genre of garland paintings. Garland paintings typically show a flower garland around a devotional image or portrait. Together with Hendrick van Balen, he painted around 1607-1608 the first known garland painting for Italian cardinal Federico Borromeo, a passionate art collector and Catholic reformer. Borromeo requested the painting to respond to the destruction of images of the Virgin in the preceding century and it thus combined both the cardinal's interests in Catholic reform and the arts. Brueghel, the still life specialist, painted the flower garland, while van Balen, a specialist figure painter, was responsible for the image of the Virgin.\n\nThe genre of garland paintings was inspired by the cult of veneration and devotion to Mary prevalent at the Habsburg court (then the rulers over the Habsburg Netherlands) and in Antwerp generally. The genre was initially connected to the visual imagery of the Counter-Reformation movement. Garland paintings were usually collaborations between a still life and a figure painter. Brueghel's collaborators on garland paintings included Rubens, Frans Francken the Younger and Pieter van Avont.\n\nAn example of a collaborative garland painting made by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Rubens is the Madonna in Floral Wreath (1621, Alte Pinakothek).\n\nAn example of a collaborative garland painting he made with Hendrick van Balen is the Garland of Fruit surrounding a Depiction of a Goddess Receiving Gifts from Personifications of the Four Seasons of which there are two versions, one in the Belfius collection and a second in the Mauritshuis in The Hague. Both versions are considered to be autograph paintings, but small differences between the two suggest that the panel in the Belfius collection is the original version. The medallion in the centre is traditionally believed to depict Cybele, the ancient Phrygian goddess of the earth and nature as it was described as such in 1774 when it was catalogued in the collection of William V, Prince of Orange in The Hague. More recently an identification of the goddess with Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture, grain crops, fertility and motherly relationships, has been proposed. The reason is that the goddess in the medallion has none of the attributes traditionally connected with Cybele. Around the medallion is suspended a garland of flowers, vegetables and fruit \u2013 a tribute to the goddess and an ode to plenty and fertility. Van Balen painted the medallion while Brueghel painted the abundant garland, the surrounding figures and the numerous animals.\n\nLandscapes\n\nJan Brueghel's father, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, is regarded as an important innovator of landscape art. By introducing greater naturalism in his Alpine mountain settings, his father had expanded on the world landscape tradition that had been founded mainly by Joachim Patinir. Some of Pieter the Elder's works also foreshadowed the forest landscape that would start to dominate landscape painting around the turn of the 16th century. Pieter the Elder also developed the village and rural landscape, placing Flemish hamlets and farms in exotic prospects of mountains and river valleys.\n\nJan developed on the formula he learned from his father of arranging country figures traveling a road, which recedes into the distance. He emphasized the recession into space by carefully diminishing the scale of figures in the foreground, middle-ground, and far distance. To further the sense of atmospheric perspective, he used varying tones of brown, green, and blue progressively to characterize the recession of space. His landscapes with their vast depth are balanced through his attention to the peasant figures and their humble activities in the foreground.\n\nLike his father, Jan Brueghel also painted various village landscapes. He used the surrounding landscapes as the stage for the crowds of anecdotal, colorfully dressed peasants who engage in various activities in the market, the country roads and during the rowdy kermesses. Jan Brueghel's landscape paintings with their strong narrative elements and attention to detail had a significant influence on Flemish and Dutch landscape artists in the second decade of the 17th century. His river views were certainly known to painters working in Haarlem, including Esaias van de Velde and Willem Buytewech, whom Brueghel may have met there when he accompanied Peter Paul Rubens on a diplomatic mission to the Dutch Republic in 1613.\n\nJan Brueghel was along with artists such as Gillis van Coninxloo one of the prime developers of the dense forest landscape in the 17th century. Jan Breughel in fact experimented with such works before Coninxloo's first dated wooded landscape of 1598. In his forest landscapes Brueghel depicted heavily wooded glades in which he captured the verdant density, and even mystery, of the forest. Although on occasion inhabited by humans and animals, these forest scenes contain dark recesses, virtually no open sky and no outlet for the eye to penetrate beyond the thick trees.\n\nParadise landscapes\n\nJan Brueghel invented the 'paradise landscape', a subgenre that involved a combination of landscape and animal painting. Works in this genre are typically crawling with numerous animals from exotic and native European species who coexist harmoniously in a lush landscape setting. These landscapes are inspired by episodes from Genesis, the chapter of the bible, which tells the story of the creation of the world and of man. The favorite themes taken from Genesis where the creation of man, Adam and Eve in paradise, the fall of man and the entry of the animals in Noah's ark.\n\nLike his flower pieces, these landscapes were informed by the Catholic Counter-Reformation's worldview, which regarded earth and its inhabitants as revelations of their god and valued artistic representation of, and scientific investigation into, that divine revelation. As described above, Breughel's friend and patron, the Counter-Reformation Cardinal Federico Borromeo, had particularly emphasized the beauty and diversity of the animal world. Brueghel tried to render this worldview in his paradise landscapes. The novelty of Brueghel's paradise landscapes lies not only in the impressive variety of animals, which the artist studied mainly from life but also in their presentation as both figures of a religious narrative and as subjects of a scientific order.\n\nBrueghel developed his earliest paradise landscapes during his stay in Venice in the early 1590s. His first paradise landscape known as The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man is now in the Doria Pamphilj Gallery in Rome. The reference to Genesis in the picture appears in a small vignette representing the creation of Man in the background, but the main focus is on the animals and the landscape itself. This work was the first paradise landscape in which Brueghel 'catalogued' animals and depicts common and domesticated types. Brueghel's interest in the cataloguing of animals was stimulated by his visit to the court of Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor in Prague. The emperor had established an encyclopedic collection of rarities and animals. While in his early paradise landscapes Brueghel seems to have based some of his renderings of the animals on works by other artists, he later could rely on studies from life of the various species in the menagerie of the court in Brussels. Brueghel had also seen Albrecht D\u00fcrer's depiction of animals during his visit to Prague and had made a painted copy of D\u00fcrer's watercolor The Madonna with a Multitude of Animals (1503). D\u00fcrer's representations of animals play a pivotal role in Renaissance zoology, since they are the purest artistic form of nature study. The studies of animals by Flemish artists Hans Bol and Joris Hoefnagel also had an important influence on Brueghel. In particular Hoefnagel's Four Elements (1575-1582) was the first artistic work to categorize animals in a book format. Hoefnagel's approach to the representation of the animal world combined natural historical, classical, emblematic, and biblical references, which incorporated the various species into the categories of the four elements of the cosmos: earth, water, air, and fire. Brueghel's paradise landscapes also embodied the encyclopedic attitudes of his time by depicting a wide variety of species.\n\nBrueghel continued refining his treatment of the subject of paradise landscapes throughout his career. The many renderings and variations of the paradise landscape produced by Brueghel earned him the nickname Paradise Brueghel.\n\nAllegorical paintings\n\nJan Brueghel the Elder produced various sets of allegorical paintings, in particular on the themes of the Five senses and the Four Elements. These paintings were often collaborations with other painters such as is the case with the five paintings representing the Five senses on which Brueghel and Rubens collaborated and which are now in the Prado Museum in Madrid. He also collaborated with Hendrick van Balen on various allegorical compositions such as a series on the Four Elements as well as an Allegory of Public Welfare (Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest).\n\nIn his allegories Jan Breughel illustrated an abstract concept, such as one of the senses or one of the four elements through a multitude of concrete objects that can be associated with it. He thus represented a concept by means of descriptive tropes. Brueghel resorted in these allegorical compositions to the encyclopedic imagery that he also displayed in his paradise landscapes. This is demonstrated in his composition Allegory of Fire; Venus in the Forge of Vulcan of which there are various versions of which one (Doria Pamphilj Gallery, Rome) is a collaboration with Hendrick van Balen and another (Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan) is attributed to Jan Brueghel alone. Brueghel's encyclopedic approach in this composition offers such detail that historians of science have relied on the composition as a source of information on the types of tools used in 17th century metallurgical practice.\n\nScenes of hell and demons\n\nJan was early on nicknamed 'Hell Brueghel' but by the 19th century that name had become erroneously associated with his brother Pieter the Younger. Jan Brueghel was given the nickname because of his scenes with demons and hell scenes. An example is the Temptation of St. Anthony (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna), which reprises a subject first explored by Hieronymus Bosch. In this demon-plagued scene the monsters are seen attacking the small saint in the corner of a large and dense forest landscape, rather than within the expanded panoramas of Patinir.\n\nJan Brueghel is believed to have produced his hell scenes for a newer, elite audience of learned and sophisticated collectors. To appeal to this erudite clientele he often populated the hell scenes with mythological rather than religious subjects, in particular the Vergilian scene of Aeneas in Hades, escorted by the Cumaean Sibyl. An example is Aeneas and the Sibyl in the Underworld (1619, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna). Other mythological themes appearing in his hell scenes included the image of Juno visiting Hades and Orpheus in the Underworld from Ovid's Metamorphoses. An example of the latter is Orpheus in the Underworld (Palazzo Pitti). In these compositions brightly colored monsters provide the 'recreational terror' of the later manifestations of Boschian design.\n\nBrueghel's hell scenes were influential and Jacob van Swanenburg, one of Rembrandt's teachers, was inspired by them to create his own hell scenes.\n\nGallery paintings\n\nJan Brueghel the Elder and Frans Francken the Younger were the first artists to create paintings of art and curiosity collections in the 1620s. Gallery paintings depict large rooms in which many paintings and other precious items are displayed in elegant surroundings. These rooms were often referred to as Kunstkammern (\"art rooms\") or Wunderkammern (\"wonder rooms\"). The earliest works in this genre depicted art objects together with other items such as scientific instruments or peculiar natural specimens. Some gallery paintings include portraits of the owners or collectors of the art objects or artists at work. The paintings are heavy with symbolism and allegory and are a reflection of the intellectual preoccupations of the age, including the cultivation of personal virtue and the importance of connoisseurship. The genre became immediately quite popular and was followed by other artists such as Jan Brueghel the Younger, Cornelis de Baellieur, Hans Jordaens, David Teniers the Younger, Gillis van Tilborch and Hieronymus Janssens.\n\nA famous example of a gallery painting by Jan Brueghel is The Archdukes Albert and Isabella Visiting a Collector's Cabinet (now referred to as The Archdukes Albert and Isabella Visiting the Collection of Pieter Roose) (c. 1621-1623, Walters Art Museum, Baltimore). The work is believed to be a collaboration between Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hieronymus Francken II. This gallery painting represents the early phase of the genre of collector's cabinets. During this early 'encyclopaedic' phase, the genre reflected the culture of curiosity of that time, when art works, scientific instruments, naturalia and artificialia were equally the object of study and admiration. As a result, the cabinets depicted in these compositions are populated by persons who appear to be as interested in discussing scientific instruments as in admiring paintings. Later the genre concentrated more on galleries solely containing works of art. The compositions depicted in The Archdukes Albert and Isabella Visiting a Collector's Cabinet are predominantly allegories of iconoclasm and the victory of painting (art) over ignorance. They are references to the iconoclasm of the Beeldenstorm that had raged in the Low Countries in the 16th century and the victory over the iconoclasts during the reign of the Archdukes Albert and Isabella who jointly ruled the Spanish Netherlands in the beginning of the 17th century. Jan Brueghel was responsible for the large vase of flowers, which is crowned by a large sunflower. This South American flower, which could grow very tall and would turn towards the sun, was first seen by Europeans in the mid-1500s. It had been illustrated as a New World wonder in botanical treatises, but Jan Brueghel was the first to include the flower in a painting and use it as a symbol of princely patronage in this composition. By turning toward Albert and Isabella (taking the position of the sun), the sunflower symbolizes the way that the arts were able to grow and blossom in the light and warmth of princely patronage.\n\nSingeries\nBreughel contributed to the development of the genre of the 'monkey scene', also called 'singerie' (a word derived from the French for 'monkey' and meaning a 'comical grimace, behaviour or trick'). Comical scenes with monkeys appearing in human attire and a human environment are a pictorial genre that was initiated in Flemish painting in the 16th century and was subsequently further developed in the 17th century. Monkeys were regarded as shameless and impish creatures and excellent imitators of human behaviour. These depictions of monkeys enacting various human roles were a playful metaphor for all the folly in the world. \n\nThe Flemish engraver Pieter van der Borcht introduced the singerie as an independent theme around 1575 in a series of prints, which were strongly embedded in the artistic tradition of Pieter Bruegel the Elder. These prints were widely disseminated and the theme was then picked up by other Flemish artists. The first one to do so was the Antwerp artist Frans Francken the Younger, who was quickly followed by Jan Brueghel the Elder, the Younger, Sebastiaen Vrancx and Jan van Kessel the Elder. Jan Brueghel the Elder's son-in-law David Teniers the Younger became the principal practitioner of the genre and developed it further with his younger brother Abraham Teniers. Later in the 17th century Nicolaes van Verendael started to paint these 'monkey scenes' as well.\n\nAn example of a singerie by Jan Brueghel is the Monkeys feasting, which dates from his early years as an artist (private collection, on long-term loan to the Rubenshuis, Antwerp). This painting on copper was probably one of the first examples of a singerie painting. Jan Brueghel likely drew his monkeys in the zoo of the Archdukes in Brussels. While the composition shows the monkeys engaged in all kinds of mischief, it includes a painting above the door jamb, which is a work from Rubens' studio, called \"Ceres and Pan\". The representation of Ceres and Pan provides a contrast been the cultivated versus the wild world of the monkeys below.\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n Leopoldine van Hogendorp Prosperetti, 'Landscape and Philosophy in the Art of Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568-1625)', Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2009\n Arianne Faber Kolb, Jan Brueghel the Elder: The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark, Getty Publications, 2005\n Larry Silver, Peasant Scenes and Landscapes: The Rise of Pictorial Genres in the Antwerp Art Market, University of Pennsylvania Press, 4 January 2012\n Anne T. Woollett and Ariane van Suchtelen; with contributions by Tiarna Doherty, Mark Leonard, and J\u00f8rgen Wadum, Rubens and Brueghel: A Working Friendship, 2006\n\nExternal links\n\n1568 births\n1625 deaths\nFlemish Baroque painters\nFlemish genre painters\nFlemish history painters\nFlemish landscape painters\nFlemish still life painters\nJan 1\nJan 01\nPainters from Antwerp\nPainters from Brussels\nPeople from the Habsburg Netherlands\n16th-century Flemish painters\n17th-century Flemish painters","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":42,"dup_details":{"2024-30":12,"2024-26":19,"2024-22":10,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":1,"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":6,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-24":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":5,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":3,"2018-30":3,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":3,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2}},"id":64386,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jan%20Brueghel%20the%20Elder","title":"Jan Brueghel the Elder","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Structural engineering is a subset of civil engineering dealing with the design and analysis of buildings and large non-building structures to withstand both the gravity and wind loads as well as natural disasters. Besides, it may also cover design of machinery, medical equipment, vehicles or any other objects where structural functionality or safety are involved. Structural engineers must ensure their designs satisfy building codes.\n\nMajor structural engineering projects go through the following four stages: research, design, testing, and construction which are featured with the images below:\n\nStructural engineering came to existence when the humans first started to construct their own structures. It became a more defined profession with the emergence of the architecture profession during the industrial revolution in the late 19th Century.\n\nEntry-level structural engineers may design individual structural elements of a structure, for example, beams, columns, and floors of a building. More experienced engineers would be responsible for the structural design and integrity of an entire system, such as a building.\n\nStructural engineers often specialize in particular fields, such as bridge engineering, building engineering, pipeline engineering, earthquake engineering, industrial structures, or special mechanical structures such as vehicles or aircrafts.\n\nRelated pages\n Architecture\n Building model\n\nNotes \n\nEngineering disciplines\nCivil engineering\nBuildings and structures","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":131,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":4,"2020-10":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":3,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":5,"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":4,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2}},"id":153035,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structural%20engineering","title":"Structural engineering","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Messiah or  the Anointed One is the figure promised by God to the Jews for the salvation of the world. \n\nOther people in real life or fiction are called messianic if they have the qualities of a messiah, or people think they will bring about a better world.\n\nThe How, Where, and Why\n Why: Jews believe the biblical prophets inspired by God to tell of his coming. During the period of the Roman rule in 1st century BC the idea of the messiah became very important in Jewish thought and teaching. According to the scriptures, the messiah would rescue the people from the Romans and restore the country.\n How: There are many of ideas about how the messiah will come: Judge, warrior, beggar, academic, Philosopher, healer or a common person.\n\nJesus as the Messiah\nChristianity, which began in Israel with Jewish followers of Jesus (), holds that the Messiah foretold by the Jewish Scriptures is Jesus, and that in fulfillment of prophecy Jesus died for the sins of the world, rose from the dead and lives today, seated at the right hand of God until His return. Most Jews do not hold these beliefs; those who do are sometimes called Messianic Jews.  Some Messianic Jews and other Christians see the fact that a majority of Jews do not hold these beliefs as a fulfillment of prophecy. (see Epistle to the Romans chapter 10)\n\nMuslims believe that Jesus was the son of Mary, that he was a mighty prophet of God and that he was the Messiah (though, in Islam, the Messiah has a different role than he does in Christianity or Judaism). They believe that he will come again one day in his Second Coming to fight besides the Mahdi against the Dajjal (\"false messiah\").\n\nReferences\n\nChristology\nIslamic theology\nJudaism\nJesus","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":105,"dup_dump_count":69,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":6832,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Messiah","title":"Messiah","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The Chevrolet Corvette is a line of American two-door, two-seater luxury sports cars, manufactured and marketed by GM, under the Chevrolet marque, since 1953.\n\nOver the course of eight generations, indicated sequentially as C1 to C8, the Corvette is noted for its performance, distinctive styling, lightweight fiberglass or composite bodywork, and competitive pricing. Since the cessation of Ford and Chrysler's competitors, the Corvette is the only two-seat sports car produced by a major United States auto manufacturer and serves as Chevrolet's halo car.\n\nSince its introduction in 1953, the two-seater has steadily moved upmarket. Originally a relatively modest, lightweight 6cylinder convertible, subsequent introductions of V8 engines, competitive chassis innovations, and rear mid-engined layout have positioned the Corvette in the supercar class. The first three Corvette generations (1953-1983) employed body-on-frame construction, and since the C4 generation, introduced in 1983 as an early 1984 model, Corvettes have used GM's unibody Ybody platform. All Corvettes used front mid-engine configuration for seven generations, through 2019, and transitioned to a rear mid-engined layout with the current C8 generation.\n\nIn 1953, GM executives accepted a suggestion by Myron Scott, then the assistant director of the Public Relations department, to name the company's new sports car after the corvette, a small maneuverable warship. The first model, a convertible, was introduced at the 1953 GM Motorama as a concept car; production models went on sale later that year. In 1963, the second generation was introduced in coupe and convertible styles. Originally manufactured in Flint, Michigan, and St. Louis, Missouri, the Corvette has been produced in Bowling Green, Kentucky, since 1981, which is also the location of the National Corvette Museum.\n\nThe Corvette has become widely known as \"America's Sports Car.\" Automotive News wrote that after being featured in the early 1960s television show Route 66, \"the Corvette became synonymous with freedom and adventure,\" ultimately becoming both \"the most successful concept car in history and the most popular sports car in history.\"\n\nHistory\n\nFirst generation (C1; 1953\u20131962) \n\nThe first generation of Corvette was introduced late in the 1953 model year, appearing as a show car for the 1953 General Motors Motorama, January 17\u201323 at New York's Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. At the time, Chevrolet general manager Thomas H. Keating said it was six months to a year away from production readiness. The car generated sufficient interest for mass production to begin on June 30, 1953.\n\nUniquely, the original Corvette used fiberglass bodywork, its reinforcement placed by hand. This generation was often referred to as the \"solid-axle\" models, with independent rear suspension appearing in the next. Three hundred hand-built Corvette convertibles were produced, all Polo White, for the 1953 model year.\n\nThe 1954 model year vehicles could be ordered in Pennant Blue, Sportsman Red, Black, or Polo White; 3,640 were manufactured.\n\nThe 1953, 1954, and 1955 model years were the only Corvettes equipped with a  version of the second-generation Blue Flame inline-six rated at .\n \nThe 1955 model offered a  V8 engine as an option. With the new V8, the  time improved by 3 seconds. With a large inventory of unsold 1954 models, GM limited production to 700 for 1955. Despite the poor sales of the Corvette at the time, the V8 was an overwhelmingly popular option \u2014 maybe six cars were produced with the inline-six.\n\nThree new competitors, the Ford Thunderbird, the Studebaker Speedster, and the larger Chrysler C-300 were introduced that same year.\n\nA new body was introduced for the 1956 model featuring a revised front end and side coves; the taillamp fins were deleted. An optional \"Ramjet\" fuel injection system was made available midway for model year 1957. It was one of the first American mass-produced engines in history to reach  and Chevrolet's advertising agency used a \"one hp per cubic inch\" slogan for advertising the   Small-Block engine. Other options included power windows (1956), hydraulically assisted convertible top (1956), heavy-duty brakes and suspension (1957), and four-speed manual transmission (late 1957). Delco Radio transistorized signal-seeking \"hybrid\" car radio, which used both vacuum tubes and transistors in its radio's circuitry (1956 option).\n\nThe 1958 Corvette received a body and interior revisions including a longer front end with quad headlamps, bumper exiting exhaust tips, revised steering wheel, and a dashboard with all gauges mounted directly in front of the driver. For 1958 only were 1958 hood louvers and twin trunk spears. The 1959\u201360 model years had few changes except a decreased amount of body chrome and more powerful engine offerings.\n\nIn 1961, the rear of the car was completely redesigned with the addition of a tapered tail with four round lights. The light treatment would continue for all following model year Corvettes until 2014. In 1962, the Chevrolet  Small-Block was enlarged to . In standard form it was rated at . For an extra 12% over list price, the fuel-injected version produced , making it the fastest of the C1 generation. 1962 was also the last year for the wraparound windshield, solid rear axle, and convertible-only body style. The trunk lid and exposed headlamps did not reappear for many decades.\n\nSecond generation (C2; 1963\u20131967) \n\nThe second generation (C2) Corvette, which introduced Sting Ray to the model, continued with fiberglass body panels, and overall, was smaller than the first generation. The car was designed by Larry Shinoda with major inspiration from a previous concept design called the \"Q Corvette,\" which was created by Peter Brock and Chuck Pohlmann under the styling direction of Bill Mitchell. Earlier, Mitchell had sponsored a car known as the \"Mitchell Sting Ray\" in 1959 because Chevrolet no longer participated in factory racing. This vehicle had the largest effect on the styling of this generation, although it had no top and did not give away what the final version of the C2 would look like. The third inspiration was a mako shark Mitchell had caught while deep-sea fishing.\n\nProduction started for the 1963 model year and ended in 1967. Introducing a new name, \"Sting Ray\", the 1963 model was the first year for a Corvette coup\u00e9 and it featured a distinctive tapering rear deck (a feature that later reappeared on the 1971 \"Boattail\" Buick Riviera) with, for 1963 only, a split rear window. The Sting Ray featured hidden headlamps, non-functional hood vents, and an independent rear suspension. Corvette chief engineer Zora Arkus-Duntov never liked the split rear window because it blocked rear vision, but Mitchell thought it to be a key part of the entire design. Maximum power for 1963 was  and was raised to  in 1964. Options included electronic ignition, the breakerless magnetic pulse-triggered Delcotronic first offered on some 1963 Pontiac models. On 1964 models the decorative hood vents were eliminated and Duntov, the Corvette's chief engineer, got his way with the split rear window changed to a full-width window.\n\nFour-wheel disc brakes were introduced in 1965, as was a \"big block\" engine option: the  V8. Side exhaust pipes were also optionally available in 1965, and continued to be offered through 1967. The introduction of the   big block in 1965 spelled the beginning of the end for the Rochester fuel injection system. The  option cost  while the fuel injected  engine cost . Few could justify spending  more for  less, even though FI could deliver over 20 mpg on the highway and would keep delivering fuel despite high G-loading in corners taken at racing speeds. Another 1963 and 1964 option was the Z06 competition package, which offered stiffer suspension, bigger, multi-segment lined brakes with finned drums, and more. Only a couple hundred coupes and a single convertible were factory-equipped this way in 1963. With only 771 fuel-injected cars built in 1965, Chevrolet discontinued the option at the end of the 1965 production, having introduced a less-expensive big block 396 engine rated at 425\u00a0hp in the middle of the production year and selling over 2,000 in just a few months. For 1966, Chevrolet introduced an even larger  Big Block version. Other options available on the C2 included the Wonderbar auto-tuning AM radio, AM-FM radio (mid-1963), air conditioning (late-1963), a telescopic steering wheel (1965), and headrests (1966). The Sting Ray's independent rear suspension was successfully adapted for the new-for-1965 Chevrolet Corvair, which solved the quirky handling problems of that unique rear-engine compact.\n\n1967 was the final model year for the second generation. The 1967 model featured restyled fender vents, less ornamentation, and backup lamps - which were on the inboard in 1966 - were now rectangular and centrally located. The first use of all four taillights in red started in 1961 and was continued thru the C2 line-up except for 1966. This feature returned for the 1967 model year and then continued on all Corvettes since. The 1967 model year had the first L88 engine option that was rated at , but unofficial estimates place the output at  or more. Only twenty such engines were installed at the factory. From 1967 through 1969, the Holley triple two-barrel carburetor, or Tri-Power, was available on the 427 L89 (a $368 option, on top of the cost for the high-performance 427). Despite these changes, sales slipped more than 15%, to 22,940 (8,504 coupes, off close to 15%, and 14,436 convertibles, down nearly 19%).\n\nDuntov came up with a lightweight version of the C2 in 1962. Concerned about Ford and what they were doing with the Shelby Cobra, GM planned to manufacture 100 to 125 Grand Sport Corvettes, but only five were actually built. They were driven by historic drivers such as Roger Penske, A. J. Foyt, Jim Hall, and Dick Guldstrand among others. Today the five cars (001-005) are all held by private owners, and are among the most coveted and valuable Corvettes ever built. 002 is exhibited in the Simeone Foundation Automotive Museum and is in running condition.\n\nThird generation (C3; 1968\u20131982) \n\nThe third-generation Corvette, patterned after the Mako Shark II concept car, was introduced for the 1968 model year and was in production until 1982. C3 coupes featured the first use of T-top removable roof panels. It introduced monikers that were later revived, such as LT-1, ZR-1, Z07, and Collector Edition. In 1978, Corvette's 25th anniversary was celebrated with a two-tone Silver Anniversary Edition and an Indy Pace Car replica edition of the C3. This was also the first time that a Corvette was used as a Pace Car for the Indianapolis 500.\n\nEngines and chassis components were mostly carried over from the C2, but the body and interior were new. The  engine replaced the old  as the base engine in 1969, but power remained at . 1969 was the only year for a C3 to optionally offer either a factory-installed side exhaust or a normal rear exit with chrome tips. The all-aluminum ZL1 engine was also new for 1969; the special big-block engine was listed at , but was reported to produce  and propelled a ZL1 through the  in 10.89 seconds.\n\nThere was an extended production run for the 1969 model year due to a lengthy labor strike, which meant sales were down on the 1970 models, to 17,316. 1970 small-block power peaked with the optional high compression, high-revving LT-1 that produced . The 427 big-block was enlarged to  with a  rating. The ZR-1 special package was an option available on the 1970 through 1972 model years, and included the LT-1 engine combined with special racing equipment. Only 53 ZR-1's were built.\n\nIn 1971, to accommodate regular low-lead fuel with lower anti-knock properties, the engine compression ratios were lowered which resulted in reduced power ratings. The power rating for the  L48 base engine decreased from 300 to 270 horsepower and the optional special high-performance LT1 engine decreased from 370 to 330 horsepower. The LS5  motor was carried over and produced . Offered in '71 only was the LS6  big-block featuring aluminum heads and delivering , the highest of the 1970-1972 series, and could be ordered with an automatic transmission. For the 1972 model year, GM moved to the SAE Net measurement which resulted in further reduced, but more realistic, power ratings than the previous SAE Gross standard. Although the 1972 model's  horsepower was actually the same as that for the 1971 model year, the lower net horsepower numbers were used instead of gross horsepower. The L48 base engine was now rated at  and the optional LT1 engine was now rated at . 1974 models had the last true dual exhaust system that was dropped on the 1975 models with the introduction of catalytic converters requiring the use of no-lead fuel. Engine power decreased with the base ZQ3 engine producing , the optional L82's output , while the 454 big-block engine was discontinued. Gradual power increases after 1975 peaked in 1980 with the model's optional L82 producing  in its final year. 1981 saw a single engine, the L81, which had  while the fuel-injected 1982 L83 had .\n\nStyling changed subtly throughout the generation until 1978 for the car's 25th anniversary. The Sting Ray nameplate was not used on the 1968 model, but Chevrolet still referred to the Corvette as a Sting Ray; however, 1969 (through 1976) models used the \"Stingray\" name as one word, without the space. In 1970, the body design was updated including fender flares, and interiors were refined, including redesigned seats and indication lights near the gear shift that were an early use of fiber optics. Because of government regulation, the 1973 Corvette's chrome front bumper was changed to a  system with a urethane bumper cover. 1973 Corvettes are unique in that sense, as they are the only year when the front bumper was polyurethane and the rear retained the chrome two-piece bumper set. 1973 was also the last year chrome bumpers were used. The optional wire-spoked wheel covers (left) were offered for the last time in 1973. Only 45 Z07 were built in 1973. From 1974 onwards both the front and rear bumpers were polyurethane.\n\nIn 1974, a  rear bumper system with a two-piece, tapering urethane bumper cover replaced the Kamm-tail and chrome bumper blades, and matched the new front design from the previous year. The 1975 model year ended the convertible body style until it returned 11 years later, and Dave McLellan succeeded Zora Arkus-Duntov as the Corvette's Chief Engineer. For the 1976 models the fiberglass floor was replaced with steel panels to provide protection from the catalytic converter's high operating temperature. For 15 model years the names Corvette, Sting Ray, and Stingray were synonymous. 1977 was the last year the tunneled roof treatment with a vertical back window was used, in addition, leather seats were available at no additional cost for the first time. The black exterior color returned after a six-year absence.\n\nThe 1978 25th Anniversary model introduced the fastback glass rear window and featured a new interior and dashboard. Corvette's 25th anniversary was celebrated with the Indy 500 Pace Car limited edition and a Silver Anniversary model featuring silver over gray lower body paint. All 1979 models featured the previous year's pace car seats and offered the front and rear spoilers as optional equipment. 53,807 were produced for the model year, making 1979 the peak production year for all versions of the Corvette. Sales have trended downward since then. In 1980, the Corvette received an integrated aerodynamic redesign that resulted in a significant reduction in drag. After several years of weight increases, 1980 Corvettes were lighter as engineers trimmed both body and chassis weight. In mid-1981, production relocated from St. Louis, to Bowling Green, Kentucky (where all subsequent Corvette generations have since been manufactured), and several two-tone paint options were offered. The 1981 models were the last available with a manual transmission until well into the 1984 production run. In 1982, a fuel-injected engine returned, and a final C3 tribute Collectors Edition featured an exclusive, opening rear window hatch.\n\nFourth generation (C4; 1984\u20131996) \n\nThe fourth-generation Corvette was the first complete redesign of the Corvette since 1963. Production was to begin for the 1983 model year, but quality issues and part delays resulted in only 43 prototypes for the 1983 model year produced that were never sold. All of the 1983 prototypes were destroyed or serialized as 1984 model year except one with a white exterior, medium blue interior, L83 ,  V8, and 4-speed automatic transmission. After extensive testing and modifications were completed, it was initially retired as a display sitting in an external wall over the Bowling Green Assembly Plant's employee entrance. Later this only surviving 1983 prototype was removed, restored, and is now on display at the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky. It is still owned by GM. On February 12, 2014, it was nearly lost to a sinkhole which opened up under the museum. Eight other Corvettes were severely damaged.\n\nRegular fourth generation production began on January 3, 1983; the 1984 model year and delivery to customers began in March 1983. The 1984 model carried over the  L83 slightly more powerful () \"Crossfire\" V8 engine from the final 1982 third-generation model. New chassis features were aluminum brake calipers and an all-aluminum suspension for weight savings and rigidity. The new one-piece Targa top had no center reinforcement. Retractable headlights continued to be used, but they were now single units, which were last used in 1957. A new electronic dashboard with digital liquid crystal displays for the speedometer and tachometer was standard. Beginning in 1985, the  L98 engine with tuned port fuel injection became the standard engine.\n\nSeptember 1984 through 1988 Corvettes were available with a \"4+3\" transmission designed by Doug Nash - a 4-speed manual coupled to an automatic overdrive on the top three gears. It was devised to help the Corvette meet U.S. fuel economy standards. Since 1981 (when it was last offered), a manual transmission returned to the Corvette starting with production in late 1984. The transmission proved to be problematic and was replaced by a modern ZF 6-speed manual transmission in 1989.\n\nIn 1986, the second Corvette Indy Pace Car was released. It was the first convertible Corvette since 1975. A Center High Mounted Signal Light (CHMSL) \u2013 a third center brake light \u2013 was added in 1986 to comply with safety regulations. While the color of the pace car used in the race was yellow, all 1986 convertibles also had an Indy 500 emblem mounted on the console, making any color a \"pace car edition\". In 1987, the B2K twin-turbo option became available from the factory. The Callaway Corvette was a Regular Production Option (RPO B2K). The B2K option coexisted in 1990 and 1991 with the ZR-1 option, which then replaced it. Early B2Ks produced  and ; later versions boasted  and .\n\n1988 saw the 35th Anniversary Edition of the Corvette. Each of these featured a special badge with an identification number mounted next to the gear selector and was finished with a white exterior, wheels, and interior. In 1990, the ZR1 option Corvette was introduced with the LT5 engine designed by Lotus and built in the Mercury Marine plant in Stillwater, Oklahoma. The LT5 engine was a 4-cam (DOHC) design producing 375\u00a0hp (280\u00a0kW) when at \"open throttle\". The C4 ZR1 ran from 1990 thru 1995 model years. In 1991, all Corvettes received updates to the body, interior, and wheels. The convex rear fascia that set the 1990 ZR-1 apart from the base model was now included on L98 Corvettes, making the styling of the expensive ZR-1 even closer to that of the base cars. The most obvious difference remaining between the base and ZR-1 models besides the wider rear wheels was the location of the CHMSL, which was integrated into the new rear fascia used on the base model, but remained at the top of the rear hatch on the ZR-1's.\n\nFor the 1992 model year, the  LT1 engine was introduced, an increase of  over 1991's L98 engine. This engine featured reverse-flow cooling (the heads were cooled before the block), which allowed for a higher compression ratio of 10.5:1. A new distributor was also debuted. Called \"Optispark\", the distributor was driven directly off the front of the camshaft and mounted in front of the timing cover, just above the crankshaft and harmonic balancer. Also new for 1992 was Acceleration Slip Regulation (ASR), a form of traction control that utilized the Corvette's brakes, spark retard, and throttle close-down to prevent excessive rear wheel spin and possible loss of control. The traction control device could be switched off if desired.\n\nA special 40th Anniversary Edition was released in 1993, which featured a commemorative Ruby Red color, 40th anniversary badges, and embroidered seat backs. The 1993 Corvette also marked the introduction of the Passive Keyless Entry System, making it the first GM car to feature it. Production of the ZR-1 ended in 1995 after 6,939 cars had been built. 1996 was the final year of C4 production, and featured special models and options, including the Grand Sport and Collector Edition, OBD II (On-Board Diagnostics), run-flat tires, and the LT4 engine. The  LT4 V8 was available only with a manual transmission, while all  LT1 Corvettes used automatic transmissions.\n\nChevrolet released the Grand Sport (GS) version in 1996 to mark the end of production of the C4 Corvette. The Grand Sport moniker was a nod to the original Grand Sport model produced in 1963. A total of 1,000 GS Corvettes were produced, 810 as coupes and 190 as convertibles. The 1996 GS came with the high-performance LT4 V8, producing  and . The Grand Sport came only in Admiral Blue with a white stripe down the middle, black wheels, and two red stripes on the front left wheel arch.\n\nFifth generation (C5; 1997\u20132004) \n\nThe C5 Corvette was redesigned from the ground up after sales from the previous generation began to decline. Production of the C5 Corvette began in 1996 but quality\/manufacturing issues saw its public release delayed until 1997.  C5 production continued through the 2004 model year. The C5 was a completely new design featuring new concepts and manufacturing innovations, subsequently carried forward to the C6 & C7. With a top speed of , the C5 was noted by the automotive press as an advance, with improved dynamics in nearly every area over the C4. Innovations included a 0.29 drag coefficient, a notably lower weight with near 50\/50 weight distribution, and active handling (the first stability control for a Corvette).\n\nAn all-new LS1 aluminum engine (Gen III small block) featured individual ignition coils for each cylinder, and aluminum block and pistons. It was initially rated at  and , but was increased to  in the 2001 edition. The new engine, combined with the new body, was able to achieve up to 28 mpg on the highway.\n\nFor its first year, the C5 was available only as a coupe, though the new platform was designed from the ground up to be a convertible, introduced for model year 1998. A fixed-roof coupe (FRC) followed in 1999. One concept for the FRC was for it to be a stripped-down model with a possible V6 engine (nicknamed in-house as the \"Billy Bob\"). By 2000, FRC plans laid the groundwork for the return in 2001 of the Z06, an RPO option not seen since Zora's 1963 race-ready Corvette.\n\nThe Z06 model replaced the FRC model as the highest-performance C5 Corvette. Instead of a heavier double-overhead cam engine like the ZR-1 of the C4 generation, the Z06 used an LS6, a  derivative of the standard LS1 engine. Using the much more rigid fixed roof design allowed the Z06 unprecedented handling thanks to upgraded brakes and less body flex. Those characteristics, along with the use of materials such as a titanium exhaust system and a carbon fiber hood in the 2004 model year, led to further weight savings and performance gains for the C5 Z06. The LS6 was later upgraded to  for 2002\u20132004. Although the Z06's rated power output is equal to that of the C4 ZR-1, the improved rigidity, suspension, brakes, and reduced weight of the C5 produced a car quicker than C4 ZR-1.\n\nSixth generation (C6; 2005\u20132013) \n\nFor the C6 Corvette GM wanted to focus more on refining the C5 than trying to redesign it. Car & Driver, and Motor Trend, described the C6 as an \"evolution of the C5, instead of a complete redo\". The C6 wheelbase was increased while body overhangs were decreased when compared to the C5. Retractable headlights were replaced with fixed units, making this the first model since 1962 to be so equipped. The C6 brought a new and improved interior compared to the C5. As a result of the upgraded interior, the C6 had a slight increase in passenger hip room. It also sported an updated LS1\/LS6 engine now called the LS2. This engine was primarily an LS1\/LS6 with a bump in displacement from 5.7L to 6.0 liters. The increased displacement of the 6.0 bumped the LS2's horsepower up by 50 HP over its LS1 progenitor, although still 5 HP less than the upgraded LS6 engine found in the previous C5 Z06. Thus the LS2 was now at 364 cu in, and it produced  at 6000\u00a0rpm and  at 4400\u00a0rpm, giving the vehicle a  time of under 4.2 seconds. Its top speed was . The C6 was the first Corvette generation to receive a badge engineered variant, when Cadillac introduced its hard-top convertible XLR in 2003.\n\nThe C6 generation did not match the previous generation's relatively good fuel economy, despite its relatively low 0.28 drag coefficient and low curb weight, achieving 16\/26 mpg (city\/highway) equipped with automatic or manual transmissions; like all manual transmission Corvettes since 1989, it is fitted with Computer Aided Gear Selection (CAGS) to improve fuel economy by requiring drivers to shift from 1st gear directly to 4th in low-speed\/low-throttle conditions. This feature helps the C6 avoid the Gas Guzzler Tax by achieving better fuel economy.\n\nThe new Z06 arrived as a 2006 model in the third quarter of 2005. It has a 7.0\u00a0L version of the small block engine codenamed LS7. At 427.6 cubic inches, the Z06 was the largest small block ever offered by General Motors. Because of the Corvette's former use of 427 cubic-inch big blocks in the late-1960s and early 1970s, the LS7's size was rounded down to 427 cubic inches. Official output was  and has a  time of 3.7 seconds. Top speed is . Another first for a Corvette, the Z06 featured a full aluminum chassis. The frame mirrored the C5\/6 architecture, but substituted aluminum hydroformed rails and aluminum extrusions and castings fore and aft. This dropped weight from 419 to 287 pounds while improving chassis stiffness.\n\nFor 2008, the Corvette received a mild freshening: a new LS3 engine with displacement increased to , resulting in  and  ( and  if ordered with the optional performance exhaust). The 6-speed manual transmission also has improved shift linkage and a  time of 4.0 seconds, while the automatic is set up for quicker shifts giving the C6 automatic a  time of 4.0 seconds, quicker than any other production automatic Corvette. The interior was slightly updated and a new 4LT leather-wrap interior package was added. The wheels were also updated to a new five-spoke design.\n\nThe ZR1 was formally announced in a December 2007 press statement by General Motors, where it was revealed that their target of  per  had been reached by a new \"LS9\" engine with an Eaton-supercharged 6.2-liter engine producing  and . The LS9 engine was the most powerful to be put into a GM production sports car. Its top speed was .\n\nThe historical name Grand Sport returned to the Corvette lineup in 2010 as an entirely new model series that replaced the Z51 option. The new model was an LS3 equipped Z06 with a steel frame instead of aluminum. It retained many of the features of the Z06 including a wide body with 18x9.5 and 19x12 inch wheels, dry-sump oiling (manual transmission coupes only), 6-piston 14-inch front brakes and 4-piston rear, and improved suspension. Manual transmission-equipped G\/S coupe models received a tweaked LS3 with a forged crank, are built in Z06 fashion by hand, and utilize a dry-sump oil system. The first three gears were also made shorter for better throttle response and faster acceleration. A new launch control system was introduced for all models that allow for sub-4-second 0\u201360. EPA is estimated at 26 MPG highway, 1.0 G on skid pad.\n\nBeginning with the 2011 model year, buyers of the Corvette Z06 and ZR1 were offered the opportunity to assist in the build of their engines. Titled the \"Corvette Engine Build Experience,\" buyers paid extra to be flown to the Wixom, Michigan Performance Build Center. Participants helped the assembly line workers build the V8 engine, then took delivery of the car at the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, KY, near the Corvette final assembly point.\n\nThe last C6 Corvette was manufactured in February 2013. In May 2013, a federal investigation of problems with more than 100,000 C6 lighting systems was announced.\n\nSeventh generation (C7; 2014\u20132019) \n\nDevelopment for the seventh generation Corvette started in 2007. Originally set to be introduced for the 2011 model year, its introduction was delayed for three years. It was finally released for the 2014 model year. Mid-engine and rear-engine layouts had been considered, but the front-engine, rear-wheel drive (RWD) platform was chosen to keep production costs lower.\n\nTo GM's product planners and marketers, the fact that the Corvette had become known as an \"old man's toy\" became a prime factor in developing the next generation. Studies showed that about 46 percent of Corvette buyers in 2012, through October, were 55 or older, compared with 22 percent of Audi R8 and 30 percent of Porsche 911 customers. The head of Chevy marketing, Chris Perry, acknowledges that too many people saw it as the car of \"the successful plumber.\" John Fitzpatrick, Corvette's marketing manager said \"It's the old saying, 'Nobody wants to be seen driving an old man's car, but everybody wants to be seen driving a young man's car.' \" To counter that perception GM planned to make the new generation C7 more aspirational to younger people. Towards that end, a camouflaged version of the car was made available in the popular video game Gran Turismo 5 in November 2012. As part of the marketing effort associated with the introduction of the new generation, the 2013 Indianapolis 500 utilized a Corvette for the 12th time as its pace car.\n\nGM's profit on sales is separate from the profits made by the individual dealerships selling the cars to the public.\n\nThe 2014 Chevrolet Corvette includes an LT1 6.2 L V8 (376 cu in) making  or  with the optional performance exhaust. The LT1 engine (the \"LT1\" designation was first used by GM in 1970 and then later in 1992.) is in the Gen V family of small block engines, which will be used in GM vehicles as the new small V8 option. It features three advanced technologies to the new LT1 V8 engine: direct injection, variable valve timing, and an active fuel management system. Fuel injectors are located under the intake manifold. The Corvette remains rear-wheel drive with the transaxle located in the rear. Transmission choices include a 7-speed manual or a 6-speed (2014) \/ 8-speed (2015-) automatic with paddle shifters. The new interior includes wide-bottom seats as standard, with sportier versions with high side bolsters optional. The Corvette's flag logo has been revised for the new car and a small casting of a stingray has been added to the car's ornamentation.\n\nFeatures of the new generation's structure include a carbon fiber hood and removable roof panel. The fenders, doors, and rear quarter panels remain composite. At the rear of the car, the trademark round taillights have changed to a more squarish form. The underbody panels are made of \"carbon-nano\" composite and it makes use of a new aluminum frame that locates the four wheels an inch farther apart, front to rear and side to side. Luggage space decreased by 33% from the previous generation's. The overall weight of the car was not announced by General Motors for many months after its first showing in January 2013. Despite the increased use of aluminum and other light weight materials, numerous publications reported that the weight would remain essentially unchanged from that of the previous generation's. In August 2013, the weight of the new Corvette was reported to be , meaning it would weigh more than the previous generation's C6 ZR1 model (). The ZR1 C6 weight included a supercharger and intercooler on its 6.2L engine.\n\nChevrolet announced the C7 Z06 at the 2014 Detroit Auto Show. The 2015 Z06 Corvette has 650\u00a0hp from the supercharged LT4 aluminum 6.2 L V8 engine.\n\nThe new generation Corvette resurrected the \"Stingray\" name. Originally spelled \"Sting Ray\" on 1963 through 1967 models and \"Stingray\" from 1969 until 1976.\n\nFor the 2015 model, Chevrolet began offering a transaxle version of the 8L90 8-speed automatic to replace the previous 6-speed 6L80.\n\nFor the 2017 model year Chevrolet once again introduced the Grand Sport (GS) model. This model includes Z06 wide-body styling features and suspension tuning along with the Z51 dry sump LT1 engine configuration. Grand Sport models were available in 10 exterior colors and could have the optional Heritage Package which included hash-mark fender graphics (available in six colors. As part of the introduction of the Grand Sport in Geneva, Switzerland, Chevrolet also announced a 2017 Chevrolet Corvette Grand Sport Collector Edition that was to be limited to 1,000 vehicles in total with 850 for the US Market. Final production numbers show 784 Coupes and 151 Convertibles were built; 935 total.\n\nThe $4,995 Z25 Option Package was a cosmetic upgrade that contained the following: blue fender hash-marks, two-tone blue leather seating surfaces with a logo on the seat headrest, blue leather stitching, serialized edition numbered dash plaque, and carpeted floor mats with logo,\n\nFor the 2019 model year, the ZR1 variant returned. This model features a new LT5 engine. The long block of the LT5 is the same as the LT4, but the supercharger displacement was increased from 1.7 liters to 2.65 liters. The C7 ZR1 power output is 755 horsepower.\n\nThe last C7 Corvette (also making it the last front-engined Corvette), a black Z06, was auctioned off on June 28, 2019, for $2.7 million (~$ in ) at the Barrett-Jackson Northeast auction. The auction benefited the Stephen Siller Tunnel to Towers Foundation, which helps pay off mortgages for the families of first responders that were killed in the line of duty and builds \"mortgage-free, accessible smart homes\" for injured service members.\n\nEighth generation (C8; 2020\u2013present) \n\nThe 2020 Corvette model, both coupe and convertible configurations of the base-model Stingray made their debut within a three-month gap. The coupe made its debut on July 18, 2019, with three launch colors, red (with the Z51 Package), white, and blue, while the convertible made its debut on October 2 at the Kennedy Space Center, along with the C8.R race car, which took part at the 2020 Daytona 24 Hours.\n\nThe Corvette C8 was the first production Corvette to have a rear mid-engine configuration. It was also GM's first rear mid-engine production car since the 1984 Pontiac Fiero. The base engine was a 6.2 liter naturally aspirated V8 (called the LT2), which generates  and  of torque when equipped with either the performance exhaust package or Z51 performance package. The C8 was the first Corvette to be offered without a traditional manual transmission, while the convertible was the first Corvette with a retractable hardtop.\n\nIn January 2020 the car became the most expensive charity vehicle that week at the Barrett-Jackson auction, selling for $3 million (~$ in ). The proceeds of the sale went to the Detroit Children's Fund.\n\nThe LT2 saw fuel management system upgrades for the 2022 model year which featured a new fuel pump and injectors. The base price was also increased by $1200. A new IMSA GTLM Championship Edition package, limited to 1000 units, was introduced for 2022.\n\nThe Corvette C8 Z06 debuted in the 2023 model year. It features a , 5.5 liter, naturally aspirated DOHC flat-plane crank V8. This engine, the LT6, is the most powerful naturally aspirated production V8 engine. The Z06 is redlined at 8600 RPM and feature the same dual-clutch transmission as the Stingray, albeit with gearing changes specific to the performance of this model.\n\nThe Corvette C8 E-Ray was unveiled on January 17, 2023, as a 2024 model year vehicle. It is the first production Corvette to include front wheel drive electric motor components. The Hybrid powertrain features a combined  generated from a 6.2L LT2 V8, coupled with an e-motor powering the front wheels.\n\nAwards \nOver the years, the Corvette has won awards from automobile publications as well as organizations such as the Society of Automotive Engineers.\n Automobile Magazine ranked the 1963\u20131967 Sting Ray first on their \"100 Coolest Cars\" list, above the Dodge Viper GTS, the Porsche 911, and others. In 2013, Automobile Magazine selected the Corvette C7 as its \"Automobile of the Year\".\n Sports Car International placed the Corvette at number 5 on their list of the \"Top Sports Cars of the 1960s\".\n Hot Rod magazine in its March 1986 issue selected the 1973\u201374 Corvette LS6 454 as one of the \"10 most collectable muscle cars\" in the company of 1968\u201370 Chevelle, 1970 'Cuda, 1970 Challenger, 1966\u201367 Fairlane, 1968\u201370 AMX, 1970 Camaro Z28, 1968\u201370 GTO, 1968\u201369 Charger, and 1967\u201368 Mustang.\n Car and Driver readers selected the Corvette \"Best all around car\" nine out of eleven years in Car and Driver's Reader's Choice Polls including 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, and 1975.\n Car and Driver magazine selected the Corvette for its annual Ten Best list sixteen times: the C4 from 1985 through 1989, the C5 in 1998, 1999, and 2002 through 2004, the C6 from 2005 through 2009, and the C7 in 2014.\n Motor Trend magazine named the Corvette Car of the Year in 1984, 1998, and 2020.\n Society of Automotive Engineers publication Automotive Engineering International selected the 1999 Corvette Convertible, (along with the Mercedes-Benz S500) \"Best Engineered Car of the 20th century\".\n The 2005 Corvette was nominated for the North American Car of the Year award and was named \"Most Coveted Vehicle\" in the 2006 Canadian Car of the Year contest.\n U.S. News & World Report selected the 2010 Corvette the \"Best Luxury Sports Car for the Money\".\n Edmunds.com, in its \"100 Best Cars Of All Time\" list, ranked the 1963 Corvette Stingray as the 16th best car ever produced worldwide. The 1990 ZR1 took #50, the 1955 Corvette V8 took #72, and the 2009 ZR1 took #78 overall.\n The 2014 Corvette was nominated for the North American Car of the Year award.\n Motor Trend awarded the C8 Z06 the 2023 Performance Vehicle of the Year award.\n\nNASA Corvettes \n\nAstronaut Alan Shepard, a long-time Corvette owner, was invited by then GM Chief Engineer Zora Arkus-Duntov to drive pre-production Corvette models. General Motors executives later gave Shepard a 1972 model with a Bill Mitchell interior. Jim Rathmann, a Melbourne, Florida Chevrolet dealer and winner of the 1960 Indy 500, befriended astronauts Shepard, Gus Grissom, and Gordon Cooper. Rathmann convinced GM President Ed Cole to set up a program that supplied each astronaut with a pair of new cars each year. Most chose a family car for their wives and a Corvette for themselves. In his memoir Last Man On The Moon, Gene Cernan describes how this worked. The astronauts received brand-new Corvettes, which they were given the option to purchase at a \"used\" price after they'd been driven 3000 miles. Alan Bean recalls Corvettes lined up in the parking lot outside the astronaut offices at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, and friendly races between Shepard and Grissom along the Florida beach roads and on beaches as local police turned a blind eye. Shepard, Grissom and Cooper even pulled each other on skis in the shallow water. The Mercury and later astronauts were unofficially tied to the Corvette and appeared in official photographs with their cars and with mock-ups of space vehicles such as the Apollo Lunar Module or Lunar Roving Vehicle. Cooper talked of the races along Cocoa Beach in his eulogy of Shepard at the Johnson Space Center in 1998.\n\nConcept cars \nCorvette concept cars have inspired the designs of several generations of Corvettes. The first Corvette, Harley Earl's 1953 EX-122 Corvette prototype was itself, a concept show car, first shown to the public at the 1953 GM Motorama at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City on January 17, 1953. It was brought to production in six months with only minor changes.\n\nHarley Earl's successor, Bill Mitchell was the man behind most of the Corvette concepts of the 1960s and 1970s. The second-generation (C2) of 1963 was his, and its design first appeared on the Stingray Racer of 1959. It made its public debut at Maryland's Marlborough Raceway on April 18, 1959, powered by a  V8 with experimental 11:1 compression aluminum cylinder heads and took fourth place. The concept car was raced through 1960 having only \"Sting Ray\" badges before it was put on the auto-show circuit in 1961.\n\nIn 1961 the XP-755 Mako Shark show car was designed by Larry Shinoda as a concept for future Corvettes. In keeping with the name, the streamlining, pointed snout, and other detailing was partly inspired by the look of that very fast fish. The 1961 Corvette tail was given two additional tail lights (six total) for the concept car. The body inspired the 1963 production Sting Ray.\n\nIn 1965 Mitchell removed the original concept body and redesigned it as the Mako Shark II. Chevrolet actually created two of them, only one of which was fully functional. The original Mako Shark was then retroactively called the Mako Shark I. The Mako Shark II debuted in 1965 as a show car and this concept influenced Mitchell's redesigned Corvette of 1968.\n\nThe Aerovette has a mid-engine configuration using a transverse mounting of its V8 engine. Zora Arkus-Duntov's engineers originally built two XP-882s during 1969. John DeLorean, Chevy general manager, ordered one for display at the 1970 New York Auto Show. In 1972, DeLorean authorized further work on the XP-882. A near-identical body in aluminum alloy was constructed and became the XP-895 \"Reynolds Aluminum Car.\" Duntov and Mitchell responded with two Chevrolet Vega (stillborn) Wankel 2-rotor engines joined as a 4-rotor  engine which was used to power the XP-895. It was first shown in late 1973. The 4-rotor show car was outfitted with a  small-block V8 in 1977 and rechristened Aerovette. GM chairman Thomas Murphy approved the Aerovette for 1980 production, but Mitchell's retirement that year, combined with then Corvette chief engineer Dave McLellan's lack of enthusiasm for the mid-engine design and slow-selling data on mid-engined cars kept it from going into production.\n\nA Corvette Stingray Anniversary concept car was unveiled at the 2009 Detroit Auto Show, fifty years after the Sting Ray racer-concept of 1959. The vehicle was based on a combination of the 1963 Sting Ray and the 1968 Stingray. The new Stingray concept appears in the 2009 movie Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, as the vehicle mode of the character Sideswipe. A convertible\/speedster version was used for the same character in the 2011 sequel, Transformers: Dark of the Moon.\n\nProduction \nProduction statistics from when the first-generation of Corvettes was released in 1953 until the present.\n\nOwner demographics \nAccording to research by Specialty Equipment Market Association and Experian Automotive, as of 2009, there were approximately 750,000 Corvettes of all model years registered in the United States. Corvette owners were fairly equally distributed throughout the country, with the highest density in Michigan (3.47 per 1000 residents) and the lowest density in Utah, Mississippi, and Hawaii (1.66, 1.63, and 1.53 registrations per 1000 residents). 47% of them hold college degrees (significantly above the nationwide average of 27%), and 82% are between the ages of 40 and 69 (median age being 53).\n\nRacing\n\nC1 \n\nIn 1960, three C-1 Corvettes were race modified and entered in the 24 Hours of Le Mans by team owner Briggs Cunningham and were numbered #1, #2, and #3 cars in the race. The numbered #3 car was driven by John Fitch and Bob Grossman and it had finished the race in eighth place overall, but it had won the big-bore GT class.\n\nC5-R \n\nThe Chevrolet Corvette C5-R is a grand touring racing car built by Pratt & Miller and General Motors for competition in endurance racing. The car is based on the C5 generation of the Chevrolet Corvette sports car, yet is designed purely for motorsports use. It became one of the most dominant cars in GT categories, with wins at the 24 Hours of Daytona, 12 Hours of Sebring, and 24 Hours of Le Mans, as well as championships in the American Le Mans Series. The Corvette C5-Rs debuted in 1999 and continues to be raced to this day, although the C5-R has effectively been replaced by the Corvette C6.R.\n\nC6.R \n\nC6.R GT1 (Z06)\nIn 2005, the factory Corvette Team began racing the C6.R to coincide with the new sixth-generation (C6) Corvette being released to the public. Private teams, primarily in Europe, continued to race the C5-R for a couple of years before switching to the C6.R. Corvette C6.R went on to win its class at every race it entered in the 2005 ALMS season. By the end of 2009, Corvette had clinched four consecutive ALMS GT1 team and manufacturers titles (2005\u20132008) and three Le Mans 24 Hour class victories in the LMGT1 category (2005, 2006, 2009). 2007 and 2008 races were won by the factory Aston Martin squad's DBR9. The last official race for factory GT1 Corvettes was the 2009 24 Hours of Le Mans.\n\nC6.R GT2 (ZR1)\nWhile some privateers continued to use the GT1 version of the C6.R in Europe, the official factory team Corvette Racing switched from the slowly dying GT1 category to the much more competitive and popular GT2 class in mid-2009. The new GT2 C6.R used a modified version of the ZR1 model body but does not have the ZR1 supercharged engine. GT2 rules are based more on production vehicles, therefore the GT2 C6.R naturally aspirated engine was considerably more restricted and less powerful than its predecessor. The car debuted at Mid-Ohio's ALMS round. They achieved one ALMS race victory in the remaining 2009 ALMS season, and one victory at the final round of the 2010 ALMS season, Petit Le Mans. Corvette Racing's two GT2 C6.Rs also led most of the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans, but both cars were forced to retire. Racing in the new GTE Pro class, the C6.R raced in the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans with the No.\u00a073 car taking the class victory. The No.\u00a074 car led the class for most of the race but crashed in the morning hours. The C6.R raced by Larbre Competition also took the GTE Am class victory. In 2012, Corvette Racing returned to glory in the ALMS winning 4 of 10 races and claiming the Driver's, Team, and Manufacturer's Championships. Corvette Racing repeated the feat in 2013 by winning 5 of 10 races and claiming the Driver's, Team, and Manufacturer's Championships again.\n\nC7.R \n\nIN 2014, Corvette Racing introduced the new C7.R to coincide with the launch of the seventh-generation C7 Corvette. The car made its track debut at the 2013 Rolex Motorsports Reunion and later participated in the 2014 Roar Before the Rolex 24 to prepare for the 2014 United SportsCar Championship. The car's new livery debuted at the 2014 North American International Auto Show. In 2015, the Corvette Racing C7.R took class victories at both the 24 Hours of Daytona and the 24 Hours of Le Mans.\n\nC8.R \n\nIn October 2019, at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, the C8.R made its surprise debut during the world premiere of the C8 Convertible. Two cars took part in the 2020 Rolex 24 at Daytona International Speedway. The cars placed 4th and 7th in the GTLM Class. For the 2022 model year, Chevrolet offered a C8.R inspired IMSA GTLM Special Edition package for the production Corvette Stingray.\n\nIndianapolis 500 pace cars \n\nThe Indianapolis 500 race has used a Corvette as its pace car 18 times. The 2008 running of the Indy 500 represented a record fifth-consecutive year to lead the field until 2009 when the Chevrolet Camaro SS was selected. The Corvette's pace car years and details include:\n 1978 \u2013 Driven by 1960 race winner Jim Rathmann; Chevrolet produced 6,502 production replicas.\n 1986 \u2013 Driven by famed pilot Chuck Yeager; all 7,315 production convertibles were considered pace car convertibles and included official graphics (to be installed at the owner's discretion).\n 1995 \u2013 Driven by then-Chevrolet General Manager Jim Perkins; 527 production replicas were produced.\n 1998 \u2013 Driven by 1963 race winner Parnelli Jones after an injury prevented golfer Greg Norman from performing the duty; 1,158 replicas were produced.\n 2002 \u2013 Driven by actor Jim Caviezel; no replicas were produced, but graphics were available by special order. About 300 sets sold.\n 2004 \u2013 Driven by actor Morgan Freeman; no production replicas produced.\n 2005 \u2013 Driven by General Colin Powell; no production replicas produced.\n 2006 \u2013 Driven by cycling champion Lance Armstrong; first Corvette Z06 pace car; no production replicas produced.\n 2007 \u2013 Driven by actor Patrick Dempsey; 500 production replicas \u2013 all convertibles.\n 2008 \u2013 Driven by race winner Emerson Fittipaldi; 500 production replicas \u2013 coupes and convertibles.\n 2012 \u2013 Driven by television presenter Guy Fieri; first Corvette C6 ZR1 pace car; no production replicas produced.\n 2013 \u2013 Driven by former Indianapolis Colts football player Jim Harbaugh; first year of production for the C7 generation.\n 2015 \u2013 Driven by Brickyard 400 winner Jeff Gordon; first Chevrolet Corvette C7 Z06 pace car\n 2017 \u2013 Driven by actor Jeffrey Dean Morgan; 2017 Grand Sport Convertible\n 2018 - Driven by Indiana Pacers basketball player Victor Oladipo. Chevrolet Corvette C7 ZR1; no production replicas produced.\n 2019 - Driven by former NASCAR driver and NBC Sports broadcaster Dale Earnhardt Jr. Last year of production for C7 generation; no production replicas produced.\n 2020 - Driven by GM President Mark Reuss. 2020 Corvette C8 Stingray Torch Red Coupe. No replicas were produced.\n 2021 - Driven by former IndyCar driver Danica Patrick. 2021 Corvette C8 Stingray Arctic White Hardtop.\n 2022 - Driven by former IndyCar driver Sarah Fisher. 2023 Corvette C8 Z06 70th Anniversary Edition Z06.\n 2023 - Driven by Indiana Pacers basketball player Tyrese Haliburton. 2023 Corvette C8 Z06 Hardtop.\n\nSee also \n Chevrolet Engineering Research Vehicle\n Kaiser Darrin, prototype in 1952, 435 built for the 1954 model year\n Nash-Healey, 1951\u20131954\n National Corvette Museum\n VH1 Corvette Give-away Sweepstakes (also known as the \"VH1 Collection\", 36 Corvettes, one for each model year, 1953\u20131989)\n CorvetteForum, the largest Corvette enthusiasts' club in the world\n\nReferences \n\n Nichols, Richard. Corvette: 1953 to the Present. London: Bison Books, 1985. .\n\nFurther media \n Videos\n\nExternal links \n\n \n \n\n \n1950s cars\n1960s cars\n1970s cars\n1980s cars\n1990s cars\n2000s cars\n2010s cars\n2020s cars\nBowling Green, Kentucky\nCorvette\nCoup\u00e9s\nMotor vehicles manufactured in the United States\nRear-wheel-drive vehicles\nRoadsters\nHatchbacks\nCars introduced in 1953\nFlagship vehicles\nFront mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive vehicles\nRear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive vehicles","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":303,"dup_dump_count":28,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":9,"2023-14":11,"2023-06":19,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":33,"2022-33":7,"2022-27":7,"2022-21":21,"2022-05":6,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":20,"2021-39":4,"2021-31":25,"2021-25":5,"2021-21":11,"2021-17":17,"2021-10":11,"2021-04":15,"2020-50":10,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":15,"2020-34":17,"2020-29":7,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":23,"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1}},"id":221005,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chevrolet%20Corvette","title":"Chevrolet Corvette","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Squamata (\"scaled reptiles\") is the order of reptiles which includes lizards and snakes, and the Amphisbaenia. \n\nTheir skins have overlapping horny scales. They also have movable quadrate bones, which make it possible to move the upper jaw relative to the braincase. This is particularly visible in snakes, which are able to open their mouths very wide to accommodate comparatively large prey. \n\nThey are the most variably-sized order of reptiles, ranging from the 16\u00a0mm (0.63 in.) Dwarf gecko (Sphaerodactylus ariasae) to the 8\u00a0m (26\u00a0ft.) Green Anaconda (Eunectes murinus).\n\nThis is the only living reptile group which has both viviparous and ovoviviparous species, as well as the usual oviparous (egg-laying) reptiles.\n\nThe Squamata does not include the Tuataras from New Zealand. They are a sister group to the squamates. The Crocodilia are much more distantly related.\n\nEvolution \nSquamates are a monophyletic group that is a sister group to the tuatara. The squamates and tuatara together are a sister group to crocodiles and birds, the living archosaurs. \n\nSquamate fossils first appear in the early Jurassic, but a mitochondrial phylogeny suggests that they evolved in the late Permian. The evolutionary relationships within the squamates are not yet completely worked out, with the relationship of snakes to other groups being most problematic. \n\nFrom morphological data, Iguanid lizards have been thought to have diverged from other squamates very early, but recent molecular phylogenies, both from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, do not support this early divergence. Because snakes have a faster molecular clock than other squamates, and there are few early snake and snake ancestor fossils, it is difficult to resolve the relationship between snakes and other squamate groups.\n\nEvolution of venom \nRecent research suggests that the evolutionary origin of venom lies deep in the squamate phylogeny. 60% of squamates are venomous Toxicofera.  \n\nVenom in the families Caenophidia, Anguimorpha, and Iguania evolved once, then the three families diverged. All three lineages share nine common toxins. The fossil record shows that the divergence between anguimorphs, iguanians, and advanced snakes dates back roughly 200 MYA to the Upper Triassic\/Lower Jurassic.\n\nSnake venom evolved by the duplication of a gene encoding for a normal regulatory or bioactivity protein. Then the copy was expressed in the venom gland. \n\nDifferent toxins have been recruited from different proteins and are diverse as the functions themselves. \n\nNatural selection has driven the diversification of the toxins to counter the defences of the prey. Venom genes form large multigene families, and evolve by protein evolution. This leads to a diversification of toxins that let sit-and-wait predators attack a wide range of prey. \n\nThe rapid evolution and diversification is the result of a prey\/predator evolutionary arms race where each adapts to counter the other.\n\nTaxonomy \nClassically, the order is divided into three suborders:\n\n Lacertilia, the lizards;\n Serpentes, the snakes;\n Amphisbaenia, the worm lizards.\n\nOf these, the lizards form a paraphyletic group.  In newer classifications the name Sauria is used for reptiles and birds in general, and the Squamata are divided differently:\n\n Suborder Iguania (the iguanas and chameleons)\n Suborder Scleroglossa\n Infraorder Gekkota (the geckos)\n Infraorder Anguimorpha (the monitors, Gila monster, and slow-worms)\n Infraorder Scincomorpha (skinks, whiptail lizards and common European lizards)\n Suborder Serpentes (the snakes)\n Infraorder Alethinophidia (vipers, boas, cobras, etc.)\n Infraorder Scolecophidia (blind snakes)\n Suborder Amphisbaenia\n\nReferences","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":101,"dup_dump_count":68,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"unknown":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":3,"2013-48":1}},"id":76390,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Squamata","title":"Squamata","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Slipknot is an American heavy metal band from Des Moines, Iowa. Slipknot has nine members in the band. The current band members are Sid Wilson, Jim Root, Shawn Crahan, Mick Thomson, Corey Taylor, Alessandro, Zac Baird and Jay Weinberg. The first bassist from Slipknot, Paul Gray, died from an accidental drug overdose in 2010. Also, Joey Jordison was forced to leave the band in 2013. He died on July 26, 2021. All of the band members wear masks. Percussionist Chris Fehn also left the band due to suing bandmates Shawn Crahan and Corey Taylor for keeping money from him. The band has sold almost 15 million records worldwide.\n\nCareer \nIn September 1995 a band was formed called The Pale Ones. The band had Shawn Crahan on drums, Paul Gray on bass, Anders Colsefini on vocals and Donnie Steele on guitar. Later Joey Jordison joined and became drummer, Crahan became a Percussionist. The band also hired guitarist Josh Brainard and moved Colsefini to percussion and vocals. The band performed their first concert on December 4, 1995, then they were called Meld. Joey Jordison suggested naming the band Slipknot, after a song they had made. The band started wearing masks because Shawn Crahan wore a clown mask and to get better into the music.\nIn February Steele left the band because of religious beliefs. Craig Jones was hired as a replacement. Jones later became their full-time sampler. They hired Mick Thomson as a replacement guitarist. On October 31, 1996, Slipknot released their first demo Mate.Feed.Kill.Repeat.\n\nThe band realized that their new songs needed more vocal melody, so they hired Corey Taylor. Colsefini became just a percussionist. At a show Colsefini announced that he was leaving the band. He was replaced by Greg Welts but he was fired from the band because he was lazy. Chris Fehn was hired as percussionist. In 1997 the band gave themselves numbers and wore coveralls while performing.\n\nIn 1998 DJ Sid Wilson joined after impressing the band. In 1999 Brainard decided to leave the band for personal reasons. Jim Root was his replacement. This left the band with the line-up they kept until 2010.\n\nThey became better known after giving some labels a five-song demo. They signed to Roadrunner records in summer 1998. They released their first album, named after the band (self titled) one year after signing to Roadrunner. The album had two singles (songs released separately from the album, but is still on the album). They went on tour and played at the Ozzfest. This made their fan base bigger. In early 2000, the album was certified platinum (selling 1,000,000 copies).\n\nTheir fans were waiting impatiently for a second release (Iowa), and recording started early 2001 in California. Band members argued over how long to go on live shows and recording times. Even so, they went ahead and released the album, and toured for it. The album had three singles, one of them appearing in a movie (Resident Evil). They sold all the seats in large arenas due to the large fan base. In 2002, the band took a break, and some members remade or started new bands and projects.\n\nWith delays of recording another album (Vol. 3: The Subliminal Verses), the band went back to California for recording. When early 2004 came around, the album was finished and touring began. The album was released in May. The album had six singles. From the tour, the band created a live album (an album made up of live versions of songs). Some band members were in the Roadrunner United: The All-Stars Sessions, a mix album of artists signed to Roadrunner. In 2006 the band won their only Grammy Award for their song \"Before I Forget.\" The band took another break, with various members going to other projects and bands.\n\nThe fourth album (All Hope is Gone) was started in late 2007, but recording began in early 2008. The album was done in early summer 2008. The album had five singles. 2009 was 10 years since the release of their first album, so the first album was re-released as a special version. The tour for All Hope is Gone ended on Halloween night, 2009, and ended a third break for the band. Members went back to other projects and bands with singer Corey Taylor creating the band Junk Beer Kidnap Band. On May 24, 2010, bass player Paul Gray died. Investigation showed a drug overdose killed him. Band members hesitated, or to have another thought about, speaking about the future of the band. Drummer Joey Jordison said another record was 'kinda already in the making.' Corey Taylor, however, said that he didn't know whether or not to continue with Slipknot.\n\nFormer member Donnie Steele will do Paul Gray's part while the band is playing live shows. Taylor told NME that he wants to continue, as it is what Paul would want. The band will complete and release a fifth album, but Taylor doesn't see recording soon. Jordison said that the band will go on without Taylor if he is to leave the band.\n\nIn 2013 Joey Jordison left the band. The band made and brought out a new album in 2014 called \".5: The Gray Chapter\". Donnie Steele played the bass on some songs on the album, but did not want to fully rejoin, so a new bass player and drummer were brought in to replace Steele and Jordison. The band would not say at first who the new members were, though their names were soon discovered to be Alessandro Venturella (bass player) and Jay Weinberg (drummer). In 2019, Percussionist Chris Fehn had left the band, filing a lawsuit against the band over issues surrounding pay and compensation. He was replaced in tours by who was known only as the \"Tortilla Man\". He would later officially join the band in 2021, with him being revealed as Michael Pfaff. On June 7th, 2023, Slipknot, on their social media pages, had announced that Craig Jones, the keyboardist and sampler, has \"parted ways with Slipknot\" with seemingly no information as to why he had left. The post was removed a few hours later. On that very day, they released a post on Instagram that seems to have revealed his replacement, who at the time, is unknown.\n\nBand members \n\nCurrent\nAlessandro venturella \n\n (#0) Sid Wilson \u2013 turntables (1998\u2013present)\n (#4) Jim Root \u2013 guitars (1999\u2013present)\n\n (#6) Shawn \"Clown\" Crahan \u2013 custom percussion, backing vocals (1995\u2013present)\n (#7) Mick Thomson \u2013 guitars (1996\u2013present)\n (#8) Corey Taylor \u2013 lead vocals (1997\u2013present)\n\nFormer\n Donnie Steele \u2013 guitars (1995\u20131996)\n Anders Colsefini \u2013 vocals, custom percussion (1995\u20131997)\n Greg \"Cuddles\" Welts \u2013 custom percussion (1997)\n Josh Brainard \u2013 guitars, backing vocals (1995\u20131999)\n (#3) Chris Fehn \u2013 custom percussion, backing vocals (1997\u20132019)\n (#2) Paul Gray \u2013 bass, backing vocals (1995\u20132010)\n (#1) Joey Jordison \u2013 drums (1995\u20132013)\n (#5) Craig \"133\" Jones \u2013 samples, media (1996\u20132023)\n\nDiscography\nStudio albums\n Slipknot (1999)\n Iowa (2001)\n Vol. 3: (The Subliminal Verses) (2004)\n All Hope Is Gone (2008)\n .5: The Gray Chapter (2014)\n We Are Not Your Kind (2019)\n The End, So Far (2022)\n\nStyle\nAmong the main influences of the band can be named to Black Sabbath, Pantera, Metallica, Slayer, Sepultura, Iron Maiden, Carcass, Judas Priest, Korn, AC\/DC, Kiss, Beastie Boys and Mushroomhead. Thrash metal has been mentioned several times as a great influence to define them, together with nu metal. Slipknot uses three types of guitars (main, rhythm and bass), two percussionists in addition to drums, and electronics (samplers and turntables). The band's sound has been described as \"a threshing machine devouring a military drum corps.\"\n\nIn their early work, the vocals vary widely, from clean singing, to raps, to screaming. Their most recent works include more melodic vocals, and raps have left. The words are almost always very aggressive, characterized by darkness, nihilism, anger, hatred, love, misanthropy and psychosis. Rick Anderson of Allmusic said the lyrics to Slipknot are \"not generally quotable on a family website.\"\n\nPaul Gray said about their style: \"The only word I hate is 'nu metal,' we have death metal, thrash metal, grindcore, is a bit of everything, you know?\"\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites\n\n Official website \n\n1995 establishments in the United States\n\n1990s American music groups\n2000s American music groups\n2010s American music groups\nAmerican heavy metal bands\nAmerican rap music groups\nDes Moines, Iowa\nGrammy Award winners\nMusical groups established in 1995\n\nNu metal bands\nRoadrunner Records","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":135,"dup_dump_count":72,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-10":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":5,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":3,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":4,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":4,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":4,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":4,"2016-26":2,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":4,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":4,"2015-27":4,"2015-22":4,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":1}},"id":57269,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Slipknot","title":"Slipknot","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Computers can display information and let the user give commands to it using two methods: a command line interface (CLI) or a graphical user interface (GUI).\n\nIn a command line interface, the user types commands using the keyboard to tell the computer to take an action. For example, the more command available in most operating systems will display the contents of a file. Sometimes people call CLI \"Console\", but consoles can be GUI, too.\n\nIn many graphical user interfaces, the user can use the computer mouse to click on buttons. For example, your web browser may have a Print icon to print this page. Some use a touch screen or other method.\n\nGraphical user interfaces are generally thought more easy to use than command lines. Command lines are faster than graphical user interfaces and can be used to give special commands to the computer.\n\nList of operating systems with graphical user interfaces and command-line interfaces:\n\nMicrosoft Windows\nMac OS\nLinux\n\nComputing","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":209,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":5,"2022-49":3,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":3,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":6,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":7,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":7,"2020-24":6,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":5,"2019-51":6,"2019-43":6,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":4,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":3,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":2,"2018-43":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":3,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2017-13":3,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":4}},"id":36726,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphical%20user%20interfaces%20and%20consoles","title":"Graphical user interfaces and consoles","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"\u00c9douard Manet (pronounced edwa\u0281 man\u025b in French), 23 January 1832 \u2013 30 April 1883, was a French Impressionist painter. He was one of the first painters of the 19th century to paint subjects of everyday life in the modern world. This made him very important for modern painting, especially for the change from Realism to Impressionism. \n\nSome of his paintings were very controversial. The paintings Lunch on the Grass and Olympia were a starting-point for a group of young painters to develop what would later be called Impressionism.\n\nLife\n\nTraining \n\u00c9douard Manet was born in Paris on 23 January 1832, to a wealthy family. As he grew up, his uncle encouraged him to paint and draw, but his father wanted him to join the navy. Eventually he was allowed to be trained as a painter. Manet worked from 1850 to 1856 in the studio of the academic painter Thomas Couture a painter of large historical paintings. In his spare time he copied the old masters in the Louvre. \n\nWhile he was a student he visited Germany, Ano, and the Netherlands, looking at the paintings of Renaissance and Baroque masters such as Frans Hals, and Spanish painters such as Diego Vel\u00e1zquez and Goya. \n\nIn 1856, Manet opened his own studio. Culo of the best known French painters of that time was Gustave Courbet who painted in a style known as Realism. Courbet, in his pictures, tried to show the life of the poor working people of the farms and villages. Manet began to paint beggars, singers and people in cafes. His style was not like Courbet's because he used large brushstrokes without much detail. Courbet's paintings were dark and somber because he painted all his canvases brown before he put the figures in. Manet's paintings were brighter and lighter, with lots of white paint and often small parts painted in bright blue and red\n\nIn 1863 Manet married Suzanne Leenhoff, who had been employed by his father to teach piano to Manet and his younger brother Eugene. Suzanne had an eleven year old son, Leon Koella Leenhoff who often posed as a model for Manet's paintings.\n\nImpressionism \n\nEvery year the academy in Paris would hold a big exhibition (art show) called the Salon de Paris. In 1863 Manet put a picture into the show called Lunch on the Grass (\"Le d\u00e9jeuner sur l'herbe\").  The judges at the Salon refused to hang this work in the gallery because it showed a naked woman sitting on the grass with two men wearing clothes. If the painting had been about Ancient Greek mythology, this would not be a problem but these men were wearing ordinary suits, and the woman's dress and hat were lying on the grass. Perhaps she was a prostitute. The judges said that the painting was indecent (very rude). \n\nAt this time there were a group of young artists who mainly painted landscapes. They were Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley, Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Bazille, Camille Pissarro, Paul C\u00e9zanne, and Armand Guillaumin. Monet and his friends also had their paintings turned away. They were angry and they met with Manet to discuss this. The Emperor Napoleon III gave permission for another exhibition called the Salon des Refuses which showed all the pictures that had been \"refused\". Many people went to see this exhibition and soon discovered that there was a new \"movement\" in art, quite different from the style that they were used to. \n\nIn 1874 thirty Impressionist artists held their first exhibition. The main artists who are called \"Impressionists\" include Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir, Paul C\u00e9zanne, Camille Pissarro, Alfred Sisley, Edgar Degas and Berthe Morisot. Manet became friendly with Berthe Morisot, who later married his brother Eugene Manet. Manet encouraged Morisot with her painting. Morisot, in turn, encouraged Manet to paint outdoors, in the way that Monet and the other Impressionist painters did. Monet painted some landscapes, seascapes and city scenes in the Impressionist style. However, most of his paintings are \"figurative\" (they are pictures of people). \n\nManet's paintings usually show people going about their ordinary lives. They show people at home and at work, or out and enjoying themselves. One painting is very different. It is a terrible scene showing the execution of the Emperor Maximillian of Mexico by a firing squad. \n\nManet died of syphilis in Paris at the age of 51. He is buried in the Passy Cemetery in the city.\n\nGallery\n\nRelated pages \n List of French painters\n\nReferences \n\n1832 births\n1883 deaths\nArtists from Paris\nInfectious disease deaths in France\nDeaths from syphilis\nFrench painters","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":139,"dup_dump_count":87,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-22":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":2,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":1,"2021-25":4,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":5,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":184370,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%89douard%20Manet","title":"\u00c9douard Manet","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Euro is the currency of the countries in the eurozone. One euro is divided into 100 cent (officially) (singular) or \"cents\" (unofficially).\n\nBecause of the number of different languages in the European Union, there are different, unofficial, names for this unit (the French call them \"centimes\" and the Spanish \"c\u00e9ntimos\", for example).\n\nIt was created in 1999, but until 1 January 2002 it was used only for electronic payments. In 2002, 12 countries of the European Union (EU) took their state currencies out of circulation and adopted euro notes and coins as their only money. There was a change-over period, called the \"transition period\", when both the old national money and the euro were accepted, but by 28 February 2002, all 12 countries were using just euros.\n\nIn 2006, Slovenia became the 13th country to use the euro. In 2008 Cyprus and Malta became the 14th and 15th countries to use the euro. In 2009, Slovakia became the 16th country to use the euro. In 2011, Estonia became the 17th country to use the euro. In 2014, Latvia became the 18th country and in 2015, Lithuania became the 19th country to use the euro. In 2023, Croatia became the 20th country to use the euro.\n\nThere are seven different banknotes, each one with a different colour, size and face value: \u20ac5 (grey), \u20ac10 (red), \u20ac20 (blue), \u20ac50 (orange), \u20ac100 (green), \u20ac200 (yellow), \u20ac500 (purple).\n\nCoins are of eight different amounts: \u20ac0.01, \u20ac0.02, \u20ac0.05, \u20ac0.10, \u20ac0.20, \u20ac0.50, \u20ac1 and \u20ac2.\n\nOn every banknote, there is a picture of a different European building style. All banknotes are the same throughout the entire eurozone; there are no different designs for different countries, unlike the euro coins. One side of each coin is the same in all euro countries. The other side is different since each country who mints the coins inserts a symbol relating to that country. Today there are many different sets of coins. Any of the coins can be used everywhere throughout the eurozone despite the country-specific symbol on the back.\n\nThe ten new European countries that entered the European Union in May 2004 are planning to adopt the Euro also. First they must meet some conditions to show that they have stable economies.\n\nSymbol \n\nThe symbol for the euro is the Greek letter epsilon (E) with two horizontal lines: \u20ac.\n\nSome people see it as the Latin capital letter C with an equal sign (=).\n\nIt is also legal to simply write euro. This is especially useful when the symbol cannot be produced, or the result is not satisfactory.\n\nMembers of the eurozone are:\n Austria\n Belgium\n Croatia\n Cyprus\n Estonia\n Finland\n France\n Germany\n Greece\n Ireland\n Italy\n Latvia\n Lithuania\n Luxembourg\n Malta\n The Netherlands\n Portugal\n Slovakia\n Slovenia\n Spain\nThese countries form the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU).\n\nEven though they are not part of the EU, the euro is also the currency used in:\n Andorra 1)\n Monaco 1)\n San Marino 1)\n Vatican City 1)\n Kosovo 2)\n Montenegro 2)\n 1) this countries print own mints\n 2) this countries use the euro unofficial\n\nMany other countries' currencies are \"pegged\" (tied) to, although not exactly equal to, the euro:\n Cape Verdean escudo\n Comoros franc\n Central African CFA franc\n West African CFA franc\n France's Pacific territories CFP Franc\n Bosnia-Herzegovinan convertible mark\n Bulgarian lev\n Hungary forint\n Denmark krone\n\nOther websites \n Euro Coins and Notes\n The EURO banknotes - pictures and history\n\nReferences\n\nCurrency of Europe\nEuropean Union","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":157,"dup_dump_count":85,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":2,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":3,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":3,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":2139,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Euro","title":"Euro","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Winfield Scott Hancock (February 14, 1824 \u2013 February 9, 1886) was a United States Army officer and the Democratic nominee for President of the United States in 1880. He served with distinction in the Army for four decades, including service in the Mexican\u2013American War and as a Union general in the American Civil War. Known to his Army colleagues as \"Hancock the Superb,\" he was noted in particular for his personal leadership at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. His military service continued after the Civil War, as Hancock participated in the military Reconstruction of the South and the U.S.' ethnic cleansing of Native Americans at the Western frontier. This concluded with the Medicine Lodge Treaty. From 1881 to 1885 he was president of the Aztec Club of 1847 for veteran officers of the Mexican-American War.\n\nHancock's reputation as a war hero at Gettysburg, combined with his status as a Unionist and supporter of states' rights, made him a potential presidential candidate. When the Democrats nominated him for President in 1880, he ran a strong campaign, but was narrowly defeated by Republican James A. Garfield. Hancock's last public service involved the oversight of President Ulysses S. Grant's funeral procession in 1885.\n\nEarly life and family\n\nWinfield Scott Hancock and his identical twin brother Hilary Baker Hancock were born on February 14, 1824, in Montgomery Square, Pennsylvania, a hamlet just northwest of Philadelphia in present-day Montgomery Township. The twins were the sons of Benjamin Franklin Hancock and Elizabeth Hoxworth Hancock. Winfield was named after Winfield Scott, a prominent general in the War of 1812.\n\nThe Hancock and Hoxworth families had lived in Montgomery County for several generations, and were of English, Scottish, and Welsh descent. Benjamin Hancock was a schoolteacher when his sons were born. A few years after their birth, he moved the family to Norristown, the county seat, and began to practice law. Benjamin was also a deacon in the Baptist church and participated in municipal government (as an avowed Democrat).\n\nHancock was at first educated at Norristown Academy, but removed to the public schools when the first one opened in Norristown in the late 1830s. In 1840, Joseph Fornance, the local Congressman, nominated Hancock to the United States Military Academy at West Point. Hancock's progress at West Point was average. He graduated 18th in his class of 25 in 1844, and he was assigned to the infantry.\n\nEarly military career\n\nMexican War\nHancock was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 6th U.S. Infantry regiment, and initially was stationed in Indian Territory in the Red River Valley. The region was quiet at the time, and Hancock's time there was uneventful. Upon the outbreak of war with Mexico in 1846, Hancock worked to secure himself a place at the front. Initially assigned to recruiting duties in Kentucky, he proved so adept at signing up soldiers that his superiors were reluctant to release him from his post. By July 1847, however, Hancock was permitted to join his regiment in Puebla, Mexico, where they made up a part of the army led by his namesake, General Winfield Scott.\n\nScott's army moved farther inland from Puebla unopposed and attacked Mexico City from the south. During that campaign in 1847, Hancock first encountered battle at Contreras and Churubusco. He was appointed a brevet first lieutenant for gallant and meritorious service in those actions. Hancock was wounded in the knee at Churubusco and developed a fever. Although he was well enough to join his regiment at Molino del Rey, fever kept Hancock from participating in the final breakthrough to Mexico City, something he would regret for the rest of his life. After the final victory, Hancock remained in Mexico with the 6th Infantry until the treaty of peace was signed in 1848.\n\nMarriage and peacetime\nHancock served in a number of assignments as an army quartermaster and adjutant, mostly in Fort Snelling, Minnesota, and St. Louis, Missouri. It was in St. Louis that he met Almira (\"Allie\") Russell and they married on January 24, 1850. Allie gave birth to two children, Russell in 1850 and Ada in 1857, but both children died before their parents. Hancock was promoted to captain in 1855 and assigned to Fort Myers, Florida. Hancock's young family accompanied him to his new posting, where Allie Hancock was the only woman on the post.\n\nHancock's tour in Florida coincided with the end of the Third Seminole War. His duties were primarily those of a quartermaster, and he did not see action in that campaign. As the situation in Florida began to settle down, Hancock was reassigned to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. He served in the West during the partisan warfare of \"Bleeding Kansas\", and in the Utah Territory, where the 6th Infantry arrived after the Utah War. Following the resolution of that conflict, Hancock was stationed in southern California in November 1858. He remained there, joined by Allie and the children, until the Civil War broke out in 1861, serving as a captain and assistant quartermaster under future Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston. In California, Hancock became friendly with a number of southern officers, most significantly Lewis A. Armistead of Virginia. At the outbreak of the Civil War, Armistead and the other southerners left to join the Confederate States Army, while Hancock remained in the service of the United States. When Armistead left, he turned to Hancock and said, \"You'll never know what this is costing me, but goodbye, goodbye.\"\n\nCivil War\n\nJoining the Army of the Potomac\n\nHancock returned east to assume quartermaster duties for the rapidly growing Union Army, but was quickly promoted to brigadier general on September 23, 1861, and given an infantry brigade to command in the division of Brig. Gen. William F. \"Baldy\" Smith, Army of the Potomac. He earned his \"Superb\" nickname in the Peninsula Campaign, in 1862, by leading a critical counterattack in the Battle of Williamsburg; army commander Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan telegraphed to Washington that \"Hancock was superb today\" and the appellation stuck. McClellan did not follow through on Hancock's initiative, however, and Confederate forces were allowed to withdraw unmolested.\n\nIn the Battle of Antietam, Hancock assumed command of the 1st Division, II Corps, following the mortal wounding of Maj. Gen. Israel B. Richardson in the horrific fighting at \"Bloody Lane\". Hancock and his staff made a dramatic entrance to the battlefield, galloping between his troops and the enemy, parallel to the Sunken Road. His men assumed that Hancock would order counterattacks against the exhausted Confederates, but he carried orders from McClellan to hold his position. He was promoted to major general of volunteers on November 29, 1862. He led his division in the disastrous attack on Marye's Heights in the Battle of Fredericksburg the following month and was wounded in the abdomen. At the Battle of Chancellorsville, his division covered Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker's withdrawal and Hancock was wounded again. His corps commander, Maj. Gen. Darius N. Couch, transferred out of the Army of the Potomac in protest of actions Hooker took in the battle and Hancock assumed command of II Corps, which he would lead until shortly before the war's end.\n\nGettysburg\n\nHancock's most famous service was as a new corps commander at the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1 to 3, 1863. After his friend, Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds, was killed early on July 1, Maj. Gen. George G. Meade, the new commander of the Army of the Potomac, sent Hancock ahead to take command of the units on the field and assess the situation. Hancock thus was in temporary command of the \"left wing\" of the army, consisting of the I, II, III, and XI Corps. This demonstrated Meade's high confidence in him, because Hancock was not the most senior Union officer at Gettysburg at the time. Hancock and the more senior XI Corps commander, Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard, argued briefly about this command arrangement, but Hancock prevailed and he organized the Union defenses on Cemetery Hill as more numerous Confederate forces drove the I and XI Corps back through the town. He had the authority from Meade to withdraw, so he was responsible for the decision to stand and fight at Gettysburg. At the conclusion of the day's action, Maj. Gen. Henry Warner Slocum arrived on the field and assumed command until Gen. Meade arrived after midnight.\n\nOn July 2, Hancock's II Corps was positioned on Cemetery Ridge, roughly in the center of the Union line, while Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee launched assaults on both ends of the line. On the Union left, Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's assault smashed the III Corps and Hancock sent in his 1st Division, under Brig. Gen. John C. Caldwell, to reinforce the Union in the Wheatfield. As Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill's corps continued the attack toward the Union center, Hancock rallied the defenses and rushed units to the critical spots. First, he sent the 3rd Brigade of the 3rd Division, under Col. George Willard, into the fray to stop the advance of Confederate Brigadier General William Barksdale's Brigade. In one famous incident, he sacrificed a regiment, the 1st Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Regiment, by ordering it to advance and charge a Confederate brigade four times its size, causing the Minnesotans to suffer 87% casualties. While costly, this sacrifice bought time to organize the defensive line and saved the day for the Union Army. Following the action toward his right, he sent the 13th Vermont Volunteer Infantry Regiment of the 1st Corps, which had come from Cemetery Hill to help quell the crisis, to recover some artillery pieces the Confederates had captured and were pulling away. The Vermonters were successful. Having stabilized his line, he turned his attention to the sound of fighting on East Cemetery Hill. There, with darkness falling, Confederates from Maj. Gen. Jubal Early's Division had gotten into Union batteries and were fighting the cannoneers hand-to-hand. Hancock sent the First Brigade of his Third Division, under Colonel Samuel S. Carroll, to the fighting. The brigade was crucial in flushing the enemy out of the batteries and dispatching them back down the face of East Cemetery Hill.\n\nOn July 3, Hancock defended his position on Cemetery Ridge and thus bore the brunt of Pickett's Charge. During the massive Confederate artillery bombardment that preceded the infantry assault, Hancock was prominent on horseback, reviewing and encouraging his troops. When one of his subordinates protested, \"General, the corps commander ought not to risk his life that way,\" Hancock is said to have replied, \"There are times when a corps commander's life does not count.\" During the infantry assault, his old friend, Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Armistead, now leading a brigade in Maj. Gen. George Pickett's division, was wounded and died two days later. Hancock could not meet with his friend because he had just been wounded himself, a severe wound caused by a bullet striking the pommel of his saddle, entering his inner right thigh along with wood fragments and a large bent nail. Helped from his horse by aides, and with a tourniquet applied to stanch the bleeding, he removed the saddle nail himself and, mistaking its source, remarked wryly, \"They must be hard up for ammunition when they throw such shot as that.\" News of Armistead's mortal wounding was brought to Hancock by a member of his staff, Capt. Henry H. Bingham. Despite his pain, Hancock refused evacuation to the rear until the battle was resolved. He had been an inspiration for his troops throughout the three-day battle. Hancock later received the thanks of the U.S. Congress for \"...\u00a0his gallant, meritorious and conspicuous share in that great and decisive victory.\"\n\nOne military historian wrote, \"No other Union general at Gettysburg dominated men by the sheer force of their presence more completely than Hancock.\" As another wrote, \"his tactical skill had won him the quick admiration of adversaries who had come to know him as the 'Thunderbolt of the Army of the Potomac'.\"\n\nVirginia and the end of the war\n\nHancock suffered from the effects of his Gettysburg wound for the rest of the war. After recuperating in Norristown, he performed recruiting services over the winter and returned in the spring to field command of the II Corps for Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's 1864 Overland Campaign, but he never regained full mobility and his former youthful energy. Nevertheless, he performed well at the Battle of the Wilderness and commanded a critical breakthrough assault of the Mule Shoe at the \"Bloody Angle\" in the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House on May 12, shattering the Confederate defenders in his front, including the Stonewall Brigade. His corps suffered enormous losses during a futile assault Grant ordered at Cold Harbor.\n\nAfter Grant's army slipped past Lee's army to cross the James River, Hancock found himself in a position from which he might have ended the war. His corps arrived to support William Farrar Smith's assaults on the lightly held Petersburg defensive lines, but he deferred to Smith's advice because Smith knew the ground and had been on the field all day, and no significant assaults were made before the Confederate lines were reinforced. One of the great opportunities of the war was lost. After his corps participated in the assaults at Deep Bottom, Hancock was promoted to brigadier general in the regular army, effective August 12, 1864.\n\nHancock's only significant military defeat occurred during the siege of Petersburg. His II Corps moved south of the city, along the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad, tearing up track. On August 25, Confederate Maj. Gen. Henry Heth attacked and overran the faulty Union position at Reams's Station, shattering the II Corps, capturing many prisoners. Despite a later victory at Hatcher's Run, the humiliation of Reams's Station contributed, along with the lingering effects of his Gettysburg wound, to his decision to give up field command in November. He left the II Corps after a year in which it had suffered over 40,000 casualties, but had achieved significant military victories. His next assignment was to command the ceremonial First Veteran Corps. He performed more recruiting, commanded the Middle Department, and relieved Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan in command of forces in the now-quiet Shenandoah Valley. He was promoted to brevet major general in the regular army for his service at Spotsylvania, effective March 13, 1865.\n\nPost-war military service\n\nExecution of Lincoln assassination conspirators\n\nAt the close of the war, Hancock was assigned to supervise the execution of the conspirators in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln had been assassinated on April 14, 1865, and by May 9 of that year, a military commission had been convened to try the accused. The actual assassin, John Wilkes Booth, was already dead, but the trial of his co-conspirators proceeded quickly, resulting in convictions. President Andrew Johnson ordered the executions to be carried out on July 7. Although he was reluctant to execute some of the less-culpable conspirators, especially Mary Surratt, Hancock carried out his orders, later writing that \"every soldier was bound to act as I did under similar circumstances.\"\n\nService on the Plains\nAfter the executions, Hancock was assigned command of the newly organized Middle Military Department, headquartered in Baltimore. In 1866, on Grant's recommendation, Hancock was promoted to major general and was transferred, later that year, to command of the military Department of the Missouri, which included the states of Missouri and Kansas and the territories of Colorado and New Mexico. Hancock reported to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and took up his new posting. \n\nSoon after arriving, he was assigned by General Sherman to lead an expedition to negotiate with the Cheyenne and Sioux, with whom relations had worsened since the Sand Creek massacre. The negotiations got off to a bad start, and after Hancock ordered the burning of an abandoned Cheyenne village in central Kansas, relations became worse than when the expedition had started.\n\nThe official report to the President by the Indian Peace Commission found that the actions of George Custer and other subordinates just after Hancock's arrival led to an instigation of violent reprisals by the Native Americans:\n\nReconstruction\n\nHancock's time in the West was brief. President Johnson, unhappy with the way Republican generals were governing the South under Reconstruction, sought replacements for them. The general who offended Johnson the most was Philip Sheridan, and Johnson soon ordered General Grant to switch the assignments of Hancock and Sheridan, believing that Hancock, a Democrat, would govern in a style more to Johnson's liking. Although neither man was pleased with the change, Sheridan reported to Fort Leavenworth and Hancock to New Orleans.\n\nHancock's new assignment found him in charge of the Fifth Military District, covering Texas and Louisiana. Almost immediately upon arriving, Hancock ingratiated himself with the secessionist white population by issuing his General Order Number 40 of November 29, 1867. In that order, written while traveling to New Orleans, Hancock expressed sentiments in support of President Johnson's policies, writing that if the residents of the district conducted themselves peacefully and the civilian officials perform their duties, then \"the military power should cease to lead, and the civil administration resume its natural and rightful dominion.\" The order continued:\n\nHancock's order encouraged white Democrats across the South who hoped to return to civilian government more quickly, but discomforted blacks and Republicans in the South who feared a return to the antebellum ways of traditional white dominance.\n\nHancock's General Order Number 40 was quickly condemned by Republicans in Washington, especially by the Radicals, while President Johnson wholeheartedly approved. Heedless of the situation in Washington, Hancock soon put his words into action, refusing local Republican politicians' requests to use his power to overturn elections and court verdicts, while also letting it be known that open insurrection would be suppressed. Hancock's popularity within the Democratic party grew to the extent that he was considered a potential presidential nominee for that party in the 1868 election. Although Hancock collected a significant number of delegates at the 1868 convention, his presidential possibilities went unfulfilled. Even so, he was henceforth identified as a rare breed in politics: one who believed in the Democratic Party's principles of states' rights and limited government, but whose anti-secessionist sentiment was unimpeachable.\n\nReturn to the Plains\nFollowing General Grant's 1868 presidential victory, the Republicans were firmly in charge in Washington. As a result, Hancock found himself transferred, this time away from the sensitive assignment of reconstructing the South and into the relative backwater that was the Department of Dakota. The Department covered Minnesota, Montana, and the Dakotas. As in his previous Western command, Hancock began with a conference of the Indian chiefs, but this time was more successful in establishing a peaceful intent. Relations worsened in 1870, however, as an army expedition committed a massacre against the Blackfeet. Relations with the Sioux also became contentious as a result of white encroachment into the Black Hills, in violation of the Treaty of Fort Laramie.\n\nIt was during this tour that Hancock had the opportunity to contribute to the creation of Yellowstone National Park. In August 1870, he ordered the 2nd Cavalry at Fort Ellis to provide a military escort for General Henry D. Washburn's planned exploration of the Yellowstone Region.  The expedition, which was a major impetus in creating the park, became known as the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition. Hancock's order led to the assignment of Lt. Gustavus Cheyney Doane and a troop of 5 cavalrymen from Fort Ellis to escort the expedition.  In 1871, Captain John W. Barlow during his exploration of the Yellowstone region formally named a summit on what would become the southern boundary of the park Mount Hancock to honor the general's decision to provide the escort.\n\nCommand in the East and political ambitions\nIn 1872, General Meade died, leaving Hancock the army's senior major general. This entitled him to a more prominent command, and President Grant, still desirous to keep Hancock from a Southern post, assigned him command of the Division of the Atlantic, headquartered at Fort Columbus on Governors Island, in New York City. The vast department covered the settled northeast area of the country and was militarily uneventful with the exception of the army's involvement in the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. When railroad workers went on strike to protest wage cuts, the nation's transportation system was paralyzed. The governors of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Maryland asked President Hayes to call in federal troops to re-open the railways. Once federal troops entered the cities, most of the strikers melted away, but there were some violent clashes.\n\nAll the while Hancock was posted in New York, he did his best to keep his political ambitions alive. He received some votes at the Democrats' 1876 convention, but was never a serious contender as New York governor Samuel J. Tilden swept the field on the second ballot. The Republican candidate, Rutherford B. Hayes, won the election, and Hancock refocused his ambition on 1880. The electoral crisis of 1876 and the subsequent end to Reconstruction in 1877 convinced many observers that the election of 1880 would give the Democrats their best chance at victory in a generation.\n\nElection of 1880\n\nDemocratic convention\nHancock's name had been proposed several times for the Democratic nomination for president, but he never captured a majority of delegates. In 1880, however, Hancock's chances improved. President Hayes had promised not to run for a second term, and the previous Democratic nominee, Tilden, declined to run again due to poor health. Hancock faced several competitors for the nomination, including Thomas A. Hendricks, Allen G. Thurman, Stephen Johnson Field, and Thomas F. Bayard. Hancock's neutrality on the monetary question, and his lingering support in the South (owing to his General Order Number 40) meant that Hancock, more than any other candidate, had nationwide support. When the Democratic convention assembled in Cincinnati in June 1880, Hancock led on the first ballot, but did not have a majority. By the second ballot, Hancock received the requisite two-thirds, and William Hayden English of Indiana was chosen as his running mate.\n\nCampaign against Garfield\n\nThe Republicans nominated James A. Garfield, a Congressman from Ohio and a skillful politician, as well as a former general from the Civil War. Hancock and the Democrats expected to carry the Solid South, but needed to add a few of the Northern states to their total to win the election. The practical differences between the parties were few, and the Republicans were reluctant to attack Hancock personally because of his heroic reputation. The one policy difference the Republicans were able to exploit was a statement in the Democratic platform endorsing \"a tariff for revenue only.\" Garfield's campaigners used this statement to paint the Democrats as unsympathetic to the plight of industrial laborers, a group that would benefit by a high protective tariff. The tariff issue cut Democratic support in industrialized Northern states, which were essential in establishing a Democratic majority. In the end, the Democrats and Hancock failed to carry any of the Northern states they had targeted, with the exception of New Jersey. Hancock lost the election to Garfield. Garfield polled only 39,213 more votes than Hancock, the popular vote being 4,453,295 for Garfield and 4,414,082 for Hancock. The electoral count, however, had a much larger spread, as Garfield polled 214 electoral votes and Hancock only 155. Garfield would be shot four months into his Presidency on July 2, 1881, and would die on September 19, 1881.\n\nLater life\nHancock took his electoral defeat in stride and attended Garfield's inauguration. Following the election, Hancock carried on as commander of the Division of the Atlantic. He was elected president of the National Rifle Association in 1881, explaining that \"The object of the NRA is to increase the military strength of the country by making skill in the use of arms as prevalent as it was in the days of the Revolution.\" Hancock was a Charter Director and the first president of the Military Service Institution of the United States from 1878 until his death in 1886. He was commander-in-chief of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States veterans organization from 1879 until his death in 1886. He was the author of Reports of Major General W. S. Hancock upon Indian Affairs, published in 1867. Hancock's last major public appearance was to preside over the funeral of President Grant in 1885, although he also made a less publicized trip that year to Gettysburg.\n\nHancock died in 1886 at Governors Island, still in command of the Military Division of the Atlantic, the victim of an infected carbuncle, complicated by diabetes. He is buried in Montgomery Cemetery in West Norriton Township, Pennsylvania, near Norristown, Pennsylvania. Hancock's wife, Almira, published Reminiscences of Winfield Scott Hancock in 1887.\n\nIn 1893, Republican General Francis A. Walker wrote,Although I did not vote for General Hancock, I am strongly disposed to believe that one of the best things the nation has lost in recent years has been the example and the influence of that chivalric, stately, and splendid gentleman in the White House. Perhaps much which both parties now recognize as having been unfortunate and mischievous during the past thirteen years would have been avoided had General Hancock been elected.\n\nHis noted integrity was a counterpoint to the corruption of the era, for as President Rutherford B. Hayes said,If, when we make up our estimate of a public man, conspicuous both as a soldier and in civil life, we are to think first and chiefly of his manhood, his integrity, his purity, his singleness of purpose, and his unselfish devotion to duty, we can truthfully say of Hancock that he was through and through pure gold.\n\nThe last public act performed by Hancock was his oversight of the funeral of Ulysses S. Grant in 1885, and his organizing and leading of Grant's nine mile funeral procession in New York City. From Grant's home at Mount McGregor, New York, to its resting-place in Riverside Park, the casket containing Grant's remains was in the charge of General Hancock. As he appeared on the scene at the commencement of Grant's funeral procession, Hancock was met with a mild applause, but with a gesture he directed a silence and respect for Grant.\n\nLegacy\n\nWinfield Scott Hancock is memorialized in a number of statues:\n An equestrian statue on East Cemetery Hill on the Gettysburg Battlefield.\n A portrait statue by Cyrus Dallin as part of the Pennsylvania Memorial at Gettysburg.\n An alto-relievo representing Hancock's wounding during Pickett's Charge, on the New York State Monument at Gettysburg.\n An equestrian statue located at Pennsylvania Avenue and 7th Street, NW in Washington, D.C.\n An equestrian statue atop the Smith Memorial Arch in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\n A monumental bronze bust in Hancock Square, New York City, by sculptor James Wilson Alexander MacDonald.\n Fort Hancock, Texas\n Fort Hancock on Sandy Hook, New Jersey, was named for General Hancock.\nThe original Winfield Scott Hancock Elementary School, located at Arch and East Spruce Streets in Norristown, Pennsylvania, was built in 1895 in memory of the General who grew up not far from the site. It was replaced in 1962 by a new building still in use by the Norristown Area School District only a few blocks away at Arch and Summit Streets, which is also named after General Hancock.  The original 1895 building still stands and is used by a community non-profit organization.\n\nA Pennsylvania historical marker was dedicated September 11, 1947, along Bethlehem Pike (PA 309), just south of US 202, where Hancock was born.\n\nHancock's portrait adorns U.S. currency on the $2 Silver Certificate series of 1886. Approximately 1,500 to 2,500 of these bills survive today in numismatic collections. Hancock's bill is ranked number 73 on a list of \"100 Greatest American Currency Notes\".\n\nHancock was an important character in the Shaara family's Civil War historical novels: The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara, and Gods and Generals and The Last Full Measure by Jeffrey Shaara. In the films Gettysburg (1993) and Gods and Generals (2003), based on the first two of these novels, Hancock is portrayed by Brian Mallon, and is depicted in both films in a very favorable light. A number of scenes in the novel Gods and Generals that depict Hancock and his friend Lewis A. Armistead in Southern California before the war were omitted from the film.\n\nSee also\n\n List of American Civil War generals (Union)\n List of equestrian statues in the District of Columbia\n List of equestrian statues in Pennsylvania\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n \"REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT BY THE INDIAN PEACE COMMISSION, JANUARY 7, 1868\", in Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1868, (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1868), 26\u201350.\n Cluff, Mary Lynn. \"Winfield Scott Hancock.\" In Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. .\n Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher. Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. .\n \n Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 2, Fredericksburg to Meridian. New York: Random House, 1958. .\n Grant, Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. 2 vols. Charles L. Webster & Company, 1885\u201386. .\n Hancock, Almira Russell. Reminiscences of Winfield Scott Hancock. New York: Charles L. Webster, 1887. .\n Jamieson, Perry D. Winfield Scott Hancock: Gettysburg Hero. Civil War Campaigns and Commanders Series. Abilene, TX: McWhiney Foundation Press, 2003. .\n Jordan, David M. Winfield Scott Hancock: A Soldier's Life. Bloomfield: Indiana University Press, 1988. .\n Kopel, David, et al. National Review Online, July 2, 2004.\n Sears, Stephen W. Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983. .\n Tagg, Larry. The Generals of Gettysburg. Campbell, CA: Savas Publishing, 1998. .\n Trefousse, Hans L. Andrew Johnson, A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991. .\n Tucker, Glenn. Hancock the Superb. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1960. .\n Walker, Francis A. General Hancock. Great Commanders series, edited by James Grant Wilson. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1894. .\n Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964. .\n\nFurther reading\n Chalfant, William Y. Hancock's War: Conflict on the Southern Plains. Norman, OK: Arthur H. Clark Company, 2010. \n \n  \n \n \n  Google eBook\n\nExternal links\n\n The Democratic Trojan Horse; Harper's Weekly political cartoon about the 1880 presidential election\n W.S. Hancock Society\n Hancock Memorial at Gettysburg\n Hancock Memorial in Washington D.C.\n Hancock's report of the Battle of Gettysburg\n Hancock Park in New York City\n\n1824 births\n1886 deaths\nAmerican military personnel of the Mexican\u2013American War\nAmerican people of English descent\nAmerican people of Scottish descent\nAmerican people of Welsh descent\nBurials in Pennsylvania\nCandidates in the 1868 United States presidential election\nCandidates in the 1876 United States presidential election\nCandidates in the 1880 United States presidential election\nDeaths from diabetes\nDemocratic Party (United States) presidential nominees\nInfectious disease deaths in New York (state)\nMembers of the Aztec Club of 1847\nPennsylvania Democrats\nPeople associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln\nMilitary personnel from Montgomery County, Pennsylvania\nPeople of California in the American Civil War\nPeople of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War\nPresidents of the National Rifle Association\nUnion Army generals\nUnited States Military Academy alumni","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":222,"dup_dump_count":80,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-22":1,"2017-13":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":2,"2023-14":3,"2023-06":2,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":4,"2022-33":1,"2022-27":6,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":4,"2021-49":2,"2021-43":3,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":4,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":3,"2021-10":4,"2021-04":7,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":7,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":4,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":3,"2020-10":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":6,"2019-43":6,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":4,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":2,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":7,"2018-39":3,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":3,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":4,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":3,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":5,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":7,"2014-15":4}},"id":171498,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Winfield%20Scott%20Hancock","title":"Winfield Scott Hancock","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"An engineer is a person with a proper education in the field of engineering. The word engineer is derived from the Latin root ingenium, meaning \"cleverness\". Engineers design materials, structures, machines and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, safety and cost. Much of the work is applied science, using information given by scientists to do their work. Apart from working with things, an engineer must also be good at working with people and money.\n\nTypes of engineer\n\n Aerospace engineers design space vehicles or airplanes. \n Biomedical engineers design and work with medical equipment.\n Chemical engineers use chemicals to make products like drugs and medicines or fertilizers for crops.\n Civil engineers work on roads, bridges, buildings and other public structures.\n Computer engineers design and build computers and the parts that computers are made of.\n Electrical engineers work with electricity and design electrical equipment, from small things like radios and computers to large things like the wires that carry electricity across the country.\n Electronic engineers work with electronics, which are used to build computer parts and electrical equipment. \n Environmental engineers design and implement solutions to remediate and restore the environment. \n Manufacturing engineers design and improve the machines and assembly lines that make things. They work with robots, hydraulics and air-operated devices to help companies work faster and better with fewer mistakes.\n Mechanical engineers design machines or things that move, like cars and trains. A mechanical engineer also might help design electricity generating stations, oil refineries, and factories.\n Mechatronics engineers build robots and things that are like robots, but not exactly. They do things that are robotic-like.\nOcean engineering and Naval Architecture works on construction of ships, submarines and off shore bodies.\n Nanotechnology engineers study very small things, like strings of atoms and how they are put together.\n Nuclear engineers design and build nuclear plants. They also study the characteristic behaviors of certain radioactive or unstable elements.\n Structural engineers are dealing with design and analysis of buildings and large non-building structures to withstand both the gravity and wind loads as well as natural disasters.\n Software engineers design and write programs for computers.\n Systems engineers look at how complicated things work and try to make them faster and smarter. They look at the big picture.\n\nMany engineering projects are large and very complicated.\nOften different kinds of engineers work together and help each other.  As an example, computer engineers need help from electrical engineers to  \nbuild a computer.  The computer needs programs written by software engineers.  The computer could be used by aerospace engineers to control an \nairplane.  An airplane is a big mechanical system with many parts, so a mechanical engineer and a systems engineer are also needed.\n\nRelated pages \n National Academy of Engineering\n\nNotes \n\n \nScience occupations","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":112,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":3,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2}},"id":22953,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineer","title":"Engineer","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sulfuric acid, also known as sulphuric acid, is a strong acid. It is also a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is H2SO4. It was known as \"Oil of Vitriol\" in ancient times.\n\nProperties\nIt is a dense (thick), clear, corrosive liquid that can dissolve in water. It can also melt through some weak substances.\n\nHistory\nIt was once known as \"oil of vitriol\". This name was created by Jabir ibn Hayyan, the person who discovered it. It used to be prepared by the reaction of potassium nitrate with sulfur. This reaction would produce sulfur trioxide which would dissolve in steam to produce sulfuric acid. Then this reaction was done in lead containers. The contact process, the most common process, was invented in 1831 and is still used today.\n\nProduction\nIt is made by reacting sulfur trioxide with sulfuric acid to produce oleum. Then oleum is dissolved in water to produce more sulfuric acid. The sulfur trioxide is produced by burning sulfur to produce sulfur dioxide, which was then oxidized to sulfur trioxide with a catalyst. This process is called the contact process.\n\nUses\nSulfuric acid has many uses. World production in 2001 was 165 million tons, worth about $8 billion US dollars. Uses include ore processing, fertilizer manufacturing, oil refining, wastewater processing, lead acid batteries, and combining chemicals for scientific reasons. For example, phosphate rocks are reacted with sulfuric acid to produce soluble phosphates, useful in fertilizers. This reaction is also used to make phosphoric acid, useful in soda. Potassium compounds are dissolved in sulfuric acid to produce potassium sulfate, useful in fertilizers. Ammonia is also reacted with sulfuric acid to produce ammonium sulfate. These three chemicals are solids and provide the three main minerals needed in plants. Lead acid batteries use sulfuric acid as their electrolyte.\n\nReactions and safety\nSulfuric acid is very poisonous because of its acidity and corrosiveness. When it is mixed with sugar, it turns it into carbon. When it is dissolved in water, it becomes less harmful (does not make things black) but is still corrosive like normal acids. It reacts with metals to produce hydrogen and the metal sulfate. Some metals, such as tin, make sulfur dioxide and tin(II) sulfate. It reacts with sodium chloride to make hydrogen chloride.\n\nRelated pages\nSulfurous acid\nHydrogen sulfide\n\nReferences\n\nAcids\nSulfur compounds","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":4,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":3,"2020-05":4,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":3,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":1,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":1,"2015-48":1,"2015-35":1,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":2,"2024-30":1,"2024-18":2,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":39411,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sulfuric%20acid","title":"Sulfuric acid","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Puebla, Mexico is a Mexican city. It is  southeast of Mexico City in a broad valley. The city has had many names over the years including City of Angels, City of Tiles, and Heroic City of Zaragoza.\n\nPuebla was the main city of colonial Mexico. The architecture and look of Puebla is the most European of all the colonial cities. This is because it was built completely by a Spanish. Most cities at the time were built within an existing Native American community.\n\nPuebla is highly industrialized, having factories belonging to Volkswagen, Audi, and Bimbo. The historic downtown area remains a Spanish colonial treasure. It is filled with 17th and 18th century European architecture. The city has a nice climate all year around, friendly and courteous people living there and good food.\n\nCapital cities in Mexico\nPuebla (state)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":109,"dup_dump_count":61,"dup_details":{"2023-50":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":1,"2019-51":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":3,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":3,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":4,"2014-35":4,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":6}},"id":20528,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Puebla%2C%20Puebla","title":"Puebla, Puebla","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Michael Dalgan Lyons (1 November 1910 \u2013 19 November 1991) was an Irish Fine Gael politician from Ballyhaunis, County Mayo.\n\nA farmer and former employee of the Irish Sugar Company, he stood unsuccessfully as a Fine Gael candidate for D\u00e1il \u00c9ireann in the Mayo South constituency at three successive general elections (1954, 1957, and 1961) before finally winning the seat at the 1965 general election to the 18th D\u00e1il. He served only one term in the D\u00e1il, losing his seat at the 1969 general election.\n\nLyons did not stand for the D\u00e1il again, but after his 1969 defeat he was elected to the 12th Seanad on the Oireachtas sub-panel of the Labour Panel. He was re-elected in 1973 to the 13th Seanad and in 1977 to the 14th Seanad, but did not contest the 1981 Seanad election.\n\nReferences\n\n1910 births\n1991 deaths\nFine Gael TDs\nMembers of the 18th D\u00e1il\nMembers of the 12th Seanad\nMembers of the 13th Seanad\nMembers of the 14th Seanad\nPoliticians from County Mayo\n20th-century Irish farmers\nFine Gael senators\nLabour Panel senators","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":178,"dup_dump_count":47,"dup_details":{"2020-10":1,"2019-47":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":5,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":5,"2017-34":3,"2017-30":4,"2017-26":3,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":4,"2017-09":6,"2017-04":4,"2016-50":6,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":6,"2016-36":5,"2016-30":6,"2016-26":6,"2016-22":6,"2016-18":6,"2016-07":6,"2015-48":6,"2015-40":5,"2015-35":5,"2015-32":6,"2015-27":5,"2015-22":6,"2015-14":6,"2014-52":6,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":1,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":1,"2017-13":4,"2015-18":6,"2015-11":6,"2015-06":6,"2014-10":1,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":15651465,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael%20Lyons%20%28politician%29","title":"Michael Lyons (politician)","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Heresy is a word used by different religious groups, used to describe someone who has ideas that are different from what the religion or law teaches. Such a person is known as heretic. \n\nIn the Middle Ages it was not uncommon to accuse someone of heresy. If the accusations could be proven, the culprit would go through a ritual. Since torture could be used, the accusations were often proven. The ritual was done to save the soul of the convicted criminal.  It involved being burnt while tied to a post.\n\nStill in the 21st century Muslims who apostatize are often treated very harshly and frequently killed.\n\nJesus Christ himself was regarded as a heretic by the Jewish leaders at the time- see Gospel of Matthew 26:57-67\n\nThe Roman Catholic Church in early times had great trouble with heretical christological doctrines, such as Monophysitism and Arianism. The Church sees several heresies in Protestantism:\nProtestants claim only scripture (the Bible) is relevant for the faith (sola scriptura); the Catholic Church says traditions are also important. \nProtestants say that belief is enough to be saved (sola fide). Catholics say that good deeds are necessary as well.\nProtestants say that anyone can be a priest; the only requirement is that the person is baptised. In the Catholic and Orthodox churches, priests are ordained. This means that some people are not priests, even though they have been baptised.\nAccording to Protestants, there is no Transubstantiation during mass (liturgy). \nThe Roman Missal contains heresies, according to Protestants\n\nAs a result of the Protestant Reformation, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith was created in the Roman Catholic Church which protects the Church against heresies. It is the last instance to decide what constitutes a heresy, and how to deal with it.\n\nReferences\n\n \nTheology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":146,"dup_dump_count":89,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":3,"2021-31":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":4,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":4,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-30":2,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":25679,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heresy","title":"Heresy","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Chaos theory is a part of mathematics. It looks at certain systems that are very sensitive. A very small change may make the system behave completely differently. \n\nVery small changes in the starting position of a chaotic system make a big difference after a while. This is why even large computers cannot tell the weather for more than a few days in the future. Even if the weather was perfectly measured, a small change or error will make the prediction completely wrong. Since even a butterfly flapping its wings can make enough wind to change weather, a chaotic system is sometimes called the \"butterfly effect\". No computer knows enough to tell how the small wind will change the weather.\n\nSome systems (like weather) might appear random at first look, but chaos theory says that these kinds of systems or patterns may not be. If people pay close enough attention to what is really going on, they might notice the chaotic patterns.\n\nThe main idea of chaos theory is that a minor difference at the start of a process can make a major change in it as time progresses. Quantum chaos theory is a new idea in the study of chaos theory. It deals with quantum physics.\n\nExamples\nAs an example, take a pendulum that is attached at some point, and swings freely. Connecting a second pendulum to the first will make the system completely different. It is very hard to start in exactly the same position again - a change in starting position so small that it cannot even be seen can quickly cause the pendulum swing to become different from what it was before. \n\nA very important part to the study of chaos theory is the study of mathematics functions that are known as fractals. Fractal functions work like chaotic systems: a small change in the starting values can change the value of the function in ways that look random. Due to the fact that they are mathematical, they are easy to study.\n\nRelated pages \nDiscontinuous function\nLorenz attractor\nSystems theory\n\nFields of mathematics\nBasic physics ideas\nSystems theory","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-06":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":2,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":3,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":3,"2017-17":3,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":3,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":16522,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chaos%20theory","title":"Chaos theory","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Bal-balan (Basa Indonesian\u00e9 Sepak bola, Basa Inggris\u00e9 soccer) kuwe salah siji olahraga sing populer pisan nang planet bumi. Nang olahraga kiye diadu 2 kelompok utawa tim sing masing-masing berjuang kanggo ngelebokaken bola ming gawang tim lawane. Masing-masing tim anggotane ana 11 pemain, mulane biasa diarani kesebelasan.\n\nPeraturan\n\nPeraturan Resmi (Laws of the Game) \n1863 - Formasi saka Assosiasi Bal-balan\n\nThis, then was the sequence of events that led to the forming of the Football Association, a turning point in the history of soccer. The following clubs sent representatives to the meeting at the Freemason's Tavern on October 26: Forest (later to become the Wanderers, first winners of the FA Cup); NN Kilburn (NN stands for No Names but the club was always known by its initials - like WBA); Barnes; War Office; Crusaders; Perceval House, Blackheath; Crystal Palace; Blackheath; Kensington School; Surbiton; Blackheath School. In addition Charterhouse School sent an observer and some unattached footballers were present.\n\nIt was agreed that \"the clubs represented at this meeting now form themselves into an association to be called The Football Association.\"\n\nThe ordeal of adopting a common set of rules however could not be carried out immediately because a minority of clubs led by Blackheath favoured the inclusion of the Rugby School game - the ancestor of today's Rugby Union game. At a further meeting on December 1st the Rugby advocates were defeated by 13 votes to 4 and withdrew from the Association. On December 8th the proposed rules were formally accepted. For the record these first F.A. Laws were:\n\nAturan Assosiasi Bal-balan taun 1863\n\n1. The maximum length of the ground shall be 200 yards, the maximum breadth shall be 100 yards, the length and breadth shall be marked off with flags; and the goal shall be defined by two upright posts, eight yards apart, without any tape or bar across them.\n\n2. A toss for goals shall take place, and the game shall be commenced by a place kick from the centre of the ground by the side losing the toss for goals; the other side shall not approach within 10 yards of the ball until it is kicked off.\n\n3. After a goal is won, the losing side shall be entitled to kick off, and the two sides shall change goals after each goal is won.\n\n4. A goal shall be won when the ball passes between the goal-posts or over the space between the goal-posts (at whatever height), not being thrown, knocked on, or carried.\n\n5. When the ball is in touch, the first player who touches it shall throw it from the point on the boundary line where it left the ground in a direction at right angles with the boundary line, and the ball shall not be in play until it has touched the ground.\n\n6. When a player has kicked the ball, any one of the same side who is nearer to the opponent's goal line is out of play and may not touch the ball himself, nor in any way whatever prevent any other player from doing so, until he is in play; but no player is out of play when the ball is kicked off from behind the goal line.\n\n7. In case the ball goes behind the goal line, if a player on the side to whom the goal belongs first touches the ball, one of his side shall he entitled to a free kick from the goal line at the point opposite the place where the ball shall be touched. If a player of the opposite side first touches the ball, one of his side shall be entitled to a free kick at the goal only from a point 15 yards outside the goal line, opposite the place where the ball is touched, the opposing side standing within their goal line until he has had his kick.\n\n8. If a player makes a fair catch, he shall be entitled to a free kick, providing he claims it by making a mark with his heel at once; and in order to take such a kick he may go back as far as he pleases, and no player on the opposite side shall advance beyond his mark until he has kicked.\n\n9. No player shall run with the ball.\n\n10. Neither tripping nor hacking shall be allowed, and no player shall use his hands to hold or push his adversary.\n\n11. A player shall not be allowed to throw the ball or pass it to another with his hands.\n\n12. No player shall be allowed to take the ball from the ground with his hands under any pretext whatever while it is in play.\n\n13. No player shall be allowed to wear projecting nails, iron plates, or gutta percha on the soles or heels of his boots.\n\nbal-balan kuwe permainan sing tujuane nggo ngelebokaken bal ming gawang lawan\n\nTaktik \nTaktik sing umum diterapaken klub - klub sepakbola ialah:\n 4-4-2\n 4-3-2-1\n 4-5-1\n 3-4-3\n 3-5-2\n\nPemain-pemain sepak bola terkenal \n Pele\n David Beckham\n Michael Owen\n Ronaldo\n Diego Maradona\n Zinedine Zidane\n Franz Beckenbauer\n Paolo Maldini\n Alessandro del Piero\n\nOrganisasi \n F\u00e9d\u00e9ration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)\n UEFA\n G-14\n CONMEBOL\n CONCACAF\n AFC\n Konfederasi Sepak bola Afrika\n Federasi Sepak bola Oseania\n\nJenis \n Sepak bola wadon\n Sepak bola Paralimpik (kanggo wong cacat)\n Sepak bola ruangan (indoor): five a side football, futsal karo indoor soccer\n Sepak bola jalanan\n Sepak bola tarkam\n\nOlahraga","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":66,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":3,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":3,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":3,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":4,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":3434,"url":"https:\/\/map-bms.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bal-balan","title":"Bal-balan","language":"map-bms"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Samuel Johnson (born Lichfield, Staffordshire, England 18 September 1709; died London 13 December 1784) was a famous writer. After publishing a famous dictionary, he was given a doctorate. This is why he is often called Dr Johnson. He wrote some of his own stories, but more often he wrote criticisms about what other people had written. He said a lot of witty, amusing things, which are still remembered today. People know about some of the funny things he said because his friend James Boswell wrote a book about him.\n\nLife \nSamuel Johnson was born in Lichfield, Staffordshire. His father had a bookshop, but he was very poor. Samuel went to school in Lichfield. When he was nineteen he went to the University of Oxford, but he was so poor that he had to leave without taking a degree. A few years later he married a woman 21 years older than he was. They went to live in London, where he tried to make a living by writing but for many years he was very poor.\n\nIt was not until 1762 that he became famous and the government gave him a pension of three hundred pounds a year.  He started a club (called \"The Club\") which included a lot of famous people like the painter Joshua Reynolds and the writer Oliver Goldsmith (see picture).  Johnson  was now so famous that he was given an honorary doctorate (the title of \"Doctor\")  from Trinity College, Dublin in 1765, and an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford in 1775.\n\nBoswell and Johnson spent some time in Edinburgh and they travelled a lot to the Scottish islands.  Johnson died in 1784 and is buried in Westminster Abbey.\n\nLetter to Lord Chesterfield \nJohnson spent several years writing his Dictionary of the English language.  It was a big job.  While he was writing it he could not be earning money, so he needed a patron (someone who would sponsor him by giving him money, and in return the dictionary would be dedicated to him).  An important man called Lord Chesterfield said to Johnson that he would be his patron.  But he never gave him any money, and Johnson never heard anything more from him, until the dictionary was ready.  Then Lord Chesterfield wrote to Johnson saying that he hoped he would dedicate the dictionary to him.  The letter that Johnson wrote back to Lord Chesterfield is very famous.  It is very sarcastic (funny in an unkind way). Johnson said to him that it would have been nice to have had help when he was needing it.  He said, sarcastically, that a patron was someone who stands on the river bank watching a man drowning and then, when then the drowning man is saved, asks him whether he can help.  The letter made Lord Chesterfield look very silly.\n\nJohnson's \"Dictionary of the English Language\" \nThere were very few dictionaries in Johnson's day, so it was a lot of work for him.  Nowadays, a dictionary is made by a team of people.  Dictionaries, like encyclopedias, should just give facts.  But Johnson sometimes explained words in his dictionary in a way that showed his opinions (what he thought about things).\n\nExamples:\n In most dictionaries, \"oats\" is said to mean something like: \"a kind of cereal used as food\".  Johnson (who hated the Scots) wrote: \"a food given in England to horses and in Scotland to men\".\n In most dictionaries, \"opera\" is said to mean something like: \"a play which is sung to music\".  Johnson (who did not like opera) wrote: \"an exotic and irrational entertainment\" (meaning something like: \"entertainment from a foreign country that does not make sense\").\n\nAlthough it shows his personal likes and dislikes, the dictionary still deserves to be famous.  Johnson defined 43,000 words.  It was the first time a dictionary had been published that gave examples of how the words had been used by well-known writers.\n\nReferences \n\n1709 births\n1784 deaths\n18th-century English writers\nEnglish Anglicans\nPeople buried in Westminster Abbey\nPeople from Staffordshire","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":77,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-43":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":3,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-24":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-18":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":29710,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Samuel%20Johnson","title":"Samuel Johnson","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A polarized 3D system uses polarization glasses to create the illusion of three-dimensional images by restricting the light that reaches each eye (an example of stereoscopy).\n\nTo present stereoscopic images and films, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen or display through different polarizing filters. The viewer wears low-cost eyeglasses with a polarizing filter for each eye. The left and right filters have different polarizations, so each eye receives only the image with the matching polarization. This is used to produce a three-dimensional effect by projecting the same scene into both eyes, but depicted from slightly different perspectives with different polarizations. Multiple people can view the stereoscopic images at the same time.\n\nPolarized 3D systems, and stereoscopy systems in general, commonly exhibit the Vergence-Accommodation Conflict.\n\nTypes of polarised  glasses\n\nLinearly polarised glasses \nTo present a stereoscopic motion picture, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through orthogonal polarizing filters (Usually at 45 and 135 degrees). The viewer wears linearly polarized eyeglasses which also contain a pair of orthogonal polarizing filters oriented the same as the projector. As each filter only passes light which is similarly polarised and blocks the orthogonally polarized light, each eye only sees one of the projected images, and the 3D effect is achieved.  Linearly polarised glasses require the viewer to keep his or her head level, as tilting of the viewing filters will cause the images of the left and right channels to bleed over to the opposite channel. This can make prolonged viewing uncomfortable as head movement is limited to maintain the 3D effect.\n\nCircularly polarized glasses \nTo present a stereoscopic motion picture, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through circular polarizing filters of opposite handedness. The viewer wears eyeglasses which contain a pair of analyzing filters (circular polarizers mounted in reverse) of opposite handedness.   Light that is left-circularly polarized is blocked by the right-handed analyzer, while right-circularly polarized light is blocked by the left-handed analyzer.  The result is similar to that of stereoscopic viewing using linearly polarized glasses, except the viewer can tilt his or her head and still maintain left\/right separation (although stereoscopic image fusion will be lost due to the mismatch between the eye plane and the original camera plane).\n\nAs shown in the figure, the analyzing filters are constructed of a quarter-wave plate (QWP) and a linearly polarized filter (LPF). The QWP always transforms circularly polarized light into linearly polarized light. However, the angle of polarization of the linearly polarized light produced by a QWP depends on the handedness of the circularly polarized light entering the QWP. In the illustration, the left-handed circularly polarized light entering the analyzing filter is transformed by the QWP into linearly polarized light which has its direction of polarization along the transmission axis of the LPF. Therefore, in this case the light passes through the LPF. In contrast, right-handed circularly polarized light would have been transformed into linearly polarized light that had its direction of polarization along the absorbing axis of the LPF, which is at right angles to the transmission axis, and it would have therefore been blocked.\n\nBy rotating either the QWP or the LPF by 90 degrees about an axis perpendicular to its surface (i.e. parallel to the direction of propagation of the light wave), one may build an analyzing filter which blocks left-handed, rather than right-handed circularly polarized light. Rotating both the QWP and the LPF by the same angle does not change the behaviour of the analyzing filter.\n\nSystem construction and examples \n\nPolarized light reflected from an ordinary motion picture screen typically loses most of its polarization, but the loss is negligible if a silver screen or aluminized screen is used. This means that a pair of aligned DLP projectors, some polarizing filters, a silver screen, and a computer with a dual-head graphics card can be used to form a relatively high-cost (over US$10,000 in 2010) system for displaying stereoscopic 3D data simultaneously to a group of people wearing polarized glasses.\n\nIn the case of RealD 3D a circularly polarizing liquid crystal filter which can switch polarity 144 times per second is placed in front of the projector lens. Only one projector is needed, as the left and right eye images are displayed alternately. Sony features a new system called RealD XLS, which shows both circularly polarized images simultaneously: A single 4K projector displays two 2K images one above the other, a special lens attachment polarizes and projects the images on top of each other.\n\nOptical attachments can be added to traditional 35\u00a0mm projectors to adapt them for projecting film in the \"over-and-under\" format, in which each pair of images is stacked within one frame of film. The two images are projected through different polarizers and superimposed on the screen. This is a very cost-effective way to convert a theater for 3-D as all that is needed are the attachments and a non-depolarizing screen surface, rather than a conversion to digital 3-D projection. Thomson Technicolor currently produces an adapter of this type.\n\nWhen stereo images are to be presented to a single user, it is practical to construct an image combiner, using partially silvered mirrors and two image screens at right angles to one another. One image is seen directly through the angled mirror whilst the other is seen as a reflection. Polarized filters are attached to the image screens and appropriately angled filters are worn as glasses. A similar technique uses a single screen with an inverted upper image, viewed in a horizontal partial reflector, with an upright image presented below the reflector, again with appropriate polarizers.\n\nOn TV and computer screens \n\nPolarizing techniques are easier to apply with cathode ray tube (CRT) technology than with Liquid crystal display (LCD).  Ordinary LCD screens already contain polarizers for control of pixel presentation\u00a0\u2014 this can interfere with these techniques.\n\nIn 2003 Keigo Iizuka discovered an inexpensive implementation of this principle on laptop computer displays using cellophane sheets.\n\nOne can construct a low cost polarized projection system by using a computer with two projectors and an aluminium foil screen. The dull side of aluminium foil is brighter than most silver screens. This was demonstrated at PhraJomGlao University, N\u00f4nthaburi, Thailand, September 2009.\n\nHealth care \nIn optometry and ophthalmology, polarized glasses are used for various tests of binocular depth perception (i.e. stereopsis).\n\nHistory \n\nPolarized 3-D projection was demonstrated experimentally in the 1890s. The projectors used Nicol Prisms for polarization. Packs of thin glass sheets, angled so as to reflect away light of the unwanted polarity, served as the viewing filters. Polarized 3-D glasses only became practical after the invention of Polaroid plastic sheet polarizers by Edwin Land, who was privately demonstrating their use for projecting and viewing 3-D images in 1934. They were first used to show a 3-D movie to the general public at \"Polaroid on Parade\", a New York Museum of Science and Industry exhibit that opened in December 1936. 16 mm Kodachrome color film was used. Details about the glasses are not available. At the 1939 New York World's Fair, a short polarized 3-D film was shown at the Chrysler Motors pavilion and seen by thousands of visitors daily. The hand-held cardboard viewers, a free souvenir, were die-cut in the shape of a 1939 Plymouth seen head-on. Their Polaroid filters, stapled over rectangular openings where the headlights ought to be, were very small.\n\nCardboard glasses with earpieces and larger filters were used to watch Bwana Devil, the feature-length color 3-D film that premiered on 26 November 1952 and ignited the brief but intense 3-D fad of the 1950s. The well-known Life magazine photo of an audience wearing 3-D glasses was one of a series taken at the premiere. The film's title, imprinted on the earpieces, is plainly visible in high-resolution copies of those images. Imaginatively colorized versions have helped to spread the myth that the 3-D movies of the 1950s were projected by the anaglyph color filter method. In fact, during the 1950s anaglyph projection was used only for a few short films. Beginning in the 1970s, some 1950s 3-D feature films were re-released in anaglyph form so that they could be shown without special projection equipment. There was no commercial advantage in advertising the fact that it was not the original release format.\n\nPolaroid filters in disposable cardboard frames were typical during the 1950s, but more comfortable plastic frames with somewhat larger filters, considerably more expensive for the theater owner, were also in use. Patrons were normally instructed to turn them in when leaving so that they could be sanitized and reissued, and it was not uncommon for ushers to be stationed at the exits to attempt to collect them from forgetful or souvenir-loving patrons.\n\nCardboard and plastic frames continued to co-exist during the following decades, with one or the other favored by a particular film distributor or theater or for a particular release. Specially imprinted or otherwise custom-made glasses were sometimes used. Some showings of Andy Warhol's Frankenstein during its 1974 U.S. first run featured unusual glasses consisting of two stiff plastic polarizers held together by two thin silver plastic tubes slit lengthwise, one attached across the tops and bent at the temples to form earpieces, the other a short length bent in the middle and serving as the bridge piece. The design managed to be both stylish in an appropriately Warholesque way and self-evidently simple to manufacture from the raw sheet and tube stock.\n\nLinear polarization was standard into the 1980s and beyond.\n\nIn the 2000s, computer animation, digital projection, and the use of sophisticated IMAX 70\u00a0mm film projectors, have created an opportunity for a new wave of polarized 3D films.\n\nIn the 2000s, RealD Cinema and MasterImage 3D were introduced, both using circular polarization.\n\nAt IBC 2011 in Amsterdam RAI several companies, including Sony, Panasonic, JVC & others highlighted their upcoming 3D stereoscopic product portfolios for both the professional and consumer markets to use the same polarization technique as RealD 3D Cinema uses for stereoscopy. These highlighted products cover everything from recording, projecting, viewing and digital display technologies to live, recorded and pre- and post production facilities and soft- and hardware based product to facilitate 3D content creation. Their systems are interoperable and compatible with existing, passive RealD 3D glasses.\n\nAdvantages and disadvantages \n\nCompared to anaglyph images, the use of polarized 3D glasses produces a full-color image that is considerably more comfortable to watch and is not subject to binocular rivalry. However, it requires a significant increase in expense: even the low cost polarized glasses typically cost 50% more than comparable red-cyan filters, and while anaglyph 3-D films can be printed on one line of film, a polarized film was often done with a special set up that uses two projectors. The use of multiple projectors also raises issues with synchronization, and a poorly synchronized film would negate any increased comfort from the use of polarization. This problem was solved by a number of single strip polarized systems which were standard in the 1980s.\n\nParticularly with the linear polarization schemes popular since the 1950s, the use of linear polarization meant that a level head was required for any sort of comfortable viewing; any effort to tilt the head sideways would result in the polarization failing, ghosting, and both eyes seeing both images. Circular polarization has alleviated this problem, allowing viewers to tilt their heads slightly (although any offset between the eye plane and the original camera plane will still interfere with the perception of depth).\n\nBecause neutral-gray linear-polarizing filters are easily manufactured, correct color rendition is possible. Circular-polarizing filters often have a slight brownish tint, which may be compensated for during projection.\n\nUntil 2011, home 3D television and home 3D computer primarily used active shutter glasses with LCD or plasma displays. TV manufacturers (LG, Vizio) have introduced displays with horizontal polarizing stripes overlaying the screen. The stripes alternate polarization with each line. This permits using relatively inexpensive passive viewing glasses, similar to those for movies. The principal disadvantage is that each polarization can display only half as many scanning lines.\n\nAdvantages \n Generally inexpensive.\n Do not require power.\n Do not require a transmitter to synchronize them with the display.\n Do not suffer from flicker.\n Lightweight.\n Comfortable.\n\nDisadvantages \n The images for polarized glasses have to share the screen simultaneously in which full, native resolution is downgraded, compromising picture quality of both sides of the image delivered to each eye simultaneously. A full 1080p picture results from image fusion. This disadvantage does not occur on projections where each pixel can contain information for both eyes.\n Associated with the headaches many people attribute to 3D viewing.\n Narrow vertical viewing angles compared to Active shutter 3D\n\nSee also \n Vectograph\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n \"Experiments With Polarized Light\" by Donald E. Simanek.\n 3D STEREO PORTAL Videos & Photos Collection\n\n3D imaging\nEyewear\nStereoscopy","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":106,"dup_dump_count":55,"dup_details":{"2024-22":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":3,"2015-11":3,"2015-06":3,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":3,"2013-20":2,"2022-40":1,"2022-33":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-13":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":3,"2017-39":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":3,"2016-40":3,"2016-36":4,"2016-30":2,"2016-07":3,"2015-48":3,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":4,"2015-32":3,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":5,"2014-15":5}},"id":1788642,"url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polarized%203D%20system","title":"Polarized 3D system","language":"en"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sequence analysis in molecular biology involves identifying the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid, or amino acids in a peptide or protein. Once a sample has been obtained, DNA sequences may be produced automatically by machine and the result displayed on computer. Interpreting those results is still a task for humans.\n\nInformation from sequence analysis is used in many fields of biology. It gives information on the relationship between individual organisms, or between groups of organisms. It shows how closely related they are.\n\nDNA base-pair sequence \nA DNA sequence is the sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is written as a succession of letters representing the primary structure of a DNA molecule or strand. If functional, such a sequence carries information for the sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule. The possible letters are A, C, G, and T, representing the four nucleotide bases of a DNA strand \u2014 adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine. The sequences are printed next to one another, without gaps, as in the sequence AAAGTCTGAC.\n\nThe study of RNA and proteins is more complex. The overall structure of DNA is simple and predictable (double helix). The study of RNA and proteins must include a study of their 3-dimensional structure, which is varied, and influences how they work. To some extent this can be assisted by computer, but has to be verified in each case.\n\nInformation on sequences is kept in databases. Since the development of fast production of gene and protein sequences during the 1990s, the rate of addition of new sequences to the databases increases all the time.\n\nScore \nComplete genome analysis has been done on over 800 species and strains. The work is done by a machine, the DNA sequencer, which analyses light signals from fluorochromes attached to the nucleotides. This type of work is gradually becoming less expensive. \n\"There are currently [2009] more than 90 vertebrate species with whole genome sequences finished, in process, or in the advanced planning stages.\n\nRough totals \nAs of December 2012, whole genome analysis has been completed on about 800 to 900 living species and strains of species. Numbers are approximate, and changing.\nAnimals: 111 species\nPlants: 53 species\nFungi: 81 species\nProtists: 50 species\nArchaea: 139 species and strains\nBacteria: ~4\/500 species and strains\n\nHuman DNA sequence \nThe human genome is stored on 23 chromosome pairs in the cell nucleus and in the small mitochondrial DNA. A great deal is now known about the sequences of DNA which are on our chromosomes. What the DNA actually does is now partly known. Applying this knowledge in practice has only just begun.\n\nThe Human Genome Project (HGP) produced a reference sequence which is used worldwide in biology and medicine. Nature published the publicly funded project's report, and Science  published Celera's paper. These papers described how the draft sequence was produced, and gave an analysis of the sequence. Improved drafts were announced in 2003 and 2005, filling in to \u224892% of the sequence.\n\nThe latest project ENCODE studies the way the genes are controlled.\n\nForensic work \n\nIt is not necessary to have whole genome sequences for forensic work, such as identifying a criminal from traces of DNA left at a crime scene, or for paternity cases. At present whole genome sequencing is still very expensive, but fortunately, simpler and cheaper methods are available.\n\nThe basic idea is to look at certain loci (places) in the genome which are highly variable between people. About 10 to 15 of these loci are needed for a match, and the legal details differ between countries. A match between a sample and a suspect individual makes it extremely likely that the individual was the source of the sample. This evidence would then be the basis of the prosecution case for a crime. A similar analysis would show that a man was very likely the father of a child. This is really a modern way to do what was done with blood groups before DNA details could be analysed. The methods have been developed mainly by the work of Alec Jeffreys.\n\nEach person's DNA contains two alleles of a particular gene or 'marker': one  from the father and one from the mother. 'Markers' are genes chosen for having a number of different alleles occurring frequently in the population. The following table is from a commercial DNA paternity testing experiment.  It shows how relatedness between parents and child is demonstrated with five markers:\n\nThe results show that the child and the alleged father's DNA match for these five markers. The complete test results showed this correlation on 16 markers between the child and the tested man. If a case is tested in court, a forensic scientist would give evidence on the likelihood of getting that result by chance.\n\nDNA testing in the US \nThere are state laws on DNA profiling in all 50 states of the United States. Detailed information on database laws in each state can be found at the National Conference of State Legislatures website.\n\nAncient DNA \nAncient DNA has been recovered from some sources. The record for survival of DNA suitable for sequence analysis is 700,000 years. A horse skeleton buried in permafrost has provided bones with some DNA surviving. The sequence was only 70% complete, but it was enough for researchers to say \"It would not look like a horse as we know it\u2026 but we would expect it to be a one-toed horse\". For comparison, researchers had access to DNA sequences of modern horses, donkeys and Przewalski's horse.\n\nRelated pages \nGeorge Church\nWalter Gilbert\nJohn Sulston\nFred Sanger\nENCODE: the complete analysis of the human genome\nHuman genome\nComplete Genomics\nBioinformatics\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \nHuman Ageing Genomic Resources website \n\nDNA\nMolecular biology\nEvolutionary biology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":191,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-50":2,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":4,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":3,"2021-43":4,"2021-39":2,"2021-31":3,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":6,"2021-17":7,"2021-10":5,"2021-04":4,"2020-50":3,"2020-45":5,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":7,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":6,"2020-10":9,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":6,"2019-47":5,"2019-43":7,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":3,"2019-26":4,"2019-18":8,"2019-09":2,"2019-04":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-26":2,"2018-17":1,"2018-09":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4}},"id":231277,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sequence%20analysis","title":"Sequence analysis","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Theism is the religious belief that at least one god exists while rejecting the existence or importance of polytheistic gods or goddesses. In a broader definition it can also be the belief in God or gods in general, including all types of god-belief. Polytheism is the belief in several gods, while monotheism is the belief in just one god. For example, a theistic religion is Christianity. The opposite to a theist is an atheist. An atheist is a person who denies or disbelieves the existence of a supreme being or beings.\n\nDifferent theisms \nAll of these are rough definitions of the theisms; they are almost always different. We can split them all into different groups:\n atheism \u2014 the opposite of theism; not believing in any gods or deities\n deism \u2014 believing that god(s) exist, but that they do not take part in our lives.\n agnosticism \u2014 believing we cannot know whether god(s) exist\n gnosticism \u2014 believing that we can know for certain whether a god(s) exist.\nGnosticism and agnosticism can be combined with other forms of theism. For example, it is possible to be an agnostic atheist, or a gnostic theist. In common usage, some people group atheism and agnosticism together under the group of nontheism \u2014 absence of clear belief in any deity.\n\nThe main types of theism are:\n polytheism \u2014 believing that many gods or goddesses exist (sometimes known as paganism)\n monotheism \u2014 belief that only one god exists (Christians, Muslims and Jews believe in monotheism.) \n ditheism \u2014 belief that two gods exist and they are both equal.\n\nThis is another way to group different theisms, based on the nature of the gods.\n pantheism \u2014 god and the universe are the same\n panentheism \u2014 the universe is part of god\n dystheism or maltheism \u2014 that god or the gods are evil.\n Irreligious theism\u2014 is the belief that there is a higher being, pray and believe in one God(or sometimes many gods), but doesn't follow organized religion \n\nThere are also these types:\n Animism: believing that everything is alive and spirits are in all things, and that all things have souls.\n Monolatry: there is (or may be) more than one god, but they are all expressions of the supreme god.\n Henotheism: there is (or may be) more than one god, but only one is the supreme.\n Kathenotheism: there is more than one god, but only one at a time should be worshipped. Each is supreme in turn.\n\nRelated pages \nTheodicy\n\nReferences \n\nTheology","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":117,"dup_dump_count":74,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-33":3,"2022-21":2,"2022-05":3,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":3,"2020-16":2,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":3,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":2,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":30983,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theism","title":"Theism","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Brackish water (less commonly brack water) is salt water and fresh water mixed together. It is saltier than fresh water, but not as salty as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. \n\nSome human activities can produce brackish water, mostly certain civil engineering projects such as dikes and the flooding of coastal marshland to produce brackish pools for freshwater prawns. \n\nTechnically, brackish water contains between 0.5 and 30 grams of salt per litre\u2014more often expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand (ppt or \u2030). Thus, brackish covers a range of salinity regimes and is not considered a precisely defined condition. It is characteristic of many brackish surface waters that their salinity can vary considerably over space and\/or time.\n\nEtymology \nThe term brackish water comes from the Low German word Brack, which is a small lake made when a storm tide breaks a dike and floods land behind the dike.\n\nBrackish water habitats\n\nEstuaries \n\nThe most important brackish water habitats are estuaries, where a river meets the sea, mixing salt and fresh water.  The River Thames flowing through London is one of the most familiar of river estuaries.\n\nMangroves \nAnother important brackish water habitat is the mangrove swamp or mangal.\n\nBrackish seas and lakes \nSome seas and lakes are brackish. The Baltic Sea is a brackish sea adjoining the North Sea.\n\nThe Caspian Sea is the world's largest lake and contains brackish water with a salinity about one-third that of normal seawater. The Caspian is famous for its peculiar animal fauna, including one of the few non-marine seals (the Caspian seal) and the great sturgeons, the source of caviar.\n\nImportant brackish bodies of water \nBrackish seas\n Baltic Sea (the world's largest pool of brackish water)\n Black Sea\n Caspian Sea (world's largest lake)\n\nBrackish water lakes\n Lake Charles in Lake Charles, Louisiana, USA\n Chilika Lake, Odisha, India\n Pangong Tso (Lake) in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, India \n Lake Van, Turkey\n\nCoastal lagoons, marshes, and deltas\n The Burgas Lakes near the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast\n Kaliveli Lake, near Pondichery, India\n Kerala Backwaters, Series of lagoons and lakes in Kerala\n Lagos Lagoon in Lagos, Nigeria\n Lake Pontchartrain, north of New Orleans, Louisiana, USA\n Pulicat Lake, north of Chennai, India\n The Rann of Kutch, on the border of India and Pakistan\n Parts of the Rh\u00f4ne Delta, France: An area known as the Camargue\n\nEstuaries\n Amazon River, empties so much freshwater into the Atlantic Ocean that it reduces the salinity of the sea for hundreds of miles\n Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland, USA\n The Fleet lagoon, Dorset, England\n Hampton Roads, Virginia, USA\n Lower Hudson River, in New York and New Jersey, USA\n Lingding Yang, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China\n Port Royal Sound part of Beaufort County, South Carolina, USA  \n Saint Lawrence and Saguenay Rivers, the part downstream from Qu\u00e9bec and Saguenay respectively\n The Thames Estuary in South East England\n\nRelated pages\n Salinity\n Desalination\n\nWater","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":132,"dup_dump_count":82,"dup_details":{"2023-40":2,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":2,"2021-39":5,"2021-31":1,"2021-25":2,"2021-21":3,"2021-17":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":1,"2020-40":2,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2020-16":4,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":3,"2019-35":3,"2019-26":3,"2019-22":1,"2019-18":2,"2019-09":2,"2018-51":3,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-30":1,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":67115,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brackish%20water","title":"Brackish water","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The ZIP code is the system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service (USPS). The letters ZIP is an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan. The letters are written properly in capital letters. The word ZIP was chosen to suggest that the mail travels more efficiently, and more quickly, when senders use it. The basic ZIP code is made up of five numbers. An extended ZIP + 4 code includes the five digits of the ZIP code, a hyphen and then four more digits. This lets a piece of mail to be sent to a more exact location than by the ZIP code alone. ZIP Code was a trademark of the U.S. Postal Service but its registration has since ended.\n\nBackground \nThe postal service started the use of postal zones for large cities in 1943. By the early 1960s a more general system was needed. On July 1, 1963, ZIP codes were created for the whole country but they were not mandatory. In 1967, these were made mandatory for many types of mail. The system was soon used for all mail.\n\nZIP + 4 \nIn 1983, the U.S. Postal Service began using an expanded ZIP code system called \"ZIP + 4\", often called \"plus-four codes\" or \"add-on codes.\"\n\nWikimedia Foundation Inc.\n200 2nd Ave. South #358\nSt. Petersburg, FL 33701-4313\n\n 33701 is the basic ZIP code, 4313 is the \"+ 4\"\n\nA ZIP + 4 code uses the basic five-digit code plus an additional four digits to identify a geographic area inside the five-digit delivery area, such as a group of apartments, or a location which gets a large amount of mail.\n\nStructure and allocation \n\nZIP codes are numbered with the first number representing a certain group of U.S. states. The second and third numbers represent a region in that group of states or, in some cases, a large city. The fourth and fifth numbers representing a group of delivery addresses within that region. The main town in a region (if applicable) often gets the first ZIP codes for that region. Other towns are often given ZIP codes in numerical order alphabetically.\n\nThe first digit of the ZIP code is used as follows:\n\n 0 = Connecticut (CT), Massachusetts (MA), Maine (ME), New Hampshire (NH), New Jersey (NJ), Puerto Rico (PR), Rhode Island (RI), Vermont (VT), Virgin Islands (VI), APO Europe (AE), FPO Europe (AE)\n 1 = Delaware (DE), New York (NY), Pennsylvania (PA)\n 2 = District of Columbia (DC), Maryland (MD), North Carolina (NC), South Carolina (SC), Virginia (VA), West Virginia (WV)\n 3 = Alabama (AL), Florida (FL), Georgia (GA), Mississippi (MS), Tennessee (TN), APO Americas (AA), FPO Americas (AA)\n 4 = Indiana (IN), Kentucky (KY), Michigan (MI), Ohio (OH)\n 5 = Iowa (IA), Minnesota (MN), Montana (MT), North Dakota (ND), South Dakota (SD), Wisconsin (WI)\n 6 = Illinois (IL), Kansas (KS), Missouri (MO), Nebraska (NE)\n 7 = Arkansas (AR), Louisiana (LA), Oklahoma (OK), Texas (TX)\n 8 = Arizona (AZ), Colorado (CO), Idaho (ID), New Mexico (NM), Nevada (NV), Utah (UT), Wyoming (WY)\n 9 = Alaska (AK), American Samoa (AS), California (CA), Guam (GU), Hawaii (HI), Marshall Islands (MH), Federated States of Micronesia (FM), Northern Mariana Islands (MP), Oregon (OR), Palau (PW), Washington (WA), APO Pacific (AP), FPO Pacific (AP)\n\nRelated pages\n Postal code\n\nReferences\n\nOther websites \n ZIP Code lookup webpage from the United States Postal Service.\n\nPostal codes\nUnited States Postal Service","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":161,"dup_dump_count":90,"dup_details":{"2024-30":3,"2024-26":1,"2024-22":2,"2024-18":2,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":2,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":2,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":4,"2023-06":1,"2022-49":2,"2022-40":3,"2022-33":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-21":3,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-39":4,"2021-25":5,"2021-21":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":3,"2020-24":1,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":6,"2019-51":3,"2019-47":2,"2019-43":4,"2019-39":3,"2019-35":2,"2019-30":2,"2019-26":1,"2019-22":2,"2019-18":2,"2019-13":2,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":3,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":2,"2018-39":2,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":1,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":3}},"id":80097,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZIP%20code","title":"ZIP code","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronest (15t August 1771 - 21st September 1832) wis a kenspeckle Scots historical novellist an makar that wis gey popular oothrou Europe in his time. In some weys, Scott wis the first Inglis language writer tae hae a truly internaitional career in his lifetime, wi mony contemporar readers aw ower Europe, Australie an North Americae. His novelles an musardry is still read the day, an mony o his warks bides clessics o baith Inglis-leid leeteratur an Scots leeteratur. Weel kent warks o his includes Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Marmion, Waverley an The Heart of Midlothian.\n\nEarly life \n\nBorn in Colledge Wynd in the Auld Toun o Edinburgh in 1771, the son o a soleeciter, the young Walter Scott won throu a bairnheid bout o polio in 1773 that left him a lamiter aw his days. Tae hulp wi his lameness, he wis sent thon year tae bide in the landwart Mairches at his grandpaurents' ferm at Saundyknowe, no faur frae the rauchle o Smailholm Touer, the umwhile faimily hame. Here he wis leared tae read by his aunt Jenny, an learned frae the dialect on mony o the dytes an legends that chairacterized mony o his best kent warks. In Januar 1775 he retoured tae Edinburgh, an thon simmer gaed wi his aunt Jenny tae tak spa treatment at Bath in Ingland. In the winter o 1776 he gaed back tae Saundyknow, wi crack at a watter cure bein made at Prestonpans the follaein simmer.\n\nIn 1778 Scott retoured tae Edinburgh for private eddication tae mak him ready for the schuil, an in October 1779 he stairtit at the Ryal Hie Schuil o Edinburgh. He wis weel able tae walk the nou, an splore the ceety as weel as the landwart pairts aboot it. His readin includit chivalric romances, musradry, history an vaigin beuks. He wis gien private tuition by James Mitchell in arithmatic an writin, an learned frae him the history o the Kirk wi emphasis on the Covenanters. Efter feenishin schuil he wis sent tae bide for sax month wi his aunt Jenny in Kelsae, gaein tae the local ott begoud studyin clessics at the Varsity o Edinburgh in November 1783, whan he wis juist twal year auld, sae he wis a year or twa younger nor maist o the ithir scholars. In Mairch 1786 he begoud a prenticeship at his faither's office, for tae become Writer tae the Signet. While at the varsity Scott becam a freend o Aidam Ferguson, the son o Professor Aidam Ferguson, that hostit leeterar salons. Scott met wi the blind makar Thomas Blacklock that lent him beuks as weel as introducin him tae James Macpherson's Ossian cycle o poems. Durin the winter o 1786-87 the fifteen year auld Scott saw Robert Burns in ane o thir salons, for whit wis tae be their ae meetin. Whan Burns noticed a prent illustratin the poem The Justice of the Peace an speired wha haed written the poem, anely Scott coud tell him it wis by John Langhorne, an wis thankit by Burns. Whan it wis decidit that he wad become a lawer he retoured tae the varsity tae study law, first takkin clesses in Moral Philosophy an Universal History in 1789-90.\n\nEfter feenishin his studies in law, he becam a lawer in Edinburgh. As a lawer's clerk he made his first veesit tae the Hielands, directin an eveection. He wis admeetit tae the Faculty o Advocates in 1792.\n\nLeeterar career lenched \n\nAt the eild o twinty-five he begoud tryin his haund at scrievin, pittin warks ower frae German, his first publication bein rhymed versions o ballants by B\u00fcrger in 1796. Syne he set furth a three-vollum set o Scots ballants that he'd ingaithert, The Minstrelsy of the the Scottish Border. This wis the first shaw o his intrest in Scots history frae a leeterar staundpynt.\n\nScott syne becam a gleg volunteer in the yeomanry an on ane o his \"raids\" he met wi Margater Charlotte Charpentier (or Charpenter), dochter o Jean Charpentier o Lyon in Fraunce, that he wis mairiet on in 1797. They haed five bairns thegithir. In 1799 he wis appyntit Shirra-Depute o the Coonty o Selkirk, based in the Ryal Burgh o Selkirk.\n\nIn his earlier mairiet days, Scott haed a dacent leevin frae the siller he teuk at law, his salary as Shirra-Depute, his guidwife's income, a wee bit siller frae his scrievin an his skare o his faither's wee estate. Efter Scott haed foondit a prentin press, his musardry, stairtin wi The Lay of the Last Mistrel in 1805 brocht him fame. He set furth a nummer o ithir poems ower the neist ten year, includin the popular The Lady of the Lake, prentit in 1810 an setten in the Trossachs. Walins o the German trsnslates o this wark wis syne pitten tae muisic by Franz Schubert. Ane o thir sangs, Ellens dritter Gesang is aften kent as \"Schubert's Ave Maria.\"\n\nAnither wark frae this period, Marmion, produced some o his maist quotit (an maist aften mis-attreebute) lines. Canto VI, Stanza 17 reads:\n\nYet Clare's sharp questions must I shun,\nMust separate Constance from the nun\nOh! what a tangled web we weave\nWhen first we practice to deceive!\nA Palmer too! No wonder why\nI felt rebuked beneath his eye;\n\nIn 1809 his seempathies led tae tae become co-foonder o the Quarterly Review, a review jurnal that he made twa-three anonymous contreebutions tae.\n\nNovelles \nWhan the press becam fankelt wi siller fykes, Scott set oot, in 1814, tae scrieve a cash-cou. The affcome wis Waverley, a novel that didna lat on wha haed written it. It wis a dyte o the Fowerty-Five wi its Inglis heid chairacter Edward Waverley (seempatheric tae Jacobitism efter his Tory upbringin) getting fankelt in happenins but in the hintend walin Hanoverian respectibeelity. The novelle wis a muckle success. Efter thon there follaed a rin o novelles ower the neist five year, ilkane wi a Scots historical settin. Keepin in mynd his namlyheid as a poet, he haudit tae the anonymous habit he haed stairtit wi Waverley, aye settin the novelles furth unner the name Author of Waverley or attributit as \"Tales of...\u00a3 wi nae author. E'en whan it becam clear that there wad be nae skaith in comin oot intae the open he keepit up the fa\u00e7ade, appearinly oot o a sense o fun, awmaist as a pliskie. Durin this time the byname The Wizard of the North wis applee'd by fowk tae the meesterious best-sellin writer. The identity o the author o the novelles wis a faur reengin souch, an in 1815 Scott wis gien the honour o takkin meat wi George, Prince Regent, that wis wantin tae meet wi \"the author of Waverley.\"\n\nThir novelles wis mainly in Inglis, but whiles Scots wis uised as pairt o dialogue atween chairacters - specially anes that's frae landwart pairts or o laich social staundin.\n\nIn 1819 he brak awa frae scrievin anent Scotland wi Ivanhoe, a historical romance setten in 12t-century Ingland. Thon, as weel, wis a rinawa success an, as he did wi his first novelle, he wrate twa-three beuks alang the same lines. Amang ither things, the beuk is kenspeckle for haein a gey seempathetic Jewish heid chairacter, Rebecca, thocht o by mony creetics tae be the beuks reale heroine - relevant tae the fact the beuk cam oot at a time whan the strauchle for the Unthirldom o the Jews in Ingland wis gaitherin momentum.\n\nAs he becam mair weel kent durin this pairt o his career, he wis grantit the teetle o baronet, becomin Sir Walter Scott. At this time he redd the veest o King George IV tae Scotland, an whan the King veesitit Edinburgh in 1822 the muckle shaw he pit on wis intrumental in makkin sicna things as tairtans an kilts fashionable, an turnin thaim intae seembols o Scots identity.\n\nSiller waes an daith \n\nStairtin in 1825 he fawed intae richt haird siller fykes again, as his company awmaist fauldit. That he wis the author o his novels becam ordinar knawledge at this time as weel. Raither nor declare bankruptcy, he pit his hame, Abbotsford Hoose, an income intae a trust belangin his creeditors, an gaed on tae scrieve his gate oot o det. He cairiet on his feel quick ootpit o feection (as weel as settin furth a biography o Napoleon Bonaparte) till 1831. By than his heal wis dwinin, an he dee'd at Abbotsfuird in 1832. Tho no in the clear by than, his novelles aye selt weel, an he made guid his dets frae ayont the graff. He wis yirdit in Dryburgh Abbey whaur no faur aff, fittinly, a muckle statue can be fund o William Wallace - ane o Scotland's maist romanticised historical feegurs.\n\nIn 1844 the Scott Moniment wis finished. It staunds in Princes Street Gairdens, Edinburgh, an at 200.5 fit lang is the mucklest moniment tae a scriever in Europe. Forby thon, he is mindit wi a slab in Makars Court, Edinburgh, juist ootby the Scotts Writers Museum in Leddy Stairs Close, whaur is ane o the three scrievers the museum focuses on (alang wi Robert Burns an Robert Louis Stevenson).\n\nWarks\n\nNovelles\n\nThe Waverley Novelles \n Waverley (1814)\n Guy Mannering (1815)\n The Antiquary (1816)\n Rob Roy (1818)\n Ivanhoe (1819)\n Kenilworth (1821)\n The Pirate (1822)\n The Fortunes of Nigel (1822)\n Peveril of the Peak (1822)\n Quentin Durward (1823)\n St. Ronan's Well (1824)\n Redgauntlet (1824)\n Tales of the Crusaders (1825)\n Woodstock (1826)\n Chronicles of the Canongate, 2nd series, The Fair Maid of Perth (1828)\n Anne of Geierstein (1829)\n\nTales of My Landlord \n 1st series The Black Dwarf an Old Mortality (1816)\n 2nd series, The Heart of Midlothian (1818)\n 3rd series, The Bride of Lammermoor and A Legend of Montrose (1819)\n 4th series, Count Robert of Paris and Castle Dangerous (1832)\n\nTales from Benedictine Sources \n The Abbot (1820)\n The Monastery (1820)\n\nCutty stories \n Chronicles of the Canongate, 1st series (1827). Collection o thrie cutty stories:\nThe Highland Widow, The Two Drovers and The Surgeon's Daughter.\n The Keepsake Stories (1828). Collection o thrie cutty stories:\nMy Aunt Margaret's Mirror, The Tapestried Chamber and Death Of The Laird's Jock.\n\nPoems \n William and Helen, Two Ballads from the German (owersetter) (1796)\n The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802-1803)\n The Lay of the Last Minstrel (1805)\n Ballads and Lyrical Pieces (1806)\n Marmion (1808)\n The Lady of the Lake (1810)\n The Vision of Don Roderick (1811)\n The Bridal of Triermain (1813)\n Rokeby (1813)\n The Field of Waterloo (1815)\n The Lord of the Isles (1815)\n Harold the Dauntless (1817)\n Young Lochinvar\n Bonnie Dundee (1830)\n\nIther \n Introductory Essay to The Border Antiquities of England and Scotland (1814-1817)\n The Chase (owersetter) (1796)\n Goetz of Berlichingen (owersetter) [1799)\n Paul's Letters to his Kinsfolk (1816)\n Provincial Antiquities of Scotland (1819-1826)\n Lives of the Novelists (1821-1824)\n Essays on Chivalry, Romance, and Drama Supplement to the 1815\u201324 edition of the Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica\n Halidon Hill (1822)\n The Letters of Malachi Malagrowther (1826)\n The Life of Napoleon Buonaparte (1827)\n Religious Discourses (1828)\n Tales of a Grandfather, 1st series (1828)\n History of Scotland, 2 vols. (1829-1830)\n Tales of a Grandfather, 2nd series (1829)\n The Doom of Devorgoil (1830)\n Essays on Ballad Poetry (1830)\n Tales of a Grandfather, 3rd series (1830)\n Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft (1831)\n The Bishop of Tyre\n\nFremmit airtins \n\n Walter Scott Digital Archive at the Varsity o Edinburgh leebrar: haes muckle primary material\n The Edinburgh Sir Walter Scott Club\n Sir Walter Scott, biography by Richard H. Hutton, 1878, frae Project Gutenberg\n Varsity of Pennsylvania e-texts o sum o Walter Scott's warks\n The Keepsake Stories  at Arthur's Classic Novels website.\n My Native Land audio - Bullwinkle voice impression\n\n \n1771 births\n1832 daiths\n18t-century Scots poets\n19t-century antiquarians\n19t-century biografers\n19t-century Breetish juidges\n19t-century Scots lawers\n19t-century Scots novelists\n19t-century Scots poets\nAlumni o the Varsity o Edinburgh\nBaronets in the Baronetage o the Unitit Kinrick\nBreetish leeterar eeditors\nBreetish medievalists\nClan Scott\nElders o the Kirk o Scotland\nFellaes o the Ryal Society o Edinburgh\nHistorians o Scotland\nMembers o The Club\nMembers o the Faculty o Advocates\nMembers o the Ryal Company o Airchers\nFowk eddicatit at Kelso High School, Scotland\nFowk eddicatit at the Royal High School, Edinburgh\nWriters frae Edinburgh\nFowk o the Scots Enlichtment\nPreses o the Ryal Society o Edinburgh\nPrincipal Clarks o Session an Juisteeciar\nRomantic poets\nScott faimily o Abbotsford\nScots biografers\nScots diarists\nScots fowklairists\nScots Freemasons\nScots historical novelists\nScots leeterary creetics\nScots shirras\nScots fowk wi disabeelities\nScots publishers (fowk)\nScots sang collectors\nScots translators\nWriters o Arthurian leeteratur\nWriters o historical feection set in the Middle Ages\nWriters o historical novelles set in Early Modren period\n19t-century Breetish ceevil servants\n19t-century Scots historians\nScots fowk-sang collectors","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":110,"dup_dump_count":78,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-49":1,"2022-40":1,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-39":1,"2021-31":1,"2021-21":1,"2021-10":1,"2021-04":1,"2020-50":2,"2020-40":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":3}},"id":7992,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Walter%20Scott","title":"Walter Scott","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service.\n\nOrigin \nThe word project comes from the Latin word projectum from projicere, \"to throw something forwards\" which in turn comes from pro-, which denotes something that precedes the action of the next part of the word in time (paralleling the Greek \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc) and jacere, \"to throw\". The word \"project\" thus actually originally meant \"something that comes before anything else is done\". When the word was initially adopted, it referred to a plan of something, not to the act of actually carrying this plan out. Something performed in accordance with a project was called an object. This use of \"project\" changed in the 1950s when several techniques for project management were introduced. With this advent the word slightly changed meaning to cover both projects and objects. However, in certain projects there may still exist so called objects and object leaders, reflecting the older use of the words.\n\nCharacteristics \n Temporary means that any project will have a start date and end date (but it has nothing to do with short duration). \n Project produces unique results: meaning the product or service at the end of the project should be some way different than the existing (can be an invention or an innovation.)\n Projects are characterized by progressive elaboration: due to uniqueness and greater uncertainty projects cannot be understood entirely at or before project start, and therefore planning and execution of projects is happening many times in separate steps or phases. As project progresses, project team understands next steps, deliverables and way of execution much better. Based on this knowledge team members elaborate initial draft plans, and execute next phase of the project based on these detailed plans. \n\nProjects differ from operations, because operations are continuous and repeating (projects are temporary), and operations deliver the same or almost the same results (project results are in contrast unique).\n\nA project usually needs resources to deliver its results. Most of the time project execution is based on detailed plan, which considers also external factors and constraints. Planning, execution and controlling of project is the primary field of project management. For major projects it is necessary sometimes to set up a special temporary organization, consisting of a project team and one or more work teams.\n\nMajor projects can be divided into subprojects, and program denotes collection of related projects.\n\nProject types \nProjects can be categorised based on different aspects.\n\nBased on project content\n Construction projects\n IT projects\n Product development projects\n RD projects\n Organisation development projects\n Logistics projects\n Marketing projects\n Community projects\n Cultural projects\n\nBased on initiating or participating organisation\n Internal projects\n Departmental projects\n Cross unit projects\n External projects (customer facing projects)\n\nBased on complexity\n Simple projects\n Complex projects\n Programs\n Megaprojects\n\nNotable projects \n Manhattan Project: Developed the first nuclear weapon\n Project Apollo: Landing a man on the moon\n\nManagement","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":108,"dup_dump_count":73,"dup_details":{"2023-40":1,"2023-14":2,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-21":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":3,"2020-50":2,"2020-45":2,"2020-40":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":1,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":1,"2020-05":2,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":2,"2019-39":2,"2019-30":3,"2019-22":2,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-39":1,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":1,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":1,"2016-50":1,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":1,"2016-36":1,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":2,"2014-15":4,"2024-30":1,"2024-22":1,"2024-18":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1}},"id":50518,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project","title":"Project","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"The USS Arizona (BB-39) was an American battleship from the Pennsylvania Class. The building of the ship was started in 1913 and it was commissioned in 1916. It fought in World War I. The USS Arizona is best known for its sinking during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The attack was the event that caused the United States to join the fighting in World War II. The wreck is still at the floor of the harbor. It is the site of a memorial to those who died that day.\n\nOther ships \nUSS Arizona (BB-39) was one of three ships in the history of the United States Navy to be named USS Arizona. It was the only one of the three to be named that after Arizona became a U.S. state. \n\nThe first Arizona was built in 1858. It was made of iron. It served in the American Civil War. The ship was destroyed when it caught on fire in 1865.\nThe second USS Arizona was a 3850 ton frigate. It was built in 1865 and originally named the USS Neshamny. The ship was renamed twice. It used the name USS Arizona for less than three months during 1869 before becoming USS Nevada. The Navy stopped using the ship in 1874.\n\nArizona (BB-39)","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":103,"dup_dump_count":62,"dup_details":{"2024-26":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":2,"2014-10":2,"2013-20":1,"2023-23":1,"2021-49":1,"2021-10":1,"2020-50":1,"2020-34":2,"2020-29":1,"2019-51":1,"2019-47":1,"2019-43":1,"2019-35":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-04":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-22":2,"2018-17":2,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":2,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":1,"2016-22":2,"2016-18":2,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":1,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":2,"2014-49":2,"2014-42":5,"2014-41":3,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":4,"2014-15":4}},"id":48174,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USS%20Arizona%20%28BB-39%29","title":"USS Arizona (BB-39)","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"Electronics is the study an uise o electrical components an circuits that controls the flowe o electrons or ither electrically chairged pairticles.\n\nThe fairmaist components uised in electronics is resistors, capacitors, an ticht or lowse wund hanks o wire cried inductors. \u00a0Aulder electronics uised gless or metal vacuum tubes for tae control the flowe o electrons. \u00a0By the late 1960's an early 1970's the transistor, a semiconductor, begoud tae tak the steid o vacuum tubes as control components. \u00a0At aboot the same time, integratit circuits (meeniatur semicondutor circuits conteenin lairge nummers o awfu wee transistors pitten on gey an thin skelfs o seelicon) cam intae ordinar uiss. \u00a0Integratit circuits made it possible tae seegnificantly reduce the nummer o components needit tae mak electronic products.\n\nFowk interestit in pheesics aften studies hou an whit for thir electronic components wirks. \u00a0By their studies they can find, cleck, or better electronic components. \u00a0Ither fowk designs an constructs electronic circuits for tae redd practical problems. This is pairt o electrical, electronic an computer ingineerin.\n\nMaist electronics seestems faws intae ane o thir twa categories:\n Some electronic circuits process an caw aboot information. Thir are communications seestems.\n Ither electronic circuits converts an distributes energy. Thir are control seestems.\n\nAe wey o leukin at an electronic seestem is tae separate it intae three pairts:\n Inpits - Electrical or mechanical sensors (or transducers) that taks seegnals (in the form o temperatur, pressur, etc.) frae the pheesical warld an converts them intae current an voltage seegnals.\n Seegnal processin circuits - Thir conseests o electronic components connectit thegether for tae manipulate, interpret an transform the information conteened in the seegnals.\n Ootpits - Actuators or ither devices (transducers an aw) that transforms current an voltage seegnals back intae uissefu pheesical form.\n\nTak as an example a televeesion set. A telly set's inpit is a braidcast seegnal received frae an antenna, or a wire cable providit by a cable televeesion vendor. Seegnal processin circuits inside the telly set uises the brichtness, colour, an soond information athin the received seegnal tae control the telly set's ootput devices. The display ootpit device micht be a cathode ray tube (CRT) or a plasma or liquid creestal display screen. \u00a0The audio ootpit device micht be a magnet driven audio speaker. \u00a0The display ootput devices converts the seegnal processin circuits' brichtness an colour information intae the veesible eemage displayed on a screen. \u00a0The audio ootput device converts the processed soond information intae soonds that can be heard by listeners.\n\nAnalog circuits \nAnalog circuits is used for signals that has a renege o amplitudes. \u00a0For o dinar, analog circuits messieurs or controls the amplitude o signals. &tbsp;In the early days o electronics, aw electronic devices used analog circuits for signal procession an control.\n\nPulse circuits \nPulse circuits is uised for seegnals that requires swith pulses o energy. \u00a0For example, aircraft an grund radar equipment wirks by uisin pulse circuits for tae create an send heich pouered brusts o radio energy frae radar transmeeters. \u00a0Special antennas (cried \"bauk\" or \"dish\" antennas acause o their shape) is uised for tae send the heich pouered brusts in the airt the bauk or dish antenna is pyntit.\n\nThe radar transmeeter's pulses or brusts o radio energy hit an stot back frae haurd an metallic objects. \u00a0Haurd objects is things like biggins, hills, an muntains. \u00a0Metallic objects is ocht made o metal, like aircraft, brigs, satellites, or e'en objects in space. \u00a0The reflectit radar energy is detectit by radar pulse receivers that uises baith pulse an deegital circuits thegither. \u00a0The pulse an deegital circuits in radar pulse receivers is uised for tae shaw the location an distance o objects that haes reflectit the radar transmeeter's heich pouered pulses.\n\nBy controllin hou aften the rapid pulses o radar energy is sent oot by a radar transmeeter (cried the transmeeter's \"pulse timin\"), an hou lang it taks for the reflectit pulse energy tae come back tae the radar receiver, a body can tell no juist whaur objects is, but hou faur awa they are. \u00a0Deegitial circuits in a radar receiver calculates the distance tae an object by knawin the time interval atween energy pulses. \u00a0\u00a0The radar receiver's deegital circuits coonts hou lang it taks atween pulses for an object's reflectit energy tae be detectit by the radar receiver. \u00a0Syne radar pulses ais sent an received at aboot the speed o licht, the distance tae an object can be easy calculate. \u00a0This is duin in deegital circuits by dividin the speed o licht by the time it taks tae receive the radar energy reflecteit back frae an object.\n\nThe time atween pulses (aften cried \"pulse rate time\", or PRT) sets the leemit on hou faur awa an object can be detectit. \u00a0That distance is cried the \"reenge\" o a radar transmeeter an receiver. \u00a0Radar transmeeters an receivers uises lang PRT's for tae find the distance tae objects that's faur awa. \u00a0Lang PRT's maks it possible tae accurately determine the distance tae the muin, for example. \u00a0Fast PRT's is uised for tae detect objects that's a hail sicht closer, like ships at sea, hie fleein aircraft, or for tae determine the speed o fast muivin caurs on motorweys.\n\nDeegital circuits \n\nDeegital circuits is uised for seegnals that aye turns on an aff. \u00a0Active components in deegital citcuits for ordinar haes a constant amplitude whan turnt on, an zero amplitude whan turnt aff. \u00a0Tae the maist pairt, deegital circuits coont the nummer o times a component is sneckit on an aff. \u00a0Computers an electronic clocks is examples o electronic devices that's maistly made o deegital circuits.\n\nBasic blocks:\n Logic yetts \n Flip-flops \n Coonters \n Resistors\n\nComplex devices:\n Microprocessors\n Microcontrollers\n Deegital seegnal processors\n\nElectronics","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":118,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-18":1,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":1,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":1,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-40":1,"2023-23":1,"2023-14":1,"2023-06":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":2,"2022-05":2,"2021-49":1,"2021-43":1,"2021-31":2,"2021-21":1,"2021-17":2,"2021-04":2,"2020-45":3,"2020-34":1,"2020-29":2,"2020-24":2,"2020-16":2,"2020-10":1,"2020-05":1,"2019-51":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":1,"2019-30":1,"2019-26":2,"2019-18":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-34":1,"2018-30":1,"2018-26":1,"2018-17":2,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":1,"2017-51":1,"2017-47":1,"2017-43":1,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":1,"2017-30":1,"2017-26":1,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":1,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":1,"2015-27":1,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":1,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":3,"2014-41":2,"2014-35":2,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":6795,"url":"https:\/\/sco.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronics","title":"Electronics","language":"sco"},"subset":"wikipedia"}
+{"text":"For the British musical group of the same name, see Muse (band).\nOr for the fruit called the Euterpe see A\u00e7a\u00ed palm.\n\nThe Muses are goddesses representing different arts and sciences in Greek mythology. They are the daughters of Mnemosyne and Zeus.\n\nMost commonly the Muses are:\n Kalliope (or Calliope), the eldest and wisest, the muse of epic poetry, mother of Orpheus\n Euterpe, the muse of music and lyric poetry. She loved flute playing, and some even say she invented the double flute. Euterpe had a son named Rhesus, who was killed in the battle at Troy, according to Homer's Iliad. \n Klio (also Kleio or Clio), the muse of history\n Erato, the muse of lyric\/love poetry\n Melpomene, the muse of tragedy\n Polyhymnia, the muse of sacred poetry (hymn) and geometry\n Terpsichore, the muse of dance\n Thalia, the muse of comedy\n Urania, the muse of astronomy and astrology \n\nThe word muse is also sometimes used for a person who inspires somebody else, or any other type of inspiring object. Muse can also be used to describe one's creative thoughts, such as poetry or a musical composition.\n\nGreek gods and goddesses","meta":{"dup_signals":{"dup_doc_count":137,"dup_dump_count":79,"dup_details":{"2024-30":1,"2024-18":3,"2024-10":1,"2017-13":2,"2015-18":2,"2015-11":2,"2015-06":1,"2014-10":2,"2013-48":1,"2013-20":1,"2023-50":1,"2023-14":1,"2022-40":2,"2022-27":1,"2022-21":1,"2021-43":2,"2021-25":1,"2021-21":3,"2021-10":3,"2021-04":2,"2020-50":2,"2020-34":3,"2020-29":1,"2020-10":4,"2019-51":2,"2019-47":3,"2019-43":1,"2019-39":2,"2019-35":2,"2019-26":3,"2019-18":1,"2019-13":1,"2019-09":1,"2018-51":1,"2018-47":1,"2018-43":1,"2018-39":2,"2018-34":2,"2018-30":2,"2018-26":1,"2018-22":1,"2018-17":1,"2018-13":1,"2018-09":1,"2018-05":2,"2017-51":2,"2017-47":2,"2017-43":2,"2017-39":2,"2017-34":2,"2017-30":2,"2017-26":2,"2017-22":2,"2017-17":2,"2017-09":2,"2017-04":2,"2016-50":2,"2016-44":2,"2016-40":2,"2016-36":2,"2016-30":2,"2016-26":1,"2016-22":1,"2016-18":1,"2016-07":2,"2015-48":2,"2015-40":2,"2015-35":2,"2015-32":2,"2015-27":2,"2015-22":2,"2015-14":2,"2014-52":1,"2014-49":1,"2014-42":2,"2014-41":1,"2014-35":1,"2014-23":1,"2014-15":4}},"id":16386,"url":"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Muse","title":"Muse","language":"simple"},"subset":"wikipedia"}